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+{"metadata":{"id":"0017541f51c792d76070c57e365c867a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8b3a1b73-e67d-461f-bdf0-24b8c196eae5/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Assessment of the chemical and trace metal composition of dried cassava products from Nigeria","keywords":["processing","composition","trace metals","standards","cassava products"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Fresh cassava root contains 32-35% carbohydrate, 2-3% protein, 0.1% fat, 1.0% fibre, 0.70-2.50% ash and 75-80% moisture (Oluwole et al., 2004). Because of its high moisture content, cassava root undergoes rapid deterioration within 48 to 72 h if not properly processed (Oyewole and Asagbra, 2003). Hence, there is a need for rapid processing into various products with increased shelf life, and which makes its transportation to urban markets less expensive (Taiwo, 2006). Traditional cassava processing methods involve several unit operations including peeling, fermenting, drying, milling, roasting/toasting, sieving, steaming, pounding and mixing in cold or hot water. Specific combinations of these processes lead to different cassava products with acceptable tastes to a wide range of consumers. These products include gari, fufu, starch, high quality cassava flour (HQCF) and tapioca among others (Udoro et al., 2008)."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"However, the quality of the cassava products depends on the management of the handling and processing steps. Irrespective of the processing methods, the most important precaution is strict maintenance of hygiene, especially in relation to water quality, the type of machinery used, storage method applied and time-lag between the period of harvesting, processing and consumption of the food (Dziedzoave et al., 2006). The processing of cassava products is often performed manually, mostly by women. Manual processing is labour intensive and time consuming but most smallholder processors lack access to mechanised or other improved processing methods. This is because the improved methods, involving the use of motorised equipment, are expensive and unaffordable to individual smallholders."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"The traditional production, processing and handling practices, such as hand-grating, pressing with wood logs and stones, and drying of cassava on the bare floor, mat and rock increase the possibility of contamination (Bolade, 2016). In addition, the use of processing machines made from mild or galvanised iron metal, drying of pre-processed products by the road-side, and display of fully processed products in open containers at point of sale increases the possibility of product contamination either from metals or microorganisms (Bolade, 2016). Food products normally account for a high proportion of trace metal intake in adults and children (Dermience et al., 2017)."},{"index":4,"size":212,"text":"Trace metals are very important in human diet for their essential or toxic nature. The copper (Cu), iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) trace elements for instance are known to be essential and may enter the food materials depending on the varieties, maturity, genetics, and age of the crops, from soil through fertilisation, geographic location, season, water source, or through food handling, processing and cooking (Petry et al., 2016). These metals (Cu, Fe and Zn) are essential for humans, since they play an important role in biological systems, but may produce toxic effects when consumed excessively (Zheng et al., 2007). In humans, excessive dietary intake of Zn can lead to deficiencies in Fe and Cu, nausea, vomiting, fever, headache, tiredness, electrolyte imbalance, anaemia and abdominal pain (Wada, 2004). In addition, the ingestion of Cu and Zn above their safe threshold values can cause neurological impairment, headache and liver disease (US EPA, 2000). The effect of high levels of trace metals in food products is of concern nowadays due to the degree of pollution of food items and their toxic effect on animals and humans. Therefore, this study was aimed at assessing the chemical and trace metal composition of dried cassava products in Nigeria, to ascertain quality standard compliance and safety for human consumption."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Collection of dried cassava products in Nigeria","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Dried cassava products (340 samples) traded in Nigeria were collected from both processors and marketers located in three agroecological zones of Nigeria in 2015: Humid forest (92 samples), Derived savannah (234 samples) and Southern Guinea savannah (14 samples). The Derived savannah zone consists of Enugu, Kwara, Oyo and Ogun states; the Humid forest zone Abia, Rivers and some part of Ogun states and the Southern Guinea savannah Kwara State (Figure 1). The average of the annual rainfall, temperatures and relative humidity of each of the Agroecological zones is presented in Table 1. Each (1 kg) of the cassava products collected is representative of the sampling frame, thus, the unequal sampling size. Samples were kept in airtight polypropylene bags at ambient temperature and transported to the laboratory for analyses. The processing methods used for the commercial production of the different dried cassava products are described by Awoyale et al. (2017). All the analyses were done in duplicate."}]},{"head":"Chemical composition of dried cassava products","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Moisture content","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"The moisture content was determined using the AOAC (2000) method. About 3 g of sample was weighed into a preweighed, clean, dried dish, after which the dish was placed in a well-ventilated oven (Draft air Fisher Scientific Isotemp® Oven model 655F, Springfield, MN, USA) maintained at 103±2 °C for 24 h. The loss in weight was recorded as moisture content."}]},{"head":"Starch content","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"The starch content was determined using a colorimetric method by Dubios et al. (1956). Hot ethanol was used to extract sugar from the sample. Sample residue was digested with perchloric acid to its monosaccharides for starch estimation. The digest (from residue) was quantified calorimetrically for starch, using phenol sulphuric acid as a colour developing reagent and absorbance read at 490 nm using a spectrophotometer (Spectronic 601, Milton Roy Company, Ivyland, PA, USA)."}]},{"head":"pH measurement","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"The pH of the samples was determined by suspending 5 g in deionised water for 5 min at a ratio of 1:5 (w/w) and pH measured using a digital pH meter (Model 720A, Orion Research Inc., Beverly, MA, USA) as reported by Nielsen (2010)."}]},{"head":"Total titratable acidity content","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Acidity of each sample was determined by the titration of 25 ml of the decanted homogenate used for pH determination against 0.1 M NaOH to pH 8.3. The relative amount of lactic acid was calculated as percentage lactic acid on dry matter basis as follows (AOAC, 2000): "}]},{"head":"Cyanogenic potential content","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The cyanogenic potential content of the samples was determined using the procedure of Essers et al. (1993)."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"The sample (30 g) was homogenised in 250 ml of 0.1 M orthophosphoric acid, the homogenate centrifuged and the supernatant extracted. To get the total cyanogenic potential, 0.1 ml of the extract was treated with linamarin standard. Another assay was run with 0.1 ml of extract, but 0.1 ml of 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 6.0) was used to give the non-glucosidic cyanogenic potential. A third assay was then run with 0.6 ml of extract that was added to 3.4 ml of McIlvaine buffer (pH 4.5). It was properly mixed and 0.2 ml of 0.5% chloramine T and 0.8 ml of colour reagent was added to give the free cyanogen. A standard curve was then obtained by plotting absorbance values (y-axis) against standard concentration (x-axis): linamarin = 125 ml/(sample weight×0.01093); non-glucosidic cyanogen = 125 ml/(sample weight×0.03176); free cyanide = 125 ml/ (sample weight×0.04151)."}]},{"head":"Crude fibre content","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"The crude fibre content of the dried cassava products was determined using the method described by the AOAC (2000). About 5 g (W 0 ) of each dried cassava product was weighed into a 500 ml flask with the addition of 100 ml of trichloroacetic acid digestion reagent. This was then brought to boiling and refluxed for about 40 min counting from the start of boiling. The flask was then removed from the heater, cooled, then filtered through 15 cm Whatman paper No. 4 (Whatman, Maidstone, UK). The residue was washed with hot water, stirred with a spatula and transferred to a porcelain dish. The sample was dried overnight in the oven at 105 °C. The dried sample was  transferred to a desiccator and weighed as W 1 . It was then burnt in a muffle furnace at 500 °C for 6 h, allowed to cool, and reweighed as W 2 ."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"W 1 -W 2 % crude fibre = ______ ×100 W 0 W 1 = weight of crucible + fibre + ash; W 2 = weight of crucible + ash; W 0 = dry weight of sample."}]},{"head":"Ash and trace metal composition","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Ash determination","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The ash content was determined using the method of the AOAC (2000). It involves burning off moisture and all organic constituents at 600 °C for 5 h in a furnace (VULCAN™ furnace, model 3-1750, Dentsply Ceramco, York, PA, USA) The weight of the residue after incineration was then recorded as the ash content."}]},{"head":"Trace metal composition","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The Fe, Zn and Cu content of the samples were determined using the method described by Jones et al. (1990). The samples were ashed at 550 °C, after which the ash was dissolved in 5 ml water and 15 ml HNO 3 /HCl (1:3). The minerals were then determined using a Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (FAAS; Buck 205 model, Back Scientific, East Norwalk, CT, USA). The detection limits of the minerals using FAAS were found to be 0.072 for Cu, 0.111 for Fe and 0.021 for Zn."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and separation of the mean values (using Duncan's Multiple Range Test at P<0.05) were calculated using SPSS software (version 21.0, IBM Corporation, Armonk, NY, USA)."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Chemical composition of dried cassava products","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"The chemical composition of the dried cassava products is shown in Table 2. The dried cassava products have an average moisture content (MC) of 11.71%, total titratable acidity (TTA) 0.041 g/100 ml, pH 6.11, cyanogenic potential (CNP) 7.20 mg/100 g, ash content 1.20%, starch content 60.53% and crude fibre content 2.68%."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Product type significantly influenced (P<0.001) all the chemical parameters of the samples except the TTA, pH and starch content, which were not significantly different among samples (P>0.05), while the agroecology had an influence on ash (P<0.001) and starch (P<0.05) content."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Products and agroecology had a significant interactive effect on CNP (P<0.05) and starch (P<0.001) content, while the effect on the other parameters was not significant (P>0.05)."},{"index":4,"size":291,"text":"Lower initial MC of a product in storage signifies effectiveness of the drying method, a lower probability of microbial growth and better storage stability (Sanni et al., 2005). This means that products from the Southern Guinea savannah with a mean MC of 10.26% especially the HQCF (10.47%), might store better than those from the Humid forest (12.80% MC). Yellow kpokpo gari with MC of 13.40% is particularly prone to low storability. The mean MC (11.71%) of the products was slightly higher than the Standard Organisation of Nigeria (SON) recommendation of 10% as reported by Sanni et al. (2005) and FAO/WHO (2006). The lower MC of the products in the Southern Guinea savannah was possibly due to the lower atmospheric humidity in the zone compared with the more humid atmosphere prevalent in the Humid forest. The practice of displaying cassava products in open containers during marketing exposes the products to moisture uptake in a humid environment (Sanni et al., 2008). The use of appropriate packaging materials with a moisture barrier is therefore necessary for the packaging of cassava products to prevent moisture uptake and mould contamination. However, it is very important to note that dehydration of cassava mash during processing accounts for a significant loss in moisture, and depends on temperature, relative humidity and air movement (Raji and Ojediran, 2011). Additionally, Akinoso and Olatunde (2014) reported that an excessive quantity of mash during roasting for gari may retard moisture removal while an extended roasting time might influence other quality parameters such as colour, taste and aroma. Thus, the moisture content of the gari samples in the present study may be reduced to the stipulated 10% by the Codex, if a specific quantity of cassava mash is roasted at a time (FAO/WHO, 2006)."},{"index":5,"size":139,"text":"The TTA was higher in lafun (0.063 g/100 ml) and lower in tapioca (0.005 g/100 ml). This is expected as lafun is fermented for longer than tapioca. More organic acids were produced during fermentation of lafun possibly resulting from increased activities of the fermenting microorganisms at the atmospheric temperature under which fermentation of cassava is carried out (Udoro et al., 2008). This is similar to the observations of Ray and Sivakumar (2009), who reported that during the fermentation process of cassava processing, lactic acid bacteria hydrolyse starch in the cassava into sugar, alcohols and organic acids. The production of organic acids, which increase with fermentation time, leads to an increase in acidity of the sample and a resultant decrease in pH. These researchers, however, pointed out that significant influence of roasting duration on gari pH cannot be easily explained."}]},{"head":"Please cite this article as 'in press'","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Quality Assurance and Safety of Crops & Foods Similarly, higher acidity was found in lafun (0.075 g/100 ml) produced in the Southern Guinea savannah zone, compared to the other fermented products (0.039 g/100 ml) from the Derived savannah zone. The TTA of all the products was below the Codex and SON standard of 1 g/100 ml for cassava products (FAO/ WHO, 2006;Sanni et al., 2005). Tapioca (7.14) had a higher pH value and lafun (5.67) had the lowest. These results are similar to results obtained by other researchers (Oduro et al., 2000;Udoro et al., 2008). Products (6.62) from the Humid forest zone are higher in pH and those (5.99) from the Derived savannah are lower."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"The high pH of the products from the Humid forest zone might be attributed to shorter fermentation times and the consumer preference for unfermented products in the area."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"The cassava cyanide disease network reported that cyanide is very poisonous because it binds cytochrome oxidase and stops its action in the electron transport chain, which is a key energy conversion process in the body, and that excess cyanide content in cassava products could have deleterious effects on consumers. Such effects may include acute intoxication with symptoms of dizziness, headache, stomach pains, vomiting and diarrhoea (CCDN, 2011)."},{"index":4,"size":90,"text":"The CNP content of the products ranged from 5.14 to 8.77  mg hydrogen cyanide (HCN)/kg, with white kpokpo gari having the highest value and fufu powder the lowest. The low cyanide content of the fufu powder agreed with the observation of Onwuka and Ogbogu (2007), who reported that soaking cassava roots coupled with fermentation is more effective than fermentation alone in the reduction of cyanide in cassava products. Southern Guinea savannah products (9.06 mg HCN/kg) were higher in CNP, while those (6.94 mg HCN/kg) from the Humid forest were lower."},{"index":5,"size":161,"text":"It was reported by Maziya-Dixon et al. (2007) that the safe levels of cyanide for both human and animal consumption have not been synchronised by scientists and international regulatory agencies. But, the SON standard for hydrogen cyanide (10 mg HCN/kg) in cassava products agrees with that of the 3 rd session of the FAO/WHO Food Standards Program Codex Committee on Contaminants in Foods, which concluded that a level of up to 10 mg HCN/kg in edible cassava flour (CAC, 2013) was not associated with acute toxicity. Also, in line with this conclusion, the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme (JECFA, 2009) has set the tolerable limit for hydrogen cyanide in food as 10 mg/kg. By implication, all the products are safe for human consumption from the stand point of CNP being less than 10 mg/kg. However, the variation in the CNP content of the products from the different agroecological zones might be due to differences in cassava varieties, locations and processing methods."},{"index":6,"size":122,"text":"The products (60.92%) from the Derived savannah have the highest starch content and those (58.00%) of the Southern Guinea savannah the lowest. Starch was highest in HQCF (65.17%) and lowest in yellow kpokpo gari (53.60%). The low starch content in the Southern Guinea savannah products could be attributed to the starch content of varieties of cassava preferred in the zone and the activities of microorganisms, which might have converted the starch into organic acids (Liaud et al., 2015), resulting in the low starch content. This observation agrees with that of Ray and Sivakumar (2009). The variation in the starch content of the products from the agroecological zones might be due to differences in cassava varieties adopted, processing methods and age at harvest."},{"index":7,"size":223,"text":"Crude fibre is a measure of the quantity of indigestible cellulose, pentosans, lignin, and other components of this type in foods. Fibre has little food value but provides the bulk necessary for proper peristaltic action in the intestinal tract (Food Science, 2008). The crude fibre content of the products ranged between 1.95 and 4.36%, with yellow kpokpo gari having the highest value and fufu powder the lowest. Derived savannah products (2.87%) are higher in crude fibre, while those (2.24%) of the Southern Guinea savannah are lower. This implied that the crude fibre content of fufu powder is lower compared to the Codex stipulated standard of 2%, while that of the yellow kpokpo gari is higher (FAO/ WHO, 2006). The low crude fibre content in the fufu powder may be attributed to the wet sieving step in fufu processing that eliminates most of the fibre in cassava (Etudaiye et al., 2012). Additionally, the softening of the fibrous tissue of the cassava root through the activities of microorganisms during submerged fermentation in the production of fufu may have contributed to the low crude fibre content of the fufu powder (Falade and Akingbala, 2010). However, the variation in the crude fibre content of the products from the different agroecological zones might be due to differences in cassava varieties, age at harvest, processing methods and other factors."},{"index":8,"size":65,"text":"The ash content is a measure of the total amount of minerals present within a food, whereas the mineral content is a measure of the amount of specific inorganic components present within a food, such as Fe, Cu, Zn, Ca, Na and K. The determination of these parameters in food is important for nutritional labelling, quality, microbiological stability, nutrition and processing among others (McClements, 2005)."},{"index":9,"size":139,"text":"The ash content was higher in lafun (1.59%) and lower in cassava starch (0.57%). In terms of agroecology, products from the Southern Guinea savannah have the highest ash content (2.03%) compared with products (1.00%) from the Humid forest. Ash content is a reflection of the mineral status, even though high ash content may indicate high contamination of the product (Baah et al., 2009). The high ash content may imply that products from the Southern Guinea savannah, and particularly lafun, might have been contaminated with foreign particles or trace metals from processing machines, especially the cassava grater, and during drying (Otutu et al., 2013). However, the ash content of all the products are within the Codex regulatory standards of 1.5% (CAC, 2013;Sanni et al., 2005), except for the ash content of lafun and white kpokpo gari that were slightly higher."}]},{"head":"Trace metal composition of dried cassava products","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"Knowledge of the concentration and type of specific metals present in food products is often important in the food industry. Trace metals such as Fe, Zn and Cu are involved in the function of several enzymes and are essential for maintaining health throughout life (Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board, 2001). This is because these metals are naturally present in foodstuffs and are nutritionally important to humans, but toxic when consumed in excess. The deficiencies of these metals constitute the largest nutrition and health problem to populations in developed and developing countries (Olivares et al., 2004). Additionally, body mass index has been reported to be negatively correlated with Zn in blood, Cu in plasma and Fe in urine (Błażewicz et al., 2013). Thus, assessing the level of these metals (Fe, Zn and Cu) in dried cassava products available in Nigeria is very important to ascertain their health risk."}]},{"head":"Please cite this article as 'in press'","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":607,"text":"Quality Assurance and Safety of Crops & Foods The mean of the trace metal composition of the dried cassava products are Fe 29.16 mg/kg, Cu 2.67 mg/kg and Zn 4.55 mg/kg (Table 3). The product type and origin (state and agroecology) had no significant effect (P>0.05) on trace metal content. Cassava products (35.38 mg/kg) made in the Southern Guinea savannah had the highest Fe content and those (28.75 mg/kg) from Derived savannah the lowest. Among these products, cassava starch (34.60 mg/kg) had the highest Fe content and HQCF (13.56 mg/kg) the lowest (Table 3). The high Fe content of products produced from the Southern Guinea savannah could have resulted from the mild steel-constructed cassava grating machine used for cassava processing and the widespread practice of drying the products in the sun and in places where vehicular traffic is heavy (Bolade, 2016). The Fe content of all the products except that of the HQCF was above the recommended maximum limit (22 mg/kg) stipulated by SON (FAO/ WHO, 2006;Sanni et al., 2005). The low Fe content of the HQCF may be attributed to strict adherence to standard operating procedures, non-exposure to environmental pollutions during marketing and the use of stainless-steel machines for processing. Hence, it would be necessary for processors of cassava to replace processing machines made with galvanised or mild steel with machines made with stainless steel to reduce Fe contamination of the processed products through machine corrosion, and as well adhere strictly to the standard operating procedure to produce the cassava products in Nigeria. However, Fe content of between 24 and 40 mg/kg was reported for gari collected from Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria (Dibofori-Orji and Edori, 2015). The high Fe content in the gari was attributed to unhygienic practices including atmospheric exposure of the food by food vendors during marketing. Bolade (2016) reported lower range of values (1.04-1.61 mg/kg) for the Fe content of road side, sundried fermented cassava mash. This may be attributed to reduced vehicular traffic along this road, and the differences in processing.  Bolade (2016) for fermented cassava mash dried along the roadside. Furthermore, the Zn content of the tapioca (5 mg/kg) reported in this study is lower compared to that of the sundried locally produced fermented cassava mash reported by Bolade (2016). This may be associated with the differences in processing methods. Products (3.16 mg/kg) from the Humid forest have higher Cu content compared to those (0.57 mg/kg) from the Southern Guinea savannah zone with the lowest. Products (5.01 mg/kg) from the Humid forest have higher Zn content than products (4.29 mg/kg) from the Derived savannah. The higher Cu content of yellow kpokpo gari and Zn of lafun may also be attributed to the machine corrosion and drying in locations with heavy vehicular movement (Harrison et al., 1981). Additionally, the lower values of these metals in cassava starch and fufu powder could be evidence that the grating step, which is less used in these products than gari, was mostly responsible for the high heavy metal contamination in gari from the predominately mild, steel-made machines. It could also be indicative of the use of stainless-steel machines by processors (factories) from the formal sector mostly involved in the processing of these two products unlike gari that is mostly produced by small-scale processors. Nevertheless, the Cu and Zn content of the products were below the maximum limit of 20 and 50 mg/kg, respectively, recommended by the food regulatory agencies in Nigeria (Sanni et al., 2005). The products also comply with the WHO/FAO recommended maximum limit for Cu (40 mg/kg) and Zn (60 mg/kg) in crop plants ( WHO/FAO, 2007) and are therefore safe for consumption."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"This study showed that some chemical constituents of cassava products differ among products (moisture, CNP, ash and crude fibre) while others did not (TTA, pH, crude fibre, starch and heavy metals). Similarly, the ash and starch content of the investigated cassava products differ by agroecology. The levels of chemical constituents and trace metals, mainly Fe, Cu and Zn, were within the SON and FAO/WHO standards for cassava products except for the Fe content, which did not conform to set standards. Hence, for the purposes of food regulation, surveillance and export, the introduction of traceability steps for all metals and certification of origin of all foods when trading might not be unrealistic. Additionally, since cassava products have been noted to be hygroscopic, processors in the Humid forest must pay attention to proper packaging, selecting moisture impermeable packaging materials and packaging the cassava products soon after production."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Map of Nigeria showing the three agroecological zones where dried cassava products were collected. HQCF = high quality cassava flour. "},{"text":"$ {protocol}://www.wageningenacademic.com/doi/pdf/10.3920/QAS2018.1273 -Thursday, January 03, 2019 12:05:25 AM -IPAddress:154.73.234.190    "},{"text":" total titratable acidity; CNP = cyanogenic potential; HQCF = high quality cassava flour; HCN = hydrogen cyanide. 2 *** P<0.001; ** P<0.01; * P<0.05; NS = not significant; means with different superscript on the same column are significantly different at P≤0.05. "},{"text":"$ {protocol}://www.wageningenacademic.com/doi/pdf/10.3920/QAS2018.1273 -Thursday, January 03, 2019 12:05:25 AM -IPAddress:154.73.234.190    "},{"text":"cite this article as 'in press'  ${protocol}://www.wageningenacademic.com/doi/pdf/10.3920/QAS2018.1273 -Thursday, January 03, 2019 12:05:25 AM -IP Address:154.73.234.190 titre value × nomality of alkalis % lactic acid = ____________________________ ×100 weight of sample ${protocol}://www.wageningenacademic.com/doi/pdf/10.3920/QAS2018.1273 -Thursday, January 03, 2019 12:05:25 AM -IP Address:154.73.234.190titre value × nomality of alkalis % lactic acid = ____________________________ ×100 weight of sample  Quality Assurance and Safety of Crops & Foods Quality Assurance and Safety of Crops & Foods  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Average annual weather conditions of the agro- ecological zones where samples were collected in the year 2015. Agroecological zones Rainfall (mm) Temperature (°C) Relative humidity (%)  Derived savannah 1,130.30 30.32 77.30 Derived savannah1,130.3030.3277.30 Humid forest 1,767.74 29.09 84.62 Humid forest1,767.7429.0984.62 Southern Guinea 781.59 33.48 60.11 Southern Guinea781.5933.4860.11 savannah    savannah  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Chemical composition of dried cassava products in Nigeria. 1,2  Grouping N Moisture (%) TTA (g/100 ml) pH CNP (mg HCN/kg) Ash (%) Starch (%) Crude fibre (%) GroupingNMoisture (%) TTA (g/100 ml) pHCNP (mg HCN/kg) Ash (%)Starch (%)Crude fibre (%) Tapioca 40 12.55±1.93 a 0.005±0.00 b 7.14±0.70 a 5.60±2.88e 0.73±0.98 d 62.62±16.64 a 2.22±0.94 d Tapioca40 12.55±1.93 a0.005±0.00 b7.14±0.70 a5.60±2.88e0.73±0.98 d62.62±16.64 a2.22±0.94 d White kpokpo gari 46 11.50±3.01 b 0.042±0.03 ab 6.26±0.77 a 8.77±1.63 a 1.56±0.52 a 61.53±12.29 a 2.41±0.79 cd White kpokpo gari 46 11.50±3.01 b0.042±0.03 ab 6.26±0.77 a8.77±1.63 a1.56±0.52 a61.53±12.29 a2.41±0.79 cd Yellow kpokpo gari 10 13.40±2.42 a 0.021±0.02 ab 6.52±0.82 a 7.18±1.72 bd 1.43±0.26 ab 53.60±7.46 c 4.36±3.12 a Yellow kpokpo gari 10 13.40±2.42 a0.021±0.02 ab 6.52±0.82 a7.18±1.72 bd1.43±0.26 ab 53.60±7.46 c4.36±3.12 a Yellow gari 43 12.96±2.81 a 0.060±0.31 a 6.14±0.70 a 6.65±2.34 d 1.30±0.42 b 59.92±15.74 ab 3.17±1.00 b Yellow gari43 12.96±2.81 a0.060±0.31 a6.14±0.70 a6.65±2.34 d1.30±0.42 b59.92±15.74 ab 3.17±1.00 b White gari 102 10.94±3.09 ab 0.047±0.03 ab 5.73±0.72 a 7.93±2.31 b 1.34±0.41 b 59.98±14.04 ab 2.93±0.82 bc White gari102 10.94±3.09 ab 0.047±0.03 ab 5.73±0.72 a7.93±2.31 b1.34±0.41 b59.98±14.04 ab 2.93±0.82 bc Fufu powder 15 12.50±2.40 a 0.029±0.03 ab 6.24±0.86 a 5.14±2.49e 0.66±0.37 d 60.58±17.36 ab 1.95±0.29 d Fufu powder15 12.50±2.40 a0.029±0.03 ab 6.24±0.86 a5.14±2.49e0.66±0.37 d60.58±17.36 ab 1.95±0.29 d Lafun 29 10.93±2.35 bc 0.063±0.04 a 5.67±0.77 a 7.00±2.57 cd 1.59±0.72 a 55.60±19.26 bc 2.61±0.60 b -d Lafun29 10.93±2.35 bc 0.063±0.04 a5.67±0.77 a7.00±2.57 cd1.59±0.72 a55.60±19.26 bc 2.61±0.60 b -d Starch 15 12.63±1.70 a 0.031±0.03 ab 6.13±1.23 a 6.76±2.37 d 0.57±0.19 d 63.75±12.36 a 2.00±1.40 d Starch15 12.63±1.70 a0.031±0.03 ab 6.13±1.23 a6.76±2.37 d0.57±0.19 d63.75±12.36 a2.00±1.40 d HQCF 25 10.42±2.30 c 0.041±0.03 ab 6.27±1.05 a 7.75±2.428 ab 1.06±0.49 c 65.17±11.78 a 2.99±0.95 bc HQCF25 10.42±2.30 c0.041±0.03 ab 6.27±1.05 a7.75±2.428 ab1.06±0.49 c65.17±11.78 a2.99±0.95 bc States in Nigeria        States in Nigeria Enugu 47 14.31±1.60 a 0.022±0.02 c 6.19±0.76 b 5.62±3.16 c 1.02±0.73 bc 55.90±14.00 c 2.83±1.23 ab Enugu47 14.31±1.60 a0.022±0.02 c6.19±0.76 b5.62±3.16 c1.02±0.73 bc 55.90±14.00 c2.83±1.23 ab Abia 32 13.28±3.14 b 0.020±0.02 c 6.74±0.55 a 5.54±3.96 c 1.10±0.75 bc 46.65±13.94 d 3.05±0.74 a Abia32 13.28±3.14 b0.020±0.02 c6.74±0.55 a5.54±3.96 c1.10±0.75 bc 46.65±13.94 d3.05±0.74 a River 36 13.15±2.26 b 0.075±0.34 a 6.40±0.78 b 7.78±1.98 a 0.96±0.52 c 64.08±8.63 b 2.51±0.69 bc River36 13.15±2.26 b0.075±0.34 a6.40±0.78 b7.78±1.98 a0.96±0.52 c64.08±8.63 b2.51±0.69 bc Kwara 63 10.93±1.77 c 0.057±0.03 ab 5.07±0.62 b 8.16±2.08 a 1.45±0.61 a 65.05±15.07 ab 2.19±0.79 c Kwara63 10.93±1.77 c0.057±0.03 ab 5.07±0.62 b8.16±2.08 a1.45±0.61 a65.05±15.07 ab 2.19±0.79 c Oyo 75 10.29±3.06 d 0.041±0.03 bc 6.10±0.73 b 7.19±1.74 b 1.37±0.59 a 55.19±11.22 c 3.28±1.59 a Oyo75 10.29±3.06 d0.041±0.03 bc 6.10±0.73 b7.19±1.74 b1.37±0.59 a55.19±11.22 c3.28±1.59 a Ogun 87 10.94±2.34 c 0.033±0.03 bc 6.49±0.87 b 7.72±2.08 a 1.12±0.55 b 68.04±14.71 a 2.31±0.87 c Ogun87 10.94±2.34 c0.033±0.03 bc 6.49±0.87 b7.72±2.08 a1.12±0.55 b68.04±14.71 a2.31±0.87 c Agroecological zones in Nigeria      Agroecological zones in Nigeria Derived savannah 234 11.36±2.79 b 0.039±0.03 a 5.99±0.88 a 7.18±2.40 b 1.23±0.61 b 60.92±14.75 a 2.87±1.38 a Derived savannah 234 11.36±2.79 b0.039±0.03 a5.99±0.88 a7.18±2.40 b1.23±0.61 b60.92±14.75 a2.87±1.38 a Humid forest 92 12.80±2.72 a 0.041±0.21 a 6.62±0.76 a 6.94±3.05 b 1.00±0.61 c 59.92±16.05 a 2.57±0.82 ab Humid forest92 12.80±2.72 a0.041±0.21 a6.62±0.76 a6.94±3.05 b1.00±0.61 c59.92±16.05 a2.57±0.82 ab Southern Guinea 14 10.26±1.71 c 0.075±0.04 a 4.83±0.34 a 9.06±1.27 a 2.03±0.56 a 58.00±10.88 a 2.24±0.72 b Southern Guinea14 10.26±1.71 c0.075±0.04 a4.83±0.34 a9.06±1.27 a2.03±0.56 a58.00±10.88 a2.24±0.72 b savannah        savannah Mean  11.71 0.041 6.11 7.2 1.2 60.53 2.68 Mean11.710.0416.117.21.260.532.68 Interactions        Interactions Product        Product  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Essential mineral composition of dried cassava products. 1,2 The Cu content of the products ranged from 1.38 to 5.15 mg/kg, and the Zn content between 3.42 mg/kg and 6.14 mg/kg. Yellow kpokpo gari has the highest Cu content and cassava starch the lowest. The Zn content was higher in lafun and lower in fufu powder (Table3).Awoyale et al. (2018) reported the range of values for the Cu content of Liberia gari to be 0.70 to 1.25 mg/kg, while the Zn content ranged from 3.50 to 7.85 mg/kg. The Cu content of Liberia gari is lower compared to that of the present study. Products N Fe (mg/kg) Cu (mg/kg) Zn (mg/kg) ProductsNFe (mg/kg)Cu (mg/kg)Zn (mg/kg) Tapioca 40 29.69±31.70 a 2.79±3.30 ab 4.61±5.81 ab Tapioca4029.69±31.70 a2.79±3.30 ab4.61±5.81 ab White kpokpo gari 46 30.52±32.44 a 2.67±8.10 ab 4.46±4.99 ab White kpokpo gari4630.52±32.44 a2.67±8.10 ab4.46±4.99 ab Yellow kpokpo gari 10 28.28±37.15 a 5.15±15.01 a 4.58±5.27 ab Yellow kpokpo gari1028.28±37.15 a5.15±15.01 a4.58±5.27 ab Yellow gari 43 31.92±36.24 a 3.31±7.74 ab 5.43±6.12 ab Yellow gari4331.92±36.24 a3.31±7.74 ab5.43±6.12 ab White gari 102 30.29±33.51 a 2.69±5.94 ab 4.46±5.19 ab White gari10230.29±33.51 a2.69±5.94 ab4.46±5.19 ab Fufu 15 27.90±30.41 a 2.34±3.06 b 3.42±3.88 b Fufu1527.90±30.41 a2.34±3.06 b3.42±3.88 b Lafun 29 30.41±32.67 a 1.94±2.54 b 6.14±10.16 a Lafun2930.41±32.67 a1.94±2.54 b6.14±10.16 a Starch 15 34.60±39.24 a 1.38±2.01 b 3.72±4.25 ab Starch1534.60±39.24 a1.38±2.01 b3.72±4.25 ab HQCF 25 13.56±27.27 b 2.28±4.28 b 3.48±4.85 ab HQCF2513.56±27.27 b2.28±4.28 b3.48±4.85 ab States in Nigeria     States in Nigeria Enugu 47 32.30±34.20 a 3.22±3.52 a 5.54±5.92 ab Enugu4732.30±34.20 a3.22±3.52 a5.54±5.92 ab Abia 32 32.91±35.07 a 3.18±3.36 a 6.02±6.82 a Abia3232.91±35.07 a3.18±3.36 a6.02±6.82 a River 36 28.37±29.51 a 3.11±3.31 a 4.80±6.12 ab River3628.37±29.51 a3.11±3.31 a4.80±6.12 ab Kwara 63 32.15±34.74 a 2.68±10.78 a 4.33±4.78 ab Kwara6332.15±34.74 a2.68±10.78 a4.33±4.78 ab Oyo 75 28.01±35.46 a 1.31±73.48 a 4.12±7.04 b Oyo7528.01±35.46 a1.31±73.48 a4.12±7.04 b Ogun 87 25.10±30.15 a 3.15±6.00 a 3.91±4.50 b Ogun8725.10±30.15 a3.15±6.00 a3.91±4.50 b Agroecological zones in Nigeria     Agroecological zones in Nigeria Derived savannah 234 28.75±33.60 a 2.60±7.01 ab 4.29±5.68 a Derived savannah23428.75±33.60 a2.60±7.01 ab4.29±5.68 a Humid forest 92 29.24±31.71 a 3.16±3.63 a 5.01±6.07 a Humid forest9229.24±31.71 a3.16±3.63 a5.01±6.07 a Southern Guinea savannah 14 35.38±38.18 a 0.57±0.64 b 4.84±5.37 a Southern Guinea savannah1435.38±38.18 a0.57±0.64 b4.84±5.37 a Mean  29.16 2.67 4.55 Mean29.162.674.55 Interactions     Interactions Product  NS NS NS ProductNSNSNS States  NS NS NS StatesNSNSNS Agroecological zones  NS NS NS Agroecological zonesNSNSNS Product × states  NS NS NS Product × statesNSNSNS Products × agroecological zones  NS NS NS Products × agroecological zonesNSNSNS Agroecological zones × states  NS NS NS Agroecological zones × statesNSNSNS  "}],"sieverID":"6b2f07f7-248a-4fc5-a22b-0fca1948b568","abstract":"The chemical and trace metal composition of six groups of commercial dried cassava products in Nigeria (gari, starch, tapioca, fufu, lafun and high-quality cassava flour) were evaluated to ascertain quality standard compliance and safety for human consumption. In total, 340 samples of the dried products collected based on their popularity in the Humid forest (92), Derived savannah (234) and Southern Guinea savannah ( 14) agroecologies were analysed using standard analytical methods. The moisture, cyanogenic potential (CNP), ash and crude fibre content of the samples were significantly different (P<0.05). Product type or agroecology of the products did not have a significant influence on the acidity, pH or trace metal (copper (Cu), iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn)) content. Samples from the Humid forest exhibited the highest average moisture (12.80%), pH (6.62), Zn (5.01 mg/kg) and Cu (3.16 mg/kg) content; Southern Guinea savannah samples had the highest CNP (9.06 mg/kg), ash (2.03%) and Fe (35.38 mg/kg) content, while the samples from Derived savannah had the highest starch (61.11%) and crude fibre (2.87%) content. All the parameters analysed were within the FAO/WHO standards for cassava products except for the Fe content which exceeded the threshold limit of 22 mg/kg, suggesting that iron-based processing machines release Fe that contaminate cassava during processing. Therefore, these machines should be made of stainless steel, and processors should adhere to the standard operating procedures that were established by the food regulatory agencies to reduce iron contamination of cassava products."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0084b53800c9bbc48deb8d96a806db74","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b6c7f96a-1e55-435c-88d2-2fbda28774d0/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"1. To strengthen crop innovation systems to improve productivity and enhance food and nutrition security in the region. This objective aims at generating innovations to enhance crop adaptability to the consequences of climate change, crop diversification and productivity constraints; 2. To develop and promote innovations on sustainable waste treatment and securing freshwater resources, bioenergy from renewable bioresources and mitigating climatic change. This objective is targeting generating efficient and effective bioscience innovations for environmental clean-up, byproducts utilisation, waste management and sustainable use of water and land resources. 3. To catalyze Eastern Africa innovation systems to deliver agricultural, environmental and industrial innovations that stimulate sustainable transformation, utilization and productivity of the region's bioresources. This objective is targeting the development and use of technology incubation and other mechanisms for putting research into use by communities and industry; 4. To develop and promote innovation policies for sustainable harnessing of bioresources. The Program will undertake policy support analysis studies to provide decision support tools for"}]},{"head":"Accelerating biosciences innovations for eastern Africa development Our Vision","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"To develop into a program of excellence that contributes to sustainable and integrated utilization of bio-resources for economic growth and development of Eastern Africa investment, promotion and management of bioresource innovations in eastern Africa; and 5. To strengthen and operationalize an enabling mechanism for mobilization, catalysis and nurture of a strong bioresource and science-led economic growth agenda for eastern Africa. This result will occur as an overall outcome of the above four actions being implemented successfully."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"How will Bio-Innovate function?"},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"The Program will implement activities using a results oriented, thematic approach. Thematic based innovation consortia will be created following innovation systems frameworks. Creation of there thematic innovation teams will result from successful bidding via the program's competitive grants scheme (CGS). These four thematic areas are:"},{"index":4,"size":135,"text":"Thematic Area 1 Climate change adaptability, productivity and improvement for food and nutrition security: This theme focuses on generating and promoting technologies to boost productivity of strategically important crops that are threatened by climatic change. Such crops are important to small-scale farming and rural livelihood. The theme aims at unlocking genetic potential of the crops for climatic change adaptability and to produce crop varieties that are high yielding and resilient to biotic and environmental stresses and have high nutritional quality. The theme focuses on strategically important crops of the region, adding value to ongoing initiatives by tackling both input and output traits (processing and other quality attributes). The innovations will boost food and nutrition security, lower food prices, offer more opportunities for income growth through crop diversification and reduce crop intensification pressure in fragile agroecologies."},{"index":5,"size":228,"text":"Thematic Area 2 Waste treatment, bioenergy for renewable bioresources, and securing freshwater resources: This theme will focus on treatment of agro-processing waste through reuse, conservation of water and other bioresources. It will also generate innovative coping strategies, to reduce the impact of green house gas emissions as well as generate innovations to enhance bioenergy recovery from solid and wastewater and provide clean freshwater resources. An important focus will be on use of agro-processing by-products, waste treatment and bioenergy production from existing and ongoing agroprocessing activities in the region. The use of wastes for production of value added products such as improved feed, bioprocessing reagents with selective catalysts, safe green chemicals, biofuels, biogas, bioplastics and biopolymers will make the agro-processing sector in the region more resource efficient and sustainable, which is vital for its competitiveness and survival. Such links would also support rural livelihoods through increased demand for local crops and bioresources and enhancing agribusiness opportunities for farmers. Promoting the conversion of waste into renewable energy (such as biogas, biofuels etc.) will also reduce the need to import costly fossil fuels and mitigate climate change. Another important focus will be on promoting innovation on local small-scale biorefineries at village level by assisting local communities to add value to their local crop produce. Innovative ways to use biowaste for energy production and minimize greenhouse gas emissions will also be sought."},{"index":6,"size":93,"text":"Thematic Area 3 Innovation incubation and promotion of targeted value chains: This theme will focus on taking near market products generated by the Bio-Innovate Program from the above two thematic areas and their partners along the value chain to end-users. R4D institutions will apply for support to cover pilot level testing for economic feasibility, marketability and acceptability. The Program will seek opportunities for innovations that will have wide applications in the eastern Africa. The theme will also seek opportunities to leverage additional funds from other partners for venture capital and pilot testing activities."},{"index":7,"size":65,"text":"Thematic Area 4: Bioresource innovation policy and sustainability analysis: This theme will address the need to provide a supportive policy environment for the ultimate development and promotion and uptake of bioresource innovations. It will include policy analysis, national and regional policy support, as well as socio-economic and environmental analysis. The theme will address sustainability analysis in combination with Themes 1, 2 and 3 above, including:"},{"index":8,"size":146,"text":"• Analysis of and addressing gaps in the technology dissemination chains within current and future projects. This would include analysis and exploration of roles and responsibilities along the value chain • Market analysis and potential of addressing regional markets • Exploring technology transfer models with a view to maximize the impact of new technologies, by achieving balance between making the technology as widely available as possible, while providing sufficient incentives to the innovators and investors for early adoption • Exploring and analysing models of funding of technology dissemination processes Other policy analyses on cost effectiveness, socio-economic and environmental soundness as well as competitiveness will be done under this theme. A key question for the policy studies in Bio-Innovate is to analyse how applications of biosciences in eastern Africa could lead to a more sustainable agricultural and agro-processing sector that promotes economic growth and effectively alleviates poverty."},{"index":9,"size":149,"text":"Who is involve in Bio-Innovate? Project consortium teams are drawn from within and outside of the region. The participating countries are Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda. Collaborating institutions from the public and private sectors from within and outside of the region are involved at various levels of support in the innovation process. Each grant call is designed to ensure regionality, relevance, efficiency and impact orientation. The innovation projects are designed to ensure upand out-scale results to the region. Bio-Innovate is implemented through four consortia in the sectors on climatic adaptation strategies in crop agriculture and environment, technology incubation and in policy advice and advocacy. Each consortia will consist of individual but related projects. These consortia will be selected via a Bio-Innovate Competitive Grant Scheme (CGS). The CGS will be operated through a number of strategically developed calls for proposals in the four thematic priority areas described above. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"For The priorities are closely linked to the needs and strategies for the region and in support of the AU/NEPAD agenda for science, technology and agriculture. The five projects from the first call \"Adapting to Climate Change in Agriculture and the Environment in Eastern Africa\"receiving funding from the Bio-Innovate include: 1. Delivering new sorghum and millets innovations for food security and improving livelihoods in eastern Africa; 2. Enhancing food security through improved seed systems and varieties of cassava, potato and sweet potato resilient to climate change in eastern Africa; 3. Value added bean technologies for enhancing food security, nutrition, income and resilience to cope with climate change and variability challenges in eastern Africa; 4. Sustainable utilization of agro-industrial wastes through integration of bioenergy and mushroom production in eastern Africa; 5. Integrated process for sustainable agro-process waste treatment and climate change mitigation in eastern AfricaThe Second call will invite concept notes addressing :1. Up-and out-scaling of innovations through technology incubation centre(s) and innovation platforms, that improve adoption and deployment of science-based solutions to development challenges in the region, and 2. Creation of a supportive policy environment for the ultimate development and promotion and uptake of bio-resource innovations in Eastern Africa. .bioinnovate-africa.org "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"963e12bb-e932-47a3-9090-de3045636bb7","abstract":"The Bioresources innovations network for eastern Africa development (Bio-Innovate) Program is a newly established multidisciplinary competitive funding mechanism for biosciences and product oriented innovation activities in eastern Africa. Through the bioresources innovation fund, the progam supports applications for regional, multidisciplinary innovation projects in Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda. The Bio-Innovate niche focuses on the applications of bioresource innovations to support sustainable growth and transformation of the agricultural and environmental sub-sectors, from primary production to value addition, while enhancing adaptability to climatic change and strengthening innovation policy.The Bio-Innovate Program is managed by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and co-located within the BecA-ILRI Hub in Nairobi, Kenya. The Hub is a shared research platform where African scientists apply modern biosciences to solve some of the continent's pressing problems in food security, environmental sustainability and responding to the challenges of climate change. The Program will be guided by an independent technical advisory committee (TAC)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00adf64d15af6cb32e22715d53c1d7da","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fe6c0c9e-179f-48f9-9e87-c94e92e27419/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Poverty squares and gender circles: unravelling agriculture gaps, challenges and opportunities in the Eastern Gangetic Plains","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Need to balance credit initiatives with enabling socio-cultural solidarity among women on issues like household and childcare workload, dowry, boy child preference, domestic violence, patrilocal post-marriage challenges etc. Support and facilitate nontraditional, gender transformatory activities. Focus efforts on landless women to generate income opportunities, proposing vocational training, marketing support and social empowerment. Address women's domestic workload to reduce household tensions created by SHG commitments. Remuneration for key post holders could improve representation by the poorest as well as improve group mobilization and organisation. Improve market access for women through practical changes, e.g. water and sanitation facilities for women, organized transport. Develop accessible manuals on the political aspects of social empowerment especially for use at the SHG village level, with for instance, information on homestead land and joint rights, right to education, violence against women etc."}]},{"head":"Overview","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Research was conducted in 4 villages in Jalpaiguri District where two major development initiatives are implemented."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"One initiative, Anandadhara (National Rural Livelihoods Mission), aims for a convergence of social and economic empowerment by enabling women to form self-managed, federated self-help groups (SHGs). In addition to enabling access to savings and credits, these women's collectives aim to facilitate knowledge of and access to rights, entitlements and public services."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"The other is World Bank funded Accelerated Development of Minor Irrigation (ADMI), which aims to increase agricultural incomes of small / marginal farmers through improved access to irrigation water. This includes minor irrigation schemes -solar or diesel pumps, training on improved and diversified crop farming and marketing, and strengthening water user associations (WUA), with a focus on women's participation. "}]},{"head":"FIELD SITE LOCATIONS Recommendations for ADMI","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"For the poorest, agriculture is not the way out of poverty","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"Rural is no longer synonymous with agriculture. Over the last 25 years, cultivators have decreased by 60% while the proportion of marginal and landless farmers have increased. At best, only ~20% of the village population owns cultivable land. Of this, less than 10% report agriculture as the main income source. Land fragmentation, inflow of migrants, distress sale of land, unreliable agrarian incomes have led to a sharp decrease in the size of landholdings. For marginal farmers, average size reduced from ~1 acre to a third of one acre. West Bengal's land redistribution (homestead parcels for all) has resulted in an enormous pressure on land and there is little \"common\" land in these villages. The majority of the population which includes small (1/3 -1 acre) and marginal farmers (<1/3 acre) need to supplement their agrarian income by farm and non-farm wage-labour. Agricultural wage labour is unreliable and non-farm wage labour in the villages is occasional and inadequate. Short term coping strategies are seasonal migration -particularly of young males to become unskilled construction workers -resulting in large numbers of school drop-outs"}]},{"head":"70% OF LANDLESS WOMEN RELY ON RARE CASUAL AGRICULTURAL LABOUR IN THE STUDIED VILLAGES","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"among this group. In the past, many small farmers were compelled to sell land to tea companies in exchange for low-pay permanent labour in the tea gardens. Many of these gardens are now shutting down -also because of high soil degradation and infertility -leaving the labourers with few alternative options. Nearly all farmers use hybrid, HYV seeds, which require high inputs (fertilizers, pesticides and improved irrigation) leading to irreversible reliance on outside actors. Such modern practices exclude women who are not expected to spray or buy seeds. Market volatility and dependence on middlemen means farmers do not really benefit from greater productivity. There is an agro-ecological crisis: soil infertility combined with increasingly unreliable climatic conditions; a combination of floods and droughts, makes agriculture an insecure and debt prone livelihood. The decline in food crops is a concern for family food security."}]},{"head":"Gender inequalities are rife and restrictive","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"In the past, this region was known for women's peasant activism such as the Tebhaga struggle for land rights. Currently, the situation is reversedsocio-cultural constraints on women's mobility and enterprise are binding except for the poorest, who cannot afford to adjust to social norms, and the few \"strong characters\" who dare to challenge the mainstream. West Bengal's exemplary land reforms and redistribution have broadly failed to empower women: only 6% women reported \"owning\" land and mostly all in matrilineal communities. Joint ownership of land is not the preferred option for men who are supported by the patriarchal culture to keep many privileges."}]},{"head":"The social norms and perceptions","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"around what women should/ can do means that despite a male-pull out of agriculture, there isn't a feminization of agriculture or agricultural labour. The ongoing discourse on women's weakness excludes them from some \"heavy\" farm work, including irrigation. Women remain solely responsible for unpaid domestic work and childcare, which leaves them little time for productive paid work. Lack of reliable wage labour often causes distress and conflicts. The gender situation varies among social and religious groups and between landowner and landless families. Decision-making is more gender balanced in some ethnic groups. Only landless women work as farm and non-farm labourers, but gendered disparities in wages often deepen their vulnerabilities rather than address their poverty. Social, economic and political constraints disable women agricultural labourers to collectively campaign for more gender equality. "}]},{"head":"For female entrepreneurship to sustain and enable empowerment, traditional and modern masculine social boundaries and norms need to be addressed and challenged.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"A WOMEN FROM THE EASTERN GANGETIC PLAINS"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" ON RIGHT, A 17 YEAR OLD BRIDE IN UTTAR KHALPARA. MEN AND WOMEN GATHER FOR A FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION IN THE EASTERN GANGETIC PLAINS Findings from the two projects: Anandadhara ADMI: Improved irrigation for whom?Poor and landless women who cannot save are constrained in accessing the SHGs. Anandadhara enables women to come together, but the challenges to address social, cultural and political challenges are significant. Loans taken by SHG members are not always for productive purposes; in many cases, women's loans finance the work and needs of husbands and sons. Gendered disparities in access to land, water, labour, finance, forests, skills and other means of production within a reinforced patriarchal setting limits agrarian enterprise for women. ADMI improves access to water for irrigation, resulting in the possibility of year-round cultivation, but marginal, tenant farmers and the landless do not always benefit from the project. Irrigation is considered a man's job. Although officially, women are supposed to have WUA membership and quotas are met; in practice women are rarely involved in making decisions around water. Having quotas for women does not translate to women engaging more actively in WUAs. Irrigation is a masculine domain and sector. Without gendering the sector and institutions, it is not possible to effectively target women. While the irrigation issues are well addressed (for WUA members), ADMI project does not ensure market links -these risks are transferred to the farmer members. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"61d3d3f3-f6bc-484d-84ff-a343df0f7143","abstract":""}

data/part_3/00c426c1574f4918e4c69bc6af89223d.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00c426c1574f4918e4c69bc6af89223d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7b0e018f-c9d3-461e-94a0-eb232f8ad3aa/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Improved procedure for registering farmers' varieties under Nepal's Seed Policy","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Milestones:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• Genetic resource, biosafety, biotechnology or seed system policies, regulations, guidelines, standards, or procedures are improved in 3 countries"}]},{"head":"Sub-IDOs:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• 24 -Increased genetic diversity of agricultural and associated landscapes "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Registration of eleven local varieties of rice and beans distributed by more than 3,000 farmers in Nepal (https://tinyurl.com/y4hvhszb) Innovations: <Not Provided> Narrative of Evidence: <Not Applicable> "},{"text":" • 13 -Increased access to productive assets, including natural resources • 12 -Increased conservation and use of genetic resources Contributing Centers/PPA partners: • Bioversity (Alliance) -Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT -Headquarter (Bioversity International) Contributing CRPs/PTF: • GLDC -Grain Legumes and Dryland Cereals • PIM -Policies, Institutions, and Markets 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 07:50 (GMT+0) "}],"sieverID":"65e07a27-2b79-4fd2-8e26-720ac1999dbd","abstract":""}

data/part_3/00cd20ce61c596ac7630679168023015.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00cd20ce61c596ac7630679168023015","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H031289.pdf"},"pageCount":28,"title":"The Contribution of Aquatic Ecosystems and Fisheries to Food Security and Livelihoods: AResearch Agenda","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Aquatic ecosystems are a diverse group of water dependent habitats (box 1) that support important biodiversity and provide a wide range of benefits to people (box 2).As pressure on the world's water resources has increased, there has been growing concern that increased investment in water management needs to include investments to sustain these aquatic ecosystems and the benefits they provide. This is particularly so where these systems are used intensively by poor communities, mainly fishers and pastoralists, and are therefore of critical importance for efforts to sustain and improve these rural livelihoods."},{"index":2,"size":205,"text":"This concern was well reflected in the second World Water Forum (2000) and in the World Water Vision, and is a major focus of the Dialogue on Water, Agriculture and Environment. Yet, building upon this growing international recognition and moving forward to achieve real change and improved management at national and local levels will require policies, institutions and governance arrangements that embrace these concerns, together with greatly strengthened technical capacity to design and implement innovative approaches to maximising value. For example,t if the pastoral and fishery production of riverine floodplains is to be sustained in the face of increasing demand for water, and their contribution to improved food security and livelihoods is to be maximised, effective institutional arrangements to help govern these ecosystems and their resources need to be established and empowered. Similarly, the governance regimes for the river and lake basins, or coastal zones, within which these aquatic ecosystems lie need to take account of the importance of these ecosystems and their requirements, in particular for specitlc quantity and quality of water throughout the year. Without such improved governance, information on the value of the resource, on technologies to sustain and enhance this value, and on environmental flow requirements will be oflittle lasting value."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"In turn if new policies, institutions and governance arrangement are to be truly effective and for them to lead to sustainable improvements in the management of aquatic ecosystems and fisheries, they will need to be well informed. While the need for better information applies to many issues, there are three questions where this is particularly important: 2. How can water productivity be increased by incorporating the values of aquatic ecosystems and improving their management?"},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"3. What are the environmental now requirements (including water quality) required to sustain aquatic ecosystems and the goods and services they provide to people?"},{"index":5,"size":110,"text":"In the absence of such information, planners tend to assume that the value of these resources and their contribution to productive water use is low or negligible, and that consequently their now requirements are not worthy of consideration. Conversely, the stakeholders who use these ecosystems and depend upon their values, are unable to promote their needs effectively relative to agriculture, industry and commerce (Sverdrup-Jensen 1999). In most cases this leads to the loss of sustainable goods and services that the natural aquatic systems offered to rural populations, shifts benefits towards other more restricted and favoured social groups, and contributes to increased local poverty and emigration towards urban centers (Tisdell 1999)."},{"index":6,"size":154,"text":"In recogntion of this analysis the aquatic ecosystem work of the Challenge Program (CP) on Water and Food will seek to develop and apply systems of management that sustain and, where possible, enhance the benefits to people from these systems as an integral part of approaches to improving water productivity at the basin level. It will do so through analysis, development and dissemination of tools and methodologies that will foster effective governance of aquatic ecosystems and their resources. This will be done through development, application and dissemination of tools that will provide quality information on the value and water requirements of these ecosystems and ways to enhance their productivity, and by strengthening the capacity to use these tools and techniques. To help ensure that this process begins by focusing on clear priorities, the present paper examines issues of governance, valuation, productivity and t10w requirements and sets out the research questions that require immediate attention."},{"index":7,"size":5,"text":"Box 1. Principal aquatic ecosystems."},{"index":8,"size":52,"text":"Streams and rivers are flowing waters while floodplains are the lowland areas, adjacent to watercourses that are subject to periodic or near-permanent inundation and sediment deposition. Streams, rivers and floodplains support substantial inland fisheries and have potential for enhanced fisheries, while many floodplains are important for pastoral production and flood recession agriculture."},{"index":9,"size":49,"text":"Reservoirs are artificial waterbodies, primarily used for irrigation, hydroelectric power and domestic water supply. Lakes are natural waterbodies. Both, are usually freshwater and have high potential for aquaculture and conventional or enhanced capture fisheries. Small water bodies are also lentic habitats less than 10 km 2 in surface area."},{"index":10,"size":22,"text":"Ponds are small freshwater bodies, usually artificial, occasionally natural, in rainfed and irrigated areas where aquaculture, particularly integrated with agriculture, is possible."},{"index":11,"size":62,"text":"Estuaries are partially enclosed coastal bodies of water which are either permanently or periodically open to the sea and within which there is a measurable diurnal and seasonal variation of salinity due to the mixture of sea water with fresh water derived from land drainage (after Day 1980 andDayet a1. 1989). They include key habitats, such as mangroves, that support coastal fisheries."},{"index":12,"size":30,"text":"Lagoons are coastal, lacustrine waterbodies that are influenced by both land drainage inputs and marine inputs. They are similar to estuaries in their diurnal and seasonal salinity and tidal patterns."},{"index":13,"size":95,"text":"Wetlands as defined by the Ramsar convention include a wide variety of habitats such as marshes, peatlands, floodplains, rivers and lakes, and coastal areas such as saltmarshes, mangroves and seagrass beds. Also, coral reefs and other marine areas no deeper than six metres at low tide, as well as constructed wetlands such as waste-water treatment ponds and reservoirs are defined as wetlands (Ramsar Convention Bureau 2000). This definition of wetlands therefore includes all of the specific ecosystems listed above together with many other smaller freshwater ecosystems and open coastal waters less than six meters deep."},{"index":14,"size":43,"text":"Ricefields are man made aquatic agro-ecosystems that cover extensive areas of the tropics, sub-tropics and warm temperate regions. In addition to their primary function of rice production, ricefields in many countries are important sources of fish and other aquatic animals and plants for"},{"index":15,"size":6,"text":"Box 2. Benefits of aquatic ecosystems."},{"index":16,"size":150,"text":"FAO statistics indicate that each year some 8 million tons of fish are caught from freshwater ecosystems and 18 million tons of fish are produced from freshwater aquaculture (FAO 1999). The capture fish production of the lower Mekong basin alone totals some 1.5 million tons annually amounting to a total retail value of US$ 104-1.7 billion (MRC 2001), while catches in Lake Victoria reached over 500,000 tons in the 19905. In sub-Saharan Africa the larger floodplains including the inner delta of the Niger, the Sudd of the Nile, and Lake Chad each yield up to 100,000 tons per year and generate annual income in excess of US$ 20-25 million (e.g., Quensiere 1994). These floodplains also support extensive pastoral production. For example, the inner delta of the river Niger supports 5 million head of cattle and small livestock every year accounting for 10 percent of the country's gross national product (GNP)."},{"index":17,"size":153,"text":"The biodiversity value of wetlands is also high. In west Africa the floodplains of the Senegal, Niger and Chad basins support over a million waterfowl, many of them migratory, throughout the year (Monval et al. 1987). In Zambia the Bangweulu basin supports 30,000 black lechwe, along with Africa's most important population of sitatunga and shoebill storks. In Brazil, the Pantanal covers over 10 million ha, with large populations of caiman, capybara, and jaguar, as well as one of the most distinctive mosaics of vegetation in Latin America (Prance and ScalIer 1982) The economic value of this biodiversity is difficult to quantify, but in many places it is the focus of a successful tourist industry. For example, Botswana's Okavango Delta brings in US$ 250 million worth of foreign exchange each year and is the principle source of livelihood for many people in the north of the country including the country's third largest town, Maun."},{"index":18,"size":78,"text":"Important ecological services derived from aquatic systems include habitat and nutrients for consumed species, protection of adjacent lands from erosion, siltation, storm damages, floods and droughts; nutrient cycling; tourism and recreational value; carbon sinks and gas regulation. A global study (Costanza et al. 1997) has indicated that about 83 percent of the global value of ecosystem services come from marine waters, wetlands and lakeslrivers; the total economic value of these ecological services was estimated at US$ 21 trillion."}]},{"head":"The Research Agenda","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"RATIONALE","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The primary objective of the CP on Water and Food with regard to aquatic ecosystems is to:"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• Enhance food security and livelihoods by maintaining aquatic ecosystems and optimizing tlsheries."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"In pursuit of this objective the overarching research question upon which the aquatic ecosystem component of the CP will focus is:"},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• How can aquatic ecosystem services be maintained and fisheries also be optimized?"},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"It will do this by addressing a set of more specific research questions derived from analysis of, and directed towards, four major groups of issues: policies, institutions and governance; valuation; water productivity improvement and environmental water requirements,"}]},{"head":"POLICIES, INSTITUTIONS AND GOVERNANCE","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"There is growing recognition that many of the policies, institutional and regulatory arrangements governing use of natural ecosystems and their resources have lead to ineftlcient and inequitable allocation of these resources and loss of their benefits to people. As a result there is today growing investment in the development of more efficient policies and governance regimes for these natural resources, most noticeably of fisheries, forests and wildlife. This is particularly so in light of the processes of decentralisation that are currently being pursued in many countries (UNDP 2000)."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"However, there is a wide gulf between this recognition of the need for change and identification of the specific actions that need to be taken. In many developing countries, policy-making and implementation systems for aquatic ecosystems and their resources are not clearly understood. There is ,therefore, an urgent need to better understand these policy making processes as a basis for improved governance of these resources."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Tn light of this analysis the key research questions are: I. What are the factors that intluence people's access to, and control over, aquatic ecosystems and their resources?"},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"2. What kinds of governance systems and enabling policies and institutions foster equitable and sustainable management of aquatic ecosystems?"},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"3. How can capacity be built within national and local institutions to understand the livelihoods of poor people and their use of aquatic ecosystems, and take account of their needs in policy development and governance processes?"},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"4. What knowledge systems are needed to help build this capacity and support development and application of these policies, institutions and governance systems?"},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"What are the factors that influence people's access to, and control over, aquatic ecosystems and their resources?"},{"index":8,"size":68,"text":"Clearly defined and enforceable access rights are a pre-requisite for effective governance. Yet only rarely are the factors determining access to aquatic resources by different communities and social groups well understood. Better understanding of these access rights is an essential pre-requisite for the design of effective governance systems. To achieve this access rights will need to be examined in a diversity of ecological, social, economic and institutional settings."},{"index":9,"size":112,"text":"In particular the ways in which hydrological change and shifts in the availability and diversity of fish and other resources influence patterns of exploitation (e.g. differential impact on men/women/children, motorlsed/manpowered fishermen, different ethnic groups, depending on the fraction of the resource they utilize) need to be understood. In some resource systems property rights change with the seasons with seasonally flooded fields acquiring common property conditions during the rainy seasons and private property conditions during the dry seasons. Such seasonality in access or availability of aquatic goods and services, and complementarity with other activities (such as access during periods of low agricultural production) is especially important. Specific research questions in this area include:"},{"index":10,"size":12,"text":"• How is access to aquatic resources regulated in different aquatic ecosystems?"},{"index":11,"size":15,"text":"• How have these access rules changed in response to environmental, demographic and economic change?"},{"index":12,"size":10,"text":"• How do hydrological changes alter access to aquatic resources?"},{"index":13,"size":8,"text":"• What other external factors will change access?"},{"index":14,"size":18,"text":"What kinds of governance systems and enabling policies and institutions foster equitable and sustainable management of aquatic ecosystems?"},{"index":15,"size":113,"text":"At present effective governance over aquatic resources is the exception rather than the norm in most developing countries. If access by the poor to aquatic resources is to be improved, and management of these resources is to be sustainable, major retorm of aquatic resources governance, policies and institutions is needed. Efforts to improve policies and systems of governance, and to strengthen institutions, will need to be grounded in a better understanding of how these policy-making processes function, how responsibilities for managing aquatic resources can be shared between government and community organisations, how different stakeholder groups in society affect policy-making and implementation, and how improved information can result in decisions that benefit the poor."},{"index":16,"size":108,"text":"A major constraint to effective policy making in many developing countries is that the majority of society are usually excluded from any involvement in the policy making process. As a result policy decisions frequently favor certain powerful sectors of society, rather than wider society and especially the poor. This is especially so when the poor are located far from urban centers, as is the case for many of the rural communities dependent upon aquatic resources. To address these concerns new approaches, and frequently new institutions, are needed to manage aquatic resources. In most cases these need to be developed through effective interaction between communities, government and non-governmental organizations."},{"index":17,"size":79,"text":"There is a growing volume of experience in establishing and managing these institutions. However, in order that this encouraging progress can lead to greater impacts, they need to be pursued in a much wider range of social, economic and environmental contexts. In addition, more effective ways to learn and apply broadly applicable lessons from specific examples need to be found. The lessons of these specific case studies need to be harnessed, scaled up and applied over much larger areas."},{"index":18,"size":7,"text":"Specific research questions in this area include:"},{"index":19,"size":17,"text":"• Where are the governance systems that foster equitable and sustainable management of aquatic resource systems (ARS)?"},{"index":20,"size":16,"text":"• How can national institutions best harmonize across the international boundaries of large international river basins?"},{"index":21,"size":22,"text":"• What are the best types of institutions for dealing with water and aquatic resources management in international river and lake basins?"},{"index":22,"size":28,"text":"• Does the level of devolution of governance to the local level influence the conditions of the aquatic ecosystems and wellbeing of those who depend upon their resources?"},{"index":23,"size":30,"text":"• Do policies that are developed through a more participatory process the major stakeholders of the aquatic resource system perform better in terms of environmental, economic, social and development indicators?"},{"index":24,"size":21,"text":"• Do more participatory based institutions lead to fairer allocation of benefits from aquatic resources, resulting in more sustainable institutional arrangements?"},{"index":25,"size":11,"text":"• What types of participatory processes best foster effective policy making?"},{"index":26,"size":20,"text":"• What incentives and other mechanisms can be used to change the system of governance to better serve poor stakeholders?"},{"index":27,"size":26,"text":"• What tools, methodologies and management approaches are most effective in taking the lessons from site specific case studies and applying these at a larger scale?"},{"index":28,"size":35,"text":"How can capacity be built within national and local institutions to understand the livelihoods of poor people and their use of aquatic ecosystems, and take account of their needs in policy development and governance processes?"},{"index":29,"size":90,"text":"Efforts to improve policy making processes need both to be grounded in a better understanding of how these policy-making processes function, and sustained by building the capacity of national institutions to pursue research and extension approaches that will favour these community focused approaches. However, at present, most national institutions have little capacity, and often even less incentive, to invest in understanding the needs of poor fishers and pastoralists often living many hundreds of kilometers from national capitals. Ways to strengthen capacity to do this need to be found and fostered."},{"index":30,"size":7,"text":"Specific research questions in this area include:"},{"index":31,"size":19,"text":"• How can livelihood analyses become part of the remit of institutions involved with managing and sustaining aquatic ecosystems?"},{"index":32,"size":28,"text":"• What institutional structures, and research and extension approaches, have proved to be most effective in building national capacity to work with poor rural communities using aquatic ecosystems?"},{"index":33,"size":22,"text":"What knowledge systems are needed to help build this capacity and support development and application of these policies, institutions and governance systems?"},{"index":34,"size":206,"text":"The information systems that sustain effective governance of aquatic ecosystems (and other natural resources) are critical. The conventional view of policy-making and implementation assumes that policy-makers will utilise new information and better understanding to improve policy design for the benefit of society. In this situation, research and research scientists provide information for policy-makers, who make policy decisions and then hand these decisions down to administrators (managers) for implementation through various management arrangements. However, in many developing countries, policy-making and implementation systems do not function in this way. Instead, many decisions are taken to favour certain powerful sectors of society, rather than for society's benefit as a whole. These problems are compounded by the fact that much of the current information available on poor people's livelihoods and natural resource management issues tends to be disseminated within limited networks. At present technical information gathering and dissemination is mainly in print, often in English, and usually packaged for presentation to a fairly well defined audience. In contrast most poor people tend to share knowledge through local language text, and oral and visual communication systems. As a result natural resource users are frequently prevented from participating in technical information networks. More flexible, decentralised systems of information exchange are therefore required."},{"index":35,"size":7,"text":"Specific research questions in this area include:"},{"index":36,"size":11,"text":"• What knowledge base is needed to drive improved governance systems?"},{"index":37,"size":13,"text":"• How can this best be structured to ensure delivery to poor stakeholders?"}]},{"head":"VALUATION OF ECOSYSTEM GOODS AND SERVICES ANDTHE COSTS OF DEGRADATION","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":235,"text":"The development and effective application of improved policies, institutions and governance systems for aquatic ecosystems and fisheries needs to be supported by better information on the value of different aquatic ecosystems and their resources. Only rarely however is this information available, and much of the existing data are fragmentary, dispersed and dated. Even for fisheries, which are generally the best documented aquatic resource, there is widespread scepticism as to the accuracy and relevance of current statistics, most of which are collected from a small number of monitored landing sites, an approach of limited value in assessing the importance of riverine freshwater fisheries in the tropics (van Zalinge et a1. 2000; Baran and Guttman, in prep.). In many freshwater fisheries, actual catches are believed to be at least twice the reported figures (FAO 1999;We1comme 2001). There is therefore an urgent need to improve the quality of information available on the use made of these ecosystems and their resources by different communities and social groups, on their consequent economic and social values, and their contribution to sustaining, or potentially enhancing, livelihoods, reducing poverty, and improving food security, and the potential cost to society of the impacts that result from degradation of these systems. At the same time, greater capacity to effect such analyses needs to be developed wherever such information will assist in improving governance and the quality of decision making about aquatic ecosystems and water use."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"In Different types of ecosystems have different values and these vary according to the specific biological characteristics of individual sites and the way they are used by people. The range of these values, and the reasons for their value need to be better understood. To help achieve this, a series of comparative case studies in different ecosystems and different localities varying in characteristics such as methods of water usage (regulated versus non-regulated) and means of exploitation of aquatic production (e.g., rice fields, aquaculture, etc., compared to \"non-cultured\" and flood systems) are required. The specific household contribution of aquatic ecosystems needs to be documented: who uses the resources, how, and when? Specific research questions in this area include:"},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"• Wh(,t is the value of ecosystem goods and services in the livelihoods of poor communities dependent upon natural resources?"},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"• What is the value of fish production from natural aquatic ecosystems for livelihoods and food security?"},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"• How does this compare with alternative uses of the fishery resource?"},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"• What is the value ofother food produced by these ecosystems?"},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"What are the social and economic costs ofdegradation ofaquatic ecosystems and decline and loss of their goods and services?"},{"index":8,"size":128,"text":"Balancing the multiple and competing demands for water is one of the greatest challenges facing water managers. In the past, the wider costs of water abstraction, particularly those affecting the environment and borne by economically-weak communities of people, have been ignored. As a general rule, the overall benetits from abstraction of water increase to a point, beyond which the aquatic ecosystems degrade significantly, valuable resources and services are lost, and costs are incurred as changes to the ecosystems begin to affect the health and well-being of local communities. However, in only a relatively few cases have these costs been assessed fully. Also the tools and capacity to predict such costs are limited. Greater investment in such assessment, and in development of these tools and capacity, is therefore required."},{"index":9,"size":7,"text":"Specific research questions in this area include:"},{"index":10,"size":24,"text":"• What has been the impact on the livelihoods of different communities and social groups of degradation of specific aquatic ecosystems and their resources?"},{"index":11,"size":20,"text":"• How do these impacts vary with ecosystem and resource type, and with social and economic status of the communities?"},{"index":12,"size":14,"text":"• What tools and methodologies are most effective in analysing and predicting these impacts?"},{"index":13,"size":16,"text":"What are the appropriate tools to generate this information rapidly and for use by poor stakeholders?"},{"index":14,"size":127,"text":"At present economic valuation studies of aquatic ecosystems tend to be carried out in an intensive manner. This approach tends to involve one or more scientists visiting an area, meeting with communities, undertaking surveys, and then going off to analyse data and write a report. While these are immensely valuable and have played an important role in beginning to help build awareness on these ecosystems, awl while further work at this level will be carried out through the CP, simpler systems need to be developed so that they can provide information more directly to communities and other key stakeholders on an ongoing basis. This may involve long term monitoring of certain key parameters, or the establishment of research networks for individual rivers or other large aquatic systems."},{"index":15,"size":7,"text":"Specitic research questions in this area include:"},{"index":16,"size":25,"text":"• What needs to be done so that existing valuation techniques can be made more readily applicable ill developing countries with limited institutional research capacity?"},{"index":17,"size":13,"text":"• What is the critical information that is required by decentralised governance systems?"},{"index":18,"size":13,"text":"• How are can this be generated on a regular and reliable basis?"},{"index":19,"size":13,"text":"• Are existing tools used by developed countries transferable directly to developing countries?"}]},{"head":"ENVIRONMENTAL WATER REQUIREMENTS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"Processes such as the World Water Vision, the Global Water Dialogue and the World Commission on Dams (WCD), have led to increasing awareness of the need for new approaches to managing water productivity at the basin level. For example,guidelines 15 and 16 of the WCD call for, \"Environmental Flow Assessments\" and \"Maintaining Productive Fisheries\" and specify, inter alia, the importance of assessments of the water requirements of fish popUlations, and the mitigation of fish losses in downstream Hoodplains through How releases. In order for the awareness and policy frameworks generated by these and other international initiatives to engender sustained benefits for poor communities dependent on aquatic ecosystems, they must be supported by policy-relevant information to assist water-management decisions at local, national and regional level. In particular, there is an urgent need in the developing world for accurate information on the volumes and distribution of water required to sustain these ecosystems, including the different levels of ecosystem benefits that such Hows would support, to allow for more informed decisions on the equitable use of water."},{"index":2,"size":243,"text":"If the need for improved and timely information on water requirements is to be met, tools and methods relevant to the needs and context of developing countries need to be sourced or developed. For such tools to be truly useful, they should use information that is easy to collect and yield information that is both relevant and easy to convey to all stakeholder groups. While there is potential to build upon experience in the North, where the past decade has seen the development of a wide range of approaches for assessing environmental water requirements, many of the tools developed there are dependent on the substantial knowledge base and research capacity available in many Northern countries, or have been designed to meet the specific needs of national regulatory frameworks. While of considerable academic interest, most of these techniques are of limited practical relevance to the current needs of developing countries. In addition, much of the work has been done in temperate climates, and in small streams and rivers, and the applicability of the resultant techniques to larger tropical rivers is questionable. The type of information generated by environmental water assessments, and channels for its delivery to poor stakeholders in decentralised institutional arrangements, also need to be identified and developed. The relevance of the information to stakeholders, and the efficacy with which it is transferred from the research arena to local communities and authorities, will dictate its ultimate influence and value to the development agenda."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"In light of this analysis it is proposed that these issues be pursued through four areas of research:"},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"1. What are the quantitative relationships between hydrological changes (including water quality) and the goods and services of aquatic ecosystems that are of high priority for food security and livelihoods?"},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"2. What appropriate methodologies exist or need to be developed for the determination, management and monitoring of environmental flow requirements in different aquatic ecosystems?"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"3. What are the specific freshwater requirements for coastal ecosystems?"},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"4. What quantity (and quality) of water is needed to sustain riverine fisheries?"},{"index":8,"size":29,"text":"What are the quantitative relationships between hydrological changes (including water quality) and the goods and services of aquatic ecosystems that are of high priority for food security and livelihoods?"},{"index":9,"size":89,"text":"Any change to the quantity of water entering an aquatic ecosystem under natural conditions will bring about changes to that system. In general, the closer to natural the desired condition of the aquatic system, the greater the portion of the original flow regime that will be required as an environmental flow. Furthermore, the pattern of flow over time (including the height, duration, smoothness, and rapidity of change of the flood, and the duration and levels of low !low) are at least as important as the total quantity of water."},{"index":10,"size":260,"text":"In practice, relatively few aquatic ecosystems exist under natural hydrological conditions, and many are subject to highly modified flow regimes. Many of these systems continue to provide a wide range of goods and services to society, while the character of others has been altered to such an extent that previous uses are no longer sustained and serious health and other impacts have resulted. Thus, in the face of increasing competition for water, there is a critical need to be able to assess how different ecosystems respond to changes in the quantity, distribution and quality of water they receive and what portion of their natural flow they require to sustain the range of benefits that they yield. Once the relationships between river flow and one or more of the functions and benefits of an aquatic ecosystem are established, the impacts of various management strategies can be assessed, and options linking ecosystem condition (with associated goods and services) and the volume, distribution and quality of water required can be established. Such information can then be used at a local or national level to inform decisions on the allocation of water from an ecosystem in such a manner as to optimise the overall benefit to society. If long-term sustainable management of an aquatic ecosystem is intended, attention should be given to mUltiple aspects of ecosystem structure and functioning, as well as services, including among others maintenance of the geomorphology of river channel and floodplain, fish and bird diversity, aquatic vegetation, water quality and recreational water us'e. Specific research questions in this area include:"},{"index":11,"size":22,"text":"• What are the How-linked goods and services provided by aquatic ecosystems that are of high priority for food security and livelihoods?"},{"index":12,"size":24,"text":"• What sorts of data are required to quantify the relationship between these goods and services and different aspects of the hydrological flow regime?"},{"index":13,"size":36,"text":"• If these data do not exist in an area, how can they be collected or generated in the most cost-effective manner, and what substitute information (if any) can be used to infer the required data?"},{"index":14,"size":19,"text":"• What are the relationships between the identitled goods and services and different aspects of the hydrological flow regime?"},{"index":15,"size":12,"text":"• Are there any synergistic effects, and if so what are they?"}]},{"head":"What appropriate methodologies exist or need to be developed for the determination, management and monitoring of environmental water requirements in different aquatic ecosystems?","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":238,"text":"As argued above there is limited potential for building upon experience in the North and adapting methodologies developed there to the needs of developing countries. However, there are a growing number of methodologies that have been specifically developed for, and are currently in use in developing countries. Many of these are founded on principles of aquatic ecology and advances in ecohydrology and ecohydraulics, and are fairly robust and flexible, both in their data requirements and in their output. With appropriate modification, they could also be applied more widely and in different types of aquatic ecosystems. Many of these methods, however, require an upfront decision on the desired future condition of the ecosystem under consideration and produce a single 'environmental flow requirement' (prescriptive methods, Brown and King 2002). As such, they do not lend themselves to use in situations that call for negotiation and tradeoffs between environmental and developmental issues. Others focus on the relationships between changes in river now and one or more aspects of an ecosystem, and as such are able to provide information on different scenarios linking flow (and water quality) to ecosystem condition (interactive approaches, Brown and King 2002), and may be more appropriate for use in addressing the key research questions being addressed in the CPo Brief descriptions of some of the methods available worldwide may be found in, inter alia, Tharme (1996Tharme ( ,2000)), Dunbar et al. (1998) and Arthington and Zalucki (1998)."},{"index":2,"size":187,"text":"Environmental flow assessments are not an exact science, and the overall confidence in the results of a flow assessment for an ecosystem is' a product of the extent and reliability of the data used and of the complexity of the ecosystem under consideration. In some cases the inter-linkages and complexities of aquatic ecosystems are simply too many and too great for the outcome of all potential management activities to be predicted accurately. For instance, the loss of a species or a reduction in the resilience of native aquatic communities could make way for invasions by exotic species not previously recorded in an area. Long-term changes in the climate will also have major implications for both the use and the protection of water resources. These inter-linkages and complexities are compounded by the impact of human utilisation other than water abstraction, and the impact of changes in that utilisation, can have on aquatic ecosystems. Methods need to be developed to incorporate and communicate the concept of risk-as a result both of uncertainty resulting from a paucity of information and from the inherent unpredictability of natural ecosystems-into environmental water assessments."}]},{"head":"Specific research questions in this area include:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"• What environmental flow information is most needed and/or relevant for stakeholders and decision makers in the developing world, and what is the most appropriate format for that information?"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• Which of the methodologies currently available could be used, or adapted for use, in providing this information?"},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"• What are the key features, data requirements, flow paths and outputs for any new methodologies recommended for use for providing the information required?"},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"• How can the concepts of risk and uncertainty best be incorporated into environmental water assessments, and communicated to stakeholders and decision makers?"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"What are the specific water requirements for coastal ecosystems?"},{"index":6,"size":81,"text":"Methods for the assessment of flows for wetlands, groundwater and coastal systems are the least developed to date. This is partially due to the complexity and diversity of these ecosystems, but also because much of the funding for this work has been made available as part of river regulation projects. Improving understanding of, and strengthening capacity to assess, the water requirements of coastal ecosystems is particularly important given that freshwater inflow to the coast is considered by many to be \"lost\"."},{"index":7,"size":165,"text":"Water, nutrient and sediment inputs from rivers play an essential role in sustaining the productivity and dynamics of a wide range of coastal ecosystems. For example, subsidence and erosion as a result of reduced riverine input has been demonstrated for the Po delta and Venice lagoon in Italy, the Rhone delta in France (Hensel et al. 1999) and the Mississippi delta in the United States. The impact of such modifications in the case of tropical countries whose deltas support many millions of people such as Bangladesh, Vietnam, Mozambique or Nigeria is the subject of international concern, but has yet to be adequately quantified. Similarly, the risk of salinization in the lower reaches of river systems as well as of reduced flows at the mouth of big rivers (e.g. Vietnam, Australia) is of concern, but poorly documented and assessed. In addition to effects on agriculture, salinization creates a change in the natural vegetation structure, whose diversity is reduced, impacting subsequently on the livelihood of local populations."},{"index":8,"size":154,"text":"The productivity of many coastal fisheries is also dependent upon freshwater inputs in a number of ways (Blaber 1997;Bunn et al. 1998). Turbid water and low salinity in estuaries act as barriers to many marine predators and so help provide safe nursery conditions. In addition, river borne nutrients fertilise inshore coastal habitats and \"flood\" regimes trigger the seaward migration of shrimp and the spawning of catadromous species. Some rivers floods open the temporarily closed estuaries (e.g. South and East Africa), allowing estuarine-dependant species to fulfill their biological cycle. However, while the importance of these relationships is well understood by scientists working in the coastal zone, few of the studies carried out so far in tropical and sub-topical regions ofAfrica,Asia and Latin America allow quantitative analysis and clear prediction of the impacts of reduced water flow in coastal ecosystems. More such analyses are therefore required and more widely applicable predictive tools need to be developed."}]},{"head":"Specific research questions in this area include:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"• To what extent will individual coastal ecosystems be modified physically by a reduction of different levels of river flow in the estuarine zone? Does the seasonal distribution of flow significantly affect this process?"},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"• What will be the consequences of greater salinization of the coastal zone for the livelihoods of people dependent upon coastal ecosystems and their resources?"},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"• What what will be the impact of a reduced freshwater input on the productivity and catch composition of coastal fisheries? How does this translate into economic terms?"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"How much water is needed to sustain river fisheries?"},{"index":5,"size":235,"text":"River fisheries and their central role in sustaining food security and livelihoods of millions of poor people across the developing world are one of the most important benefits of natural aquatic ecosystems. Yet, for most rivers little information is available on the water management regime required to sustain fishery and its benefits in the face of increasing demand and competition for water. Therefore, there is a particularly urgent need to develop methods to assess the impact of changes in river flow regime on fish populations, fishery productivity and fishing communities; use of these methods to provide such information for selected rivers (primarily benchmark basins); and strengthen capacity of local, national and regional institutions to use these tools in making water allocation and river basin management decisions that improve food security and livelihoods of fishing dependent communities. Welcomme and Halls (2002) have developed a generic model of tropical fishery river flow dynamics. This is an extremely promising approach but needs to be refined further and tested on a wide range of river systems. Issues that need to be considered include: the impacts of different flow scenarios on different fish guilds, integration of more sophisticated hydrological information, more information on the population dynamics and movements of key species and the productivity of different floodplain and river habitats. The aim should be to move from the current qualitative predictions of the model to a more quantitative predictive capability."},{"index":6,"size":176,"text":"However, equally important is the need to link such fishery-flow models with tools for environmental flow assessment. Holistic environmental flow assessment methodologies are thought to be promising for developing countries because they cunsider the ecosystem in its entirety and in some cases, notably downstream response to imposed flow transformations (DRIFT) (Brown and King 2000;Tharme 2000), extend the link from flow-ecosystem response through to social dependence and economic implications. However, these methodologies have only been applied in any detail in southern Africa and Australia and are still in the developmental stage. So far they have integrated only limited fisheries information and have been used on rivers with limited fisheries. Therefore, they need to be tested and expanded to incorporate recent advances in modelling of fish population dynamics and their responses to changes in river flow. Major gains can be obtained by integrating the improved Fish-Flow Model and other fish models with holistic methodologies. The value of these tools will however need to be tested in a diversity of governance situations, and effective systems of information flow established."}]},{"head":"Specific research questions include:","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"• What is the relationship between various aspects of the natural hyrdological regime (notably magnitude, frequency, amplitude, duration, timing of flood and extent of inundation) and natural fish production in floodplains?"},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"• What are the critical requirements and sensitivity to hydrological and ecological factors of the few dominant species that dominate fish catch in tropical rivers (e.g., four species make up to 50 percent of the total catch in Cambodia)?"},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"• What are the ecological characteristics of floodplains and wetlands (both structure and processes) that are of special importance to fish, and what will be the impact of different water management options on these characteristics?"},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"• What will be the impact of different water management options on freshwater fisheries (catch efficiency, fishing effort, shifts in fishing methods and fish catchability)?"},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"• What are the water allocation: strategies that can maximize sustainable catches of freshwater fisheries (the yield resulting from a combination of species distribution, hydro-environmental factors and fishing effort)?"},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"• What are the water allocation strategies that can maximize the profitability of freshwater fisheries?"},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"• What are the water allocation strategies that can maximize the positive social outcomes of freshwater fisheries?"}]},{"head":"IMPROVING WATER PRODUCTIVITY","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Water productivity and the techniques used to measure it vary depending on the spatial scale being addressed--from pond!field to basin. The most widely used definition is expressed in terms of weight or value derived per unit of water used! consumed (Molden and Sakthivadivel 1999). However this is only a partial concept of water productivity. At the ecosystem or basin level water provides a wide range of goods and services, all of which need to be considered in broader analyses of the value obtained from water. Most of the previous studies of water productivity (with the notable exception of Renwick 2001) have concentrated on measuring the value of crop production only and excluded the existing and potential contributions by living aquatic resources. Therefore, there is a need not only to increase water productivity, but also to improve the methodologies for measuring water productivity."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"Water productivity can be increased by producing more output per unit of water used or by reducing water losses, or by a combination of both. Various hydrological! engineering approaches have been developed to improve water productivity by reducing water losses (Molden and Sakthivadivel 1999;Molden et al. 2001;Droogers and Kite 2001). However, in view of the analytical focus on crop productivity, it is not surprising that strategies for increasing output have so far been limited to crop cultivation only. Water productivity at several organisational levels can be increased further by integrating fish and other living aquatic resources into the existing water use systems."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"In light of this analysis key questions concerning water productivity include:"},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"1. When and how can water productivity and livelihoods be improved by integrating tlsh production and harvest of other aquatic animals and plants into farming and irrigation/flood-prone systems?"},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"2. How do the monetary, social and nutritional values of these additional water use benefits compare with those for crops?"},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"3. What new technologies can be designed to further improve the integration of fisheries into farming systems?"},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"When and how can water productivity and livelihoods be improved by integrating fish production and harvest of other aquatic animals and plants into farming and irrigation/flood-prone systems?"},{"index":8,"size":225,"text":"With farmers under increasing pressure to intensify and increase efficiency of resource use-including water, diversitlcation of enterprises together with the reuse of existing on-farm resources is increasingly important. This applies for smallholder farms as well. There are numerous examples where water is managed on farms as part of normal production and survival strategies under given agroecological conditions (e.g. collection, storage, multiple use in farming-including fish ponds and tlooded rice fields-and processing). Some examples of recent developments indude: (i) the raised-bed farming of vegetables and fruits between a pattern of trenches used for irrigation and cultivation of fish and freshwater prawns in lowland areas of Thailand and southern Vietnam; (ii) the intensive reuse of off-farm and on-farm manures for vegetable and fish production in northern Vietnam (VAC system); and (iii) the intensified lise of wetland areas (dambos) around seasonal or perennial streams for crop and (increasingly) fish production in Malawi. The latter also provides food security through the possibility of vegetable cultivation in empty ponds in drought situations, utilizing residual moisture. In places where natural aquatic ecosystems have been degraded, this integration is especially important, providing protein and other benefits that were once provided by natural systems. By becoming water managers and growers of tIsh and other living aquatic resources on their farms, farmers can move from being part-time tlsh hunters to being part-time fish t~mners."},{"index":9,"size":113,"text":"Opportunities for shared water use at the community level include irrigation schemes and seasonal floodplains. For most irrigation schemes the primary purpose for their design and establishment has been the production of agricultural crops. However, opportunities exist for fish production within the controlled waters of such schemes. These are in the water reservoir itself (usually not managed for optimal fish production), the supply canals, ponds located within the scheme area, and small trenches and pits within rice fields for combined fish-in-rice culture. In canals with constant water flow (i.e. not pulse-operated) opportunities exist for fish production in canal segments or fenced-off partitions or in net cages (if flow rates do not preclude this)."},{"index":10,"size":203,"text":"A different situation exists in flood prone ecosystems which can be used for additional fish production and thereby make use of this unutilized and free water resource. In these ecosystems where seasonal floods cover lands used for crop cultivation in the dry season, the opportunity exists to fence-in large areas (up to several hectares) by creating enclosed water bodies and stocking these with fish. In this case the communities who usually access and utilize these lands and waters can form community management groups that jointly decide on management and share of benefits, based on agreed rules. Recent work in Bangladesh and Vietnam has shown that besides the natural fish production of 200 kg/hal per 6 month flood period, an additional production of up to 1000 kg/hal per 6 month of stocked fish can be achieved (leLARM unpublished). The arrangements involved landholders and the landless, who received shares of the returns based on their contributions to management and upkeep. The landless, who were seasonal fishers in the area, had income gains from their labor and additionally were able to conduct fishing for indigenous non-stocked fish and thereby meet their family nutritional and income requirements during this period. Specific research questions in this area include:"},{"index":11,"size":16,"text":"• How can water productivity be measured for fisheries and aquaculture at the farm level (aquaculture)?"},{"index":12,"size":17,"text":"• When and how can on-farm water productivity be improved by integrating tlsh production into farming systems?"},{"index":13,"size":12,"text":"-what tools can be developed for integrating fish production into farming systems?"},{"index":14,"size":15,"text":"-what tools can be developed to estimate farm water productivity that will include aquatic resources?"},{"index":15,"size":21,"text":"• Where and under what conditions, can improvements to water productivity be achieved through additional and simultaneous production of fish in"},{"index":16,"size":16,"text":"What new technologies can be designed to improve further the integration of fisheries into farming systems?"},{"index":17,"size":143,"text":"Despite the increasing investment in improving water use on farms, there is insufficient codification and distillation of lessons and development of new tools. As the added .aquaculture enterprise will in most cases be a novel activity fpr the farmers, their capacity to adopt this technology and utilize the water efficiently and beneficially will depend on the quality of knowledge transfer, the existing agroecological conditions and household and farming system characteristics, as well as the social context and policy environment. For example tools need to be developed for integrating fish production into farming systems for greater water and nutrient use efficiency, and increased benefit to farm households. Specifically the comparative water use efficiency, ot~ for example, fish production from small farm ponds and rice fields needs to be quantified in biotechnical and economic terms, for which methods need to be developed and widely applied."},{"index":18,"size":153,"text":"Various technical options also exist through which fish production can increase water productivity at the larger scale of irrigation systems or farming systems in flood-prone areas. Technical considerations here include environmental conditions (e.g., seasonality in temperature and bulk water supply), scheme dimensions, overall management criteria of the schemes (small-scale community managed, or large scale para-statal company operated), crops cultivated and market opportunities for the fish produced. However, experience for the combined cultivation of rice and fish in Asia, and more modest and localized experiences in Africa, underlines the importance of social, economic and institutional considerations in the design of approaches that will be taken up in the long-term at community level. As oppportunities for enhancing water productivity at the community level are pursued, there is an important need to develop a wider range of technical options that are viable under different social, economic and institutional setttings. Specific research questions in this area include:"},{"index":19,"size":40,"text":"• What new management and operation procedures for farms, irrigation schemes (from large scale to small scale), and flood-prone areas, can be designed in a participatory manner through which the production of fish can be sustainably included as added \"crop\"?"},{"index":20,"size":21,"text":"• What participatory diagnostic methods and stakeholder-involving diffusion approaches will favour such approaches? Under what conditions are these effective and efficient?"},{"index":21,"size":41,"text":"• What tools can assist communities in seasonally flooding areas to establish and operate sustainable management agreements under which previously unmanaged flooded areas are utilized for fish cultivation, thereby providing tangible and equitable added benefits to all groups in the area?"}]},{"head":"Conclusions-Achieving Impact","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The agenda and work described here will generate a wide range of outputs, some of the most important of which are listed in box 3. Together with a range of complementary investments in policy development, capacity building, and ultimately management of water and aquatic ecosystems using the capacity and tools generated, these outputs can have a significant long-term impact on these ecosystems, their resources, and the people who depend upon them. Amongst the most important of these impacts are:"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"1. Empowerment and improved engagement of poor stakeholders in the management of aquatic ecosystems and the water required to sustain these."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"2. Improved livelihood opportunities, enhanced food security and improved health for these vulnerable communities."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"3. Sustained production from riverine fisheries, and increased production from aquaculture."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"4. Improved water productivity at farm, community and basin levels."},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"5. Arrested degradation of aquatic ecosystems."},{"index":7,"size":152,"text":"Achieving these impacts will however be a complex process involving adapting the tools and approaches developed to individual situations, and negotiation and trade-offs with competing water needs. The nature of these negotiations and trade offs will vary geographically, depending upon each country's perspectives and constraints, and with time. These processes of negotiation and trade-offs will normally seek to optimise the overall output from water resources, which in most cases will mean sub-optimal water allocations for each specific use. The work proposed here will strengthen the information base upon which such negotiations are undertaken so that the value of the resource, its water requirements, and opportunities for improving productivity are better understood. Together with, and working through, improved governance processes, the needs of different stakeholders will be better expressed and addressed. These improved negotiations will both improve the benefits from aquatic ecosystems while ensuring that they are distributed in a more equitable manner."},{"index":8,"size":3,"text":"Box 3. Outputs."}]},{"head":"Policies, Institutions and Governance","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"• Improved understanding of the factors determining access to aquatic resources by different communities and social groups and how these can be managed -Guidance on the form of governance systems, policies and institutions, that foster equitable and sustainable management of aquatic ecosystems and their resources -Information systems that will support the development and application of such governance systems policies and institutions -Technical capacity to develop, manage and support such governance systems, policies and institutions "}]},{"head":"Valuation of Ecosystem","index":14,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Goods and Services,and the costs of Degradation • Assessments and valuations of the goods and services provided by aquatic ecosystems, and costs ofecosystem degradation -Tools and methodologies for generating such information rapidly and in an accessible manner Environmental Water Requirements • Improved understanding of the impacts of hydrological change on the ecological functions of different aquatic ecosystems and the different goods and services they provide -Improved methodologies for assessment of environmental water requirements of different aquatic ecosystems Improved understanding of the specific freshwater requirements of coastal ecosystems -Tools for assessing the water requirements of riverine fisheries Improving Water Productivity • Assessment of the current and potential contribution of aquatic resources to water productivity in different farming systems, notably irrigated and flood-prone systems -Improved understanding of the benefits that can be obtained by integrating fish production and harvest of other aquatic animals and plants into farming systems -Improved technologies for integrating aquaculture and fisheries into different farming systems "},{"text":"What are the monetary and non-monetary values ofthe goods and services provided by different types ofaquatic ecosystems, and what proportion of the household/ community economy do they comprise? light of this analysis the key research questions concerning valuation include:1. What are the monetary and non-monetary values of the goods and services provided by different types of aquatic ecosystems, and what proportion of the household/community economy do they comprise?2. What are the social and economic costs of degradation of a~uat ic ecosystems and decline and loss of their goods and services?3. What are the appropriate tools to generate this information rapidly and for use by poor stakeholders?  "}],"sieverID":"1e32c9c0-77b4-41a6-aa63-0fb8a2148dd2","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"012fa3337d4c7183670b549d59fc0ec1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b80ad77b-d1fa-4e66-9033-16747edd49b1/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"I. Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":299,"text":"Humidtropics, a CGIAR Research Program, aims to help poor farm families in tropical Africa, Asia and Americas to boost their income from integrated agricultural systems' intensification while preserving their land for future generations. The humid tropics with 2.9 billion people, most of which are poor farmers on about 3 billion hectares of land, are critical to local, regional and global food supplies, and central to the maintenance of global biodiversity. The region has a great wealth of untapped resources and potential. Within the agriculture sector, this potential is driven by the richness in agro-ecological resources of water, soils, flora, and fauna, etc., and by a population for whom agriculture is often a way of life and part of the culture. However, the agro-ecological stability of the region is very fragile, and carries a high risk of degradation. Problems include loss of soil fertility and accelerated erosion, deforestation and biodiversity loss, and high incidence of pests and diseases in both production and post-harvest situations. The humid tropics have the biggest gap between potentials in terms of ecological resources, productivity and livelihoods and what actually exists today. The reasons for not yet realizing this potential are diverse, covering domains in technical, social, economic, environmental and political situations. Humidtropics is presented as a key for unlocking this potential and contributing towards the growth and development of this region through integrated agricultural research for development, involving key partners and stakeholders. The global hypothesis of Humidtropics states that \"A range of livelihood strategies exist within the region where poverty reduction, balanced household nutrition, system productivity and natural resource integrity are most effectively achieved and contribute best to human welfare\". Humidtropics aims at the realization of this vision. The program functions in Action Areas in three major impact zones: sub-Saharan Africa, Tropical Americas and Asia."}]},{"head":"The Research Framework","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"Humidtropics research has three main integrated Strategic Research Themes (SRTs) that work together as illustrated in Figure 1. SRT1 focuses on system analysis and global synthesis, which involves a capacity to undertake characterization of Action Areas and their component Action Sites, identification of entry points, coordination of the development of tools, such as surveys to monitor agricultural system change, and providing analytical support in research synthesis. SRT2 research is organized around the systems interventions and the trade-offs that exist with integrated system productivity, institutions and markets, and natural resources management. SRT3 studies and develops capacity for institutional innovation and scaling of social and technical solutions which impacts on rural poverty and gender equity. The research framework is a matrix of location-based research in the Action Areas drawing on critical capacities in thematic research groups arrayed across CGIAR Centers and partner organizations. All the SRTs interact and come together at the Action Areas and Action Sites. "}]},{"head":"Overall Theory of Change","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"The overall Theory of Change is based on the hypothesis that the potential inherent in the region is best realized through an integrated systems approach involving participatory action across all stakeholder groups. Systems approaches require a study of the interactions across different components and commodities within the system and to capitalize on synergies between different intensification options. They look at how component productivity increases can be balanced with environmental protection and how systems interventions to on-farm practices have consequences for institutions including markets and for the environment, particularly natural resources integrity. This integration across scales and the strategy for translating farm level research to livelihood improvement at scale is captured in the strategic research framework already discussed above (Figure 1). The framework emphasizes the interaction across the SRTs, and the cyclical learning strategy underlying the program, leading to change at scale."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"A second dimension to the overall Theory of Change is illustrated in Figure 2. This helps explain the initial positioning of the Action Areas in relation to the Poverty and Ecosystems Integrity status (main axes). It also illustrates the trajectory of systems interventions required to move these Action Areas to an idealized position of high productivity without sacrificing natural resources integrity, and supported by effective institutions including markets and policies. The assessment includes baseline studies on systems productivity, institutional effectiveness and natural resources integrity, which are undertaken in the context of the R4D (Research for Development) triangle functioning within SRT2 (Figure 1). R4D platforms are the core diagnostic and implementation mechanism for the program. Interventions should not only move the current position but also enhance its scale. This is undertaken through systems innovation research in SRT3."}]},{"head":"II Intermediate Development Outcomes","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Humidtropics is driven by the major global development challenges and the CGIAR System Level Outcomes (SLOs) of (i) Reducing rural poverty (ii) Increasing food security, (iii) Improving nutrition and health, and (iv) Sustainable management of natural resources. The Intermediate Development Outcomes (IDOs) of Humidtropics are derived directly from the overall goal and the strategic objectives (SOs) of the program, as defined below:"},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"• SO 1 -Livelihoods Improvement: \"Improved livelihoods in terms of income and nutrition for rural farm families.\" • SO 2 -Sustainable Intensification: \"Increased total farm productivity respecting natural resources integrity.\" • SO 3 -Gender Empowerment: \"Empowered women and youth with better control over and benefit from integrated production systems.\" • SO 4 -Systems Innovation: \"Enhanced capacity for systems innovation.\""},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"The point to note regarding the SOs is their integrated nature, and that they are realized together in an interactive and integrated fashion. Each SO relates directly to one or two IDOs. The realization of these IDOs is then accomplished through a number of \"Flagship Projects\", which are seen as the main vehicles through which the research of Humidtropics is carried out to ensure impacts of the program. "}]},{"head":"The Intermediate Development Outcomes and their Targets SO 1: Livelihoods Improvement","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"The following two IDOs contribute to this SO: IDO 1 -Income: \"Increased and more equitable Income from agriculture for rural poor farm families, with special focus on rural women.\" This IDO is strongly linked with IDO 3 on Productivity and IDO 4 on NRM. It is based on generating total farm income through both sustainable intensification and diversification of production systems to improve the livelihoods of rural women and men (Table 1). Realizing the IDO will require improving institutional effectiveness with integration of commercialization principles and value chain and business model trade-off analysis to improve market linkages and income generating outcomes. IDO 2 -Nutrition: \"Increased consumption of safe, nutritious foods by the poor, especially among nutritionally vulnerable women and children.\" This IDO will be accomplished through research for the diversification of high quality crops and livestock leading to enhanced consumption of diverse nutritious foods by the poor. Humidtropics will focus on food consumption as the main indicator for this IDO. Three key areas in which targets and outcomes will be assessed are:"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"• Changes in the diversity and quality of diets."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• Attitudes toward better nutrition, willingness to pay and trade for diverse and quality food."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• Food/crop diversity in farms, markets, and on the plate (household consumption)."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"It is expected that over the 9-12 year period of the IDO, there will be 50% improvement in the above characteristics, especially among rural women and children. Also, the number of malnourished children will decrease by 25%, especially in Tier 1 Action Areas. "}]},{"head":"SO 3: Gender Empowerment","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"This SO is supported by the following IDO with targets:"},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"IDO 5 -Gender: \"Increased control by women and other marginalized groups over integrated systems assets, inputs, decision-making and benefits.\" Gender analysis research cuts through all the IDOs, and can be seen through a number of gender-disaggregated targets and technologies. However this dedicated gender IDO, will aim at undertaking strategic crosscutting gender-in-development research, within the R4D paradigm, with links to all the Action Areas and Sites. The following targets are set:"},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"• Proportion of women (70%) in Humidtropics that perceive that they have better control over assets, inputs and benefits compared to the baseline in year 1. • Women producers enabled to \"catch up\" in access to markets, microfinance and control over assets (gap narrowed by 50 % against the baseline)."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"• Improvement (30% compared to baseline) about the perceptions of balance in gender relations at all levels in the different systems and empowerment between women and men with regard to decision making. "}]},{"head":"SO 4: Systems Innovation","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"III. Impact Pathways and associated Theories of Change","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Three different Impact Pathways are presented in this document as examples, reflecting both the integrated nature of Humidtropics, and also the diversity of issues being addressed within this integrated systems program. The first impact pathway is on Sustainable Intensification, involving IDOs on productivity and NRM, but with links to Income and to Nutrition IDOs. The second Impact Pathway is on Gender, while the third is on Innovation Systems."}]},{"head":"i. Sustainable Intensification Pathway and Theory of Change","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Change in smallholder farming systems in the tropics is gradual, adaptive, and stepwise, responding primarily to farmers' contexts and circumstances (Figure 4 impact pathway). Linkage to Livelihoods Improvement Pathway and Theory of Change A similar pathway can be generated for the Livelihoods/Income pathway but also linked within."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"Entry points for research based on market opportunities are identified and ranked by rural people through the R4D platforms to develop baskets of potential options. Different, often competing, value chains and business models serve as frameworks to identify, co-develop, test and scale best-bet institutional, system productivity and NRM interventions that include the combinations of crops, livestock and trees, together with soil & water management practices constructed around market incentives. Interventions are validated through action research seeking best-fit options at priority Action Sites that are nested within Action Areas. In both market access and policy incidence, fostering participatory processes will significantly contribute to greater understanding of the enabling factors and conditions for uptake."}]},{"head":"The Nutrition Dimension","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Nutrition and diet research issues could also emanate from the situation analysis and R4D platforms established through the sustainable intensification pathway process. In Humidtropics consumption of safe, nutritious foods by the poor, especially among nutritionally vulnerable women and children, is considered as a key component of livelihoods attainment. Nutrition is therefore addressed as a sub-set within the Income/Livelihoods Strategic Objective."},{"index":2,"size":252,"text":"Humidtropics assumes that any strategy to improve the nutrition of poor people must simultaneously address the consumption of nutritious food through demand side (consumption, access) and the supply side (production, availability). The target population on the demand side includes poor people in rural and urban areas. On the supply side, the target population includes smallholder farmers and market actors (as the link between producers and consumers). Advocacy will be supported through R4D Platform initiatives to increase awareness about the importance of consuming diverse and quality food for a family's nutrition. Platform initiatives will help to test smart and low-cost marketing campaigns that make optimal use of traditional and modern communication channels, while carefully monitoring and evaluating its impact on the nutritional indicators. The demand for diverse and quality food will also be stimulated indirectly through improving the incomes of poor people so that they have the means to buy such food. Humidtropics will increase the supply for diverse and quality food by promoting a greater diversity of agricultural production in line with the sustainable intensification of farming systems through optimizing synergies between staples, vegetables, fruits, trees, and livestock at the community level. Private sector R4D Platform actors will be encouraged to develop market incentives for increased diversity of nutritious foods. Appropriate technologies for homestead gardens and small-scale animal rearing will also be developed and promoted to poor households to make a direct improvement in their nutrition. A strong partnership link will be established with A4NH (CRP 4) to benefit from derived synergies."}]},{"head":"ii. Gender Empowerment Pathway and Theory of Change","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"The pathway on gender begins with the situation analysis and the R4D Platform analysis to be carried out across all Action Areas. This leads to analysis of participation barriers as well as to identification of specific gender-related entry points and needs. Strategic and integrated gender research carried out in flagship programs in the Action Areas create the knowledge base about gender needs and leads to initiation of an Action Area Gender platform. The platform is used to determine entry points for gender sensitive interventions. Figure 5 illustrates the process of linking the current weak status of gender equity in agricultural R4D, to various processes leading to strengthening of gender dimensions (empowerment) in representation and program management roles, as well as in the mainstreaming of gender dimensions into research and technology development. Interventions are carried out through Flagship Programs and shared across leading to:"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Aggregated increase in technology adoption and productivity of women producers."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• Enhanced capacity of men and women to diversify and share risks."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• More equitable and integrative agricultural growth outcomes."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• Sustained engagement of men and women in integrated systems development."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"• Change in gender relations at all systems levels with improved women decision making on inputs, interventions and benefits. • Change in behaviour of institutions and policy makers with regard to women empowerment."},{"index":7,"size":41,"text":"Outcomes are monitored through SRTs 1 and 3, and the experiences are translated to Action Area Gender platforms of newly established Action Areas. After 12 years all AA will benefit from Action Area Gender platforms and the results as mentioned above."}]},{"head":"iii. Systems Intensification Pathway and Theory of Change","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"Actors in innovation systems need to develop the capacity to create conducive social and institutional conditions that allow farmers and others to use new technology as part of a strategy to address problems and make use of new opportunities. Through their participation in Humidtropics, researchers and their partners gain experience with new theories, methodologies and processes, that are simultaneously studied, tested and improved, and subsequently institutionalized when appropriate. In Humidtropics we regard these enabling conditions for technology to diffuse as part of the innovation challenge. Research alone is unable to drive system innovation, and therefore needs to build upon and strengthen ongoing energies, initiatives and leadership capacities for change. Humidtropics will therefore embed its research in ongoing dynamics, to ensure that research is links to real demands and produces outcomes that "}]},{"head":"Research Implementation Issues","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"are important to society. Scaling then happens through 'pull' rather than 'push' mechanisms. A range of communication and innovation intermediation strategies is then needed to work towards system innovation. Humidtropics will facilitate and enhance interaction among existing networks of actors, resulting in the operation of permanently evolving R4D Platforms that operate at different levels. Several forms and aspects of research activity are embedded in this broader process, and linked to the multi-level model of system innovation (figure 6) in three phases: (1) Landscape and regime level diagnosis R4D activity will start with a diagnostic research, and serves to find promising entry points for further investigation, vision development and action and thus supports the other impact pathways. This diagnosis involves a multi-disciplinary characterization of simultaneously occurring trends, i.e. of how the landscape selection environment is changing, and a diagnosis of institutional (=regime) constraints. The purpose of this research is to identify emerging tensions, constraints and opportunities that set the agenda for further activity in niche level incubators."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"(2) Niche/incubator level experimentation At the niche level, Humidtropics will experiment in the field with multiple (combinations of) social and technical options, building upon earlier diagnostic work. As promising/interesting institutional and technical options become available (through research and dialogue) they will take the form of socio-technical incubators. These are networks of people that try out new institutional and technical options at different levels. Lessons learned from the incubator testing will be documented, leading to adapted designs and/or the discontinuation of specific investigations."},{"index":3,"size":130,"text":"(3) Regime-level coalition building to enable scaling The niche-level incubator activities include the gradual building of a support network and coalition for promising technical and institutional innovations. Such networks may include policymakers, NGO's, extension organisations, value chain parties, donors, media, etc. that can serve scaling purposes. The gradual expansion and strengthening of the support network and coalition will result in both gradual and sudden changes (i.e. 'tipping points'). Institutional changes achieved this way will provide an enabling environment where different groups of farmers can capitalise on the social and technical opportunities offered by ever changing environments. This will also lead to experiences in innovation networks, and documented methodological approaches, that will enhance the capacity of agricultural players to innovate themselves and make demands on CGIAR and other innovation support organisations."}]},{"head":"IV. Flagship projects","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":295,"text":"Flagship projects provide an excellent opportunity to carry out research that is focused on achieving the IDOs and ensuring full participation of stakeholders throughout all the phases of research towards impact as explained in the earlier sections. Multi-sectorial and -disciplinary public and private sector partners will engage in integrated systems research that meets the livelihood and environment challenges and opportunities that the biodiverse landscapes provide. Focus will be on the trade-offs that occur related to inputs (time, money and land), integrated systems intensification (Productivity x NRM x Markets) and benefits (income, yield, nutrition and environment when changing or challenging one or more of a system's components. The Gender and Innovation SOs and related IDOs are special in ensuring that inputs and benefits are more equitably distributed (Gender) and that innovations and interventions are better targeted, prioritized and originating from within the system whilst ensuring that institutions improve to support the mainstreaming of such solutions (Innovation). For example introducing livestock as a new component into a farming system may improve income and nutrition but may compromise land use for crops, vegetables and fruits in favor of fodder and may positively or negatively affect soil fertility. Livestock keeeping may need new knowledge and skills and more resources at the cost of time and money spent on other activities and needs. There may also be cultural taboos preventing women access to cattle or shifting labor patterns having youth carrying fodder to the animals or limited access to veterinary services increasing the risk of production losses. Unraveling the systems and priorities and sharing lessons with other or similar systems across the humid tropics will help to research and mainstream those interventions that have best potential for the landscapes, people and institutions to bring them to scale for better impact."},{"index":2,"size":173,"text":"The Flagship projects are based on Action Areas with main agricultural production systems nexus that gives them a place-based character (Table 2). In Tier 1 (phase 1) of Humidtropics, there are 5 Flagship projects. Four relate directly to the Action Areas and the solutions within those based on their characteristics and potential for innovation. The geographical aspects, landscapes, and crops may be similar the people, socio-technical regimes, farm practices, livelihoods and living conditions vary significantly providing scope for cross-learning and sharing of solutions and requiring a fifth Flagship project that has a strategic, global and crosscutting nature, and derives from key research domains including aspects of innovation, gender and capacity building. Four additional Flagship Projects will be launched in 2017 based on Tier 2 Action Areas, making a total of 9. These include the West Africa Moist Savanna project, the Southern Africa Moist Savanna project, the northern Andes Transect project, and the Indonesian Humid Lowlands project. A summary introduction of the Flagship projects for Tier 1 operations is provided on the next pages. "}]},{"head":"The East and Central African Humid Highlands Flagship Project","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":213,"text":"The East and Central Africa Humid Highlands project (ECA) includes the humid and sub-humid tropics of west Kenya, southern Uganda, the Ethiopian Highlands, eastern Congo, Burundi and Rwanda. There are more than 78 million people living on 29 million ha with a very high average population density of 263 persons per km 2 . Land degradation averages 40 to 90% of the area. Poverty levels are relatively high and persist as 28 to 71% of people earn less than US $1.25 per day. Smallholders cultivate a variety of crops, including maize, grain legumes, banana, cassava, sorghum, sweet potato, groundnut as well as minor leafy greens and other vegetables, as part of their system. The major cash crops include coffee, maize, sugarcane, banana, soybean, Irish potato, cotton and tobacco. Main known constraints in the system include soil degradation, fertility loss and degradation on the slopes, the challenge of the parasitic weed striga (in Kenya and Uganda), decline in the production of cooking banana (in Uganda and Rwanda), widespread incidence of pests and disease, poor distribution and high costs of farm inputs, and poor infrastructure and access to markets and institutions. Women farmers still carry a disproportionate burden of farm and household responsibilities, and yet have limited rights to land and other resources and assets."}]},{"head":"The Western African Humid Lowlands project","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":285,"text":"The West Africa Humid Lowlands project includes the humid and sub-humid tropics of Cameroon, Nigeria, Ghana and Cote D'Ivoire that are inhabited by 145 million people and cover 206 million ha. The project includes intact humid forests in South-eastern Cameroon to completely deforested and extremely degraded areas in southern Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana, and many conditions in-between. The West African Guinea Rainforest is a vulnerable biodiversity hotspot and poses an urgent environmental challenge in relation to helping people to raise their standard of living. The socioeconomic situation is highly variable between and within countries, but all are characterized by large populations of both rural and urban poor seeking better livelihoods, with 28% of the population living on <1.25 USD day -1 . Most of the soils are highly weathered, inherently poor and prone to rapid degradation. Rainfall is generally sufficient for two annual cropping cycles per year as the growing period exceeds 200 days. A total of 46 million ha (47% of the cultivated land) is under tree crop systems, a further 29 million ha (30%) under root crop systems and 23 million ha (23%) under cereal-root crop mixed systems. Cocoa is the most extensively grown tree crop and is almost exclusively managed by smallholders. Oil palm is the next most important and is grown on both large estates and smallholders. Together, these two crops account for approximately 90% of total tree crops. Other tree crops include rubber, robusta coffee, kola nut, citrus, mango, and avocado. Cassava is the most important staple crop with maize, yams, plantains, upland rice, and cocoyam widely cultivated. Livestock densities are low often due to presence of trypanosomiasis but small animal enterprises are particularly important to the poor and women."}]},{"head":"The Central American and Caribbean project","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":407,"text":"The Central American and Caribbean project focuses on three main sites in the humid and subhumid tropics of Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, El Salvador, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Poverty and food shortage remain major problems in rural areas. Over 20% of the population is malnourished while food insecurity, especially among pregnant women and children <5 year of age, has increased between 2001 and 2006. Throughout these countries, poverty is a predominantly rural problem. In 2009, Nicaragua had an estimated population of 5.9 million inhabitants, 2.5 million of which lived in rural areas with 68% earning less than US$2 per day. In that same year, the rural areas of Honduras held close to 74% of the country's poor and 86% of the extremely poor. Haiti is the poorest country in the Western hemisphere, with 90% of its inhabitants living with less than US$2 day -1 (50% rural) and almost 72% with less than US$1.25 day -1 . Gender relations remain male-dominant through persisting unfair cultural norms, but women are free to operate within local markets. The North-Central Nicaragua is characterized by poor access to markets, high concentration of poverty, vulnerability to the effects of climate change, including catastrophic incidents like hurricanes, and the impact of degradation (deforestation in particular). It encompasses large variability in soil types with hillsides susceptible to erosion. Mixed crop-livestock systems are dominant with maize, beans, rice, root crops grown for food, coffee, cacao, banana, and vegetables grown for income. Animal enterprise includes cattle (30% of households), poultry and swine. Another sector of this Action Area is the Haiti-Dominican Republic border area, which provides a unique opportunity to contrast extremes of resource integrity, institutional capacity and social cohesion between Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Haiti faces an extreme serious threat from environmental catastrophe and natural resource deterioration. Productivity is very low, less than one-third is arable, with a density pressure of over 1,000 people per km 2 and an annual loss of 3% to erosion. Farms are often homesteads, with a typical size of 1 hectare. Agriculture in the Dominican Republic is more productive with large areas of forest cover of 50% (compared to only 4% in Haiti). In both countries agricultural systems are based on the same crops: maize, beans, sugar cane, root crops and plantains. The abundance of fruits and farm animals also varies with resource conditions. Fruit trees include bananas, mangos and avocados. Livestock consists of some cattle, goats, pigs, and poultry."}]},{"head":"The Central Mekong project","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":305,"text":"The Central Mekong project in Southeast Asia lies above the delta and below the high mountainous temperate zone, and is a critical site for exploring agricultural development in a region undergoing dramatic ecological, social, and economic transformation. The Area is rich in biodiversity that is threatened by rapid economic change with many uncertainties surrounding its sustainability. The project is situated within the larger 260 million ha geopolitical boundary of the Greater Mekong Sub-region which includes Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam plus the two southwest provinces of China. It includes two of the poorest countries in the world (Cambodia and Laos) where over 29% of the population live in poverty. The primary focus of the Central Mekong Action Area will be on the complex of rice and non-rice cropping and farming systems (plus areas with other land uses) in the non-flooded lowlands, uplands, and highlands. \"Green Revolution\" agriculture in the last century contributed greatly to staple food production, and food self-sufficiency in the region to the extent where Thailand and Vietnam engage in massive export rice production but this success has environmental tradeoffs in terms of land degradation, eutrophication and water pollution. These are further confounded by increasing free range cattle production on steep slopes. Benefits are unevenly distributed with infrastructure improvement, farm input distribution and farmer services focused upon delta and lowland communities and bypassing rainfed uplands and highlands. With physical access to markets still varying greatly, the development of regional transport corridors is one of the most important drivers of change. Improvements in transport and communications translate into benefits for the poor, even as these developments remain highly variable. Economic development has resulted in large shifts in consumption and expenditure patterns and these changes are set to continue as the project is situated between the two emerging economies of China and India."}]},{"head":"The cross-cutting strategic research theme project","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"This Flagship Project is specially created to enable a number of strategic cross-cutting research to be undertaken, as well as exploring global analysis and synthesis in various domains. Some key dimensions of research in this Flagship project are as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Innovation Systems and Innovation Capacity. This research will address questions such as:"},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"• What is the contribution of different types, configurations and operationalization of R4D platforms (under different conditions, and for different categories of beneficiaries) in developing, testing and adapting social and technical options that benefit Humidtropics target audiences?"},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"• What is the value and different scaling strategies (ranging from classical extension, innovation platforms, FFS, mobile ICT and mass media) in scaling discourses, processes, knowledge and technology, among farmers and relevant players in the value chain and in policy circles (i.e. at both niche and regime level)? Global synthesis and analysis on key outcomes from Humidtropics research All these areas will be further developed."}]},{"head":"V. Partnerships","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Partnerships are at the core of Humidtropics. The program can be considered a formal knowledge-based network of R4D Partners. Partnerships are at global, regional, national and local levels. They include both multi-sectorial and -disciplinary research and development interests aimed at the complex concept of sustainable development that involves the integration, or intersection, of economic development, environmental protection and preservation, and social development that enhances the quality of life and well-being of the individual. They include partners from the various organizations along the research-development impact pathway chain. Thus there are a full spectrum of partners from both research and development organizations (including direct partners and boundary partners). Categories of current partners are as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"• CGIAR Centers: currently the program involves seven CGIAR centers (Bioversity, CIAT, CIP, ICRAF, IITA, ILRI, IWMI), though links also exist with a number of others, through the CGIAR Research Programs. "}]},{"head":"Phased Workplan","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"This new cycle of the operation of Humidtropics would be executed in 3 three-year phases, which would be the basis of research implementation and budget allocation for realization of the IDOs and targets established for the program."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"Phase I, Yr. 1 -Yr. 3 (20151 -Yr. 3 ( -2017)): This phase will continue the research in selected projects from the pool of ongoing research during the preface period, and will also see the unrolling of the new Flagship Project framework in all Action Areas. There will be an intensification of Action Research and the intensification of activities across all three strategic research domains cutting across all the Flagship Projects. Particular work during this period will focus on finalizing the baselines and initiating the M&E framework and data gathering as a component of research functioning. Capacity building and gender mainstreaming structures will also be incorporated in the programs."},{"index":3,"size":135,"text":"Phase II, Yr. 4 -Yr. 6 (2018-2020): During this phase, research will continue in Flagship Projects in all Tier 1 locations. This phase should see a fully functioning Flagship Project teams, with fully integrated research across all the strategic themes of Humidtropics. The period will also see an expansion of research into new sites, as Tier 2 Action Areas / Flagship Projects are launched during the period. These new projects will go through situation analysis (SRT 1) and R4D Platform establishment and functioning (SRT 3), building on the gains and experiences from the Tier one operations. Growth and progress will therefore be in two directions, (i) strengthening and intensifying research operations towards outcomes (SRT 2 & 3) in Tier 1 flagships, and (ii) accelerated kick-off of research operations (SRT 1) in the Tier 2 flagships."},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"Phase III, Yr. 7 -9 (2021-2023): Research activities described in Phase II will all continue and be intensified into phase III. Monitoring and evaluation and data gathering towards outcome tracking will be intensified. Deliberate efforts will be made towards the strengthening of the interaction with development partners and boundary partners in the R4D functioning, and research in development efforts will continue through all the Flagship projects."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"Throughout all the three phases, there would be elements of capacity building and gender mainstreaming which will be incorporated as budgeted components within all projects. Research budgets will be oriented at the realization and attainment of the IDOs through Flagship Projects, with reasonable allocation made for program governance and management, and for the cross cutting activities in SRTs and in gender and capacity development. The broad brush details of the budget layout are presented below."}]},{"head":"VII. Budget","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"The budget is a work in progress and given the flexible nature of W3 and Bilateral funding for the time being mainly focuses on W1/W2. However, most SRT activities would depend on significant W3/Bilateral funding to about 6 times the W1/W2 total per year. The special Flagship Project on cross-cutting themes is estimated at US$1,000,000 per year. Below (Table 3) is an overview of Flagship Project basic funding needs from W1/W2 based on Action Area Coordination and SRT performance followed by a timeline with growth budget based on establishing and delivering on these Flagships (Table 4)."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Table 3. Each Action Area Based Flagship has the following W1/W2 investment needs per year (note this does not break things down in overheads, personnel, partnerships, travel, etc which will be done when completing the full proposal).  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 Figure 1 Strategic Research Framework "},{"text":"Figure 2 Figure 2 Humidtropics Conceptual Framework "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure 4 Sketch of the impact pathway for Strategic Objective on Sustainable Intensification, indicating links to other Strategic Objectives (SO) and geographical coverage (with the approximate number of households engaged). The numbers between brackets refer to the Theory of Change. At Action Sites, Humidtropics will facilitate the establishment of R4D platforms composed of key partners, including women and men representing farmer groups and other stakeholders from the research, development, private and government sectors [1]. R4D platforms play an essential role in identifying and prioritizing a set of potential entry points for the sustainable intensification of smallholder agriculture in Action Areas of Humidtropics [1]. A unique feature is that the entry points simultaneously cover aspects of best-bet improved productivity and natural resource integrity interventions [2]. They will be validated through participatory action research in the incubators (see Figure 6) seeking best-fit options for sustainable intensification aligned to prevailing agro-ecological potential, market access, natural resource status conditions and resource endowments of typical farming families. This component will have a specific focus on gender [3]. Scaling processes are designed so that pro-poor best-fit options are tested across a sufficient range of context diversity at Action Sites. They are defined by socio-ecological gradients and farmer typologies that integrate the gender dimension to refine our understanding of what works where and for whom. Development partners use decision support tools for best-fit interventions to scale sustainable intensification interventions from Field Sites to Action Sites This requires private and government actors to create enabling conditions, including access to inputs, micro-finance, market facilitation, and value addition opportunities [4]. Boundary spanning partners will engage with farmers and farmer associations in creating institutional innovations "},{"text":"Figure 5 Figure 5 Gender Empowerment Impact Pathway "},{"text":" gender equity issues in R4D Prioritization and setting of gender equity targets involving R4D Platforms Communication and advocacy artifacts and activities for gender sensitizationImproved status of gender equity in R4DEvaluation related to control over inputs (time, money, land) and access to benefits! "},{"text":"Figure 6 Figure 6 Stylized multi-level model of socio-technical transitions "},{"text":"Table 1 . Consolidated Income targets and metrics for 12 years IDO Targets Metric Base 3yr 6yr 9yr 12yr IDO TargetsMetricBase 3yr 6yr 9yr12yr Increasing total Increase in total farm income per farm family 0 9 25 35 44 Increasing totalIncrease in total farm income per farm family09253544 farm income expressed as a proportion (%) of current income      farm incomeexpressed as a proportion (%) of current income Lifting households Number of poor households lifted above poverty 0 2 5 11 17 Lifting householdsNumber of poor households lifted above poverty0251117 above poverty line line expressed as a proportion (%) of total      above poverty lineline expressed as a proportion (%) of total  number of poor households under poverty line      number of poor households under poverty line  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Selected characteristics of each Tier 1 Action Area. Action Area Population Land Average Average Major farming systems ( Dixon Action AreaPopulationLandAverageAverageMajor farming systems ( Dixon  (million area rainfall (mm) altitude classification % land area) (millionarearainfall (mm)altitudeclassification % land area)  people) million [LGP (days)] (masl)  people)million[LGP (days)](masl)   ha)    ha) Tropical Africa      Tropical Africa East and Central 78 29 1,347 [240] 1,566 Highland perennial (56%); Maize East and Central78291,347 [240]1,566Highland perennial (56%); Maize African Humid     mixed (23%); Highland temperate African Humidmixed (23%); Highland temperate Highlands     mixed (16%) Highlandsmixed (16%) Western African 89 51 1,727 [256] 325 Tree crops (68%) Western African89511,727 [256]325Tree crops (68%) Humid Lowlands      Humid Lowlands Tropical Americas      Tropical Americas Central American 18 19 2,044 [270] 370 Coastal plantation & mixed (63%); Central American18192,044 [270]370Coastal plantation & mixed (63%); and Caribbean     Maize-beans-livestock (35%) and CaribbeanMaize-beans-livestock (35%) Tropical Asia      Tropical Asia Central Mekong 25 40 1,834 [231] 605 Upland intensive mixed (39%); Central Mekong25401,834 [231]605Upland intensive mixed (39%);      Highland extensive mixed (29%); Highland extensive mixed (29%);      Lowland rice (26%) Lowland rice (26%)  "},{"text":"• How do institutional and other determinants of a behavior change towards sustainable intensification interact with each other?• To what extent do newly developed modes of thinking, methods, processes and approaches for embedding research in development become institutionalized in national and international innovation systems, and what factors that hinder or enable the implementation and institutionalization of the Humidtropics programme in different contextual settings?... Other domains in which global R4D activities would be covered in this project are: Other domains in which global R4D activities would be covered in this project are: (1) Capacity building and Capacity development in R4D: This will include various forms of (1)Capacity building and Capacity development in R4D: This will include various forms of  capacity development among R4D actors, as well as opportunities for involving student capacity development among R4D actors, as well as opportunities for involving student  thesis, and post-doctoral placements in the research of Humidtropics. thesis, and post-doctoral placements in the research of Humidtropics. (2) Gender and youth development: This will include specific cross cutting gender research (2)Gender and youth development: This will include specific cross cutting gender research  and capacity building. and capacity building. (3)  (3)  "},{"text":"Phased workplan covering the 9 year period from 2015-2023 • Non-CGIAR International Centers: A number of non-CGIAR centers are principal partners in this program and receive W1 and W2 funding in support of their partnership operations. These include AVRDC, Wageningen University, icipe, and FARA.• Advanced Research Institutions: This is a critically important category to ensure strategic and technical engagement with such organizations. Current partners in this category include CIRAD, CSIRO, CATIE, SLU, Wageningen, Stirling, Purdue, and FAO. • National Research and Extension Systems (NARES) institutions: Several national research organizations in all the Action Areas are partners in Humidtropics. • Development organizations, including NGOs, CBOs, etc. are key and central as boundary partners • Farmer Organizations; Women Groups, etc. • Private sector • Regional and Sub-Regional Organizations: These include organizations such as FARA, the West and Central African Council for Agricultural Research and Development (CORAF/WECARD), Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa (ASARECA), SADC, FORAGRO, IICA, APAARI, etc. Formal links with a number of these parties still need to be established. Humidtropics also has established partnerships with a broad range of organizations and projects, some of which have been integrated their research into Humidtropics. This includes: • The Africa Rising Project, led by IITA • The Sustainable Tree Crops Programme (STCP) across West Africa specifically on cocoa agroforests. Innovation platforms and capacity building, addressing value chain bottlenecks, generated lasting benefits for tree crop farm households. • The rich experiences of partners and lessons from on-going partnerships such as the Fertilizer Alliance led by IFDC, AGRA and other sub-regional organisations are important in the design and implementation of Humidtropics. • Influential for the development of Humidtropics is the integration of the sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Program (SSA-CP), which is managed by FARA. • Also mainstreamed into Humidtropics is the Consortium for Improving Agriculture-based Livelihoods in Central Africa (CIALCA). CIALCA focuses on practical agronomic interventions in banana-, cassava-and legume-based systems and works through a flexible networking of local NGOs, farmer associations, and national research organizations and universities. In summary, seven CGIAR centers work closely with at least 10 national research programs and nine public universities through five large projects (CIALCA, SSA-CP, Water and Food CP, BARNEASA and N2Africa). CIALCA operates in DR Congo, Burundi and Rwanda. SSACP is active in DR Congo, Rwanda and Uganda. Water and Food CP operates in Ethiopia and N2Africa promotes nitrogen fixing technologies in DR Congo, Kenya and Rwanda. Many of these national partners have particularly strong programs in banana management (NARO and Initiation of the Humidtropics program technically began in July 2012. An inception workshop to launch the program was held at IITA in Ibadan 19-21 November 2012 and a Program Implementation Agreement between IITA, as Lead Center for Humidtropics, and the CGIAR Consortium was signed mid-January 2013. The first 6-month period, covering July -December 2012, represented a \"getting started\" phase for the program, during which various activities including establishment of procedures and processes for the quick start-up of operations, and continuation of research activities of the respective Centers and partners, which had been mapped into Humidtropics. In the second 6-month period (Jan -Jun, 2013) efforts were directed at the establishment of management structures and the launching of the program in respective Action Areas. This period also saw the establishment of partnership contracts and various partnership 'teams' for research in the Action Areas. The period from July 2013 till end 2014 is devoted to beginning/continuation of field operations in new Humidtropics activities, while also working on the transformation of the program into a performance-based, IDO-driven program, for full kick-off in Jan, 2015. The phased workplan for this new phase of the program is indicated below.  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Projections for the next 9 years in US$ million based on rolling out Action Area based Flagship projects with an annual inflation compensation of 10% (same note as in table 3) *Governance and Management includes investments for the Advisory Committee, Executive Office (Management, Admin, Communications, Planning & M&E) and strategic investments. Flagship Projects    US$ Million    TOTAL Flagship ProjectsUS$ MillionTOTAL  Yr1 Yr2 Yr3 Yr4 Yr5 Yr6 Yr7 Yr8 Yr9 US$ million Yr1Yr2Yr3Yr4Yr5Yr6Yr7Yr8Yr9US$ million West Africa lowlands 4 4.4 4.8 5.3 5.9 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.6 54.3 West Africa lowlands44.44.85.35.96.47.17.88.654.3 East & Central Africa 4 4.4 4.8 5.3 5.9 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.6 54.3 East & Central Africa44.44.85.35.96.47.17.88.654.3 Central America & Caribbean 4 4.4 4.8 5.3 5.9 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.6 54.3 Central America & Caribbean44.44.85.35.96.47.17.88.654.3 Central Mekong 4 4.4 4.8 5.3 5.9 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.6 54.3 Central Mekong44.44.85.35.96.47.17.88.654.3 Cross cutting SRTs 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.2 13.4 Cross cutting SRTs11.11.21.31.41.61.71.92.213.4 West Africa Moist Savanna   4.8 5.3 5.9 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.6 45.9 West Africa Moist Savanna4.85.35.96.47.17.88.645.9 Southern Africa Moist Savanna   4.8 5.3 5.9 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.6 45.9 Southern Africa Moist Savanna4.85.35.96.47.17.88.645.9 northern Andes Transect   4.8 5.3 5.9 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.6 45.9 northern Andes Transect4.85.35.96.47.17.88.645.9 Indonesian Humid Lowlands   4.8 5.3 5.9 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.6 45.9 Indonesian Humid Lowlands4.85.35.96.47.17.88.645.9 Sub-Total 17 18.7 39.6 43.7 48.6 52.8 58.5 64.3 71 414.2 Sub-Total17 18.7 39.6 43.7 48.6 52.8 58.5 64.371414.2 Governance & Management 1.7 1.9 4 4.4 4.9 5.3 5.9 6.4 7.1 41.4 Governance & Management1.71.944.44.95.35.96.47.141.4 10%*           10%* TOTAL 18.7 20.6 43.6 48.1 53.5 58.1 64.4 70.7 78.1 455.6 TOTAL 18.7 20.6 43.6 48.1 53.5 58.1 64.4 70.7 78.1455.6  "}],"sieverID":"2f455ca3-c5ac-442a-b108-c8184b34d2bd","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0180477fc8b622375543a4dc20e807f2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bad10dc5-0921-4d44-976a-cac551a83bae/retrieve"},"pageCount":28,"title":"Responding to Climate Related Risks to Address Food Insecurity in Nyando, Kenya Field Visit to Climate-Smart Villages in Lower Nyando, Kenya","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"The Nyando basin in western Kenya is a rich agricultural flood plain around Lake Victoria. Nyando is one of the highly populated rural areas in East Africa with a population density of more than 400 persons per square kilometer. Climate variability limiting agricultural productivity and high poverty rates are some of the challenges in the area. About half of the population live below the poverty line. HIV prevalence rates are equally high with an adult infection rate of about 7.5% leading to a high proportion of widow and orphan-headed households, reduced agricultural productivity and labor shortage. About 81% of the households in Nyando experience 1-2 hunger months in a year, while 17% experience 3-4 hunger months-a period when they are unable to produce from their own farms."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Climate risks and lost opportunities","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":244,"text":"The Nyando basin sits in a rain shadow, with nearly 65% of the longterm average annual rainfall of 1200mm expected in the main growing season of March -May and the minor season of October -December. Average annual rainfall is estimated to be 450mm in the main season and 250mm in the minor growing season. There is high variability in the expected onset of seasonal rainfall, with long dry spells observed at early onset and extreme flooding during late onset events. Analysis of the long-term 50-year historical data shows that the onset of rainfall appears to have drifted from what farmers perceive is a start, on or about mid-February to a true onset on or about mid-March. The probability of encountering a dry spell of 10 days in the subsequent 30-day planting window dramatically declines 6 fold from 0.6 in mid-February to 0.1 in mid-March. These dry spell periods reduce the length of the main growing season which is 90 to 110 days. Due to limited access to timely seasonal forecasts, smallholder farmers continue to manage the risk of increased dry spells by growing traditional long season sorghum and maize varieties. These are often from own seed stock from left over grain. As of 2011, about 95% of the households did not have access to improved seeds and fertilizer. Legumes are planted after the onset of rains when the risk of water logging is greater, especially in the heavy clay black cotton soils of Nyando."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"Crop residues are the main source of feed for local livestock. However, because of low yields and forage of poor quality, the farmers are unable to bridge dry season feeding resulting in a loss of body condition for the local livestock. This in turn reduces livestock rate of growth, market value during drought and increases the risk of death when disease affects livestock. Given poorly adapted crops and livestock, farmers in Nyando have few choices to adapt to the impacts of climate variability. In addition, high poverty, labor shortage, less diversified livelihoods and land degradation increase the vulnerability of these households to climate risks, directly leading to food insecurity."}]},{"head":"Nyando Map","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"Since 2011, the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is facilitating a partnership around collective action in seven villages that integrates a science approach to deliver development outcomes in Nyando. The approach is based on a climate-smart village (CSV) model, focusing on improving local knowledge of climate risks and variability in seasonal rainfall, dry spells, and diseases and pests to inform farming decisions. The goal is to respond to climate variability, improve food security and enhance household incomes. This is achieved through the participatory testing of resilient technologies, training to build the knowledge and capacity to change local practices and improve planning for adaptation to changing farming conditions. Through participatory action research approaches, the partnership is facilitating the testing of a portfolio of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) interventions, allowing farming households to make progressive changes to their crops and cropping patterns as well as introducing new resilient livestock breeds. The new livestock breeds are able to withstand heat stress, better utilize low quality forage, cope with the disease burden, recover from drought with faster compensatory growth, therefore maturing to market weight within a shorter period compared to the local breeds. The farming households are able to combine these scientific tools and products with changes from adaptive management to address climate related risks and build resilience at local scales."}]},{"head":"Objectives of the field visit","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"1. To learn how CCAFS is working with farmers, local development partners and government extension officers to test CSA technolo gies and practices, with the aim of boosting farmers' ability to adapt to climate change, manage risks, build resilience and reduce green house gas emissions while improving livelihoods and incomes; 2. To discuss emerging opportunities for scaling up CSA; and 3. To appreciate the role of gender in food security, including approaches that empower women and youth."}]},{"head":"New partnerships for science-based solutions","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Climate-Smart Farming in Nyando"},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"In the CSVs, groups of farmers have established communal farms with the help of agriculture extension officers and researchers. The farms are used as demonstration plots for new crop types and varieties. The plots also facilitate multiplication and supply of seeds and planting material to other farmers in the villages."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"In Obinju village, groups of farmers are working with researchers from the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) to multiply CGIAR seeds and planting materials. Over 200 farmers have received improved seed varieties of pigeon peas, green grams, beans, cassava and maize produced from the 2.5 hectare community farm. The farm also demonstrates the use of improved agronomic practices for these crops."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"CIMMYT has also set-up demonstration plots for maize (KDV-1 variety), while ICRISAT has set-up plots for sorghum (Serena and Seredo varieties) to offer learning opportunities to the communities on use of improved agronomic practices."}]},{"head":"Community demonstration plots and seed bulking","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sites in Obinju village","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Stress tolerant crop varieties in Obinju plot The initial investment cost of a smart farm is about USD 3,000, with the potential to yield approximately four times more over two to three production cycles. These farms also serve as demonstration sites for youth groups engaged in agriculture. Smart farms require intensive knowledge and skills to manage. Therefore, CCAFS is partnering with the private sector -Magos Farm enterprises -and government extension agencies to train youth groups as part of the process of advancing local adaptation actions. By linking farmers to credit providers and agrodealers, and working with the county government, CCAFS is proposing to scale out smart farms throughout the county."}]},{"head":"STOP:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Technologies in the smart farms Joshua Omollo is one of the farmers actively involved in the small livestock productivity improvement initiative in Obinju village. On his 0.1 hectare farm, he has diversified into better adapted cross breeds of Galla goats to meet food security and income needs of his household. These goats mature and reach market weight faster than the indigenous East African goats. Over a two year period Joshua has been able to cross breed 20 goats, selling 13 for income and retaining seven for further multiplication. He is also one of 16 community-based animal health workers recently trained to support other farmers in his village."},{"index":2,"size":174,"text":"To ensure other farmers in Nyando benefit from better adapted small livestock cross breeds, CCAFS in partnership with World Neighbours are using the \"passing on the gift\" model where a farmer receives one Galla goat to crossbreed with the small East African indigenous goat. Following successful kidding, the farmer is required to give a one year kid to a neighbor for purposes of crossbreeding. Upgrading takes between six months to two years after which the goats are mature and ready for sale. About 60 faster maturing Gala goats are being cross-bred with indigenous goat breeds. Currently, 22 tree nurseries have been established in Nyando. More than half of these nurseries are owned by women groups. Over 50,000 high-quality tree seedlings are produced and sold annually at a cost of USD 0.5 each. About 23,500 multipurpose trees have also been planted in homesteads and the local community is establishing a two acre demonstration woodlot. These efforts aim to at least ensure each climatesmart farm meets the government policy to have 10 percent on-farm tree cover."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"More women are involved in keeping small livestock as they are less labor intensive to tend than cattle. In addition, the women have more control over income from sale of livestock products such as goat milk."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"The price of the small East African goat is USD 22 each. Resilient breeds can fetch up to USD 55."}]},{"head":"Climate-Smart Farming in Nyando","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"In Kobiero village, farmer Belseba Oyoo is testing drought tolerant maize varieties developed by CIMMYT and sorghum from KALRO on her 0.4 hectare farm. These cereals have been intercropped with green grams developed by ICRISAT. Belseba also practices soil and water conservation on her farm, involving terraces and a water pan with a capacity of 84,000 litres to meet the water needs of crops during the dry season. Combining drought tolerant crops with water and soil management techniques can extend the growing season by 10-15 days."}]},{"head":"Local adaptation action linked to changing practices and technologies: Farmer Belseba Oyoo","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sites in Kobiero village","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Better sheep breeds (Red Maasai): Farmer Hellen Chore","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Farmer Hellen Chore has a 0.5 hectare farm. She has diversified into better adapted breeds of small livestock to meet food security and income needs of her household. Hellen keeps Red Maasai sheep, set up with the help of ILRI researchers. The Red Maasai sheep is reared for meat and is preferred due to its faster growth rate, resistance to internal parasites, tolerance to trypanosomes, drought and heat stress. The cross breeds of Red Maasai sheep are early maturing compared to the local breeds and may attract up to three times the price of the local breeds in the local markets. The Red Maasai sheep have the potential to replace beef in some of the meat markets of five counties in western Kenya."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"In order to provide feed of high nutrition to the sheep and other livestock, farmer Hellen is conducting trials on sweet potato vines as livestock feed. The trials are being carried out jointly by International Potato Centre (CIP) and ILRI scientists. In addition, she has a 12,000 litre water harvesting pan and has constructed terraces to control soil and water movement on her farm. "}]},{"head":"Role of community based organizations (CBOs) in enhancing adaptive capacity","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"In Nyando, CBOs are helping farmers increase their capacity to adapt to climate change through collective action. The CBOs bring together over 50 mixed farmer and youth groups across 106 villages in Nyando. More than 60% of the members are women or youth below the age of 25. When CCAFS started working in Nyando in 2011, only 17 groups were active with membership from 306 households. Through this initiative, the number of groups has more than doubled in the last four years (to 50) with membership from 1,675 households."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Currently, three CBOs are active in the initial seven CSVs thereby expanding collective action in adoption of agricultural innovations. Through the CBOs, members can easily access small loans from rural saving schemes that include table banking and revolving funds."}]},{"head":"Role of women and youth groups in the CBOs","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Due to high HIV prevalence rates, a significant number of households in Nyando are female headed households leading to low productivity and labor shortages. CCAFS and partners have facilitated the formation and training of women and youth groups on CSA practices and agroadvisory services that could help improve on-farm decision making. To date more than 1,000 have gone through specialized training on CSA tools and technologies and another 740 are now linked to receiving agro weather advisories. Through the government programs, it will be proposed to extend the training to 10,000 women and youth farmers in 5 counties. "}]},{"head":"Community input supply shop","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"The resource center along the Kisumu-Kisii highway has improved farmers access to high-quality inputs at affordable prices, advice, information, and credit. Before the resource center was established, farmers in upper Nyando would source inputs from as far as 44 kilometers. This led to low uptake of fertilizer and certified seed. During that time, most of the CBO members procured seed within the group networks and other on-farm sources. By setting up an input supply store in the community, the number of farmers using local seed has reduced by half. With improved prior knowledge of the seasonal outlook, many farmers can now purchase appropriate seeds and fertilizers for each season."}]},{"head":"Climate information services: Maseno University, Kenya Meteorological Services and University of Reading","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"CCAFS is working with Maseno University, University of Reading and Kenya Meteorological Services to test models for developing and delivering seasonal forecast and climate services and information. This includes use of information communication technologies (ICTs) to improve decision making in agriculture. Through Magos Farm Enterprises, seasonal forecasts are disseminated via mobile telephone, together with agro advisories to enable farmers know when and what to plant."}]},{"head":"CGIAR Standard Assessment of Mitigation Potential and Livelihoods in Smallholder Systems (SAMPLES) Project","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"CCAFS is supporting work by ILRI, ICRAF and CIFOR on measurement of greenhouse gas emissions under different farmer practices and systems in the villages. Evidence from the project will be used to develop an inventory of on-farm mitigation strategies which will be used to inform government to develop policy on managing emissions in changing agricultural practices."}]},{"head":"Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) Kibos","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"KALRO supports crop diversification, specifically providing improved varieties of sorghum, pigeon pea, cow pea, cassava and sweet potato for evaluation in terms of yield, adaptability and farmer preference. KALRO also supports training on sustainable land and water management, crop husbandry, seed systems and post-harvest processing."}]},{"head":"Kisumu County Department of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The county department of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries offers extension support on sustainable land management, crop husbandry and seed systems, post-harvest processing, soil and water conservation. The department also offers extension support on livestock fodder development and capacity building on improved livestock management."}]},{"head":"Microfinance Institutions for scaling up CSA -KREP Bank","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Microfinance institutions are instrumental in scaling up of CSA practices through small and short term loans which are designed for micro-enterprises, especially those who do not have conventional collateral. To supplement collateral requirements, the loans are secured partly by cash and partly by group guarantors (CBOs)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" partnerships for science-based solutions Community demonstration plots and seed bulking New opportunities for scaling out climate -smart agriculture: Obinju smart farms Resilient livestock breeds (Galla goats) and agroforestry: Farmer Joshua Omollo Local adaptation action linked to changing practices and technologies: Farmer Belseba Better sheep breeds (Red Maasai): Farmer Hellen Chore FOKO (CBO) Resource Centre Annex 1: Running order Contents Climate-Smart Farming in Nyando "},{"text":" Galla goats, Joshua has planted agroforestry tree species on his farm (Grevillea robusta and Gliricidia sepium). Agroforestry and land and water management are among the on-farm mitigation interventions practiced in Nyando. "}],"sieverID":"45424ce9-6c53-4a6c-b7fd-c772e770e7e1","abstract":"International Potato Centre (CIP) KAPSOKALE Community Based Organization Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Organization (KALRO) Kenya Meteorological Services (KMS) Kenya's Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MALF) MAGOS Farm Enterprises"}

data/part_3/0290186e41b40d8a3d2a3235548d46da.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0290186e41b40d8a3d2a3235548d46da","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H044128.pdf"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":203,"text":"Uncontrolled abstraction of groundwater for irrigation has resulted in many problems in north Gujarat including mining of deep alluvial aquifers and secular decline in water levels; deterioration of groundwater quality manifested by high levels of salinity and fluorides in groundwater pumped from deep aquifers, making water non-potable, and sometime unusable for irrigation. Depletion problems in north Gujarat are very serious, owing to the extent of overdraft and mining, rate of depletion, the degree of dependence on groundwater for economic activities, and have far reaching consequences on the region's socio ecology. Legislative and regulatory measures to check overdraft that are socially viable and politically acceptable, have either not been worked out or have not been effectively enforced. The government interventions to protect the region from economic distress and collapse of the social fabric have, by and large, failed to make any positive impact. There are projects in pipeline to take up large-scale promotion of pressurized irrigation technologies. However, this is not based on sound understanding of the scope and limitations of these technologies. In recognition of the groundwater depletion problems and their adverse socioeconomic and ecological impacts, IWMI launched an action research project in 30 villages of Banaskantha district on community-based local groundwater management."}]},{"head":"Hydrological Opportunities for Augmenting Groundwater","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"While on the one hand, the high inter-annual variability in the rainfall and runoff reduces the reliability of local water harvesting systems, on the other, it increases the hydrological opportunities available for these systems. The excessively high runoff generated in some of the years increases the potential of local water harvesting systems in terms of the amount of runoff available for harnessing. Thus the quantum of water, which is generated from 100 th ha catchment, with 1/6 probability is sufficient to irrigate nearly 46 ha in one season. Large potential for water harvesting exists in the downstream of Dantiwada and Sipu reservoirs in Banaskantha district, as they are free catchments. In areas such as Danta in the eastern hilly tracts of Banaskantha, the minimum runoff that will be generated once in 6 years from a one-sq. km catchment will be as high as 0.559 MCM, which if captured underground can irrigate an additional area of nearly 110 hectares."},{"index":2,"size":203,"text":"The large unsaturated zones in the depleted alluvial aquifers provide excellent opportunities for recharging. This is complemented by the sandy soils, and the presence of local ponds that act as the sink for the local sheet runoff. But, at present only de-silting is practiced. This is not sufficient for getting optimum recharge of the stored water. During high rainfall years, the runoff generated even from a small catchment of 100 ha will be extremely high. This runoff is generated in a small amount of time given the fact high rainfall events that generate runoff are very few. The storage capacity of village ponds, which are generally in the size of 0.01 to 0.05 MCM (1 to 5 ha), will be too insufficient to capture all the runoff. The rate of percolation of water through the soil zone will be low. Also, owing to the large depth to groundwater table, a good fraction of the water while percolating down through the dry soil zone (vadose zone) will get absorbed by the soil particles are hygroscopic water. Therefore, recharge tube wells are required to increase the rate of intake of water. They can link the water in the pond to the aquifers that are tapped."}]},{"head":"Physical Opportunities for \"Wet Water\" Saving","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"In villages where groundwater occurs under hard rock conditions, open wells and dug-cum-bore wells are used for irrigation. These wells have poor yield characteristics and run for 2-3 hours a day, much less than the hours of power supply. These are the most ideal situations for adopting water-saving technologies. The farmers can go for overhead sprinklers for crops such as wheat, bajra, jowar, mustard and elephant grass which are common. Micro sprinklers and mini sprinklers would be much suitable for alfalfa, which almost every farmer is growing. Drip systems will be feasible for crops such as castor, fennel, cotton, chilly and brinjal."},{"index":2,"size":166,"text":"For large farmers having their own independent wells, but not sufficient water, conventional pressurized irrigation systems would prove to be technical feasible as well as economically viable. The Family Drip system being promoted by Netafim was found efficacious for irrigating alfalfa, with substantial water saving and yield gains. Subsurface irrigation systems, FDS, micro-tube drip systems and \"Easy Drips\" do not require pressure head to run and therefore are most suitable for members of tube well partnerships and for water buyers. If the farmers shift to water saving technologies, the actual scope for water saving is high in these areas owing to: prevention of evaporation from the land surface; and prevention of deep percolation loss, which does not return to the pumped aquifer. Currently, farmers are tapping water from the deep confined aquifers, which are separated from the shallow aquifer, which is dry due to over-exploitation, by impervious layers. The seeping water takes long time travelling though the unsaturated zone; and may not reach the pumped aquifer."}]},{"head":"VI. MICRO-MANAGEMENT OF GROUNDWATER: IWMI'S EXPERIMENT IN NORTH GUJARAT M. Dinesh Kumar IWMI-India [ ] [email protected]","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"What would work in Banaskantha?","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"Pressurized irrigation systems would eventually find greater acceptance among resource rich, large farmers who have independent irrigation sources, but not able to cover their entire command with traditional irrigation practices. Also, farmers who have poorly yielding wells, and are not able to utilise power supply fully, find great economic sense to go for pressurized irrigation systems. It will find least acceptance among farmers whose irrig ation source have abundant supply potential, but are constrained by power supply shortages. Micro tube drip irrigation systems will make great sense for those who do not have their independent sources of water supply and for water buyers. The \"Easy Drip\" was tested to be efficacious for several of the horticultural crops. The FDS would find takers among water buyers and well owners for irrigating alfalfa."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"The opportunities available for generating higher returns out of water efficient irrigation technologies would greatly depend on the agronomical practices. In the case of pressurised irrigation technologies, since the energy overheads are more for small plots, the small and marginal farmers will have to make greater investments to do agronomical practices such as mulching, use of organic fertilizers including farm yard manure, proper spacing of plants, which in turn can help improve the water and land use productivity."}]},{"head":"What does IWMI do in Banaskantha?","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"IWMI is currently promoting: [1] a wide variety of water saving technologies micro tube drip irrigation systems for horticultural crops, easy drips for row crops such as castor, cotton and fennel, and mini sprinklers and family drip irrigation systems for alfalfa; [2] scientific composting and organic farming practices; sub-surface irrig ation systems for water intensive field crops, row crops and horticultural crops; and [3] very low water intensive cash crops such as jojoba, date palm and horticultural crops, which can go along with drip irrigation. The strateg y is to focus on water productivity and economic gains rather than water saving."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 11 : Figure 11: Level of Groundwater Development in Gujarat "}],"sieverID":"b47e97b3-1dd2-49bb-a019-bbc04a3cba5c","abstract":""}

data/part_3/03573c79f328c76f1e9a141232bba085.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03573c79f328c76f1e9a141232bba085","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cfcd2fef-8d27-4714-8738-58ddaa171253/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Mitigate+: Food Loss and Waste country profile Kenya","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Urgency and call for action on FLW reduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Theoretically, the world produces enough food to nourish the growing world population. Although precise data remains scarce, according to most recent studies, globally each year possibly as much as 30 per cent of the food produced is being lost or wasted somewhere between farm and fork."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"This not only represents a threat to food security but also severely and negatively impacts our food systems and natural resources. Food Loss and Waste (FLW) accounts for around 8 to 10 percent of our global Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHGEs). Approximately a quarter of all freshwater used by agriculture is associated to the lost and wasted food. 4.4 million km² of land is used to grow food which is lost or wasted (FAO, 2019;WWF, 2021;Guo et al., 2020). The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target 12.3 calls to 'halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses' (Lipinski, B. 2022). With only 7 years to go, the world is far from being on track to achieve this target."}]},{"head":"Way forward reducing FLW without baseline data","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"The UN and the Champions 12.3 Coalition launched the 'Target-Measure-Act approach' calling on all governments and companies to set FLW reduction targets, measure FLW, identify hotspots 1 , and to take action to reduce FLW accordingly (Lipinski, 2020). However, with respect to primary data on FLW, much remains to be done. Just a handful of"}]},{"head":"Food Loss and Waste (FLW) definition","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"FLW refers to all food intended for human consumption that is finally not consumed by humans. Food Loss is the decrease in the quantity or quality of food resulting from decisions and actions by food suppliers from the production stage in the chain, excluding retail, food service providers and consumers. Food Waste is the decrease in the quantity or quality of food resulting from decisions and actions by retailers, food services and consumers (FAO, 2019). Under this definition, FLW does not include food that is consumed in excess of nutritional requirements nor food that incurs a decrease of market value due to over-supply or other market forces, and not due to reduced quality. mainly western countries have taken action to systematically measure and reduce FLW. Lack of data make it particularly difficult for lower-and-middle-income countries (LMIC), including Kenya, to specify the hotspot food products and chain stages, to define smart targets and to identity adequate interventions."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"In order to contribute to this essential information we developed and used a mass flow model based on secondary data to derive the volume of FLW and the associated parameters accordingly (Guo et al., 2020). This approach allows to present an indicative country profile showing per food product category and chain stage not only the amount of FLW but also the GHGEs, the land-use and water footprints related to producing the FLW as well as induced nutrient losses. The sums differs per product and chain stage. Focusing on food products and chain stages which largely contribute to the aforementioned parameters can substantially lead to resource use efficiency and at the same time to climate mitigation action and nutrition security. This integrated approach towards FLW reduction can support policy makers and other food system actors taking informed decisions contributing to multiple sustainability objectives in parallel."},{"index":3,"size":130,"text":"Modelling country data on FLW and FLW-associated GHGEs, land-use and water footprints and nutritional losses FLW data was generated through a bottom-up, mass-flow model (Guo et al., 2020) that combines data on production and outputs as well as imports and exports at the country level. Estimates of losses per chain stage are derived from Porter et al. (2016) to calculate the FLW in the supply chain according to the country's production and trade. The FLWassociated GHG emissions are calculated by using the GHG emission factors derived from Porter et al. (2016) to multiply the FLW at different supply chain stages. Grey water footprint of crops and derived crop products (Mekonnen & Hoekstra, 2011), and of animals and animal products (Mekonnen & Hoekstra, 2010). FLW for Kenya-Top 15 Items FLW (Tons)"},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Figure 1 Top 15 hotspot categories of food loss and waste in terms of volumes and FLW-associated GHG emissions (in CO2-eq.)."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"FLW, GHGEs, nutrition, land use and water footprint country profile Kenya"},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"Based on the country data modelling, estimates on FLWassociated GHGEs were retrieved for Kenya and plotted with the FLW total tonnage to visualize the two components (Figure 1). For FLW the five main hotspots products are:"},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"vegetables (others), bananas, fruits (others), milk and potatoes. However, ranking food categories according to the production of FLW-associated GHGEs the five hotspot products for Kenya are: milk, bovine meat, maize, mutton & goat meat, and vegetables (others)."},{"index":8,"size":35,"text":"From the milk chains, 1.3 million tons of FLW represents 5.4 million tons CO2-eq. of GHGEs. For the bovine meat chains, 3.4 million tons CO2-eq. of GHGEs are generated from 0.1 million tons of FLW."},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"Figure 2 presents the top 15 items with the largest land-use footprints of FLW. Bovine meat, milk and maize ranks the top 3."},{"index":10,"size":23,"text":"With respect to the water footprints of the FLW, milk and maize are the top 2, followed by beans and bananas (Figure 3)."},{"index":11,"size":89,"text":"From another perspective, taking the percentages of FLW in relation to production percentages, the vegetable and fruit products arise as the main hotspots showing average FLW of 65% along the chains (Figure 4). Food loss Solutions distribution of the FLW along supply chains for the top two hotspot product categories in the region (Figure 5). These data suggest that all the stages except for consumption for fruits and vegetables are hotspots. The postharvest handling and storage of freshwater fish is a bottle neck as well at the retail stage. "}]},{"head":"Food loss Solutions","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Figure 6 shows the protein losses associated with FLW where vegetables, maize, milk, bovine meat, and bananas ranks the top 5. Finally, the food supply and FLW data were used to assess nutrient supply per capita in the Kenyan population in relation to recommended nutrient intake (Figure 7). These are average numbers, and it is not likely that nutrients are evenly distributed across Kenya. Hence, there will be parts of the populations that suffer insufficiencies of calcium, vitamin A, vitamin B12 and zinc."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"From nutrition security perspective, efforts for mitigating FLW in milk/dairy, fresh vegetables, and bean chains would contribute the most to population nutrient gains (Table 1). "}]},{"head":"Validation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"There was no literature found on FLW data for the whole country. Hence, the results on a national level, as described here, could not be validated."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Overall conclusions and suggestions for the next steps   "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Furthermore, a Protein and Nutrition Database developed by WUR (built on nutritional compositions derived from databases from FAO, USDA, Denmark and Japan) was used to calculate the nutritional value of the total consumed food in each country. The nutrient intakes are compared with estimated nutrition requirements per country (which is based on the composition of the population and per capita nutrient demand, according to WHO dietary recommendations). In calculating the land use footprint of plant-based food items, FAO's 'Crops and livestock products' database is utilized by combining data on yields and harvested areas. This gives a simplified estimate of how much cropland is needed to grow the produce. Country-specific land use estimates for animal-based food items are however scarce. Therefore, global estimates as published by Poore & Nemecek (2018) are used. Applying this non-differentiated data has a drawback that it not accurately takes into account country-specific farming practices. Lastly, for the water footprint the broadly recognized datasets of Mekonnen and Hoekstra are used. These cover the Green, Blue and "},{"text":"FurtherFigure 2 Figure 3 Figure 2 Top 15 hotspot categories of the land-use footprints of FLW (in ha) "},{"text":"Figure 8 Figure 8 displays a comprehensive ranking of hotspot food products based on five criteria. While there are nine hotspot food products identified, a closer examination reveals notable variations in the ranking of the nine hotspot products across different categories. Milk and maize emerge as extremely critical food products, with milk taking the lead in this category and ranked as the most critical product. Bovine meat and vegetables follow closely, positioned as a hotspot for three to four categories and therefor classified as very critical products. In the next tier of hotspot products, banana stand out among the top five hotspots for three categories and belongs into the category of critical products. Whereas bean is among the top 5 hotspot products in two categories and is classifies as a moderately critical product. Fruits, mutton goat meat and pulse are identified as a hotspot for one category each and are categorized as slightly critical. "},{"text":"bFigure 8 Figure 8 Ranking of hotspot product across five criteria "},{"text":"Table 1 Food product categories for which the FLW have highest share for the most critical nutrients. for the most critical nutrients.  "},{"text":" It is suggested to develop FLW reduction actions, with synergy on GHGEs mitigation, nutrition, land-use and water footprints. The above analysis underlines that, if one considers sustainability in the context of these five selected indicators the greatest impact can be achieved by concentrating efforts on milk, maize, bovine meat and vegetables compared to focusing on other food products. chains of the country. The results in this document guide stakeholders by focusing on the top four food (sub)categories in combination with the indicative results on FLW per supply chain link. To research interventions, it is necessary to go to product level, which can be based on production or trade data in the country. The next step is to identify business cases for FLW reduction. For this purpose, WUR's EFFICIENT protocol 3 and FLW cause and intervention tool 4 can be used. Since the results are not on product level, it is not Since the results are not on product level, it is not immediately clear, where to start your intervention. Our immediately clear, where to start your intervention. Our suggestion to develop FLW reduction actions, with synergy suggestion to develop FLW reduction actions, with synergy on GHGEs mitigation, nutrition, land-use and water footprints, on GHGEs mitigation, nutrition, land-use and water footprints, is to implement monitoring or/and gather primary data for is to implement monitoring or/and gather primary data for hotspot-supply Food loss Solutions hotspot-supply Food loss Solutions  "}],"sieverID":"a9844550-f8f2-4a1a-ba4c-39c73ac78ff4","abstract":"Estimates of Food Loss and Waste, associated GHG emissions, nutritional losses, land use and water footprints Food loss Solutions 1 In this document hotspots are defined as food products or food (sub) categories, eventually in combination with a supply chain link, that show the highest scores with respect to a selected (sub)set of sustainability indicators: FLW, GHGEs, nutrition, land use and water footprint."}

data/part_3/037ddd0bb5f4a47b65e4f01232fb9f97.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"037ddd0bb5f4a47b65e4f01232fb9f97","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f4175652-2b82-4585-9670-06849fa65de0/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Comparison of feed based intensification with conventional feeding practice in dairy cattle in Tumkur (Karnataka) and Yavatmal (Maharashtra)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Feed based intensification consists of a combination of three specific interventions: using crop cultivars with higher fodder quality, reducing the size/physical form of dry/green roughages and nutrient balancing. This is claimed to double the milk production in dairy animals in crop livestock based mixed farming system. A feeding trial was conducted to field test this approach in two districts, one each in Karnataka (Tumkur district) and Maharashtra (Yavatmal), which are in the semi-arid belt of India. As cultivar selection involves longer period, the interventions in this trial were limited to feed processing (chopping) and nutrient balancing."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"Crossbred dairy cows (multiple crosses of HF and Jersey with varying levels of exotic inheritance) within 2-3 months of lactation were fed total mixed ration (TMR) produced locally at farmer premises by chopping roughages and mixing it with concentrates. The TMR formula was developed based on calculation of the nutritional gap between current supply of nutrients through feed (estimated through measuring daily intake of various feed stuffs and assessment of their quality using NIRS prediction model) and that required for attainable milk production (ICAR, 2013), assumed to be 20% more than the current milk production. Feed ingredients used in the TMR were almost the same fed by farmers before but were offered in chopped form, supplemented with additional quantity of concentrates, forming the TMR. Body weight of the experimental animals (375-400 kg in Tumkur and 300-350 kg in Yavatmal) was estimated using girth measurements and intake recorded, both in the treatment and control groups. The animals were milked twice a day and daily milk yields and fat content were noted."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"In Tumkur, there were six dairy cows both in the treatment and control groups. Whereas in Yavatmal the treatment and control groups had nine milking cows. The TMR formula used in both the locations is given in Table1. The selected farmers were given an orientation prior to the trial and asked them to chop the roughage portion of the TMR required for the entire trial period in batches depending on storage facility. The concentrate portion was mixed well with salt and mineral mixture and stored in separate bags. On the day of feeding, both were mixed and offered to the animal ad lib. Refusal was collected everyday morning and quantity noted. As far as the control group is concerned, the farmers were asked to continue to feed the animals without any change."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Here also the intake and refusal of different types of feeds offered were recorded and samples analyzed for nutritional quality. The total trial period was 35 days with milk yield measured during the last 25 days (ten days adaptation period) in both treatment and control group of animals. Difference between the treatment and control group were analyzed using t-tests (Tumkur) and paired t-tests (Yavatmal) in SAS (2012)."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Conventional feeding in Tumkur shows that the feeds offered to animals included straws of rice and ragi, wheat bran, groundnut cake, maize powder and compounded feed (KMF brand), apart from grazing for 4-5 hrs."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Nutritional gap assessment revealed that there is shortage of protein (about 800-900 g/animal/day) as well as energy. This shortage was corrected in TMR by including appropriate feed ingredients (Table 1). Though costly, ground nut cake was included (Tumkur) as other cheap protein sources were not locally available."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"In Yavatmal, the type of feeds offered to animals included natural and cultivated grass, sorghum green and haulms of soybean, pigeon pea and chick pea, besides 4-5 hrs of grazing in the morning. It is found that here the energy availability for the animals is substantially lower than required (about 13 MJ of ME per animal per day short)."},{"index":4,"size":183,"text":"This was compensated by adding crushed maize in TMR, bought in bulk from nearby district head quarter (Amravati). In Tumkur there was significant difference (t-test was used) between treatment and control in DM intake (P=0.02) but milk yield (P=0.27) and milk price (P=0.27) did not show any significant difference. Statistically significant difference was found in Yavatmal (using t-test) between treatment and control in DM intake (P<0.0001), but no significant difference was found in milk yield (P=0.2) and milk price (P=0.12). Results of the present study are encouraging as a smallholder farmer keeping an average of two milking dairy cows is likely to get a substantial increase in income by adopting the practice of simple chopping and feed balancing. The benefit will further be enhanced significantly, if farmers can replace the present crop cultivars of paddy, ragi and soybean with those having superior fodder quality. Various studies show that considerable variation in crop residue fodder quality exists, that can be exploited for improving livestock production (Sharma et al., 2010) and a 1% increase in digestibility can increase productivity by 6% (Kristjianson and Zerbini, 1999)."}]},{"head":"Recommendation and conclusion","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"It can be concluded that feed based intensification consisting of chopping of roughages, nutrient balancing and use of superior cultivars can be promoted extensively among farmers to reduce yield gap and increase income from dairying. As successful scaling requires scaling of both 'technologies' as well as 'processes' that led to the success of those technologies, a strong support system should be put in place, wherever feed based intensification is promoted. Dairy or farmer based organisations, for instance can easily put in a support system, which can provide a service provider for chopping (if labour is a constraint), advisory service on feed balancing, arrange supply of inputs (seeds of superior crop cultivars, supplementary feed) and provide credit service, based on need. Therefore, in the smallholder context wherever mixed farming is practiced, feed based intensification can dramatically improve productivity of dairy animals and earn additional income for the farmers."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1  : TMR formula in Tumkur (Karnataka) and Yavatmal (Maharashtra)  : TMR formula in Tumkur (Karnataka) and Yavatmal (Maharashtra) Tumkur  Yavatmal  TumkurYavatmal Feed ingredient DM% Feed ingredient DM% Feed ingredientDM%Feed ingredientDM% Maize green fodder 04.0 Natural grass 11.0 Maize green fodder04.0Natural grass11.0 Paddy straw 28.8 Soya haulms 44.0 Paddy straw28.8Soya haulms44.0 Ragi straw 30.7 Cotton cake 26.0 Ragi straw30.7Cotton cake26.0 Wheat bran 24.0 Maize grain 17.0 Wheat bran24.0Maize grain17.0 Ground cake 11.0   Ground cake11.0 Mineral mix 01.0 Mineral mixture 01.0 Mineral mix01.0Mineral mixture01.0 Salt 00.5 Salt 01.0 Salt00.5Salt01.0 Total 100 Total 100 Total100Total100 ME (MJ/kg DM) 8.07 ME (MJ/kg DM) 8.00 ME (MJ/kg DM)8.07ME (MJ/kg DM)8.00  "},{"text":"Table 2   "},{"text":"Table 2 : Comparison of TMR with conventional feeding in Tumkur and YavatmalConsidering the additional dry matter intake due to chopping and better quality (3.34 kg in Tumkur and 5.33 kg in Yavatmal), ME value of TMR (8 MJ/kg DM) and energy required to produce a litre of milk (5 MJ), theoretically the animals should produce much more additional milk (5.3 l in Tumkur and 8.5 l in Yavatmal) than what has been produced (3.3 l in Tumkur and 1.7 l in Yavatmal). This may be because the animals might have been under nutrient restriction due to drier environment, especially in Yavatmal and when TMR was offered, they used part of the additional nutrients for body repair. Parameters TMR Tumkur Control TMR Yavatmal Control ParametersTMRTumkurControlTMRYavatmal Control DMI/cow/d (kg) 11.54  8.20 12.22 6.89 DMI/cow/d (kg)11.548.2012.226.89 Milk yield/cow/d (kg) 11.01  7.69 6.78 5.08 Milk yield/cow/d (kg)11.017.696.785.08 Total feed cost/cow/d (INR) 150.51  101.73 111.98 71.79 Total feed cost/cow/d (INR)150.51101.73111.9871.79 Total milk price/cow/d (INR) 275.25  192.25 203.38 142.18 Total milk price/cow/d (INR)275.25192.25203.38142.18 Net benefit/cow/d (INR) 124.74  90.52 91.40 70.39 Net benefit/cow/d (INR)124.7490.5291.4070.39 Additional benefit/cow/d (INR)  34.2   21.0 Additional benefit/cow/d (INR)34.221.0  "}],"sieverID":"7532e053-5d2e-4aa4-b512-d21f6e1cc145","abstract":"CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food-secure future. The CGIAR Research Program on Livestock provides research-based solutions to help smallholder farmers, pastoralists and agro-pastoralists transition to sustainable, resilient livelihoods and to productive enterprises that will help feed future generations. It aims to increase the productivity and profitability of livestock agri-food systems in sustainable ways, making meat, milk and eggs more available and affordable across the developing world. The Program brings together five core partners: the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) with a mandate on livestock; the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), which works on forages; the International Center for Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), which works on small ruminants and dryland systems; the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) with expertise particularly in animal health and genetics and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) which connects research into development and innovation and scaling processes.The Program thanks all donors and organizations who globally supported its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund."}

data/part_3/039681d1a9d560cdd98b3169643e208e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"039681d1a9d560cdd98b3169643e208e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b0c6d760-d61f-4c5b-a1a3-1e6cf8e33ff1/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Infrastructure mapping and strategy engagements","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"0c586bed-cd11-4245-a61d-1c217e83640d","abstract":"The Platform conducted co-design workshops on building a unified information vision cutting across 6 CGIAR centers, research domains, and partners that is being used to inform IT investment decisions and is becoming a critical input to Big Data efforts to develop a pan-CGIAR digital strategy. The effort informed the design and deployment of a pan-CGIAR data analytic environment."}

data/part_3/03c2f00d3fd2c842a03037534b94f29f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03c2f00d3fd2c842a03037534b94f29f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f1bd089a-8195-4e08-a1a3-e6a4c595fbe3/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Co-designing socio-technical innovation bundles for the Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems | 1","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Definition of the terms","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Mixed farming systems (MFS) are complex systems where multiple components (e.g., livestock, trees, subsistence and cash crops, horticultural crops, aquaculture, value-adding activities) are tightly interlinked, and the whole system is managed towards the satisfaction of multiple productivity, economic, environmental, and societal goals (e.g., social inequality, food security, income generation, risk management, resource conservation, preservation of cultural values and traditions)."},{"index":2,"size":149,"text":"To improve the performance and sustainability of MFS, sociotechnical innovation bundles (STIBs) need to be developed so that contextualized combinations of interrelated technical advances combined with social, organizational, and policy enablers are packaged for impactful implementation and scaling. To develop these STIBs for sustainable intensification of MFS, a processbased disciplinary-focused approach might not suffice, and a participatory systems' perspective is needed. Systems analysis allows an understanding of the characteristics, dynamics, and interconnectedness of different components and actors in the system, as well as their role in the overall system's performance. It also relates to the interrelations amongst system components and external (and internal) drivers of change. Systems analysis can be quantitative and qualitative and can be used for ex-post and ex-ante studies. In the context of agri-food systems, systems analysis investigates how current systems function and how they are likely to behave in response to relevant scenarios of change."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"In transforming mixed farming systems, the term systems design means to define, conceive, implement, and assess an improved system with regard to a set of pre-defined objectives (e.g.,"}]},{"head":"INITI ATIVE ON","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Mixed Farming Systems","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CO-DESIGNING SOCIO-TECHNICAL INNOVATION BUNDLES FOR THE SUSTAINABLE INTENSIFICATION OF MIXED FARMING SYSTEMS: A METHODOLOGICAL NOTE","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"About the Mixed Farming Systems Initiative","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"• The Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems (SI-MFS) Initiative aims to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification within target agroecologies and socioeconomic settings."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"• Through action research and development partnerships, the initiative will improve smallholder farmers' resilience to weatherinduced shocks, provide a more stable income and significant benefits in welfare, and enhance social justice and inclusion for 13 million people by 2030."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"• Activities will be implemented in six focus countries globally representing diverse mixed farming systems as follows: Ghana (cereal-root crop mixed), Ethiopia (highland mixed), Malawi: (maize mixed), Bangladesh (rice mixed), Nepal (highland mixed), and Lao People's Democratic Republic (upland intensive mixed/ highland extensive mixed)."},{"index":4,"size":103,"text":"sustainability, resilience, climate smart, gender and social inclusion) and constraints imposed by the context (e.g., soil types, rainfall distribution, labour availability, market price, policy, and cultural norms etc.). The system at stake in the design process can be a component of a farming system (e.g., a crop or livestock enterprise, a crop rotation etc.), the integrated farming system (e.g., a forage-based crop-livestock system), or its integration into a value chain (e.g., a new crop into an environmental certification scheme) or a landscape (e.g., crop landscape mosaics with pest suppressive or water-saving objectives) or sociocultural context (e.g., interests, preferences and demands of end users)."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"Co-designing more sustainable mixed farming systems and the bundling of socio-technical innovations imply the engagement of multi-stakeholders throughout the whole design process and not only regarding them as 'users'."},{"index":6,"size":93,"text":"For the co-design of more sustainable mixed farming systems, a wide range of stakeholders (including farmers, farmer representatives, value chain actors, policymakers, development organizations, and civil society, among others) need to be engaged, and not only consulted, in the definition of the system, identification of objectives, constraints, and opportunities, the development, and testing of innovations as well as in their assessment, adaptation, and promotion. The engagement of stakeholders in all phases of the co-design process is a precondition for the generation and scaling of socio-technical innovation bundles for the sustainable intensification of MFS."}]},{"head":"Pathways for co-designing sociotechnical innovation bundles","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The overall approach for the co-design of more sustainable MFS is based on the DEED (Describe, Explain, Explore, and Design) framework. Figure 1 shows the main objectives of each phase of the DEED framework and some methodological tools that can be employed to carry them out. The whole DEED framework must be centred on the knowledge, expertise, goals, and objectives of the key actors to ensure a co-learning and co-creation. In the design phase of the DEED cycle, two main pathways can be followed: 'de novo' and 'step-by-step' design."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"In the de novo or transformational approach, the focus is not on incremental change, such as improving system efficiency within the limits of sub-components of the system, but on a more global rethinking and design of the system. The aim is to transform the system into a better one or even change it to a totally new and desirable one. Hence, modeling approaches are used to explore various possibilities of system changes (e.g., manipulating system components by adding new components or objectivedriven optimization) and assess their consequences. In this approach, co-designing (or co-redesigning) would mean bringing multi-stakeholders on board for system analysis, defining the desired state, and choosing system components to manipulate. The actual alternative systems design would fall in the hands of experts."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"In the step-by-step or incremental approach, incremental changes are embraced. The aim is to change the system stepwise, implementing approaches for system change as understanding of the system and its interventions continues. The focus is on a pragmatic understanding of the current system, setting reasonable and practical visions of change, and mobilizing new or existing innovations to achieve the desired system change. This approach works better for narrower subsystems such as small ruminant value chains, wheatbased farming systems, etc."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"In this approach, co-designing would involve bringing stakeholders together for a joint assessment of mixed farming systems, defining the desired state of and visions for system changes, identifying entry points for a system change, identifying/generating innovation bundles, deploying innovations, monitoring, evaluation and reflection, re-evaluating of changes and continuing the cycle for the next level system improvement."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"To capitalize on previous research and development investments and because of the complexity of implementing interventions across farm components, an incremental approach is most often followed. However, a combination of both pathways (incremental and transformational) can also provide the basis for developing socio-technical innovation bundles for the mixed farming systems initiative."}]},{"head":"Implementation of the co-design process in SI-MFS sites","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Below we present the broad steps envisioned for the codesign process in SI-MFS. This is to provide a first guide only, allowing each case study team to adapt/implement the DEED framework considering (i) time and resources constraints, (ii) local partnership characteristics (e.g., some stakeholders already engaged in previous projects), and (iii) level of maturity/scaling readiness of innovations in the region from previous projects."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"1. Ensure proper understanding and adaptation of the systemic approach by the research team 2. Share with multi-stakeholders and engage them at the relevant step of the cycle. Identify the target farming systems to be engaged in the process 3. Use Figure 1 to define the three years plan of the case study to ensure that the 'design' phase will have at least started at the end of the three years."}]},{"head":"Innovation and scaling ecosystem development proposals for codesigning","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Generation and scaling of socio-technical innovation bundles is a wicked, complex, multi-stakeholder, and multi-level challenge. Hence, co-designing entails setting up an innovation and scaling ecosystem for social learning, negotiation, and collective action. For this initiative, we are proposing farm, sectoral and crosssectoral organizational setups. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. The DEED cycle for co-designing more sustainable Mixed Farming Systems and examples of methodological tools. "},{"text":" Hence, the vision should be to set them as 'local innovation and sustainable business units (LIBS)' to present the inculcate business and economic motives in their formation and facilitation.Cross-sectoral level: Sectoral CoPs could come together and form an umbrella cross-sectoral structure, i.e., innovation platforms (IP). Multi-level IPs /hubs could be organized at local, sub-national, and national levels depending on country contexts. IPs bring together key actors across crops, livestock, and other sectors. With good facilitation and anchoring with key institutional drivers of change, IPs could support integration and coordination aspects in the generation and scaling of socio-technical innovations. Farm level: A modified and socially inclusive Farmer Farm level: A modified and socially inclusive Farmer Research Group (FRG) approach (could be called living Research Group (FRG) approach (could be called living experiment, social innovation labs or learning labs) in experiment, social innovation labs or learning labs) in which both research farmers and follower farmers (e.g., which both research farmers and follower farmers (e.g., those involved in mother-baby trials) are brought together those involved in mother-baby trials) are brought together for deliberate problem identification, mutual learning, for deliberate problem identification, mutual learning, and collective action. The FRGs could be made to have a and collective action. The FRGs could be made to have a strong 'learning' focus, by introducing a seasonal learning strong 'learning' focus, by introducing a seasonal learning agenda and developing a learning curriculum, like that of agenda and developing a learning curriculum, like that of the Farmer Field School approach. An FRG could have 10- the Farmer Field School approach. An FRG could have 10- 20 research and follower farmers working either directly 20 research and follower farmers working either directly with the researchers or learning lessons from fellow with the researchers or learning lessons from fellow farmers. FRGs are often organized at the village level. farmers. FRGs are often organized at the village level. Sectoral level: At a little higher-level Communities of Sectoral level: At a little higher-level Communities of Practice (CoP)/Common Interest Groups (CIGs) could be Practice (CoP)/Common Interest Groups (CIGs) could be set up around commodity/issue-based socio-technical set up around commodity/issue-based socio-technical innovation bundles. Communities of Practice 'are groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly' (Wenger, 1998). With 15-30 key actors' membership, CoPs bring together male and female farmers, researchers, extension advisors, input dealers, financers, and politicians among others. The CoPs play a crucial role in facilitating social learning and steering collective action among actors. CoPs are often organized at the district level. CoP are often loosely connected actors with altruistic motives. For their sustainability, incentives for participation needs to be considered carefully. CONTACT Fred Kizito, IITA/ABC [email protected] Santiago López Ridaura CIMMYT [email protected] innovation bundles. Communities of Practice 'are groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly' (Wenger, 1998). With 15-30 key actors' membership, CoPs bring together male and female farmers, researchers, extension advisors, input dealers, financers, and politicians among others. The CoPs play a crucial role in facilitating social learning and steering collective action among actors. CoPs are often organized at the district level. CoP are often loosely connected actors with altruistic motives. For their sustainability, incentives for participation needs to be considered carefully. CONTACT Fred Kizito, IITA/ABC [email protected] Santiago López Ridaura CIMMYT [email protected]  "}],"sieverID":"9615dea4-0fcb-45fa-8090-cdcea58dfab5","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03cbbfaf3641d70af60399c320c4b72e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/46c61566-64f8-4827-9ca9-21cdf096c774/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Actualmente, empresas y ONG se encuentran trabajando por recuperar la antigua tradición de producir cacao en América Central y el Caribe. La participación del cacao centroamericano en el mercado mundial sigue siendo baja, pero las oportunidades de exportar cacao fino de aroma parecen ir en aumento, al tiempo que otras regiones productoras enfrentan fenómenos climáticos adversos además de plagas y enfermedades epidémicas. Sin embargo, deben aprobarse planes a largo plazo para lograr mayor resiliencia, con el fin de mantener la calidad y mejorar la productividad ante el cambio climático","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Para cada escenario climático, hicimos distinción de cuatro zonas de impacto: La producción de cacao puede, ya sea sostenerse con un esfuerzo de adaptación bajo o alto (adaptación incremental o adaptación sistémica), o bien, dejar de ser rentable, de manera que deba sustituirse o transformarse radicalmente (transformación). En regiones que anteriormente no eran aptas (oportunidad) el cacao puede convertirse en una nueva opción para los agricultores."}]},{"head":"Necesidades de adaptación","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"El Atlas de impactos del cambio climático en la producción de cacao en América Central y el Caribe contiene mapas de zonas agroclimáticas para el cultivo del cacao en condiciones meteorológicas pasadas y futuras en cada país. Se puede descargar aquí: https://hdl.handle.net/10568/101293 La mayoría de áreas en América Central y el Caribe presentan una gran necesidad de adaptación para mantener una producción resiliente de cacao. En América Central, el cacao generalmente lo producen familias con bajos ingresos y minorías étnicas en parcelas pequeñas (<3 ha). Su capacidad de adoptar prácticas novedosas es muy limitada y, en consecuencia, el potencial de actividades de capacitación para promover prácticas de CSAC. Por tanto, crear un ambiente favorable es fundamental para integrar la producción resiliente de cacao."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"La complejidad de la adaptación aumenta en la medida en que aumenta el grado de impacto climático. La adaptación enfocada a nivel de finca se limita a las decisiones de manejo, de manera que para una adaptación más integral es necesario que actores fuera de la finca proporcionen insumos críticos e información. Con frecuencia, los agricultores enfrentan barreras prohibitivas para adoptar algunas de las opciones de CSAC más eficaces. Cambios de estrategia, tales como la transición hacia cultivos arbóreos alternativos, p. ej., para producción de fruta o madera, o el uso de variedades resistentes al clima, deben ser facilitados mediante el desarrollo de cadenas de valor alternativas, suministro de germoplasma compatible y específico por sitio, además de apoyo financiero inicial."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"En muchos casos, ello significa que actores del sector público y privado creen un entorno favorable mediante políticas, disposiciones institucionales, plataformas para los interesados y perspectiva de género, infraestructura, crédito, esquemas de seguros, así como acceso a información meteorológica y servicios de asesoría. Muchas veces los expertos demandan aumento de la eficacia a partir de una orientación más eficiente del manejo agrícola según los pronósticos estacionales y meteorológicos, pero es imposible que dichos servicios los desarrolle una sola persona u organización."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"Elaboramos un listado de prácticas de cacao sostenible adaptado al clima que cuentan con potencial para hacer frente al cambio climático proyectado y mejorar la resiliencia a nivel de finca. Debido a que muchas soluciones tienen un largo tiempo de entrega, el desafío está en utilizar los medios disponibles en la actualidad y priorizarlos para tomar en cuenta la evolución del cambio climático. El siguiente conjunto de prácticas se elaboró mediante una serie de talleres participativos en Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala, República Dominicana y El Salvador y se validó mediante un estudio de la documentación científica."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"Todas las prácticas cumplen con las condiciones de ser: a) Prácticas conocidas en la región, a las que se puede ampliar la escala inmediatamente. b) Prácticas \"sin pesar\", en el sentido de que es probable que brinden un rendimiento positivo de la inversión, a pesar de la incertidumbre de los impactos climáticos. c) Jerárquicas según el grado proyectado del esfuerzo de adaptación que se necesita para aumentar la eficiencia."},{"index":6,"size":52,"text":"En cada etapa del ciclo del cultivo, se toman decisiones que pueden tener consecuencias a largo plazo, lo cual puede ser difícil de ajustar en el futuro. Por lo tanto, los expertos han hecho una clara distinción entre prácticas de CSAC en vivero, establecimiento de la plantación y etapas productivas del cacao."},{"index":7,"size":48,"text":"El cuadro enumera las prácticas que priorizaron y evaluaron expertos regionales. El listado está dividido según el grado de impacto y la etapa del ciclo del cacao. Este debe considerarse un catálogo de prácticas deseables de las cuales el productor elige cuáles se adaptan mejor a su finca. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Find English version in: https://hdl.handle.net/10568/103775 El resumen de Cacao sostenible adaptado al clima en América Central y el Caribe contiene un análisis detallado de prácticas de CSAC para América Central, incluido su potencial para lograr una intensificación sostenible, adaptación a riesgos climáticos y mitigación de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero. Se puede descargar en el siguiente enlace: https://hdl.handle.net/10568/103487 Para obtener más información sobre el estudio, por favor consulte a: Dr. Christian Bunn ([email protected]) "}],"sieverID":"e66b28ce-6875-4f60-b3dd-815b3f21e164","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03cf472e966ab0929074b0ea8a7b3720","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/25e07da7-120d-4c72-8356-ea83a858f8b4/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"Connected thinking, compelling solutions WLE delivers sustainable agriculture solutions that enhance our natural resources -and the lives of the people who rely on them","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"\"To succeed, the world must move forward on agriculture solutions that don't just solve one problem, but that enhance sustainability and resilience as a whole. Only connected, can we thrive.\""}]},{"head":"Izabella Koziell, WLE Program Director","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Our Challenge:"},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Agriculture is a major driver of environmental degradation and social inequity. More than 70% of global freshwater is used for food production, while 25% of the world's land is already, or is on the way to being highly degraded."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Such environmental losses undermine agricultural productivity as well as resilience to climate change. The most negative impacts often hit the poorest and most vulnerable smallholder farmers, especially women."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"At the same time, global food demand by 2050 is projected to increase 60% or more over 2006 levels. But current production systems risk our future. And too often, new solutions create or intensify other challenges. Without considering the interconnectedness of agriculture, shortterm wins may contribute to long-term failure."}]},{"head":"WLE's Response:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"In response to these intractable challenges, WLE identifies and pilots agricultural and natural resource management solutions that enhance equity and sustainability. This is an ambitious and wide-ranging agenda, but a vital one. WLE works to transform agricultural food systems, delivering solutions that do not cause degradation, but drive the cure."}]},{"head":"WLE's Approach:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Through connected thinking and compelling solutions, WLE's research-for-development work considers not only the field, but also the landscape and system level impacts of agriculture: how decisions around soil, water, biodiversity and people interact and impact the big picture."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"WLE is developing a growing portfolio of policy and technical solutions across sectors and scales. These connect and consider key ecosystems and natural resources: land, water, biodiversity; and how to manage these better to ensure we connect ruralurban environments, deliver gender equity, manage risks and trade-offs, and build capacity of farmers and decision-makers to develop and implement integrated solutions."}]},{"head":"WLE's Consortium:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"WLE works through numerous national, regional and international partners and leverages expertise from across CGIAR. Through these partners, the program provides evidence and solutions that can influence decisions on how agricultural interventions and investments are made."}]},{"head":"Impacts by 2022","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Degraded landscapes restored: WLE aims to support more than 1.5 million farm households to restore more than 3 million ha of land, and sequester in soils an estimated 4 megatons of CO 2 emissions per year."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Land and water solutions adopted and scaled: WLE aims to foster more resilient, equitable and food-secure farming landscapes, benefiting 2 million households, as well as improving water use efficiency at scale, targeting a 5% increase in efficiency in irrigation."}]},{"head":"Sustainable rural-urban ecosystems:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"WLE aims to increase water and nutrient-use efficiency on 4 million ha of urban and periurban lands, and improve nutrient-and wateruse efficiency on 3.6 million ha through resource recovery from food waste."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Resilience through policy and trade-off tools: WLE co-develops and scales innovative policy mechanisms and institutional arrangements, aiming to benefit six million households by 2022."}]},{"head":"Supporting Returns on Massive Soil and Water Management Investments","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"WLE research, capacity strengthening and policy engagement is supporting Ethiopia's delivery of more sustainable soil and water management. In 2017, Ethiopia approved a policy to make all water technologies tax exempt, with the government crediting WLE-supported work on irrigation technology and supply chain analysis as influential. On soils, researchers helped the government develop a revised 'Ethiopian Soil Strategy' to target soil fertility management interventions. Along with WLE work on integrated landscape management, the country will be well placed to ensure that benefits from its investments are maximized. This same integration process has great potential in other WLE partner countries."}]},{"head":"Improving Productivity and Livelihoods Through Smart Solar Irrigation","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"In India, solar power has been introduced as a more versatile, green alternative to electric pumps. But, without carefully designed programs, solar-powered pumps could further threaten groundwater resources as cheaper pumping costs increase water usage. Therefore, WLE has collaborated with CCAFS to work with regional policy makers on a system to treat solar power as a 'cash crop', with the local electricity company buying back surplus solar power from farmers. This way, farmers have an economic incentive to irrigate their crops efficiently, conserving groundwater and energy use. To curb transaction costs, WLE researchers supported the establishment of the world's first solar cooperative, enabling farmers to pool their excess energy and sell it back to the utility company as a cooperative. Now, WLE is working to ensure better shared benefits for women, and presenting business models to help these technologies and approaches scale out to African communities."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Photo: Prashanth Vishwanathan / CCAFS Photo: Georgina Smith / CIAT"},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Restoring Degraded Landscapes works to restore degraded landscapes as well as enhance ecosystem services and related benefits, such as food, energy, clean water, carbon sequestration and livelihoods."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"Land and Water Solutions works to strengthen the resilience of farming communities by developing productive agricultural land and water management solutions that can be sustainably applied at scale."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"Rural-Urban Linkages addresses challenges related to urbanizing landscapes, such as ways to close water and nutrient loops by reusing organic waste and wastewater, and addressing city food system challenges, competition and pollution."}]},{"head":"WLE's Research Themes","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Variability, Risks and Competing Uses aims to reduce risks and losses from water-related disasters and to help farming communities manage trade-offs from competition over resources."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Gender, Youth and Inclusivity is a priority integrated across all research and is examined independently to ensure research and solutions result in impacts and benefits that are fairly distributed."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Enhancing Sustainability Across Agricultural Systems synthenizes WLE's learning and supports development decisions and investments for more sustainable agricultural landscapes by developing user-friendly approaches and tools to assess and manage effects at scale."}]},{"head":"WLE Responds to New, Interconnected Challenges","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Climate Change","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"WLE is working on solutions that manage climate related impacts such as droughts, water scarcity, floods and unpredictable weather. These include small-scale irrigation technologies to increase drought resilience, along with farmer-government-private sector platforms to better manage resource use. In Zimbabwe, this has led to 30% water use reduction and 25% yield increase, amidst unpredictable weather patterns. WLE also works to mitigate climate change by better understanding soil carbon storage. Up to 7 billion tons can be removed from the atmosphere each year through better farm soil management, WLE found. Researchers are identifying areas with the highest potential and supporting improved farming practices that reduce carbon loss from soils."}]},{"head":"Migration","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"In Africa and much of Asia, increasing male migration to cities has transformed agriculture, making it the domain of the women and elderly who stay behind. Male out-migration changes gender roles in agriculture and impacts the management of natural resources. WLE researchers are working to supply policy makers and investors with evidence on the consequences of migration on natural resource management so that new policies and investments can respond to these changes."}]},{"head":"Vulnerability of Smallholders, Especially Women","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Rural communities such as women and poorer farmers often bear the brunt of climate impacts, resource scarcity and social change. Research to understand the factors that affect farmers' decisions can support the design of contextappropriate investments that strengthen smallholder farming's contribution to poverty alleviation, food security and equity. For example, WLE is boosting agricultural production by helping farmers access groundwater through irrigation technology. At the same time, WLE is developing tools and policies to protect those groundwater resources from depletion, and designing programs so that women and marginalized groups share in the benefits."}]},{"head":"Urbanization","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"By 2050, two thirds of the global population will live in cities. This is creating rapidly escalating challenges. Municipalities in developing countries are looking for solutions that decrease waste, reduce environmental pollution and recover costs of waste management. WLE is examining and piloting ways to turn waste into wealth and has supported the first commercial co-composting plant in West Africa that makes fertilizer from fecal sludge and organic waste. Researchers also helped Sri Lanka develop its new sanitation policy, incorporating options for recycling and reuse of human waste into safe, organic fertilizer."}]},{"head":"Where We Work","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Photo: Hamish John Appleby / IWMI The ambitions of the SDGs clearly echo WLE's approach to sustainable intensification of agriculture at all scales: Equitable development can only be achieved by considering, protecting and sustainably using the ecosystem services-that is, benefits such as soil, water, biodiversity and climate -on which we all depend."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Finding ways to assess and manage trade-offs and opportunities-balancing development, environmental conservation and other needs and rights-may be the most important contribution scientists from WLE and its partners are making to the SDG process."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"WLE develops solutions and evidence that can support national governments and other actors to achieve the SDGs, particularly:"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Global Partners for Impact WLE is led by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), and is supported by the CGIAR System Organization, a global research partnership for a food-secure future. The program combines the resources of 11 CGIAR centers, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the RUAF foundation, and numerous national, regional and international partners.We would like to thank all donors who supported this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund. http://on.cgiar.org/CGIARFundDonors WLE has both played an active role in shaping many of the Sustainable Development Goal indicators and supporting the implementation of multiple SDGs. ZERO  ZERO HUNGER SDG 2 on zero hunger, including SDG 2.4 on HUNGERSDG 2 on zero hunger, including SDG 2.4 on  sustainable food production systems and resilient sustainable food production systems and resilient  agricultural practices agricultural practices GENDER  GENDER EQUALITY  EQUALITY  SDG 5 on gender equality SDG 5 on gender equality CLEAN WATER  CLEAN WATER AND SANI TATION SDG 6 on clean water and sanitation, including AND SANI TATIONSDG 6 on clean water and sanitation, including  SDG 6.4 on increasing water-use efficiency SDG 6.4 on increasing water-use efficiency SUSTAINABLE CITIES  SUSTAINABLE CITIES AND COMMUNITIES  AND COMMUNITIES  SDG 11 on sustainable cities and communities SDG 11 on sustainable cities and communities CLIMATE  CLIMATE ACTION  ACTION  SDG 13 on climate action SDG 13 on climate action LIFE  LIFE ON LAND SDG 15.3 on achieving a land degradation- ON LANDSDG 15.3 on achieving a land degradation-  neutral world neutral world  "}],"sieverID":"c728bf2b-d926-46fb-b7d8-4cf8cdcd0cd4","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0409f8d5b829095c834bcde40c6c0fa5","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0dfd045c-b7be-4d48-a13a-a7715f47417b/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Immunization problems","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"There are two major stumbling blocks to implementing the infectionandtreatment immunization method: several different antigenic strains exist among field populations of T. parva and no simple technique has yet been developed to identify differences among the strains that can be related to immunity."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"An in vivo crossimmunity test that distinguishes immunogenic strains is already available. However, this test requires the use of many cattle, is expensive and timeconsuming and is sometimes unreliable. ILRAD workers are thus attempting to develop several in vitro tests and markers that will enable them to discriminate among T. parva stocks and strains, with the hope that these tests and markers will provide information that can be used to predict the immunological responses of cattle to the different stocks and strains."}]},{"head":"Key questions","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"ILRAD scientists are looking for answers to several questions in this area, among the most pressing of which are the following."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Is there a single dominant immunogenic type of parasite in a given field isolate or a given stock containing a mixture of strains, or do the different parasite types act in concert? If a dominant immunogenic type is present in mixed stocks, can we develop laboratory techniques to identify it?"},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"In infections comprising a mixture of antigenic types, does one or more component of the mixture grow or develop more rapidly and efficiently than the others in the tick or in the animal? Animals that recover from East Coast fever usually become carriers of a transmissible infection. Is it one or several components of the original infecting mixture of parasites that survive in the animal and can be transmitted? Does sexual reproduction produce new antigenic types of parasites or produce modifications in the virulence of infection that a parasite strain is able to cause? It has recently been shown that certain bovine lymphocyte antigens associate with certain parasite antigens. How will this influence immunization strategies?"},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"To answer these questions, scientists need to be able to study one antigenic type of parasite at a time. To do this, they will have to work with populations of cloned parasites, each of which comprises a single antigenic type."}]},{"head":"How Theileria parva parasites are cloned","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Parasite clones are conventionally prepared in two ways. In the 'limiting dilution' cloning technique, cells from an infected cell line are diluted to obtain a single cell. A new cell line developed from a single infected cell is called a cloned cell line."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"In another cloning technique, tick salivary glands are examined to find a gland in which only one cell is infected. The gland containing only one infected cell is then ground up and the sporozoites thus recovered are used to infect lymphocytes or cattle."},{"index":3,"size":141,"text":"The parasite populations obtained using these conventional techniques are not true clones because there is no way to ascertain that an original infection was obtained from just one parasite. A true clone arises from a single parasite-one sporozoite or one schizont derived from a single sporozoite. Thus, a third cloning procedure has been developed by ILRAD scientists. Uninfected nymphs of Rhipicephalus appendiculatus ticks are fed on cattle infected with a stock of T. parva. When the ticks moult to the adult stage, they are fed on rabbits for four days to induce maturation of the sporozoite form of the parasite. The ticks are removed and their salivary glands dissected aseptically and ground gently to release the sporozoites. Dilutions of sporozoites are then used to infect lymphocytes from circulating blood in vitro at concentrations below 1 sporozoite to 100 white blood cells."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"The cell line obtained in this way is then cloned twice using the limiting dilution technique and cultured to produce sufficient cells to infect the animal from which the cells were originally taken. Uninfected R. appendiculatus nymphs are applied to these cattle and the resulting infected ticks are ground up to harvest sporozoites, which are tested for infectivity in cattle. The harvested sporozoite population is considered a clone."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"At each step in the third cloning procedure, the parasite is isolated and characterized using several techniques, including a monoclonal antibody test and the use of DNA probes and pulsedfield gel electrophoresis to detect restriction fragment length polymorphism. These techniques indicate the quality of the cloning procedure. When the cloned sporozoite stabilates are shown to infect cattle, they are further characterized using twodimensional gel electrophoresis, western blotting, cytotoxicity assays and in vivo infectivity and cross immunity tests. "}]},{"head":"Parasite clones aid research","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"The availability of cloned T. parva parasites for crossimmunity tests will enable scientists to determine the immunizing capabilities of different strains. The third cloning technique described above is now being used in attempts to produce clones of six stocks of T. parva comprising three subspecies with geographical, behavioural and crossimmunizing differences. To date, three sporozoite clones that infect cattle have been derived, two from T. p. parva (Marikebuni and Mariakani) and one from T. p. bovis (Boleni). These three clones are from three different parent stocks. The immunity the clones induce in cattle will be compared with that induced by the parent stocks. In an endeavour to assemble a full repertoire of antigenic types of each stock, ILRAD staff members will attempt to isolate other clones from each of the six chosen stocks. An indepth investigation of the cellmediated immune responses in cattle will be conducted in parallel with crossimmunity studies, specifically to look at the immune response to parent and cloned parasites and why certain parasite antigenic types seem to associate with certain bovine histocompatibility types."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"The clones developed at the Laboratory show the same monoclonal antibody profile at the different stages in the cloning procedure. However, monoclonal antibody profiles may be too insensitive to distinguish antigenic types either because the in vitro isolation selects a parasite better adapted to grow in culture or because of a limited number of parasite antigens these antibodies recognize."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"One clone, however, did show a DNA profile different from that of its parent after the clone was passaged through ticks. Two cattle that recovered following infection with the cloned parasite developed clinical disease when challenged with the parent stock, suggesting that the clone was only one component of the original stock."}]},{"head":"Parasite clones open new areas of investigation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The availability of cloned T. parva parasites opens new areas for investigation into theileriosis. A form of sexual recombination, or syngamy, in the parasite occurs when the parasite is in the tick gut, but it is not known when meiosis-the nuclear division in which the chromosome complement of the parasite is halved-takes place. The role of syngamy in modifying the virulence or antigenic nature of T. parva can be investigated more directly and with greater precision by using clones with distinct phenotypic and genomic characteristics."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"The availability of clones may also enable scientists to develop probes or tools that characterize parasite types more accurately. It may be possible to identify parasite or parasiterelated antigens that are expressed on the surface of infected cells and are targets for the cellmediated immune responses of livestock. Such identification would facilitate the development of better methods of parasite characterization and disease diagnosis and new methods of immunization."},{"index":3,"size":177,"text":"The Tick Unit at ILRAD ILRAD'S TICK UNIT provides both material and support to the Laboratory's theileriosis research program. The Unit breeds ticks, supplies scientists with Theileria parva sporozoites for infection and immunization studies, prepares tick stabilates, which are used to infect animals with Theileria, and collaborates with scientists in infecting cattle with Theileria clones. The Unit also determines the infection rates in ticks from the field and the rates at which tick species pick up T. parva clones and infections from 'carrier' cattle, which have recovered from infection with T. parva and are still able to infect ticks. The primary work of the Tick Unit is to provide ILRAD staff with a steady supply of salivary glands from Rhipicephalus appendiculatus ticks that are infected with Theileria parasites. Rhipicephalus appendiculatus is the main vector of T. parva, the cause of East Coast fever. The Tick Unit is thus vital to ILRAD's research: using the infected salivary glands that the Unit provides, ILRAD scientists continue to improve the diagnosis and control of the diseases caused by T. parva."},{"index":4,"size":131,"text":"THE TICK UNIT has recently improved its support to the theileriosis research program by increasing the infection rate in ticks maintained by the Unit. The higher infection rate makes it easier to obtain the large numbers of sporozoites that ILRAD scientists need for their experiments. Furthermore, the number of cattle used to infect ticks can be halved and the time spent on routine tick dissection much reduced. Some investigators previously believed that the rates at which R. appendiculatus become infected with T. parva could be increased by treating cattle infected with T. parva with dexamethasone (a widely used antiinflammatory drug that modulates the immune response) while nymphal ticks were being fed on the cattle. But in attempts at ILRAD to verify this hypothesis, this treatment did not consistently affect infection rates."},{"index":5,"size":199,"text":"The infection rates of the ticks in the Unit had always varied, sometimes considerably, from one tick feed to the next. However, during a spell of exceptionally cold weather in 1988, researchers observed high infection rates in nymphal pickups. Before this incident, the Unit's cattle rooms, in which naive ticks are fed on infected cattle, had been heated and temperatures kept at about 25°C. To test whether the lower temperature was responsible for the increase in infection rates, the heaters were turned off. Following this change, the T. parva infection rate in ticks did increase. An air conditioner was then installed to reduce the ambient temperature even further (to 15 °C). Ticks fed on infected cattle at this low temperature again showed high infection rates. This observation has led ILRAD scientists to investigate several variables that may affect T. parva infection rates in ticks. Such studies might facilitate the development of a reproducible method to obtain the high rates. FIGURE 4. The building that houses the Laboratory's Tick Unit is an isolation facility. On the right are the tick incubator rooms, offices and general laboratory. On the left, occupying two thirds of the building, are six highsecurity cattle rooms."},{"index":6,"size":93,"text":"In another important finding made recently, scientists obtained much higher infection rates when using R.appendiculatus from a field strain recently collected from a dry ranching area of Kenya than when using R. appendiculatus (Muguga), the laboratoryadapted tick line that has been used in East Coast fever research in Kenya for more than 30 years. When nymphs of the two lines were fed simultaneously on the same infected cattle, infection rates in the R. appendiculatus field strain have been up to five times higher than infection rates in the R. appendiculatus (Muguga) laboratory strain."},{"index":7,"size":155,"text":"THE TICK UNIT maintains a large colony of R. appendiculatus, as well as colonies of other tick species, such as Amblyomma, which transmits T. mutans, the cause of benign theileriosis, and Cowdria ruminantium, the cause of heartwater. The ticks are fed on rabbits and cattle and kept in incubators between feeds. Each species is maintained at the specific temperature and relative humidity most suitable for its survival. Ticks are infected with T. parva by feeding nymphs on infected cattle. The engorged nymphs are maintained at 24 °C-the optimum temperature for obtaining high infection rates in adults-for moulting. The ticks are fed for four days on rabbits to allow T.parva sporoblasts to mature into sporozoites in the tick salivary glands. The ticks are then dissected to remove their salivary glands. The infection rate is determined for each batch of dissected ticks. Technicians in other ILRAD laboratories separate the parasite sporozoites from the tick salivary gland components."},{"index":8,"size":106,"text":"Adult ticks, infected as nymphs in the laboratory or the field, may be used to transmit T. parva to cattle. After feeding them on rabbits for four days, infected adult ticks are ground up to harvest the sporozoites, which are then stored in liquid nitrogen (at -179 °C) as stabilates. These stabilates are used to preserve T. parva stocks, to infect cattle in experimental studies and to immunize livestock. FIGURE 5. Mr. George Njihia Mwaura, a technician in the Tick Unit, dissects a tick under a stereoscopic microscope so as to remove the tick's salivary glands, which will be stained and examined for Theileria parva infection."}]},{"head":"Further Reading","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"The ILRAD scientists whose work is reported in this and the previous issue of this newsletter have published detailed results of their research in international scientific journals. A selection of their recent publications is listed here. Single copies may be requested from the ILRAD Library. On the antigenic variation in Trypanosoma vivax described in the preceding issue of this newsletter, please see the following. GARDINER, P.R. (1989). Recent studies of the biology of Trypanosoma vivax. In Advances in Parasitology, Volume 28. J.R. Baker and R. Muller, eds. London: Academic Press, pp. 229-317. GARDINER, P.R. and WILSON, A.J.(1987). Trypanosoma (Duttonella) vivax. Parasitology Today 3: 49-52. VOS, G.J., MOLOO, S.K. and GARDINER, P.R. (1988) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE 1 . FIGURE 1. Diagram of the process ILRAD has developed for cloning Theileria parva parasites. The entire process takes about 200 days. These two steps are each repeated twice, using the limiting dilution technique, to ensure that the infected cell population is a true clone. "},{"text":"FIGURE 2 . FIGURE 2. This figure shows (upper left) the stages of the life cycle of the Theileria parva parasite within the bovine host; (upper right) the sporozoite form of the parasite (Sp) in the tick salivary gland; (lower right) the schizont form of the parasite (Sc), which develops from the sporozoite, in the lymphocyte of the animal host; and (lower left) a schizont (Sc) producing merozoite forms of the parasite (arrows), which invade the red blood cells of the animal host. "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 . FIGURE 3. This figure shows (upper left) a partially dissected Rhipicephalus appendiculatus adult tick, which transmits the Theileria parva parasite; (upper right) two piroplasm forms of the parasite in a bovine red blood cell, which are ingested by the tick; (lower right) kinete forms of the parasite (arrows), which invade the tick's salivary glands; and (lower left) parasites (P) in a tick salivary gland; from this early life cycle stage, sporozoite forms of the parasite develop. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" NOTE: If you would like be put on the ILRAD mailing list so as to receive regular issues of this newsletter, as well as an annual report and research highlights, please write to ILRAD's Information Unit, P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya. IRVIN, A.D. (1987). Characterization of species and strains of Theileria. Advances in Parasitology 26: 145-197. DOLAN, T.T.(1989). Theileriosis: a comprehensive review. Revue Scientifique et Technique, Office International des Épizooties 8 (1):   "},{"text":" . Susceptibility of goats to tsetse fly transmitted challenge with Trypanosoma vivax from East and West Africa. Parasitology 96: 25-36.VOS, G.J., MOLOO, S.K., NELSON, R.T. and GARDINER, P.R.(1988). Attempts to protect goats against challenge with Trypanosoma vivax by initiation of primary infections with large numbers of metacyclic trypanosomes. Parasitology 97:383-392.  ILRAD Training Courses in 1990 ILRAD Training Courses in 1990 Date Place Language Title DatePlaceLanguageTitle 12 February-9 March ILRAD English The African Trypanotolerant Livestock 12 February-9 MarchILRADEnglishThe African Trypanotolerant Livestock    Network Network 30 April-5 May ILRAD English and Consultation on Trypanosomiasis in Africa 30 April-5 MayILRADEnglish andConsultation on Trypanosomiasis in Africa   French  French 30 April-25 May ILRAD English Control of TickBorne Diseases, with 30 April-25 MayILRADEnglishControl of TickBorne Diseases, with    Emphasis on East Coast Fever Emphasis on East Coast Fever    Immunization Immunization 3 September-26 ILRAD English The Preparation of Reagents for Use in the 3 September-26ILRADEnglishThe Preparation of Reagents for Use in the October   Diagnosis of Haemoprotozoan Cattle OctoberDiagnosis of Haemoprotozoan Cattle    Diseases Diseases ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ILRAD REPORTS    ILRAD REPORTS International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases En cas de non remise, renyoyer à:   En cas de non remise, renyoyer à: KLM Publication Distribution Service  KLM Publication Distribution Service P.O. Box 75220    P.O. Box 75220 1117 ZT Schiphol, Holland   1117 ZT Schiphol, Holland  "}],"sieverID":"0a836816-c511-43ee-903c-a90931565025","abstract":"Cloning Theileria parva parasites Immunization problems Key questions How Theileria parva parasites are cloned Parasite clones aid research Parasite clones open new areas of investigation The Tick Unit at ILRAD Further reading ILRAD Training Courses in 1990Cloning Theileria parva parasites THE PROTOZOAN parasite Theileria parva causes East Coast fever, a cattle disease that threatens about 25 million animals in eastern and central Africa. The disease is often fatal to susceptible stock and severely restricts livestock production on the continent. It is transmitted by the tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. East Coast fever is controlled conventionally by dipping or spraying cattle regularly with acaricides to kill the ticks. This control method, however, has several drawbacks: ticks are becoming more resistant to the available acaricides and the acaricides are expensive and must be purchased with scarce foreign exchange. In some parts of Africa, moreover, tick control programs are poorly managed and uncontrolled cattle movements lead to the dissemination of infected ticks and disease.For these reasons alternative control methods are being investigated. It has long been known that cattle that survive infection with T. parva are immune to the parasite for years thereafter. This has encouraged researchers to look for an effective vaccine. Several immunization methods have been investigated. A method now being widely tested in laboratories and in the field is to immunize cattle against the disease by first infecting the animals with live sporozoites-the infective form of T. parva transmitted to livestock by ticks -and then treating the cattle with a longacting oxytetracycline. This infectionandtreatment method induces longlasting immunity in livestock, but only against the particular strain or strains of the parasite used to infect the animals. For a vaccine to be effective, parasite material must be used that induces protection against the parasite strains an animal is likely to encounter. There is thus an urgent need to develop tests that will distinguish stocks and strains of T. parva having different immunizing capacities."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"041e569c64a678b4d672db334f717638","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/595b8743-3b7b-48b3-8088-af4b2d34cef6/retrieve"},"pageCount":24,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Results","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"• This example from a feedback report for a female pioneer farmer shows how she improved fattening from year 1 to year 2."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"• Engagement with other farmers for experience exchange, record keeping, and a better understanding of feed quality, as well as minimal training by local experts, supported her in further improving her practice.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" ., Getahun, E., Habermann, B., Frelat, R., Hammond, J. and Crane, T.A. 2023. Ethiopia households and livestock systems adaptation survey (የኢትዮጵያ ቤተሰቦችና የአየር ንብረት ለውጥ መላመጃ የከብት ሥርዓት ጥናት ውጤት). Livestock and Climate Survey Brief. Nairobi, Kenya: ILRI. Permanent link to cite or share this item: https://hdl.handle.net/10568/132365 This work was conducted as part of the CGIAR Initiative Livestock and Climate and is supported by contributors to the CGIAR Trust Fund. CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future dedicated to transforming food, land, and water systems in a climate crisis. This work has been partly financed by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) commissioned by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany (grant number: 2017.0119.2). "}],"sieverID":"e94833db-7244-4386-ba47-4e464565564a","abstract":""}

data/part_3/04a351a30b4973b3c46107826af48490.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04a351a30b4973b3c46107826af48490","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/00134967-15b0-4a72-b155-353fd090bf71/retrieve"},"pageCount":43,"title":"EFFECTS OF WETLAND UTILIZATION ON THE WATER TABLE FOR INTUNJAMBILI WETLAND, MATOPO. An Undergraduate Research Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of Bachelor of Science Honours in Agricultural Engineering","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"LIST OF TABLES","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ABSTRACT","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Intunjambili wetland was used for this research. The wetland was used by farmers for gardening and as pastures for livestock among other uses. Livestock trampling and compaction reduce infiltration whereas furrows used by farmers lower the water table."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"The wetland was divided into three zones according to land use. Ten observation wells were drilled in the wetland and water table monitoring was done for sixty-six days."},{"index":3,"size":187,"text":"Rainfall was also measured during the period of data collection. Response to rainfall recharge varied across the wetland. Zone A only responded to rainfall greater than 20 mm. This was attributed to low infiltration rates caused by livestock trampling and compaction. Water abstraction by phreatophytes also led to a rapid depletion of groundwater in zone A. Wells located in zone B showed that the water table responded immediately to rainfall. Zone B is the area where cultivation was the main activity and it enhanced infiltration. The rise of the water table more the rainfall received was noticed and this was explained by runoff inflow to the wetland from the surrounding rocks. Zone B had the highest water table because farmers irrigated their gardens. In zone C, the water table depleted rapidly soon after each rainfall event but steadied after reaching 400 mm depth. Zone A had an average water table depth of 508 mm compared to 400 mm for zone B and 854 mm for zone A. Human activities had a negative effect on the water regime of the wetland. Gum-tree plantations are not recommended in wetlands."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"Water table lowering methods such as use of furrows and broad beds should run across the slope. Water resources in the Southern Africa region are subject to extreme variability."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"Zimbabwe has not been spared; droughts are frequent occurrences, the 1992 being the most severe drought in the last twenty years. The droughts have resulted in declined food security and living standards particularly in the communal areas. Measures to improve the socio-economic situation by increasing agricultural production need to be taken."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"Adequate arable land is available but water is not sufficient to meet crop water requirements. Wetlands resources have a high potential of increasing agricultural production since they have shallow water table and fertile soils. Irrigation on wetlands can be easily developed without installing expensive sophisticated technology."},{"index":7,"size":108,"text":"Wetlands are one of the most economical valuable resources in communal areas and their utilization should be such that they are available for future generations. Both people and wildlife converge on wetlands for water and food during droughts. According to IUCN fact-sheet on wetland in disaster mitigation (2004) it is stated that, during the 1969-70 drought that affected Zimbabwe, 84% of the farmers with wetland fields were able to support their families. However, considering current wetland management practices such statistics would be impossible to record in the near future. Lack of land use planning and poor agronomic practices can lead to excessive abstraction of water from the wetland."},{"index":8,"size":51,"text":"Wetlands are opened without detailed land use planning for example, planting phreatophitic plants. Use of improper water management methods further compounds the problem. Farmers resort to drainage that they can hardly control as the only alternative to lower the water table, yet there are other options such as shifting planting time."},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"Technically sound wetland management plans need to be developed and implemented."}]},{"head":"Types of wetlands","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Under the Ramsar Convention (1971) wetlands are defined as \" areas of marsh, fen, peatland, or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh or brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters.\" This definition covers all the types of natural and man-made wetlands found in Zimbabwe (Chenje et al, 1996)."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"There are various types of wetlands but the main wetlands in Zimbabwe comprise dambos, pans, floodplains, riverine systems and artificial impoundments. "}]},{"head":"Intunjambili Wetland","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Tuli, a tributary of the Limpopo River, has several wetlands in its catchment. The wetlands cover 416 km 2 and they are all riverine systems (Breen et al, 1997)."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"Intunjambili wetland is located approximately 42 km from Bulawayo along Old Gwanda road. The wetland covers approximately thirty hectares with gentle slopes and is drained by one main stream. Black clay soils rich in organic matter are found in the area making it suitable for crop cultivation. Apart from collecting water for domestic use, the wetland is used as pastures for livestock and for cultivation of different crops. Different water management practices are used for cultivation. The ridge furrow system is dominant and different size combinations are used depending on the crop. Ridges allow for water drainage along the furrow while crops grow on non-saturated ridges. There are also gumtree plantations in the wetland. The local people have been using the wetland, since their settlement in the early 1940s, after the Rhodesian government displaced them."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"All the above activities have different effects on water table. Alteration of the natural ecosystem and change of land use have changed the natural water regime of the wetland besides changes occurring in the catchment. It is therefore imperative to investigate water fluctuations for different land uses so that activities that may lead to excessive abstraction of water from wetlands can be identified and necessary corrective recommendations made. Necessary steps taken also need to be taken to reduce the effect of activities that inhibit recharge of the wetland. The question is not about sustainability only but it also concerns development of an optimal wetland utilization system. The wetland has to remain wet and the livelihoods of the community have to improve."}]},{"head":"OBJECTIVES","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"The main objective is to investigate the fluctuations of the water table level across the wetland. The specific objectives are:"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"1. to investigate the wetland response to rainfall."}]},{"head":"2.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"to investigate the effects of different land use and water management practices on the water table."}]},{"head":"3.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"to provide technical guidelines for planning and development of water management practices that prevent excessive drainage."}]},{"head":"JUSTIFICATION","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Wetlands are socially and economically important natural resources in communal areas of Zimbabwe. Wetlands combine ground water storage and surface storage unlike boreholes where drilling is required or dams where dam walls have to be built. Farmers use wetlands throughout the year and earn their income from crops grown on wetlands. However, due to poor water management practices such as use of random drains, which may drain at more than anticipated rates leading to desiccation, the continued use of these resources is not feasible. Soil degradation and nutrient loss are also likely to occur in uncontrolled drainage of wetlands. Ridges and raised beds used also have a tendency of over draining the wetland thereby necessitating frequent irrigation."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"The study seeks to investigate the response of the wetland water table to rainfall and farming practices. Changes in land use lead to differences in the way the wetland responds to rainfall. There is a need to promote rainfall recharge of the wetland so that water can be available for crop cultivation throughout the year. "}]},{"head":"CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"HISTORY OF WETLANDS UTILIZATION","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Utilization of wetlands dates back to the early civilization in Egypt where settlements were in flood plains along river Nile. Egyptians cultivated crops they traded with in return of other goods. Wetlands were therefore an economically important resource in early Egypt settlement and their utilization expanded across Africa since then. However, in other parts of Africa, the tropics in particular, utilization of and settlement on wetlands exposed man to life threatening diseases such as malaria. This led to the belief that wetlands needed to be drained so that diseases would be controlled. Attempts to enhance agricultural productivity of wetlands in sensitive tropical areas also led to degradation of the wetland resources. Consequently, past legislation had a tendency of preventing utilization of wetlands (Matiza and Crafter, 1994)."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"In Zimbabwe wetlands were cultivated long before the arrival of Europeans. Mharapara (1995) notes that remain of ridges and furrows in many wetland areas throughout Zimbabwe provide evidence of cultivation, a practice currently used by communal farmers. When land was taken over by Europeans in the 1890s, traditional farmers were forcibly relocated to Communal Areas. Commercial farmers opened wetland fields using drainage ditches for water management. In communal areas wetlands were subjected to both human and animal pressure. Drying up and degradation of wetlands was observed."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Poor conservation measures in both commercial and communal areas also contributed to degradation of wetlands (Scoones andCousins, 1991 andMharapara et al, 1995)."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"In However, cultivation on wetlands still continues and it is in this respect that environmentally sound wetland utilization plans need to be developed. The wetlands should remain wet and the livelihoods of communal people need to be uplifted."}]},{"head":"HYDROLOGY OF WETLANDS","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Hydrological characteristics","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Rainwater infiltrates into the soils of the catchment, percolates downwards to supplement ground water reserves and seeps towards low lying wetlands over the sloping horizon, which may be dense clay or bedrock. The wetland is formed where the seepage from the upper catchment accumulates and the water table lies at the ground level."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"In summarizing hydrology characteristics of wetlands Brooks et al (1997) said that wetlands have a shallow water table and flat topography. As a result they are areas that lose large quantities of water via evapotranspiration and produce low levels of discharge to streams. The depth of water governs evapotranspiration and stream flow discharge from wetlands. Annual evapotranspiration far exceeds annual discharge for most wetlands. Wetlands tend to be ground water discharge areas more often than ground water recharge areas and they function much like simple reservoirs; they attenuate flood peaks by temporarily storing or detaining water. Wetlands linked to regional ground water systems exhibit less seasonal fluctuation in water table and stream flow discharge than do wetlands that are perched or otherwise isolated from regional ground water."}]},{"head":"Hydrologic Factors Affecting the Water Table","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Groundwater occurs in many types of geologic formations; those known as aquifers are of vital importance. An aquifer is a formation that contains sufficient saturated permeable material to yield significant quantities of water to wells and springs. It is able to store and transmit water (Arora, 1996 andTodd, 1980). The principal hydrologic properties of the water-bearing stratum, affecting the water table, are porosity, effective porosity or specific yield, specific retention, permeability and direction and maximum ease of percolation. These factors control the entrance of water into water bearing formations and their capacity to hold and transmit it."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Porosity n, of a rock or soil is a measure of contained voids expressed as a ratio of the volume of the interstices to total volume of the stratum. Specific yield S y , is the ratio of the volume of water in an aquifer which can be drained by gravity (or by pumping from wells) to the total volume of the saturated aquifer. Specific retention S r, is the volume of water that cannot be drained out to the total volume of the saturated aquifer."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"n=S y + S r ."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"High porosity does not necessarily lead to specific yield because the same rock or soil mat have low permeability and water may not easily drain out. For example, Arora (1996) notes that clay has 45% porosity and 3% specific yield but sand, which has a lower porosity of 35%, has 25% specific yield."},{"index":5,"size":91,"text":"Coefficient of permeability of permeability is the discharge per unit area of soil mass under unit hydraulic gradient. Permeability is the ease wit which water can flow through a rock or sol mass. Storage coefficient S, of an aquifer is the volume of water released from a prism unit cross sectional area as the water table drops by a unit depth. It is also called storativity. Storage coefficient usually lies between 1*10^-5 and 1*10^-3 . The storativity of an unconfined aquifer is equal to the specific yield (Arora, 1996, Murty, 1998)."}]},{"head":"Vertical Distribution of Groundwater","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Vertical distribution of groundwater is shown in fig 1 below. Groundwater is further divided into two major zones, the saturation zone and zone of aeration. The aeration zone is further sub-divided into three categories; soil water zone, intermediate vadose zone and capillary zone."}]},{"head":"Saturation Zone","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"This is the zone in which the soil is saturated and it is called the phreatic or groundwater zone. This zone lies below the water table. As the water percolates down it fills the pores in the water bearing strata and they become saturated. The surface of saturation of an aquifer is known as the water table. "}]},{"head":"Division of Subsurface Water","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Zone of Aeration","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Aeration or vadose zone lies between the ground surface and water table. The soil in this zone is unsaturated and may contain both air and water. Capillary forces against gravity hold water in this zone. The vadose zone is further divided into three sub-zones."}]},{"head":"Soil water zone","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"This zone is just below ground surface. Plant roots take water from this zone for transpiration."}]},{"head":"Vadose water","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Groundwater or Phreatic water"}]},{"head":"Underlying rock","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Soil water"}]},{"head":"Intermediate vadose zone","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Capillary zone"}]},{"head":"Zone of Aeration","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Zone of Saturation Capillary fringe zone","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"This zone is just above the water table. The water in this zone is by capillary action. The height of the capillary fringe zone depends upon capillary rise, which is dependant on the particle size of the soil."}]},{"head":"Intermediate zone","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The intermediate zone lies between the soil water zone and the capillary fringe zone."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"However, in some formations it is absent and the soil water zone lies above the capillary fringe zone."}]},{"head":"Wetland Water Balance","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Various models for water balance of wetlands have been developed. They reflect the recharge and discharge relationships of wetlands and the surrounding catchments. An illustration of water balance for wetlands is shown in fig 2."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"The general approach of research on wetland hydrological system is to determine natural recharge, discharge characteristics and recharge, discharge relations that develop when wetlands are cultivated. Recharge of wetlands includes groundwater recharge as well as rainfall on the wetland. Discharge comprises of evaporation, transpiration and stream flow, which is the sum of surface drainage and subsurface flow. The dynamics of discharge and recharge lead to change in wetland water storage and are all expressed on the water table of the wetland. Wetland water balance equation:"}]},{"head":"Wetland Water Balance","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Agricultural activities occurring on the wetland directly affect the two components of discharge, as highlighted in fig 1. Response of the wetland to rainfall is also a function of activities occurring at the surface. However, groundwater recharge of the wetland is not significantly affected by human activities done in the wetland but it is influenced by those carried out in the wetland catchment. Research should therefore focus on water management methods that minimize water abstraction and practices that enhance recharge of wetlands by rainfall."}]},{"head":"EFFECTS OF SHALLOW WATER TABLE ON PLANT GROWTH","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Shallow water table results from poor drainage of agricultural land combined with continued deep percolation of water into the soil. The water table is raised to near the surface of the soil and the soil pores within the root zone are filled with subsoil water."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"The air circulation within the root zone is totally stopped. This phenomenon is termed water logging (Arora, 1996 andBasak, 2003). When the water below the surface of the soil, the land is said to be water logged. Water rises by capillary action to the root zone and when this is prolonged, the soil become alkaline and is damaging to crops."},{"index":3,"size":135,"text":"Water logging has several effects on crops and soil properties, some of which are summarized by Basak (2003) as follows. Due to water logging dissolved salts come to soil surface and when water evaporates the salts are deposited there, a process called salinization. The soil becomes alkaline and alkalinity inhibits plant growth. Lack of aeration is another problem that results from water logging. Microorganisms and bacteria die in anaerobic conditions and this results in minimum break down of complex compounds into simple compounds used by plants. Water logging, besides killing the microorganisms, lowers their activity through temperature reduction and consequently the plans do not gat their requisite nutrients. Diseases are prevalent in waterlogged soils and such soils also pose tillage problems. Development of root growth is also restricted to aerated top layer of the soil."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"Shallow water table therefore results in lower yields and death of crops in extreme cases."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"Cultivation of crops on wetlands therefore requires drainage of water in parts that are water logged. However, the proper depth of drainage systems should be used so the right quantity of water is drained and to ensure that the water table remains at manageable level, in terms of frequency of watering or irrigation."}]},{"head":"RESEARCH ON WETLANDS","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"In Zimbabwe documented research on wetlands started in the early twentieth century, when White settlers began commercializing agriculture. Worldwide, a breakthrough on wetlands was made at the Ramsar Convention which was held in 1971. Zimbabwe like many Southern Africa countries has adopted recommendation that were resolved at the Convention pertaining to wetlands. The Convention recognizes the economic, cultural and scientific and recreational importance of wetlands and does not ban their use but advocates for their wise use (Shaw et al, 2004)."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Sustainable utilization of wetlands is not any easy task; wetlands systems are fragile and require care if they are not to be destroyed. They occur within geomorphologically marginal setting and low rainfall (Whitlow, 1984). Gully erosion, stream invasion and desiccation are all ever-present dangers both from human activity and from processes of natural landscape formation. Giesan (1995) also argues that over drainage of wetlands soils may cause irreversible drying, loss of organic matter and fertility and acidification."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"In view of the above considerations, it is apparent that the effects of any activity (grazing, cultivation and drainage, water wells, etc.), on the water table of wetlands should be thoroughly investigated to ensure their sustainable utilization."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"Cultivation and drainage are common activities in Zimbabwean wetlands and several researchers have studied their effects on the water table level. Balek et al (1995) observed that cultivation of wetlands had no significant effects on catchment hydrology but affected evapotranspiration regime and it a factor that may affect downstream yields. It has been argued by Balek and Perry (1973) and Bell et al (1987) for Zambia and Zimbabwe respectively, that evapotranspiration loss is the most significant factor influencing water balance in wetlands. Wetland would therefore naturally dry up due to evapotranspiration loss rather than stream flow discharge if they have natural ecosystems."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"If utilization causes water abstraction less than that which occurs naturally, then wetlands should not desiccate. Changes in natural vegetation must be analyzed with respect to changes in evapotranspiration and surface drainage and their effects on the water regime of wetlands."}]},{"head":"Water Table Monitoring","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The water table is the locus of points where the hydrostatic pressure equals atmospheric pressure. Above the water table, in the vadose zone, soil pores may contain either air or water; hence it is referred to as the zone of aeration. In the phreatic zone, below the water table, interstices are filled with water, sometimes this sis called toe zone of saturation (Murty, 1998)."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"The effects of all agricultural activities occurring on the wetland are reflected on the water table of the wetland. The activities influence both recharge and discharge dynamics. Other activities that happen within the catchments also influence the wetland groundwater system. Observation wells are usually used to monitor fluctuations of groundwater. Observation wells are small diameter pipes (25 mm to 50 mm) installed vertically into the ground. They are useful for determining the depth of the water table from the ground level (Murty, 1998). The depth of observation wells varies with the purpose of study and the expected depth of the water table. For wetlands shallow observation wells are used because the water table is close to the surface. From May to September 1986, the water table level had an average drop of 350 mm, 280 mm and 460 mm for the margin, upper and lower end of the wetland, respectively."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"The lower part had the greatest depth depletion instead of the expected gradual drop of the water table from the top to the bottom end of the wetland. Moreover, the 460 mm average depletion at the lower zone compared to 350 mm at the margin end has significant implications. Change of land use could be the factor responsible for this trend."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"The gardens are located in the lower zone. If the 460 mm drop was mainly due to drainage, then farmers should have been recommended to use the margin zone of the wetland without any drainage."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"Faulkner and Lambert (1987) also monitored the water table fluctuations for the same wetland studied by Bell and others, the Chizengeni wetland. Estimating an increase of 30% over grazing for arrange of vegetables, the researchers show that if 10 ha are intensively cultivated and irrigated then the water table level in the non wetland zone would fall an additional 50 mm, 2.9% of the average fall of 1270 mm. It appears from their work that there is closed supply of water from the aquifer to the wetland yet there could be other abstractions occurring along the way. In other words, the 50 mm drop they predicted could have resulted from hydro-geological factors governing groundwater flow."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"The results could have bee more representative if the observation wells were driven into the wetland as opposed to the aquifer, which is located several meters from the wetland."},{"index":7,"size":38,"text":"The researchers further predicted that with 60% increase in evapotranspiration and 10% of total area irrigated, there would be a 17% depletion of groundwater than would have naturally occurred. Little is known about recharge characteristics of the wetland."},{"index":8,"size":137,"text":"Discharge information becomes more useful when substantiated with recharge information estimating 17% depletion does not say anything about sustainability or optimality of utilization of the wetland resource. Determining recharge of the wetland and subsequently its capacity to supply water for cropping is important for development of optimal utilization plan. Andrieni (1993) unlike most researchers integrated recharge information when he studied ground water fluctuations in four different wetlands. He concluded that water use by gardeners was not dramatically higher than consumption by undisturbed wetland vegetation. It was also documented that the relative water supply decreases as the period of utilization increases. The concept of Relative Water Supply ( RWS) was developed by Levine (1982a), which was defined as the ratio of supply to demand. In his dissertation, Andrieni (1993) described the irrigation system's supply, Su, by the expression:"},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"For irrigation systems the expression for demand, D, is:"},{"index":10,"size":6,"text":"Where R -rainfall on the wetland."},{"index":11,"size":7,"text":"ET n -evapotranspiration from natural wetland vegetation."},{"index":12,"size":4,"text":"G r -groundwater recharge."},{"index":13,"size":5,"text":"ET c -evapotranspiration from crops."},{"index":14,"size":40,"text":"The effect of human induced water drainage, using the ridge furrow system, is not accounted for in the expression for demand. Use of ridges and furrows certainly has an effect on demand and excluding it results in overestimation of RWS."},{"index":15,"size":96,"text":"The first two terms in the supply expression, R and G r do not vary greatly over time, which implies that the significant terms in RWS are ET n , ET c and the volume drained by furrows, V. To maintain RWS > 1 for a utilized wetland, taking account of drainage, ET c + V < ET n . This is, however, partially valid considering that the rainfall records continued decreasing in the past few years. It is important to determine the recharge capacity of wetlands before any plans to exploit the resources are developed."},{"index":16,"size":73,"text":"Andrieni (1993) recorded a RWS of 1.5 for the most intensively exploited of the four wetlands. However, the specific cause of drop of RWS is not pointed out; is it due to increase in demand or due to decrease in supply. Wetland management plans would then be oriented towards the causative factor to ensure continued utilization. A critical value of RWS must have been determined and used as an indicator for sustainable utilization."},{"index":17,"size":40,"text":"In addition, in comparing the four wetlands, the researcher should have closely studied the various types of land use, their extent and intensity. Differences in RWS could have been explained considering land use apart from water management and cropping practices."},{"index":18,"size":128,"text":"Considering the research work that has been done, it is clear that depletion of ground water in wetlands is due to two factors; consumptive use by crops and drainage. It is necessary to determine which of the two is greater so that minimizing the factor that contributes more to water loss from the wetland can reduce water abstraction from the wetland. This information is useful for improvement of productivity of wetlands. More work also has to be done on recharge characteristics of wetlands. This information can then be used to determine the amount of water available for use during the dry season and the subsequent cropping program and cropping intensities. Discharge information alone does not suffice; the difference between recharge and discharge is more important in preventing desiccation."}]},{"head":"CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":30,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":". 1 DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The research was carried out in Intunjambili wetland, one of the several wetlands found in the catchment of Tuli River. The wetland is located 20 0 27 ' S, 28 0 41 ' E and is 1500 m above sea level. This area falls in region four of Zimbabwe's ecological farming regions."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"It is therefore characterized by low annual rainfall, ranging from 400mm to 600 mm and the mean temperature is above 20 0 C. Rains are received in summer from October to March and they are often unevenly distributed over the season. As a result crop failures are prominent but crops grown on wetlands survive. Wetland farmers are therefore more food secure when compared to dry land farmers. During the dry months crops can only be grown in wetlands or under irrigation. However, irrigation is expensive for communal farmers."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"Intunjambili wetland is one the largest wetlands in the catchment with an estimated area of 30 ha. The wetland is perennial and it is also easily accessible. Cultivation of crops and other activities such as fetching domestic water occur throughout the year in the wetland."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"Different methods are used to manage water in the wetland and analysis of these methods is comparable since they are in the same wetland. In addition, various land uses that include pastures, gardens, gum-tree plantations and virgin land are found, making it a potentially good site for research on effects of land use and other aspects on groundwater."},{"index":5,"size":72,"text":"The one-meter profile depth, obtained during drilling of observation wells, showed that the top 200 mm have a mixture of clay and sand particles. The organic matter content in the topsoil was high. Below the 250 mm depth the soil changed to clay up to a depth of 500mm below which sand particles became more dominant. The soils are derived from granite rocks that form an impermeable barrier, resulting in water accumulation."}]},{"head":"ZONING OF INTUNJAMBILI WETLAND AND LOCATION OF OBSERVATION WELLS","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Land use was used as the major parameter for zoning the wetland. The extent of different land use pattern was established and the wetland was categorized into three zones, zone A, zone B and zone C, as shown on the map in figure 3. Zone A is the up slope end of the wetland where grazing is the main activity. Dry land fields and gum-tree plantations were found this zone. Two observation wells were driven into this area. The area was relatively dry and its water table was therefore expected to lower than that of the other two zones."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Zone B was in the middle of the slope. This was where most cultivation occurs; using different methods to lower the water table so that crops grow on properly aerated soils."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"Five observation wells were drilled in this zone. Their location was determined by various factors such as slope but water management practices were the main criteria. In the lower end of the slope, zone C, three observation wells were drilled. These wells were put for comparison of the water table fluctuations in this zone and the other two zones. This zone had limited activities; there were no gardens and it was only used for grazing in dry months of the year. However, this zone was compacted by both man and animals like zone A although to a lower extent. "}]},{"head":"DETERMINATION OF WATER TABLE","index":33,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Observation wells","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Observation wells are small diameter pipes (25 mm to 50 mm) installed vertically into the ground. Observation wells are useful for determining the depth of the water table from the ground level. Water enters the pipe through the entire section of the pipe located below the water table (Murty, 2002). 50 mm diameter observation wells were driven 1m"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"deep into the wetland."}]},{"head":"Water table level measurement","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The level of the water table was measured using a 1200 mm long 32 mm diameter pipe."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"The measuring pipe was sealed at one end with a loss plastic material. When it is inserted into the 50 mm diameter observation well with the open end, air is entrapped when it reaches the water surface and the air pushes the plastic up, producing a sound at the same time. The level of the water table is then read from the scale along on the pipe. The method of water level measurement is illustrated in figure 4."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"The method gives slightly higher readings but the error is consistent. The error in measurement of the water table arises because the plastic does not readily respond as would occur with an electron probe. The tip of the pipe goes into the water to give an appreciable response. An electron probe is recommended for measuring the water table level."}]},{"head":"RAINFALL MEASUREMENT","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Three rain gauges were used to measure rainfall in the wetland. Their locations are shown on the sketch map for the wetland. Rainfall measurements were taken everyday at 8 a.m."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"The average value of the three was used for to investigate how the wetland responded to rainfall.  "}]},{"head":"Water table measurement","index":37,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CHAPTER FOUR","index":38,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ANALYSIS OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"The depth of water table is influenced by several factors. Among them are the location of the observation well and activities occurring on the surface. Activities include type of land use, water management practices on cultivated areas and the types of crops grown in gardens. Different forms of land use have various impacts on the water regime of the wetland. These include both top land or catchment land use and wetland land use."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Catchment land use affects recharge of wetlands than water abstraction from wetlands whereas wetland land use affects both (Ingram, 1991). All these factors affect the response of different parts of the wetland to rainfall as well as the rate of depletion of groundwater from the wetland."}]},{"head":"ZONE A","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"In zone A, the upland portion of the wetland, the major types of land use are grazing and eucalyptus plantation. There are dry land fields as well. Two wells were drilled in this zone, well 1 and well 2. Groundwater fluctuation in this zone is shown in figure 5."},{"index":2,"size":172,"text":"The water table remained lower than 1000 mm in observation well 1 during the period of data collection. This is partial due to its location upslope since water drains under the influence of gravity. The low water table in well 1 could have also resulted from rapid water abstraction by gum-tree plantations that were found in the area. Phreatophytes (deep-rooted plants that obtain their water from the water table or a layer of the soil just above it) have unlimited access to water as long as the wetland does not dry out completely. They therefore transpire at their maximum rate throughout the year (Hough, 1986). In observation well 2, the water table remained above 1000 mm for eighteen days after the first rains. Rapid depletion of groundwater resulted from phreatophytes. Ingram (1991) also notes that the effect of plantation on margins of wetlands causes desiccation. Coppicing, especially in eucalyptus, further accelerates water loss. This, however, is a controversial issue. Clearly, the species, planting population and wetland recharge capacity are all important factors."}]},{"head":"GROUNDWATER MONITORING ZONE","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"However, the fact that the wetland was still recharging cannot be ruled out. This implies that water continued flowing down the slope and thus lowering the water table in this zone A. Groundwater permanently rises in zone A after the zones located down slope have been fully recharged."},{"index":2,"size":174,"text":"The water table record for well 2 shows that groundwater started rising three days after the major rains, reaching a peak of 880 mm on the seventh day. The response to rainfall was not immediate due to low infiltration rates in the zone resulting from livestock soil compaction during grazing. Animal trampling and soil compaction may have a dramatic impact on infiltration and erosion. Hough (1986) noted that trampling by large numbers of cattle reduced porosity by up to 50 percent and permeability by up to 90 percent, at Coweeta, North Carolina in the USA. Soil compaction measurements done by Sibanda (2005) in Intunjambili wetland showed that pastures were more compacted than ungrazed areas. Rainfall in this area gathers on the surface and flows as overland flow. However, this part of the wetland only responded to rainfall above 20 mm. Rainfall less than 20 mm was not effective enough to cause a rise in the water table. This could have resulted from various causes. Antecedent moisture content of the zone could have been causative"},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"factor. When the initial soil moisture content is low, rain falling on a particular land first has to recharge the topsoil and subsoil before deep percolation begins. As the water percolates some of it is lost through evaporation and transpiration before it reaches the water table . The average water table level for zone A was 854 mm."}]},{"head":"ZONE B","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"The fluctuations of groundwater in zone B are shown in figure 6. The response to the first rainfall is not clear due to absence of water mm on day 2 to a low of 880 mm on day 66. This well was located in maize field upslope of well 8 and well 9. Water loss was therefore due gravitational pull and abstraction by maize, which is higher than that of vegetables. The water table in the well responded to rainfall even when it had reached a depth of 800 mm on day 50, which indicates that there are in-flows onto the wetland. 12 mm rainfall was received on day 50 but the water rose by 40 mm in well 7. Runoff from the surrounding rocks resulted in a recharge of 40 mm, 28 mm higher than the rainfall that was received. The same trend was noted in all the observation wells in zone B."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Water table fluctuations for well 8, well Y and well Z were in the range 400 mm to 600 mm from day 49 up to the end of data collection. In well 8, however, the water table was the highest for zone B at the beginning of data collection. It depleted steadily without any rapid drops and responded to all the rainfall events. The area had a maize crop in broad beds that ran across the slope. Water loss from the area was therefore minimal. Well Y and well Z were located in field T and they also had a steady depletion of ground water."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Well Z was located in the an area where raised one meter wide vegetable beds were used whereas well Y was in the garden area where vegetables were planted on plain beds. The use of the raised beds resulted in the water table for well Z remaining lower than that of well Y. The presence of sugar-cane rows close to observation well Z could have also contributed to deletion of water in this well. The two wells Y and Z responded immediately to rainfall."}]},{"head":"ZONE C","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Groundwater fluctuations for zone C are shown in figure 7 below. Zone C is the lower part of the wetland and it is only used for grazing during the dry months of the year."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"There are no gardens in this zone. Three observation wells were drilled in this zone. The water table in all the three wells in this zone responded to all rainfall events that were recorded. However, the water table in well 12 did not rise in response to rainfall that was received on the 50 th day owing to its depth. Rainwater was lost to transpiration and evaporation before it reached the water table. The depth of groundwater was initially low in observation well 12 main due its location close to a gully head. It remained lower than that of the other two wells throughout."}]},{"head":"GROUNDWATER MONITORING ZONE C","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"The water table for well 10 and well 11 was at the surface at beginning of data collection."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"This could have resulted from a number of causes. The wells were located in the core part of the wetland and all the runoff coming from the surrounding rocks flows towards this zone. When runoff gets to this zone flow is retarded by grass that was densely covered the soil. Subsurface water also emerged at this part of the wetland. The water table started dropping as soon as the rainfall stopped. Subsurface flow could not meet transpiration losses that were at a peak rate. The effect of transpiration was shown by a sudden reduction in the rate of water depletion around day 15. The rate of water loss reduced because less roots were accessing water when the water table reached 400 mm depth."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Water loss by transpiration was accelerated by active growth of grass that was in turn enhanced by nutrients leached from the nearby gardens. Farmers used fertilizers such ammonium nitrate in their gardens."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"The water table in zone fluctuated between 400 mm and 600 mm after it had steadied three weeks after the major rains. There were noticeable rapid drops however, due to underground water influence and subsurface delayed recharge."}]},{"head":"COMPARISON OF THE ZONE B AND C","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The average fluctuations of the water Recharge and discharge from the two zones, B and C, were equal from day 25 to end of data collection. Zone B had an average groundwater depth of 400 mm in field S and 429 mm in field T and it remained higher than that of zone C, which had an average of 508 mm, because farmers were irrigating gardens."}]},{"head":"CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The data collected was insufficient for concrete conclusions to be drawn. Some more informative analyses of results such as determination of correlation between rainfall and the rise of the water table were not done. However, the analyses groundwater fluctuation results that were collected led to the following conclusions. "}]},{"head":"CHAPTER SIX","index":47,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"RECOMMENDATIONS","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"The change of water storage in the wetland is result of human interaction with the wetland system. The recommendations that were developed followed from the discussion of the results and conclusions that were drawn. 4. Phreatophytes (gum-trees and sugar-cane) should not planted in wetlands."}]},{"head":"GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"5. Stocking intensities should be reduced."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"6. Ridges that run across the slope should be constructed in zone A to facilitate water infiltration."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"7 Shifting planting dates to prevent tillage problems associated with water logging."}]},{"head":"GUIDELINES FOR WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Proper water management practices should take into account the following factors:"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"• Slope."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"�� Layout of water management system."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"• Depth of water table."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"• Type of crops to be grown."},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":"• Physical soil characteristics."},{"index":7,"size":79,"text":"Further research needs to be done on the five factors outlined above for the wetland so that comprehensive data base for water management can be developed for Intunjambili wetland. Soils of the wetland need to be tested for parameters such as porosity and the rooting characteristics of the crops grown also need to be studied. This calls for research by specialists from different fields and with such effort the wetland can be used productively without any fears of desiccation."}]},{"head":"R E F E R E N C E S","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"A n d r i e n i , M . , 1 9 9 3 . T h e M a n a g e m e n t o f I r r i g a t i o n S y s t e m s i n "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Flood plains are found in the mid-Zambezi valley and around the Save Runde confluence in South-eastern Zimbabwe. In the Zambezi, the major permanent pools are the Mana Pools surrounded by swampy land and a series of varying sized pools lying in the depressions of the former river channel. Riverine wetlands are usually characterized by riparian vegetation such as Acacia tetracantha, Cordyla africana, Croton megalobotrys, Anibourtia conjugate, Pteleopis myrtifolia, Salvadora angustifolia, Xanthocercis zambeziana and Terminalia gazensis (Hughes and Hughes, 1992). Riverine wetlands are found in the Save-Runde catchments, Manyame, Gwayi, Shangani, Mazowe and Sanyathi basins. The dambo, a palustrine wetland is widely distributed in Zimbabwe. With an estimated area of 1.28 million hectares, dambos are an important wetland resource in Zimbabwe (Matiza, 1994). Informal irrigation is popular in dambo wetland areas. Water supply to dambos is a combination of residual moisture and shallow lift ground water. Pans are not widely spread in Zimbabwe. They occur mainly in Tsholotsho communal land and Hwange National Park in the western districts. In the southern districts pans are found in Gonarezhou National Park and some parts of Mwenezi districts. Due to its position on the plateau of Southern Africa, Zimbabwe does not possess significant areas of swamps. Notable swamps include Tsamsta and Kwazulu swamps, both located in the low rainfall areas. Artificial impoundments include lake Kariba, Mitirikwi, Chivero, Manyame, and Mazvikadei dams, among others. "},{"text":"Fig 1 : Fig 1: Distribution of subsurface water. "},{"text":"Fig 2 : Fig 2: Wetland water balance diagram (Modified from Andrieni, 1993). "},{"text":" Groundwater level fluctuation across the wetland follows the general slope of the wetland area as evidenced by the work that was done byMharapara et al (1995). The researchers documented groundwater fluctuations in the period 1987 to 1989 for the research at Makaholi Experiment Station. The observation wells were drilled in a straight line from the top to the lower end of the wetland. The lowest water table was recorded at the top, lower in the middle and shallow at the down slope end. However, the location of observation wells in a straight line could have introduced some bias. A more representative trend would have come out if observation wells were scattered.Bell et al (1987) recorded runoff and groundwater fluctuations for Chizengeni wetland. "},{"text":"Observation well 9 was located where 200 mm to 350mm drainage furrows were used for growing vegetables. Vegetable beds 1m wide were used with the furrows. The location of this was down slope of well No 8 and well No 7 in field S. Well No 8 was located where maize was grown without any water management methods. Well No 7 was driven to serve as a reference well for both well No 8 and well No 9. Well No 7 was drilled up slope of the two wells in field S. Two wells were drilled in field T, which is also in zone B. Well No X and well No Y, were located where vegetables were grown on raised beds, without any furrows. "},{"text":"Fig 4 : Fig 4: Water level measurement diagram. "},{"text":"Fig 5 : Fig 5: Groundwater fluctuations for zone A. "},{"text":"Fig 7 : Fig 7: Groundwater fluctuations for zone C. "},{"text":" t h e D a m b o s o f Z i m b a b w e .A r o r a , K . R . , 1 9 9 6 . I r r i g a t i o n W a t e r P o w e r a n d W a t e r R e s o u r c e s E n g i n e e r i n g , 1 s t e d i t i o n , S t a n d a r d P u b l i s h e r s , D e h l i . B a s a k , N . N . , 2 0 0 3 . I r r i g a t i o n E n g i n e e r i n g , 4 t h e d i t i o n , T a t a M c G r a w -H i l l P u b l i s h i n g , N e w D e h l i .h e u s e o f D a m b o s i n R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t w i t h R e f e r e n c e t o Z i m b a b w e . B r e e n , C . M . , Q u i n n , N . M . a n d M a l d e r , J . J ( e d i t o r s ) , 1 9 9 7 . W e t l a n d s C o n s e r v a t i o n a n d M a n a g e m e n t f o r S o u r t h e n A f r i c a : C h a l l e n g e s a n d O p p o r t u n i t i e s , I U C N R O S A , H a r a r e . B r o o k s K . N . , F f o l l i o t t , P . F . , G r e g e r s e n , H . M a n d D e B a n o , L . F . , 1 9 9 7 . H y d r o l o g y a n d M a n a g e m e n t o f W a t e r s h e d s , 2 n d e d i t i o n , I o w a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . B u l l o c k , A . , 1 9 9 5 . H y d r o l o g a c a l S t u d i e s f o r P o l i c y F o r m u l a t i o n i n Z i m b a b w e ' s C o m m u n a l L a n d s . I n O w e n , R . , V e r b e e k , K . , J a c k s o n , J . a n d S t e e n h u i s , T . ( e d i t o r s ) , D a m b o F a r m i n g i n Z i m b a b w e , U n i v e r s i t y o f Z i m b a b w e , H a r a r e . C h e n j e , M . ( e d i t o r ) , 2 0 0 0 . S t a t e o f t h e E n v i r o n m e n t Z a m b e z i B a s i n , S A D C / I U C N / Z R A / S A R D C , M a s e r u / L u s a k a / H a r a r e . C h e n j e , M . a n d J o h n s o n , P . ( e d i t o r s ) , 1 9 9 6 . W a t e r i n S o u t h e r n A f r i c a , S A D C / I U C N / S A R D C , M a s e r u / H a r a r e . H o u g h , J . , 1 9 8 6 . M a n a g e m e n t A l t e r n a t i v e s f o r I n c r e a s i n g D y S e a s o n B a s e f l o w i n t h e M i o m b o W o o o d l a n d s o f S o u t h e r n A f r i c a I n A m b i o , A J o u r n a l o f t h e H u m a n E n v i r o n m e n t , V o l . 1 5 , N o . 6 . I n g r a m , J . , 1 9 9 1 . S o i l a n d W a t e r p r o c e s s e s p a r t 2 . I n S c o o n e s , I . ( e d i t o r ) . W e t l a n d s i n D r y l a n d s : T h e A g r o e c o l o g y o f S a v a n n a S y s t e m s i n A f r i c a , I I E D , L o n d o n . I . U . C . N , 2 0 0 4 . W e t l a n d s i n D i s a s t e r M i t i g a t i o n , F a c t s h e e t , I m p a c t o f W a t e r R e l a t e d N a t u r a l D i s a s t e r s . M a t i z a , T . a n d C r a f t e r , S . A . , ( e d i t o r s ) 1 9 9 4 . W e t l a n d s E c o l o g y a n d P r i o r i r i e s f o r C o n s e r v a t i o n i n Z i m b a b w e : P r o c e e d i n g o f a S e m i n a r o f W e t l a n d s o f Z i m b a b w e , I U C N , S w i t z e r l a n d . M h a r a p a r a , I . M . , 1 9 9 5 . A F u n d a m e n t a l A p p r o a c h t o D a m b o U t i l i z a t i o n p p 1 -7 . I n O w e n , R . , V e r b e e k , K . , J a c k s o n , J . a n d S t e e n h u i s , T . ( e d i t o r s ) , D a m b o F a r m i n g i n Z i m b a b w e , U n i v e r s i t y o f Z i m b a b w e , H a r a r e . t a i n a b l e U t i l i z a t i o n o f V l e i s p p 7 0 -9 0 . I n T w o m l o w , S . , E l l i s -J o n e s , J . , H a g m a n n , J . a n d L o s s , H . , S o i l a n d W a t e r C o n s e r v a t i o n f o r S m a l l h o l d e r F a r m e r s i n S e m i -a r i d Z i m b a b w e - "},{"text":"TABLE Page Table 1………………………………………………………   .4 .4 Table 2………………………………………………………..35 Table 2………………………………………………………..35  ACRONYMS ACRONYMS AREX AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH and EXTENSION. AREXAGRICULTURAL RESEARCH and EXTENSION. IUCN WOLRD CONSERVATION UNION IUCNWOLRD CONSERVATION UNION EMA ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT ACT EMAENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT ACT  "},{"text":"table comes  Rainfall Evapotranspiration Evaporation + Rainfall on RainfallEvapotranspirationEvaporation +Rainfall on on wetland from watershed Transpiration, Eo + Et. wetland, P. on wetlandfrom watershedTranspiration, Eo + Et.wetland, P.   Wetland Storage,S.  Wetland Storage,S. Watershed   Watershed   Wetland recharge from Stream flow from Wetland recharge fromStream flow from Groundwater recharge groundwater, Gr. wetland Groundwater rechargegroundwater, Gr.wetland from watershed   ( subsurface flow from watershed( subsurface flow    + +    surface drainage ), surface drainage ),    Q. Q.  Ground Storage,  Ground Storage,   to 1500 mm to 1500 mm  "},{"text":" Compaction is an important factor influencing the response of the water table to rainfall. Streams draining the wetland also flow across this area and they influence the level of the water table as well. Observation well No 10 was driven down slope of the wells in field S and upslope of well No 11 and well No 12. The aim was to find out if cultivation has any significant effect on water loss through evapotranspiration i.e. wells in field S, compared to evapotranspiration from natural wetland vegetation i.e. well No 10. Well No 11 also served the same purpose. It is located down slope of wells in field T.  "},{"text":" table depth of less than one meter. The data consists of rainfall and water table level measurements. Microsoft excel was used for data preparation and subsequent data analysis.  Mphooo!! Mphooo!! Plastic seal φ32 Plastic sealφ32  Ground Level Ground Level Depth of  Depth of water table  water table  Measuring pipe Measuring pipe  touching the touching the  water surface water surface Water surface  Water surface  φ50 φ50  "},{"text":" table data prior to the first rainfall event. The water table remained high (around 200mm from the surface) in all the five wells although the rainfall was decreasing. The rainfall that continued falling after the first 20 mm major rains was adequate to compensate for the water loss through evaporation, transpiration and drainage, thereby maintaining a constant water table. Inflows from the surrounding rocks also replenished water loss from zone B.The water table continued dropping to below 200 mm for all the wells six days after the rainfall that was received on the fifth day of data collection. Thereafter, groundwater depletion showed different trends for various wells. In well 9, a rapid drop of 280 mm was noted on day 16. This was attributed to water drainage by furrows that ran down the slope which were used by farmers to lower the water table. Giesan (1995) documented that furrows can lead to over drainage. In contrast, Mharapara et al(1995)  suggested that furrows and ridge system conserve water. The effect of furrows on the water table depends on their orientation with respect to slope, their depth among other physical factors. Farmers used 200-300 mm deep furrows. The water table in observation well 9, however, remained high (300 mm from the surface) throughout the period of data collection although rapid depletions were noted, indicating that the area had a higher potential of water loss by drainage. The water table remained high in observation well 9 because farmers were irrigating vegetables daily and the rapid drops in water table recorded occurred when farmers changed frequency of irrigation.The water table in well 7 depleted at the fastest rate in zone B, string from a high of 160    GROUNDWATER MONITORING ZONE B GROUNDWATER MONITORING ZONE B         Time (days)      Time (days)   1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 61 65 1591317212529333741454953576165   0               25 025 Water Level Depth (mm) 200 400 600 800               5 10 15 20 Rainfall (mm) Water LevelDepth (mm)200 400 600 8005 10 15 20Rainfall (mm)   1000               0 10000   P     ob well 7   ob well 8   ob well 9 Pob well 7ob well 8ob well 9   ob well Y   ob well Z        ob well Yob well Z Fig 6: Groundwater fluctuation for zone B.        Fig 6: Groundwater fluctuation for zone B.  "},{"text":" table for the three zones are shown in figure 8.  "},{"text":" Cultivated areas responded immediately to rainfall and greater than grazing areas and virgin parts but depletion of the water table in cultivated areas was rapid soon after the rainfall had stopped. Use of furrows in the gardens caused rapid depletion of groundwater. In fields where broad beds were used, the water table depleted at a lower rate than where furrows were used. Irrigation in the gardens recharged the groundwater and the water table for zone B remained high.Dense grass cover in zone C reduced water flow and this kept the water at the surface.Water rate of water abstraction by grass from this zone was higher when the water table was close to the surface but reduced as the water depth dropped. Water that infiltrated and recharged the wetland emerged in zone C. The stream passing through zone C and recharged the wetland emerged in zone C. The stream passing through zone C drained the wetland. drained the wetland. Plantations of gum-trees negatively impacted on the water regime of the wetland. Soil Plantations of gum-trees negatively impacted on the water regime of the wetland. Soil compaction and livestock trampling particularly in zone A also negatively impacted on compaction and livestock trampling particularly in zone A also negatively impacted on the water table of the wetland. the water table of the wetland. Runoff from the surrounding rock outcrops significantly recharged the wetland. The Runoff from the surrounding rock outcrops significantly recharged the wetland. The water table had noted rises without rainfall. This was a result of natural groundwater water table had noted rises without rainfall. This was a result of natural groundwater fluctuations or it was caused by delayed subsurface recharge from the surrounding fluctuations or it was caused by delayed subsurface recharge from the surrounding catchments. catchments.  "},{"text":" 1. Water table measurements should be done for areas where gardens are located, at least for one season prior to the cultivation of the particular portion of the wetland. The water table measurements can be substantiated with simulation for different weather conditions.  "}],"sieverID":"0ac72c35-635d-46f6-8459-c5914c11ab49","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04d2499066c549f009705a510f945554","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/54974ecd-03c5-48d5-8167-b3bf7ba52e8f/retrieve"},"pageCount":31,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Executive Summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"This purpose of this document is to propose:"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• An impact business model for restoration of degraded landscapes (\"LandscapeCPR\")."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"• A possible structure for a \"Landscape Restoration Fund\", which would fund businesses with environmental benefits in, for example, the Makueni County landscape. The Landscape Restoration Fund is intended to be replicable and scalable This document is not a business plan, the creation of which would be a next step towards set-up of the proposed businesses."}]},{"head":"LandscapeCPR","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"The LandscapeCPR business proposed in this document is a farm development and assetmanagement model, in which an asset manager operating equitably, transparently and on a \"do no harm basis\" develops investment opportunities for impact investors seeking financial, environmental and social returns by organising:"},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"• Purchase of a farm (\"LandscapeFarmCo\") following a due diligence process which ensures the land purchase process will not disadvantage vulnerable individuals or communities in areas in which the farm is located • Investment for restoration of the farm's ecological function and productivity increase • Creation of an outgrower network of smallholder farmers into a professionally-managed farmer cooperative, which supplies LandscapeFarmCo (the \"nuclear farm\") with produce. Produce offtake contracts will require land restoration as a condition of produce sale, and • Sale of the improved farm and its outgrower network to either the farmer cooperative or a third party buyer, thereby returning investment funds to investors"},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"The business will take the following structure organised as an investable and exitable structure into four components, elaborated below Figure 1. "}]},{"head":"Investors FarmHold Co Investors","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"• \"LandscapeCPR\": will (i) organise investment for development of new farms, (ii) incorporate, build and sell sustainable farm companies, and (iii) provide proprietary expertise, know-how and farm management systems for set up of farming businesses, all on the LandscapeCPR model. LandscapeCPR is the asset manager. • \"LandscapeFarmCo\": will (i) acquire land, (ii) establish farming systems for (a) increased on-farm produce yield, (b) improvement of ecological function, and (c) marketing and sale of produce. Improved farming systems will comprise (i) assets such as boreholes, irrigation systems and water storage, as well as (ii) management systems for those assets and farm staff. LandscapeFarmCo will be owned by FarmHoldCo."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• \"FarmHoldCo\": will hold the investment in underlying farming assets, which will be held in the name of the investors. Multiple FarmHoldCos will ultimately be established."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"• \"Farmer Cooperative\": will organise and mobilise smallholder farmers for distribution of inputs, training, production and produce aggregation. LandscapeFarmCo will take an ownership share in the cooperative in order to ensure that a professional management supplied by LandscapeFarmCo under a management services contract will manage the Farmer Cooperative."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"LandscapeCPR will be able to set up and run clones of LandscapeFarmCo, both within one landscape and across multiple landscapes. As such, the model is designed to be both replicable and scalable."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"The business is also designed to be \"exitable\". Within a defined timeframe, LandscapeCPR will arrange for the sale of LandscapeFarmCo and its associated outgrower network to either the Farmer Cooperative or an aligned third party buyer."}]},{"head":"Funding & the Landscape Restoration Fund","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"This document further sets out the likely funding trajectory for the LandscapeCPR business, including what could potentially be funded either in whole, or more likely in part, by a Landscape Restoration Fund, if such an entity is to be established (Figure 2 overleaf)."}]},{"head":"Next Steps","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The document provides the rationale for the following next steps:  "}]},{"head":"List of Figures","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"1.1. CIAT is considering how to achieve landscape restoration targets through a sustainably-financed business model, or \"impact business\". An impact business is run with the intention of generating social and environmental impact alongside a financial return 1 ."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"1.2. In theory, a sustainably-financed business model does not rely on donors for funding, because the business will attract private investment by creating sufficient revenue relative to costs, and thereby generate a profit, providing a financial return for investors. In practice, many impact businesses are supported with grant capital, at least in their early stages, on the justification that private investors will not take risks on (i) unproven businesses, and (ii) unknown geographical regions. Grants therefore allow for proof-of-concept to be developed or to reduce the risk associated with later-stage investments, improving \"risk-adjusted rate of return\" ratios, to levels for which private investment is mandated."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"1.3. Within the business model under consideration by CIAT, the business will pursue financial returns alongside sustainable agricultural practices including agricultural intensification."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"1.4. The purpose of the venture is to create a profitable farming business, consisting of \"nucleus\" farms situated strategically in degraded landscapes 2 , which is sustainable both financially and environmentally. The business can (i) serve as a model to surrounding landscape farms for sustainability and climate-smart practices, (ii) can serve as a distribution hub for climate-smart farming inputs, (iii) can catalyse and mobilise farmers within the wider landscape to (a) supply a \"nucleus farm\" with produce, and (b) participate in ecological restoration activities which benefit the landscape and produce important local and global public goods."}]},{"head":"Business Model","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"2.1. In order to serve the above purposes, the following farm development and asset management business is proposed, illustrated in Figure 1 below:"},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"• Creation of a sustainable farming business (\"LandscapeFarmCo\"), which will be a small intensive commercial farming operation growing produce using sustainable, climate-smart farming practices. LandscapeFarmCo will sell its produce to the local and international market."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• LandscapeFarmCo will be purchased, developed and sold at a profit."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"• The process of farm acquisition, development and sale will be managed by a farm development and asset management company (\"LandscapeCPR\"), explained further in section 3."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"• LandscapeFarmCo will also serve as a \"nucleus farm\" serving as the centre of a smallholderoutgrower operation: training, supplying with inputs, aggregating and selling produce from smallholders within the landscapes. Training will include (i) Good Agriculture Practice (GAP), and (ii) best practice sustainability and climate mitigation or adaptation practices."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"• To facilitate offtake of produce, LandscapeFarmCo will organise smallholder farmers into a farmer cooperative, owned by its members and with a stake held by LandscapeFarmCo. The farmer cooperative will be run by a professional management supplied by LandscapeFarmCo under a management services agreement."},{"index":7,"size":194,"text":"• Within this framework, LandscapeFarmCo will be able to (i) invest in agricultural improvement in the wider landscape, (ii) require that contracted smallholder producers use sustainable farming practices, which it will be able to monitor using the SustainiFi platform (a green accounting activity tracking and impact verification and reporting tool), and (iii) aggregate land managers and mobilise them through training, financial incentives or similar for improved environmental management where that is cashflow positive for LandscapeFarmCo. This type of activity can be achieved, for example, through the Chemoka and/or GreenFi platforms. In this way, LandscapeFarmCo will serve as a magnet for an ecosystem of actors contributing to the sustainability of the Landscape. 2.2. This is not a new business model. Farm development businesses exist around the world, and some also add sustainability as a dimension to their management. For example, several businesses acquire commodity farmland, develop it into an organic farm and run it on behalf of their investors before disposal at a supposed increase in price. Examples of such businesses include Farmland LP, Impact Ag, Iriquois Valley, Land Fund Partners, Local Farms Fund, Sustainable Farm Partners and Biological Capital, all of which are US-focused."},{"index":8,"size":58,"text":"2.3. The \"nucleus\" farm/outgrower model is also not an innovation, as many such businesses exist in East Africa. The novelty of LandscapeCPR is leveraging these models to incentivise adoption of sustainable agricultural practices and participation in the wider landscape, which builds on a track record of experience of training smallholders in Good Agricultural Practices by the contracting off-taker."},{"index":9,"size":31,"text":"2.4. The innovation in the above-described approach is in linking the asset management model to the outgrower model as a vehicle for financial and environmental returns at scale in a landscape."}]},{"head":"Establishing the Business","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"3.1. Organisation of the business: investment, set-up, operation and disposal will require the following structure, split into four components, and is illustrated below."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"• \"LandscapeCPR\": will (i) organise investment for development of new farms, (ii) incorporate, build and sell sustainable farm companies, and (iii) provide proprietary expertise, know-how and farm management systems for set up of farming businesses, all on the LandscapeCPR model. LandscapeCPR is the asset manager."}]},{"head":"LandscapeFarmCo Farmer Cooperative","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Management Management Produce Supply Relationship"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Landscape Restoration Fund for a \"LandscapeCPR\" Business Model"},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"• \"LandscapeFarmCo\": will (i) acquire land, (ii) establish farming systems for (a) increased on-farm produce yield, (b) improvement of ecological function, and (c) marketing and sale of produce. Improved farming systems will comprise (i) assets such as boreholes, irrigation systems and water storage, as well as (ii) management systems for those assets and farm staff. LandscapeFarmCo will be owned by FarmHoldCo."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"• \"FarmHoldCo\": will aggregate investments in the underlying farming assets, which will be held in the name of the investors."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"• \"Farmer Cooperative\": will organise and mobilise smallholder farmers for distribution of inputs, training, production and produce aggregation. LandscapeFarmCo will take an ownership share in the cooperative in order that a professional management supplied by LandscapeFarmCo under a management services contract will manage the Farmer Cooperative. Cooperatives have historically performed well where the management and officers are professional staff rather than nominated members."},{"index":6,"size":57,"text":"3.2. LandscapeCPR will be able to set up and run clones of LandscapeFarmCo, both within one landscape and across multiple landscapes. As such, the model is designed to be both replicable and scalable. 4.2. These returns will attract the private investment necessary to both set-up the farms, and finance buy-out of the farm when it reaches maturity. "}]},{"head":"Investors","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"FarmHold Co Investors 4.3. We aim to achieve the exit within 7-10 years, matching investor fund cycles. Whilst the landscape restoration cycle may take up to 25 years, it is intended that systems are embedded, stable and functioning autonomously over a shorter time period."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"4.4. In order to facilitate this exit, LandscapeFarmCo will be set-up by a farm development and assetmanagement company (LandscapeCPR) which also holds the intellectual property relating to management systems used to set up and run LandscapeFarmCo. Once LandscapeFarmCo is sold, LandscapeCPR will collect the proceeds of the sale and return this sum to investors, less its share of the return. Subject to requirements, investors can also invest directly in LandscapeFarmCo and exit upon sale of shares. Both models may be required because many funds are restricted in the geographical mandate of their funds. "}]},{"head":"Just Transition","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"5.1. There are questions about the extent to which climate finance, mitigation and adaptation will contribute to a \"just transition\" in the global food system and ecological sustainability."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"5.2. In the model described above, the business will build:"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"• The financial capital of investors"},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"• Global natural capital, through production of natural capital goods"},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"• The financial capital of smallholder farmers participating as outgrowers and profiting through their contractual relationship with LandscapeFarmCo"},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"• The natural capital of smallholder farmers as they are supported to invest in the sustainability of their farming assets"},{"index":7,"size":30,"text":"• The social capital and agency of smallholder farming communities as they become engaged in collective planning and restoration of their natural assets, the land and water that they manage."}]},{"head":"Third Party Purchaser","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"FarmHoldCo","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"LandscapeFarmCo","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Farmer Cooperative","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Old Ownership Relationship Produce Supply Relationship New Ownership Relationship Purchase Price 5.3. The proposition for a just outcome can be strengthened if LandscapeFarmCo is sold to its contracted smallholder outgrowers, grouped into a farmer's cooperative (or alternative vehicle) managed by the LandscapeFarmCo professional management team. • Private finance can be mobilised to develop LandscapeFarmCo."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• Private finance can be mobilised to finance the sale of LandscapeFarmCo to its related smallholders."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• The model provides a certain exit to initial investors in LandscapeFarmCo."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"• It develops and leaves an asset in the ownership of landscape smallholders, which if financed on appropriate terms contributes to a \"just transition\"."}]},{"head":"Environmental Management Model","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"6.1. LandscapeFarmCo will achieve its environmental impact by: (i) adopting on-farm cropmanagement systems which both mitigate climate change through soil carbon sequestration and reduced emissions and help farmers adapt to climate change risk, (ii) buying produce from outgrowers who adopt the same farm management systems, (iii) investing in green farming technology such as solar (drip) irrigation, improved drought-resistant forages, agroecological practices and more, while (iv) mobilising landscape farmers to think, plan and act collectively using a Landscape Approach 3 ."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"6.2. LandscapeFarmCo will report against the following environmental impact metrics, amongst others, which will be aggregated into LandscapeCPR's reporting tool:"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• Land Indirectly Controlled: Sustainably Managed (PI6796)"},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"3 A Landscape Approach can be defined as a long-term process of regaining ecological functionality and enhancing human well-being across degraded landscapes comprising overlapping ecological, social and economic activities and values. "}]},{"head":"FarmHoldCo","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Scale and Replication","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"7.1. The activities of LandscapeFarmCo will be scaled within landscapes by contracting and training outgrowers."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"7.2. LandscapeCPR will replicate the LandscapeFarmCo model across landscapes by either (i) in the short term, raising investment for and developing new farming businesses, (ii) in the long term, licensing its approach and methodology to interested actors in new landscapes, who will use LandscapeCPR methodologies, tools and systems."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"7.3. Additionally, there is scope for LandscapeCPR to be knowledge partner to agricultural and landscape restoration research organisations, like CGIAR institutions. Under such a relationship there would be a two-way transfer of knowledge and experience between a substantial commercial farming business which can scale best-practice practices which mitigate agricultural climate-risk • Commodity farmland privately-owned by third parties and currently under farm management"},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"• Farmland privately-owned by third parties, but in a degraded condition and abandoned for farming purposes"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• Privately-owned land consolidated under lease or by purchase"}]},{"head":"Needs of business and forms business can take","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"9.1. As discussed above, there will be several components to the business, which will be set up within different \"wrappers\". The two entities with operational functions are set out below and this section provides a justification for the legal form these businesses will take."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"• \"LandscapeCPR\": will develop new sustainable farming ventures and hold all IP related to the set-up of LandscapeFarmCos. LandscapeCPR can either raise funds for development of LandscapeFarmCo as equity in LandscapeHoldCos, or it can arrange for investments directly into these businesses."},{"index":3,"size":158,"text":"• \"LandscapeFarmCo\": owned by LandscapeHoldCo, which will undertake the on-the-ground set-up and management of the farm, and own farming assets. 9.2. The following table sets out the possible/likely needs of each business, which will inform the type of vehicle used for the business.  1, the business for both LandscapeFarmCo and LandscapeCPR would typically be a limited company. The table in Annex 1 lists the different types of vehicles for doing business available in Kenya, which provides a logic for why the venture under consideration would be undertaken through a company. 9.4. In particular, as investors' exit will be realised through the sale of LandscapeFarmCo, it is important that this entity is capable of sale and proceeds of sale distributed to investors. This means the business should be set up as a company. As an aside, businesses can be operated through NGOs, but they will not be able to raise equity investment needed for the scaling of the business."}]},{"head":"LandscapeCPR","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Governance","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"10.1. Company law, including in Kenya, creates a governance structure for companies. Kenyan law further provides for a governance structure for farmer cooperatives. Reflecting the structures created for governance by law, the corporate entities needed for the running of the business will be governed in accordance with the framework overleaf. "}]},{"head":"Equity (fairness)","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"11.1. Equity in business refers to ownership of company shares. In natural resource management, equity more frequently refers to fairness in the balance of costs and benefits between different natural resource stakeholders related to any management intervention. This second type of equity -fairness -is as important in the LandscapeCPR approach detailed here as the first, because: (i) LandscapeCPR has at its heart simultaneous improvement of livelihoods and landscape functionality, and (ii) acquisition of land as part of development projects has a long history of inequitable outcomes for the communities in which agricultural development projects are situated."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"11.2. In response to this concern, the LandscapeCPR approach needs to embed core \"equity principles\" in its business model, so that its aims are achieved in an equitable manner and outcomes and procedures are subject to a full third party audit to ensure transparency and accountability."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"11.3. In order to do this, LandscapeCPR will use best-practice operating guidelines designed to achieve fairness in access, process and outcome for all participants, according to the standards developed by the communities themselves amongst whom LandscapeCPR operates. Core guidelines will be developed further for the specific LandscapeCPR use-case."}]},{"head":"The Funding Ecosystem","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"12.1. The generalised funding ecosystem is shown visually in Figure 8 overleaf."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"12.2. The funding ecosystem is somewhat different for companies operating in the impact or development arena, and this adapted ecosystem is also shown visually in Figure 9."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"12.3. These classes of actor are listed below together with the types of funding instruments which they use. A description of these funding instruments is provided at Table 2. "}]},{"head":"Funding Types","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"13.1. LandscapeCPR and LandscapeFarmCo will make use of the following forms of capital, particularly in their early stage: "}]},{"head":"Ownership & Governance","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"15.1. If a landscape finance facility was privately established, then its ownership, governance and management structures would be in the decision of the private owners."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"15.2. However, given the nature of organisations with an interest in setting up such facilities, the ownership, governance and management structures of any such facility would likely need to be negotiated and agreed by the facility's stakeholders, including (i) investors, (ii) local and national authorities, and (iii) civil society groups resident within the landscape. The process of negotiation and agreement is likely to be challenging, but the outcome will hopefully be a structure that is well-supported and for which there is substantial local commitment."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"15.3. It is inevitable that some if not all funding (in certain circumstances) is likely to be public money."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"In some funds, this can serve as the anchor for a blended fund, but in other landscapes, it may be that all funds are public funds because private investment will not be available."}]},{"head":"Competition Amongst Landscape Funds","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"16.1. If Landscape Restoration Funds wish to attract private or public capital, they will need to compete on terms of (i) good governance and structure, (ii) management quality, (iii) investment pipeline, and later, (iv) financial and environmental track record. Competitive tension will be important in establishing funding entities which are sufficiently transparent to meet the scrutiny requirements for managing public funds."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"16.2. A competitive fund would likely have a structure roughly similar to the below in figure 14.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure Figure 1: LandscapeCPR business structure "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: LandscapeCPR business structure Figure 2: Funding trajectory for LandscapeCPR and role of a possible Landscape Restoration Fund Figure 3: Basic business structure in one landscape (micro-catchment) Figure 4: Organisation of the business Figure 5: Exit from the business Figure 6: Exit through sale of business to the farmer cooperative Figure 7: Scale within landscapes Figure 8: Replication across landscapes Figure 9: Governance structure Figure 10: General funding ecosystem Figure 11: Impact investment ecosystem Figure 12: Investment roadmap for LandscapeCPR and FarmHoldCo Figure 13: Role for a landscape restoration fund Figure 14: Landscape Restoration Fund "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Basic business structure in one landscape (micro-catchment) "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Organisation of the business 4. Exit 4.1. The model will return value to investors, (i) in the short term through sale of agricultural produce, and (ii) in the long term by sale of mature farms as a going concern to either investors who share the investment objectives of the business or landscape-based farmer cooperative groups.The farmer cooperative members will be the outgrowers developed by the LandscapeFarmCo business, such that the sale is to the outgrowers themselves, thereby creating a locally-owned vehicle for sustainable landscape management once the LandscapeCPR business has exited. "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Exit from the business "},{"text":"Figure 6 : Figure 6: Exit through sale of business to the farmer cooperative 5.4. This model is attractive because: "},{"text":"Figure Figure 7: Scale within landscapes "},{"text":"Figure 9 : Figure 9: Governance structure "},{"text":"Figure 13 : Figure 13: Role for a landscape restoration fund "},{"text":"Landscape CPR LandscapeFarmCo Farmer Cooperative  Ownership Relationship Ownership Relationship Produce Supply Relationship Produce Supply Relationship Professional Management Services Professional Management Services Contract Contract Management Management Management Management  "},{"text":" Through its local investments, LandscapeFarmCo will seek to influence land-use decisions in contiguous areas which should not be in agricultural production due to, for example steep gradient, proximity to water sources, high biodiversity value, or private, state or community forest. It will do this by training and by imposing land-management requirements in off-take agreements with smallholders. • Ecological Restoration Management Area (PI9556)  • Ecological Restoration Management Area (PI9556) • Area of Trees Planted: Total (PI4127)  • Area of Trees Planted: Total (PI4127) • Ecosystem Services Provided (PD8494)  • Ecosystem Services Provided (PD8494) 6.3.  6.3.  Old Ownership Relationship Old Ownership Relationship  New Ownership Relationship New Ownership Relationship  Purchase Price Purchase Price LandscapeFarmCo  LandscapeFarmCo Farmer Cooperative Lender Farmer CooperativeLender  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Functional business needs 9.3. In order to meet the needs outlined in Table LandscapeCPR LandscapeFarmCo 1-n LandscapeCPRLandscapeFarmCo 1-n  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Fund providers and their capital instruments # Funds Provider Capital Type Available #Funds ProviderCapital Type Available 1 Own Capital, Family & Friends Equity investment, loans 1Own Capital, Family & FriendsEquity investment, loans 2 Research Donors Grants 2Research DonorsGrants 3 Project Donors Grants 3Project DonorsGrants 4 Research Donors Grants 4Research DonorsGrants 5 Business Angels Equity investment, Convertible loan 5Business AngelsEquity investment, Convertible loan 6 Family Offices Equity investment, loans, grants 6Family OfficesEquity investment, loans, grants 7 Accelerators Equity investment, loans, convertible debt 7AcceleratorsEquity investment, loans, convertible debt 8 Banks Loans, Trade Credit, Overdrafts 8BanksLoans, Trade Credit, Overdrafts 10 Crowd-Funding Equity investment, loans 10Crowd-FundingEquity investment, loans 11 Impact Investment Funds Equity investment, loans 11Impact Investment FundsEquity investment, loans 12 Venture Capital Equity investment 12Venture CapitalEquity investment 13 Private Equity Equity investment 13Private EquityEquity investment 14 Development Banks Equity investment, loans 14Development BanksEquity investment, loans 15 Public Equity Markets Equity investment 15Public Equity MarketsEquity investment 16 Public Debt Markets Bonds 16Public Debt MarketsBonds  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Description of relevant financial instruments LandscapeCPR and FarmHoldCo will likely move through the following stages of investment, raising funds from the identified entities shown overleaf in Figure12:  Funding Type Description Funding TypeDescription 1 Grant A grant is an award, usually financial, given by one entity 1GrantA grant is an award, usually financial, given by one entity   (typically a company, foundation, or government) to (typically a company, foundation, or government) to   another, often an individual or a company, to facilitate a goal another, often an individual or a company, to facilitate a goal   or incentivize performance. Grants are essentially gifts that or incentivize performance. Grants are essentially gifts that   do not have to be paid back, under most conditions do not have to be paid back, under most conditions 2 Equity Investment An equity investment is money that is invested in a company 2Equity InvestmentAn equity investment is money that is invested in a company   by purchasing shares of that company by purchasing shares of that company 3 Loans An investment in a business repayable with interest at fixed 3LoansAn investment in a business repayable with interest at fixed   time periods time periods 4 Convertible Loans A loan which rather than being repaid converts to shares in 4Convertible LoansA loan which rather than being repaid converts to shares in   accordance with a defined event accordance with a defined event 13.2.   13.2.  "},{"text":"14. Landscape Restoration Fund 14 .1. Various environmental organisations are increasingly interested in how they can establish landscape investment mechanisms (\"Landscape Restoration Funds\") to catalyse the development and/or growth of impact businesses which create both a financial return and environmental returns which benefit the landscape.14.2. A potential landscape in which LandscapeFarmCo could be established is the Makueni County landscape. The question has arisen around how Makueni County or similar areas could house a Landscape Restoration Fund, to (i) establish new ventures in Makueni County, and (ii) support existing businesses to meet landscape and environmental targets.14.3. Framed another way, the question being asked is how to help new and existing ventures in Makueni County which deliver a positive environmental impact to access capital needed through the life cycle of their businesses, which they would not otherwise be able to access, particularly given the reluctance of private capital to take risk in geographies and sectors with which they are not familiar with which they are not experienced.14.4. The below figure shows the type of capital that a Landscape Restoration Finance Facility would need to either (i) substitute, or (ii) attract and/or leverage, and the financial instruments which it can use to do this.  "},{"text":"Portfolio of Assets Registered in Investors Name (likely segregated by instrument) Professional Fund Management Professional Services Financial Audit Environmental Audit Legal Monitoring & Reporting Governance & Operations  Grants  Debt   GrantsDebt Landscape Restoration Fund   Equity Guarantees  Landscape Restoration FundEquityGuarantees Concept / R&D Early Growth Investors Expansion Late Expansion Concept / R&DEarly Growth InvestorsExpansionLate Expansion      Public Debt Public Debt      Public Equity Public Equity    Development Bank Loans Development Bank Loans Investment Philosophy & Funding Need Process Grants Equity Venture Capital Impact Investment Private Equity Guarantees Board Debt Accounting Investment Philosophy & Funding Need ProcessGrantsEquityVenture Capital Impact Investment Private Equity Guarantees BoardDebtAccounting Accelerator Investment    Accelerator Investment     Banks Loans Banks Loans Angel Investment Family Office Investment   Angel InvestmentFamily Office Investment Prize Money     Prize Money Research Grant Project Grant    Research GrantProject Grant Own capital, family, friends  Investees   Own capital, family, friendsInvestees Valley of Death  Growth of Business  Valley of DeathGrowth of Business Figure 14: Landscape Restoration Fund      Figure 14: Landscape Restoration Fund  "}],"sieverID":"aa89ef18-34e2-4ff6-81a1-6848095ec9fd","abstract":"CIAT encourages wide dissemination of its printed and electronic publications for maximum public benefit. Thus, in most cases, colleagues working in research and development should feel free to use CIAT materials for noncommercial purposes. However, the Center prohibits modification of these materials, and we expect to receive due credit. Though CIAT prepares its publications with considerable care, the Center does not guarantee their accuracy and completeness."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05515d90ffc7d24ddcc55648cd7ccd2f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c7efc874-9a91-4ed1-b19f-1fa0974b76ee/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"• Soon after this meeting, the facilitator will contact some groups in some of the countries. (We have already had some contact with these groups)"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"• We will invite these country teams (Active committed teams of trainees--ACTT) to select one to three tools to use for a field study in their country"},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"Phase 2: Field work"},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• The ACTT will use the tool(s) as methods for a field study"},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"• During the study, the ACTT will have guidance from the tool owner, from Jeff (as mentor) and from JMC (for overall support)"},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"• The ACTTs will also keep diaries, videos, blogs of their experiences in using the tools -so you can follow and interact with them in real time"},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"• Jeff, JMC and tool owners will help the ACTT write up the results"}]},{"head":"Phase 3: Final seminar","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"• The ACTT will present results in a seminar on 25, 27 and 28 Oct (one day per country)"},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"• You will all be invited to attend that seminar, to hear the country teams report on how they have used tool, and to discuss the results"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"d0834c42-0289-4704-83e5-b2e891ac07a8","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05a3b612dcfc6807a1ecc8c7e9bbf729","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a933d277-4aba-462c-905f-68d04dbd669c/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Spread of Xanthomonas vasicola pv. musacearum within banana mats: implications for Xanthomonas wilt management","keywords":["Bacteria","Corm","Inoculate","Incubation period","Incidence","Suckers"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Xanthomonas wilt (XW) of banana and enset caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas vasicola pv. musacearum (Xvm) is an important disease of banana in the East and Central African region. First observed on enset in the 1930's in Ethiopia (Castellani 1939), XW was subsequently observed in that same country on banana in 1974 (Yirgou and Bradbury 1974). Outside Ethiopia, XW was first observed in 2001 in Uganda (Tushemereirwe et al. 2003) and the Democratic Republic of Congo (Ndungo et al. 2006) and has since spread to Rwanda (Reeder et al. 2007), Burundi, Tanzania and Kenya (Carter et al. 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"Knowledge of the epidemiology of XW disease has been crucial in the design of its control strategies. For example, studies to understand the within plant and mat spread of Xvm (Ocimati et al. 2013a(Ocimati et al. , 2015;;Blomme et al. 2017a;Ntamwira et al. 2019) have shown that Xvm does not spread to all physically attached plants in a mat when one or a few plants are visibly diseased, a phenomenon referred to as \"incomplete systemic\" spread of Xvm. This phenomenon explains the success of the single diseased stem removal (SDSR) technique in XW management (Blomme et al. 2017a(Blomme et al. , 2019)). However, the factors behind the incomplete systemic spread of Xvm in a mat are not fully understood."},{"index":3,"size":271,"text":"Several factors have been reported or postulated to account for this incomplete systemic spread of Xvm. For example, the removal of a mature infected plant with early male bud wilting symptoms has been reported to potentially prevent Xvm from reaching the corm of the infected plant and hence other physically attached lateral shoots (Ssekiwoko et al. 2010;Ocimati et al. 2013aOcimati et al. , 2015)). However, early male bud wilting symptoms are not often easily noticed by farmers, whereas infections could also be introduced through the other vegetative parts such as the leaves. At higher XW symptom severity levels, such as yellowing of leaves, pre-mature fruit ripening and death of infected plants, Xvm has been reported to be already present in the corm tissues (Ssekiwoko et al. 2010;Ocimati et al. 2013aOcimati et al. , 2013b)). However, field recoveries have also been observed in heavily diseased fields (with plant incidence levels as high as 80%) where infected plants often exhibit more severe XW symptoms (Blomme et al. 2017a(Blomme et al. , 2019;;Ntamwira et al. 2019). Ocimati et al. (2013b) observed a markedly lower XW incidence and higher incubation period for plants inoculated at the corm level through de-suckering compared with plants inoculated through de-leafing. These authors thus suggested a possible delay in Xvm colonisation of corm tissues due to its compact nature. In a more recent study, the corm of the resistant enset cultivar 'Mazia' was however observed to be significantly softer than that of the susceptible enset cultivars 'Arkiya' and 'Kelisa' (Said et al. 2020), suggesting that corm hardness may not necessarily be responsible for the observed incomplete systemic spread of Xvm."},{"index":4,"size":172,"text":"It was also theorised that incomplete systemic colonisation could be due to the reduced dependence of more mature maiden suckers on parent plants (maiden suckers have their own fully developed root systems and mature leaf canopy and were hence postulated to depend less on the mother plant for water and nutrients), thus reducing the likelihood of them becoming infected via the mother plant. Ntamwira et al. (2019) however observed higher XW infections in bigger suckers (maiden suckers) compared to smaller ones (peepers and sword suckers) attached to infected mother plants, challenging the hypothesis that bigger suckers are more self-reliant and less susceptible to infections from the attached mother plants. Ntamwira et al. (2019) however observed a reduction in incidence of XW infections in attached suckers when artificially inoculated mother plants were timely removed, an act that possibly prevented the build-up of XW inoculum in the mother plant and entire mat. This study suggested that the amount of Xvm inoculum in an infected plant potentially influenced XW infections in other physically attached plantlets."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"Suppression of Xvm by endophytes at the corm level had also been postulated to explain incomplete systemic spread of Xvm at the mat level (Karamura et al. 2016;Blomme et al. 2017a). Studies on beneficial micro-organisms carried out by Were (2016) showed promising levels of Xvm suppression by bacterial isolates from banana tissues in in vitro studies, while Abayneh (2010) reported a 56 to 75% reduction in XW incidence in pot experiments for plants inoculated with beneficial endophytes through leaf and pseudostem tissues. Studies to validate these findings in the field are however still lacking."},{"index":6,"size":165,"text":"This study built on the above studies by exploring the effect of i) different Xvm inoculum amounts (via inoculating different numbers of leaves on a mother plant) and ii) the location of suckers on the mother plant corm tissue (sucker closeness to point of attachment on corm of infected leaves) on the spread of Xvm within a mat, specifically the colonisation of the attached suckers/ lateral shoots. It is hypothesized that Xvm spread from the mother plant to the physically attached suckers could be influenced by a) the amount of Xvm inoculum in the mother plant or plant through which the infection is introduced, b) the position of a sucker on the mother plant corm relative to the inoculated leaf (i.e., the closer a sucker is attached to the insertion point of the inoculated leaf/ leaf sheaths of the mother plant, the higher the chance the sucker gets infected). This knowledge is anticipated to help in fine-tuning the XW management through the current cultural practices."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Field experimental set up","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":233,"text":"The field experiment was conducted in an isolated site within Kifu forest (00°280 N, 32°440E), in Mukono district, central Uganda. Kifu has a mean daily temperature of 25 °C, and a mean annual rainfall of 1100 mm that is bimodally distributed (March-May and September-November). A total of 100 East African highland banana cultivar \"Mbwazirume' (Musa AAA genome group) suckers were planted in March 2019 at a spacing of 2 × 2 m. The fields were established using corms of maiden suckers obtained from a field with no prior history of XW disease. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using Xvm-specific AvP1 primers that amplify genes encoding the Avirulence protein KFA14425.1 of the bacteria (Nakato et al. 2018) was used to confirm if the genomic DNA extracted from tissue portions covering the entire cross-section of the pseudostems of the sucker material/corms were Xvm free. The PCR conditions were as described by Nakato et al. (2018) while the genomic DNA was extracted as described by Mahuku (2004). Effort was made to obtain corms that were more or less of the same size and the corms had an average weight, circumference and height (from top to bottom of corm) of 2.6 kg, 45 cm, and 29.5 cm, respectively. From the sixth month after planting, mother plants (70 plants) with at least two sword suckers (i.e., lateral shoots with lanceolate leaves) were artificially inoculated with a suspension of Xvm."}]},{"head":"Bacterial inoculum preparation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":278,"text":"The Xvm inoculum was obtained from two plants with symptoms only characteristic of XW and located in a single experimental field at Kifu in Mukono district, Uganda. Plants from a single field were used to minimise variation in virulence of the isolates used. The two plants were cut down with a sterile machete, the pseudostems cut transversally into smaller 30 cm length portions and allowed to ooze bacteria for about 30 to 45 min. The yellow ooze, characteristic of Xvm was then scrapped off the surface of the pseudostem sections into a 50 mL falcon tube. A bacterial suspension was then prepared by thoroughly mixing 50 mL of the ooze with 950 mL of double-distilled water in a sterile 1000 mL conical flask. Bacterial ooze was used instead of pure cultures to as much as possible mimic the field situation, as repeated culturing could have reduced Xvm virulence. More still, there was no risk of other pathogens influencing the results as there are currently no other bacterial pathogens with similar symptoms in the study region. To determine the Xvm population in inoculum, 5 mL of the bacterial suspension was vortexed in the laboratory for about 3 min to breakdown the Xanthan gum protecting Xvm and to separate bacterial cells. The suspension was then serially diluted to 10 -4 , and 10 µL of each dilution spread plated in three replicates on a solid media of potato dextrose agar and incubated at room temperature for 3 days. Xvm colonies on each plate were counted, the average for each dilution computed and used to determine the number of colony forming units (cfu) per mL of original suspension as described below."}]},{"head":"Inoculation treatments","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":181,"text":"For half of the mother plants with at least two sword suckers (i.e., 35 plants or mats), all the functional leaves were inoculated [at petiole level] to ensure a higher Xvm inoculum load and increase the chances for a more uniform Xvm colonization of the corm. For the other half of mother plants, only 2 functional leaves (youngest and fully open leaves) located on the same side of the mother plant were inoculated. Treatments were randomly assigned. To inoculate the plants, 1 mL of Xvm suspension was injected into the middle section of the leaf petiole about 10 cm from the pseudostem of each inoculated leaf. The bacterial suspension was thoroughly stirred to minimise variation in the amount of inoculum each time a new suspension was sucked into the syringe to inject a new leaf petiole. To introduce the bacteria, the needle was inserted at a 30-45-degree angle into the leaf petiole and Xvm suspension gently injected into Cfu∕mL = (Number of cfu x Dilution factor)∕Volume plated (mL) the petiole. Ribbons where then attached onto the inoculated leaves to mark/distinguish them."}]},{"head":"Data collection","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Data at inoculation of plants At inoculation, the following mother plant growth traits were measured: pseudostem circumference at soil level, plant height and number of functional leaves. In addition, the number of suckers attached to the mother plants and their respective heights were measured."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Disease incidence and severity assessments About half of the inoculated plants i.e., 17 mats of each category of inoculation treatment (i.e., all leaves vs 2 leaves) were randomly assigned to be observed for symptom development in the mother plant and attached suckers. Data collected on these plants included the time to first symptom development in the mother plant and suckers (i.e., XW incubation period), number of symptomatic leaves, time to symptom expression for each visibly diseased leaf and the number of suckers that developed disease symptoms."}]},{"head":"Sampling of plants for","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"Xvm re-isolation For the remaining mats (36 mats), i.e., 18 mats for either inoculation treatment, 3 mats each were randomly sampled at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 weeks after inoculation for enumeration of Xvm in the laboratory. Entire mats comprising the mother plant and attached sucker corms with the roots (Fig. 1A) were dug out using hoes sterilized in between plants. Composite mother plant roots samples were put into separate paper bags, attached suckers labelled, and the roots directly attached to the suckers aseptically and separately sampled into separate collection bags. In the field, pseudostem samples were also aseptically cut from the main shoot and the attached suckers at 5 cm above the corm tissues for Xvm isolation in the laboratory. As much as possible, soil attached to the interconnected corms of the mother plant and suckers was carefully removed in the field. The entire cluster of corms was subsequently transported to the laboratory where it was thoroughly washed to remove the remaining soil debris."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"In the laboratory, the corms were longitudinally split/dissected using aseptic tools (knives and machetes) along the insertion points of the suckers exposing the different layers (cortex, layer of Mangin (cambium ring in the corm), central cylinder) of both the mother plant and attached sucker corms (Fig. 1B). One to four dissections of the mother plant corm were carried out as there were tagged suckers for sampling in the laboratory."}]},{"head":"Observations on sucker position on corms","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"The distance from the point of insertion of the sucker on the mother plant corm to the mother plants' apical meristem was measured along the outer corm surface of the mother plant corm and on the longitudinal section using a direct line from the apical meristem to the point of insertion of the sucker. The height of the corm from apical meristem to the bottom of the corm was also measured."}]},{"head":"Isolation and culturing of Xvm from corms","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"The top surface of the longitudinal sections of the corm tissues was sterilized with a 3.5% (v/v) sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) solution and 70% (v/v) ethanol to eliminate potential contamination that could have occurred during the longitudinal splitting of the corms. Subsequently, the longitudinal corm surface was thoroughly rinsed with sterile water to remove any excess NaOCl and ethanol."},{"index":2,"size":227,"text":"From the surface of the longitudinally cut corms, at least 12-16 pieces of 3 cm thick cube-shaped corm tissues were cut out using sterile blades at equal distances i) along the cortexlayer of Mangin and central cylinder of the corm; and ii) at insertion points of the sucker corms to the mother plant corm (Fig. 1C). A cross-sectional cut of the pseudostem 10 cm from the sucker corm of the attached suckers was also sampled. The surfaces of the cube-shaped corm tissue samples were peeled off to remove any contaminants and portions previously drenched with NaOCl and ethanol. For the pseudostem tissue, the outer leaf sheaths were wiped with cotton wool soaked with ethanol followed by wiping repeatedly with cotton soaked in sterile distilled water. The corm and pseudostem samples were subsequently macerated in sterile mortars. The macerated tissues where then transferred into 2.0 mL eppendorf tubes, 1 mL of sterile water added, briefly vortexed to dislodge the bacteria. 1.0 mL of the suspension was aliquoted into a 1.5 mL eppendorf tube, serially diluted to 10 -2 . 10 µL of the zero and 10 -2 dilutions were aseptically spread plated on semi-selective yeast peptone glucose agar Petri plates (Mwangi et al. 2007). The plates were then incubated for a period of 3 days and the presence and where feasible the number of characteristic Xvm colonies recorded."}]},{"head":"Confirmation of Xvm colonies with PCR","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"The Xvm bacteria were then confirmed with PCR using an Xvm-specific AvP1 primers that amplify genes encoding the Avirulence protein KFA14425.1 of the bacteria (Nakato et al. 2018) as described in the section on 'Field experiment setup' above. Only plates on which the Xvm characteristic colonies scored positive on PCR were recorded to have Xvm in the results."}]},{"head":"Determination of corm tissue hardness","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The hardness/ compactness of different sections of three randomly selected vegetative and flowering stage mother plant corms were determined using a soil penetrometer (Scale 0-4.5 Kgf/cm 2 ; ELE Pocket Penetrometer 29-3729; https:// www. ele. com/ produ ct/ "}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":211,"text":"Analysis of variance comparing the disease progression in the above ground parts of the mother plants, Xvm incidence in the mother plant pseudostem and corm parts and sucker tissues between the two treatments was computed using the R statistical package (R Core Team 2018). Paired t-tests were used to determine the relationship between Xvm presence in mother plant tissues and the attached suckers. To determine the most important factor explaining the incidence of Xvm in the different corm sections, a logistic regression of Xvm incidence as a dependent variable against a range of independent variables was conducted using the R statistical package (R Core Team 2018). The independent variables included corm height, distance from point of sucker insertion on mother plant corm to apical meristem along the outer corm surface and the longitudinal section from the apical meristem to the point of insertion of the sucker. Other independent variables included the mother plant height, mother plant pseudostem girth at soil level, number of functional leaves on mother plant, total number of suckers and number of suckers disaggregated into maiden suckers, sword suckers and peepers at inoculation, the days post inoculation and the treatments (i.e., inoculation of 2 or all leaves). The R package and Ms Excel were used to generate visuals."}]},{"head":"Results","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Banana mat parameters at inoculation","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Except for the total number of suckers attached to the mother plants, all other mat parameters (number of functional leaves, mother plant pseudostem girth, plant height, and the number of peepers, sword, and maiden suckers) measured at inoculation, had no significant (P > 0.05) differences between the 'all leaves' and '2 leaves' treatments (Table 1). Despite the significant difference (P = 0.02) in the total number of suckers attached to the mother plants, no significant differences (P > 0.05) were observed when the suckers were disaggregated by their sizes/ types i.e., into peepers, sword, and maiden suckers (Table 1)."}]},{"head":"XW incubation and severity under different inoculation scenarios","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":241,"text":"It took a significantly (p = 0.015) shorter time (mean of 17.9 days) for the first XW characteristic symptoms to appear on plants in which all leaves were inoculated compared to 21.1 days when only two leaves were inoculated (Fig. 2A). Leaves turned yellow and eventually started wilting, typical of a XW infection. The leaves often looked as if scorched by fire and sometimes broke halfway the midrib. A significantly higher (p < 001) mean cumulative number of leaves (5.2 leaves) showed XW symptoms on mother plants in which all leaves were inoculated compared to 1.6 leaves for those on which only 2 leaves were inoculated (Fig. 2B). A maximum of three leaves, with the third leaf showing symptoms 40 days post inoculation (dpi) was observed in mother plants on which two leaves had been inoculated (Fig. 2C). In contrast, up to 6 leaves showed XW symptoms in the treatment in which all leaves had been inoculated, with a lower incubation period of about 32.6 days in the 6 th leaf. For both treatments (all and 2 leaves) at least one inoculated leaf showed XW symptoms in 100% of the inoculated plants. Only 50% and 6.3% of the plants in which two leaves had been inoculated showed symptoms in only 2 and 3 leaves, respectively. 100% of the \"all leaves inoculated\" treatment had 2 symptomatic leaves, the percentage dropping steadily to 11% for 6 symptomatic leaves in a plant (Fig. 2D). "}]},{"head":"Xanthomonas vasicola pv. musacearum distribution within plant parts post inoculation","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"In the treatments in which two leaves had been inoculated, Xvm was only recovered in the pseudostem section next to the corm at 73 dpi compared to 43 dpi when all leaves were inoculated (Fig. 3A). A significantly higher (p = 0.027) number of plants in which all leaves got inoculated (33%) had Xvm in the pseudostem section next to the corm compared with 17% for those in which only two leaves had been inoculated. In contrast to the sampled pseudostem sections, Xvm recovery in the mother plant corm tissues occurred much earlier (29 dpi) in both treatments, with no significant differences (p > 0.05) in the recovery of Xvm from corm tissue samples between the two treatments (Fig. 3B). Unexpectedly more mother plant corms (77-82%) had the Xvm bacteria compared to the pseudostem tissues."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"In the corms of the suckers, Xvm was first recovered in the 'all' leaves treatment at 43 dpi compared to 59 dpi in the 'two' leaves treatments (Fig. 3C). Cumulatively, Xvm was only recovered from 22% of the corms. For the sucker pseudostems, Xvm was only retrieved from the 'all leaves' treatment and starting from 43 dpi (Fig. 3D)."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"No Xvm colonies were recovered from roots of both the mother plants and the attached suckers, irrespective of the number of leaves inoculated and time from inoculation to sampling of plants."}]},{"head":"Xanthomonas vasicola pv. musacearum distribution within mother plant corm sections","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The frequency of Xvm recovery in the lower, middle, and upper sections of the corm (Fig. 1B, C) tended to increase with the number of days post inoculation (Table 2). There was also a general tendency to have a lower Xvm incidence in the lower corm section relative to the middle and upper sections (Table 2, Fig. 4). The trends in Xvm incidence between the two treatments where however not consistent (Table 2, Fig. 4)."},{"index":2,"size":260,"text":"Higher Xvm recoveries also occurred for the middle corm zone made up of the central cylinder compared with the outer zones that comprised the cortex and layer of Mangin (Fig. 4). The upper middle corm section that is directly attached to the youngest leaf sheaths had the highest Xvm recoveries (Fig. 4). The upper corm sections were consistently softer than that of the middle and lower corm sections whereas the cortex was more compact than the central cylinder. The lower corm tissues on which most of the suckers are attached were more compact. The tissue hardness scores (kgf/cm 2 ) for the central cylinder of vegetative stage plants were, respectively, 1.0, 1.7 and 2.0 for the upper, middle, and lower corm sections (Fig. 5A). Corm hardness readings for the cortex were consistently and significantly higher (p < 0.01) than those for the central cylinder and were, respectively, 1.4, 2.3 and 2.8 for the upper, middle, and lower corm sections (Fig. 5A). The flower stalk was observed to be continuous with the corm and to continue all the way to the inflorescence or bunch (Fig. 5C). In the current study, despite having similar trends to corm tissue sections of plants in the vegetative stage, the corm sections of flowering stage plants were observed to be 21 to 50% more compact (Fig. 5B). The corm hardness scores (kgf/cm 2 ) for the central cylinder of the flowering stage plants were, respectively, 1.5, 2.2 and 2.9 for the upper, middle, and lower corm sections while respectively, 1.7, 2.8 and 4.0 for the cortex."},{"index":3,"size":116,"text":"The logistic regression model showed Xvm incidence in the corm of the mother plant to be strongly (p < 0.01) and positively influenced by the number of maiden suckers on the banana plants and the dpi (Table 3). Xvm incidence within the corm tissues was also significantly (p < 0.05) influenced by height of the mother plant corm and pseudostem. The incidence of Xvm declined with increasing mother plant pseudostem and corm height (Table 3). Though non significantly (p > 0.05), the mother plant pseudostem girth at soil level and the total number of number of functional leaves, respectively, had a positive and negative influence on the incidence of Xvm in the mother plant corm tissue."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"XW infection in a single plant in a mat has been shown not to automatically lead to infections in all physically interconnected plants in that cluster or mat (Ocimati et al. 2013b(Ocimati et al. , 2015)). This study further elucidated on the factors responsible for this phenomenon, and suggests multiple factors including the physiology and anatomy of the banana plant to influence Xvm spread within a banana mat upon infection of a single plant."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"In this study, inoculum density was varied through inoculation of 'two leaves' or 'all leaves' on a plant. The nonsignificant differences recorded in the measured mat attributes (i.e. number of leaves, plant girth and height and the numbers of different types of suckers) at inoculation of the mother plants assigned to the different treatments suggests that the within mat differences may not have affected the outcome of the study. The incubation periods and symptom characteristics of the inoculated plants were consistent with findings of earlier studies in which vegetative stage banana plants were inoculated (Ocimati et al. 2013b;Ntamwira et al. 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":130,"text":"The shorter disease incubation period, the higher disease severity coupled with a higher and earlier recovery of Xvm from pseudostem tissues close to the corm of mother plants on which all leaves (in contrast to two) were inoculated suggests that the higher the amount of Xvm inoculum the higher the susceptibility of plants to XW. Ochola et al. (2015) observed low XW infections with a high occurrence of latent infections for inoculations using lower Xvm concentrations of 10 4 cfu, whereas a high XW severity occurred at higher Xvm concentrations above 10 6 cfu. In enset (Ensete ventricosum; \"false banana\") a close relative of banana, a recent study, also showed a higher XW infection in plants in which three leaves were inoculated compared with single leaves (Said et al. 2020)."},{"index":4,"size":203,"text":"The time duration (29 dpi) for Xvm to reach corm tissues for both types of inoculation in the current study is consistent with findings of Ocimati et al. (2013b) for vegetative stage inoculated plants. In contrast to the corm tissues, Xvm recoveries from the pseudostem section close to the corm was surprisingly delayed and lower. Xvm has been reported to occupy pockets in the vascular bundles (Tripathi et al. 2009;Blomme et al. 2017b) and could thus have been missed in the sampled pseudostem tissues assessed in the laboratory. Decomposition in symptomatic leaf sheath tissues could have also encouraged growth of saprophytes which outcompete Xvm leading to their death. The higher recovery of Xvm in corm tissues of attached suckers when all leaves relative to two leaves were inoculated despite Xvm reaching corms in both treatments by 29 dpi, further strengthens the argument that the amount of disease inoculum in the mother plant is a major driver of XW spread within the mat. In contrast to the corms, no Xvm recoveries occurred in roots of both the mother plants and suckers. A lower Xvm transmission efficiency in banana roots has also been reported in earlier studies (Ocimati et al. 2011(Ocimati et al. , 2013b))."},{"index":5,"size":367,"text":"Table 2 The incidence (%) of Xanthomonas vasicola pv. musacearum (Xvm) on the upper (U), middle (M) and lower (L) sections of corms of banana plants at 16, 29, 43, 59, 73 and   The closeness of tissues in the corm to the points of inoculum introduction (leaf sheaths) and differences in compactness of the different sections of corm tissues look to have contributed to the observed distribution of Xvm in corm tissues (c.f. Table 2, Fig. 5). For example, a higher Xvm incidence occurred in the upper softer corm layer to which the inoculated leaves were attached (c.f. Figs. 1B, 5C) compared to the lower and harder corm sections. Similarly, the softer central cylinder had a higher Xvm incidence compared to the harder cortex. Though the current study did not explicitly separate the cortex from the layer of Mangin, the higher Xvm recoveries from the central cylinder of the corm (c.f. Figure 4) contrast the findings of Ssekiwoko et al. (2006), who reported a higher recovery of bacteria in the layer of Mangin compared to the corm's central cylinder or the cortex layer. According to Ssekiwoko et al. (2006), the structure of the cortex and central cylinder do not allow for a rapid Xvm spread. The layer of Mangin is made up of a mass of vascular bundles while the central cylinder and cortex are dominated by a mass of starchy parenchyma (Stover and Simmonds, 1987). The observed differences with the current study could be attributed the differences in growth stage of the plants and the points of entry of the bacteria. In the current study, plants in the vegetative stage were inoculated through the leaves whereas in Ssekiwoko et al. (2006) plants in the flowering stage were inoculated through the floral parts or flower stalk (i.e., real stem). In the vegetative, the corm acts as the main sink for photosynthates produced in the leaf, potentially allowing for more Xvm to be moved passively to corm through the phloem. In contrast, in plants in the flowering stage, the floral part is the main sink, potentially diminishing the role of the phloem and slowing the colonization of the central cylinder that is fully joined to the floral stalk."},{"index":6,"size":191,"text":"A positive association was observed between the number of maiden suckers and presence of Xvm in mother plant corm possibly due to the i) higher demand for assimilates by the larger maiden suckers from the parent plants and ii) higher evapo-transpiration through the larger leaves of the maiden suckers, driving the spread of Xvm through the phloem and xylem vessels. A strong positive association between infections in the mother plant and infection in maiden suckers has been reported by Ntamwira et al. (2019). These findings suggest a higher risk of infection in larger plants within a mat at the time of infection. Infections in medium to largesized suckers have been reported to cause frustration among farmers when controlling the XW through singly removing the symptomatic plants (Blomme et al. 2019). Making this risk explicit to the farmers would reduce farmers' frustration and minimise the risk of dis-adopting the control package. The increase in Xvm incidence in corm tissues with the dpi was expected and can be attributed to the increased buildup of inoculum in the corm tissues over time. This gives credence to the need to immediately remove symptomatic banana plants."},{"index":7,"size":173,"text":"The strong negative association between Xvm incidence in the corm tissues with the height of the corm suggests that the further away the suckers are attached from the point of attachment of leaves and the apical meristem, the lower the risk of infection and vice versa. Most of the suckers were observed to be attached at the bottom of the corm tissues while the leaf sheaths through which the bacteria were introduced are attached to the upper and middle sections of the corm (c.f. Fig. 1A, B). This could partially explain the lower incidence of infections in suckers even when the mother plant or other attached plants in a mat are diseased. The negative association between plant height and Xvm incidence in corms can be attributed to the longer time duration Xvm needs to move through the pseudostems' phloem vessels before reaching corm tissues in tall plants relative to the shorter ones. Ocimati et al. (2013b) also observed a weak positive correlation between plant height and time to symptom expression in banana plants."},{"index":8,"size":341,"text":"These findings stress the importance of practices that reduce the amount of Xvm inoculum, or its build up within banana mats and fields. Ntamwira et al. (2019) observed a faster recovery of mats through SDSR when diseased plants are removed as soon as symptoms are observed. In these plants, a lower amount of ooze was observed to build up compared to when the SDSR application was delayed for multiple weeks. Said et al. (2020) also demonstrated early removal of visibly diseased outer leaf sheaths on infected enset plants to reduce leaf symptom incidence and increase plant recovery. Ssekiwoko et al. (2010) and Ocimati et al. (2013a) also reported that entire banana mats could be saved if florally infected banana plants showing early male bud infections were immediately cut. Even under worst case scenarios, with high initial plant incidence levels and where farmers in frustration cut all banana pseudostems in their infected fields with a single tool, thus potentially spreading the disease to all mats, emergence of healthy-looking shoots and recovery of entire fields was observed (Blomme et al. 2017a). Thus, even when Xvm bacteria reach the corm tissues of an infected plant, disease progression to the physically attached shoots is incomplete/hampered. These findings could partly explain the current success achieved through singly removing diseased banana plants as a method for managing XW disease in banana (Blomme et al. 2014(Blomme et al. , 2017a(Blomme et al. , 2019)). This study was conducted in a single location, therefore other effects such as variation in soil and environmental conditions could not be ascertained. The study was also limited in terms of the coverage of banana cultivars or genome groups, given potential differences could have arisen between cultivars or genome groups. Nevertheless, the success of SDSR across the different regions of East and Central Africa (Blomme et al. 2014(Blomme et al. , 2017a(Blomme et al. , 2019(Blomme et al. , 2021;;Kubiriba et al. 2012;Ocimati et al. 2013aOcimati et al. , 2015;;Ntamwira et al. 2019), suggests that the impact of these additional variables could be minimal."},{"index":9,"size":49,"text":"Findings of this study will enhance the confidence of extension personnel, policy makers and farmers in the potential of SDSR control package in combating XW on farms. Further studies to understand the possible role of different corm tissues in Xvm movement, for a range of Musa cultivars, is recommended."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 Fig. 1 Mat comprising of the mother plant and physically interconnected lateral shoots or suckers (A); a longitudinally split corm revealing different sections of the mother corm and the sucker corms (B) and an illustration of the longitudinal section of a split corm "},{"text":"Fig. 2 Fig.2Xanthomonas wilt incubation period (A) and cumulative number of symptomatic banana leaves (B) for mother plants in which either two or all leaves were inoculated; time to symptom expression "},{"text":"Fig. 3 Fig. 3 Cumulative Xanthomonas vasicola pv. musacearum (Xvm) incidences (%) in the A: mother plant pseudostem section next to corm tissue; B: corm tissues of the mother plant; C: sucker corm "},{"text":"Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 4 Comparison of the percentage incidence of Xanthomonas vasicola pv. musacearum (Xvm) in the different sections of the mother plant corms following inoculation of 6-month-old mother plants "},{"text":"Table 1 The mean number of functional leaves, pseudostem girth at soil level and height of mother plants; mean total number of suckers; and the mean number of maiden suckers, sword suckers and peepers per mat at time of mother plant inoculation with Xanthomonas vasicola pv. musacearum CV coefficient of variation *Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 5% least significant difference (LSD) Number of Mean number of Mean mother plant Mean mother Mean number of suckers per mat   Number ofMean number ofMean mother plantMean motherMean number of suckers per mat functional leaves inoculated functional leaves pseudostem girth (cm) plant height (cm) Total number Maiden suckers Sword suckers Peepers functional leaves inoculatedfunctional leavespseudostem girth (cm)plant height (cm)Total number Maiden suckers Sword suckers Peepers Two leaves 8.09a* 61a 175a 4.03a 1.48a 1.97a 0.576a Two leaves8.09a*61a175a4.03a1.48a1.97a0.576a All leaves 8.44b 61a 182a 4.84b 1.90a 2.18a 0.769a All leaves8.44b61a182a4.84b1.90a2.18a0.769a LSD 0.04 4.2 10.3 0.65 0.54 0.58 0.300 LSD0.044.210.30.650.540.580.300 P-value 0.33 0.9 0.18 0.02 0.13 0.48 0.370 P-value0.330.90.180.020.130.480.370 CV% 8.5 14.7 12.2 30.9 67.0 59.3 115.1 CV%8.514.712.230.967.059.3115.1  "},{"text":"Table 3 Regression model of Xanthomonas vasicola pv. musacearum incidence in corm tissues as the dependent variable with different independent variables Null deviance: 6.5847 on 117 degrees of freedom; Residual deviance: 5.5609 on 110 degrees of freedom Variable Estimate Std error t value Pr ( >|t|) VariableEstimate Std error t value Pr ( >|t|) (Intercept) -0.1787 0.3160 -0.566 0.5728 (Intercept)-0.1787 0.3160-0.566 0.5728 Pseudostem girth at soil 0.0102 0.0060 1.701 0.0918 Pseudostem girth at soil0.0102 0.00601.701 0.0918 level   level Number of maiden suckers 0.0622 0.0219 2.833 0.0054 Number of maiden suckers0.0622 0.02192.833 0.0054 Height of mother plant corm -0.0185 0.0079 -2.325 0.0219 Height of mother plant corm -0.0185 0.0079-2.325 0.0219 Days post inoculation 0.0027 0.0010 2.643 0.0094 Days post inoculation0.0027 0.00102.643 0.0094 Number of functional leaves -0.0473 0.0299 -1.580 0.1169 Number of functional leaves -0.0473 0.0299-1.580 0.1169 Mother plant height -0.0027 0.0011  Mother plant height-0.0027 0.0011  "}],"sieverID":"4126561e-c73f-4a02-8811-41a3c5d82aa8","abstract":"Xanthomonas wilt (XW) of banana caused by Xanthomonas vasicola pv. musacearum (Xvm) does not spread to all plants physically interconnected through the rhizome when one or a few are diseased. Factors causing this incomplete systemic spread of Xvm are not fully known yet could be important for XW management. We explored the effect of 1) Xvm inoculum amounts; 2) number, size, and position of suckers on mother plant corms; and 3) other mother plant attributes on sucker colonization. A shorter (p < 0.05) incubation period (17.9 vs 21.1 days) and higher (p < .001) cumulative number of symptomatic leaves (5.2 vs 1.6 leaves) was observed when all leaves compared to only two leaves were inoculated. Xvm was recovered in corms at 29 days post inoculation (dpi) in both treatments with no differences (p > 0.05) in proportions of corms with Xvm between the treatments. However, Xvm was recovered earlier and at a higher frequency in attached suckers when all leaves were inoculated. Lower Xvm recoveries occurred in the lower corm sections to which most suckers were attached relative to the middle and upper corm sections. Xvm incidence in corms increased with the number of attached maiden suckers, and the dpi, while it declined with increasing mother plant pseudostem and corm height. Thus, Xvm spread within mats is influenced by the amount of inoculum and the physiological stage of the mother plant and attached suckers. The position of suckers, predominantly at the bottom of corms also protects them from infection. Measures that reduce Xvm inoculum build-up in mats will thus minimize within mat Xvm spread."}

data/part_3/05a9edce1e81789ed3957774c2b10e6a.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05a9edce1e81789ed3957774c2b10e6a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/45c8fee9-6370-4dbd-a300-73f88e9bed14/retrieve"},"pageCount":74,"title":"Metaketa Project Endline Local Leaders Survey -Voice and Agency Field Question Answer","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"If you agree to participate in this study, you will be asked questions that will be compiled with the responses of everyone else who participates to create an overall understanding of how Nigerian leaders like you think about the role of women in local governance. Other people will not be able to identify your individual responses on the basis of your involvement in this study. We hope this will help you feel comfortable participating in group discussions for our study and answering any questions posed to you honestly."}]},{"head":"Procedures","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"If you agree to participate in this research, I will ask you to complete a survey today. The survey will involve questions about your participation in local governance and your feelings about womenʼs political participation more generally."}]},{"head":"Field","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Question Answer","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"The questions should take about 45 minutes to complete."}]},{"head":"Benefits","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"It is hoped that the research will improve our understanding of local governance and womenʼ s political participation in Nigeria. Local leaders may potentially benefit from having more citizens who are engaged in local governance."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"consent_text2"},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Risks/Discomforts Some of the research questions may make you uncomfortable or upset. You are free to decline to answer any questions you don't wish to, or to stop the interview at any time."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"As with all research, there is a chance that confidentiality could be compromised."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"Complete confidentiality of data transmitted over the internet cannot be guaranteed."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"However, we are taking precautions to minimize this risk. names and other personally identifiable information will be removed."},{"index":7,"size":41,"text":"To help minimize the risks to confidentiality, we will store any files containing identifiable information in encrypted formats and separately from all the other study data. Only the principal investigators of the research team will have access to your study records."},{"index":8,"size":35,"text":"Retaining research records: When the research is completed, the research data will be maintained for possible use in future research by the principal investigators or others. We will retain this study information until analysis of"}]},{"head":"Field","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Question Answer"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"You will be given a copy of this consent form to keep."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"consent_es_post (required)   Question relevant when:   Enumerator information enumerator_code_es_post (required)"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"Please type your enumerator's code"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"Please confirm and verify the code is written correctly."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" is [TEAM MEMBER NAME]. I am working with researchers from the University of California, Berkeley, the University of California, San Diego, and the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). We would like to invite you to take part in a research study that seeks to better understand womenʼs participation in the governance of their local communities. "},{"text":" be handled as confidentially as possible. If results of this study are published or presented, individual "},{"text":" women who contacted you in the last month about a problem or to give you their views: pqual_clarity_problem_es_post (required) Did you understand what their problem was? many of them asked you to do something that was actually in your power to do? that she was speaking on behalf of a bigger group, or just for herself? Community Gender Differences gender_diff_votelocal_es_post (required) When thinking about voting, do you think women in your community vote in national elections as often as the men do? voting, do you think women in your community vote in local elections as often as the men do? who stands for elections as candidates, do you think women in your community stand for elections as often as men do? to read to you a list of options, and then I am going to ask you to pick one. Note: Only one of the following 12 options can show you ten beans/stones/pieces of paper. I'd like you to imagine for a moment that they represent 10 MEN who live in your village/neighborhood. How many of the men in your community would rank each of these as the most important sector where services need to improve in your community? Note to enumerator: For example, if a respondent says 6 men would rank Transportation as the most important sector, then they would have 4 beans/stones/pieces of paper left to allocate elsewhere. This could look like 3 beans for Education and 1 for Corruption. The sum of numbers entered into all of the sectors should be equal "},{"text":" following do you think men should do to support their wives to participate in activities outside the home? Read each response option aloud. <br/>Mark show you ten beans/stones/pieces of paper. I'd like you to imagine for a moment that they represent 10 MEN who live in your village/neighborhood. economet1_should_es_post (required) "},{"text":" to ask you some questions about what people in your community do or think. When I say \"community,\" I mean the people who are important to you. Please tell me to what extent these statements are true in "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"e2a4b4b4-fe63-4d87-852e-1c69ba25de36","abstract":"Please select the state of interview statei d state cc_lga (required) Please select the LGA lgai d lga cc_ward (required) Please select the ward and community ward_newi d ward"}

data/part_3/05c7ddd19ba0e11caa595793e7f3c553.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05c7ddd19ba0e11caa595793e7f3c553","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0b02c0fe-9b71-432b-8432-963f4b52a744/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"Morpho-Biochemical Responses of Brassica Coenospecies to Glyphosate Exposure at Pre-and Post-Emergence Stages","keywords":["herbicide tolerance","glyphosate","crop wild relative","Brassica"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":205,"text":"Glyphosate is a widely used herbicide that targets a broad range of vegetation. It was first introduced in 1974 and used for controlling weeds in plantation crops, no-tillage systems, and non-agricultural areas [1]. Glyphosate is a highly water-soluble herbicide that quickly penetrates into the plant leaves and is transported symplastically throughout the plant through the phloem stream [2]. In the shikimate pathway, the herbicide inhibits a specific enzyme EPSPS (5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase) [3]. This enzyme is vital for converting PEP (phosphoenol pyruvate) and shikimate 3-phosphate into EPSP and inorganic phosphate. Inhibition of EPSPS disrupts the biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids, like phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan, in the shikimate pathway. It is estimated that ~60% of a plant's dry weight comprises molecules produced through the shikimate pathway [4]. Additionally, plants in the Brassicaceae family, which include crucifers, use aromatic amino acids to make aromatic glucosinolates, a group of bioactive compounds that give pungency to mustard oil, cabbage, horseradish, etc. [5][6][7]. Therefore, glyphosate exposure can cause a chain reaction that affects the production of aromatic amino acids and their derivatives. The widespread use of glyphosate in the farming system has led to the emergence of glyphosate-resistant weeds [8,9]. This is classified as either target-site or non-target-site resistance [9,10]."},{"index":2,"size":193,"text":"Target-site resistance in glyphosate-resistant weeds is caused by mutations in the EPSPS gene, specifically at the amino acid positions of threonine, alanine, and proline [11]. These mutations prevent the herbicide from binding to the target location, reducing its effectiveness on the EPSPS enzyme [11,12]. Non-target site resistance mechanisms decrease the amount and speed of herbicide accumulation at the target location [10]. This type of resistance can be caused by a variety of factors, such as decreased herbicide penetration into the plant, reduced uptake or translocation, increased sequestration or metabolism of the herbicide, or a combination of these mechanisms. These factors can decrease herbicide efficacy, resulting in non-target site resistance [13]. Previously, the evolution of glyphosate resistance in plants was rare [14] due to various reasons, such as the limited metabolism of glyphosate in plants, short half-life in the environment, and unique biochemical characteristics of the herbicide. Additionally, engineering glyphosate resistance in crops requires complex molecular modifications [15]. However, some plant species and biotypes within the species possess natural resistance to glyphosate. This variation in resistance levels among different plant species and biotypes is a significant factor in the evolution of glyphosate resistance [16]."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Managing Orobanche, an achlorophyllous holoparasite, Orobanche aegyptiaca, poses significant challenges due to its underground location, close physical attachment to the host plant, prolific seed production, and the long viability of seeds in the soil over multiple years. Studies conducted in India by Punia [17,18] have demonstrated the efficacy of glyphosate sprays in mitigating Orobanche infestations in mustard fields. Recently, glyphosate resistance transgenic lines in Brassica juncea variety Varuna were developed using three genes, i.e., cp4 esps, gox, and gat, for their potential use in agriculture [19]."},{"index":4,"size":152,"text":"Several studies have focused on evaluating herbicide tolerance in various crop species and weeds based on physiological and biochemical responses. For instance, in a recent study, the effect of broad-spectrum herbicide weedlock was investigated on Ageratum conyzoides L., Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn, Zea mays L., and Amaranthus gangeticus L., which were treated at a concentration of 672.75 L ha −1 at different time points [20]. They observed significant reductions in chlorophyll content and inhibition of photosynthesis, which was highest at 24 h post-treatment. In addition, phytotoxic stress was indicated by a rise in the production of malondialdehyde (MDA), proline, and other antioxidant enzymes in the plants treated with weedlock herbicide. In another study, Juan et al. [21] assessed the responses of the 2,4-D herbicide-tolerant biotype of Brassica rapa using different formulations of 2,4-D and other auxin herbicides. Their findings elucidated the dose required to achieve 50% inhibition of survival for different formulations."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"Here, we investigated the behaviour of 20 genotypes from the Brassicaceae family to glyphosate in order to identify potential tolerant species. Morphological data analysis and biochemical assays were carried out at pre-and post-emergence stages to assess the tolerance across the genotypes. Identifying potential herbicide tolerance in genotypes of the Brassicaceae family paves the way for developing herbicide-resistant genotypes in cultivated species through a crop breeding program."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Experimental Material","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Twenty (20) genotypes of the Brassica species, including 15 wild species and five U triangle species, were used in this study. The details of the wild species were described previously by Kashyap et al. [22]. Prior to the treatment, the seeds of the genotypes were cleaned and surface-sterilized with sodium hypochlorite 1% (w/v) for 10 min, rinsed twice with distilled water, and air-dried before planting. For the glyphosate treatment, Roundup Monsanto (Bayer, India) (41% glyphosate), a commercial source of glyphosate, was used to prepare a 100 mg L −1 solution."}]},{"head":"Germination Test (Pre-Emergence)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"A germination test was used to determine herbicide resistance among different genotypes with slight modifications [23]. The experiments were conducted using polystyrene Petri dishes (90 mm diameter) containing a single sheet of germination paper, with 3 technical replicates per treatment. A glyphosate solution of 100 mg L −1 was applied to saturate the germination sheets, and 30 seeds of each genotype were placed in a separate Petri dish for germination. In another set, seeds grown in Petri dishes with germination paper saturated with distilled water were considered a control. Seeds were initially kept in the dark for two days at 25 ± 1 • C, then transferred to a growth chamber set at a temperature of 25 ± 1 • C having 16/8 h light/dark cycle. The germination percentage and root and shoot length of treated and control seedlings were measured on the 6th d after treatment in replicated manner. Samples for biochemical assays were also collected on the same day. The germination percentage was calculated as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"The total number of seeds germinated to the total number of seeds placed is known as the germination percentage. It was calculated using the formula: Germination percentage (GP) = no. of seeds germinated total number of seeds placed × 100"}]},{"head":"Spray Test (Post-Emergence)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"In a separate experiment, spray tests on 10 days old Brassica seedlings were conducted in a greenhouse. The surface sterilized seeds were sown directly in plastic pots (6.5 cm in height and 7.5 cm in diameter) containing a growth medium of equal parts garden soil and cocopeat. Each pot contained 30 seeds, and each genotype was sown in a replicated manner in triplicate. The plants were grown at a temperature of 25 ± 1 • C 16/8 with an 8 h light/dark cycle and watered as needed, simulating normal field conditions when glyphosate is applied. After 10 days, they were sprayed with a 100 mg L −1 glyphosate solution using an indoor sprayer. Visual mortality ratings were recorded daily after treatment, and samples for biochemical assay were collected along with untreated control from all genotypes after 6 days of treatment in a replicated manner. The survival percentage was calculated as:"},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"The total number of plants per pot was recorded before and after 6 days of the glyphosate application. Survival percentage was calculated using the formula: Survival Percentage (SP) = no. of seedlings survived total number of seedlings × 100"}]},{"head":"Biochemical Assay: Ascorbate Peroxidase (APX)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The activity of ascorbate peroxidase (APX) was measured using the protocol described by Chen & Asada [24] using the assay buffer consisting of 50 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.0), 0.5 mM ascorbic acid, and 0.1 mM hydrogen peroxide. One ml of enzyme extract was added to the buffer. The absorbance of the reaction mixture was then measured at 290 nm using a UV-VIS spectrophotometer (Evolution 300 UV-VIS, Thermoscientific, Crawley, UK). The decrease in absorbance at 290 nm was used to determine the oxidation of ascorbic acid [24]."}]},{"head":"Protein Estimation","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"For protein estimation, 1 g of tissue was crushed in a chilled buffer containing 50 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.8), 1 mM DTT (dithiothreitol), 2 mM EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid), 1 mM PMSF (phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride), 10% w/v PVPP-40 (polyvinyl polypyrrolidone), and 0.5% (v/v) TritonX-100. The homogenate was then centrifuged for 20 min at 12,000 rpm, and the supernatant was used for further analysis. Total protein was determined using Bradford protein assay, with BSA (bovine serum albumin) as the standard."}]},{"head":"Tolerance Index and Membership Function Value (MFV)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The tolerance index (TI) was calculated based on shoot length (SL), root length (RL), and the biochemical parameters of the genotypes under controlled and treatment conditions according to [25,26]. The following equation was used for the calculation:"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"where TIij is the tolerance index of the trait (j) for the genotype (i), and X ij s and X ij ns are the values of the trait (j) for the genotypes (i) obtained under stressed (s) and non-stressed conditions (ns), respectively."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"The stress tolerance index was derived by calculating the membership function value (MFV) using the following equations [25]."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"If a trait is positively correlated with tolerance, then"},{"index":5,"size":73,"text":"where Uij is the MFV of the trait (j) for genotype and (i) for tolerance; TI j min and TI j max are the minimum and maximum values, respectively, for the tolerance index (TIij) for the trait, and (j) is the tolerance index for genotype (i). Then, the mean value of the MFV obtained from different traits was calculated, and the genotype's tolerance was determined according to the average mean MFV values [25]."}]},{"head":"Statistical Analysis","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The post hoc Duncan's multiple range test (DMRT) was used to compare the treatment mean values, with significance at p < 0.05, and was performed using SAS. Multivariate cluster analysis of various genotypes was performed with SPSS 20.0 based on Ward's algorithm, and principal component analysis (PCA) was performed with R version 4.2.3."}]},{"head":"Results","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pre-Emergence and Post-Emergence Effects of Glyphosate","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"To analyse the pre-and post-emergence tolerance of the genotypes to glyphosate, phenotypic characters such as germination percentage, shoot length, root length and survival percentage were recorded 6 days after the treatment. A significant variation in glyphosate tolerance levels was observed among the various wild relatives and U triangle species of Brassica, with decreases ranging from 33% to 90% in germination percentage, 22% to 86% in shoot length, 65% to 93% in root length, and 20% to 63% in survival percentage."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"These genotypes exhibited differences in traits and were ranked between 1 to 20 for each trait based on the percentage decrease calculated by comparing the trait studied under exposure to glyphosate with the control (Figure 1 and Table 1). The lowest decrease in germination percentage was observed in Crambe abyssinica (EC694145) (33.5%) and Crambe abyssinica (EC400058) (36.6%), and these two genotypes ranked as 1 and 2 in terms of higher tolerance, respectively. Besides these genotypes, a decrease in germination percentage was observed in B. rapa (NRCPB rapa 8) (39.7%), B. nigra (EC472708) (40%), and B. carinata (PC-6) (43.3%), which were ranked as 3-5, respectively (Table 1)."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"The maximum decrease in germination percentage was observed in Diplotaxis muralis (90%), Diplotaxis catholica (85%), and Enarthrocarpus lyratus (72.9%), which ranked as 18-20, respectively (Table 1)."},{"index":4,"size":424,"text":"germination percentage was observed in Crambe abyssinica (EC694145) (33.5%) and Cram abyssinica (EC400058) (36.6%), and these two genotypes ranked as 1 and 2 in terms higher tolerance, respectively. Besides these genotypes, a decrease in germination p centage was observed in B. rapa (NRCPB rapa 8) (39.7%), B. nigra (EC472708) (40%), a B. carinata (PC-6) (43.3%), which were ranked as 3-5, respectively (Table 1). The maximu decrease in germination percentage was observed in Diplotaxis muralis (90%), Diplota catholica (85%), and Enarthrocarpus lyratus (72.9%), which ranked as 18-20, respectiv (Table 1).    The shoot growth was less sensitive to glyphosate compared to the root growth in seedlings, which can be used as an identification mark for glyphosate-tolerant genotypes. Data were expressed as a percentage reduction of the shoot and root length based on the untreated control for the respective genotypes. The lowest decrease in shoot length was obtained for B. nigra (EC472708) (22.1%), Diplotaxis muralis (26.9%), and Crambe abyssinica (EC694145) (35.8%) (ranked as 1 to 3) (Tables 1 and 2). In contrast, the highest decrease in shoot length was found for Camelina sativa (75%), Brassica fruticulosa (Spain) (76%), and Eruca sativa (IC57706) (86.3%) (ranked as 18 to 20). On the other hand, Diplotaxis catholica (65.71%), Diplotaxis muralis (71%), and Brassica tournefortii (RBT 2002) (75.6%) (ranked as 1 to 3) showed the lowest change in root length, indicating that these genotypes exhibited the higher tolerance to glyphosate (Table 1). Based on inhibition of root length, the most glyphosate susceptible genotypes were Eruca sativa (IC57706) (93.1%), Crambe abyssinica (EC694145) (93.2%), and B. napus (GSC 6) (93.7%) (ranked as 18 to 20) (Tables 1 and 2).  Plant survival was assessed 6 days after the herbicide treatment as previously described in terms of survival percentage. On the basis of survivability, the genotypes showing the maximum survival rate withstanding glyphosate (100 mg L −1 ) were B. rapa (NRCPB rapa 8) (63.2%), B. carinata (PC-6) (56.6%), and Oxycamp (53.3%) and accordingly ranked 1-3. Meanwhile, genotypes Diplotaxis catholica (20%), Brassica tournefortii (RBT 2002) (20%) and Brassica fruticulosa (Spain) (21.4%) ranked 18-20 (Figure 2 and Table 1). Plant survival was assessed 6 days after the herbicide treatment as previously described in terms of survival percentage. On the basis of survivability, the genotypes showing the maximum survival rate withstanding glyphosate (100 mg L −1 ) were B. rapa (NRCPB rapa 8) (63.2%), B. carinata (PC-6) (56.6%), and Oxycamp (53.3%) and accordingly ranked 1-3. Meanwhile, genotypes Diplotaxis catholica (20%), Brassica tournefortii (RBT 2002) (20%) and Brassica fruticulosa (Spain) (21.4%) ranked 18-20 (Figure 2 and Table 1). "}]},{"head":"Tolerance Index and Membership Function Value","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The membership function value (MFV) calculated based on the tolerance index (TI) was used as an index to screen potentially tolerant genotypes to herbicide stress. The estimated TI and MFV values of the genotypes, based on traits studied under stress conditions, are mentioned in Table S1. In our study, the MFV was the cumulative outcome of the TI of all the traits studied; this includes germination percentage, root length and survival percentage. A maximum mean MFV of 0.68 was recorded in B. rapa (NRCPB rapa 8). At the same time, lower values as 0.34, 0.35 and 0.37 were observed in Enarthrocarpus lyratus, Diplotaxis muralis, and Diplotaxis catholica, respectively (Table S1). "}]},{"head":"Tolerance Index and Membership Function Value","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The membership function value (MFV) calculated based on the tolerance index (TI) was used as an index to screen potentially tolerant genotypes to herbicide stress. The estimated TI and MFV values of the genotypes, based on traits studied under stress conditions, are mentioned in Table S1. In our study, the MFV was the cumulative outcome of the TI of all the traits studied; this includes germination percentage, root length and survival percentage. A maximum mean MFV of 0.68 was recorded in B. rapa (NRCPB rapa 8). At the same time, lower values as 0.34, 0.35 and 0.37 were observed in Enarthrocarpus lyratus, Diplotaxis muralis, and Diplotaxis catholica, respectively (Table S1)."}]},{"head":"Multivariate Cluster Analysis","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"Cluster analysis using Ward's algorithm and squared Euclidean distance categorized the 20 genotypes into three groups (Figure 3). This analysis determined cluster-I, cluster-II, and cluster-III members to be glyphosate moderately tolerant, sensitive, and tolerant genotypes, respectively (Figure 3). After the glyphosate exposure pre-and post-emergence, clustering was performed based on the mean MFV calculated using tolerance index data observed for germination percentage, root length, and survival percentage. The results were in good correlation with the phenotypic observations for glyphosate tolerance."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"Cluster analysis using Ward's algorithm and squared Euclidean distance categorized the 20 genotypes into three groups (Figure 3). This analysis determined cluster-I, cluster-II, and cluster-III members to be glyphosate moderately tolerant, sensitive, and tolerant genotypes, respectively (Figure 3). After the glyphosate exposure pre-and post-emergence, clustering was performed based on the mean MFV calculated using tolerance index data observed for germination percentage, root length, and survival percentage. The results were in good correlation with the phenotypic observations for glyphosate tolerance.  "}]},{"head":"Biochemical Assessment of Ascorbate Peroxidase","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"The seedlings of all the genotypes germinated in the presence of 100 mg L −1 glyphosate were analysed for ascorbate peroxidase enzyme activities after six days of the treatment, taking into account the time when they started to display the differential morphological response but did not die due to the applied stress. Ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activity was measured to study the effect of glyphosate at both pre-and post-emergence. After exposure to glyphosate, the ascorbate peroxidase activity increased in most genotypes, with significant differences between the Brassica CWR and U triangle spp. However, the tolerant genotypes showed a greater increase than the sensitive ones. A significant variation in fold change was observed among various CWRs and U triangle species, ranging from 0.3 to 3.4 in pre-and 0.3 to 4.4 in post-emergence. Fold change in APX activity in other genotypes is represented in Figure 4."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"(APX) activity was measured to study the effect of glyphosate at both pre-and emergence. After exposure to glyphosate, the ascorbate peroxidase activity increas most genotypes, with significant differences between the Brassica CWR and U tri spp. However, the tolerant genotypes showed a greater increase than the sensitive A significant variation in fold change was observed among various CWRs and U tri species, ranging from 0.3 to 3.4 in pre-and 0.3 to 4.4 in post-emergence. Fold chan APX activity in other genotypes is represented in Figure 4. "}]},{"head":"Principal Component Analysis (PCA)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"In addition to cluster analysis, principal component analysis (PCA) was us identify the superior genotypes among CWR and U triangle species genotypes. The grouped the variables into two principal components that accounted for 48.1% of the variance in the dataset and had eigenvalues greater than one (Figure 5). The b diagram showed that the first principal component (PC1) accounted for 27.8% of the variance in the data set and had a strong positive correlation with APX activity at the and post-emergence stages. The principal component (PC2) accounted for 20.3% o total variance in the data set and had a strong positive correlation with the treatmen length (RL). The biplot enables visualization of the relationships between the vari and genotypes, highlighting the importance of each trait in determining glyph tolerance. "}]},{"head":"Principal Component Analysis (PCA)","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"In addition to cluster analysis, principal component analysis (PCA) was used to identify the superior genotypes among CWR and U triangle species genotypes. The PCA grouped the variables into two principal components that accounted for 48.1% of the total variance in the dataset and had eigenvalues greater than one (Figure 5). The biplot diagram showed that the first principal component (PC1) accounted for 27.8% of the total variance in the data set and had a strong positive correlation with APX activity at the preand post-emergence stages. The principal component (PC2) accounted for 20.3% of the total variance in the data set and had a strong positive correlation with the treatment root length (RL). The biplot enables visualization of the relationships between the variables and genotypes, highlighting the importance of each trait in determining glyphosate tolerance. "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Crop productivity is highly affected by weed infestation worldwide. Developing herbicide-resistant crops and applying herbicides have become an economical method for weed management [27]. The shikimate pathway is important and indispensable in plants, "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Crop productivity is highly affected by weed infestation worldwide. Developing herbicide-resistant crops and applying herbicides have become an economical method for weed management [27]. The shikimate pathway is important and indispensable in plants, fungi and microbes. The EPSPS enzyme in this pathway is a primary target for developing glyphosate-resistant crops [28]. The halting of the shikimate pathway at EPSPS deregulates the other pathways and accumulates shikimate and its benzoic acid derivatives in a phytotoxic concentration [3]. Efficient germination, which is often highly sensitive to external stresses, is the key to the growth and development of crops [29]. Therefore, seed germination, emergence, and growth of seedlings represent a window of growth phase pivotal for the fitness of the species [30]. In the present study, we attempted to assess glyphosate tolerance in 20 genotypes of the Brassicaceae family, including its wild relatives and U triangle species, based on the effect of the herbicide at pre-and post-emergence stages of glyphosate exposure."},{"index":2,"size":285,"text":"In our study, root length was observed to be a strong indicator of response to glyphosate stress in the studied genotypes; however, as we are dealing with a much more diverse panel of genotypes in this study, we have selected two other traits for the identification of tolerant genotypes, i.e., germination percentage and survival percentage, which showed a significant difference between them. The 20 genotypes were ranked based on the extent to which the trait under study was affected in response to 100 mg L −1 glyphosate. A similar approach was also adopted by Jha et al. [31]. The relationship between MFV and TI was further analysed to identify the tolerant genotypes. The membership function of a fuzzy set is a generalization of the indicator function in classical sets; it represents the degree of truth as an extension of valuation [32]. Based upon the TI calculated for traits germination percentage, root length, and shoot length, mean MFV was calculated. According to Rai et al. [26], the higher the TI value, the higher the MFV value. After this, the average MFV(s) value was calculated, concluding which tolerant genotype was identified. Depending on their potential tolerance under glyphosate exposure, genotypes were classified into sensitive, moderately tolerant, and tolerant genotypes. Genotypes identified as tolerant are B. rapa (NRCPB rapa 8) (0.68 mean MFV), B. carinata (PC-6) (0.59 mean MFV), Crambe abyssinica (EC400058) (0.59 mean MFV), and Crambe abyssinica (EC694145) (0.59 mean MFV). Our result was in agreement with previous studies, depicting multivariate cluster analysis for salt stress in pearl millet genotypes (Jha et al., 2022) and drought stress in wheat (Singh et al., 2015). Furthermore, PCA analysis was employed to identify key attributes contributing to tolerance to glyphosate."},{"index":3,"size":205,"text":"Glyphosate has been shown to affect seed germination or seedling quality when applied directly to seeds [33,34] or as a pre-harvest application [35,36]. The effect of glyphosate application on seeds and seedlings was studied in two spring wheat varieties, 'Alpowa' and 'Penawawa' [37]. In their study, glyphosate was applied at a concentration of 0.62 or 0.84 kg ae/ha at two different stages of wheat development; a reduction in germination percentage from 2 to 46% was reported, which are consistent with our results. Previous studies on seedling emergence and growth in field peas [38], Zea mays, Glycine max, and Sorghum halepense [39] determined the effects of glyphosate application pre-harvest and at various stages of maturity, revealing that shoot meristematic cell moisture above 40% reduced seedling germination and fresh weight of shoots [40]. Furthermore, the negative impact of glyphosate exposure was observed in a Zea mays cultivar, with a decrease of 20.8% in root length [41]. Additionally, in a study on Pisum sativum, the phytotoxicity of different doses of glyphosate was evaluated at germination and seedling stages. In their study, the highest decrease of 90% in germination percentage, 14.7% average root length, and 17.6% average shoot length was observed, similar to our study in Brassica genotypes [40]."},{"index":4,"size":100,"text":"It has been reported that physiological parameters other than root length are much weaker indices of herbicide activity in different plant species measured after 6 days of germination. Inhibition of shoot growth and a lack of seed germination in watergrass, transgenic and non-transgenic soybean using glyphosate were observed by Kohata et al. [42]. We a similar effect of glyphosate exposure on the shoot length, as all the genotypes were recorded with a significant decrease in shoot and root length. Glyphosate significantly reduces acid invertase activity, hydrolysing sucrose to hexose sugars for energy production, ultimately affecting plant growth and maintenance [40]."},{"index":5,"size":169,"text":"As a post-emergence herbicide, however, glyphosate was not designed to disrupt seed germination, raising the question of how glyphosate interferes with germination; rather, glyphosate has been shown to induce oxidative stress in plants [43]. We investigated oxidative stress markers in seeds exposed to glyphosate. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are quite important during germination processes, and germination under stress conditions is related to the seed's ability to cope with ROS accumulation [44]. As shown in Figure 4 the genotypes which are identified to be tolerant to glyphosate showed higher APX activity in pre-and post-emergence. Furthermore, in susceptible genotypes like D. catholica and D. muralis, the activity of APX activity (H 2 O 2 -scavengers) increased, and these enzymatic systems failed to prevent H 2 O 2 accumulation, which can become toxic and impair the germination process [45] and survivability. H 2 O 2 accumulation in embryos can cause oxidative bursts, delaying or decreasing seed germination through the deterioration of cell structures and components such as fatty acids and proteins [46]."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"A total of 20 genotypes of the Brassicaceae family were evaluated for their resistance to glyphosate at pre-and post-emergence stages. Glyphosate-tolerant genotypes showed a lower decline in germination percentage and higher survivability under exposure to glyphosate at pre-and post-emergence stages, respectively. A significant variation in performances at both stages was studied. Based on morphological parameters and survival percentage, the tolerant genotypes were identified, which was supported by statistical analyses, including PCA and MFV. The genotypes identified in the present study can contribute to the breeding of glyphosate-resistant crops."}]},{"head":"Supplementary Materials:","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https: //www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/agronomy13071831/s1, Table S1: Tolerance Index (TI) and membership function value (MFV) for trait root length, germination percentage and survival percentage."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Effect of glyphosate (100 mg L −1 ) on seed germination. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Ranking of genotypes based on the percentage decrease in shoot length (SL), root len (RL), and germination percentage (GP) in along with visuals scoring of survival percentage ( after 6 days of pre-and post-emergence exposure of 100 mg L −1 glyphosate. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Effect of glyphosate (100 mg L −1 ) on seed germination. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Effect of 100 mg L −1 of glyphosate at post-emergence exposure stage. Members of the 3 clusters based on membership function value are represented. B. rapa (NRCPB rapa 8) (tolerant, cluster 3), D. catholica (susceptible, cluster 2), D. gomez-campoi (moderately tolerant, cluster 1), D. muralis (susceptible, cluster 2) and Biscutella didyma (moderately tolerant, cluster 1). C and T represent control and treatment, respectively. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Effect of 100 mg L −1 of glyphosate at post-emergence exposure stage. Members of the 3 clusters based on membership function value are represented. B. rapa (NRCPB rapa 8) (tolerant, cluster 3), D. catholica (susceptible, cluster 2), D. gomez-campoi (moderately tolerant, cluster 1), D. muralis (susceptible, cluster 2) and Biscutella didyma (moderately tolerant, cluster 1). C and T represent control and treatment, respectively. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Dendrogram showing clustering of the 20 genotypes of Brassica under study using Ward's linkage. The clustering was performed based on their mean MFV calculated using the tolerance index observed for the trait's germination percentage, root length, and survival percentage. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Dendrogram showing clustering of the 20 genotypes of Brassica under study using Ward's linkage. The clustering was performed based on their mean MFV calculated using the tolerance index observed for the trait's germination percentage, root length, and survival percentage. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Fold change in APX activity in genotypes in response to 100 mg L −1 glyphosate in pr post-emergence exposure. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Fold change in APX activity in genotypes in response to 100 mg L −1 glyphosate in pre-and post-emergence exposure. "},{"text":"Agronomy 2023 , 14 Figure 5 . Figure 5. The biplot showing principal component analysis (PCA) to examine the importance of various traits contributing to glyphosate tolerance. The active variables in red used in the analysis were germination percentage (GP), shoot length (SL), root length (RL), survival percentage (SP), and ascorbate peroxidase at pre-and post-emergence (APXG and APXS, respectively). "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. The biplot showing principal component analysis (PCA) to examine the importance of various traits contributing to glyphosate tolerance. The active variables in red used in the analysis were germination percentage (GP), shoot length (SL), root length (RL), survival percentage (SP), and ascorbate peroxidase at pre-and post-emergence (APXG and APXS, respectively). "},{"text":"Table 1 . Ranking of genotypes based on the percentage decrease in shoot length (SL), root length (RL), and germination percentage (GP) in along with visuals scoring of survival percentage (SP) after 6 days of pre-and post-emergence exposure of 100 mg L −1 glyphosate. S. No. Genotypes S. No.Genotypes  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Root and shoot length of wild and U triangle species of Brassica germinated under 100 mg L −1 glyphosate. Different letters denote a significant difference at p < 0.05 based on the least significant difference (LSD) test. S. No. Genotypes Root Length Control Shoot Length Root Length Treatment Shoot Length S. No.GenotypesRoot LengthControl Shoot LengthRoot LengthTreatment Shoot Length 1 Brassica carinata (PC-6) 6.2 ± 0.21 F  4.0 ± 0.25 I 0.5 ± 0.10 B 2.1 ± 0.75 G 1Brassica carinata (PC-6)6.2 ± 0.21 F4.0 ± 0.25 I0.5 ± 0.10 B2.1 ± 0.75 G 2 Brassica juncea (Pusa Jaikisan) 9.0 ± 2.9 F  4.6 ± 0.53 I 0.9 ± 0.44 B 1.8 ± 1.12 FG 2Brassica juncea (Pusa Jaikisan)9.0 ± 2.9 F4.6 ± 0.53 I0.9 ± 0.44 B1.8 ± 1.12 FG 3 Brassica napus (GSC 6) 8.5 ± 2.48 F  5.3 ± 0.9 I 0.5 ± 0.06 B 1.9 ± 0.21 G 3Brassica napus (GSC 6)8.5 ± 2.48 F5.3 ± 0.9 I0.5 ± 0.06 B1.9 ± 0.21 G 4 Brassica nigra (EC472708) 4 ± 1.82 F  3.7 ± 1.00 I 0.4 ± 0.15 B 2.9 ± 0.23 G 4Brassica nigra (EC472708)4 ± 1.82 F3.7 ± 1.00 I0.4 ± 0.15 B2.9 ± 0.23 G 5 Brassica rapa (NRCPB rapa 8) 3.9 ± 1.48 F  3.7 ± 0.06 HI 0.4 ± 0.10 B 1.2 ± 0.36 FG 5Brassica rapa (NRCPB rapa 8)3.9 ± 1.48 F3.7 ± 0.06 HI0.4 ± 0.10 B1.2 ± 0.36 FG 6 Biscutella didyma 1.9 ± 0.21 EF  2.3 ± 0.32 FGH 0.4 ± 0.15 B 0.7 ± 0.26 DEFG 6Biscutella didyma1.9 ± 0.21 EF2.3 ± 0.32 FGH0.4 ± 0.15 B0.7 ± 0.26 DEFG 7 Brassica fruticulosa (Spain) 1.6 ± 0.49 A  3.0 ± 0.31 A 0.4 ± 0.10 A 0.7 ± 0.06 A 7Brassica fruticulosa (Spain)1.6 ± 0.49 A3.0 ± 0.31 A0.4 ± 0.10 A0.7 ± 0.06 A 8 Brassica tournefortii (Rawa) 1.3 ± 0.21 F  3.6 ± 0.87 GHI 0.2 ± 0.15 B 1.8 ± 0.26 EFG 8Brassica tournefortii (Rawa)1.3 ± 0.21 F3.6 ± 0.87 GHI0.2 ± 0.15 B1.8 ± 0.26 EFG 9 Brassica tournefortii (RBT 2002) 1.3 ± 0.06 A  3.4 ± 0.25 A 0.3 ± 0.06 B 1.3 ± 0.47 B 9Brassica tournefortii (RBT 2002)1.3 ± 0.06 A3.4 ± 0.25 A0.3 ± 0.06 B1.3 ± 0.47 B 10 Camelina sativa 1.6 ± 0.15 B  2.8 ± 0.26 AB 0.3 ± 0.06 B 0.7 ± 0.1 BC 10Camelina sativa1.6 ± 0.15 B2.8 ± 0.26 AB0.3 ± 0.06 B0.7 ± 0.1 BC 11 Crambe abyssinica (EC400058) 5.8 ± 1.51 CDE  5.6 ± 0.25 EFG 0.5 ± 0.17 B 1.9 ± 0.25 CDE 11Crambe abyssinica (EC400058)5.8 ± 1.51 CDE5.6 ± 0.25 EFG0.5 ± 0.17 B1.9 ± 0.25 CDE 12 Crambe abyssinica (EC694145) 4.4 ± 0.64 CDE  5.8 ± 0.98 EFG 0.3 ± 00 B 3.7 ± 0.47 DEF 12Crambe abyssinica (EC694145)4.4 ± 0.64 CDE5.8 ± 0.98 EFG0.3 ± 00 B3.7 ± 0.47 DEF 13 Diplotaxis catholica 1.1 ± 0.15 B  2.0 ± 0.35 ABC 0.4 ± 0.10 B 0.9 ± 0.06 BC 13Diplotaxis catholica1.1 ± 0.15 B2.0 ± 0.35 ABC0.4 ± 0.10 B0.9 ± 0.06 BC 14 Diplotaxis muralis 1.2 ± 0.15 BC  2.1 ± 0.10 BCDE 0.3 ± 0.15 B 1.5 ± 0.21 CDE 14Diplotaxis muralis1.2 ± 0.15 BC2.1 ± 0.10 BCDE0.3 ± 0.15 B1.5 ± 0.21 CDE 15 Diplotaxis gomez-campoi 1.3 ± 0.1 CB  2.5 ± 0.30 ABCD 0.3 ± 0.10 B 1.4 ± 0.12 CD 15Diplotaxis gomez-campoi1.3 ± 0.1 CB2.5 ± 0.30 ABCD0.3 ± 0.10 B1.4 ± 0.12 CD 16 Enarthrocarpus lyratus 2.4 ± 1.01 BCD  2.4 ± 0.66 CDE 0.3 ± 0.06 B 1.5 ± 0.32 CDE 16Enarthrocarpus lyratus2.4 ± 1.01 BCD2.4 ± 0.66 CDE0.3 ± 0.06 B1.5 ± 0.32 CDE 17 Eruca sativa (IC57706) 6.3 ± 1.0 DEF  5.87 ± 0.32 EFG 0.4 ± 0.06 B 0.8 ± 0.1 DEF 17Eruca sativa (IC57706)6.3 ± 1.0 DEF5.87 ± 0.32 EFG0.4 ± 0.06 B0.8 ± 0.1 DEF 18 Lepidium sativum 4.6 ± 1.04 BCD  4.1 ± 0.20 DEF 0.4 ± 0.31 B 2.4 ± 0.4 CDE 18Lepidium sativum4.6 ± 1.04 BCD4.1 ± 0.20 DEF0.4 ± 0.31 B2.4 ± 0.4 CDE 19 Oxycamp 6 ± 1.80 F  5.1 ± 1.04 FGHI 0.5 ± 0.10 B 2.4 ± 0.42 EFG 19Oxycamp6 ± 1.80 F5.1 ± 1.04 FGHI0.5 ± 0.10 B2.4 ± 0.42 EFG 20 Sinapis alba 3.93 ± 0.21 CDE 4.73 ± 0.75 DEF 0.4 ± 0.17 B 1.87 ± 0.4 CDE 20Sinapis alba3.93 ± 0.21 CDE4.73 ± 0.75 DEF0.4 ± 0.17 B1.87 ± 0.4 CDE  "}],"sieverID":"4215e44d-de86-4b28-8e5c-10daf20d7e0c","abstract":"Crop wild relatives (CWRs) belonging to the Brassicaceae family possess extensive genetic diversity and have frequently been utilized in the enhancement of cultivated Brassica species. However, their tolerance to glyphosate, a widely used herbicide, has remained unknown. Our study examined the glyphosate response of 20 genotypes from the Brassicaceae family, which included genotypes within the U triangle and their wild relatives. We evaluated their behaviour based on morpho-biochemical responses, specifically focusing on the traits of germination percentage, root length, and survival percentage. By calculating the mean membership function value (MFV) for each genotype's response to these traits, we classified them into three distinct groups: susceptible, moderately tolerant, and tolerant. Among these genotypes, Brassica rapa (NRCPB rapa 8) demonstrated tolerance to glyphosate, as indicated by their mean MFV value of 0.68. Moderate tolerance to glyphosate was observed in Brassica juncea (Pusa Jaikisan) with a mean MFV of 0.52. Conversely, Diplotaxis catholica, Diplotaxis muralis, and Enarthrocarpus lyratus were susceptible, with mean MFV values of 0.37, 0.35, and 0.34, respectively. These findings revealed varying levels of response to glyphosate among these genotypes, with some displaying significant tolerance. The study provides valuable insights into the herbicide tolerance of Brassica CWRs and emphasizes the potential use of phenotypic and biochemical markers in evaluating herbicide tolerance."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05e47c5eb573b105c0d61ad587861e03","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f16325dd-1ab7-4e52-8f4e-17fef844a39a/retrieve"},"pageCount":19,"title":"Proteomic and Low-Polar Metabolite Profiling Reveal Unique Dynamics in Fatty Acid Metabolism during Flower and Berry Development of Table Grapes","keywords":["Olmedo, P.","Vidal, J.","Ponce, E.","Defilippi, B.G.","Pérez-Donoso, A.G.","Meneses, C.","Carpentier, S.","Pedreschi, R.","Campos-Vargas, R Vitis vinifera","proteomics","metabolomics","triacylglycerol","lipid","β-oxidation"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":347,"text":"The grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the most economically important fruit crops cultivated globally. There are more than 10,000 productive cultivars in the world, including table grapes and wine grapes [1]. Grape berries are consumed as fresh fruit and provide the raw material to produce wine, juices, and raisins [2]. The transformation of grape berries from hard, green structures to soft, mature, and flavorful fruits is a critical stage in their development [3]. Various biochemical and physiological changes occur during this process, including alterations in carbohydrates, organic acids, cell wall composition, and the less studied fatty acid and lipid metabolisms [4,5]. The 'Thompson Seedless' cultivar presents a reduction in seed content, a green-colored skin, and consumers' desirable organoleptic traits, such as a high firmness and a balanced sweetness/acidity ratio [6]. Fruit quality in table grapes is mainly associated with berry firmness, and during grape development and ripening, cell wall components undergo modifications that significantly influence fruit firmness [7,8]. However, fruit firmness is not only given by the physical characteristics of the cell wall but also by the turgor of the berries, which is built by the interaction of water contained in cell spaces surrounded by membranes that exert force on the cell wall [9]. Therefore, the characteristics of the membranes and their integrity have a significant impact on fruit quality. In addition, grapes are a rich source of bioactive compounds, and recent advances in proteomic and metabolite profiling have provided valuable insights into the composition and health benefits of grapes and grape products, such as polyphenols, resveratrol, and anthocyanins [2,10]. Recent advances in proteomic and metabolite profiling have contributed to the understanding of the complex biology of grapevines and to improve grape production, wine quality, and vineyard sustainability [11,12]. However, only a few efforts have been made to integrate proteomic and metabolomic datasets, which have provided valuable information regarding the description of primary and secondary metabolisms of grape berries during development and ripening [5,11], the metabolic traits of anthocyanin accumulation in berry exocarp [13], and the effect of high temperatures on grape berry metabolism [14]."},{"index":2,"size":202,"text":"Understanding the underlying mechanisms of lipid accumulation and fatty acid transformations is essential for enhancing fruit quality and overall crop productivity. The metabolism of lipophilic compounds, which involve fatty acids that constitute the fundamental basis of membranes in plant tissues [15], usually undergo modifications associated with fruit quality [16][17][18][19]. In the literature, few references have focused on studying the metabolism of lipid compounds in table grapes during the early stages of development, concentrating on the period from veraison to harvest. In the literature, there is a special focus on varieties associated with wine production. It has been reported that in the grape cv. 'Pedro Ximénez', the overall content of saturated fatty acids increases with berry ripening, while the proportion of unsaturated acids decreases, with linoleic acid content being the most affected [20]. The catabolism of fatty acids mainly involves enzymes of the phospholipase, lipoxygenase, and peroxidase types [16,19,21], which induce changes in the proportion of these lipophilic compounds and the physicochemical characteristics of the fruit membranes. On the other hand, during grape ripening, the biosynthesis of fatty acids, especially saturated fatty acids such as octacosanoic, hexacosanoic, and triacontanoic acids, shows an increase associated with the synthesis of waxes and aroma-related compounds [22]."},{"index":3,"size":184,"text":"Fatty acids are fundamental components of lipids, serving as building blocks for various lipid classes such as triacylglycerols (TAGs), phospholipids, and sterols [23]. De novo fatty acid biosynthesis occurs primarily within the plastids of grape berry cells [24]. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) and the fatty acid synthase (FAS) complex are key enzymes involved in this process. The malonyl-CoA produced by ACC condenses with acetyl-CoA, elongating the fatty acid chain [24]. During early grape berry development, the expression levels of genes encoding ACC and FAS increase significantly, supporting the synthesis of fatty acids and the production of essential lipids for cellular functions [25,26]. The production of long-chain fatty acids is crucial for forming storage lipids like TAGs, which serve as energy reservoirs during grape berry ripening [27]. Fatty acid β-oxidation is a fundamental metabolic process that involves the breakdown of fatty acids to generate energy through the production of acetyl-CoA units, which can be further used in the Krebs cycle to produce cellular energy. In plants, this process primarily occurs in peroxisomes/glyoxysomes, specialized organelles responsible for various metabolic reactions, including the breakdown of fatty acids [28]."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"Lipids are precursors of signaling molecules, such as jasmonates, that regulate stress responses and defense mechanisms during grape berry ripening [29,30]. Plant lipid signaling is pivotal in coordinating several physiological processes essential for growth, development, and responses to environmental cues [31]. Lipids, as essential components of cellular membranes, have long been recognized for their structural roles, but their involvement in signaling pathways has gained increasing attention [32]."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"As a continuation of previous work focused on grape berry central carbon metabolism [5], the aim of this study is to understand the molecular mechanisms involved in fatty acid metabolism in table grapes, which is closely related to central carbon metabolism. We guided our proteomic and low-polar metabolite profiling analyses on the lipid metabolism of 'Thompson Seedless' and elucidated the dynamics during flower and berry development, providing novel information on table grape fatty acids fluctuation."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Lipid Profiling of Grape Bunches during Flowering and Berry Development","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":336,"text":"Grape bunches previously used for polar metabolite profiling [5], were used for low-polar metabolite analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and for a fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) profiling by gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) at pre-flowering 1, pre-flowering 2, flowering, pre-veraison, veraison, and harvest stages. A targeted low-polar metabolite profiling was performed from GC-MS analysis, and lipid compounds' relative abundances were determined. Samples were assessed separately by comparing flower-related stages (pre-flowering 1, pre-flowering 2, and flowering) and fruit-related stages (pre-veraison, veraison, and harvest). Principal component analysis (PCA) score plots explained 95.7% of the variability with two components for flower stages (Figure 1A) and 92.0% for fruit stages (Figure 1B). PCA loading plots displayed the contribution of each metabolite to the variability at flower and fruit stages (Figure S1). In addition to these observations, visualization of the data using heatmaps containing the 25 compounds showed differential accumulation patterns for flowers and berries at different phenological stages. Four metabolites were accumulated in the pre-flowering 1 stage: cerotic acid; stigmasterol; 3β-acetoxy-5α-lanost-8-en-7α-ol; and stigmast-5-ene (Figure 1C). Interestingly, at pre-flowering 2, most of the compounds found elevated (14/25) were mainly fatty acids, such as glyceryl palmitate, tetracosanoate, methyl linolenate, docosanoate, methyl oleate, linolenate, methyl linoleate, and methyl linoelaidic acid (Figure 1C). At this stage prior to bloom, a peak in the accumulation of lipid-derived volatile compounds related to the bouquet of the grapevine flowers of the cv. 'Cabernet Sauvignon' and 'Chardonnay' have been described, including α-farnesene, nonadecane, and heneicosane [33,34]. At flowering, seven metabolites were found to be accumulated, including α-tocopherol, γ-tocopherol, methyl hendecanoic acid, ursolic acid, oleate, 1-docosene, and 9-eicosene (Figure 1C). Volatiles such as 1-docosene and 9-eicosene have been found in the essential oils of Tamarix dioica and Rosa damascena flowers, providing aroma traits when full bloom is achieved [35,36]. Tocopherols, lipid compounds known for their antioxidant activity and neurological protection [37], have been detected in grapevine flower tissues from the cv. 'Alphonse Lavallee'; however, higher concentrations of α-tocopherol and γ-tocopherol were found in leaves and seeds [38]."},{"index":2,"size":249,"text":"For fruit stages, most of the low-polar metabolites accumulated in the early stage of berry development pre-veraison (Figure 1D). The accumulation pattern of volatile compounds has been described as highly dynamic during berry development and ripening [39]. We found that the volatile metabolite abundance abruptly diminished after pre-veraison. This trend has been previously described in the cv. 'Viognier', as the berries ripen and accumulate soluble solids, the volatile compound pool displayed a reduction in its amount [40]. α-tocopherol (and γ-) seems to have a cultivar-dependent accumulation, showing a decrease through ripening in our study (Figure 1D) and a decrease in the skin-colored berries of the cv. 'Albert Lavallée' [41], while on for the skin-colored cv. 'Vinhao', α-tocopherol exhibited higher levels in mature grape berries [25]. γ-tocopherol exhibited a decrease from pre-veraison to veraison and then an increase until ripening (Figure 1D). In addition, γ-tocopherol showed an increase from veraison to ripening in grape berries cv. 'Albert Lavallée' [41], and cv. 'Vinhao' [25]. Interestingly, at the ripening stage, we found that the relative amount of γ-tocopherol was slightly higher than α-tocopherol (Figure 1D), displaying an opposite accumulation, as described for several table grape and wine grape cultivars [42]. Stigmasterol abundance decreased during grape berry ripening, as previ-ously reported for cv. 'Vinhao' [25]. Furthermore, grapevine genotype is not the only component influencing lipid profile. The role of environmental factors, such as warmer temperatures, modulate fatty acid and sterol abundance in grape chloroplasts, adding complexity to the study of lipid metabolism [43][44][45]."},{"index":3,"size":621,"text":"α-tocopherol exhibited higher levels in mature grape berries [25]. γ-tocopherol exhibited a decrease from pre-veraison to veraison and then an increase until ripening (Figure 1D). In addition, γ-tocopherol showed an increase from veraison to ripening in grape berries cv. 'Albert Lavallée' [41], and cv. 'Vinhao' [25]. Interestingly, at the ripening stage, we found that the relative amount of γ-tocopherol was slightly higher than α-tocopherol (Figure 1D), displaying an opposite accumulation, as described for several table grape and wine grape cultivars [42]. Stigmasterol abundance decreased during grape berry ripening, as previously reported for cv. 'Vinhao' [25]. Furthermore, grapevine genotype is not the only component influencing lipid profile. The role of environmental factors, such as warmer temperatures, modulate fatty acid and sterol abundance in grape chloroplasts, adding complexity to the study of lipid metabolism [43][44][45]. In addition, a univariate analysis of the main free fatty acids detected by GC-MS and lipid-derived fatty acids by GC-FID was carried out. GC-MS analysis showed that oleate was highly accumulated during flowering (Figure 2A). On the other hand, methyl oleate, linolenate, methyl linolenate, methyl linolate, methyl linoelaidic acid, methyl palmitate, and glyceryl palmitate were accumulated in the pre-flowering 2 stage (Figure 2A). Most of these fatty acids displayed an abundance pattern in which there was a peak at the pre-flowering 2 stage, decreasing at flowering but remaining higher than at the pre-flowering 1 stage. For GC-FID analysis, lipid-derived fatty acids showed a similar pattern through flower development. However, there was an increased accumulation at pre-flowering 1\\ and 2 stages, diminishing the quantity of fatty acids at flowering (Figure 3A). Prior to anthesis, cell division is particularly high, requiring increased levels of de novo-synthetized fatty acids for cell membrane assembly of the recently formed cells within floral tissues [46,47]. This could explain the drop in fatty acid content at flowering, in which, prior to this stage, the fatty acids were incorporated into cell membranes. In contrast, the free fatty acids could have been metabolized into the formation of volatile compounds required in floral scent [33].   For fruit stages, at pre-veraison, we observed higher concentrations of oleate, linolenate, methyl linolenate, methyl linolate, methyl linoelaidic acid, methyl palmitate, and glyceryl palmitate via GC-MS (Figure 2B). The fatty acid pattern accumulation indicates a decrease in these metabolites at veraison, remaining lower through the ripening process (Figure 2B). For GC-FID analysis, lipid-derived fatty acids showed a similar pattern through fruit ripening (Figure 3B), associated with the high growth rate of the berries at early stages of development, mainly characterized by cell division [3,48,49]. Through ripening, we observed lower levels of fatty acids, concomitant with a reduction in cell division rates, and the berry growth after veraison is determined by cell expansion, mobilizing higher amounts of water within the cells, explaining the decrease in the fatty acids required by the metabolic processes [26,50]. Previous studies between veraison and harvest using three grape cultivars indicated that lipophilic compounds, including fatty acids, showed a decreased concentration as the berry matures [22]. In addition, the integrity of cell membranes in grape berries of the cv. 'Autumn Royal' has been described to be related to some postharvest disorders, showing that the deterioration of table grapes due to dehydration and susceptibility to fungal infections depends on the composition of the membranes [51]. It has been reported that progressive disorganization of cell organelle membranes, associated with elevated rates of hydrogen peroxide generation, lipid peroxidation, and an imbalance in the saturated/unsaturated ratio of polar lipids, mainly due to a decrease in the degree of unsaturation of fatty acids, correlates with lower berry quality during postharvest storage [51]. Our data suggest that flowers and berries contain unique signatures in low-polar metabolite content, pointing to a differential accumulation during grape tissue development.   "}]},{"head":"Proteomic Analysis of Grape Bunches during Flowering and Berry Development","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":229,"text":"A proteomic approach was performed by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to better understand the dynamics of lipid metabolism during grapevine flowering and fruit development. The proteomic dataset obtained was previously used for pathway analysis and reconstruction of grapevine central carbon metabolism [5]. For this work, we carried out data curation and focused on 186 lipid-related proteins that showed detectable abundance at the six phenological stages. Data visualization by heatmaps containing the complete list of lipid-related proteins showed a differential accumulation pattern for flowers and berries at different phenological stages (Figure 4A,E). It was possible to detect a large subset of proteins accumulated at the flowering stage. In contrast, the subgroups contained fewer proteins for pre-flowering 1 and pre-flowering 2 stages (Figure 4A). This differential pattern of protein accumulation was supported by a PCA analysis, where the score plot explained 67.7% of the variability with two components for flower stages (Figure 4B). A further analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated that 101/186 (54.3%) of the proteins had a significantly differential expression in grapevine at floral stages (Figure 4C). Also, the identified proteins were classified into six groups: fatty acid (FA) biosynthesis; triacylglycerol (TGA) biosynthesis; FA β-oxidation; lipid metabolism; lipid-derived metabolism; and lipid transport. Figure 4D displays the distribution of these protein groups, indicating that enriched clusters correspond to lipid metabolism (mostly phospholipases), fatty acid biosynthesis, and FA β-oxidation.  "}]},{"head":"Identification of Proteins Involved in Fatty Acid and TAG Assembly during Flowering and Berry Development","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":264,"text":"Fatty acid biosynthesis requires several enzymes and occurs within the chloroplast of plant cells [53]. A total of 36 proteins were identified in FA synthesis, and they were used for the reconstruction of the FA biosynthesis pathway. At flower stages, 47.2% (17/36) of the enzymes were significantly different. Most of these proteins (12/17) were For fruit stages, it was observed that a significant group of proteins were accumulated at the harvest stage, and an elevated number of these proteins were also increased at the veraison stage (Figure 4E). In addition, fewer proteins showed an increased abundance at the pre-veraison stage. The protein accumulation pattern suggested a similar dynamic of lipid-related proteins between the veraison and harvest stages, which was supported by PCA, observing that samples from these two phenological stages were similar (Figure 4F). The one-way ANOVA test indicated that 55/186 (29.6%) of the proteins had a significantly differential abundance in the grapevine at fruit stages (Figure 4G). Figure 4H complemented this finding, displaying a lower number of significant proteins by its classification. A previously described transcriptome during ripening of grape berries cv. 'Thompson Seedless' indicated that fatty acids and lipid metabolism are part of the most complex groups of genes showing several abundance patterns through the ripening process, including shifts of accumulation, depletion, or oscillations through berry ripening [26]. Proteins associated with lipid metabolism exhibited a higher abundance after veraison in grape berries cv. 'Early Campbell' [11]. On the other hand, in grape berries cv. 'Cabernet Sauvignon', identified genes related to lipid metabolism and showed a decreasing expression pattern across berry development [52]."}]},{"head":"Identification of Proteins Involved in Fatty Acid and TAG Assembly during Flowering and Berry Development","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"Fatty acid biosynthesis requires several enzymes and occurs within the chloroplast of plant cells [53]. A total of 36 proteins were identified in FA synthesis, and they were used for the reconstruction of the FA biosynthesis pathway. At flower stages, 47.2% (17/36) of the enzymes were significantly different. Most of these proteins (12/17) were found upregulated at the flowering stage, including acetyl-CoA carboxylases (ACC3 and ACC8), 3-oxoacyl-ACP reductases (OAR1, OAR3, OAR4, OAR6, and OAR8), 3-hydroxyacyl-ACP dehydratase (HAD1), enoyl-ACP reductases (EAR1, EAR2, and EAR6), and stearoyl-ACP 9-desaturase (SAD4; Figure 5A). At the pre-flowering 1 stage, EAR3, HAD2, and HAD3 were found to be more abundant, while at the pre-flowering 2 stage, the ketoacyl-ACP reductases (KAR1 and KAR2) displayed a protein accumulation (Figure 5A). During grapevine flower development, there is a lack of information related to proteomic and lipidomic analyses. At the grapevine flowering stage for cv. 'Thompson Seedless', a higher accumulation of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex has been described compared to the pre-flowering 2 stage, suggesting an elevated production of acetyl-CoA that could be used as a precursor of malonyl-CoA, concomitant with the observed increase in the expression of ACC enzymes [5]."},{"index":2,"size":194,"text":"At fruit stages, 27.8% (10/36) of the enzymes were significantly different, and half of these proteins (5/10) were found to be more abundant at the pre-veraison stage, including EAR1, EAR3, OAR7, OAS1, and OAS2. At veraison, only the enzyme EAR3 was observed to be more abundant. For harvest stage, ACC5, ACC6, KAR1, and OAR8 were found to have accumulated (Figure 5B). Overall, our data suggest that fatty acid synthesis decreases during the ripening of grape berries, concomitant with the information obtained by GC-MS and GC-FID, where the accumulation of fatty acids also decreases. This behavior has been described in the cv. 'Cabernet Sauvignon' showing that the expression of genes involved in fatty acid synthesis decreases throughout berry ripening [54]. This study shows that the expression of some KAS, KAR, HAD, and EAR genes continuously decreases until grape berries reach maturity. Interestingly, we found proteins that shared this expression/abundance behavior and other proteins that exhibited an accumulation pattern throughout the ripening of grape berries. This behavior could be explained by the fact that fatty acids and their derivatives are involved in the signaling of metabolic pathways related to the ripening process of grape berries [54,55]. "}]},{"head":"Fatty Acid β-Oxidation Dynamics during Flowering and Berry Development","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":283,"text":"Free fatty acids derived from TAGs are mainly metabolized within the peroxisome/glyoxysome via β-oxidation [28]. A total of 33 proteins were identified related to βoxidation and they were used for the reconstruction of this metabolic pathway. At flower stages, 60.6% (20/33) of the proteins were significantly different and most of these enzymes (16/20) were found to be more abundant at the flowering stage, including longchain acyl-CoA synthetase (LACS6), enoyl-CoA hydratases (ECH3 and ECH4), 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenases (HADH1, HADH3, HADH4, HADH5, HADH8, HADH9, HADH10, and HADH11), and 3-ketocayl-CoA thiolases (KAT1, KAT2, KAT3, KAT4, and KAT5); Figure 6A. At the pre-flowering 1 stage, acyl-CoA oxidases (ACX4 and ACX6) were found to be more abundant, while at the pre-flowering 2 stage, the ACX1 and ACX5 Related to TAG biosynthesis, little is known about this metabolic process in grapevine flower development. During flowering, some of the fatty acids pool are used for the synthesis of volatile compounds that confer the fragrance of the flowers [33,56]. However, it has been described that most of the TAGs are stored as an energy source [57]. A total of 21 proteins were identified in TAG synthesis and were used for the reconstruction of the TAG biosynthesis pathway. At flower stages, 38.1% (8/21) of the enzymes were significantly different and similarly distributed between pre-flowering 2 and flowering stages. Glycerol kinase (GK), glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (GPAT3), and diacylglycerol kinase (DGK2) were found upregulated at the pre-flowering 2 stage, while GPAT1, phospholipid:diacylglycerol acyltransferases (PDAT1 and PDAT2), and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL1) showed an increased abundance at the flowering stage (Figure 5A). In-terestingly, during the flower development of Camellia reticulata, transcriptomic analysis showed the same accumulation pattern observed in our data for DGAT1, DGAT2, PDAT1, and PDAT2 [58]."},{"index":2,"size":170,"text":"At fruit stages, 14.3% (3/21) of the enzymes were significantly different, and GPAT1 was found upregulated at the pre-veraison stage, while GK and DGAT1 were observed accumulated at veraison (Figure 5B). In agreement with our findings, during the ripening of grape berries of the cv. 'Vinhao', it has been observed that GPATand DGAT-transcript expression decreased across ripening [25]. In addition, the TAG synthesis pathway displayed an elevated transcriptional activity during the ripening of grape berries cv. 'Thompson Seedless', concomitant with our findings in which we observed an increase in GPATs, 1-acyl-glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (AGPAT), and DGATs protein accumulation [26]. In addition, in grapes cv. 'Airen' and 'Cencibel', the TAG content oscillates during late stages of ripening, displaying peaks of TAG accumulation close to the end of ripening, and showed a differential abundance between both cultivars, being higher in the cv. 'Cencibel' [59]. This metabolic overall upregulation of TAG across berry maturation could explain the decrease in free fatty acid content, suggesting a coordinated regulation of lipid metabolism during grape berry ripening."}]},{"head":"Fatty Acid β-Oxidation Dynamics during Flowering and Berry Development","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":231,"text":"Free fatty acids derived from TAGs are mainly metabolized within the peroxisome/ glyoxysome via β-oxidation [28]. A total of 33 proteins were identified related to β-oxidation and they were used for the reconstruction of this metabolic pathway. At flower stages, 60.6% (20/33) of the proteins were significantly different and most of these enzymes (16/20) were found to be more abundant at the flowering stage, including long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase (LACS6), enoyl-CoA hydratases (ECH3 and ECH4), 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenases (HADH1, HADH3, HADH4, HADH5, HADH8, HADH9, HADH10, and HADH11), and 3-ketocayl-CoA thiolases (KAT1, KAT2, KAT3, KAT4, and KAT5); Figure 6A. At the preflowering 1 stage, acyl-CoA oxidases (ACX4 and ACX6) were found to be more abundant, while at the pre-flowering 2 stage, the ACX1 and ACX5 displayed a protein accumulation (Figure 6A). A metabolic pathway closely related to fatty acid β-oxidation is the glyoxylate cycle pathway, where acetyl units are converted into four-carbon acids to produce sugars by gluconeogenesis [60]. The acetyl-CoA derived from fatty acid β-oxidation could be used for citrate and malate production through citrate synthase and malate synthase enzymes in the glyoxylate cycle [61]. Interestingly, during flowering in cv. 'Thompson Seedless', a higher accumulation of citrate and malate compared to the pre-flowering 2 stage has recently been reported, suggesting a coordinated utilization of fatty acid-derived acetyl-CoA for energy production in that stage of flower development with elevated cell division and metabolism [5,49]."},{"index":2,"size":371,"text":"At fruit stages, 27.3% (9/33) of the enzymes showed a significantly different accumulation, and most of these proteins (6/9) were found to be more abundant at the harvest stage, including LACS4, LACS6, HADH1, HADH2, HADH4, and HADH5. For the pre-veraison stage, ACX1 and ACX3 were found to have accumulated. At veraison, only the enzyme ECH1 was observed to be more abundant (Figure 6B). Our findings suggest that fatty acid β-oxidation increases during ripening of grape berries, supported by the information obtained by GC-MS and GC-FID, where the accumulation of fatty acids diminishes. Degradation of thylakoid membranes is an important manifestation of cellular senescence during the late stages of ripening, and it is characterized by an increment in TAG disassembly and fatty acid oxidation [62,63]. In addition, a transcriptome analysis suggested that lipid catabolism increases during ripening of grape berries cv. 'Thompson Seedless' by a continuous increase in the expression of genes associated with fatty acid β-oxidation [26]. This analysis showed that enoyl-CoA hydratase transcripts were particularly upregulated through the ripening process, and our data showed a similar accumulation pattern for the ECH3 enzyme. On the other hand, the malate and citrate abundance showed a peak amount at the veraison stage, suggesting an alternative use of the acetyl-CoA produced from fatty acid β-oxidation at the harvest stage [5].  At fruit stages, 33.3% (18/54) of the proteins exhibited a significantly different accumulation, and most of these proteins (10/18) were found to be more abundant at the harvest stage, including lipoxygenases (13-LOX6, 13-LOX7, 13-LOX8, and 9-LOX), 12-oxophytodienoate reductases (OPR3-1, OPR3-2, and OPR3-3), and phospholipases (PLA2-16, PLA2-16, PLDδ-1). For veraison stage, PLA2-1, PLA2-2, PLA2-3, PLA2-17, and PLDα-5 were found to have accumulated. At pre-veraison, the enzymes AOC, PLA2-8, and PLDδ-4 were observed to be more abundant (Figure 7B). Jasmonate has been reported to show a peak of abundance a couple of weeks before veraison and then gradually diminishes until harvest in table grapes cv. 'Fujiminori' [29]. However, we speculate that jasmonate could progressively accumulate until mature stages in grape berries cv. 'Thompson Seedless' based on 13-LOX and OPR3 protein abundance patterns. Additionally, linoleate 13S-lipoxygenase increases during ripening of grape berries cv. 'Blanc du Bois' [74] and cv. 'Thompson Seedless' [26]. Furthermore, a hydroperoxide lyase gene "}]},{"head":"Lipid Metabolism and Signaling during Flowering and Berry Development","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":338,"text":"Plant lipid signaling represents a dynamic system that orchestrates a wide range of cellular processes. From structural components of membranes to secondary messengers and regulators of stress responses, lipids play integral roles in plant growth, development, and adaptation to changing environments [30,64]. Lipid peroxidation is carried out through the lipoxygenase pathway and has been described as the main polyunsaturated fatty acid processing pathway [65]. From this fatty acid dioxygenation, several enzymes participate in the formation of numerous lipid-derived signaling molecules, with jasmonate, traumatin, and hexenal being the most studied oxylipins [66]. To understand lipid signaling in grapevines, a partial reconstruction of the lipoxygenase pathway was carried out. A total of 54 proteins were identified for this pathway and at flower stages, 53.7% (29/54) of the enzymes were significantly different and most of these proteins (28/29) were found upregulated at flowering stage, including 19 phospholipases (PLA2-16, PLA2-17, PLD2, PLDα-1, PLDα-2, PLD3α-3, PLDα-4, PLDα-5, PLDα-6, PLDα-7, PLDα-8, PLDα-9, PLDα-10, PLDα-11, PLDδ-2, PLDδ-3, PLDδ-4, and PLDδ-5), linoleate 13S-lipoxygenases (13-LOX1, 13-LOX2, 13-LOX3, 13-LOX4, 13-LOX5, 13-LOX9, and 13-LOX10), allene oxide cyclase (AOC), and hydroperoxide lyases (HPL1 and HPL2) (Figure 7A). During flowering, it has been described that jasmonate is required for the normal transition of flower development and has a role in controlling flowering time, concomitant with the observed upregulation of proteins involved in jasmonate biosynthesis, such as 13-LOXs, AOC, and β-oxidation enzymes [67,68]. Additionally, the (Z)-3-hexenal produced by hydroperoxide lyase activity has been reported to be highly concentrated at full bloom in grapevines cv. 'Chardonnay', displaying a correlation with the HPL protein accumulation detected during flowering [34,69]. Phospholipases also play critical roles in flower development. A previous work revealed that PLA1 is involved in flower formation and catalyzes the first step in jasmonate production [70]. Moreover, it has been described that PLA2 accumulates gradually during flower development, concomitant with our findings for PLA2-16 and PLA2-17 expression [71,72]. In addition, a recent study demonstrated that PLDα is required for proper flower development and pollination, accumulating stigmas during flowering, supporting the data obtained [73]."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20 characterized in grape berries cv. 'Cabernet Sauvignon' showed an expression pattern similar to our data with a peak of HPL accumulation close to veraison [75]. Hydroperoxide lyase was found to be slightly upregulated from the green to ripe stages, while PLDα exhibited an abundance reduction in grape berries cv. 'Noble' [76]. Moreover, lipoxygenase expression in grape berries cv. 'Cabernet Sauvignon' showed an increment in two LOX1 genes, while for another LOX1, two LOX2, and a LOX gene, a reduction in the expression was reported, pointing to a highly dynamic spatiotemporal lipoxygenase expression pattern, as observed in our findings [52,54]. "}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant Material and Phenotypical Analyses","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) inflorescences and bunches of the cv. 'Thompson Seedless' were collected and phenotypically characterized as previously described by Olmedo et al. [5] during the 2019-2020 growing season at a vineyard located in Lampa (33°20′49.3″ S, 70°53′11.8″ W), Metropolitan Region, Chile. Samples were harvested at six Eichhorn and Loren (E-L) growth stages [77]: pre-flowering 1 (E-L 12); pre-flowering 2 (E-L 15); flowering (E-L 19); pre-veraison (E-L 29); veraison (E-L 35); and harvest (E-L 38)."}]},{"head":"GC-MS Low-Polar Metabolite Analysis","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Extraction and derivatization were performed according to Lytovchenko et al. [78] Figure 7. Lipoxygenase pathway reconstruction. The map shows proteins (uppercase) and metabolites (lowercase) involved in the metabolic pathway at flower stages (A) and at fruit stages (B). Relative abundance of proteins was averaged over three biological replicates (n = 3). PLA, phospholipase A; PLD, phospholipase D; 9-LOX, linoleate 9S-lipoxygenases; 13-LOX, linoleate 13S-lipoxygenases; AOS, allene oxide synthase; AOC, allene oxide cyclase; HPL, hydroperoxide lyase; OPR3, 12-oxophytodienoate reductase."},{"index":2,"size":253,"text":"At fruit stages, 33.3% (18/54) of the proteins exhibited a significantly different accumulation, and most of these proteins (10/18) were found to be more abundant at the harvest stage, including lipoxygenases (13-LOX6, 13-LOX7, 13-LOX8, and 9-LOX), 12-oxophytodienoate reductases (OPR3-1, OPR3-2, and OPR3-3), and phospholipases (PLA2-16, PLA2-16, PLDδ-1). For veraison stage, PLA2-1, PLA2-2, PLA2-3, PLA2-17, and PLDα-5 were found to have accumulated. At pre-veraison, the enzymes AOC, PLA2-8, and PLDδ-4 were observed to be more abundant (Figure 7B). Jasmonate has been reported to show a peak of abundance a couple of weeks before veraison and then gradually diminishes until harvest in table grapes cv. 'Fujiminori' [29]. However, we speculate that jasmonate could progressively accumulate until mature stages in grape berries cv. 'Thompson Seedless' based on 13-LOX and OPR3 protein abundance patterns. Additionally, linoleate 13S-lipoxygenase increases during ripening of grape berries cv. 'Blanc du Bois' [74] and cv. 'Thompson Seedless' [26]. Furthermore, a hydroperoxide lyase gene characterized in grape berries cv. 'Cabernet Sauvignon' showed an expression pattern similar to our data with a peak of HPL accumulation close to veraison [75]. Hydroperoxide lyase was found to be slightly upregulated from the green to ripe stages, while PLDα exhibited an abundance reduction in grape berries cv. 'Noble' [76]. Moreover, lipoxygenase expression in grape berries cv. 'Cabernet Sauvignon' showed an increment in two LOX1 genes, while for another LOX1, two LOX2, and a LOX gene, a reduction in the expression was reported, pointing to a highly dynamic spatiotemporal lipoxygenase expression pattern, as observed in our findings [52,54]."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant Material and Phenotypical Analyses","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) inflorescences and bunches of the cv. 'Thompson Seedless' were collected and phenotypically characterized as previously described by Olmedo et al. [5] during the 2019-2020 growing season at a vineyard located in Lampa (33 •  "}]},{"head":"GC-MS Low-Polar Metabolite Analysis","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":268,"text":"Extraction and derivatization were performed according to Lytovchenko et al. [78] with modifications. Briefly, low-polar metabolites were extracted from 50 mg of lyophilized flower or berry tissues using 1.3 mL of HPLC-grade methanol. Samples were incubated in a thermoregulated shaker at 120 rpm for 15 min at 70 • C. After cooling using icepacks, the samples were centrifuged at 17,000× g for 10 min at 4 • C. From the extract obtained, 0.75 mL were transferred to a centrifuge tube, and a second extraction was undertaken by adding 1 mL of HPLC-grade methanol to the centrifuged sample. The incubation and centrifugation steps were then repeated. One milliliter of this new extraction was added to point seven, five milliliters of the previously saved extraction. Then, 1 mL of HPLC grade water and 1 mL of the internal standard (0.52 g L −1 of methyl undecanoate in chloroform) were added, and the samples were vigorously shaken, followed by centrifugation at 4800× g for 10 min at 4 • C. The upper phase was discarded, and 2 mL of methanol:water (1:1) was added. Samples were vortexed and incubated at 4 • C overnight. After incubation, samples were centrifugated at 4800× g for 10 min at 4 • C. The upper polar phase was discarded, and the lower chloroform phase was evaporated using gaseous nitrogen. Then, 0.2 mL of N-trimethylsilyl-N-methyl trifluoroacetamide (MSTFA) was added to the samples, followed by incubation at 120 rpm for 30 min at 37 • C. Samples were collected and transferred to GC vials. The vials were capped and stored at −80 • C until further GC analysis."},{"index":2,"size":282,"text":"The low-polar metabolites were determined by injecting 1 µL of the prepared samples into an Agilent 7890B gas chromatograph equipped with a 5977A single quadrupole mass spectrometer, an electron impact ionization source, a PAL3 autosampler, and a 30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm DB-5ms column (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA). The injector and interface temperatures were 220 • C and 280 • C, respectively. The helium flow rate was 1 mL min −1, and a 25:1 split ratio was used. The initial temperature of the oven was 120 • C for 1 min; then, it was increased to 300 • C (5 • C each 1 min) and maintained for 15 min. The ionization source and quadrupole temperatures were 230 • C and 150 • C, respectively. Mass spectra were obtained in a 50 to 600 m/z interval with a scan rate of 2.66 cycles per second. Metabolites were identified using MassHunter Quantitative Analysis software version B.07.01 (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) and the NIST Library14. Metabolites were reported based on their relative quantification. QC samples composed of equal amounts of all samples were run every 10 samples. To obtain a relative response of each compound, the peak area data were corrected using the peak area of phenyl β-D-glucopyranoside (as an internal standard), the sample fresh weight, and a quality control (QC) sample representative of all samples. Data were analyzed by using relative concentration tables in the MetaboAnalyst 5.0 software. The software indicated that a total of 0% of missing values were detected. The variables were mean-centered and weighted using standard deviations to assign an equal variance. The metabolites were reported as previously described [79] in Table S1."}]},{"head":"GC-FID Fatty Acid Analysis","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":206,"text":"The extraction was performed using a previous method with some modifications [80]. Briefly, fatty acids were extracted from 50 mg of lyophilized flower or berry tissues using 0.07 mL of 10 N KOH in HPLC-grade water and 0.53 mL of HPLC-grade methanol. Samples were incubated in a water bath for 1.5 h at 58 • C with vigorous shaking every 30 min. After cooling to room temperature in a cold tap water bath, 0.058 mL of 24 N H 2 SO 4 was added. The tubes were then mixed by inversion and incubated again in the water bath for 1.5 h at 55 • C with shaking every 30 min. After fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) synthesis, the tubes were cooled in a cold tap water bath. Then, 0.5 mL of hexane and 0.01 mL of internal standard (methyl undecanoate: 26,16 g L −1 ) were added in a proportion of 0.97 mL of hexane and 0.03 mL of the internal standard. The tubes were vortexed for 2 min and centrifuged for 10 min at 17,000× g. The hexane phase (upper phase) containing the FAME was collected and transferred to GC vials. The vials were capped and stored at −80 • C until further GC analysis."},{"index":2,"size":170,"text":"The fatty acid composition of the FAME fraction was determined in a gas chromatograph (GC-2014 Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) equipped with a capillary column (RTX 2330, 90% biscyanopropyl/10% phenylcyanopropyl polysiloxane, 105 m × 0.25 mm ID, 0.20 µm film thickness; Restek, Bellefonte, PA, USA). The injector temperature was set to 220 • C; flame ionization detector (FID) at 280 • C. Helium was used as carrier gas with the flow at 1 mL min −1 . The column heating ramp was initially set at 130 • C, held for 5 min, followed by an increase from 130 • C to 180 • C at 5 • C per min, held at 180 • C for 10 min, increased from 180 • C to 240 • C at 3 • C per min, and held at 240 • C for 13 min. For fatty acid identification and quantification, the retention times were compared to the external analytical standards. The results were expressed as g of fatty acid kg −1 dry weight (DW)."}]},{"head":"Extraction and Digestion of Proteins","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":374,"text":"Protein extraction and digestion were performed as previously described with some modifications [81]. Samples were mixed using 200 mg of frozen flower or berry tissues in 0.5 mL of cold extraction buffer (100 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.5, 5 mM ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA), 100 mM potassium chloride (KCl), 1% (w/v) dithiothreitol (DTT; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA), 1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA), and 30% (w/v) sucrose, and immediately vortexed. Then, 0.5 mL of tris-equilibrated phenol solution was added, and the samples were homogenized for 10 min at 4 • C and centrifuged at 10,000× g for 10 min at 4 • C. The phenolic phase was collected and re-extracted by adding 0.5 mL of extraction buffer and centrifuged again. The collected phenolic phase was incubated overnight at −20 • C to induce protein precipitation with the addition of 1 mL of 0.1 M ammonium acetate in methanol. After incubation, samples were centrifuged at 17,000× g for 30 min at 4 • C, and the supernatant was discarded. Then, the pellet was rinsed using 0.2% (w/v) DTT in cold acetone, incubated at −20 • C for 1 h, and centrifuged again. The pellet obtained was air-dried, resuspended in 0.1 mL of lysis buffer (8 M urea, 5 mM DTT, and 30 mM Tris), and dissolved by vigorous agitation. Protein quantification was carried out with a Bio-Rad Protein Assay (Bio-Rad Inc, Hercules, CA, USA), according to the manufacturer's instructions, and using bovine serum albumin as the protein standard. Then, 0.02 mg of proteins were incubated for 15 min with DTT solution up to a final concentration of 20 mM. The samples were incubated for 30 min in the dark with iodoacetamide up to a final concentration of 50 mM and diluted using 0.15 M ammonium bicarbonate. The digestion of proteins was carried out by adding trypsin (0.2 mg mL −1 ) and incubated overnight at 37 • C. Peptides were acidified with trifluoroacetic acid (TFA; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) solution (0.1% [v/v] final concentration) and purified using Pierce C18 spin columns (Thermo Scientific, Rockford, IL, USA). The solvent was evaporated by Speed-Vac evaporation (Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany), and the pellet was dissolved in 0.1 M ammonium formate."}]},{"head":"LC-MS/MS Gel Free Proteomic Analysis","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":432,"text":"Samples were separated from 0.5 µg of digested material using an Ultimate 3000 ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) system (Dionex, Thermo Scientific, Rockford, IL, United States) equipped with an Acclaim PepMap100 C18 pre-column (3 µm, 100 A, Thermo Scientific, Rockford, IL, United States) and a C18 PepMap RSLC column (2 µm, 50 µm-15 cm, Thermo Scientific, Rockford, IL, USA). The mobile phase was composed of solvent (A), 0.1% (v/v) formic acid (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA), in water and solvent (B), 0.08% (v/v) formic acid, in 80% (v/v) acetonitrile (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA), using a linear gradient (0.3 mL min −1 ) of 0-4% buffer B (80% (v/v) acetonitrile, 0.08% (v/v) formic acid) in 3 min, 4-10% B in 12 min, 10-35% in 20 min, 35-65% in 5 min, 65-95% in 1 min, 95% for 10 min, 95-5% in 1 min, and 5% in 10 min [82]. The mass spectra were acquired using a Q Exactive hybrid quadrupole-Orbitrap mass spectrometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Rockford, IL, USA) operated in positive ion mode with a nanospray voltage of 2.1 kV and a source temperature of 250 • C. A Proteo Mass LTQ/FT Hybrid ESI Pos. Velos ESI positive ion calibration mix (88323, Thermo Scientific, Rockford, IL, USA) was used as an external calibrant. The instrument was operated in the data-dependent acquisition (DDA) mode with a survey MS scan at a resolution of 70,000 (fw hm at m/z 200) for the mass range of m/z 400 to 1600 for precursor ions, followed by MS/MS scans of the top ten most intense peaks with 2+, 3+, 4+, and +5 charged ions above a threshold ion count of 16,000 at 17,500 resolution using a normalized collision energy of 25 eV with an isolation window of 3.0 m/z and dynamic exclusion of 10 s. Data were acquired with Xcalibur 3.1.66.10 software (Thermo Scientific, Rockford, IL, USA). All raw data were converted into mgf files by Proteome Discoverer 1.4 (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Rockford, IL, USA) for identification and processed using Mascot 2.2.06 (Matrix Science, London, United Kingdom) against a Vitis vinifera cv. 'Cabernet Sauvignon' clone 08 v1.1-Chromosome scale database [83]. The parameters used to search in Mascot corresponded to a parent tolerance of 10 ppm, fragment tolerance of 0.02 Da, variable modification oxidation of M, fixed modification with carbamidomethyl C, and up to one missed cleavage for trypsin. Results were imported into Scaffold 3.6.3, and protein identification retained those proteins containing at least one identified peptide with a confidence level of 95%, a resulting false discovery rate of 0.0%, and the identification of a total of 4166 proteins."}]},{"head":"Statistical Analyses","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed on the normalized dataset obtained by GC-MS, GC-FID, and LC-MS/MS using the MetaboAnalyst 5.0 software. A one-way ANOVA with a Fisher's least significant difference (LSD) post-hoc test was used to compare the means of each metabolite or protein at different phenological stages. The ANOVA was performed using R software version 4.0.2 (Vienna, Austria), with significance set at p < 0.05, and was conducted using the 'agricolae' package. Experiments were carried out using three biological replicates (n = 3)."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":195,"text":"In this study, our results focused, for the first time, on the dynamics of fatty acid metabolism during flower and table grape berry development. We found that flowers and berries contain unique signatures in low-polar metabolite content, indicating a dif-ferential accumulation pattern during grape tissue development. Also, our data showed an overall increased fatty acid biosynthesis at the late stages of flower development and the early stages of berry growth, concomitant with the required lipids by the active cell division rates. In addition, an increased fatty acid catabolism by β-oxidation was found during berry ripening, suggesting an important role for fatty acid metabolism in energy production through berry development. Moreover, higher lipid signaling, closely related to the formation of jasmonate by fatty acid β-oxidation during the late stages of berry ripening, proposes a maturity process accompanied by senescence of the tissue. Finally, this work provides novel information about the role of lipid metabolism in non-oil-rich tissues during grapevine development and ripening, opening new perspectives on and future research outlines into the function of fatty acids in maintaining the homeostasis of energy production during the growth and development of grapevines and their relation to fruit quality."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Multivariate analyses of lipid metabolites of grape bunches at flower and fruit stages. Principal component analysis (PCA) score plot for flower stages (A) and fruit stages (B). Heatmap representation based on 25 metabolites identified in grape bunches at pre-flowering 1, pre-flowering 2, and flowering stages (C), and at pre-veraison, veraison, and harvest stages (D). The columns represent biological replicates for each phenological stage. The similarity measure used to cluster the different features was based on Euclidean distance and Ward's linkage from three biological replicates (n = 3). "},{"text":" Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 20 "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Univariate analysis of the relative abundance of the free fatty acids identified by GC-MS in grape bunches at flower stages (A) and fruit stages (B). Error bars represent SEM (n = 3). Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA (different letters means p < 0.05). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Univariate analysis of the relative abundance of the free fatty acids identified by GC-MS in grape bunches at flower stages (A) and fruit stages (B). Error bars represent SEM (n = 3). Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA (different letters means p < 0.05). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Univariate analysis of the relative abundance of the free fatty acids identified by GC-MS in grape bunches at flower stages (A) and fruit stages (B). Error bars represent SEM (n = 3). Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA (different letters means p < 0.05). "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Univariate analysis of the quantified fatty acids by GC-FID in grape bunches at flower stages (A) and at fruit stages (B). Error bars represent SEM (n = 3). Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA (different letters means p < 0.05). "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Univariate analysis of the quantified fatty acids by GC-FID in grape bunches at flower stages (A) and at fruit stages (B). Error bars represent SEM (n = 3). Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA (different letters means p < 0.05). "},{"text":" Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 20 "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Multivariate analyses of grapevine proteins at pre-flowering 1, pre-flowering 2, flowering, pre-veraison, veraison, and harvest stages. Heatmap representation of the 186 identified proteins in grape bunches at flower stages (A) and fruit stages (E). The columns represent biological replicates for each phenological stage. The similarity measure used to cluster the different features was based on Euclidean distance and Ward's linkage from three biological replicates (n = 3). PCA score plots for flower stages (B) and fruit stages (F). Significantly expressed proteins at flower stages (C; in brown) and fruit stages (G; in green) based on one-way ANOVA analysis (p < 0.05). Distribution of identified proteins and classification of lipid-related metabolism for flower stages (D) and fruit stages (H). "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Multivariate analyses of grapevine proteins at pre-flowering 1, pre-flowering 2, flowering, pre-veraison, veraison, and harvest stages. Heatmap representation of the 186 identified proteins in grape bunches at flower stages (A) and fruit stages (E). The columns represent biological replicates for each phenological stage. The similarity measure used to cluster the different features was based on Euclidean distance and Ward's linkage from three biological replicates (n = 3). PCA score plots for flower stages (B) and fruit stages (F). Significantly expressed proteins at flower stages (C; in brown) and fruit stages (G; in green) based on one-way ANOVA analysis (p < 0.05). Distribution of identified proteins and classification of lipid-related metabolism for flower stages (D) and fruit stages (H). "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Fatty acid biosynthesis and TAG assembly pathway reconstruction. The map shows proteins (uppercase) and metabolites (lowercase) involved in the metabolic pathway at flower stages (A) and at fruit stages (B). Relative abundance of proteins was averaged over three biological replicates (n = 3). ACC, acetyl-CoA carboxylase; MAT, malonyl-CoA ACP transacylase; OAS, 3-oxoacyl-ACP synthase; KAS, ketoacyl-ACP synthase; OAR, 3-oxoacyl-ACP reductase; KAR, ketoacyl-ACP reductase; HAD, hydroxyacyl-ACP dehydrase; EAR, enoyl-ACP reductase; SAD, stearoyl-ACP desaturase; FAS, fatty acid synthase; FAT, acyl-ACP thioesterase; FAD, fatty acid desaturase; LACS, long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase; GK, glycerol kinase; GPAT, glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase; AGPAT, acyl-glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase; PAP, phosphatidic acid phosphatase; DGAT, diacylglycerol acyltransferase; PDAT, phospholipid:diacylglycerol acyltransferase; MAGL, monoacylglycerol lipase; LPAP, phosphatidate phosphatase; DGK, diacylglycerol kinase; TAGL, triacylglycerol lipase. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Fatty acid biosynthesis and TAG assembly pathway reconstruction. The map shows proteins (uppercase) and metabolites (lowercase) involved in the metabolic pathway at flower stages (A) and at fruit stages (B). Relative abundance of proteins was averaged over three biological replicates (n = 3). ACC, acetyl-CoA carboxylase; MAT, malonyl-CoA ACP transacylase; OAS, 3-oxoacyl-ACP synthase; KAS, ketoacyl-ACP synthase; OAR, 3-oxoacyl-ACP reductase; KAR, ketoacyl-ACP reductase; HAD, hydroxyacyl-ACP dehydrase; EAR, enoyl-ACP reductase; SAD, stearoyl-ACP desaturase; FAS, fatty acid synthase; FAT, acyl-ACP thioesterase; FAD, fatty acid desaturase; LACS, long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase; GK, glycerol kinase; GPAT, glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase; AGPAT, acylglycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase; PAP, phosphatidic acid phosphatase; DGAT, diacylglycerol acyltransferase; PDAT, phospholipid:diacylglycerol acyltransferase; MAGL, monoacylglycerol lipase; LPAP, phosphatidate phosphatase; DGK, diacylglycerol kinase; TAGL, triacylglycerol lipase. "},{"text":" Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 20 that PLA2 accumulates gradually during flower development, concomitant with our findings for PLA2-16 and PLA2-17 expression [71,72]. In addition, a recent study demonstrated that PLDα is required for proper flower development and pollination, accumulating stigmas during flowering, supporting the data obtained [73]. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Fatty acid β-oxidation pathway reconstruction. The map shows proteins (uppercase) and metabolites (lowercase) involved in the metabolic pathway at flower stages (A) and at fruit stages (B). Relative abundance of proteins was averaged over three biological replicates (n = 3). LACS, long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase; ACX, acyl-CoA oxidase; ECH, enoyl-CoA hydratase; HADH, 3hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase; KAT, ketoacyl-CoA thiolase. "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Fatty acid β-oxidation pathway reconstruction. The map shows proteins (uppercase) and metabolites (lowercase) involved in the metabolic pathway at flower stages (A) and at fruit stages (B). Relative abundance of proteins was averaged over three biological replicates (n = 3). LACS, long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase; ACX, acyl-CoA oxidase; ECH, enoyl-CoA hydratase; HADH, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase; KAT, ketoacyl-CoA thiolase. "},{"text":"Figure 7 . Figure 7. Lipoxygenase pathway reconstruction. The map shows proteins (uppercase) and metabolites (lowercase) involved in the metabolic pathway at flower stages (A) and at fruit stages (B). Relative abundance of proteins was averaged over three biological replicates (n = 3). PLA, phospholipase A; PLD, phospholipase D; 9-LOX, linoleate 9S-lipoxygenases; 13-LOX, linoleate 13S-lipoxygenases; AOS, allene oxide synthase; AOC, allene oxide cyclase; HPL, hydroperoxide lyase; OPR3, 12-oxophytodienoate reductase. "},{"text":" 20 49.3 S, 70 • 53 11.8 W), Metropolitan Region, Chile. Samples were harvested at six Eichhorn and Loren (E-L) growth stages [77]: pre-flowering 1 (E-L 12); pre-flowering 2 (E-L 15); flowering (E-L 19); pre-veraison (E-L 29); veraison (E-L 35); and harvest (E-L 38). "}],"sieverID":"b2da77a0-d9cf-4f0e-a874-1a2083930947","abstract":"Grapevine development and ripening are complex processes that involve several biochemical pathways, including fatty acid and lipid metabolism. Fatty acids are essential components of lipids, which play crucial roles in fruit maturation and flavor development. However, the dynamics of fatty acid metabolism in grape flowers and berries are poorly understood. In this study, we present those dynamics and investigate the mechanisms of fatty acid homeostasis on 'Thompson Seedless' berries using metabolomic and proteomic analyses. Low-polar metabolite profiling indicated a higher abundance of fatty acids at the pre-flowering and pre-veraison stages. Proteomic analyses revealed that grape flowers and berries display unique profiles of proteins involved in fatty acid biosynthesis, triacylglycerol assembly, fatty acid β-oxidation, and lipid signaling. These findings show, for the first time, that fatty acid metabolism also plays an important role in the development of non-oil-rich tissues, opening new perspectives about lipid function and its relation to berry quality."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05e829e9a65286ab12f7593634514b2f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/58d3a995-f6f1-4d76-87d2-a3a09efef4ce/retrieve"},"pageCount":25,"title":"Land and embedded rights: An analysis of land conflicts in Luoland, Western Kenya","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"People's relationships to land are in Kenya inherently contradictory, conflictive and confusing at the same time. Confusion and conflict is part of everyday life. Local people, state agencies and the elite alike position themselves differently in such conflicts. Whereas in the policy arena much emphasis is given to governance issues (The Constitution of the Republic of Kenya, Constitution of Kenya Review Commission 2002), social movements such as the Kenya Land Alliance (KLA) push for the enactment of relevant legislations to address the ambiguities of agrarian policies such as land-grabbing, land quarrels and land related ethnic clashes. 2 KLA's main focus is to curtail the practices of political elites that alienated public land for private purposes. The current land tenure policy debate in Kenya, however, stresses the solution of problems associated with its political system of patronage, rivalry and corruption. It tends to neglect the rather complex everyday life of land rights practices at the local level and the kind of conflicts that emerge from conflicting interpretations of land arrangements."},{"index":2,"size":266,"text":"Considering and addressing land conflicts and disputes are not easy and demand a social analysis that unpacks legal repertoires and goes beyond the view that relationships to land are property rights. Conflicts over land are often understood as emerging out of the overlapping of laws uphold by the state and customary land arrangements of, in this case, the Luo of the Siaya area in Western Kenya that mediate people's relationships and attributes regarding land. Both are normative, institutional arrangements that are constructed by actors involved in land issues and these repertoires sometimes overlap and sometimes do not. Customarily land is the inalienable property of the clan given in usufruct to a lineage member and inherited according to lineage membership. Such land tenure arrangements have been reshaped over the years by the introduction of private land ownership, which dates back to the colonial period, and more specifically to the Swynnerton Plan implemented in the 1950s. Rights to access land are since then formally registered, the land being adjudicated and title deeds issued according to modern state land laws. This certainly has opened doors for the sale and the acquisition of land outside the realm of customary arrangements. But if the \"owner\" wishes to sell his land, the consent of the council of village elders is still required. These elders cannot be ignored as they are the custodians of customary land law. Whereas modern, private land tenure arrangements are codified, customary law is not and as this paper argues, rather presents itself as a repertoire of land rights and embedded social relationships that are open for competing interpretations."},{"index":3,"size":129,"text":"Von Benda-Beckmann (2002: 39) conceptualizes this social phenomenon as the \"co-existence of law or legal orders\" within a given society. Von Benda-Beckmann (Ibid: 69) draws attention to the fact that \"people are aware of alternative normative repertoires and/or procedures in which these can be used. But generally the condition of legal pluralism challenges the exclusiveness and selfevidence of any single normative system. … [I]n the context of legal pluralism, different participants and decision-makers may refer to the same law. But they often mobilize different legal repertoires against each other\". In other words, coexistence of legal repertoires thus implies different types of interactions or encounters between actors and social practices constituting an arena 3 where normative repertoires are contested and used as \"weapons\" in the struggle with others over land."},{"index":4,"size":138,"text":"Custom or the reference to what is supposed to be representing custom, plays a key role in the way the conflicts are played out. An interesting observation is the one by Channock (1991: 97) about custom. \"Custom\" he maintains, operates as \"a weapon in the battle against\" others, for instance in the settling of conflicts over land. He points out that in this battle \"accentuated and narrower version(s) of 'custom' became a weapon in the hands\" of others. 4 This paper will show how the repertoire by which people identify their relationship(s) to others is indeed used as a weapon to defend their specific interests and claims on their rights to land. We thus need to explore these repertoires in great detail if only to show how such repertoires are constructed and used in the negotiations about land."},{"index":5,"size":180,"text":"Conflicts over land rights, however, can only partly be explained by customary rights to land being reshaped and reconstructed by the introduction of individualized and privatized property rights to land. Property rights in fact are social relationships. Anthropologists have (always) argued that African land tenure is not about ownership per se, but instead rights and social obligations (Shipton 1994;Chanock 1991;Lund 2002). Rights to land are rather embedded rights; embedded in complex social relationships and shaped by obligations, reciprocity and shifting alliances between family members. Rights are not fixed, but often temporal and subject to negotiation (Odegaard 2002). While mapping these conflicts in Luoland, tensions at the level of kinship relations come to the fore. These kin quarrels often become part of or are played out during a conflict over land. Rights to land, whether embedded in customary or state law, then, do not represent one shared and accepted notion, but rather one that is subject to various and often conflicting interpretations that hinge on actors' interests, social relationships, gender, status within the community and to which age group one belongs."},{"index":6,"size":217,"text":"The first part of the paper depicts the Luo kinship relationships with reference to land allocation and inheritance by drawing upon local people's accounts of kinship and customary rights to land gathered during fieldwork that was carried out between 1998 and 2002 in Siaya District in West Kenya. These accounts are supplemented by existing ethnographies of scholars (Southall 1952, Wilson 1961, Ochola-Ayayo 1976, Cohen & Atieno-Odhiambo 1989). Such an account as argued earlier, needs to be treated with caution as it suggests a shared notion of customary law. This article shows indeed that differently placed Luo have been construing and reconstructing, using and abusing, the various distinctions between tradition, custom, customary law and national legal frameworks. The second part takes this further by introducing case material to explore contemporary practices in relation to the complexities of inheritance and acquisition of land. Because of the embeddedness of land relations in wider social relations, genealogies are ideal to present and order the case material. The case material underpins that land laws, whether customary or private, are often conflicting narratives or normative repertoires and that land conflicts take place in arenas of contestation. What custom is, and who is in a position to frame custom, emerges as crucial for understanding land conflicts as much as reciprocity of social obligations is."}]},{"head":"Settlement and kinship relations","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"Charles Obudho 5 and other old and well-respected men like him in Muhanda village in Siaya district insisted that if we wished to capture land rights we needed to investigate kinship and the way the Luo have settled over the years. Inheritance, he says, \"may become confusing if one does not understand kinship relationships and the terminology used to describe the relationships of the persons involved\". Together they constructed in a few meetings an almost ideal typical version of customary rights to land. They began to explain that a (typical) Luo homestead (dala) consists of a site where the monogamous or polygamous domestic groups build their houses, in the surroundings of which they have their fields. The smallest social unit in the homestead is the \"household\". A homestead consists of at least two generations, that of the father and the mother(s), and their offspring. Occasionally, households of brothers of the homestead's owner also reside in the dala, as well as servants and \"strangers\" (see Figure 3.1). Several homesteads make up a gweng and resemble what we now recognize as villages or settlements. Residence in a village, as Southall (1952: 27) also noted, is based upon kinship -or more specifically people that descend from the same grandfather (Jokakwaro) -but also upon alliances developed out of strategic considerations (Cohen & Atieno-Odhiambo 1989: 14)."},{"index":2,"size":234,"text":"The elementary social relationship is patrifocal, which cements the relationships between father, mother and their children. People refer to this as jokawuoro (\"people of the same father\") who operate as one corporate group sharing and distributing most of the domestic activities. Marriage and inheritance of resources are intertwined and shaped by the normative respect of age (i.e. seniority). Seniority works out such that the eldest son has to marry first, then the second eldest, and so on in order of seniority; the same is true of the daughters. 6 5 C. Obudho is one of the twelve old men that were selected in the entire district to sit on the District Land's Board chaired by the District Commissioner. He has been on the Siaya District Land's Board for the past thirteen years. We had many and long discussions about his views on Luo customary (land) law and social relationships. 6 Custom dictating social behaviour is of course subject to changes and deviations. During our fieldwork we came across a \"case\" in which a junior son has left his father's compound before his older brothers married. Our informants who brought this to our attention referred to this situation as \"jumping the seniority principle\". To make things even more complicated, the junior son married several wives and had build several but separate houses for them. The elderly informants uttered clear expressions of disagreement with such behaviour."},{"index":3,"size":245,"text":"When the senior son marries and has children, he is the first to build a new and independent homestead. 7 When the father dies, the eldest son takes over the responsibilities of leadership of the family. An implication of the responsibility and prestige of genealogical seniority is that it puts the holder into the primary position of first harvesting (dwoko cham), first sowing (golo kodhi), as well as of eating specified parts of an animal killed, which are usually the best parts. 8 The inheritance rights of daughters are limited to before their marriage. When married they leave the dala and loose the right to any wealth realized. If Luo society were composed only of this line of groupings, the study would have been much easier. The complication arises when one considers a polygamous homestead, which is composed of a plurality of matrifocal units (jokamiyo). Polygamy shapes the mothers' marital relationships with a common husband. The Luo commonly refer to the relationship between such matrifocal units as nyiego. Nyiego means \"jealousy\" when it refers to the relationship between the co-wives, and means \"rivalry\" when it involves all in a matrifocal unit as a group against another, opposing group. 9 Jokadayo, \"the people of the same grandmother\" denotes the matrifocal unit that combines a mother and her sons in the second generation. At this level, the rivalry and competitive relationships between the co-wives and their sons starts fading. 10 The position of the grandfather becomes important."},{"index":4,"size":259,"text":"Beyond the grandmother and grandfather line, at the third and up to the fifth generation, the keyo appears as a next organizational form. People descending from the same great-grandfather constitute a keyo. 11 The elders of the keyo act as representatives in disputes between various opposing keyo. They are also intermediaries between younger members and the ancestors and therefore act as foster father guardians. They form the first organized council to arbitrate land and 7 The Luo call this \"liberation\". They distinguish, however, between two different forms. The first liberation is when a woman starts cooking in her own house in the compound of her father-in-law. The second liberation is when a man establishes his own homestead. 8 For the Luo living along the shore of Lake Victoria, it is the senior brother who can first own a fishing boat. Since it is he who communicates with the ancestors, he also conducts or leads the sacrifices of religiosity regarding the boat. 9 The nyiego relationship often generates the various kinds of conflicts, competitions, envy, confrontations and even divisions that are so characteristics at various levels of Luo social organization. 10 The polygamous setting explained above accounts only for the first three wives in a polygamous homestead. A further complication occurs if there are more than three wives in a homestead. In the basic Luo polygamous homestead, (see Figure 3.1) the house of the senior wife (mikayi) is at the centre back. The second wife's house is at the right-hand side of mikayi to which people refer to as nyachira."},{"index":5,"size":103,"text":"The third wife (reru) has her house on the left-hand side of mikayi. Women married after the first three wives are called nyi-udi, which means the daughters of the house to which they are attached. They also stand in juxtaposition and compete with one another. 11 According to Wilson (1961: 7), a keyo constitutes extended polygamous families tracing descent from a common great-grandfather. The point of division is descent from the hut of one of his wives. The members of each of them thus constitute sub-groups sharing a common grandfather and are rightly called jokakwaro, \"people of the same grandfather\" (Ochola-Ayayo 1976: 122)."},{"index":6,"size":220,"text":"boundary disputes between members of their keyo. Social control of the community is here exercised partly through the authority of these elders and in the past partly and certainly through their control over the means of accumulation. The migration of their sons and daughters to towns has changed the role of the elders considerably, but when it comes to land the elders still maintain a large degree of authority. A next level in the lineage is the libamba, which involves descendants of a common ancestor, usually from four to seven generations back. It is a maximal lineage of landholding co-operating agnates and generally considered by anthropologists as the backbone for settlement, household and family formation, and social reproduction (see for instance Evans-Pritchard 1965, Southall 1952, Parkin 1978). Its members characteristically meet often at the keyo level to discuss the distribution of land titles, land conflicts and other property disputes. The study of Luo economic structure is most conveniently in terms of the operation of the libamba units, because these units define maximal frameworks for economic, social and political competition. According to Ochola-Ayayo (1976: 121) \"the Luo sum up in the libamba all those forces of friction and competition, which weaken the solidarity of a lineage segment and lead to its further subdivision\". Thereafter, the next level is the clan (dhoot)."}]},{"head":"Luo customary land tenure arrangements","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"The Luo acquire land rights in several ways. Charles Obudho explains that rights to land derive from being a member of the clan. Secondly, the clan also used to grant access to land to strangers and also slaves and servants were in the past given rights to access land. Finally, roughly since the late 1940s, land can also be purchased. Given that the land conflict cases this article explores in detail all deal with land that is accessed through customary inheritance arrangements, the buying and selling of land is not documented."}]},{"head":"Land allocated to clansmen","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"The basic right to access land stems from being a member of a tribe in a given territory for which lineage or clan members and their ancestors fought, and that is \"once acquired by conquest\" (Wilson 1961: 18). This represents the strongest claim to land in Luo territory: Every member of a clan has an inalienable right to cultivate a garden within the territory of his grandfather. This right is normative because it is associated with lineage membership. 12 This is important socially, because it provides a sense of security, which springs from living among kinsfolk. It is economically important as well, because a clan member is entitled to occupy such land on terms of correct usage without payment, except customary dues to land-controlling elders."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Natural boundaries well define the land that belongs to the clan, and the natural landscape of ridges and valleys aids this demarcation. One clan usually occupies a ridge or part of a ridge. This now is the area in which a man from that clan may expect to obtain a right to cultivate and to raise stock."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Formally, the land belongs to the head of the homestead. He in his turn allocates land to his wife or wives and keeps that part of the field closest to the gate for himself. Father's field is commonly known as the mondo. Before they establish their own compounds, sons work on their mothers' field(s). Below we will discuss how sons inherit land."}]},{"head":"Land allocated to strangers","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"A jadak 13 (stranger) is the person who comes to the area of a clan other than his own and asks for land. According to Luo tradition, it is difficult to refuse a stranger the land he requests to provide for his subsistence. It is this tradition that allows people to live among tribes or clans other than their own. Friendship, or maternal or affinal connections, qualify one to ask for land which is given in usufruct. In any case, the council of elders must approve such a transaction. The lands given to a stranger are usually within the territory of the clan. In return, the stranger must show solidarity and allegiance to the clan members. The stranger and his descendants have no right of inheritance; his children can only renew the usufruct right. The length of usufruct is indefinite, and this has led to many misunderstandings by the colonial and current government administration, and still complicates many land cases today."},{"index":2,"size":151,"text":"The jodak tradition dates back to the time when a rich man counted his security and prestige by the number of followers he could attract to his holding. It is fair to say that the Luo encouraged jodak to settle among them and, until recently, a jadak was not normally turned out of the land \"given\" to him, except in certain serious situations. According to some informants, the expression chiem gi wadu (\"eat what you have with your neighbour\") is strongly associated with the Luo concept of jadak. If, on the other hand, the clan in which a jadak was a squatter was at war with another clan, and he had shown bravery on the battlefield, upgraded his position to that of landowner. He, after all, had fought for the land and had been prepared to sacrifice his life in the same way, as did the ancestor of the present member."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"The allocation of land to a jadak was not intended as an economic enterprise in a direct way, but as a means to achieve a higher status. The land was being valued as a source of wealth and as a means of subsistence, which may raise a person into an honorific, higher position. Land distribution was a vehicle for prestige and a means of protection."}]},{"head":"Land allocated to slaves","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":219,"text":"Misumba is the word used to describe a servant or a foundling brought up as a foster child, or a slave in the proper sense of the word (Ochola-Ayayo 1976: 131). Under the first meaning of misumba, the homestead head assigns a child, or an adult man, to the house of a migumba as if he were her son. A woman is regarded a migumba if she has not had a male child. People expect a misumba to fill the social position of a male child in the house of the migumba, as if he were that woman's actual son. In any case, a misumba inherits his foster mother's gardens and livestock, but his position with regard to the inheritance of his foster father's field (mondo) is like that of an illegitimate child. If the foster mother gives her misumba cattle to marry a wife, then he is expected to become a member of the clan, and his children will be members of this clan. If, however, he should one day decide to return to his original clan land, then not only does he lose the land, but so do his children and their mother. The children are regarded as the legal descendants of the social father, or as an informant put it: \"their mother's bride-wealth was clan wealth\"."}]},{"head":"The inheritance of land: Customary rights","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"The way a father while still alive allocates land to his sons resembles the approach to land inheritance. The division of land between brothers or sons in a monogamous family is rather simple and straightforward. Land conflicts usually arise between nyiego groups. In the case of two or three sons of the same mother, the senior son takes the centre portion of the land in the homestead up to and beyond the gate or to the buffer zone; 14 the other sons then have the remainder of the land to divide among themselves. If the land is divided among the elder sons after they are married, and they take to living on their lands, it often happens that the youngest son remains in the father's compound to care for him in his old age. His inheritance is the mondo and the remaining gardens of his mother (Wilson 1961: 13, Ochola-Ayayo 1976: 129, Francis 2000)."},{"index":2,"size":220,"text":"In the event of a father's death, then whoever remarries his wife (indicated as jater) is the legal guardian of his fields and his children. A jater may take the widow to his village or may live in the village of the deceased. The widow will continue to cultivate her deceased husband's land. The jater may also cultivate these lands on a usufruct basis but must vacate them if ordered to do so when the sons of the deceased have married and established their own homesteads. In most cases, a jater is a classificatory father to the children, and he will fulfil his obligations to the latter according to custom. Should a jater be a stranger, then it is the duty of the clan elders of the dead man's lineage to watch him closely and see to it that the sons get the land of the deceased. The jater, whether relative or stranger, has no permanent right whatsoever to any of the dead man's property; nor have the leviratic children (children born of the jater), unless there is no male heir. Once the eldest son has built his homestead, it becomes his duty to set up homesteads for his junior brothers. He should divide the land equally; or else the junior brothers may seek redress from the council of elders."},{"index":3,"size":207,"text":"The right of inheritance also depends on the presence of ancestral graves on the land (Shipton 1992: 377). Furthermore, if the ancestors conquered the land, a descendant can lay extra strong claims to it (Ogot 1967: 222). Land is inherited only through patrilineal relationships. A sole survivor of the grandfathers would then inherit all the grandfathers' land. A brother only inherits land belonging to a full brother if the latter does not have a male descendant. The eldest of the group of brothers is the temporary owner of the father's entire land, and acts as arbitrator in disputes between the younger brothers. Younger brothers can appeal to the council of elders. A man can only inherit land belonging to a paternal uncle if the uncle does not leave a son, or full or half-brothers. The unwritten rule of inheritance by the nearest agnatic kinsman operates throughout the clan, that is, if no heirs can be found from the father, grandfathers or great-grandfathers, then the nearest male relative to the deceased within his clan inherits. The sons, when they marry, share their mother's land. A mother usually gives her sons part of her garden at that time, but unmarried sons inherit those fields remaining at their mother's death."},{"index":4,"size":144,"text":"In the event that a man dies without a male heir, then his land reverts to his father or nearest agnatic kinsman, except that portion allocated to his wife or wives provided they remain within the lineage of the deceased. In the case of a man dying without a son and his wife having been unable to provide a male child through another relationship, she may \"remarry\" a girl, usually from her own clan, with the cattle of her dead husband or with her own cattle. She then calls a close agnatic kinsman of her deceased husband to cohabit with this girl to serve as genitor. Children of this union are the legal sons of the deceased husband, and they will inherit his remaining wealth: Land, cattle and other personal properties. This form of marriage is what anthropologists call \"ghost marriage\" (Ocholla-Ayayo 1976: 131)."}]},{"head":"Inheritance of land in a polygamous setting","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"In polygamous settings, the land is divided along the same lines, except that, within the village, the sons claim the area contiguous to the houses of their mothers. Each wife and her sons constitute a group with similar rights as a son of a sole wife: Children of the senior wife are given that portion of the total area that would have been given to the senior son in a monogamous family. The sons of the second and third wives lay claim to those portions that would have fallen to the second and third sons, respectively, in a monogamous situation."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"There is, however, a further complicating factor and that concerns situations where there are more than three co-wives (perceived as attached daughters). These co-wives are attached to the first three sets. The sons of the senior wife inherit as a group with the sons of daughters attached to the senior wife; sons of daughters attached to the second wife and the sons of daughters attached to the third wife will also inherit as groups with the sons of the second and third wives respectively."}]},{"head":"Kinship and land inheritance in practice","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":326,"text":"Let us now examine how kinship and land inheritance work out in the practice of everyday life in the Siaya region of Luoland. Issues of land allocation and inheritance have become much more conflictual and complex as land became scarce due to increased population. Land use has intensified over the years leaving little opportunities to fallow land to restore soil fertility. 15 The room for manoeuvre for allocating and dividing land according to Luo customs among clan members, or for allocating land in usufruct to strangers and slaves, has been substantially limited over the years and is virtually absent nowadays. Moreover, the implementation of the Swynnerton Plan from the mid 1950s onwards partly restyled Luo land tenure arrangements. This Swynnerton Plan laid the political groundwork for a state policy to privatize land tenure in Kenya (Hebinck 1990: 59 ff.). Practically all the land is now adjudicated and registered, and subsequently title deeds have been issued. This opened doors for the buying and selling of land. However, private land tenure has continued to operate concurrently with Luo customary law, whereby Luo elders still have to quell land disputes among their people. Where there is no conflict over land, people have been able to buy and sell land on an individual basis. Jodak and misumba have been able in this way to get land as long as they could afford to buy it from a willing seller. As we shall see in the cases presented below, the legal and written evidence that a piece of land belongs to a certain person stirred intra-lineage and intra-household conflicts. Privatization of land implies a breakaway from the situation where land is collectively owned by the lineage under the authority of its leaders. While in the recent past, Luo elders would act as judges in the case of land disputes and settle them, their role is now minimized and increasingly been taken over by the government's magistrates' courts and district land tribunals."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"The cases presented below aim to elaborate on such conflicts. They were chosen in such a way that the different ways by which land customarily may be inherited and allocated are represented. The cases show local legal pluralism at work: Customary and private land tenure systems interface and are embedded in day-to-day quarrels about social obligations."}]},{"head":"Case 1","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"The situation of Oketch Bundmawi and Oduor Lomo with regard to land illuminates the complex nature of land quarrels. They are brothers and have the same father, Ogonji, and are married with children. Despite Luo customary land arrangements, neither has yet managed to inherit land from their father. Their elder brother, Abednego, currently holds all the title deeds of the land of their grandfather, Olum (see Figure 3.2). Oketch for the moment cultivates the land of his deceased uncle, Agina, where he has also established his own homestead. Lomo, as the youngest son, according to the custom should have inherited the mondo and the homestead of his father, Ogonji. However, Abednego cultivates the largest portion of his father's land and he has established his homestead on his father's mondo, thus dashing Lomo's hopes of inheriting the mondo. Their mother retains another portion of the land. According to Luo customary law, his mothers' field should go to Lomo after her death. Lomo currently works on another part of his mother's field and a small portion of the land of his paternal uncle, Odongo."},{"index":2,"size":153,"text":"To fully explore the many dimensions of this particular conflict we need to go back to the brothers' grandfather, Olum. The origin of the conflict can partly be traced back to him and his eighth wife, Adungairo, who was a seer and a witch doctor. Olum had three sons from his seventh wife: Ogonji, Agina and Odongo. His only remaining son, Odongo, has a hearing problem due to his old age and does not say much about his father. When asked about Olum, his grandson, Abednego, mentioned that he was a well-known farmer who had come to Muhanda at more or less the same time as the British arrived in Luo land. He had six other wives in his original village some ten kilometres from Muhanda. Olum's family also belongs to a lineage of the real landowners, the Gem people who conquered Muhanda village (from the Abaluhya) before the establishment of colonial rule."}]},{"head":"Ogonji","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Lomo","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Olum","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Oketch","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Abednego","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Agina Odongo","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Lived in another village Olum came to Muhanda with his seventh wife who died in 1934, after which he married Adungairo. This marriage did not produce any children. People believe that she was possessed with evil spirits who did not allow her to have children, but because she had healing powers, she made Olum rich, as people brought her many cattle and goats. At the time of his death, he was a famous and a wealthy person. 16 People also believed that Adungairo bewitched Olum's sons, as they experienced marriage problems."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"To escape the witchcraft, they went to the Rift Valley to find work on white settler farms. Odongo did not stay for long and came back home almost immediately after his father's death to settle into farming. He got married and had a daughter. His wife died soon after that and he never remarried. Agina married in town and did not return to the village. He died in town and his wife did not live long afterwards. Their son, Okumu, is now a high-ranking railway functionary in Nairobi. He married in Nairobi and never visited his father's village."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Ogonji was Olum's first-born son. When Olum died, Ogonji worked in Kitale as a mechanic for the Hughes Company. He married and had three sons and a daughter. These sons are Abednego Ochieng, Oketch Bundmawi and Oduor Lomo. The daughter is married and lives in Seme. Since Ogonji married rather late, he fathered his children when he was at an advanced age. He retired in 1970, returned home, and died in 1979."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"The land tenure and inheritance arrangement in the Ogonji family is that of people descended from the same grandfather (jokakwaro). When Olum died, he had allocated land to his three sons. The records of the District Land Register in Siaya indeed specify that the title of plot no. MN 426 (7.5 acres; 3.0 hectare) is vested in Ogonji, that of plot no. MN 423 (6.5 acres; 2.6 hectare) is on Agina's name, and plot no. MN 424 (5.5 acres; 2.2 hectare) is registered in Odongo's name."},{"index":5,"size":195,"text":"Abednego, being Ogonji's eldest son, customarily holds the title deeds for all three plots. This is because his uncle Odongo is now old, has no heirs and is depending on Abednego and his wife for his daily subsistence. Odongo officially has a say over all the title deeds, but has given them to Abednego for safekeeping. To complicate things even further, Abednego is also cultivating his father's plot (mondo). Oketch and Lomo are not happy with this situation at all. They feel that they should get their share. One day when the issue came up, Odongo made clear to them that \"you can subdivide your father's plot among yourselves. I will retain Agina's plot because he was my brother and I will also retain mine. Furthermore I can still marry and get a boy child who can be heir to my plot\". This scared Ogonji's sons. Their mother advised them to suspend their quarrel for the time being. They fear they will lose these plots -the more so, because Odongo has the right to sell his own and Agina's plots. So they do not want to annoy him or else they will lose the land."},{"index":6,"size":126,"text":"The reason why Abednego is holding on to the title deeds and not allocating them to his younger brothers is a combination of how authority is exercised and of not complying with expected patterns of behaviour, such as mutual help in return for assistance later. When Ogonji died, Abednego shouldered his responsibility as senior brother and paid for his younger brothers' education up to secondary school level. Furthermore, he says, \"I paid bride-wealth for my brother Oketch when he married\". When they later got jobs, he demanded assistance from them to help him pay school fees for his children. Both refused to help him out. Abednego is not happy with them, given that he expended resources on them that he could have used to improve himself."},{"index":7,"size":212,"text":"On the other hand, Lomo and Oketch argue that they do not like the way Abednego exercised his authority as the senior brother. When they returned home from working in town, neither had yet established own homesteads. Abednego made them eat in his house, while their wives had to eat in their mother-in-law's house. Abednego's objective clearly was to draw labour from his younger brothers and to make them work in his fields; but, when the harvest was brought in, he barely shared it with his brothers. Abednego defends himself by arguing that he was using his position as eldest brother to unite the family. Lomo was not happy with the situation and liberated himself unofficially by 1994, when he ordered his wife to start cooking in her own house. Lomo thus violated the Luo custom of seniority. Being the last born, he should have been the last one to be liberated. Oketch also followed with his wife. Lomo then requested to be given his own plot so that he could engage in serious farming without being controlled by Abednego, but his mother refused. She told him outright that Abednego is everything in their family. Lomo is only allowed to farm part of his father's land and his uncle Odongo's land temporarily."},{"index":8,"size":57,"text":"The conflict, as it now stands, partly involves people of the same father (jokawuoro) but has the potential of also involving people of the same grandfather (jokakwaro). Okumu, who can claim the land of his father, Agina, will not be a serious contender however. Oketch, who now lives and works on Agina's land, is convinced of this:"},{"index":9,"size":140,"text":"My cousin is a very irresponsible man. When my uncle Agina grew very old, he did not take care of him. When he died, he did not even come home to bury him. When his own mother died, he never came back home. This means he delinked himself from us. We can only give him a small portion of this plot. The situation will become more complex if descendants of Olum who are still in his original village show up and claim the land. This is because Olum's fourth wife and seventh wife are daughters attached to the first wife's house (Nyiudi) and their sons inherit as one group with the sons of the first wife. Customarily, they are entitled to claim the land of Agina and Odongo, as it is part of the land belonging to Olum, their father."}]},{"head":"Case 2","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":297,"text":"This case is about Martin and his struggle for land. It involves genealogically the Ogonda (I) family (see Figure 3.3) who are descendants from a jadak. The case is further compounded by the fact that the son of Ogonda (I), Obudho, had several wives, and this stirred rivalry when it came to land allocation. As a result, one of Obudho's sons, who at that time worked in Uganda, missed land. He remained landless until he died. The problem now is that his remaining three sons, among whom Martin, are landless. Martin only has access to the land he is working on by virtue of being \"people of the same grandfather\". His other two brothers have migrated to town to seek casual employment. Martin and his brothers are seen as squatters and not entitled to title deeds. Their future will be based on their ability to acquire land through purchase. The Ogonda (I) family lives in Luero village. Ogonda (I) founded this village a long time after the region had been conquered by the Luo, who, however, had left the place unoccupied until then. Before Ogonda (I)'s arrival, it was used as grazing land for livestock. This pastureland was allocated to Ogonda (I) in the jadak relationship by his brother in-law who was married to his sister. His brother in-law belonged to the Kalanyo clan and Ogonda (I) belonged to the Kathomo clan. Luero was then still grazing land. One of Ogonda's sons was Obudho who married nine wives. He had two sons with his sixth wife, Abigail. The first son to Abigail is Jeconia Ogonda (II) and the other, John Ambajo. Ogonda (II) had two wives. The first wife gave birth to two sons of whom Martin is the eldest. The second wife also had two sons."},{"index":2,"size":288,"text":"Martin lost his mother in 1965 when he was eight years old. When his father completed his primary education, he found work in Mulago National Hospital in Uganda. He came back to Kenya in 1971 on a transfer to work in Kenyatta National Hospital in Nairobi. While in Uganda, he married a second wife who is now a tailor in Kakamega. Martin does not have land himself. He has only access to his uncle's (John Ambajo) land. When the land was subdivided, his father was in Uganda. Since his grandfather had many wives, there was stiff competition for land because of the nyiego (rivalry) relationships between the co-wives. As a result, his father was not given land simply because, when he was summoned to come back for the land allocation, he never turned up. His step uncle, Adero (son to Obudho's first wife, Okwatch, Abigail's sister), allocated the land to his paternal uncle, John Ambajo. This is the land on which Martin is now living and which contains Obudho's second homestead. Most of Martin's step-grandmothers' graves are in that homestead, as well as that of his father and mother. John Ambajo, whose name is registered on that land (plot no. L723 at the District Land Registrar's office in Siaya), lives in Nairobi and rarely visits the village. He is separated from his wife, and his two sons still live with their mother. Martin lives in his grandfather's homestead. His father, however, never managed to establish a homestead of his own. Martin still lives with his grandmother, who is about 100 years old, in Obudho's homestead. Martin built his hut behind his grandmother's house in accordance with the Luo customs. Martin is married and has one son, Ogonda (III)."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"Martin has only usufruct rights to the land in Luero village because he is a member of jokakwaro. Most likely, after the death of his grandmother, his uncle may ask him to look for land to purchase somewhere else. He does not know his fate as far as land allocation is concerned, I hope my cousins will understand and give me a place to put up a homestead. The field where I planted maize belongs to my paternal uncle, John Ambajo. If I fail to get land here, I will have to look for land in another village and buy. However, this will only happen after the death of my grandmother."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"The complexity is heightened by the fact that, customarily, Martin has the right to use the land of his grandfather because his grandmother is still alive and he has the right to use her gardens. Moreover, the homestead where they are living contains the graves of his mother and father. The migration of Ambajo to town with his sons has enabled him to cultivate part of Ambajo's land, but only under the conditions of usufruct rights."}]},{"head":"Case 3","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"This case also involves a jadak who came to live in Muhoho village among his maternal uncles. The man who came to this village was Opiyo Naki. The conflict we will discuss involves brothers from the same mother. The appellant is the biological son and the defendant is a social son."},{"index":2,"size":258,"text":"Opiyo belonged to the Isuha clan and came to Muhoho as jadak. He had two wives. The first wife had two sons: Okelo Naki and Otieno Naki (see Figure 3.4). The second wife had two sons and two daughters. Opiyo lived from 1890 to 1939. Before his death, he had allocated both his wives parcels of land. According to Luo land tenure arrangements, the sons were to inherit their mother's land. However, after Opiyo's death, his eldest wife was married by one of his relatives (jater) called Agulu. Agulu shares the same grandfather as Opiyo, but they have different fathers. He only came to Muhoho to inherit Opiyo's wife and went back to his village some 60 kilometres from Muhoho. Opiyo's eldest wife produced a son with this man. According to Luo custom, the son, Oluoch Agulu, is a bona fide son of Opiyo, rather than of the man who remarried his mother (jater). Oluoch Agulu, born in 1945, does not have land of his own. In this village they are strangers and were not allocated a large piece of land. His brothers, Okelo Naki and Otieno Naki, tried their best and assisted in his education up to college level. He graduated as a primary school teacher in 1966. Oluoch Agulu married two wives. He had three sons and two daughters with the first wife. However, they were not happily married and so they divorced. He then married the second wife, Pamela, with whom he has two sons and one daughter. Oluoch is a retired primary school teacher."},{"index":3,"size":196,"text":"When we visited Otieno for the first time, we wandered over the plots he was farming. This did not please Otieno. One day, Otieno met one of us alone and started quarrelling about why we were trespassing on his field without his knowledge. When we checked the land register in Siaya town, only the names of Oluoch's two brothers and his stepmother are registered as owners. Plot no. MH 734 is in the name of Okelo (Opiyo Naki's eldest son) and plot no. MH 736 is in the name of Otieno Naki. The plot covers Oluoch's homestead and the fields he cultivates. Plot no. MH 735 is registered in the name of their stepmother. Earlier on, another informant mentioned to us, however, that Oluoch is not a real son to Opiyo, even though he had established his homestead on Opiyo's mondo. We were told that he did this on his mother's instructions. Throughout our conversations with Oluoch and his wife Pamela, they did not at all mention the biological father. In any case, Oluoch now calls himself Charles Oluoch Agulu Naki, which is in fact a combination of the names of his biological and social father."},{"index":4,"size":115,"text":"In 1995, Otieno took this case to the council of elders of Muhoho village and some elders from their original village. The case was decided in favour of Oluoch. Based on Luo customary law, he is the son of the deceased. The ruling did not convince Otieno, and he decided to take the case to the High Court of Kenya in Kisumu. The case underwent several hearings and was still pending in court by the end of the research, following the death of the magistrate who was handling it. A new magistrate now has to take it up. Most villagers who know of the case argue that Otieno cannot win because Oluoch is his brother."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"This case shows the complications that arise out of confrontations between jadak-based land allocations and private land tenure arrangements. Oluoch Agulu refers to customary law to lodge his \"rightful\" claim on the land because he is a son to his father. Otieno, for his part, is resorting to private land tenure arrangements to secure his case and hopes that the court will rule in his favour. Meanwhile, because of this land issue and some other family-related problems, Oluoch Agulu and Pamela became active members of the Anglican Church and claim to live according to Christian norms and values. Pamela one day made the following remark: \"somehow I get peace in salvation. Christianity is my strength\"."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"This article has shown that land appears to mean more than property as often is assumed. Land has different meanings and is not just a resource that is required for productive purposes. A whole complex and dynamic set of social relationships is built around land, tying people together and defining their relations vis-à-vis each other. Over the years, and largely still, the key normative principle has been that one can gain and maintain access to land by membership of a clan. Rights of individuals are not thought sacrosanct; rather, they interlock with the rights of others, and overlap with those of families, their members and wider groups. A place on the landscape implies a place in a kin group, and vice versa. Patrilineality, virilocal residence and the subdivision of holdings devolving from one generation to the next remain the socially defined norms in Luo country. The multiple meaning of land and the intrinsic complexities and conflictive nature of Luo land tenure arrangements are often misunderstood."},{"index":2,"size":344,"text":"Having said this, one cannot escape the lessons of the cases presented. The first case shows that land inheritance is clouded by relationships between members of the same kin group or family. This particular conflict is not necessarily about customary land law and rights, but about actors using and constructing elements of that law strategically to position them in the conflict. The second case of Martin is quite clear, as each party understands its obligations. The two operating land tenure arrangements do not interfere with each other. Customarily, Martin has the right to be on his uncle's land where he resides at the moment, but his identity as a stranger confines him to just that and he will never be able to acquire more land. His dreams of becoming a farmer through investing in perennial crops and soil fertility management will only materialize if he is able to acquire land privately. Martin, like Lomo from the first case, represents the numerous members of the younger generation who have developed a more individualistic attitude, and who are eager to get their own title deeds, since this would enable them to make their own plans, without having to accept the authority of an elder, a father or an older brother. However, in conflict situations, the owner of the homestead, in most cases the one holding the title deeds, tends to hold on to these deeds as long as possible to maintain his authority. In many cases, this hampers the construction of a proper inheritance arrangement, which could mean the continuation of the quarrel between sons after the death of the father. In the \"old\" days, the eldest son succeeded his father as the head of the homestead. In more recent times however, younger brothers often question and challenge his seniority position. The absence of title deeds is felt as impeding one from acquiring a loan that would enable investment in agricultural production, in other economic activities, or in marrying other women. Obtaining title deeds, either through the private property or the customary route, offers new opportunities."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"The third case shows the role played by customary and private land tenure arrangements. Each party in the conflict reverts to the tenure arrangement that fits their particular interest, and engages in strategic positioning. Such cases generate the kind of conflicts and confusions about land and inheritance with which Kenya as a nation, with its recent politically and ethnically induced land conflicts, is grappling. In the absence of an integrated land policy, the unresolved issue of land tenure persists."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"The paper has also shown inter alia that women do not normally inherit cultivation rights but acquire them mainly through marriage. Women's rights are only ancillary, depending on allocations from their husbands. Their position regarding land can also be seen from the angle of matrilineal relationships in a patrilineal society. Women are the ones who work the land most of the time, and obtain rights in their post-marital homesteads by devolution from their mothers-in-law."},{"index":5,"size":331,"text":"The argument developed in this paper is that it is too simple to explain land conflicts only with reference to situations as evolving around overlapping customary and private land tenure arrangements shaping the way the Luo deal with land, understand land issues and resolve conflicts over land. In more theoretical terms this paper has underlined the usefulness of legal pluralism as an approach to research situations constituted by co-existing normative legal repertoires. Claims on land are subject to various, competing interpretations of customary and state law that often result from and lead to embroiled relationships between family and/or clan members. But as this article has shown, there is a need to go beyond legal pluralism and emphasize the wider set of social relationships people are embedded in. Rights to land have to be seen in relation to other social relationships (seniority, kinship) with their associated rights and obligations. Land conflicts thus take place in arenas of contestation wherein people position and reposition themselves continuously in their understanding and (re)construction of the existing customary and modern, private laws with regard to land. The metaphor of \"forum shopping\" as a social practice, borrowed from von Benda-Beckmann (1981), seems to do justice to an attempt to characterize the land rights arena. People literally shop between the various kinship and legal repertoires and actively (re)construct them in situations of conflict. In contemporary Luoland, legal shopping manifests itself in the socially constructed tension between collective/customary versus individual/modern. Differently placed Luo, both in terms of membership of social categories and in terms of their immediate social circumstances, have been construing and reconstructing, using and abusing, the various distinctions between tradition, custom, customary law, and national legal frameworks for as long as these have been around. The challenge for any advocacy group and government to address seriously local level land conflicts is the question to adhere to which legal repertoire of (customary and private) law and find ways for relating to conflicts at the level of social relationships."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"Meanwhile, people tend to organize their daily lives by doing their own thing. Kinship principles and customary arrangements and obligations are not dead but"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 3 . 1 Figure 3.1 Spatial ecology of a Luo homestead Source: Sennyonga (1997) "},{"text":"Figure 3 . 2 Figure 3.2 The descendants of Olum "},{"text":"Figure 3 . 3 Figure 3.3 The descendants of Ogonda I "},{"text":"Figure 3 . 4 Figure 3.4 The descendants of Opiyo Naki "}],"sieverID":"642f5cd0-45d2-4e4b-8bea-3c8b3f6a7006","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06357c4a0dcae6984d88080a94d1a5ff","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6a6ad130-7697-466d-88d2-194a3001f8f4/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Food safety, antimicrobial use, and animal welfare in the Nairobi pork value chain Research themes and study partners How was the study conducted?","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Animal Welfare Observations During the Study Period","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"• Pigs strapped onto motorbikes • Overloading of pigs in the transport vessel • Mixing of pigs from different farms in one vehicle • Pigs kept for more than 24hours in the lairage • Overcrowding and strapping pigs onto motorbikes causes injuries, such as lacerations, bruises and fractures. These types of injuries lead to down grading of the meat, which translates to reduced income/profit to the farmer or trader."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"• Pigs should not be kept for more than 18 hours without food and water. Keeping animals for a longer time than that leads to the animal utilizing its energy reserves to sustain normal body functions causing weight loss hence reduced meat to sell."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"• Meat obtained from a stressed pig tends to lose excess water as compared to non-stressed pigs. This meat weighs less leading to less income/profit."}]},{"head":"Animal welfare concern during transport:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Why does this matter?"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"@Katie Hamilton, ZED Group"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"A pig inhumanely strapped on a motorbike during transportation"},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Most live pigs were painfully marked on the ears with sharp objects such as nails for purposes of identification at the lairage and after slaughter."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"This process causes intense pain, causing physical injury and subsequent fear to the pigs. The identification lacerations (cuts) create avenues for entry of pathogens such as bacteria. Nevertheless, this is a key source of stress to the animal and as the animal fights back it becomes difficult to handle it."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"We recommend finding alternative non-invasive methods of marking pigs such as with paint or markers."},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"5"}]},{"head":"What can we do to improve?","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Why does this matter?"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Animal welfare concern during identification of live pigs @Nicholas Bor, ILRI"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"A pig painfully marked on the ear using sharp object for identification."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"• The electrodes of the stunning device were dirty, old, and corroded. • The stunning current was 0.3A, which is below the recommended current of 1.3A. • Nearly all pigs were incorrectly restrained and stunned e.g., some were stunned as they moved"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• Pigs should be properly restrained before stunning."},{"index":6,"size":90,"text":"• The stunning device should be well positioned on the neck at the base of the ears. • Stunning should be done with a clean and well-maintained stunning device with a current of 1.3A. • The electrodes on the stunning gun have to be cleaned daily for effective transmission of current. • Pigs that are not effectively stunned will be seen kicking, blinking, heavy breathing, and making sounds, and that must be always avoided. This is not only painful to the pig but also risks injury to the slaughter workers."},{"index":7,"size":94,"text":"• Stunning is purposed to render the animal unconscious before slitting the neck. • Improperly stunned animals end up being bled when still alive, able to feel pain and struggle. As the animal is still conscious and normally breathing, it inhales blood from the cut site (throat region) into the lungs. This scenario lowers the meat quality, gives a poor aesthetic appearance and shortens the shelf life of the meat. • Proper restraining of pigs during stunning process ensures the rods are placed on the right site and also prevents electric shock to humans."},{"index":8,"size":1,"text":"6"}]},{"head":"Why does this matter?","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"What can we do to improve?"}]},{"head":"Animal welfare concern during stunning","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"The right electrode position for pigs Electrode position observed @HSI @Nicholas Bor, ILRI"}]},{"head":"Antimicrobial residues","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Antimicrobials are drugs that are used to treat a wide range of microbes such as bacterial (antibiotics), helminths (anthelminthics), viruses (antivirals), fungi (antifungals), and parasites (antiparasitics)."},{"index":2,"size":79,"text":"In farms, antimicrobials are used to treat and prevent infections in food and non-food animals. Food animals which are under treatment with antimicrobials should not be slaughtered nor their products consumed (by humans or other animals) before the recommended drug withdrawal period is over. This is because before the withdrawal period is over, traces of antimicrobials can still be found in the carcass, or other animal products (such as milk, eggs etc.) and subsequently passed to humans if consumed."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"A considerable number of pigs slaughtered at the abattoir had antimicrobial residues in meat."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"As a farmer you need to treat animals only when sick which should be done by a registered animal health practitioner. Do not self-prescribe drugs or give drugs to animals when not sick."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"As a trader/buyer, ensure you get the treatment history of the pigs before you buy. Only buy pigs who are not under treatment and where you know that the correct drug withdrawal period has passed since the last treatment."},{"index":6,"size":58,"text":"Consuming meat with antimicrobial residues, can result in toxicity, potential allergic reactions and chronic health impacts in humans. It also means exposing consumers to small quantities of that drug, which are not able to kill or stop growth of pathogens such as bacteria. This gives the bacteria an opportunity to develop resistance to the drug (Antimicrobial Resistance -AMR)."},{"index":7,"size":52,"text":"Globally, scientists have estimated that 700,000 people die every year due to AMR and this is projected to reach 10 million annual deaths by the year 2050. This results to high cost of treatment, severe illnesses, and reduced treatment options. Additionally, low and middle income countries are projected to be affected adversely."}]},{"head":"Findings Why does this matter?","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"What can be done?"}]},{"head":"Zoonotic Infections: Toxoplasmosis","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Toxoplasmosis is a zoonotic disease (a diseases transmitted from animals to humans and vice versa) caused by a parasite called Toxoplasma gondii. The parasite is passed to humans and animals (such as pigs) when an infected cat defecates on the environment. Food animals (sheep, goats, cattle, pigs) are infected when they pick/acquire these eggs during feeding, for example when grazing or the feed is contaminated."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Humans can become infected by eating raw or undercooked meat from these animals, or by eating unwashed fruits and vegetables contaminated by the parasite eggs. Particularly, pregnant women are at high risk as infection can cause abortion and may also lead to developmental problems of the foetus."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"Workers in slaughterhouses can be exposed to the parasite through contact or ingestion of raw meat or blood from infected animals. Infection with T. gondii has the greatest impact on those with low immunity (such as the very young/elderly, HIV/AIDs patients, cancer patients)."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite that infects most species of warm-blooded animals, including humans, and causes the disease toxoplasmosis."},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"Source: CDC https://www.cdc.gov/parasites/toxoplasmosis/biology.html )."},{"index":6,"size":1,"text":"8"},{"index":7,"size":2,"text":"Causal Agent:"}]},{"head":"Life cycle of Toxoplasmosis","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Many practises were observed in the slaughterhouse which could expose workers to infection with the parasite causing Toxoplasmosis and other zoonotic infections. Some of these practises were:"},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"• Insufficient washing of hands • Insufficient washing of slaughterhouse working tools • Slaughterhouse workers eating food inside and within the slaughterhouse facility • Slaughterhouse workers with inadequate personal protective equipment e.g., gloves, worn out lab coats/overalls."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"• We should limit direct contact with raw meat by properly wearing protective equipment such as gumboots, overalls, gloves, head covers, and masks. • We should wash our hands before and after handling meat • We should frequently wash our working tools (knives and chopping boards) between carcasses and preferably using hot running water • Never eat within the slaughterhouse facility where raw meat is handled."}]},{"head":"Findings How can we keep ourselves safe?","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"The only known definitive hosts for Toxoplasma gondii are members of family Felidae (domestic cats and their relatives)."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"1. Unsporulated oocysts are shed in the cat's feces."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"2. Although oocysts are usually only shed for 1-3 weeks, large numbers may be shed. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" In the human host, the parasites form tissue cysts, most commonly in skeletal muscle, myocardium, brain, and eyes; these cysts may remain throughout the life of the host. Diagnosis is usually achieved by serology, although tissue cysts may be observed in stained biopsy specimens 11. Diagnosis of congenital infections can be achieved by detecting T. gondii DNA in amniotic fluid using molecular methods such as PCR .The field work for this study was supported by; theUniversity of Liverpool -Wellcome Trust Institutional Strategic Support Fund, the University of Liverpool Early Career Research Fund, The Soulsby Foundation, World Animal Protection, the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development through the One Health Research, Education and Outreach Centre in Africa. And the CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH), led by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). We also acknowledge the CGIAR Fund Donors   fected with tissue cysts after ingestion of sporulated fected with tissue cysts after ingestion of sporulated   oocysts in the environment. oocysts in the environment.  Humans can become infected by any of several routes: Humans can become infected by any of several routes:  6. Eating undercooked meat of animals harboring tissue 6. Eating undercooked meat of animals harboring tissue   cysts . cysts . Oocysts take 7. Consuming food or water contaminated with cat fe- Oocysts take7.Consuming food or water contaminated with cat fe- 1-5 days to sporulate in the environment and  ces or by contaminated environmental samples (such 1-5 days to sporulate in the environment andces or by contaminated environmental samples (such become infective. Intermediate hosts in nature (in-  as fecal-contaminated soil or changing the litter box become infective. Intermediate hosts in nature (in-as fecal-contaminated soil or changing the litter box cluding birds and rodents) become infected after  of a pet cat). cluding birds and rodents) become infected afterof a pet cat). ingesting soil, water or plant material contaminat- 8. Blood transfusion or organ transplantation. ingesting soil, water or plant material contaminat-8. Blood transfusion or organ transplantation. ed with oocysts. 9. Transplacentally from mother to fetus. ed with oocysts.9. Transplacentally from mother to fetus. 3. Oocysts transform into tachyzoites shortly after 10.  3. Oocysts transform into tachyzoites shortly after10. ingestion. These tachyzoites localize in neural   ingestion. These tachyzoites localize in neural and muscle tissue and develop into tissue cyst   and muscle tissue and develop into tissue cyst bradyzoites.   bradyzoites. 4. Cats become infected after consuming intermedi-   4. Cats become infected after consuming intermedi- ate hosts harboring tissue cysts.   ate hosts harboring tissue cysts. 5. Cats may also become infected directly by inges-   5. Cats may also become infected directly by inges- tion of sporulated oocysts. Animals bred for human   tion of sporulated oocysts. Animals bred for human consumption and wild game may also become in-   consumption and wild game may also become in-  "}],"sieverID":"c0a28e1f-56ae-4a06-919d-cc2c04199182","abstract":"and World Animal Protection collaborated to study the following themes along the pig value chain in Nairobi: animal welfare, food safety, antimicrobial residues and zoonotic diseases.Ndumbu-ini slaughterhouse, one of the largest independent abattoirs supplying Nairobi and its environments, was chosen as a study site.The abattoir was visited between 5th January and 4th March 2021 to collect blood and tissue samples from pigs slaughtered during this period. The team collected information on the pigs' origin, method of transportation and observational data on gross lesions present on the animal and in the carcass. The samples were taken for laboratory analysis at the ILRI and the University of Nairobi."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06752ab650c323a60dacc1d0d8faf623","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/66e5b691-a01b-4ba2-96cc-1d18446f5e01/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Bio-protective effect of a root-nodulating Rhizobium etli strain in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) against Meloidogyne incognita and Radopholus similis in an in vitro autotrophic tripartite culture system","keywords":["autotrophic model system","biocontrol","burrowing nematode","nodulation","plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria","root-knot nematode"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":302,"text":"Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is the most widely cultivated food legume throughout the world, providing a primary source of dietary protein, fibre, starch and minerals affordable by the poor (Broughton et al., 2003;Martinez-Romero, 2003). It is considered an 'allaround' crop that can be grown either as a rotation crop, intercrop or green manure crop in a wide range of agro-ecological systems (Broughton et al., 2003). As with most other species of the legume family (Fabaceae), common bean can form a symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria (collectively known as rhizobia) within a specialised structure, the root nodule (van Rhijn & Vanderleyden, 1995;Martinez-Romero, 2003;Soares et al., 2016). Rhizobia can take up gaseous dinitrogen (N 2 ) from the air and 'fix' it into ammonia that can subsequently be assimilated into amino acids by the bacterium or the plant. In return, the plant provides the rhizobia with a carbon source in the form of dicarboxylic acids (van Rhijn & Vanderleyden, 1995). Although common bean has good potential for N 2 fixation, it was reported to have the lowest N 2 fixation rate among the most widely grown grain legumes (Martinez-Romero, 2003). Most of the rhizobia originally isolated from tropical legumes from humid or sub-humid tropical forests from the Amazon and the south-east of Brazil (the centre of origin of common bean) were able to induce nodules or nodular structures on common bean, but only a minority of these nodules were also nitrogen-fixing, indicating a high specificity for effective N 2 fixation (Michiels et al., 1998). A nitrogenfixing plant produces leghaemoglobin, a protein related to human haemoglobin, for providing oxygen to the nodules, giving functional nodules a pink colour (Soares et al., 2016). Rhizobium etli is the predominant species found in the centres of origin of common bean in Central and South America (Martínez-Romero, 2003)."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"Everywhere throughout the tropics and subtropics common bean is attacked by a diversity of plant-parasitic nematodes, among which the root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) are the most important. The most common root-knot nematode species infecting common bean are Meloidogyne incognita, M. javanica and M. arenaria (Sikora et al., 2018). Root-knot nematodes are sedentary endoparasites. Also, root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus spp.) have been reported to infect common bean causing extensive root necrosis and yield loss (Sikora et al., 2018). The most typical symptom caused by root-knot nematodes are galls (knots), and by root-lesion nematodes root lesions, purplish-black necrotic areas that usually extend throughout the cortex (Jones et al., 2013)."},{"index":3,"size":205,"text":"Rhizobia belong to the group of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) that are able to enhance the tolerance of their hosts to both abiotic and biotic stresses (Verma et al., 2019). Research on the effect of root nodulation by rhizobia on plant-parasitic nematodes and vice versa has mainly dealt with the interaction between soybean and Heterodera glycines, the soybean cyst nematode, and between a variety of leguminous crops and the most common root-knot nematode species, especially M. incognita. In most instances, root nodulation by rhizobia suppressed root galling and reproduction of M. incognita and improved plant growth (Huang, 1987;Fazal et al., 1992;Khan et al., 2018), whilst infection by M. incognita reduced either the number of nodules, their functionality or induced premature senescence of the nodules (see, for example, Baldwin et al., 1979;Huang, 1987;Khan et al., 2002Khan et al., , 2018;;Neeraj & Singh, 2019). Similarly, infection by Pratylenchus penetrans affected the number, weight and functionality of nodules (Elhady et al., 2020). Information on the effect of root nodulation by rhizobia on migratory endoparasitic nematodes is scarce. Recently, Van der Veken et al. (unpubl.) found that simultaneous inoculation of soybean with R. etli CNPAF 512 and Radopholus similis, a root-lesion nematode, significantly suppressed reproduction of this migratory endoparasite."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"The objective of our study was to evaluate the bioprotective effect of the root-nodulating strain R. etli CNPAF 512 against both a sedentary (M. incognita) and a migratory (R. similis) endoparasitic nematode in common bean. The experiment was carried out using an in vitro autotrophic tripartite culture system."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"PLANT MATERIAL","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"Common bean 'BAT 477' seeds were obtained from the Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics (CMPG), University of Leuven, Belgium. This cultivar was selected because its roots develop well in vitro and it is susceptible to both M. incognita and R. similis. The seeds were placed in a Miracloth pouch in a sterilised Erlenmeyer flask and surface-sterilised by submersion in 97% ethanol for 1 min and 15% NaOCl for 12 min. The Erlenmeyer flask was shaken constantly to assure close contact between the seeds and the disinfectants. The seeds were then rinsed ten times with sterile demineralised water (dH 2 O) for 1 min and soaked in dH 2 O for 1 h. Subsequently, the seeds were removed from the Miracloth pouch with sterilised tweezers and 4-5 sterilised seeds transferred to sterilised 9-cm diam. Petri dishes containing a sterilised water agar medium for germination. The Petri dishes were sealed with parafilm and placed in an incubator at 25°C with a 12:12 light:dark photoperiod."}]},{"head":"BACTERIAL INOCULUM","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"The R. etli CNPAF 512 strain was also obtained from CMPG. This bacterial strain was selected because of its good compatibility with common bean 'BAT 477' (Michiels et al., 1998). The bacterial strain was first cultured for 2-3 days at 28°C on a solid tryptone-yeast (TY) medium containing 5 g tryptone, 3 g yeast extract with 15 g plant agar l −1 (Bittinger & Handelsman, 2000) followed by 1 day on a liquid TY medium at 28°C and 200 rpm. Then 1% of a 10 mM CaCl 2 •H 2 O solution was added to promote growth of the bacterial cell wall. The optical density (OD) of the bacterial suspension was determined by measuring its absorbance at 600 nm wavelength using a spectrophotometer. At the time of inoculation, the bacterial suspension was diluted in a 10 mM MgSO 4 solution to obtain a bacterial inoculum containing about 10 6 colony forming units (CFU) ml −1 ."}]},{"head":"NEMATODE INOCULUM","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"The M. incognita population used in the trials was originally collected from a banana field in Malaysia and maintained on susceptible tomato 'Marmande' plants in soil in pots in a glasshouse. The inoculum consisted of infective second-stage juveniles (J2) that were extracted from infected tomato roots by a modified Baermann technique. Under sterile conditions in a laminar flow chamber and using a stereomicroscope, nematode egg masses protruding from infected tomato roots were removed with a scalpel and transferred to a 20-mm-diam. microsieve (70-μm diam. mesh), which was placed in the centre of a watch glass containing sterile dH 2 O. The watch glass was then placed in a Petri dish which was subsequently sealed with parafilm and placed in an incubator at 25°C in the dark. Six days later, the majority of J2 had hatched and were collected by rinsing the watch glass with sterile dH 2 O."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"The R. similis population used in the trials was originally collected from a banana field in Uganda and maintained on a monoxenic alfalfa callus culture grown on a modified White's medium in Petri dishes at 27°C in the dark (Elsen et al., 2001). The inoculum consisted of approximately 60 females, which were collected under ster-ile conditions in a laminar flow chamber by rinsing the callus medium with sterile dH 2 O."},{"index":3,"size":174,"text":"EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP   To examine the bio-protective effect of root nodulation on M. incognita and R. similis on common bean, an in vitro autotrophic tripartite culture system was developed based on a autotrophic culture system for the in vitro mycorrhization of potato plantlets (Voets et al., 2005;Fig. 1). This system consisted of sterilised 14.5-cm diam. closed and sealed Petri dishes containing a pH-adjusted (pH 6.2) sugar-and nitrogen-free Snoeck agar medium (Snoeck et al., 2003). The root system of a sterilised 5-day-old common bean 'BAT 477' seedling was gently pushed through an opening (made in the side of each of the Petri dishes with a heated cork borer) and into the medium until the tap rootlet reached the centre of the Petri dish. After insertion of the root system, the opening in the side of the Petri dish was sealed with silicon grease. In this way, an even growth of the seedlings' roots over the medium inside the Petri dishes could be obtained, while the shoots were growing outside the Petri dishes to allow normal photosynthesis."},{"index":4,"size":126,"text":"Two in vitro assays were carried out with each of the nematode species. Each assay consisted of two treatments: the plants were either inoculated with the rhizobial strain (RHIZ + ) or remained non-inoculated (RHIZ − ; control plants). To examine the effect of either pre-or simultaneous inoculation of the rhizobial strain on the reproduction of M. incognita and R. similis, one assay was carried out in which the nematodes were inoculated 3 weeks after rhizobial inoculation while another assay was carried out in which the nematodes were inoculated simultaneously with the rihizobial strain. Petri dishes were arranged in a randomised block design. Each treatment was replicated either six or eight times. The simultaneous inoculation of R. etli CNPAF 512 and M. incognita assay was repeated."},{"index":5,"size":211,"text":"Rhizobial inoculation (RHIZ + ) was done by pipetting 1 ml of the R. etli CNPAF 512 inoculum suspension (containing ±10 6 CFU) over the 5-day-old tap rootlets, allowing any excess of the suspension to drip onto the medium. Control plants (RHIZ − ) only received 1 ml of the 10 mM MgSO 4 solution. For the pre-inoculation treatment, the nematodes were inoculated 3 weeks after inoculation with R. etli CNPAF 512, when nodules had already formed. A 1 ml aqueous suspension containing either ca 60 J2 of M. incognita or ca 60 females of R. similis was pipetted on the medium near the root tips of the plantlets (both RHIZ + and RHIZ − plants). For the simultaneous inoculation treatment, the nematodes were inoculated as described above at the same time as the rhizobial inoculation (both RHIZ + and RHIZ − plants). After inoculation, the Petri dishes were sealed with parafilm and the opening in the side of the Petri dish around the stems of the seedling sealed with silicon grease. Petri dishes were stacked randomly with the shoots facing the same direction, wrapped with aluminum foil to mimic underground conditions for optimal root growth and placed in a growth chamber at 25°C, 70% RH and a 12:12 light:dark photoperiod."}]},{"head":"ASSESSMENT OF ROOT GROWTH, RHIZOBIAL COLONISATION AND NEMATODE REPRODUCTION","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":315,"text":"Eight weeks after nematode inoculation, the Petri dishes were opened, the root systems gently removed from the medium and rinsed with tap water. The length of the tap root was measured. Rhizobial colonisation was assessed by counting the number of nodules that had developed on the whole root system using a stereomicroscope (Fig. 1B) while the inside colour of the nodules was observed for the presence of leghaemoglobin. For M. incognita, egg-laying females (ELF) were stained red (Fig. 1C) by soaking the rinsed root systems in a Phloxine B solution (0.15 g l −1 ) for 15 min (Holbrook et al., 1983), and ELF and egg masses counted using a stereomicroscope. The J2 and males were extracted from the medium using a Baermann tray (Hooper et al., 2005) and counted after 48 h of extraction in two 2 ml subsamples of a 50 ml suspension using a light microscope. For R. similis, root necrosis was first scored on a 0 to 7 scale: 0 = absence of lesions; 1 = sporadic lesions and traces of infections in <5% of the roots; 2 = larger coalesced lesions in 5 to up to 10% of the roots; 3 = necrotic root parts present in 10 to up to 25% of the roots; 4 = 25% of roots necrotic and lesions visible in the other roots; 5 = between 25 and up to 50% of roots necrotic and lesions visible in the other roots; 6 = between 50 and up to 75% of roots necrotic and lesions visible in the other roots; 7 = >75% of roots necrotic. Subsequently, juveniles and adults were extracted from the roots by the maceration-sieving technique (Hooper et al., 2005) and from the medium as described for M. incognita above. Number of eggs, juveniles, females and males were counted in two 2 ml subsamples of a 50 ml suspension using a light microscope."}]},{"head":"STATISTICAL ANALYSIS","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Data were analysed separately for each assay. Nematode data were log (x + 1) transformed prior to statistical analysis. One-way ANOVA and post-hoc Tukey equal HSD test were performed using Statistica 7.1 software after verifying the ANOVA assumptions (Anonymous, 2007). The categorical root necrosis data were analysed using the Kruskal-Wallis test."}]},{"head":"Results","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"In all assays, the common bean plantlets developed a good root system (Fig. 1A, B) with root lengths averaging 20-25 cm (assays with M. incognita). Rhizobial inoculation was also successful in all assays. On the plants of the pre-inoculation assays infected with M. incognita, on average 43 and 27 nodules were counted in trials 1 and 2, respectively, while on the plants of the simultaneous inoculation assay with M. incognita, on average 87 nodules were counted (Fig. 2A). On the plants of the pre-inoculation and simultaneous inoculation assays infected with R. similis, on average 45 and 71 nodules, respectively, were counted (Fig. 2B). Active nitrogen fixation by the rhizobia was observed visually by the presence of nodules with a pink centre, indicating the presence of leghaemoglobin."},{"index":2,"size":204,"text":"Pre-inoculation with R. etli CNPAF 512 significantly (P 0.05) reduced the number of M. incognita ELF, egg masses in the roots (by 40 and 50%) and number of J2 in the medium (by 57 and 59%) but not the number of males in both trials 1 and 2, respectively (Table 1). A similar result was obtained in the simultaneous inoculation assay, but in this assay the number of males was also significantly (P 0.05) reduced (by ±40%). In the simultaneous inoculation assay, a much higher number of males of M. incognita was observed compared with the preinoculation assay in both non-inoculated plants and plants Table 1. Effect of pre-inoculation with Rhizobium etli followed 3 weeks later by inoculation with ca 60 second-stage juveniles (J2) of Meloidogyne incognita (pre-inoculation assay) and simultaneous inoculation with both R. etli and ca 60 J2 of M. incognita (simultaneous inoculation assay) on the reproduction of M. incognita and root length of common bean plants, grown in an in vitro autotrophic tripartite culturing system, at 8 weeks after nematode inoculation. inoculated with R. etli CNPAF 512. No significant differences in root length were observed. However, greener and more abundant leaves were observed in plants inoculated with R. etli CNPAF 512."},{"index":3,"size":244,"text":"Pre-inoculation with R. etli CNPAF 512 significantly (P 0.05) reduced the number of juveniles and females of R. similis but not the number of eggs and males; root necrosis was also significantly (P 0.05) reduced (Table 2). In the simultaneous inoculation assay, the number of eggs, juveniles, females and males of R. similis, and root necrosis were significantly (P 0.05) reduced in plants inoculated with R. etli compared with noninoculated plants. In the simultaneous inoculation assay, much lower numbers of eggs, juveniles and females, but not males, of R. similis were observed compared with the pre-inoculation assay in both non-inoculated plants and Root necrosis on a 0 to 7 scale: 0 = absence of lesions; 1 = sporadic lesions and traces of infections in <5% of the roots; 2 = larger coalesced lesions in 5 to up to 10% of the roots; 3 = necrotic root parts present in 10 to up to 25% of the roots; 4 = 25% of roots necrotic and lesions visible in the other roots; 5 = between 25 and up to 50% of roots necrotic and lesions visible in the other roots; 6 = between 50 and up to 75% of roots necrotic and lesions visible in the other roots; 7 = >75% of roots necrotic. *, * * and * * * indicate significant differences at P 0.05, 0.01 and 0.001, respectively, according to Tukey's equal HSD test or the Kruskal-Wallis test (root necrosis); ns: not significant."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"plants inoculated with R. etli CNPAF 512. Nodulation of plants was significantly (P 0.05) lower in the preinoculation assays with M. incognita (both trials) and R. similis compared with the simultaneous inoculation assays."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":214,"text":"The common bean plantlets developed a good root system, rhizobial inoculation resulted in functional nodules, and the infective developmental stages of M. incognita and R. similis infected the plantlets and developed and reproduced successfully inside the root systems. All these observations validated the in vitro autotrophic tripartite culture system as a highly controlled, reproducible and easy to use model system to study plant-rhizobiaendoparasitic nematode interactions. Autotrophic plant growth, in the absence of sugar in the medium, results in normal photosynthetic-active plant tissues, hormonal balance and physiological source-sink relationships, which were considered major limitations of the use of excised organ cultures to study in vitro the interactions between plants and either beneficial organisms or pathogens, because they may alter the plant's physiology (Fortin et al., 2002;Voets et al., 2005). Also, this model system presumably allowed the plant to release root exudates in the agar, which specifically induced the synthesis of nodulation factors in rhizobia that initiated the nodulation process (Peters et al., 1986;Pandya et al., 1999) and attracted the infective developmental stages of the plant-parasitic nematodes to the roots (Perry & Curtis, 2013). Finally, it allows monitoring throughout the duration of the experiment plant growth, nodulation and, in the case of rootknot nematodes, also root galling and the emergence of egg masses from the roots."},{"index":2,"size":241,"text":"Both pre-inoculation with R. etli CNPAF 512 and simultaneous inoculation significantly suppressed reproduction of the sedentary endoparasitic nematode M. incognita on common bean. This result confirms previous observations of the bio-protective suppression of M. incognita following either pre-or simultaneous inoculation of leguminous crops (chickpea, mungbean, lentil, pigeonpea) with rhizobia (Fazal et al., 1992;Khan et al., 2018). Both pre-inoculation with R. etli CNPAF 512 and simultaneous inoculation also significantly suppressed the reproduction of the migratory endoparasitic nematode R. similis on common bean. This result confirmed (Van der Veken et al., data unpubl.) that simultaneous inoculation of soybean with R. etli CNPAF 512 and R. similis significantly suppressed nematode reproduction. For both assays with M. incognita and R. similis, no differences were observed between the bioprotective effect of pre-inoculation with R. etli CNPAF 512 and simultaneous inoculation. Nodulation significantly suppressed the number of R. similis males in the simultaneous inoculation assay but not in the pre-inoculation assay. For the other developmental stages (eggs, juveniles and females) this was not the case. Males are often rare in root-knot nematode populations but in some species such as M. incognita more J2 developed into males under adverse conditions (Jones et al., 2013). It is possible that an unknown stress factor during the simultaneous inoculation assay resulted in the development of more males, and that simultaneous inoculation of R. etli CNPAF 512 and J2 of M. incognita also resulted in suppression of the number males that developed."},{"index":3,"size":497,"text":"In contrast with the mechanism involved in the nematode-suppressive effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on plant-parasitic nematodes (Schouteden et al., 2015), the mechanisms involved in the bio-protective effects of rhizobia against plant-parasitic nematodes are much less studied. Competition for nutrients and space between R. etli CNPAF 512 and M. incognita, aggravated in the confined space in which the root systems of common bean had to develop in our in vitro assays, may have played a role in the observed nematode-suppressive effect against this root-knot nematode species. Competition for nutrients is considered a potential mechanism for suppression of plant-parasitic nematodes by endophytic bacteria (Hallmann et al., 1997). In potato, R. etli G12, a rhizosphere coloniser with endophytic potential, preferentially colonised the root tips and emerging lateral roots, which were also the preferential penetration sites for the infective J2 of root-knot nematodes (Jones et al., 2013), and approximately 20% of the galls induced by M. incognita (Hallmann et al., 2001). Based on the large numbers of R. etli G12 that were often observed in the gall tissues, Hallmann et al. (2001) suggested that leaked nutrients became available to the endophytic bacteria. Root-knot nematodeinduced giant cells inside the galls act as a metabolic sink and contain 4-6 times more glucose and free amino acids than actively growing root tip cells (Huang, 1985). These nutrients were transported from the surrounding tissues into the giant cells and it is possible that endophytic bacteria intercept and take up these nutrients. Fewer nutrients would then become available for the developing females of M. incognita, interfering with their development and reproduction. In our assays with M. incognita, it was obvious, based on the high numbers of nodules, that R. etli CNPAF 512 was highly successful in colonising the roots of the common bean plantlets. Visual observation of the plantlets showed that the nodules and galls induced by M. incognita were often situated closely together. This may have limited the penetration sites available for the infective J2 and the sites inside the roots where the J2 could establish a feeding site. Competition for nutrients between rhizobia and migratory endoparasitic nematodes, such as R. similis, has not been reported so far but it cannot be excluded that the mechanisms described above to explain the bio-protective effect of R. etli CNPAF 512 against M. incognita also apply for R. similis. Migratory endoparasites do not establish feeding sites but feed upon the cells of the cortex when migrating through the root system causing leakage of the nutrients inside these cells. However, no R. similis was recovered from the nodules so we do not expect competition for nutrients to have played a significant role for the observed nematodesuppressive effect against R. similis. Another mechanism that may have played a role in the observed nematodesuppressive effect against both M. incognita and R. similis was non-pathogenic rhizobacteria-mediated induced systemic resistance (ISR), a systemic resistance in plants that is phenotypically similar to pathogen-induced systemic acquired resistance (SAR; van Loon et al., 1998)."},{"index":4,"size":270,"text":"The observation that nodulation of the common bean root systems was significantly lower in the pre-inoculation assays with M. incognita (both trials) compared with the simultaneous inoculation assays confirmed numerous previous reports that M. incognita infection (and also R. similis as demonstrated by our study) may also affect root nodulation by rhizobia (see, for example, Huang, 1987;Sharma & Tiagi, 1990;Khan et al., 2002Khan et al., , 2018)). The observation that in both assays with M. incognita and R. similis, a significantly higher number of nodules had developed on the root systems of the simultaneous inoculation assay compared with the pre-inoculation assay suggests that the simultaneous inoculation of R. etli CNPAF 512 and the nematodes may have facilitated, in one way or the other, root penetration and colonisation by the rhizobia, for instance, by rhizobia adhering to the cuticle of the nematodes when these penetrated and migrated through the roots. By contrast, on pea, a greater reduction in the number of nodules was observed when M. incognita was inoculated simultaneously with a Rhizobium strain compared with when the Rhizobium strain was inoculated 2 weeks before M. incognita (a reduction of 30 vs 12%, respectively; Sharma & Tiagi, 1990). However, on lentil, no difference in the number of nodules was observed when a Rhizobium strain was inoculated either together with or 10 days before M. incognita (Fazal et al., 1992). On soybean, higher numbers of nodules formed on plants infested with P. penetrans compared with the non-infested plants after inoculation with Bradyrhizobium japonicum; however, when nematodes invaded roots with established nodules the number of nodules was not affected (Elhady et al., 2020)."},{"index":5,"size":133,"text":"In both the pre-inoculation and simultaneous assays with both M. incognita and R. similis, no significant increase in root growth (tap length) was observed in both trials between the RHIZ − and RHIZ + treatments. However, in the RHIZ − treatment infected with M. incognita, nematode infection was more severe (more J2, ELF and egg masses) compared with the RHIZ + treatment, resulting in a lower shoot weight compared with the RHIZ + treatment (data not shown). Thus, R. etli CNPAF 512 limited these adverse effects of M. incognita on plant growth by suppressing the nematode's reproduction. Most probably, the growth-promoting effect of R. etli CNPAF 512 on root growth (tap root length) was limited due to the confined space in which the root systems had to develop in our in vitro assays."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. A: In vitro autotrophic tripartite culture system of common bean; B: Nodulation of roots of common bean inoculated with Rhizobium etli CNPAF 512; C: Egg mass of Meloidogyne incognita after Phloxine B staining. "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Mean number of nodules per root system that had developed on common bean 8 weeks after inoculation with Meloidogyne incognita (A) or Radopholus similis (B). Nematode inoculation was done either 3 weeks after inoculation with Rhizobium etli CNPAF 512 (pre-nodulation) or simultaneously with inoculation of the rhizobial strain. Bars indicate standard errors of the means. "},{"text":"Table 2 . Effect of pre-inoculation with Rhizobium etli followed 3 weeks later by inoculation with ca 60 females of Radopholus similis (pre-inoculation assay) and simultaneous inoculation with both R. etli and ca 60 females of R. similis (simultaneous inoculation assay) on the reproduction of R. similis and root necrosis of common bean plants, grown in an in vitro autotrophic tripartite culturing system, at 8 weeks after nematode inoculation. Treatment n  Number   Root necrosis TreatmentnNumberRoot necrosis   Eggs Juveniles Females Males  EggsJuvenilesFemalesMales Pre-inoculation with R. etli followed by inoculation with R. similis    Pre-inoculation with R. etli followed by inoculation with R. similis RHIZ¯8 206 2517 585 125 3 RHIZ¯820625175851253 RHIZ + 8 1037 1275 294 161 2 RHIZ +8103712752941612   ns *  * *  * ns *  * ns*  **  *ns*  * Simultaneous inoculation of R. etli and R. similis     Simultaneous inoculation of R. etli and R. similis RHIZ¯6 44 129 52 306 5 RHIZ¯644129523065 RHIZ + 6 17 39 23 175 3 RHIZ +61739231753   *  * *  *  * *  * * *  * *  **  *  **  ***  *  "}],"sieverID":"edad2d0c-0c2f-4c54-a0cf-3168b54243e9","abstract":"The bio-protective effect of a root-nodulating strain (CNPAF 512) of the nitrogen-fixing rhizobium, Rhizobium etli, against both a sedentary (Meloidogyne incognita) and a migratory (Radopholus similis) endoparasitic nematode in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) was examined using an in vitro autotrophic tripartite culture system. Two in vitro assays were carried out with each of the nematode species. Each assay consisted of two treatments: the plants were either inoculated with the rhizobial strain or remained noninoculated (control plants). To examine the effect of either pre-or simultaneous inoculation of the rhizobial strain on the reproduction of M. incognita and R. similis, one assay was carried out in which the nematodes were inoculated 3 weeks after rhizobial inoculation while another assay was carried out in which the nematodes were inoculated simultaneously with the rihizobial strain. Both preinoculation and simultaneous inoculation with R. etli CNPAF 512 significantly suppressed the reproduction of both M. incognita and R. similis."}

data/part_3/0692af10ecf73c5a8650b246d589c6b7.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0692af10ecf73c5a8650b246d589c6b7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2b6ea2a4-d2c8-434f-b35d-22361c249171/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"The sub-surface water retention (SWRT) membranes is designed for use on sandy soils. Soil textural analysis should be conducted on the area to ensure that the soils are sandy. This is done by digging or auguring several points down the soil profile to a depth of 120 cm. Laboratory analyses can be done to verify if the soils are sandy. Farmers can use a rapid field test (hand texturing) to determine the sandiness of their plot: by kneading or rubbing the soils with water on the palm. Sandy soils do not form a bolus, and will not stick on the palms during rubbing."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Makueni County is encompassed by sandy soils, and this has adversely affected food production in the county. This conditions has negatively affected the quality and quantity of food produced in this county. Sandy soils have poor water holding capacity, very low organic matter and do not retain nutrients in the root-zone when fertilized. This has exposed smallholder farmers, who depend on farming, to frequent crop failure, reduced agricultural yields hence limited economic activities to better their livelihood."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Makueni County is encompassed by sandy soils, and this has adversely affected food production in the county."}]},{"head":"Suitability check Project Location","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The depth of auguring several points down the soil profile to ascertian suitability 120cm Measure the plot of land where the installation is to be done. We recommend that the plot is not too big to avoid digging very long trenches that can be quite difficult to align."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Enclose the plot with a (coloured) string and pegs."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Mark the first trench for installation to be 30 cm wide and mark with a string and sticks along the width of the trench."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Using a hoe and spade excavate a straight, 40 cm deep trench."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"Round the floor of the trench into a U-Shape using the spade. Use a spirit level tool to ensure the entire floor of the trench is horizontal (level)"},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"Unroll and line the trench with the high-density polyethylene (HDPE) film, ensuring the same height on both sides of the trench. Place puffed up circular tubes (spaced at 30 cm interval) to push the HDPE film against the walls of the trench to achieve a U-Shape."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"Return the soil to the trench, alternately moving the circular tubes to ensure the membrane remains well lined on the sides."},{"index":8,"size":58,"text":"Move the strings and mark the next trench for ditching, allowing a very small (imaginary space) Excavate a straight trench to a depth of 60 cm, level the floor into a U-Shape Unroll the HDPE film and place it in the trench; uniformly line it similar to the 40 cm trench and return the soils to the trench."},{"index":9,"size":25,"text":"Repeat the same procedures while alternating between the 40 cm and 60 cm trenches until the whole marked plot is covered with the HDPE film."},{"index":10,"size":46,"text":"To curb this, researchers from Alliance Bioversity-CIAT, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), JKUAT Enterprises Ltd (JKUATES), Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), and SWRT Solutions LLC installed soil water retention membranes on 18 farms in Mtito-Andei and Masongaleni wards in Kibwezi Sub-county, Makueni. "}]},{"head":"Farms that we installed SWRT Membranes in","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"3.","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"5.","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"2.","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"4.","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"6.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Step-by-Step Membrane SWRT Installation Procedure"}]},{"head":"Membrane and installation costs (based on Bobmil costs):","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"A roll of HDPE film of 620 m (about 15 Kg), costs KES7,125 (1 kg = KES475). One and half rolls (costs about KES10,688) are needed to cover a plot of area 200m 2 (10m by 20m). Based on these estimates, one acre of land (approximately 4050m 2 ) would require 30 rolls of membranes (each of 15 Kgs) at a cost of KES213,750."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Installation of SWRT is labor intensive. It took 5 casuals working 6 says from morning to evening to complete a 200m 2 demonstration plot. This would imply that an acre of land would require about 3 months with the same number of casuals. In the project, we have mobilized farmers to work in groups within the community to enhance the speed of the installation process and reduce the labour costs. With farmer-led groups, there are no labour costs associated with the installation process."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"This work was funded by the Nordic Climate Facility through the project on \"Solution for increasing farm system resilience and carbon sinks on sandy soils (NCF-C8-0507)\"."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Contacts: Dr. Sylvia Nyawira, Scientist -Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT, [email protected] Dr. Shem Kuyah, Senior Lecturer -Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), [email protected]"}]},{"head":"Management of farms with SWRT","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"The HDPE films are designed to enhance water and nutrient retention in sandy soils for up to 50 years. Good agronomic practices (e.g., manure and fertilizer application, irrigation) are needed to maintain high productivity and derive maximum benefits. Soil and water conservation practices such as mulching, reduced or no tillage, residue retention are advisable."}]},{"head":"Ploughing and planting","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Farmers must ensure that that the membrane is not damaged during land preparation to achieve this longevity. Ploughing should be limited to the upper 20 cm depth. HDPE films have been tested and found successful with shallow rooted annual and perennial crops. Deep rooted crops and trees (e.g., Mangoes, Oranges etc.) are likely to interfere with the uniform U-Shape formation of the HDPE film in the soil."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"1. The SWRT membranes are expensive. Farmers would need support to scale and implement the technology."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"2. Rainfall in Makueni being is low and unpredictable. Maximum returns can be achieved by combining SWRT with irrigation."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"3. Sandy soils have very low soil fertility. Management practices that improve general soil health are recommended to achieve maximum benefits."},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"Points to note"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"cbea6fd2-e536-406e-87a5-3d7ca939d624","abstract":""}

data/part_3/06d8ee94773eb054f8268c3797e38255.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06d8ee94773eb054f8268c3797e38255","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9c94dc93-01dd-4d93-b34f-58507114be3f/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"n Develop climate-change informed conservation strategies for crop wild relatives n Identify and protect refugia for in situ conservation n Develop habitat restoration and species relocation programmes n Increase ex situ collections for the most threatened species","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Crop wild relatives are a vital source of genetic diversity that can be used to adapt crops to climate change. But the survival of crop wild relatives themselves is under threat from the impacts of climate change. Distribution modelling of wild Arachis (peanut), Solanum (potato), and Vigna using the BioClim approach showed that by 2055 :"},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"n Potential range size : reduced for 97% of species n Species threatened with extinction : 16-22% n Habitat patches : will be highly fragmented putting many species further at risk There are strong differences in extinction rates between genepools, reflecting their different habitats and magnitudes of climate change."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Wild Arachis 24-31 of 51 species extinct; 89% of distribution area lost, 77% of habitat patches lost and average patch size decreased by 80% Wild Solanum 8-13 of 107 species extinct, 52% of distribution area lost, 42% of habitat patches lost and patch sized reduced by 23%."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"Wild Vigna 1-3 of 48 species extinct, 51% of distribution area lost, 7% of habitat patches lost and patch size reduced by 40%."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"4f18b34a-62c8-48be-a8e9-82825b725a5c","abstract":""}

data/part_3/0744aae7a648948a46c5d86543c6ccf7.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0744aae7a648948a46c5d86543c6ccf7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/656ff9b5-0503-495d-84f6-140c66c53f9b/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Secondary effects of COVID-19 on One Health","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"The first case of COVID-19 in India was reported on 30 January 2020. COVID-19 severely disrupted agriculture and supply chain activities. The poultry industry became the victim of the fake news linking the spread of COVID-19 by eating chicken or eggs. This study assesses the poultry industry actors' perceptions on the pandemic and how it affected their businesses. The study highlights the One Health issue of food security and how a food value chain can be affected during a pandemic."}]},{"head":"Pictures","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Here we see how one fake video disrupted the whole poultry value chain and caused a huge loss to an industry. The consumers easily believed the rumours because poultry in India already had a bad reputation for conforming to hygienic standards due to the 'wet markets' (private butcher shops). Safeguarding the production, supply chains and public health from such pandemics requires a multidisciplinary approach where teams from various departments work together to prevent, respond to and recover from such events. This document is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. October 2020"}]},{"head":"Methods","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"• Online news media articles were searched to find reports on the effect of COVID-19 on the poultry industry from February 2020 until June 2020. • In addition to the media review, we also interviewed poultry farmers through an online survey created in the tool Netigate. The survey questionnaire asked about participant information, poultry farm information, knowledge, and impact of COVID-19."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"ILRI thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR system"}]},{"head":"Results","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Media article review","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"A fake video linking the spread of COVID-19 to chickens circulated on social media, consumption decreased considerably, prices of chicken and eggs reduced. Many poultry farmers started culling the birds on a large scale and many retailers started giving away the chickens for free."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The poultry industry of India that suffered a huge loss started regaining sales by the end of April."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"By the first week of June, the sales that dropped to 10% rose to 60% and the chicken prices have skyrocketed from Rs 30 per kg to Rs 280."}]},{"head":"Online survey results","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"• 39 participants responded to the online survey."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Most (72%) of the total respondents had heard about COVID-19."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"• Many (56%) noticed a negative impact on the poultry business and most (51%) of them believed business dipped because consumers stopped eating chicken or eggs. • 56% of the participants tried to make consumers understand that coronavirus does not spread by eating chicken or eggs. • 18% of the participants recently culled (killed and buried) the birds. 31% of the total respondents gave away the birds for free."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"Graph showing the perspectives and practices of the Indian poultry farmers related to coronavirus and poultry. NR: no response A man in Guwahati talking about his poultry farm. Photo: ILRI Flickr"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"ccaa64ad-95e0-43b8-bf51-01c2f4124acd","abstract":""}

data/part_3/076a1ef33c6671830c077bd5b5409428.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"076a1ef33c6671830c077bd5b5409428","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/58cc66bc-c30d-4e51-8d87-b178c9dcf18a/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"t:::::~~•'#I __ ~•la yUca en la alimentación de cerdos Análisis económico de dos experimentos","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"1/ Su produecllll¡. mundial es de 87 millones de toneladas, aproximadamente -. América \" 2/ Latilla prOduce el 37 por ciento de la producción mtmd1al -."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"La yuca !le cultiva como producto comerclai pero también como medio de subIllatanela en una buena parte de la ZOD& tropical, especialmente en fincas pequellas. Po-\\ slblemenle la ~or parte de la prOduoeión es destinada al consumo humano. Se oonsume prtnclpaImente en cipo formas: fresca y seca. Su ñpldo deterioro y su bajo valor UlI1tarIo dificultan su \"'1OOso a los grandes centros de acopio e inducen al productor a utlliurla en forma intensiva dentro de la flnoa."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"La elevada cantidad y excelente calidad de carbohlóratos en la yuca, hacen de esta un importante alimento energético para la alimentación de animales dom6stioos."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"Una de las formas de Incrementar el uso de la yuca en las fincas puede ser su conversión en carne de cerdo, expecie animal que tiene la caracterfstlca de requerir cantidades apreciables de energía, con relación a las cantidades de protelha en su perfodo de ceba."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"• Este trabajo fue posible gracias a la gentilesa de los Integrantes del Programa de Porcinos del !.CA, quienes proporcionaron la Información de dos experimentos realisados por ellos y qu8\"a!1'Vieron de baile para éste anAlisla eoon6mioo."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"Agradezco especialmente la colaboración del Dr. G. GómeB en la parle descriptiva de loe experimentos. asr como a los Dres. P. Pinstrup-Ande..-. J.H. Msner y A. Valdl!s."},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"•• fuvestigador A_lado, Economista, Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, CIAT, Apartado Aé.-67-13, Call, Colombia, S.A."},{"index":8,"size":28,"text":"!! Gutiérrez, N. y P. PInstrup-Andersen \"La importancia relativa del fríjol, marz, arroB y yuca en la zona tropical\". eIA T, Departamento de ECOnomfll Agrfoola. Call, 1972. p.17"},{"index":9,"size":3,"text":",V ldem p.17."},{"index":10,"size":58,"text":"l,a producción de cerdos compite con alimentos utilizados en la diete hUlllJl.tlS., especialmente granos de cereales. Por lo tanto, una forma de aumentar la producción de cerdos en las zonas tropicales, serta la intensifiCación del use de prodcctos relativamente abundantes en las regiones agrfcolas marg1nales~ como es la yuca, ya sea en forma fresca o como subproducto (harina)."},{"index":11,"size":60,"text":"Varios trabajos experimentales sobre el empleo de la yuca en la alimentación de cerdos han sido realizados conjuntamente entre el Instituto Colombteno Agropecuario (ICA) y el Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (ClA '1). Parte de estos resulisdos y una exhanBtlva descripción del valor nutrlcional de la yuca en la a.' imentación de cerdos han sido informados por Maner !I ."},{"index":12,"size":67,"text":"El objetivo del presente trabajo es examloar la convenienilia de rell:lplazar ma!Z comán por yuca fresca o barina de yuca en la alimentación de cerdos en las etapas de crecimiento y acabado. Para este fin se han utilizado los resultados de dos experimentos con los cuales se han estimado las posibles ganancias monelsrlas bajo diferentes precios rela.tivos de la yuca con respecto al precio del maíz camón."}]},{"head":"Resulisdos experimentales","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"En 108 estadios experimentales que a continuación se describen, se usaron mezclas de rarees de diferentes variedades de yuca, normalmente utilizados para el consumo hu.mAno, que fueron obtenidas de la Estación Experimental del ICA en palm!ra."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"La yuca fue cosechada dos o tres veces por seIlUlllS con el fin de prevenir el proceso normal de necr\"\" .. miento y fermentación y asr asegurar un alimento aceptable por los cerdos. Luego de cosechada, la yuca fue lavado y picado diariamente. En el caso del neo de harloa de yuca, la yuca fresca, luego de picada fue secado al sol o al horno (aire forzado} a una temperatora de 82\" e por 24 a 36 horas. La yuca seca fue prevtsmente molida antes de incorporarla en las raciones experimentales."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"En el primer experimento y , 15 cerdo. Duroc, con un peso inictal promedio de sexo y camada. Cada grupo fue mantenido en confinamiento en corrales con piso de concreto y el agua y sl1mento fueron ofrecidos a voluntad en bebedero. y comederos automáticos. Los tratamientos experimentales fueron los slgutentes, 1) Diete control a bue de mafz, torta de soya, torta de s1god<In. harina de hueso."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"y una premezcls de mlnerale. y vitaminas."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"2) Yuca fretoca, picada a voluntad, mas un suplemento protelllJco ofrecido también s voluntad."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"3) Yuca fneea, picada a voluntad, mas el suplemento protellUco ofrecido en cantidades IlUftcien!.es para cubrir los requerimientos mfnlmos."},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"La yuca pieIIda que no consumieron 108 cerdos en 24 lloras fue recogida, pesada Y descartad.. ~ composici6n de la diet& control y del suplemento protefnico usado. se Pnleeota ea el Cuadro 1."},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"cuadro l. Composlcl6n de la dteta oontrol y del suplemento prol.efnlco."}]},{"head":"Torta de soya","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Torta de s1god<In"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"MafZ !la.rlns de hueso."},{"index":3,"size":143,"text":"Premezcla. de yltam1nl. Los resultados obtenidos en eate experimento se presentan en el t:uadro 2. La ganancia de peso del grupo alimenlsdo con la dieta control y del alimentado con yuca fresca nuls suplemento protelD1co a voluntad, fUeron muy simUares, 0.843 y 0.834 kg de ganancia diaria de peso, respectivamente. La eficiencia de conversión aliménticia fUe igualmente .!mUar para ambos grupos. El grupo alimentado con yuca fresca nula una cantidad controlada del suplemento protefnico consumió menos yuca fresca y un promedio de s610 0.73 kg diario del suplemento cuando se ofrec16 a voluntad. Las gananoias de peso fueron menores, pero la eficiencia alimentioia fUe superior (Cundro 2) al de los olros dos grupos. De acuerdo a estos resultadoa cualquiera de las dos formas de suplementar la yuca fresca da resultados satisfactorios, aunque la suplemeniación diaria oontrolada implica mayor necesldnd de mano de obra."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"Una forma nula pr4ctica de utilizar la yuca en la alimentaci6n da cerdos podrfa ssr 1ncluyéndola en las dieias en forma de harina. '!J Total expresndo sobre un 10% de humedad, aproximadamente."},{"index":5,"size":73,"text":"!-/ idem, leA. Programa de Porcinos, Palmira. Experimento P-P-2-2-10 corporación de harina de yuca en lIíetas balanceadas oon el objeto de medir su valor 00-nu¡ fuente energGt1cs y como un substituto del malZ, en raciones de cerdos durante los per1'odos de crecimiento y acabado. La harina de yuca substituyO el 33 • 66 Y 100 por atento del maIZ de la rackln control con un contenido total de 16 por ciento de protetbs."},{"index":6,"size":42,"text":"cruda. EIlI1vel de torta de slgcd6n fue mantenido constaste, 7 por ciento de la dieta, para evitar, problemas de toxicidad de goslpol, Puesto que la harina de yuca tiene una c<Íllll!Stencla polvorienta. les mismo. tratamientos fueron repetidos ccn la adlckln de 10"},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"por ciento de melaza. La ccmpoeIc!6n de las dietas experimentales se presenta en el Q¡adro 3."},{"index":8,"size":50,"text":"Cuarenta y ocbo !)ardas destetos, con un peso promedie inicial de 18.5 kg, fueron dls-tr1buIdoa de acuerdo a peso, IIGD Y \"\"mada y ocho grupos experimentales. Los cerdos fue\"\"\", \"\"_&8 en con«uaml\"\"to sobre piso de concreto y reclbleron agua y dieta a wluatad darsnte lea 111 <HIts del período experimental."},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"Cuadro 3. Composiokln de dietas experimentales ccnt.m1eodo diferentes nlvsls."},{"index":10,"size":13,"text":"de 'harina de yuca. ---Totales 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100;00 100.00 100.00"}]},{"head":"Dietas","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"!/ Secada en horno de aire forzado a S2\" c."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"y Contribuyó con la misma concentracl6n de vltamlnae y minerales trazas como en la premezcla del Cuadro 1."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"El resumen de los resultados obtenidos en este experimento se presenta en el Cuadro 4. Cada aumento en el nivel de yuca seca resultO en una disminución de la ganancia diaria promedio de peso con o sin la adici6n de.10 por ciento de melaza. La adición de 10 por ciento de mela>:a aumentó el consumo de alimento y se tradujo en prácticamente un 10 por ciento más en las gananclas'de peso, a! compararlas con los grupos correspondientes sin melaza. Los resultados de ente experimento demuestran la factiblblldad de uso de harina de yuca en rempla>:o parcia! o total del mal'2 en dietas balanceadas y su poslbilt6ad de empleo en raciones comerciales."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Análisis estadfatlc."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"Se empleó awUIste de varianza para establecer si hablll diferencia significativa en la respuesta entre los tr_ento. en cade uno de los dos experimentos."},{"index":6,"size":98,"text":"En el Experimento 1 se toínó la variable incremento de peso como variable dependiente y como fuente de variación las tres dietas. Se observó que no IOXistfa diferencia este6fstlca significativa en la ganancia de peso entre las tres dietas. En el Experimento n, se plantesron tres modelos para el anállsls de varianza, de acuerdo oon el dlse-Cuadro \\. lnfluencia del ntvel de harina de yuca en el comportamiento de cerdos en crecimiento y acabado !I !I Seis cerdos por tratamiento; duración del experimento, 111 dra.; poso promedio inicia! 18.5 kg; peso promedio final 1 0 •. 8 kg."},{"index":7,"size":58,"text":"iIo del experimento y: el primero inCluyó las dietas como la llnic\" fuente de variación. al segundo.., le agregó la variable SlIlW y al tercero se le incluyO en término de Interacción entre sexo y dieta. Se obsertó que sr había difarencla estadística significativa entre s\"\"o y la variable Incremento de peso para las cuatro dietas del experimento;"},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"el término 4e Interaccl6n no resultó slgn!flcativo."},{"index":9,"size":34,"text":"No debe ol'i'Idarse sin embargo que se trata de dos experimentos en que el m!mero de repetIelonea f'ue probablemente insufloiente, condicionado por las instalaciones y el pre-.supueato 41spomb1e en la época de los experimentos."},{"index":10,"size":44,"text":"Au4l1sis EooDómico De ..... de comprobar si exis1fa o no difarencis slgnlflcstiva en tos inCrementos de peso entre loa tratamientos i en ambos experimentos. se procedió a evaluar la eficiencia eoonómlca de cada una de las dietas por medie de un sencillo modelo económinC."},{"index":11,"size":31,"text":"Se trató de establecer la ga;oa:DCia monetaria relativa de oada dieta definida como la diferencia entre los tngre_ adiol.ollales (desde la elspa de creobniento) y los costos parciales de cada dieta."},{"index":12,"size":20,"text":"El Ingreso adicional ro se detarmiD6 porel aumento de peso, dado el precio del cerdo en la época de venta."},{"index":13,"size":67,"text":"(1) 1 ~ (Wf -W ~ Pe en dondo 1 representa Ingreso adioional, W f es peso finsl en kilos, W I es peso Inicial en kilos, y P representa el precio del cerdo por kilos. e En el El\\perlmento l. coD;lO no se encontró diferencia significativa entre la. ganancia. de peso de los tres tratamientos. se optó por tomar un promedio Igual para las tres dietas."},{"index":14,"size":57,"text":"La diferencia en costo paroial de alimentos (CV) de las dietas lsoprotéicas alternativas (consel'VaIl<io teóricamente el mismo valor alimenticio) proviene de la sustimción  No se consideraron aquellos gastos comunes y constantes para todos los experimens, esto es gastos fijos principalmente y parte de las dietas, ya que ellos no inciden en comparación entre 105 tratamientos en cuesti6n."},{"index":15,"size":24,"text":"La ganancia relativa para cada tratamiento (U) Be mide entonces por la diferencia ene los Ingresos adicionales y loo costos parciales de los alimentos."},{"index":16,"size":1,"text":"("},{"index":17,"size":87,"text":"Dado los precios Pe y Pi' constantes para todos 108 tratamientos t se puede calcular uál es la dieta en .cada experimento que genera la mayor ganancia monetaria. asultados En el Cuadro 5 se presentan las estimaciones de las ganancias relativas de los exerimentos 1 y II. Con el objeto de medir la sensibilidad de los resultados ante vartaones en la raz6n de precios yuca: maíz !I, se calcul6 la ganancia (U) para un rango e raz6n de precios que va de 20 a 150 por ciento."},{"index":18,"size":90,"text":"El Cuadro 5 muestra, por ejemplo, en la primera columna, que cuando el precio mitarlo de la yuca fresca equivale .al 20 por ciento del mafz, todo 10 demás constante, :1 tratamiento de mayor ganancia relativa es el nt1.mero 3 en el experimento 1, en que le emplea solamente yuca fresca y suplemento controlado. Esta situación se mantíele hasta que el precio de la yuca fresca alcanza el 49 por ciento del valor del maíz; de ,hI en adelante, resulta mejor emplear mafz solamente, como en la dieta nt1.mero 1."},{"index":19,"size":9,"text":"-,os valores negativos de los cuadros indican pérdidas relativas."},{"index":20,"size":31,"text":"!./ Excepto para harina de yuca el resto de los ingredientes fue valorizado a los pre-  !I Para seleccionar la dieta óptima el lector debe pr!mtro Ident1f1car en la parte Su-.."},{"index":21,"size":14,"text":"periar la relación esperada de precios; luego, comparar veriicalmente cwU tratamiento genera m.&3Or utilidad."},{"index":22,"size":90,"text":"En la parte inferior del Ccsdro 5 puede observarse el comportamiento de las gananel .... relativas con la Introduccl6n de harina de yuca (ElqIerimento II). El tratamiento 8 resultó ser el mejor h .... ta cuando el precio de la harina de yuca equivale al 90 por ciento oiento del precio del mafz. luego es mejor usar la dieta m1mero 6, que tiene menor contenido de harina de yuca, hasta e1130 por ciento, de este precio en adelante e8 mejor emplear la dieta nUmero 5 a base de maíz solamente."}]},{"head":"Conclusiones","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"De los resultados experimentales y del ani1lisis econÓmico puede preverse un magnf-¡¡co futuro de la utilización de yuca para la allmentación de cerdos. Se obtuvieron ganancias relativas mayores con el \"\"'pleo de este producto que con el empleo de marzo La yuca fresca más suplemento proteico ofrecido en cantidades slÚicientes para cubrir los requerimientos mínimos, reemplaza econ6micamente a la dieta a base de mafz y suplemento proteico, solamente si el precio de la yuca equivale al 49 por ciento o menos del precio del mafz (a precios de 1973)1. Mlentra. el precio unitario de la harina de"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"YUC¿t sea iguel o infer~r al precio unitario del marz, éste puede ser económicamente reempiazedo por harina de yuca."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"A los precios vigentes en el Valle del Cauca, durante el mes de agosto de 1973, la relaci6n de precios yuca fresca: mal'l< alcanzó el 20 por ciento. Por esta razón, el tratamiento ndmerc 3 del E>:perlmento 1 en el que s610 se empleó yuca fresca, genera la mayor ganancia relativa. Considerando barios de yuca (E>:perlmento II) resulta una relaclOn de precios de 60 per ciento. con una mayor ganancia relativa para el tratamiento nl1mero 8, en el que tampoco se utUlz6 malZ."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"Para febrero de 1974 las relaciones de precios cambiaron al 30 y 90 por ciesto respectivamente sin cambiar los tratamientos óptimos. Esto es, a la relaciOn de precios ."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"vigentes en agosto de 1973 y febrero de 1974 en el Valle del Cauca, emplear yuca da una ración de menor costo, por unidad de ganancia de peso que el marzo Adems, puede concluirse qu~ a dicha razón de precios, emplear yuca fresca es relativamente más rentable que emplear barios de yuca. Esto varlarfz con la razón de precios."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"Con el uaO de esta técnica de análisis. el productor puede encontrar las proporciones de mezcla más e;onOmica para una dieta cuande dispena de dos alimentos sustitutos."},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"!I Este resultado es válido bajo las condiciones que existieron al momento de hacer el anillsi •."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 17. a kg, fueron divididos al azar en tres grupos de cinco cada uno, teniendo en cuenta !I Manar f JI> H. \"La yuca en la alimentacidn de cerdos!l, Seminario sobre sistemas de producción de porcinos en América Latina. ClAT, Palmira, 1972. y rCA. Programa de Porcinos, Paim!ra. Experimento P-P-2-2-6. Citado por Maner ~ J~ H~ ~ J. Buitrago y J. Jiménez, utilization of yuca in swine feeding. Prooeedings of the Interna.tional Symposium on Tropical Root Crops. Apri12-8, 1967. Sto Augostine, Trinidad. "},{"text":" Contribuyó con: 2500 UI de vitamina Al 250 UI de vitamina DI 2.5 Dllf de ribo-Ilavlna¡12.5 mg de ofaclnai 7.5 mg de ácido pantoténico; 125 mg de cloruro de colina; 16.5 mg de vitamina !l¡2¡ 50 mg de clorotetraclcllna; 51.5 mg Mol :1 mg COI 4.4 mg CU¡ y 45.4 mg Zn por k1logramo de la diete control, a;¡rox'madamente 4 veces esta cantidad fue adicional al suplemento protefnléo. "},{"text":" entre fuentes alimenllolas; para su ctUcu10 se consideraron 1lnicamente los alimentos que varlan entre las dieins: y En el Apéndice ¡ se presentan los modelos empleados. La significación se calcul6 al .95 por cIento de probabilidad. "},{"text":"Tratamientos Prom .. aum. Prom. oons~      Eficiencia Eficiencia   diario, kg. dtarto, kg. Alimenticia diario, kg.dtarto, kg.Alimenticia 1. Dieta control 0.772 2.68 3.47 1.Dieta control0.7722.683.47 2. 25.72% yuca 0.744 2.66 3.57 2.25.72% yuca0.7442.663.57 3. 48.65% yuca 0.743 2.79 3.76 3.48.65% yuca0.7432.793.76 4. 69.25% yuca 0.708 2.48 3.49 4.69.25% yuca0.7082.483.49 5. Dieta control + 10% melaza 0.888 3.38 3.84 5.Dieta control + 10% melaza0.8883.383.84 6. 21. 70% yuca + 10% melaza 0.827 2.95 3.56 6.21. 70% yuca + 10% melaza0.8272.953.56 7. 41.04% yuca + 10% mela>:a 0.717 3.00 3.85 7.41.04% yuca + 10% mela>:a0.7173.003.85 8. 58. 26% yuca + 10% melaza 0.767 2.73 3.54 8.58. 26% yuca + 10% melaza0.7672.733.54  "},{"text":" 5. Cambio de utilidad para noove relaciones de precios, yuca; mal%. !I en los _rimentos 1, n. Dietas- 20 30 RelacIones de p!!!!lo8. py/Pm. poreentajes 59 60 70 60 90 100 150 Dietas-2030RelacIones de p!!!!lo8. py/Pm. poreentajes 59 60 70 60 90100150      ¡pe/ilOB)     ¡pe/ilOB)     Exoorimenl:o 1 /YUc8 freses¡    Exoorimenl:o 1 /YUc8 freses¡ 1 282 282 282 282 282 282 282 282 282 1282282282282282282282282282 2 554 375 18 -161 -339 -518 -697 -875 -1168 255437518-161-339-518-697-875-1168 :1 '88 616 '273 1<12 -70 -241 -413 -584 ._14.42 ,~~~- :1'88616'2731<12-70-241-413-584 ._14.42 ,~~~-  "}],"sieverID":"a7dcb1d0-11b2-4fb3-9f0b-585528cd48ab","abstract":"CIAT é''S una organi~acjón sin ánjmQ de lucrQ, dedicada al desarrollo agrícola V económico de las tH;traS bajas tropicales. El Gúbtetno de Colombia proporciona su apoyo como país sede del el AT V el terreno en qu.e Se encuentrall localizadas sus principales instalaciones, un\" tinca experimental de 522 hectareas cerca de la (;IU-di1d de Cali. StJ. lIellan a cabo proyectos cooperatrvo$ con el Instituto Colombiano Agropecuario OCA), I nnclpalmente en los Centros Experimentales de Turipaná y Can magua. El el A 1 está 1inanciado por .... mas miembros institucionales del Grupo"}

data/part_3/0790415ce5a22c54579cbd37d84737a7.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0790415ce5a22c54579cbd37d84737a7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/43be67a0-7c62-46e3-8f5c-932c7ccc3a5c/retrieve"},"pageCount":29,"title":"Panel Discussion: Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Practices in Agriculture","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Backgrounder and Rationale","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The impacts of climate change on developing countries such as the Philippines will only worsen as excessive amounts of greenhouse gases (GHGs) continue to be emitted into the atmosphere."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The Philippines, specifically, will see its agricultural yield hit a sharp decline by 2050 under business-as-usual (BAU) scenarios."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"Aggravating the situation, agriculture is reported as a major emitter of GHGs through various farming practices being adopted by farmers. As alternative to BAU approaches, the climatesmart agriculture (CSA) approach was introduced in 2010 to \"re-orient and transform\" the agricultural sector to thrive under climate change conditions. CSA refers to technologies, practices, and services that (1) increase agricultural productivity; (2) enhance climate resilience;"},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"(3) and reduce GHG emissions. This approach is anchored on collaborations among governments, private sector, academe, and research sectors, among others, in the global, national, and sub-national levels."},{"index":5,"size":55,"text":"For an archipelagic country such as the Philippines, bringing CSA to vulnerable farms and communities is a challenge. Farms differ in issues that they face, from the characteristics of their landscapes, the crops they grow, the resources available to them, and the media platforms that they use to access any relevant climate information, among others."},{"index":6,"size":81,"text":"To address this dilemma, the Philippine Federation of Rural Broadcasters (PFRB) and the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security in Southeast Asia (CCAFS SEA) are working with the Philippine government and the research and development (R&D) sector to conduct broadcast production workshops for rural broadcasters. These workshops aim to educate the broadcasters on the science of climate change and CSA, as well as teach them to produce entertaining and educating media materials that their audience will \"consume.\""}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"This workshop aimed to educate rural broadcasters about climate change and CSA and help them produce ready-to-be-aired (RTBA) materials that they will include in their programs. To achieve this, the workshop will help the broadcasters:"},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"1. appreciate and understand climate change, its meaning, including its concrete manifestations and science innovations for its mitigation and adaptation in the context of agriculture and food security; 2. produce prototype RTBA materials on climate smart agriculture; and 3. discuss a workplan on Phase 2 of the rural radio campaign. • Messages about climate change must be localized and popularized."}]},{"head":"Activities and Learning Process","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"• Rural broadcasters must find ways to deliver climate information to their audience • Social media, specifically through the Facebook Live feature, now lets the audience watch the broadcasters."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• Dr. Matalang reminded the participants that their efforts are dedicated to the farmers and fisher folks."}]},{"head":"Workshop Overview","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Dr. Navarro, CCAFS SEA consultant and PFRB adviser, ran through the workshop proper. He started with a brief discussion about climate change then related this to the objectives of the workshop and of the overall radio campaign."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"He then shared the gains of phase 1, the outputs of which were distributed pro bono. This, he said, is a testament to PFRB and CCAFS SEA's commitment to deliver climate information to farmers and farming communities. More of Dr. Navarro's highlights were listed below:"},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"• PFRB and its partners could explore seeking a position in the House of Representatives as this will give them more political clout. This is crucial to delivering relevant servicesclimate-related information included-to the agricultural sector."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"• More intense and prolonged droughts, more frequent floods, and stronger typhoons are \"symptom[s] of a bigger problem,\" warned Dr. Navarro."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• Excessive GHG emissions in the atmosphere lead to climate change"},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"• Agriculture is a major emitter of GHG."},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"• Major GHGs include carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, which are emitted from various farming activities."},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"• Human activities contribute to climate change."},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"• The target of the campaign are smallholder farmers"},{"index":10,"size":30,"text":"• In Phase 2, only a small number of participants who own radio programs were invited to ensure commitment in the content development phase and distribution of the RTBA materials."},{"index":11,"size":18,"text":"• The participants could use reference materials such as Klima 101 and the manual to establish a school-on-the-air."},{"index":12,"size":15,"text":"• Media convergence, also known as multi-media approach, is the new way to deliver information."},{"index":13,"size":17,"text":"• Engagement is emerging as another component that could mobilize the people to act on climate change."},{"index":14,"size":33,"text":"• Outputs of the workshop will be included in the RTBA materials of the campaign • Human activities, particularly in the agricultural sector, alters the composition of the atmosphere, leading to climate change."}]},{"head":"Plenary Session","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"• Difference between weather forecasts and climate projections"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"• Climate Outlook is a product of PAGASA updated every six months to provide relevant climate information for the farmers.  More highlights of Dr. Floresca's presentation are listed below:"}]},{"head":"Climate-smart Agriculture Technologies and Practices","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"• Methane is the most significant GHG being emitted by agriculture. It comes from rice cultivation, livestock, and agricultural soils."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"• CSA is considered a \"triple win\" solution-it increases productivity; enhances resilience; and reduces GHG emissions."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"o Increasing productivity means producing more food to ensure food and nutrition security and increase the incomes of 75% of the world's poor o Enhancing resilience entails improving the capacity to thrive under climate change conditions manifested by pest and disease outbreaks and long-term stresses such as shortened seasons and erratic weather patterns."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"o Reducing emissions involve building biogas plants, banning crop burning, handling manure properly, and protecting the water resources from contamination."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"o Adaptation options include agronomic management, water harvesting and exploitation, water use efficiency, crop intensification, alternative crop enterprises, and post-harvest practices"},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"• ISU has conducted R&D projects that apply CSA, including the development of climateresilient farming systems and assessment and valuation of GHG mitigation potential of climate-friendly farming practices."},{"index":7,"size":43,"text":"• A climate-smart farm design can adopt the 40-30-20-10 land use model: 40% of the land area will be dedicated to food and cash crops; 30% to fruits and forest trees; 20% to water harvesting; and 10% to homelot and backyard cash crops."},{"index":8,"size":130,"text":"• CSA technologies will be developed by ISU, which will include edible landscapes, vermicomposting, and eco-park tree plantations. To address these issues, farmers must choose a rice variety that suits the condition of the area where it will be plated. In preparing the soil, Mr. Dela Cruz suggested to practice conservation tillage, which saves irrigation water and keeps GHG in the soil to be released into the atmosphere. After preparing the soil, the farmers must adjust their cropping calendars based on the current and projected climate. Aside from the soil, farmers must find ways to efficiently use Photo from the presentation of Mr. Dela Cruz fertilizers on their crops. Otherwise, another GHG called nitrous oxide is released into the atmosphere. Mr. Dela Cruz presented several practices that farmers can adopt:"}]},{"head":"Panel Discussion","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"• The Minus-One Element Technique is a cheap and simple way to know the nutritional requirements of the soil, which will keep the farmers from applying excessive amounts of inorganic fertilizers."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"• Controlled irrigation helps the farmers save water resources."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• Through pest management and ecological engineering, farmers may attract species that protect crops from harmful pests and diseases."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• To mitigate the impacts of climate change, avoid the following:"},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"o Frequent use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides o Continuous irrigation o Crop burning • Palayamanan is an approach that integrates crop and livestock production, fruit trees, and aquaculture to increase income and food supply."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"• In flood-prone areas, residents can adopt floating gardens, which can also be used to plant rice and vegetables; they only need available materials such as bamboo to build these gardens."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"• Mr. Dela Cruz shared several technological tools that can help the farmers: eDamuhan App, Agridoc App, Binhing Palay App, and the Palay Check website."}]},{"head":"Mechanized Farming","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Engr The detailed advantages of farm mechanization are listed below:"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• In dry land preparation, farmers can use cage rollers, rotavators, trailing harrows, levee shavers, and cage wheels."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• Farm irrigation pump are time-and fuel-efficient; they are also portable."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Mechanical transplanting maximizes tilling capacity in accurate population density per square meter."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"• A combined harvesting and threshing process minimizes post-harvest losses and only takes three to four hours of harvest time. This allows the farmers to harvest rice crops before a natural disaster hits the farms."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"• Mechanical drying produces a better quality of rice."}]},{"head":"Corn Farming","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Mr. Felix Ancheta, a GAWAD SAKA awardee, shared his experiences on his corn farm, Matalang emphasized that the most important part of any media material is the content."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"The contents then must be based on credible sources and must be packaged in a localized and easy-to-understand manner. This also adds credibility to the broadcasters, which will help them maintain their audience."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"More highlights of the prototype presentation are listed below:"},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"• Dr. Navarro suggested to adopt a balanced fertilizer management, which means using both inorganic and organic fertilizers. He said that this is more practical than practicing an inorganic or organic approach."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"• Dr. William Medrano said that he is an advocate of organic agriculture but clarified that they cannot produce enough food with it alone. Likewise, they cannot maximize yield potential of crops with organic agriculture alone."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"• Organic agriculture is currently expensive and thus cannot be practiced by many smallholder farmers."},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"• Dr. Navarro emphasized that pacing is critical in developing spots and plugs because they are usually short-time materials; the broadcasters must still be able to communicate their messages within the time available."},{"index":8,"size":42,"text":"• Dr. Navarro also suggested that indigenous knowledge must be incorporated in their materials since many farmers still rely on such knowledge. Broadcasters must only ensure that the indigenous knowledge being applied in the farms is still relevant under climate change conditions."}]},{"head":"Message from the ISU President","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Dr. Ricmar Aquino was able to grace the event and gave a brief speech to the participants. He shared that ISU prides itself as a leading university in the field of climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction management. ISU, in this regard, conducts programs about climate change in the Philippines. Still, he recognized the important role of the media in promoting not only their programs, but also other adaptation and mitigation options that farmers can apply in their farms."}]},{"head":"Synthesis and Closing Program","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Dr. Navarro emphasized that the most credible broadcaster is the one doing something on the ground. He said that \"nothing beats action\" especially in climate change communication. He then gave a short discussion about CSA as a summary of the expert presentations."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Weather-smart: being able to understand the weather then respond accordingly"},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"• Crop-smart: choosing the right variety and knowing where to buy the seeds. Access to the market of climate-smart varieties, Dr. Navarro said, is the starting point of adopting CSA."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• Pest-smart: learning how to address pest and disease outbreaks in the farms."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"• Water-smart: keeping in mind that the main principle of water management is that water is not needed all the time."},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"• Energy-smart: using fuel-efficient machines and alternative energy sources such as solar energy to reduce GHG emissions."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"• Knowledge-smart: promoting farmer-to-farmer learning because farmers tend to trust their fellow farmers more than anybody else in terms of farming technologies and practices.    ---END---"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" This broadcast production workshop invited rural broadcasters and local experts in Isabela Province to develop RTBA materials on climate change and CSA. During the workshop, experts from the Isabela State University (ISU) and the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) discussed climate change in the province and in the entire region of Cagayan Valley. CCAFS SEA further contextualized climate change and its impacts in the country and Southeast Asian levels. After the expert discussions, three individuals involved in farming activities shared their experiences, including the impacts of climate change that they now experience and the corresponding adaptive and mitigating actions they apply on their farms. The discussions and testimonials helped the broadcasters paint a picture of the current plight of farmers. Their learnings, insights, and other ideas were translated into draft RTBA materials, which were presented to PFRB and CCAFS SEA for critiquing. The schematic diagram below illustrated the workshop proper: Participants, Resource Persons, and Moderators The workshop was attended by rural broadcasters who host regular programs in the region. They participated in the discussions about climate change and CSA led by experts of the climate change center of ISU. PFRB facilitated the discussions while CCAFS SEA provided scientific insights to the broadcasters. "},{"text":": Understanding Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Climate Outlook in the Region An overview of climate trends in the Philippines and climate outlook in Isabela were presented by Mr. Ramil Tuppil, a forecaster from PAGASA Isabela. His presentation mainly based on the report, Observed Climate Trends and Projected Climate Change in the Philippines. He differentiated climate variability, global warming, and climate change, then later explained the need to understand the latter. Building from this part, he distinguished weather forecasts to climate projections, both of which are relevant to the farmers. More highlights of Mr. Tuppil's presentations were listed below: • Earth's climate naturally varies due to distance of Earth from the Sun and the Earth's rotation • Climate variability refers to short-term fluctuations in climate such as those caused by the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO); global warming pertains to the increase in average global temperature due to excessive amounts of GHG in the atmosphere; climate change refers to long-term changes in the climate, including temperature and precipitation. "},{"text":" Dr. Januel Floresca, Director of the ISU Geomatics for Sustainable Development Center, discussed CSA technologies and practices with the participants. He showed a video first to give quick backgrounder about CSA. He then expounded on the science of climate change, its causes, and impacts. Afterwards, he localized the topic by relating it to the climate change impacts occurring in Cagayan Valley region, especially in the Isabela Province. sources of livelihood and food of the people. Dr. Floresca then emphasized the challenge that everyone must address-helping the agricultural sector thrive under climate change conditions while reducing the amount of GHGs it emits into the atmosphere. "},{"text":": Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation Practices in Agriculture Climate-smart Rice Agriculture Building from the presentation of Dr. Floresca, Mr. Andres Dela Cruz, R&D Coordinator of PhilRice Isabela, provided a more detailed presentation about CSA. He discussed CSA in rice production and how it contributes to climate change. Mr. Dela Cruz said that improper water management, soil type, and even the use of organic fertilizers emit methane, which absorbs more heat than carbon dioxide does. "},{"text":" . Romeo Vasquez from the Right Agri Development Inc. shared the benefits of farm mechanization. Using farm machineries save labor, time, and waterthree crucial resources that farmers must utilize, especially in areas that lack such resources. Engr. Vasquez also shared that they provide technical assistance to help farmers use such machineries. "},{"text":" which he now uses to produce feed formula for his poultry and piggery. He said that farmers who grow animals are facing the dilemma of rising feed prices, which led him to an alternative method-producing his own feeds with corn as an ingredient. His self-produced formula is composed of base mixed feeds, corn, soya beans, molasses, and oil. Mr. Ancheta said that it already contains the nutritional requirements of his animals, saving him costs and consequently, taking home more income in the process. Workshop 01: Identifying Topics in Broadcasting Climate-smart Agriculture Dr. Matalang instructed the participants to produce one 4-5-minute canned interview with an expert and a 1-minute plug or spot. The plug or spot could be either a drama or a straight announcement. He told the participants to ensure that the materials are educating and attractive at the same time to catch the attention of the listeners. He also reminded them to keep the materials in line with climate change and CSA. The participants were then divided into three groups for the workshop proper. Workshop 02: Producing RTBA Prototypes for Climate-smart Agriculture The prototype materials were presented to a panel that included Dr. Matalang, Dr. Navarro, and Dr. William Medrano, ISU Vice President for Research and Development, Extension and Training. Dr. "},{"text":" Dr. Aquino (right) echoes the importance of media in climate change communication. Photo: Renz Celeridad (CCAFS SEA)term elections in the country. \"We need one to two champions in the Congress\" to fast-track the linking of CSA technologies, practices, and services to vulnerable farmers. He also ensured that CCAFS SEA is committed to support initiatives that address climate change, which is now considered as the biggest threat that people are facing today. Dr. Matalang praised the efforts of ISU in developing CSA in their region and told the participants that he will report this in the 2018 CCAFS SEA Annual Meeting in Hanoi, Vietnam. "},{"text":" Dr. Navarro suggested to field one or two candidates in the upcoming mid-term elections to better support farmers in their plight against climate change. Photo: Renz Celeridad (CCAFS SEA) "},{"text":"MARE 1 : HINDI MO BA ALAM MARE NA ANG PAGSUSUNOG NG DAYAMI AY NAKAKAPAG AMBAG NG GLOBAL WARMING NA SIYANG SANHI NG PAGBABAGO NG PANAHON MARE 2: HA? BAGO YAN AH! MARE 1: AT HETO PA MARE, LAHAT NG FARM WASTE KAGAYA NG DAYAMI AY PWEDENG GAWING PATABA SA ATING MGA PANANIM. OH HETO PAKINGGAN MO ITONG PALIWANAG SA RADYO. STRAIGHT ANNOUNCEMENT: Sa paglipas ng panahon, nakasanayan na ng mga magsasaka ang mga makabagong paraan ng pagsasaka na siyang patuloy na sumisira sa ating kapaligiran. SFX: Mahal na magsasaka, panahon na para ibalik natin ang nakasanayang pagsasaka upang manumbalik ang sigla ng ating kalupaan. ORGANIC FARMING! Isang paraan ng pagsasaka na di na kailangan gamitan ng inorganikong pataba o kemikal! Ibalik natin ang ganda ng ating kapaligiran.ORGANIC FARMING!Ang mensaheng ito ay hatid sa inyo ng CCAFS-SEA, PFRB at ng himpilang ito. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Mare 1: UY,MARE BAT KA NAGSUSUNOG NG DAYAMI? MARE 2: NAKAKASAGABAL KASI ITO SA PAGBUBUKID NAMIN MARE. 23. Wilda Joy Draft Scripts ISU Echague [email protected] 0977-786-4776 23. Wilda Joy Draft ScriptsISU [email protected] Tubban    Tubban 24. Jenibel Dizon ISU Echague [email protected] 0907-982-1161 24. Jenibel DizonISU [email protected] 25. Manases ORGANIC FARMING SPOT DA RFO 02 None 0975-174-4562 25. Manases ORGANIC FARMING SPOT DA RFO 02None0975-174-4562 Lacambra    Lacambra 26. Annaliza GROUP 1 ISU Echague None None 26. Annaliza GROUP 1ISU EchagueNoneNone Presentacion    Presentacion 27. Gil Zipagan II ISU Echague None 0975-941-2570 27. Gil Zipagan IIISU EchagueNone0975-941-2570 28. Hazel Rod ISU Echague None 0955-412-7966 28. Hazel RodISU EchagueNone0955-412-7966 Delmondo    Delmondo 29. Mae Barangan Northern Sina None 0935-841-8994 29. Mae BaranganNorthern SinaNone0935-841-8994  Roces Magazine   Roces Magazine 30. Andres Dela PhilRice None 0916-827-7234 30. Andres DelaPhilRiceNone0916-827-7234 Cruz    Cruz 31. Esmeraldo DZMM (Sa None none 31. EsmeraldoDZMM (SaNonenone Reyes Kabukiran)/PFRB   ReyesKabukiran)/PFRB 32. Hector Tabbun DA Region 2 None 0917-818-0345 32. Hector TabbunDA Region 2None0917-818-0345   TOTAL: 32  TOTAL: 32  "}],"sieverID":"198f4938-d60b-4d06-ac04-e8caf5056f06","abstract":"Workshop 01: Identifying Topics in Broadcasting Climate-smart Agriculture ."}

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This EMP provides the basic framework for the follow-up."}]},{"head":"Mitigating Measures to be Monitored","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"The following Tables set out the potential impacts and related mitigating measures, and the monitoring to be conducted for each mitigating measure."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Table (a) shows the indicators to be monitored for the implementation of mitigating measures designed to address the potential impacts of the following activities:"},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":" Use of agrochemicals in improved cultivation of vegetables and pulses,  Use of livestock and poultry drugs and chemicals  Improved fisheries programme  Improvement in efficiency of cultivating vegetables under irrigation,  Expanded and improved rice production programme,  .   "}]},{"head":"IPMS Environmental","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Environmental Indicators","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Note that the mitigating measure indicators listed in Tables (a) to (c), and summarised in Table (d), are designed to verify that the mitigating measures are being implemented as intended. It is not intended that the long-term effect of the mitigating measures on the environment should be formally monitored within the scope of the IPMS project, particularly as in most cases such 'state of environment' changes will be measurable only in the long-term. Such monitoring is normally the responsibility of the Wereda authorities. However, the IPMS staff concerned will be alert to any significant environmental change that may occur during the implementation of the programme."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"There may be exceptions to this general rule. In the case of special topics of environmental concern on which IPMS is arranging for special research to be conducted, the monitoring will include actual environmental impacts. In the case of Fogera Wereda, The Potential Cumulative Environmental Impacts of the Promotion of Peri-Urban Zero-Grazing is one such topic. Depending on the outcome of this research, additional environmental indicators may in due course be generated for inclusion in the regular monitoring programme outlined in the present EMP."}]},{"head":"Sources for the EMP","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"The sources of information used for this Environmental Monitoring Plan are as follows: "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table ( b ) shows indicators to be monitored for the implementation of mitigating measures designed to address the potential cumulative impacts of:It should be noted that the cumulative impacts considered should include those regarded as unlikely but possible. It is important to be able to show that IPMS has looked ahead, and has taken precautions to deal with such eventualities, should they occur, unlikely though some people may consider them to be.  "},{"text":"Table ( c ) shows indicators to be monitored for implementation of mitigating measures to address the potential  "},{"text":"impacts of the environment on the activity as a result of: Use of inappropriate nets, poisonous plants and poor fishing practicesIn each case, the statement of impacts and mitigating measures are set out in summary. More detail can be found in the Environmental Assessment and Screening Report for Fogera Wereda.  Extended periods of drought  Extended periods of drought  Poor watershed management  Poor watershed management  ��  "},{"text":"Table ( d ) in Section 3 summarises the basic information on the indicators and how the data will be collected.  "},{"text":"Table (a) Matrix of Potential Environmental Impacts 1 It is expected that as livestock marketing is enhanced, market take-off will increase and intensive livestock management will be encouraged. As a result, this impact is expected to have a low probability. 2 PLS Diagnosis and Programme Design or subsequent addendum.3 Once publication of the IPM plan has been verified, subsequent annual checks should record reprints, updates, etc.4 Once publication of the DCM plan has been verified, subsequent annual checks should record reprints, updates, etc. Activities Activities  "},{"text":"Use of Agrochemicals in Improved Cultivation of Vegetables and Pulses Use of Livestock and Poultry Drugs & Chemicals Improvement of Efficiency of Vegetable Cultivation under Irrigation Expanded and Improved Rice Production Programme Improved Fisheries Programme Likely Impacts       Table (b        Table (b  Uncontrolled or careless use of agrochemicals leading to pollution of groundwater Uncontrolled or careless use may pollute As a result of Shallow wells dug in the Agro- Agro-chemicals Use of inappropriate nets and Uncontrolled or careless use of agrochemicals leading to pollution of groundwaterUncontrolled or careless use may polluteAs a result ofShallow wells dug in theAgro-Agro-chemicalsUse of inappropriate nets and  and consequently the lake, leading to health hazards for human and may hazards groundwater, leading to health hazards for improved livestock plains for dry-season chemicals used on uplands poor fishing practices' and consequently the lake, leading to health hazards for human and may hazardsgroundwater, leading to health hazards forimproved livestockplains for dry-seasonchemicalsused on uplandspoor fishing practices'  for fish and bees harvesting both water and pollen.  human and animal life.  health, numbers irrigation may pose a used on rice would create including poisonous weeds, for fish and bees harvesting both water and pollen.human and animal life.health, numbersirrigation may pose aused onrice would createincluding poisonous weeds,        may increase, hazard to human and paddy-field pollution in the may have negative may increase,hazard to human andpaddy-fieldpollution in themay have negative        leading to animal life, especially rice would lowlands and in environmental impacts leading toanimal life, especiallyrice wouldlowlands and inenvironmental impacts        overgrazing. 1 children contaminate adjoining including stock depletion overgrazing. 1childrencontaminateadjoiningincluding stock depletion          the lake weredas, and   the lakeweredas, and           could affect the   could affect the           bee population   bee population Mitigating Draw up an Implement Train DAs Take into account Draw up a Drugs Implement DCM Encourage The project will No Fertilisers and The project will provide MitigatingDraw up anImplementTrain DAsTake into accountDraw up a DrugsImplement DCMEncourageThe project willNoFertilisers andThe project will provide Measures Integrated Pesticide Management (IPM) plan covering natural methods, IPM plan and farmers on IPM proximity to kebeles dependent on apiculture, when determining location of use and Chemicals Management (DCM) plan, covering acquisition, Plan enhanced community-based veterinary service delivery recommend cover or protection of shallow wells, and well designs enabling anyone who agrochemicals will be used for paddy-field rice. only modest amounts of agrochemicals will be required guidance and training on optimum fishing practices and net sizes MeasuresIntegrated Pesticide Management (IPM) plan covering natural methods,IPM planand farmers on IPMproximity to kebeles dependent on apiculture, when determining location of useand Chemicals Management (DCM) plan, covering acquisition,Planenhanced community-based veterinary service deliveryrecommend cover or protection of shallow wells, and well designs enabling anyone whoagrochemicals will be used for paddy-field rice.only modest amounts of agrochemicals will be requiredguidance and training on optimum fishing practices and net sizes  and acquisition,    application,  mechanisms, falls in to climb out  where an   and acquisition,application,mechanisms,falls in to climb outwhere an  application,    accidents, storage  awareness and   Integrated Pest   application,accidents, storageawareness andIntegrated Pest  accidents, storage    and disposal of  market linkages, to   Management   accidents, storageand disposal ofmarket linkages, toManagement  and disposal of    livestock veterinary  ensure env.   (IPM) plan will be   and disposal oflivestock veterinaryensure env.(IPM) plan will be  agrochemicals.    drugs and  sustainable livestock   implemented   agrochemicals.drugs andsustainable livestockimplemented      chemicals.  production.      chemicals.production. Indicator Existence of IPM IPM plan Number of Coverage of topic in Existence of DCM DCM plan being DAs and WoA are Number of shallow No. of farmers No. of farmers No. and No. of IndicatorExistence of IPMIPM planNumber ofCoverage of topic inExistence of DCMDCM plan beingDAs and WoA areNumber of shallowNo. of farmersNo. of farmersNo. andNo. of  plan being used by DAs and farmers DAs and farmers trained in IPM location plan. Plan used by DAs and farmers promoting these initiatives in FTCs wells with cover/protection or well designs enabling anyone who falls in to applying chemicals applying fertilisers type of guidelines trainees and trainings given planbeing used by DAs and farmersDAs and farmers trained in IPMlocation plan.Planused by DAs and farmerspromoting these initiatives in FTCswells with cover/protection or well designs enabling anyone who falls in toapplying chemicalsapplying fertiliserstype of guidelinestrainees and trainings given         climb out     climb out Who WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO Wereda Wereda WhoWoA/RDOWoA/RDOWoA/RDOWoA/RDOWoA/RDOWoA/RDOWoA/RDOWoA/RDOWoA/RDOWoA/RDOWeredaWereda collects?           Fisheries Fisheries collects?FisheriesFisheries            Exp./RDO Exp./RDO Exp./RDOExp./RDO How? Check whether IPM Make spot Reports Check activity design Check whether DCM Make spot Check FTC Check data from WoA Reports Reports Reports Reports How?Check whether IPMMake spotReportsCheck activity designCheck whether DCMMake spotCheck FTCCheck data from WoAReportsReportsReportsReports  plan is published checks on  document 2 plan is published checks curriculum Planning office     plan is publishedchecks ondocument 2plan is publishedcheckscurriculumPlanning office   site           site When? Annual 3 Annual Annual Before activity starts Annual 4 Annual Annual Annual Annual Annual Annual Annual When?Annual 3AnnualAnnualBefore activity startsAnnual 4AnnualAnnualAnnualAnnualAnnualAnnualAnnual Where? WoA/RDO Activity site Wereda RDO/IPMS IPMS Office Activity sites Wededa FTC Office WoA WoA WoA WoA WoA Where?WoA/RDOActivity siteWeredaRDO/IPMSIPMS OfficeActivity sitesWededa FTC OfficeWoAWoAWoAWoAWoA    Plan office          Plan office  "},{"text":") Matrix of Potential Cumulative Impacts Activities Unplanned proliferation of Irrigated crop production Expansion and introduction of new crops and varieties Peri-urban dairy development The general encouragement of cash crop production Potential Cumulative Impacts   IPMS Environmental Monitoring Plan-  Fogera Wereda   6 IPMS Environmental Monitoring Plan-Fogera Wereda6  Increased Extensive use Extensive use of Loss of species diversity, Uncontrolled adoption of zero-grazing in peri-urban and high-density If cultivation of cash crops becomes IncreasedExtensive useExtensive use ofLoss of species diversity,Uncontrolled adoption of zero-grazing in peri-urban and high-densityIf cultivation of cash crops becomes  abstraction of of irrigation irrigation may leading to undue narrowing of urban areas, leading to health hazards, noise and smell pollution. popular, cash crops may abstraction ofof irrigationirrigation mayleading to undue narrowing ofurban areas, leading to health hazards, noise and smell pollution.popular, cash crops may  river water may result in result in the genetic base of the crop    significantly displace food crops and river watermay result inresult inthe genetic base of the cropsignificantly displace food crops and  containing fish salinisation pollution and concerned. This could mean,    may create an imbalance which containing fishsalinisationpollution andconcerned. This could mean,may create an imbalance which  eggs could in and depletion of for example, that in the event of    might lead to food shortages within, eggs could inanddepletion offor example, that in the event ofmight lead to food shortages within,  the long term consequent ground water an outbreak of disease, there is    or outside, the PLW the long termconsequentground wateran outbreak of disease, there isor outside, the PLW  deplete the fish soil  no alternative strain available.     deplete the fishsoilno alternative strain available.  population of encrustation.        population ofencrustation.  the lake         the lake Mitigating Develop Drip irrigation Water-table Regional or Wereda The project will liaise with the urban Public The project will draw Ensure that the Wereda Agriculture MitigatingDevelopDrip irrigationWater-tableRegional or WeredaThe project will liaise with the urban PublicThe project will drawEnsure that the Wereda Agriculture Measures guidelines controlling methods will be levels will be monitored by Agricultural Office should monitor the production rates of Health authority and will include their representative in training workshops, in upon the results of the specialized research Office and the Regional Food Security Bureau have planning Measuresguidelines controllingmethods will belevels will be monitored byAgricultural Office should monitor the production rates ofHealth authority and will include their representative in training workshops, inupon the results of the specialized researchOffice and the Regional Food Security Bureau have planning  timing and recommended WOA. new crop varieties, and should order that any regulations controlling the into this issue being systems to address such a trend timing andrecommendedWOA.new crop varieties, and shouldorder that any regulations controlling theinto this issue beingsystems to address such a trend  volumes of and  liaise with the Biodiversity keeping of cattle in the urban areas are promoted by IPMS, and before it becomes a problem. volumes ofandliaise with the Biodiversitykeeping of cattle in the urban areas arepromoted by IPMS, andbefore it becomes a problem.  abstraction encouraged.  Institute to ensure that the recognized and enforced. implement as  abstractionencouraged.Institute to ensure that therecognized and enforced.implement as     gene banks contain alternative   appropriate  gene banks contain alternativeappropriate     varieties      varieties Indicator Existence of Number of Take physical Production Inclusion of Participation of Public Evidence that To be identified Existence of Wereda/Regional food IndicatorExistence ofNumber ofTake physicalProductionInclusion ofParticipation of PublicEvidence thatTo be identifiedExistence of Wereda/Regional food  guidelines farmers using measurement on rates of alternative Health regulations are  production planning system guidelinesfarmers usingmeasurement onrates ofalternativeHealthregulations areproduction planning system  controlling drip irrigation drop down of new crop varieties in representatives in being enforced   controllingdrip irrigationdrop down ofnew cropvarieties inrepresentatives inbeing enforced  timing and volumes of  water table on sample wells varieties, Biodiversity Institute gene training workshops    timing and volumes ofwater table on sample wellsvarieties,Biodiversity Institute genetraining workshops  abstraction    bank     abstractionbank Who Wereda WoA/RDO WoA Regional or Regional or WoA WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO Regional/ WoA WhoWeredaWoA/RDOWoARegional orRegional or WoA WoA/RDOWoA/RDOWoA/RDORegional/ WoA collects? expert/RDO Fisheries   WoA      collects?expert/RDO FisheriesWoA How? Reports Reports and Reports Collect Collect gene Check workshop Physical To be identified Meet Wereda/Regional Crop Head How?ReportsReports andReportsCollectCollect geneCheck workshopPhysicalTo be identifiedMeet Wereda/Regional Crop Head   visits  market bank data participation list observation  and Collect market survey data visitsmarketbank dataparticipation listobservationand Collect market survey data     survey      survey     data      data When? Annual Annual Annual Annual Annual Annual Annual To be identified Annual When?AnnualAnnualAnnualAnnualAnnualAnnualAnnualTo be identifiedAnnual Where? Wereda Agric WoA WoA/RDO Wereda Biodiversity IPMS Office Urban and peri- To be identified Wereda/Regional Agric Office Where?Wereda AgricWoAWoA/RDOWeredaBiodiversityIPMS OfficeUrban and peri-To be identifiedWereda/Regional Agric Office  Office   Office Institute  urban areas   OfficeOfficeInstituteurban areas  "},{"text":"Table ( c) Matrix of Potential Impacts of the Environment on the Project Environmental Phenomenon Extended Periods of Drought Poor watershed management Use of inappropriate nets and poisonous plants Potential Impacts TOT in in-situ water harvesting methods to wereda level experts who are to train DAs so that farmers are then trained.   Table (d): Summary of Mitigating Measure Indicators    Table (d): Summary of Mitigating Measure Indicators   Indicator Who collects How  When  Where IndicatorWho collectsHowWhenWhere  For Potential Impacts:        For Potential Impacts: Mitigating Measures Indicator Reduced food and feed availability, leading to deterioration in household livelihoods. Existence of IPM plan IPM plan being used by DAs and farmers Number of DAs and farmers trained in IPM Coverage of 'adjacent apiculture weredas' topic in activity location plan. Could reduce availability of surface water for irrigation Existence of DCM Plan DCM plan is normally being used by DAs and farmers DAs and WoA are promoting these initiatives in FTCs Number of shallow wells with cover/protection or well designs enabling anyone Extended periods of water stagnation could affect the next crop WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO Grow water loving plants (rice) WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO who falls in to climb out Number of farmers applying chemicals WoA/RDO Number of DAs and farmers trained Number of farmers practicing in situ water harvesting Number of farmers growing rice Number of farmers applying fertiliser WoA/RDO For Potential Cumulative Impacts: Existence of guidelines controlling timing and volumes of abstraction Wereda Fisheries experts Affect the improved fisheries programme by introducing unwanted fish types Check whether IPM plan published Increase sedimentation load and stones on the flood plains Rivers could carry weeds and affect crop production in the flood plains Annual 5 Make spot checks on site Annual Reports Annual Check activity design document 6 Before activity Use of inappropriate nets, WoA/IPMS Office Activity site poisonous plants and poor fishing Wereda Plan Office practices may have negative RDO/IPMS Office environmental impacts including starts stock depletion. Training of fishers on selection of best fish types Proper watershed management in collaboration with regional BoARD and adjacent weredas As there is sufficient manpower, timely hand weeding needs to be Provide guidance and training on Check whether PCM plan published Annual 7 IPMS Office Recommend Make spot checks Annual Activity sites appropriate net Check FTC curriculum Annual Wededa FTC sizes Check data from WoA Planning Annual WoA optimum fishing office practices Reports Annual WoA carried out. Number of farmers trained (Also see Table (b) on previous Area (ha) covered with improved watershed Number of farmers reporting on weed infestation and Number of fishers trained (Also see Table Reports Annual WoA No. of Fishers using appropriate net Reports Annual WoA Mitigating Measures IndicatorReduced food and feed availability, leading to deterioration in household livelihoods. Existence of IPM plan IPM plan being used by DAs and farmers Number of DAs and farmers trained in IPM Coverage of 'adjacent apiculture weredas' topic in activity location plan. Could reduce availability of surface water for irrigation Existence of DCM Plan DCM plan is normally being used by DAs and farmers DAs and WoA are promoting these initiatives in FTCs Number of shallow wells with cover/protection or well designs enabling anyone Extended periods of water stagnation could affect the next crop WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO Grow water loving plants (rice) WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO who falls in to climb out Number of farmers applying chemicals WoA/RDO Number of DAs and farmers trained Number of farmers practicing in situ water harvesting Number of farmers growing rice Number of farmers applying fertiliser WoA/RDO For Potential Cumulative Impacts: Existence of guidelines controlling timing and volumes of abstraction Wereda Fisheries experts Affect the improved fisheries programme by introducing unwanted fish types Check whether IPM plan published Increase sedimentation load and stones on the flood plains Rivers could carry weeds and affect crop production in the flood plains Annual 5 Make spot checks on site Annual Reports Annual Check activity design document 6 Before activity Use of inappropriate nets, WoA/IPMS Office Activity site poisonous plants and poor fishing Wereda Plan Office practices may have negative RDO/IPMS Office environmental impacts including starts stock depletion. Training of fishers on selection of best fish types Proper watershed management in collaboration with regional BoARD and adjacent weredas As there is sufficient manpower, timely hand weeding needs to be Provide guidance and training on Check whether PCM plan published Annual 7 IPMS Office Recommend Make spot checks Annual Activity sites appropriate net Check FTC curriculum Annual Wededa FTC sizes Check data from WoA Planning Annual WoA optimum fishing office practices Reports Annual WoA carried out. Number of farmers trained (Also see Table (b) on previous Area (ha) covered with improved watershed Number of farmers reporting on weed infestation and Number of fishers trained (Also see Table Reports Annual WoA No. of Fishers using appropriate net Reports Annual WoA  Number of farmers using drip irrigation WoA/RDO page) management Reports and visits identification of Annual (b) on previous Wereda Office of Agr. sizes Number of farmers using drip irrigationWoA/RDOpage)management Reports and visitsidentification of Annual(b) on previous Wereda Office of Agr. sizes  Production rates of new crop varieties, Regional/WoA  practices Collect market survey data new species. Annual page) Wereda Office of Agr. Production rates of new crop varieties,Regional/WoApractices Collect market survey datanew species. Annualpage)Wereda Office of Agr. Who collects? Inclusion of alternative varieties in Biodiversity Institute gene bank WoA/RDO WoA/RDO WoA/RDO Regional/WoA WoA/RDO WoA/RDO Collect gene bank data WoA/RDO Annual Wereda Biodiversity Institute Wereda Who collects? Inclusion of alternative varieties in Biodiversity Institute gene bank WoA/RDO WoA/RDOWoA/RDO Regional/WoAWoA/RDOWoA/RDO Collect gene bank dataWoA/RDO AnnualWereda Biodiversity Institute Wereda  Participation of Public Health representatives in training workshops WoA/RDO  Check workshop participants  Annual Fisheries IPMS Office Fisheries Participation of Public Health representatives in training workshopsWoA/RDOCheck workshop participantsAnnualFisheries IPMS OfficeFisheries  Evidence that regulations are being enforced WoA/RDO  Physical observation  Annual expert/RDO Urban and Peri-Urban areas expert/RDO Evidence that regulations are being enforcedWoA/RDOPhysical observationAnnualexpert/RDO Urban and Peri-Urban areas expert/RDO How? Check on list of Existence of Wereda/Regional food production planning system Number of farmers using in situ water WoA Reports WoA/RDO Check on list of Check on WoA Meet Wereda/Regional Crop Head Sample Annual WoA reports Wereda/Regional Agr. Office WoA reports How?Check on list of Existence of Wereda/Regional food production planning system Number of farmers using in situ waterWoA Reports WoA/RDOCheck on list ofCheck on WoA Meet Wereda/Regional Crop Head SampleAnnualWoA reports Wereda/Regional Agr. Office WoA reports  DAs and farmers harvesting  farmer trained reports on area assessment to see  DAs and farmersharvestingfarmer trainedreports on areaassessment to see  trained    under improved effects of weed  trainedunder improvedeffects of weed      watershed infestation  watershedinfestation      management    management When? Annual Annual Annual Annual Annual Annual  Annual Annual When?AnnualAnnualAnnualAnnualAnnualAnnualAnnualAnnual Where? WoA On site and WoA reports WOA reports WOA report WOA reports WOA reports WOA reports WOA reports Where?WoAOn site and WoA reportsWOA reportsWOA reportWOA reportsWOA reportsWOA reportsWOA reports  "},{"text":"For Potential Impact of Environment on the Project  No. of DAs and farmers trained WoA/RDO Check on list of DAs and farmers Annual WoA No. of DAs and farmers trainedWoA/RDOCheck on list of DAs and farmersAnnualWoA   trained   trained No. of farmers practicing in situ water harvesting WoA/RDO Check on No. of farmers using in situ  On site and WoA reports No. of farmers practicing in situ water harvestingWoA/RDOCheck on No. of farmers using in situOn site and WoA reports   water harvesting   water harvesting No. farmers growing rice WoA/RDO WoA Reports Annual WoA Reports No. farmers growing riceWoA/RDOWoA ReportsAnnualWoA Reports No. of farmers trained WoA/RDO Check on list of farmers trained Annual WoA Reports No. of farmers trainedWoA/RDOCheck on list of farmers trainedAnnualWoA Reports Area (ha) covered with improved watershed practices WoA/RDO Check on WoA reports on area under Annual WoA reports Area (ha) covered with improved watershed practicesWoA/RDOCheck on WoA reports on area underAnnualWoA reports   improved watsershed mgt.   improved watsershed mgt. No. of farmers reporting on weed infestation and identification of new weed species WoA/RDO Sample assessment to see effects of Annual WoA reports No. of farmers reporting on weed infestation and identification of new weed speciesWoA/RDOSample assessment to see effects ofAnnualWoA reports   weed infestation   weed infestation Number of fishers trained Wereda Fisheries expert/RDO WoA reports Annual WoA reports Number of fishers trainedWereda Fisheries expert/RDOWoA reportsAnnualWoA reports Number of fishers using appropriate net sizes Wereda Fisheries expert/RDO WoA reports Annual WoA reports Number of fishers using appropriate net sizesWereda Fisheries expert/RDOWoA reportsAnnualWoA reports  "},{"text":" The data provided in Environmental Assessment and Sceening Report, Fogera Wereda, June, 2006;  The contributions of participants in the IPMS Environmental training Workshop, Yirgalem, Dale Wereda, SNNPR, 1-2 June, 2006, including Yirgalem Assegid (IPMS Fogera RDO), Tesfaye Mengistu (Amhara Region BoARD, Forestry Expert) and Kassegne Tsega (OoARD, Land Survey Expert).  Consultation with: CIDA Environmental Advisor, Mr. Tamene Tiruneh  Consultation with: IPMS Project Manager, Dirk Hoekstra.  "}],"sieverID":"b6797c8e-d188-4b5e-be52-7ac09e52b611","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08476aa521c8b4c7dbdf0df1f47b4248","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/69a35882-ccc3-49e5-8899-7fc0542dea5b/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Big data, small explanatory and predictive power: Lessons from random forest modeling of on-farm yield variability and implications for data-driven agronomy","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"Since the advent of precision farming, it has become clear that data are an important asset for agronomic research and decision making (Wolfert et al., 2017). The increasing availability of large volumes of high-resolution biophysical data (Hengl et al., 2017;Funk et al., 2015), combined with geo-referenced farmer's field data, has created opportunities for a data-driven agronomy across wide geographic scales and at relatively little cost (Nayak et al., 2022a;Silva et al., 2020;Cui et al., 2018;Rattalino Edreira et al., 2017;Frelat et al., 2016). Such wealth of information is expected to foster an agronomic revolution (Vanlauwe & Dobermann, 2020) and to accelerate the sustainable intensification of crop production (Cassman and Grassini, 2020). This could not be more timely given the grand challenges crop production will be facing in the coming decades: ensuring food and nutrition security in light of climate change while avoiding conversion of natural habitats and biodiversity loss (Silva and Giller, 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":197,"text":"'Big data' in the context of this paper refers to observational datasets typically considered for data-driven approaches in agricultural research, regardless of the actual volumes of data involved (see de Mauro et al., 2016 for a formal definition). The most direct application of big data in agriculture is in explaining and/or predicting crop yield variability in farmers' fields across time and space. This is a daunting challenge given the large number of interacting factors contributing to crop yield variability (van Klompenburg et al., 2020;Beza et al., 2017;Ronner et al., 2016). Successful prediction of yield variability may help agronomists' and farmers' understanding and decision making. Moreover, systematic patterns in yield variability can be further translated into decision-support tools for different stakeholders, thus contributing to evidence-based investments in research and development programs. Such applications require quantitative approaches capable of dealing with a large number of interacting variables. Machine learning methods operate at the intersection between computer science and statistics (Hey et al., 2009) and have been shown successful in finding predictive relationships in complex data sets over a wide range of applications, also in the agricultural sector (e.g., Paudel et al., 2021;Tseng et al., 2021;van Klompenburg et al., 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":157,"text":"The usefulness of big data analytics may differ for different farming systems worldwide, depending on their level of intensification and on the biophysical and socio-economic context in which they operate (Silva et al., 2021b). Different farming systems most likely also differ in environmental conditions and yield variability as well as in the availability of biophysical and agronomic data. Poor data quality and availability, for instance, is a recurrent issue for smallholder farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa (e.g., Carletto et al., 2013) and leads to unsatisfactory predictions of crop yield and response to nutrients (Heerwaarden, 2022;Ronner et al., 2016). Conversely, data availability is generally better in high-yielding farming systems, but even there yield prediction is far from perfect (Mulders et al., 2021;Silva et al., 2020). However, there has not been to date any systematic comparison of the ability to explain and predict crop yield variability on-farm data from farming systems covering different biophysical conditions and stages of intensification."},{"index":4,"size":208,"text":"The objective of this study was to assess the potential for typical onfarm production data from cereal crops in different geographic regions to uncover systematic and predictable patterns in yield variation. We evaluated the partitioning of yield variation in space and time and quantified the amount of farm-level variability that could be accounted for by external agronomic and biophysical variables. An explicit distinction was made between predictive variables, which are known prior (a priori) to a given growing season, and explanatory variables which are only known during or after (ex-post) the growing season (van Heerwaarden et al., 2023). We hypothesize that explanatory variables account for more variation in crop yield than predictive variables and that model explanatory and predictive power decrease when extrapolating in space and time. A large database of farmer field data was compiled for maize and wheat in Ethiopia, rice in the Philippines, and winter wheat and spring barley in the Netherlands, comprising primary, farmer reported, crop management and production data and secondary spatially explicit weather, climate and soil data. The analysis contributes to a growing body of literature on machine learning applications in agronomy and to the analysis of prospects offered by big data to achieve sustainable intensification of crop production in the future."}]},{"head":"Analytical framework","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":266,"text":"Our framework for explaining and predicting yield variability in space and time comprised four steps (Fig. 1). First, variability of farmer reported yields was described through an exploratory analysis using boxplots and scatterplots of mean crop yield and the respective standard deviation across unique year × district combinations. Second, a random effects model was used to partition yield variability among different sources of spatial and temporal variation, separating within-farm residual variation from systematic sources of variation as represented by different temporal (year) and spatial scales (province, district, farm). Third, random forest models, incorporating a large set of covariates, obtained through household surveys and high-resolution spatial databases were fitted to the data to account for as much yield variability as possible. Variable importance was computed to identify the key biophysical and crop management drivers of yield variability and statistical metrics were used to evaluate the accuracy and precision of the fitted models. A distinction was made between predictive and explanatory variables, noting the difference in ability to explain yield variability after the growing season as compared to predicting yield at the start or during the growing season. All time-invariant variables were identified as predictive variables, as they can be known ahead of any growing season. Conversely, explanatory variables were identified as those which are specific to a given growing season, which may explain yield variability in that specific season but do not contribute to predicting future outcomes. Finally, a cross-validation scheme with data re-sampling over space and time was employed to evaluate the goodness-of fit of random forest models when extrapolated to newly sampled locations or seasons."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Database of farm field data","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Description of data sets","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"The database analysed here comprised a total of 10,940 georeferenced field × year observations: 7220 observations from Ethiopia, 1960 observations from the Philippines, and 1760 observations from the Netherlands (Table 1). These data were obtained through household surveys in Ethiopia and the Philippines and through commercial software systems in the Netherlands and were previously used for yield gap decomposition (Silva et al., 2021a;Assefa et al., 2020) or resource-use efficiency assessments (Silva et al., 2020(Silva et al., , 2018)). Historical weather data for different sites in each country are provided in Supplementary Figure 1."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"Data for wheat and maize crops in Ethiopia were collected by the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) in collaboration with the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). The \"Wheat Adoption and Impact Survey\" covered the growing seasons of 2009 and 2013 and was conducted to assess the impact of genetic improvement of wheat in Ethiopia (Jaleta et al., 2019;Fig. 2A). For maize, data were compiled for the growing seasons of 2010 and 2013 from the \"Sustainable intensification of Maize-Legume Cropping Fig. 1. Analytical framework adopted to explain and predict crop yield variability over space and time. Data analyses build upon linear mixed models with random effects to partition residual variance in crop yield and upon random forest to explain and predict crop yield based on a large set of covariates."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Systems for food security in Eastern and Southern Africa\" (SIMLESA) and \"Diffusion and Impact of Improved Varieties in Africa\" (DIVA) projects (Jaleta et al., 2018; Fig. 2B). The sampling frame comprised the selection of the main growing districts, followed by a random selection of communities within each district, and by a random selection of households within each community to ensure national representativeness."},{"index":4,"size":252,"text":"Data for rice crops in Central Luzon, Philippines, were collected by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) under a project aiming to provide 'Metrics and Indicators for Tracking in GRiSP' (MISTIG, where GRiSP stands for Global Rice Science Partnership). A three-stage sampling procedure was used to identify the households to be surveyed in the top four rice producing provinces of Central Luzon (Fig. 2C), as explained elsewhere (Silva et al., 2018). The household survey covered  the 2013 dry season (DS) and the 2014 wet season (WS) for rice in the region and requested information for the largest rice parcel in each farm. WS rice is the traditional crop in the region, with DS rice made possible through past investments in irrigation. Data for winter wheat and spring barley crops in the Netherlands were obtained from commercial farm management softwares for crop registration and decision support. No specific sampling frame was used for farmer selection and the spatial distribution of the data thus depended on the geographical distribution of farmers using such softwares. The database covers the main crops and agricultural regions of the Netherlands, but for this study only data for winter wheat and spring barley over the growing seasons of 2015, 2016, and 2017 were used (Fig. 2D). Winter wheat is a main crop cultivated across the Netherlands mostly for animal feed. In contrast, spring barley is a minor crop in the Netherlands, largely cultivated in the Northeast of the country (Fig. 2), and sold for malt to the beer industry."}]},{"head":"Predictive and explanatory variables","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"The final database contained a total of 87 variables. Twenty-two variables were obtained directly from the farm field data: geographic coordinates and 20 other soil and crop management variables were selfreported by farmers. Fifty-four climatic variables and nine soil variables were retrieved from secondary data sources, as described below. The full list and description of the variables are provided in Supplementary Table 1."},{"index":2,"size":223,"text":"Secondary data from open access spatial products were added to the database of farm field data based on the GPS coordinates of the surveyed households. Soil variables were obtained from Hengl et al. (2017) with the purpose to describe soil physical and chemical properties for each farm. Climatic data were obtained from three sources: (1) 19 bioclimatic variables were obtained from Fick and Hijmans ( 2017), (2) three climate zone variables were obtained from the Global Yield Gap Atlas (GYGA; van Wart et al., 2013), and (3) 54 variables were constructed from daily weather records provided by AgERA5 (Boogaard et al., 2020), considering rainfall data from Funk et al. (2015) for Ethiopia and the Philippines. Bioclimatic variables are biologically meaningful as they represent annual trends, seasonality, and extreme or limiting environmental factors for plant growth. GYGA variables are agronomically meaningful and often used to delineate environments for yield gap analysis. Climatic variables from AgERA5 were computed for the growing season and captured average and extreme weather conditions during the growing seasons surveyed. The length of the growing season was defined based on reported sowing and harvest dates for fields in the Philippines and the Netherlands. Farm-specific sowing and harvest dates were not available for data in Ethiopia so average values per district were obtained through expert knowledge and used to retrieve secondary data."}]},{"head":"Partitioning variation in yield","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":275,"text":"Observed yield variability may reflect different sources of random variation, from non-systematic field-level deviations due to localized heterogeneity in growing conditions or observational error due to systematic differences in locations or seasons. Random effects models, i.e., linear mixed effect models with the intercept as the only fixed term, provide a way to estimate the relative contribution of different spatiotemporal factors to total yield variation. A random effects model was fitted for each crop × country combination considering crop yield as dependent variable. Three nested random spatial effects were included to assess how the spatial structure of the data affected residual variance namely: province, district, and farm for cereal crops in Ethiopia and the Netherlands (districts in the Netherlands were defined based on the postal code of each farm), and province, district, and barangay (as only one field per farm was surveyed) for rice in the Philippines. Where possible, the effect of time was accounted for by including an interaction between year and each spatial random effect (i.e., province, district, and farm). This was the case for the models fitted to the data from Ethiopia and from the Netherlands, for which repeated farm observations over time were available. The inclusion of location specific year effects allows the random effects due to location to be separated from the effects of season specific conditions at each location. A large variance component for province, district, or farm/barangay indicates there are consistent yield differences within the respective spatial unit. Conversely, a large variance component for province:year, district:year, or farm:year indicates yield differences over time for the respective spatial unit (e.g., the same districts can be high-or low-yielding across different years)."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"The random effects models were fitted with the lmer() function of the lme4 R package (Bates et al., 2015). For each model, the proportion of variance accounted for by the random effects was defined as the ratio between the sum of the variance of the random variables and the total residual variance, i.e., the sum of residual variance accounted for by the random effects and the residual variance not accounted for by these random variables. The proportion of residual variance explained by each random variable was further assessed relative to the residual variance accounted for by the random effects. A spatial analysis of yield variability was done using variograms fitted with the variog() function and using conventional kriging implemented with the krig.conv() function of the geoR R package (Ribeiro et al., 2020). The spatial analysis yielded no conclusive results, hence data are not shown."}]},{"head":"Explaining and predicting yield variability","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Random forest models","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":301,"text":"Random forest is a non-parametric machine learning method known to outperform other algorithms in explanatory and predictive analyses (Nayak et al., 2022a;Breiman, 2001a). Ten random forest models with different types of variables were constructed to explain and predict crop yield (Table 2; see also Supplementary Table 1 for a description of all variables considered in each category). Each model contained either predictive (p), explanatory (e), or both predictive and explanatory variables (pe) from one (climatic, c), two (climatic and soil, cs), or three (climatic, soil, and farm survey, csf) categories. Model 1 (M1gps) considered the GPS coordinates of the farms in Ethiopia and in the Philippines or fields in the Netherlands. Models 2, 3, and 4 (M2pc, M3pcs, and M4pcsf) included predictive climatic variables, predictive soil variables, and predictive survey variables added cumulatively to each other, and the GPS coordinates considered in model M1gps. Models 5, 6, and 7 (M5ec, M6ecs, and M7ecsf) included, respectively, and added cumulatively to each other, explanatory climatic variables, explanatory soil variables, and explanatory survey variables, plus the GPS coordinates considered in model M1gps. Model 8 (M8pec) included the GPS coordinates as model M1gps plus predictive and explanatory climatic Random forest models were fitted using the rfsrc() function of the randomForestSRC R package (Ishwaran and Kogalur, 2007) considering ntree equal to 1000, and default values for nodesize (equal to 5) and mtry (equal to one third of the number of variables used for model fitting). Variable importance and goodness-of-fit (using 1:1 scatter plots between observed and predicted crop yield for each farm × year combination) were assessed for model M10pecsf fitted to the pooled data. Variable importance refers to the mean decrease in accuracy due to permutation of variables when fitting the model. Statistical metrics were estimated for all ten models as explained in Section 3.3.3."}]},{"head":"Cross-validation scheme","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":220,"text":"Data for each crop × country were partitioned into a training and test data set considering a 70:30 ratio, respectively. Data resampling following this ratio was done for different farms, provinces, or years meaning that, for each crop × country, the training data set comprised 70% of unique field-year combinations or provinces and the test data set comprised the remaining 30% of the field-year combinations or provinces, respectively. Cross-validation over time focused on yield prediction across years not considered during model training rather than on within year explanation or prediction. For cross-validation over time in Ethiopia, data were available for two years only and in that case data for one year were used for model training and data for the other year for model testing and vice-versa. Cross-validation over time in the Netherlands considered all combinations of two years for model training and the remaining year for model testing. The test data set was thus always independent from the training data set in evaluations of model performance. Such data re-sampling scheme allows for testing model performance in predicting crop yield of unknown farms while considering the spatial and temporal structure of the data explicitly. Random forest models were fitted on the training data sets, and these models were then used to predict crop yield in the respective test data sets."}]},{"head":"Evaluation of model performance","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"The coefficient of determination (R 2 ) and the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) were used to evaluate the performance of the fitted models. The R 2 indicates the proportion of variation in the dependent variable explained by the independent variables. The RMSE measures the difference between the values predicted by the model and the observed values, hence providing a measure of the spread of model Fig. 3. Actual yield variability for each crop × country (A), average and standard deviation of crop yield for a given crop × district × year/season (B), proportion of residual variance accounted for with linear mixed models (C), and variance components for each crop × country (D). In (D), for the Philippines all components are per year, as only one year was available in the data and 'farm' effects refer to barangay as data were recorded for one field per farm. See text for further explanation. Country codes: 'ETH' = Ethiopia, PHL = 'Philippines', 'NLD' = 'Netherlands'."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"residuals. The two metrics were computed for all models fitted to the pooled data and for the train and test data sets in the cross-validation scheme. The R 2 ranges between 0 and 1, with the latter indicating the model explains all the variation observed in the dependent variable. The model fit was considered excellent if the RMSE was lower than 10%, good if greater than 10% and lower or equal to 20%, fair if greater than 20% and lower or equal to 30%, and poor if greater than 30%."}]},{"head":"Results","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Describing on-farm yield variability","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":236,"text":"Cereal yields were smallest in Ethiopia, intermediate in the Philippines, and largest in the Netherlands (Fig. 3A). Across the country, wheat and maize yield in Ethiopia were on average 1.8 and 2.7 t ha − 1 (inter-quartile range equal to 1.4 and 2.1 t ha − 1 ), respectively, whereas rice yield in the Philippines was on average 4.1 and 5.1 t ha − 1 in the WS and DS (inter-quartile range equal to 1.6 and 2.2 t ha − 1 ), respectively. Wheat yield in the Netherlands was on average 8.1 t ha − 1 and that of spring barley 5.7 t ha − 1 , and the inter-quartile range was equal to 1.4 and 1.2 t ha − 1 , respectively. The standard deviation of cereal yield was estimated per administrative unit (the lowest level) in each country × year combination, and ranged between 0.1 and 2.8 t ha − 1 for cereal crops in Ethiopia, between 0.9 and 1.8 t ha − 1 for rice crops in the Philippines, and between nil and 1.7 t ha − 1 for cereal crops in the Netherlands (Fig. 3B). Reported yield was thus least variable, i.e., had a lower standard deviation, for cereals in the Netherlands and for wheat in Ethiopia than for rice in the Philippines, and most variable for maize in certain districts of Ethiopia for which high standard deviations were observed (Fig. 3B)."}]},{"head":"Partitioning yield variation","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"The proportion of yield variation accounted for by systematic random effects was 58% and 51% for wheat and maize in Ethiopia, respectively, 27% and 38% for rice yield during the WS and DS in the Philippines, respectively, and more than 70% for cereals in the Netherlands (Fig. 3C). This result indicates that, compared to cereals in the Netherlands, the amount of unexplainable within-farm variation in the lower input systems was substantial, particularly for rice in the Philippines (note this was captured through a random effect of barangay for the Philippines as data were available for one field per farm in the respective data set). With respect to the latter, it must be noted that relatively few replicate observations per farm (or barangay) were available, which may affect the quality of the estimate for the residual variance."},{"index":2,"size":179,"text":"Farm and farm × year together represented the largest variance components for all crop × country combinations, except for DS rice in the Philippines and wheat in the Netherlands (Fig. 3D), indicating that yield differences at the smallest spatial scale explained most of the systematic variation in crop yield. Conversely, for DS rice in the Philippines and wheat in the Netherlands, the largest variance components were represented by region and/or region × year, indicating greater yield differences at regional level than at the farm level. Moreover, year-specific variance components tended to be larger than timeinvariant variance components for the crop × country combinations for which location and year variance components could be separated (Fig. 3D). The only exceptions to this were the large, time-invariant, regional variance components for maize in Ethiopia and the large farm and region variance components for barley in the Netherlands. Indeed stable, not year-specific, region and farm variance components accounted for more than half of the yield variation explained for barley in the Netherlands, which was not observed for any other crop × country combination."}]},{"head":"Explaining yield variability","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Variable importance","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":266,"text":"In the random forest analysis, management factors were identified as particularly important in explaining yield variability in Ethiopia, whereas yield variability in the Philippines and in the Netherlands was mostly explained by environmental factors (Fig. 4). Predictive climatic variables were important to explain rice yield variability in the Philippines, whereas explanatory climatic variables were most important to explain cereal yield variability in the Netherlands (Fig. 4). The two most important variables explaining maize yield variability in Ethiopia were the amount of N and P applied, followed by the farm size (Fig. 4A). P and N applied were also the most important variables explaining wheat yield variability in Ethiopia, followed by seed rate (Fig. 4A). Aridity index and the bioclimatic variable #3 (isothermality, i. e., the ratio between annual mean temperature and mean diurnal range) were the first and second most important variables explaining WS rice yield variability, whereas the reversed order was true for DS rice (Fig. 4B). The bioclimatic variable #12 (annual precipitation) and seed rate were the third most important variables explaining rice yield variability in the WS and DS, respectively. For winter wheat in the Netherlands, the most important variables explaining yield variability were rainfall variability, the maximum of the minimum temperature registered during the growing season, and the number of tropical nights (number of days with minimum temperature above 20 • C) during the growing season (Fig. 4C). For spring barley, the mean maximum temperature and the cumulative solar radiation during the growing season, and the sand content of the soil were the three most important variables explaining yield variability (Fig. 4C)."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"The second, third, and fourth most important variables explaining yield variability in Ethiopia and the Philippines became the first, second, and third most important variables when the most important variable shown in Fig. 4 was removed prior to model fitting (Supplementary Figure 2). For winter wheat in the Netherlands, the second and third most important variables became the first and second most important when rainfall variability was removed prior to model fitting, whereas for spring barley the order of the most important variables changed when the mean maximum temperature was removed prior to model fitting (Supplementary Figure 2). These results indicate that the drivers of yield variability are robust and consistent for all crop × country combinations, except for barley in the Netherlands."}]},{"head":"Explanatory power","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":259,"text":"As expected, the random forest model containing all predictive and explanatory variables (model M10pecsf), explained the largest proportion of variance and had the lowest RMSE in all cases (Fig. 5). Yet, explanatory power varied quite widely between farming systems. The largest proportion of yield variability was explained for wheat and barley in the Netherlands (64% of variance explained), followed by wheat and maize in Ethiopia (42% and 43%, respectively), and the least for rice in the Philippines (26% and 39% in the WS and DS, respectively; Fig. 5). This result is consistent with the differences in unexplained residual variation observed in the variance component analysis (Fig. 3C). In terms of model accuracy, models of data in Ethiopia performed worse, with an extremely high RMSE, while models for data in the Netherlands showed good accuracy in addition to explaining a high proportion of variance. For all crop × country combinations, model M7 (with explanatory variables only) explained a greater proportion of variance than model M4 (with predictive variables only). The difference in performance between models M7 and M4 was less apparent for data in the Philippines though, where performance was poor for most models. For data in Ethiopia, all models without survey variables performed poorly and were only marginally better than a model with GPS coordinates only, while for data in the Philippines and the Netherlands, adding survey variables hardly improved model performance, with the possible exception for the full model (M10) for DS rice in the Philippines. Soil  1 for an overview of all variables included in the analysis."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"variables did not improve model performance for any of the farming systems, but for data in the Philippines and the Netherlands adding climatic variables proved essential for explaining additional variation compared to a model with only GPS coordinates. Predictive variables were effective to improve model performance for rice data in the Philippines, in contrast to data for cereals in the Netherlands, for which only adding explanatory (weather) variables improved model performance (Fig. 5)."}]},{"head":"Predicting yield variability","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":231,"text":"Model performance, as evaluated above, may provide an overly optimistic idea of the ability of random forest models to explain or predict results at different locations or seasons, which is why crossvalidation in space and time is needed. The results of cross-validation in space (Fig. 6) revealed that extrapolation of existing models to newly sampled locations may indeed be problematic, since the proportion of explained variance declined severely when random forest models were cross-validated at a larger spatial scale. This effect was particularly evident for data in the Netherlands where the cross-validation R 2 diminished steadily from farm to province (zone) to 47% (wheat) and 42% (barley) compared to 64% for the pooled data (Fig. 6, model M10). In relative terms, the reductions in cross-validation R 2 were even greater for data in Ethiopia and the Philippines, where model performance was poorer to begin with. It should be noted that for data in Ethiopia, fields on the same farm shared the same spatial coordinates and climatic data, Fig. 5. Performance of the fitted random forest models in explaining crop yield variability. The coefficient of determination (R 2 ) is displayed in the top heatmap and the RMSE is displayed in the bottom heatmap. See Table 2 for further information about the model codes. which might explain the negligible reduction in model performance when cross-validating the random forest models across different farms."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"The results for cross-validation in time were somewhat less clear-cut (Fig. 6). For data in the Netherlands, there was a clear reduction in the cross-validation R 2 for the models with all variables included (M10), with the reduction in performance being similar to that caused by extrapolating across provinces. For predictive models (M4), the reduction in performance compared to that of the model fitted to the pooled data was relatively minor for barley data in the Netherlands, comparable to the reduction observed in the farm-level cross validation, and nonexistent for wheat data also in the Netherlands, although there was considerable uncertainty around the mean values (see error bars in Fig. 6). For data in Ethiopia, model performance was reduced, but remained better than when extrapolating across provinces."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Agronomic interpretation of the results","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"There were marked differences between the crop × country combinations in terms of average yield and yield variability (Fig. 3A). Both absolute yield variation across all observations as well as variation relative to the mean yield within district × year were notably higher for maize in Ethiopia and rice in the Philippines, particularly when compared to wheat and barley in the Netherlands (Fig. 3B). While part of this may reflect differences in methods of data collection, the greater yield variability of maize than wheat in Ethiopia is consistent with the fact that maize is cultivated across a wide range of agro-ecologies in the country, including lowland areas prone to water stress during the growing season (Abate et al., 2015). In contrast, wheat is mostly cultivated in areas with adequate water supply across the Ethiopian highlands, providing a stable environment for crop production (Schneider and Anderson, 2010). The same is true in the Netherlands, given its humid climate and presence of capillary rise on clay soils (Kroes et al., 2018). An intermediate situation was observed in Central Luzon, Philippines, where lodging of rice panicles is common in the WS (Lampayan et al., 2010) due to heavy rainfall and strong winds from tropical cyclones, whereas the DS provides a more stable environment for rice production provided that irrigation is available (Barker and Levine, 2012)."},{"index":2,"size":248,"text":"Partitioning of yield variation showed that spatio-temporal random effects could account for more than 70% of the variance in cereal yield in the Netherlands, ca. 50% of the variance in cereal yield in Ethiopia, and less than 30% of the variance in rice yield in the Philippines (Fig. 3D). This indicates that the contribution of residual, within-farm (i.e., barangay for rice data in the Philippines), variation in Ethiopia and the Philippines was substantially larger compared to the Netherlands, perhaps again due to differences in data collection or because of less agronomic homogeneity among fields. Yet, the lowest variance accounted for by random effects for rice in the Philippines might also be explained by the lack of repeated observations over time, which does not allow to assess the contribution of time-varying variance components with the data set used. Spatial-temporal variation was distributed differently among the different data sets. In four out of six cases, most variation was contained at the farm level, as also observed by van Loon et al. (2019) and by van Heerwaarden et al. (2023). Yet, only for the case of barley in the Netherlands, variance in yield was primarily associated with consistent differences among farms across years instead of year-specific differences. The same pattern was observed at higher spatial scales (Fig. 3D). Results for barley might be attributed to the small spatial distribution of the data (Fig. 2D), in other words most farms were located in the same district and region across the different years."},{"index":3,"size":195,"text":"Different groups of variables were identified as important in different farming systems. Firstly, predictive and explanatory farm survey variables improved model performance in Ethiopia (Figure 5), where nutrient application rates were identified as the most important variables explaining wheat and maize yield variability (Fig. 4A). These results corroborate the findings of Silva et al. (2021a) and Assefa et al. (2020) using the same data sets. Secondly, predictive climatic variables alone explained nearly as much yield variability as all the 87 variables taken together for rice crops in the Philippines (Figure 5), with the aridity index and isothermality standing out as important variables (Fig. 4B). Lastly, explanatory climatic variables alone explained nearly as much of the yield variability of wheat and, to a lesser extent, barley in the Netherlands as the full set of 87 variables (Fig. 5). Rainfall variability and minimum temperature during the growing season were important for wheat, whereas mean maximum temperature and cumulative radiation were important for barley (Fig. 4C). These results support earlier studies (e.g., Silva et al., 2020;Reidsma et al., 2009) pointing to the importance of weather conditions during the growing season in farming systems operating close to yield potential."},{"index":4,"size":215,"text":"Our results are likely affected by the spatial extent of the data set used for each crop × country combination. Clearly, data from Ethiopia covers a much larger geographical area than data from the Philippines and the Netherlands (Fig. 2). Moreover, the smaller spatio-temporal extent of the data set used for rice in the Philippines resulted in slightly smaller variability in some of the spatial covariates used in the analysis, certainly when compared with data for similar variables in the Ethiopia data sets (Supplementary Figure S5). We would expect the spatial extent to matter most for data sets covering large geographical regions with marked differences in environmental conditions. We also expected the latter to be partly captured by GPS coordinates only, as indeed observed for the Ethiopia data (Fig. 5). Yet, for rice crops in the Philippines, predictive climatic variables explain significantly more yield variability than GPS coordinates only (Fig. 5), a result not observed in the other data sets. The latter indicates the importance of fixed climatic conditions (such as aridity index, Fig. 4B), which are not well captured by the GPS coordinates alone. Finally, the relatively high prediction accuracy in the Netherlands is noteworthy, pointing perhaps to better data quality and greater influence of weather conditions than observed in the other data sets."}]},{"head":"Explanatory and predictive power","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"Random forest was proven in earlier studies to be the most suitable method for data-driven agronomy (e.g., Nayak et al., 2022b), which can be attributed to the randomness generated when training the algorithm (Breiman, 2001a). This tree-based algorithm was thus used to test the hypotheses that explanatory variables account for more variation in crop yield compared to predictive variables and that explanatory and predictive power decreases when extrapolating in space and time. Our results indicate that a total of 87 variables dealing with genotype × environment × management interactions (Supplementary Table 1) explained nearly 65% of cereal yield variability in the Netherlands and less than 45% of cereal yield variability in Ethiopia and in the Philippines (Fig. 5), findings which align with the share of residual variance in crop yield explained by random effects models (Fig. 3C). High R 2 values such as those found for the Netherlands have been reported in other high-yielding cropping systems (Nayak et al., 2022a, b;Lischeid et al., 2022), but considerably smaller R 2 have also often been reported in the literature (Tseng et al., 2021;Devkota et al., 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":219,"text":"The data sets used (see Section 3.1) differed markedly in the type of variables that contributed most to model performance (Fig. 5). For cereals in Ethiopia, none of the predictive or explanatory climatic and soil variables improved model fit above what was achieved by GPS coordinates alone. Only the addition of survey variables, either predictive or explanatory, increased model performance. Quite the contrary was observed for rice in the Philippines, where GPS coordinates had very little explanatory power, but addition of predictive climatic variables raised R 2 to above 0.2. The importance of predictive variables for rice in the Philippines did not result in better predictions over space though (Figure 6), probably because the data set covered one single crop year (2013 DS and2014 WS) and its spatial extent was small (selected areas in Central Luzon only). In the Netherlands, the type of variables included had little impact on model performance, but models containing explanatory climatic variables performed markedly better than those containing only predictive variables. The difference between predictive and explanatory variables was smaller in Ethiopia and the Philippines than in the Netherlands, but in all cases the model containing all predictive and explanatory variables performed best. Improving model performance with additional predictors is thus not straightforward, since observed improvements from additional variables were generally modest (Fig. 5)."},{"index":3,"size":194,"text":"Big data from farmers' fields are useful to explain yield variability to some extent (Fig. 5), but not as much to predict it across space and time, as indicated by a decrease in the cross-validation R 2 for nearly all crop × country combinations (Fig. 6). Cross-validation against a random subset of farm-year combinations mimics to some extent the bootstrap aggregation method (Breiman, 2001b) used to generate random subsets of data for model training in standard applications of random forest (Tseng et al., 2021;Devkota et al., 2021). Another possible explanation for the small difference in cross-validation R 2 between these two cross-validation schemes for all crops except barley (Fig. 6) is that fields on the same farm in Ethiopia and the Philippines shared the same spatial coordinates and climatic data. Although random forest is powerful for interpolating data in space and time at regional levels (e.g., Wu et al., 2023;Guilpart et al., 2022), it is less so for on-farm yield prediction across regions and growing seasons not considered for model training (Fig. 6). Our analysis thus demonstrates this limitation of random forest and calls for proper model cross-validation prior to model interpretation and prediction."},{"index":4,"size":176,"text":"Model performance nearly always declined when models were crossvalidated in space and time (Fig. 6). Our results thus question the ability of data-driven methods to predict crop yield variability under on-farm conditions even when data sets with a large sample size and number of candidate predictors are available (see also Mulders et al., 2021;Ronner et al., 2016). Cross-validation across provinces reduced model performance independently of the residual variance explained by the random effects (Figs. 3D and 6). Poor cross-validation across provinces is to be expected in data sets with a strong 'spatial structure', as captured by large variance components for spatial scales. Our results confirm this for most crop × country combinations, as the largest relative difference in R 2 between predictions for the pooled data and for cross-validation across provinces was observed for rice in the Philippines, followed by barley in the Netherlands and cereals in Ethiopia, and wheat in the Netherlands (Fig. 6), whereas the relative contribution of region, district, and farm variance components to residual variance decreased in the same order (Fig. 3D)."},{"index":5,"size":197,"text":"Strong cross-validation results over time would also be expected in data sets capturing some degree of spatial structure. For cereals in Ethiopia, the R 2 was fairly low for most models and no substantial decreases in R 2 were observed when models were cross-validated over time (Fig. 6), probably because a high residual variance was not accounted for by the random effects (Fig. 3C). Cross-validation results across time were somewhat more complex for cereals in the Netherlands. The fairly high R 2 observed for barley in models with only predictive variables (Fig. 5) confirms the large share of residual variance accounted for by space-dependent variance components (Fig. 3D). Conversely, for wheat, the relatively low R 2 of models with only predictive variables and relatively high R 2 of models with both predictive and explanatory variables (Fig. 6) is a result of large time × space interactions in the residual variance (Fig. 6D). Yet, the increase in R 2 in models with predictive variables only, when cross-validated over time, was unexpected (Fig. 6) and most likely explained by a large variability between random subsets of the data (Fig. 6) and the short time series covered in the data."}]},{"head":"Recommendations for data-driven agronomy","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"The analytical framework adopted here was useful to unpack yield variability and to expose the limits of data-driven crop yield prediction in space and time (Fig. 1). We recommend future studies to (1) adopt cross-validation schemes with data re-sampling explicitly considering the spatio-temporal structure of the data sets at hand, (2) identify the type of variables most valuable to explain and predict crop yield in specific farming systems, and (3) combine data-driven methods with domain knowledge and mechanistic tools (Maestrini et al., 2022). These three steps are essential to better understand on-farm crop yield variability across relatively large scales. They are also important to guide data collection activities in terms of spatial sampling of observational units, required sample sizes, and types of variables needed for sound site-specific agronomic recommendations."},{"index":2,"size":228,"text":"Further investments in data quality are also necessary to improve the performance of data-driven approaches. Errors associated with yield measurements (Kosmowski et al., 2021), farmer recall on field area and input use (Carletto et al., 2013), and inaccuracies in secondary data (Hengl et al., 2017) are known problems of on-farm production data, particularly in low-income countries. We recommend future agronomic diagnostic surveys to measure crop production using crop cuts in different parts of the field and to measure field areas precisely, as already done in some recent applications (e.g., Nayak et al., 2022a,b;Devkota et al., 2021). Production and area data must be complemented with a minimum set of variables including GPS coordinates, sowing and harvest dates, type of variety, and water management (irrigation vs. rainfed) as these are critical for a detailed characterisation of the biophysical environment where production took place. Other season-specific explanatory variables, and survey variables on management and input use, will also be beneficial to include when explaining yield variability is the aim. Finally, future surveys should be designed according to well-established sampling frames to allow for cross-validation in space, and investments must be made to collect time series data over multiple years for proper model cross-validation in time. This will be critical to unravel the relative contribution of spatial and temporal components to yield variability and hopefully improve the predictive power of data-driven approaches."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":310,"text":"Data is an important asset for agronomic decision making and research in the context of sustainable intensification and digital advisories for farmers. Building upon nearly 11.000 geo-referenced field × year observations across three countries in different stages of agricultural intensification, our results show that cereal yields were less variable in the Netherlands and for wheat in Ethiopia than for rice in the Philippines, and most variable for maize in Ethiopia. A total of 87 variables explained nearly 65% of cereal yield variability in the Netherlands and less than 45% of cereal yield variability in Ethiopia and in the Philippines. Omitting specific groups of variables had a strong impact on model performance, i.e., explanatory crop management variables were most important to explain cereal yield variability in Ethiopia, while predictive climatic variables and explanatory climatic variables were most important to explain cereal yield variability in the Philippines and in the Netherlands, respectively. The R 2 of the random forest models with only predictive variables declined by 4-28% when these were used to predict cereal yields in provinces or years not considered during model training. A similar decline in model performance (5-32%) was observed for random forest models with both predictive and explanatory variables. Independently of the variables considered and crossvalidation scheme used, the explanatory and predictive power of the fitted models was lower for smallholder farms in Ethiopia and the Philippines than for commercial farms in the Netherlands. In conclusion, big data from farmers' fields is useful to explain on-farm yield variability to some extent, but not to predict it across time and space. Further research is needed to better understand the role of data quality and the spatial and temporal extent of the data sets used to explain and predict on-farm yield variability across large scales, and to critically assess the role big data and machine learning can play on that."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Location of the farms and fields surveyed and analysed in this study: (A) wheat in Ethiopia during the Meher seasons of 2009 and 2013, (B) maize in Ethiopia during the Meher seasons of 2010 and 2013, (C) lowland irrigated rice during the 2013 dry season (DS) and 2014 wet season (WS) in Central Luzon, Philippines, and (D) winter wheat (light blue) and spring barley (dark blue) in the Netherlands during the period 2015-2017. See text for further information about the SIMLESA, DIVA, and MISTIG projects, which the data were collected. "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. Variable importance of the random forest model M10pecsf for wheat and maize in Ethiopia (A), wet season (WS) and dry season (DS) rice in the Philippines (B), and winter wheat and spring barley in the Netherlands (C). Only the top ten most important variables are displayed. Hatched bars show predictive variables whereas non-hatched bars show explanatory variables. See Supplementary Table1for an overview of all variables included in the analysis. "},{"text":"Fig. 6 . Fig. 6. Coefficient of determination (R 2 ) of the pooled model (i.e., out-of-bag predictions) and of the models fitted to the test data set in crossvalidation runs over farms, provinces, and years. Bars show the mean and error bars the standard deviation across different iterations of the cross-validation scheme with data resampling. The full description of the models fitted is provided in Table 2. R 2 and RMSE values for other models are provided in Supplementary Figures S3 and S4. Country codes: 'ETH' = Ethiopia, PHL = 'Philippines', 'NLD' = 'Netherlands'. "},{"text":"Table 1 Descriptive statistics of selected variables for wheat and maize crops in Ethiopia (ETH), wet season (WS) and dry season (DS) rice crops in the Philippines (PHL), and wheat and barley crops in the Netherlands (NLD). Aridity index, growing degree days, and temperature seasonality refer to the input layers used for the climate zone classification proposed byvan Wart et al. (2013); see text for further details. Variability in selected variables across crop × country combinations is provided in Supplementary FigureS5. Variables Wheat Wheat Maize Maize Rice WS Rice DS Wheat Wheat Wheat Barley Barley Barley VariablesWheatWheatMaizeMaizeRice WSRice DSWheatWheatWheatBarleyBarleyBarley  ETH ETH ETH ETH PHL PHL NLD NLD NLD NLD NLD NLD ETHETHETHETHPHLPHLNLDNLDNLDNLDNLDNLD Year 2009 2013 2010 2013 2014 2014 2015 2016 2017 2015 2016 2017 Year200920132010201320142014201520162017201520162017 Reported crop yield (t ha − 1 ) 1.8 1.8 2.5 2.8 4.1 5.1 8.7 7.2 8.3 6.0 5.6 5.5 Reported crop yield (t ha − 1 )1.81.82.52.84.15.18.77.28.36.05.65.5 Aridity index (×1000, mm mm − 1 ) 7.2 7.2 6.9 7.3 12.5 12.5 11.9 12.0 12.0 11.6 11.7 11.8 Aridity index (×1000, mm mm − 1 )7.27.26.97.312.512.511.912.012.011.611.711.8 Growing degree days 57.6 57.7 68.9 68.8 98.9 99.2 35.0 35.0 34.9 33.6 33.5 33.2 Growing degree days57.657.768.968.898.999.235.035.034.933.633.533.2 (×100, • C)             (×100, • C) Temperature 10.2 10.1 9.4 9.6 10.8 10.7 53.5 53.4 53.6 54.6 54.4 54.3 Temperature10.210.19.49.610.810.753.553.453.654.654.454.3 seasonality (×100, •             seasonality (×100, • C) Seed rate (kg ha − 1 ) N applied (kg N ha − 1 ) P applied (kg P ha − 1 ) 190.2 47.7 19.5 195.9 48.9 20.4 31.0 33.3 5.2 31.1 41.8 4.9 96.5 108.7 28.7 88.5 132.6 34.1 198.1 201.6 33.4 206.1 209.1 37.7 201.1 197.1 34.7 152.6 96.1 12.0 148.1 93.7 13.1 147.9 89.1 9.9 C) Seed rate (kg ha − 1 ) N applied (kg N ha − 1 ) P applied (kg P ha − 1 )190.2 47.7 19.5195.9 48.9 20.431.0 33.3 5.231.1 41.8 4.996.5 108.7 28.788.5 132.6 34.1198.1 201.6 33.4206.1 209.1 37.7201.1 197.1 34.7152.6 96.1 12.0148.1 93.7 13.1147.9 89.1 9.9 Field size (ha) 0.45 0.40 1.46 1.38 1.15 1.22 7.83 7.80 7.72 4.39 4.89 5.12 Field size (ha)0.450.401.461.381.151.227.837.807.724.394.895.12 Number of farms (n) 1024 1215 1006 1206 1103 854 131 142 187 71 93 91 Number of farms (n)10241215100612061103854131142187719391 Number of fields (n) 1201 1440 1613 2095 1103 854 352 399 439 152 199 226 Number of fields (n)12011440161320951103854352399439152199226  "},{"text":"Table 2 Description of the random forest models fitted to explain and predict on-farm yield variability. The full list of variables per category is provided in Supplementary Table1. Subscript codes: p = predictive, e = explanatory, c = climatic, s = soil, f = farm survey. Abbreviation Model description Explain Predict AbbreviationModel descriptionExplainPredict M1gps GPS coordinates only   M1gpsGPS coordinates only M2pc M1 + predictive climatic variables   M2pcM1 + predictive climatic variables M3pcs M2 + predictive soil variables   M3pcsM2 + predictive soil variables M4pcsf M3 + predictive survey variables   M4pcsfM3 + predictive survey variables M5ec M1 + explanatory climatic variables   M5ecM1 + explanatory climatic variables M6ecs M5 + explanatory soil variables   M6ecsM5 + explanatory soil variables M7ecsf M6 + explanatory survey variables   M7ecsfM6 + explanatory survey variables M8pec M1 + predictive and explanatory climatic   M8pecM1 + predictive and explanatory climatic  variables   variables M9pecs M8 + predictive and explanatory soil   M9pecsM8 + predictive and explanatory soil  variables   variables M10pecsf M9 + predictive and explanatory survey   M10pecsfM9 + predictive and explanatory survey  variables   variables  "}],"sieverID":"4b69aabb-6fa5-4ab4-a9bd-115dc10bf79a","abstract":"Collection and analysis of large volumes of on-farm production data are widely seen as key to understanding yield variability among farmers and improving resource-use efficiency.Objective: The aim of this study was to assess the performance of statistical and machine learning methods to explain and predict crop yield across thousands of farmers' fields in contrasting farming systems worldwide. Methods: A large database of 10,940 field-year combinations from three countries in different stages of agricultural intensification was analyzed. Random effects models were used to partition crop yield variability and random forest models were used to explain and predict crop yield within a cross-validation scheme with data resampling over space and time. Results: Yield variability in relative terms was smallest for wheat and barley in the Netherlands and for wheat in Ethiopia, intermediate for rice in the Philippines, and greatest for maize in Ethiopia. Random forest models comprising a total of 87 variables explained a maximum of 65 % of cereal yield variability in the Netherlands and less than 45 % of cereal yield variability in Ethiopia and in the Philippines. Crop management related variables were important to explain and predict cereal yields in Ethiopia, while predictive (i.e., known before the growing season) climatic variables and explanatory (i.e., known during or after the growing season) climatic variables were most important to explain and predict cereal yield variability in the Philippines and in the Netherlands, respectively. Finally, model cross-validation for regions or years not seen during model training reduced the R 2 considerably for most crop x country combinations, while for wheat in the Netherlands this was model dependent. Conclusion: Big data from farmers' fields is useful to explain on-farm yield variability to some extent, but not to predict it across time and space. Significance: The results call for moderate expectations towards big data and machine learning in agronomic studies, particularly for smallholder farms in the tropics where model performance was poorest independently of the variables considered and the cross-validation scheme used."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08d6e22ecb695b740c8e6e7528d8528e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4ba0646b-6ed6-4c36-a414-1ec248c892bc/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"Exploring the potential of mapped soil properties, rhizobium inoculation, and phosphorus supplementation for predicting soybean yield in the savanna areas of Nigeria","keywords":["bradyrhizobium inoculation","foresight IMPACT model","Nigeria savanna agroecologies","participatory on-farm experiment","random forest model"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] is an important component in smallholder cropping systems due to its rich source of edible proteins, amino acids, and micronutrients, which are indispensable to addressing food insecurity and quality problems (Chigeza et al., 2019;Siamabele, 2021;Alabi et al., 2022). In Africa, soybeans are grown over more than 2.5 million hectares, and Nigeria is the second-largest producer after South Africa (FAOSTAT, 2022). Its cultivation confers several environmental benefits, such as biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) that converts atmospheric nitrogen gas (N 2 ) into soil nitrogen (N) for plant uptake (Thilakarathna and Raizada, 2018;Herridge et al., 2022;Ladha et al., 2022). This process contributes to alleviating N deficiencies and improving soil health, soil fertility, and crop productivity (Grönemeyer and Reinhold-Hurek, 2018). In Africa, the promotion of BNF can significantly increase soybean yield, where it is the lowest (only 1.2 t ha −1 ) as compared to the world average (2.8 t ha −1 ), the Americas (3.2 t ha −1 ), Europe (2.0 t ha −1 ), and Asia (1.4 t ha −1 ) (FAOSTAT, 2022)."},{"index":2,"size":193,"text":"Seed inoculation with Bradyrhizobium japonicum elite strain is a proven strategy to improve soybean yield (Hungria et al., 2017). However, higher biological N fixation and yield response are reported when the legume plants are fertilized with a moderate phosphorus (P) rate, particularly in many soils and climatic conditions in Africa where available P in the soil is low (Jemo et al., 2010). The use of an appropriate strain of Rh inoculant and P fertilization practices to improve BNF legume production has been the subject of numerous studies in Sub-Saharan Africa (Ronner et al., 2016;Ulzen et al., 2018;van Heerwaarden et al., 2018;Buenor et al., 2022). Those studies have reported yield increases ranging from 452 to 815 kg ha −1 and a net economic benefit of about 400 USD ha −1 through the combined application of Rh inoculants and P fertilizer. Despite the above-mentioned advantages from the combined application of Rh inoculants and P supplementation to soybeans, there are obstacles to achieving higher yields due to the divergent impacts of many abiotic and biotic factors like drought, nutrient availability, and crop genotypes (Alves et al., 2003;Jemo et al., 2006;Ulzen et al., 2018;Khaki et al., 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":402,"text":"In Africa, the import of soybean products has witnessed an exponential increase, with more than 14 million USD spent on soybean imports in 2020 alone for Nigeria (FAOSTAT, 2022). As a consequence, the country is highly dependent on international soybean trade, which places pressure on household resources and negatively impacts food security and nutrition. Therefore, it is imperative to increase the yield of the crop per hectare of land to meet national and regional food demands with minimal environmental damage (Helfenstein et al., 2020). Yield prediction is complex, but accurate prediction provides timely import and export decisions to policymakers and provides year-to-year management and financial decisions to farmers (Smidt et al., 2016;Khaki and Wang, 2019). Yield prediction of crops, including soybeans, has been the subject of studies, but the prediction results, in general, are often challenging due to the interactions among numerous complex factors such as crop genetics, weather, soil input and crop management, and socioeconomic conditions (Smidt et al., 2016;Khaki et al., 2020;Alabi et al., 2022;Bebeley et al., 2022). When using soil properties to predict soybean yield, soil available P, organic matter, soil available water supply in the upper 100 cm, and soil K were the major yield determinants (Smidt et al., 2016). In sub-Saharan Africa, using multispectral high-resolution unmanned aerial vehicles, Alabi et al. (2022) estimated soybean grain yield in on-station trials, focusing on varietal evaluation approaches and rapid high throughput phenotypic workflows. Another recent modeling study evaluated the CROPGRO−soybean model for assessing optimum sowing windows of soybean in the Nigeria Savannas and found that sowing dates between 15 June and 5 July accurately predicted the yields of genotypes TGX1951−3F and TGX1835−10E (Bebeley et al., 2022). However, limited studies have accounted for integrated soil properties, weather, and crop management practices for soybean yield prediction across Nigerian agroecology. Public availability of prediction datasets, the associated high costs, time consumption for analyses, and the sample size curtail acute prediction in such studies (Hengl et al., 2021;Wang et al., 2022). Thanks to a recent Soil Information System for Africa (iSDAsoil) mapped at 30 m resolution that is now making it possible to integrate them into models for predictions of African crops. The iSDAsoil platform provides detailed pan-african soil macro and mincronutrients maps at fine spatial resolutions (Hengl et al., 2021). However, for crops like soybeans, an important food security crop that has rapidly expanded in Africa, yield prediction is yet to be implemented."},{"index":4,"size":155,"text":"Ensemble learning, which is a combination of several machine learning models, has made it feasible to combine several factors for predicting yields with robust results. Various techniques of ensemble learning, such as regression, decision trees, association rule mining, artificial neural networks, and random forest (RF) models, provide results by combining several base models and datasets. Multivariate regression and random forest machine learning approaches have been recently applied to crop yield prediction (Khaki and Wang, 2019;Khaki et al., 2020). A salient feature of machine learning models is the holistic assessment of the input variables, which are often non-linear and complex functions of the output variable, such as crop yield (Khaki and Wang, 2019;Khaki et al., 2020). Machine learning techniques such as RF regression have been previously used to quantify the predictors of importance to outputs and identify the optimal input ranges as an entry point for closing the yield gap sustainably (Breiman, 2001;Devkota et al., 2021)."},{"index":5,"size":93,"text":"Furthermore, global food security is challenged by rapid changes in population, income, and climate change. Achieving and maintaining these threats and designing possible solutions requires a robust multidisciplinary approach (Robinson et al., 2015;Islam et al., 2016). The International Model for Policy of Agricultural Commodities Trade (IMPACT) model was developed by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) links economic, water, and crop modules to simulate domestic and international agricultural markets and support needs under changing biophysical and socio-economic conditions and provides in-depth analysis and decision-making support to policymakers (Mason-D 'Croz et al., 2016)."},{"index":6,"size":101,"text":"The adoption of Rh + P fertilizer technology can sustainably increase soybean yield per hectare at the national and regional scales, aid in reducing dependency on the international market for soybean products and contribute to food security maintenance. Therefore, the objectives of the present study were to: (a) examine the soybean yield variation as affected by Rh + P application across three agroecological zones of northern Nigeria; (b) predict soybean yield change using digitalized soil properties data and machine learning techniques; and (c) explore the scenarios of adoption of the combination Rh + P impacts on soybeans, reducing imports by 2050."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Experimental site","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":275,"text":"On-farm demonstration trials were conducted for two years (2012)(2013) in three agroecological zones of northern Nigeria (9°0 5' to 11°54' N and from 6°38' to 8°17' E), particularly covering the Sudan Savanna (SS), northern Guinea Savanna (NGS), and southern Guinea Savanna (SGS) regions (Figure 1). Long-term rainfall ranges from 600 to 1,000 mm (mean of 744.5 mm) in the SS, from 1,000 to 1,300 mm (mean of 1,179 mm) in the NGS, and from 1,100 to 1,400 mm (mean of 1,270 m) in the SGS (Ishaku and Majid, 2010;Umar and Bako, 2019). The extracted cumulative precipitation, average minimum, and maximum temperature are reported in Table 1. inoculation and no P application (non-treated); Trt 2: P-fertilizer application at 20 kg P ha −1 (P) in the form of triple superphosphate (TSP) (Ronner et al., 2016); Trt 3: Rh inoculation at 5 g kg −1 seed; and Trt 4: Combined application of Rh and P. Soybean seeds were treated with a commercial Rh inoculant (legume-fix) containing 10 10 bacteria cells of B. japonicum strain 532c per gram of solid before sowing. The Rh inoculant was coated onto the seeds with gum arabic as a sticker and air-dried for 30 min under shade before sowing. The P fertilizer was applied by hand-broadcast within rows at sowing. The trained extensionists and farmers managed the experimental plots subsequently. Weed management was carried out through regular hand weeding every 30 days at intervals in consultation with the extensionist. Farmer groups and rural community members regularly visited the experimental plots during field days organized at the vegetative growth stage to demonstrate the treatment differences with the support of Village Promoter Agents (VPAs)."}]},{"head":"Experimental design, treatments, and crop management practices","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pre-campaign training of village promoter agents and farmers groups for on-farm experimentation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":224,"text":"Village promoter agents (VPAs) were recruited by the area manager staff of the Notore Limited group in Nigeria to monitor the trials. The VPAs were local farmers based in the villages with previous working experience in monitoring demonstration trials, good communication skills in Hausa local language with farmers, and an interest in participatory technology dissemination to rural farmers. Notore Limited is an established private sector company based in Nigeria with a recruited area manager who daily supervises the work of VPAs in the deployed areas. Each VPA received adequate training at the early stages before the on-farm demonstration establishment of trials regarding the handling of rhizobial inoculants, coating seeds, and P applications in the respective areas. Twenty-five (25) VPAs were trained for handling rhizobial inoculants, P fertilizer applications, and general monitoring of the trials. Collaborative farmer groups and community contact persons for participatory research were registered and trained. Identified fields to establish the demonstration trials were delimited, and the geographical coordinates of each field were recorded (Figure 1). Thereafter, farmer groups were subsequently trained to handle rhizobium inoculant for seed coating techniques in the respective locations, ensuring limited risks of cross-contamination. The sowing order was control, P treated, Rh inoculated, and Rh + P fertilizer plots, respectively. Farmers' groups and VPA regularly visited the demonstration plots at various growth stages, from sowing to harvest."}]},{"head":"Soybean varieties and rhizobium inoculant","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":226,"text":"Three improved soybean varieties of different maturity groups developed by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria and released by the Nigeria National Research System (https://www.seedportal.org.ng) were used for the trials. The varieties were derivatives of a tropical G. max (TGx) series of cultivars bred for their promiscuous nodulation in a wide range of environments. The soybean varieties TGx 1987-62F (reg.: NGGM 10-19) and TGx 1987-10F (reg. NGGM 10-18) were released in 2010 and are resistant to Cercospora leaf spot and bacteria pustules. The TGx 1987-62F variety is a medium maturity group (90-110 days to maturity) and was used in demonstration plots in NGS agroecology. This variety had an average grain yield of 2.1 t ha −1 in on-station rainfed trials in Nigeria (https://www.seedportal.org.ng). The soybean variety TGx 1987-10F is also highly resistant to Cercospora leaf spot and bacterial pustules, with a yield range of 1.5-2 t ha −1 under rainfed conditions. It is an early maturity variety (90-95 days to maturity) and was used in the experimental plots in the SS agroecology. The third variety, TGx 1448-2E, was released in 1992 and registered in 1996 under the Nigerian national code NGGM-96-15. It has an average grain yield of 2.4 t ha −1 , is frogleaf resistant and belongs to the late maturity group (115-120 days); this variety was used in the SGS agroecology."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"2.5 Data acquisition, preparation, and random forest and IMPACT models implementation"}]},{"head":"Grain yield","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The soybean plants were harvested at maturity 90 to 110 days after sowing. Dried plants were harvested from the entire plot (24 m 2 ). Grains were separated from pods and sun-dried, and the dry weight of the seeds was recorded. The grain yield expressed in kg ha −1 was computed using Equation 1 (Eq. 1)."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"where MC is moisture content (%). (Eq. 1) (Awuni et al., 2020)."}]},{"head":"Soil properties and weather data for predicting yield","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Soil properties for each experimental site at 30 m spatial resolution were extracted from the iSDAsoil (https://www.isdaafrica.com/isdasoil/) platforms using the \"raster,\" \"rgeos,\" \"maptools,\" \"rgdal,\" \"shapefiles,\" and \"PBS mapping\" functions of the R packages (R version 4.2.1). The minimum median and maximum values of the extracted soil properties are given in Table 2. Specifically, soil pH, organic carbon (C), and total nitrogen (N), total carbon, effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC), available phosphorus (P), exchangeable potassium (K), exchangeable calcium (Ca), exchangeable magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), sodium (Na), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), silt, clay, and sand variables were extracted for each experimental site (Table 2). Monthly precipitation, temperature, and solar radiation for each site during the crop-growing season were extracted from the NASA platform (https://power.larc.nasa.gov/data-access-viewer/)."}]},{"head":"Random forest machine learning for yield prediction","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"A logical framework for the model's implementation, calibration, and training is displayed in Figure 2. A conditional inference regression RF machine learning approach was implemented for predicting yield variability from each  (Eq. 2, Alabi et al., 2022), where y max and y min are the maximum and minimum yield."}]},{"head":"Screening variables of importance for the better prediction","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Variables with low importance were discriminated from the principal component analysis check to reduce dimensionality in the number of input variables in the training dataset. A forward selection of explanatory variables for yield was performed, and predicted variables with a P-value below<0.05 were retained and included in the training dataset. Twenty-eight estimators from a total of 66 variables aggregated as predictors were retained for yield prediction of datasets from all agroecological zones, whereas 26 estimators were screened for model training for each agroecological zone dataset."}]},{"head":"Training, testing, and model fitting","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The training dataset was built with 70% of the dataset (by dividing the 1,400 observations by 0.7) and tested on 30% of the remaining dataset in the R package (version 4.2.1). The \"cforest\" functions of the partykit package in R were used for the model fit using unconditional subclasses, 200 as a number of trees, and 5 input variables randomly sampled as candidates at each node."}]},{"head":"Application of IMPACT model 2.7.1 Model framework","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The foresight IMPACT model (https://www.ifpri.org/project/ ifpri-impact-model) was used to explore soybean marketing and import scenarios during 2017-2050 through the adoption of rhizobium inoculation and supplemental application of P fertilizer. The IMPACT model framework considers components of climate models (Earth System Models), crop models (Decision Support System for Agrotechnology Transfer, DSSAT), water models (hydrology, water basin management, and water stress models), land-use models (pixel-level land use) and integrates them into the multi-market model. The IMPACT model computes the effects of national and international demand and prices and is designed for scenario analysis rather than forecasting (Robinson et al., 2015)."}]},{"head":"Model integration, model inputs, and scenario analysis","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"In the IMPACT model, crop yield is a function of commodity price, input prices, available water, climate, and market variables. The model integrates five modules (climate, crop, water, land use, and market) to assess changes in yields. The model assumes a scenario of underlying improvements in yields due to the adoption of technology and simulates crop yields in specific areas as functions of the introduction of technology (Eq. 2)."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Eq. 2. (Robinson et al., 2015) Where, Soy_adtech = Soybean adoption technology for a country i at the period t, and Soy_tech = Soybean inoculation technology for a country i at the period t and under no climate change effect."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"Two future scenarios were assessed in this study:"},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"• a moderate adoption scenario where the adoption rate of the Rh + P fertilizer combination among farmers stops at 35%, and"},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"Framework of the model implementation approach. ANOVA, Analysis of variance; SGS, southern Guinea Savanna; NGS, northen Guinea Savanna; SS, Sudan Savanna; AEZs, Agroecological zones."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"• a more extensive scenario in which the adoption rate of the Rh + P fertilizer combination reaches 75%."},{"index":7,"size":59,"text":"For both scenarios, it was assumed that the adoption of the Rh + P fertilizer technology would happen gradually between 2017 (the first year of beginning adoption) and 2050 (the year in which the model is calibrated for inputs). The effect of improved soybean inoculation technology and P fertilization was simulated by reducing imports and saving currency in Nigeria."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"General statistical analysis was carried out for the three agroecological zones), and yield prediction using machine learning with 68 constructed explanatory variables and a single yield response variable was carried out. The extracted soil properties used to predict yield were tested for normality, skewness, and the kurtosis test, which reported a P value of<0.05. Descriptive statistics (maximum, median, and minimum) were computed for the yield variable. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out to assess the effect of treatment on grain yield change using the JMP statistical software (JMP, 2019). The treatment mean differences were analyzed using the least significant difference (LSD) at 5% and 1% of the level of significance when the Fischer (F) value was significant from the ANOVA (P<0.05). Levels of significance are given by \"ns\" (not significant, P >0.05), *P<0.05, **P<0.01, and ***P<0.001. The RF analysis was computed using R Studio version 2022.12.0 (R version 4.2.1)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Soil properties","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"Descriptive statistics of extracted soil properties used for model training and validation are presented in Table 2. Averaged across the agroecological zones, the available P ranged from 6.0 to 10.0 mg kg −1 and from 6 to 9 mg kg −1 in the NGS, with a right skew data distribution range (Table 2 and Table S1). Similarly, for the three agroecological zones, the pH ranged from 5.1 to 6.1, 5.5-6.0 in SS, 5.3-6.1 in NGS, and 5.1-5.8 in SGS, with a left (negative) skew data distribution (Table S1). The range of clay contents varied from 16% to 32% for all agroecological zones: 18%-30% in SS, 16%-30% in NGS, and 19%-32% in SGS. Similarly, the silt contents ranged from 43% to 67% across the three agroecological zones: 45%-60% in the SS, 43%-67% in the NGS, and 46%-61% in the SGS agroecology. Other extracted soil property summary statistics, such as their skewness and kurtosis values are reported in Table 2 and Table S1."}]},{"head":"Soybean yield response as affected by Rh inoculation and P application","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":217,"text":"A one-way ANOVA testing the effect of the treatment on grain yield was highly significant for the SS (F = 65.4, P<0.001), NGS (F = 86.6, P<0.001), and SGS (F = 127.3, P<0.001) agroecological zones, respectively (Figure 3). The yield data for the combined application of Rh + P fertilizer was normally distributed in the SS, right-skewed in the NGS, and left-skewed in the SGS agroecological zones (Figures 3A-C). The soybean yield of the Rh + P fertilizer treatment was always higher than that of the control treatment in the three agroecological zones of northern Nigeria (Figure 3). Average across all on-farm demonstration yield increments of 128%, 111%, and 162% were observed under the Rh + P combination compared to the control in SS, NGS, and SGS, respectively, and the overall increment for all agroecological zones of the established demonstration trial was 134% (Figures 3A-C). The average grain yield for the control treatment was the lowest in SGS compared to the SS and NGS agroecologies (Figures 3A-C). When inoculated with Rh alone, soybean yield was always higher in the Rh treatment than in the control treatment in the respective agroecological zones (Figures 3A-C). Similarly, the yield of the P fertilized treatment was higher than the control in the SS, NGS, and SGS agroecological zones, respectively (Figures 3A-C)."}]},{"head":"Soybean yield prediction using random forest machine learning","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":200,"text":"The results from RF models of data from the three agroecological zones and separately from each agroecological zone are presented in Table 3 and Figure 4 with their NRMSE and R 2 values. Among the three agroecological zones, NGS provided the highest trained R 2 value of 0.74 (Table 3). The trained NRMSE for NGS samples was 8.8 (Table 3). The validated R 2 and NRMSE were 0.52 and 6.0 (Table 3). For the SGS, the trained R 2 was the lowest (0.58) and the trained NRMSE was the highest (12.7) compared to the SS, NGS, and overall samples (Table 3). The validated R 2 and NRMSE were 0.53 and 8.9, respectively (Table 3). For the overall dataset, we found trained RMSE and R 2 values of 8.8 and 0.64, while the validated NRMSE and R 2 were 6.2 and 0.57, respectively (Table 3). The highest trained NRMSE was observed in SGS samples, and the reported R 2 was 0.58 (Table 3). The validated NRMSE and R 2 for SGS samples were 9.9 and 0.56 (Table 3). The biplots of the predicted and observed samples showed more dense points in the overall datasets and the NGS samples (Figures 4A, C)."},{"index":2,"size":166,"text":"The input variables of importance to predicting yield in the three agroecological zones are presented in Figure 5. For the three agroecological zones, the top five variables (based on importance) for predicting yield include the combined application of Rh + P fertilizer, year-to-year growing conditions, silt content in the soil, rhizobium inoculation, and the minimal temperature in the month of August (Figure 5A). The top five predicting variables of importance to soybean yield in the Sudan Savanna were crop management practices, combined application of Rh and P fertilizer, rhizobium inoculation, sand content in the soil, and soil available P (Figure 5B). The top six predictor variables for yield in the NGS were Rh + P combination, P fertilizer, year-to-year soybean cultivation, crop management practices, P fertilizers, and silt content in the soil (Figure 5C). Similarly, the RF model found crop management practices, Rh + P combination, P fertilizer, yearto-year cultivation, and effective cation exchange capacity as the top five yield predictor variables in SS (Figure 5D)."}]},{"head":"Food security and import through the adoption of rhizobium and P fertilizers","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":198,"text":"The simulation using the IMPACT model showed that soybean yield increases through the combined application of Rh and P fertilizer will reduce national trade through the less imports and result in currency savings in Nigeria by 2050. We implemented the model using an average yield increase of 134% (all agroecological zones) and 111% in the NGS and two scenarios of adoption rates: low (35% adoption rate) and high (75% adoption rate) (Figure 6A). The model was implemented using the dataset from the NGS agroecological zone because it had the highest prediction and accuracy from the RF model. Considering the average yield increase performance of 134% (averaged across three agroecological zones), results from the IMPACT model scenario showed that the quantity of soybeans imported in the country can be reduced by −10% (35% maximum) and by −22% (75% maximum adoption scenario) if the combined application of Rh and P fertilizer technology is adopted (Figure 6B). With an average yield increase of 111% from the combined application of Rh + P (observed in NGS), importation can be reduced by 8.4% (under a low adoption scenario) and by 18% (under a high adoption scenario) by 2030 in the country (Figure 6C)."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Best inputs variable of importance from soil, weather, and factorial estimators used to predict soybean yields from all sample sets (A), Sudan (B), Northern Guinea (C), and Southern Guinea (D) Savannas of Nigeria."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Scatter plots of the soybean predicted and reported yields validation from all sample sets (A), Sudan (B), Northern Guinea (C), and Southern Guinea (D) Savannas of Nigeria. The validated coefficient of determination (R 2 ) of each sample set is indicated."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"Agricultural technologies focusing on increasing productivity, improving farmers' profitability, and enhancing sustainability are urgently needed to enhance the household food security of smallholders, particularly in SSA countries (Helfenstein et al., 2020). Such technologies are to be market-oriented, affordable, adapted to smallholder needs, and help to bridge gaps by integrating proper delivery mechanisms. This study demonstrated that on-farm improved soybean rhizobia inoculation technologies tested in collaboration with extension agents can help improve yield and profit, reduce soybean imports, and contribute to food security maintenance in Nigeria. Our results, in accordance with previous studies (Ronner et al., 2016), also demonstrated that yield increments from the combined application of Rh + P fertilizer were always higher than the control (farmer practice) in all three areas of Nigeria. Soybean yield at NGS sites was well predicted by the RF compared to the SS and SGS agroecological zones. A significant reduction in soybean imports in Nigeria could be made through yield increments from the combined application of Rh inoculant and P fertilizer. However, a rapid implementation strategy and massive adoption by farmers are required."}]},{"head":"Yield response of soybean as affected by rhizobium inoculation and P application","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":331,"text":"A series of on-farm demonstration experiments showed soybean yield increased through the combined application of Rh + P (always higher in under-treated conditions than in non-treated conditions), irrespective of the agroecological zones and soil types. In the absence of Rh inoculation, P fertilizer, or Rh + P combination, the average yield in control was 1,084 kg ha −1 in the NGS sites, while the yield increased in the Rh + P inoculated plants by 2.3-, 2.1-, and 2.6-fold as compared to the non-treated plants (Figure 1). Earlier work demonstrated increased soybean yields with the combination of Rh inoculants and P fertilizer in West African soils. The observed higher yields of 1,188 kg ha −1 in SS, 1,203 kg ha −1 in NGS, and 1,397 kg ha −1 in SGS for the Rh + P application in West Africa (Ronner et al., 2016;Ulzen et al., 2018;Buenor et al., 2022). The authors reported an average yield increment of 815 kg ha −1 from the combined application of Rh + P, along with an increment in farmers' net profit. Several factors accounted for the higher yield under the Rh + P application, such as regular field monitoring by Notore extension agents, high-performing rhizobia microbes, and careful crop management by the engaged farmers during the implementation of the project activities. It is indicated that education, research, and extension in agriculture remain the vehicles to achieve sustainability in the modern food system. The NGS agroecological zone showed a favorable niche for rapidly increase of soybean yield using appropriate management interventions for food security in Nigeria and the sub-region. This high yield can be explained by suitable rainfall and soil fertility conditions. Suitable conditions for optimal soybean production require about 1,000 mm of water in rainfallbased production systems. The SS agroecological zone is a more drought-prone area that often limits yield. The SGS agroecology is the domain of acidic soils and low-P in Nigeria, which are limiting conditions to a high soybean yield (Jemo et al., 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":183,"text":"Farmer-managed participatory interventions and extension agents' engagement certainly facilitated the timely establishment of on-farm demonstrations and weeding at critical crop developmental stages, inter alia. Thus, investments in information/knowledge dissemination, input fertilizers, and other technologies are crucial for the sustainable intensification of SSA. Rhizobia inoculants are perishable commercial products, and this project secured standard and high-quality Rh inoculum with stable self-life from Legume Tech, UK. The inoculant was formulated with bacterial cell concentrations above 10 10 cells g −1 with lyophilized B. japonicum that was kept in the Notore stores and delivered to VPAs only a few days before soybean sowing. It is worth mentioning policy decisions aiming to accelerate the manufacturing units, the marketing of high-quality rhizobia inoculants with a satisfying minimum of bacteria cell concentration of 10 9 cells g −1 , and the longer shelf-life of rhizobium to accelerate soybean production in Africa, as shown in the success study developed in Brazil (Bomfim et al., 2021). Other incentive measures to increase soybean production in SSA are the institutionalization of P fertilizers and their dissemination to rapidly address pressing food security issues."}]},{"head":"Soybean yield prediction using random forest machine learning","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":246,"text":"Accurate yield prediction is of great importance to global food production. Using digitally soil-mapped properties and extracted weather and management variables, we predicted yield for the three agroecological zones using the RF machine-learning algorithm tools. The highest training R 2 (0.74) was achieved using samples from the NGS sites (Table 3). Alabi et al. (2022) predicted soybean yield using the vegetation index and soil texture information in the RF model. We lacked a comparable study on predicting soybean yield using soil properties in Nigerian Savanna conditions. The results of this study showed that NGS is the predominant agroecology for soybean production in terms of the required soil properties for growth. A better yield prediction in NGS can be explained by symmetrical data distribution (−0.42-0.58) of the extracted soil properties in the NGS agroecological (Table S1). The implications are that the soil and climatic conditions of NGS are favored for better growth and less drought effect during the growth stage. Bebeley et al. (2022) evaluated long−term seasonal analysis of soybean yield among the same three agroecological zones for deriving optimal sowing times for different soybean varieties, where yields were simulated in the NGS sites compared to other agroecological zones. In this study, the low R 2 values of the training dataset from SS and SGS agroecological zones could be attributed to normal data distributions of yield variables, making the yield data from SS and SGS less reliable for their good prediction using soil properties and extracted variables."},{"index":2,"size":281,"text":"Predictions of soybean yield using datasets from the three agroecological zones (i.e., SS, NGS, and SGS) reported that the Rh + P combination has the topmost importance to increase yield under challenging environmental conditions. Also, P-fertilizer and Rh inoculation alone were also among the top variables in importance, but their relative importance varied depending on the agroecology. The available P of the soils was revealed as an important variable for soybean yield in the SS. The results imply that the supply of P fertilizers is largely required if farmers are to grow soybeans in the SS, SGS, and NGS soils. Other important soil properties, such as silt and sand contents and ECEC, were also predictors of soybean yield (Figure 5). The present study extracted an average silt content of 53.3% and a sand content of 19.9% (Table 2). Apart from precipitation, temperature, and macro-and micronutrients, crop yields are also dependent on soil properties such as soil texture that influence water retention at the root zones and improve nutrient diffusion and crop yield (Huang et al., 2021). Fine-textured or silty loam soil provides a higher water holding capacity and more resistance to plant water uptake in wet conditions compared to sandy soils and can be poorly drained and susceptible to waterlogging, which can lead to denitrification and yield loss (Huang et al., 2021). The interactions between physical soil properties and soybean yields are not well quantified across the agroecological zones of Nigeria and deserve further research and investigation. Such information is necessary to design key indicators to improve soil structure and carbon stocks to increase soil availability for water storage and nutrient retention and promote energy conservation around the soybean root zones."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"The minimum air temperature recorded in August was among the top five predictors of importance to soybean yield. These temperatures correlated with the soybean pod filling stages and were in the range of 17-20°C, which was above the air temperature (15°C) reported to inhibit seed filling. The optimum temperatures for soybean are 15-22°C at the emergence stage, 20-25°C at the flowering stage, and 15-22°C at the maturity stage, and seed yield and yield formation of soybean are frequently reduced by temperatures below 15°C and above 30°C (Zhang et al., 2016)."},{"index":4,"size":118,"text":"In the present study, we observed that the R 2 for actual and predicted yields was less than 60% (Table 3 and Figure 3). The results imply that all the aggregated soil and weather variables partly explained the observed yield variation. Other biotic or abiotic factors that were not aggregated in the independent variables, such as competitions with native species that were incompatible with the introduced rhizobia, impaired the nodulation and affected yield. On the other hand, the rate of P applied was only 20 kg ha −1 , which was insufficient to achieve optimal soybean yield. Future studies to address the \"non-compatible hypothesis\" and the optimal P rate for each agroecological zone will deserve further research investigations."}]},{"head":"Soybean import reduction through the adoption of Rh inoculant and P fertilizers","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":226,"text":"Linking biophysical and economic models is important in a world facing the complexities of increasing crop production under pressing climate change threats (Islam et al., 2016). We conducted a two-scenario analysis of the Rh + P combination treatment, evaluated the possibility of adoptions that could take place in the future, and assessed the impacts on Nigerian food security and soybean trade. Results from the IMPACT model showed that the Rh + P combination has the potential to reduce the current soybean importation demand by a maximum and reverse the importation trend from 2029 if maximally adopted. The scenario analysis through the adoption of promising agricultural technology on yield by 2050 has been implemented in several commodities, including rainfed maize in Africa, irrigated rice in South Asia, rainfed potato in rainfed sorghum in India, and rainfed groundnut in Africa and Southeast Asia (Islam et al., 2016). In many of these studies, the authors observed that promising technologies tested in many regions/or ecologies showed a partial to complete offset of the deleterious impacts on yield through the adoption of technology (Islam et al., 2016). In the present study, we have opted for large adoption as many demonstrations, including many participating farmers, in various steps of soybean production and training in inoculation technology with the goal of rapid adoption, were implemented to increase soybean production and improve food security."},{"index":2,"size":173,"text":"Possible gaps and limitations in the modeling for agricultural systems as presently conducted in this work are the bias generated from the model tools and environmental conditions such as soil and climate that are heterogeneous, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. These gaps certainly decrease statistical robustness and bias upward the values obtained for decision variables, which could often be unachievable in the real world. To avoid these aggregated biases resulting from the model, the natural conditions of the independent variables were tested for data homogeneity. To minimize the biases from human heterogeneity at on-farms, we trained the engaged farmers to use Rh inoculant and P fertilizer technology, and VPs supervised their work regularly before trial establishments in the respective areas. Overall, the present results underscore the fact that innovative interventions should be tested across a wide range of AEZ, capturing all possible variables for wider adoption. Our results strongly suggest that the application of rhizobium inoculation is affordable, and represents a low-cost agricultural intensification strategy when combined with P fertilization and VPA technical assistance."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"This study used a comprehensive mix-methodological approach integrating large-scale on-farm demonstrations and the engagement of local extension agents and farmers, as well as a machine learning approach, to identify the major determinants of yield variability in three savanna agroecological zones in Nigeria. The IMPACT model simulates the effect of the adoption of Rh + P on food security and imports to develop sustainable soybean production technology. Our result demonstrates a superior benefit from the combination of Rh inoculant and P fertilizer to improve soybean yield in the farmer field conditions of northern Nigeria. Soybean yield was well predicted from the combination of soil, climate, inputs, and crop management parameters in the northern Guinea Savanna agroecological zone, implying that the NGS offers a suitable production environment for soybean production among the three agroecological zones. If the combination of Rh inoculation and P fertilization demonstrated by this study as best practices and promoted by policymakers and maximally adopted by farmers in Nigeria, the country will reverse its dependency on soybean trade to about 21% by 2029 and become a self-sufficient producer by 2050 in the absence of climate change threats."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"A FIGURE 1 Map of Africa (A) and the different agroecological zones in Nigeria (B), on-farm demonstrations areas (C), and different field operations (D) field Rhizobia + P fertilizer combination and non-inoculated plots. "},{"text":" agroecological zone. The conditional RF captures the linear and non-linear effects of the estimator variables (soil, weather, and factor variables) on the yield response and quantifies the marginal effect of individual inputs. The inference regression RF is a powerful non-parametric decision ensemble learning method for regression classification that operates by constructing multiple artificial trees to predict and fit response variables without overfitting during the training process. To assess the model's performance, the root mean square error (RMSE), training coefficient of determination (R 2 ), and validation RMSE were computed for the datasets of each agroecoregion. The predicted values against the actual and variables of importance for each model were visualized. The normalized RMSE (NRMSE) was calculated using the formula: NRMSE ( % ) = ½RMSE=(y max − y min ) Â 100 "},{"text":" FIGURE 3Boxplots of the soybean yield (kg ha −1 ) for the control, phosphorus (P) fertilizer, rhizobia (Rh) inoculants, and the Rh + P combination in the (A) Sudan Savanna (SS), (B) Northern Guinea Savanna (NGS), and (C) Southern Guinea Savanna (SGS) of agroecology of Nigeria. Mean and ±95% confidence intervals are presented. Mean values appended by a different letter indicate significant differences at P<0.05. "},{"text":" FIGURE 6Scenario outlooks (2010-2050) of adoption of the combined rhizobia and phosphorus fertilizers technology based on average yield increase by 133.7% from the Nigeria savannas and by 111% in the Northern Guinea Savanna on-farm demonstrations plots (A) adoption profile by 35% and by 75% with with projectd impact under scenario, (B) for all sample sets and (C) Northern Guinea Savanna. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"TABLE 1 Minimal (min), median, and maximum (max) of cumulative monthly precipitation (mm), average of minimal and maximal temperature, and covered administrative local governments of studies in the Sudan, Northern Guinea, and Southern Guinea Savannas of Nigeria recorded for 2012 and 2013 growing seasons.   Cumulative Average Average Covered administrative local governments CumulativeAverageAverageCovered administrative local governments   annual pre- minimum maximum  annual pre-minimummaximum Agroecological  cipitation temperature temperature  Agroecologicalcipitationtemperaturetemperature zones  (mm) (°C) 1  (°C)   zones(mm)(°C) 1(°C)   2012 2013 2012 2013 2012 2013  2012 2013 2012 2013 2012 2013  Min 320.2 358.6 16.6 16.8 35.2 35.6 DANJA, GEZAWA, GWARZO, KARA, KARAYE, KURA, RANO, Min320.2358.616.616.835.235.6DANJA, GEZAWA, GWARZO, KARA, KARAYE, KURA, RANO,         SOBA, and UNGOGO SOBA, and UNGOGO Sudan Savanna Median 390.3 413.6 18.0 19.5 37.9 37.5  Sudan SavannaMedian390.3413.618.019.537.937.5  Max 420.0 580.1 19.0 20.4 39.1 39.1  Max420.0580.119.020.439.139.1  Min 569.6 437.7 16.3 16.3 33.7 34.1 GIWA, IGABI, JEMA'A, KUDAN, Sabon GARI, and Zango KATAF Min569.6437.716.316.333.734.1GIWA, IGABI, JEMA'A, KUDAN, Sabon GARI, and Zango KATAF Northern Guinea Savanna Median 659.8 597.4 17.1 16.9 35.5 35.4  Northern Guinea SavannaMedian659.8597.417.116.935.535.4  Max 712.5 754.1 18.0 18.0 35.8 36.1  Max712.5754.118.018.035.836.1  Min 390.3 580.1 16.6 16.5 32.9 33.5 ABAJI, AGAIE, BOSSO, GURARA, IGABI, KATCHA, MUYA, Min390.3580.116.616.532.933.5ABAJI, AGAIE, BOSSO, GURARA, IGABI, KATCHA, MUYA, Southern Guinea savanna Median 1252.1 680.6 18.5 18.0 33.9 33.8 SHIRORO, SULEJA, TUFA, and WUSHISHI Southern Guinea savannaMedian1252.1680.618.518.033.933.8SHIRORO, SULEJA, TUFA, and WUSHISHI  Max 1629.5 717.2 19.7 20.7 37.9 35.5  Max1629.5717.219.720.737.935.5  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 Maximum (Max), median and minimum (Min) of soil properties from all sampled sites, Sudan, northern Guinea, and southern Guinea Savannas of Nigeria.   All sites  Sudan Savanna Northern Guinea Southern Guinea All sitesSudan SavannaNorthern GuineaSouthern Guinea         Savanna   Savanna  SavannaSavanna  Min Median Max Min Median Max Min Median Max Min Median Max Min Median Max Min Median Max MinMedianMaxMinMedianMax Effective Cation Exchange Capacity [cmol (+) kg −1 ] 7.4 12.2 16.4 9.0 13.5 16.4 7.4 13.5 14.9 7.4 9.0 16.4 Effective Cation Exchange Capacity [cmol (+) kg −1 ]7.412.216.49.013.516.47.413.514.97.49.016.4 Exchangeable Ca [cmol (+) kg −1 ] 0.90 3.0 7.3 2.7 2.7 6.02 2.0 4.5 7.3 1.0 3.6 5.4 Exchangeable Ca [cmol (+) kg −1 ]0.903.07.32.72.76.022.04.57.31.03.65.4 Fe content (mg kg −1 ) 27.1 33.1 54.6 27.1 27.1 40.4 27.1 32.7 40.4 30.0 3.6 54.6 Fe content (mg kg −1 )27.133.154.627.127.140.427.132.740.430.03.654.6 Exchangeable Mg [cmol (+) kg −1 ] 0.49 1.0 2.0 0.66 0.99 1.34 0.60 0.90 2.00 0.45 0.98 1.64 Exchangeable Mg [cmol (+) kg −1 ]0.491.02.00.660.991.340.600.902.000.450.981.64 Av-Pi content (mg P kg −1 ) 6.0 7.4 10.0 6.0 6.6 10. 6.0 7.4 9.0 6.0 7.4 10.0 Av-Pi content (mg P kg −1 )6.07.410.06.06.610.6.07.49.06.07.410.0 Exchangeable K [cmol (+) kg −1 ] 0.48 0.6 0.74 0.49 0.66 0.74 0.49 0.60 0.74 0.45 0.54 0.67 Exchangeable K [cmol (+) kg −1 ]0.480.60.740.490.660.740.490.600.740.450.540.67 Su content (mg kg −1 ) 3.7 4.95 6.7 3.7 4.9 6.0 4.1 5.0 5.0 3.7 4.5 6.7 Su content (mg kg −1 )3.74.956.73.74.96.04.15.05.03.74.56.7 Zn content (mg kg −1 ) 1.5 2.2 4.1 1.5 2.2 2.7 1.5 2.4 3.3 1.5 1.8 4.1 Zn content (mg kg −1 )1.52.24.11.52.22.71.52.43.31.51.84.1 Organic carbon content (g kg −1 ) 4.1 5.5 13.5 4.1 5.5 10.0 4.1 4.9 10.0 4.5 4.9 13.5 Organic carbon content (g kg −1 )4.15.513.54.15.510.04.14.910.04.54.913.5 Total Nitrogen content (g kg −1 ) 1.3 1.7 2.2 1.4 1.6 2.2 1.3 1.7 2.1 1.4 1.7 2.2 Total Nitrogen content (g kg −1 )1.31.72.21.41.62.21.31.72.11.41.72.2 pH (H 2 O) 5.1 5.7 6.1 5.5 5.7 6.0 5.3 5.7 6.1 5.1 5.6 5.8 pH (H 2 O)5.15.76.15.55.76.05.35.76.15.15.65.8 Clay content (%) 16.0 24.0 32.0 18.0 22.6 26.0 16.0 25 30.0 19.0 23 32.0 Clay content (%)16.024.032.018.022.626.016.02530.019.02332.0 Silt content (%) 43.0 54.0 67. 45.0 54.0 60.0 43.0 52 67.0 46.0 56 61.0 Silt content (%)43.054.067.45.054.060.043.05267.046.05661.0 Sand content (%) 15.0 20.0 26.0 18.0 23.4 24.0 18.0 22.4 26.0 15.0 18 23.0 Sand content (%)15.020.026.018.023.424.018.022.426.015.01823.0  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 Training normalized root mean square error (NRMSE) and coefficient of determination (R 2 ), validated NRMSE, validated R 2 , sample size, and number used estimators that predicting yield response of soybean from all sample sets, Sudan, Northern Guinea, and Southern Guinea Savannas of Nigeria.  Training normalized root Training Normalized Validation Sample size Number of Training normalized rootTrainingNormalizedValidationSample sizeNumber of  mean square error (NRMSE) coefficient of determination validation (NRMSE coefficient of determination Training Tested estimators mean square error (NRMSE)coefficient of determinationvalidation (NRMSEcoefficient of determinationTraining Testedestimators Dataset  (R 2 )  (R 2 )    Dataset(R 2 )(R 2 ) All        All agroecological        agroecological zones 8.8 0.64 6.2 0.57 980 420 28 zones8.80.646.20.5798042028 Sudan        Sudan Savanna 10.1 0.46 8.9 0.53 258 110 26 Savanna10.10.468.90.5325811026 Northern        Northern Guinea        Guinea Savanna 8.0 0.75 6.0 0.52 419 179 26 Savanna8.00.756.00.5241917926 Southern        Southern Guinea        Guinea Savanna 12.7 0.58 9.9 0.56 304 130.2 26 Savanna12.70.589.90.56304130.226  "}],"sieverID":"88ec2a6f-712b-496f-945f-f02b334e0877","abstract":"Rapid and accurate soybean yield prediction at an on-farm scale is important for ensuring sustainable yield increases and contributing to food security maintenance in Nigeria. We used multiple approaches to assess the benefits of rhizobium (Rh) inoculation and phosphorus (P) fertilization on soybean yield increase and profitability from large-scale conducted trials in the savanna areas of Nigeria [i.e., the Sudan Savanna (SS), Northern Guinea Savanna (NGS), and Southern Guinea Savanna (SGS)]. Soybean yield results from the established trials managed by farmers with four treatments (i.e., the control without inoculation and P fertilizer, Rh inoculation, P fertilizer, and Rh + P combination treatments) were predicted using mapped soil properties and weather variables in ensemble machine-learning techniques, specifically the conditional inference regression random forest (RF) model. Using the IMPACT model, scenario analyses were employed to simulate long-term adoption impacts on national soybean trade and currency. Our study found that yields of the Rh + P combination were consistently higher than the control in the three agroecological zones. Average yield increases were 128%, 111%, and 162% higher in the Rh + P combination compared to the control treatment in the SS, NGS, and SGS agroecological zones, respectively. The NGS agroecological zone showed a higher yield than SS and SGS. The highest training coefficient of determination (R 2 = 0.75) for yield prediction was from the NGS dataset, and the lowest coefficient (R 2 = 0.46) was from the SS samples. The results from the IMPACT model showed a reduction of Frontiers in Plant Science frontiersin.org 01"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08ff5a516a2204695ed7e2d59cd28f81","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d7063f20-10b0-4e38-977d-55c03e372df0/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"the nutritive value of black soldier fly larvae reared on common organic waste streams in Kenya","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"In the developing world, the livestock sector can act as a gateway towards alleviating poverty and enhancing food security 4,5 . Kenyan poultry farming is a significant source of income, especially in rural areas, and contributes to more than quarter of the agricultural Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and accounts for 8% of the total GDP in Kenya 6 . Yet feed costs make up more than 70% of the production costs [7][8][9] , highlighting the important role economic feeds and their availability could play in successful poultry farming. Due to food-feed competition, feed constituents that are suitable for direct human consumption such as soybean and fish are expensive and collectively increase the costs of feeds 8 . In addition, global catches from the marine fish stocks have dwindled over the years due to overexploitation 10 . This increases the price of fishmeal, which is not only used in feeding livestock but rather is a major source of protein in farmed fish feed 11,12 . Moreover, the intensification of soybean production, especially in the tropics, resulted in land grabbing and deforestation in addition to other negative social and environmental consequences 13 . For the reasons mentioned above, there is an urgent need to replace conventional feed ingredients such as soybean and fish with innovative, economically beneficial and environmentally sustainable ones 14 ."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Large-scale rearing of insects is a promising and innovative alternative as several insects' species can feed of various types of organic waste streams 15 . In addition, insects are precious reservoirs of proteins, fatty acids, micronutrients and contain high amounts of energy [16][17][18] . The latter show a good profile of amino acids in general, and of the most-limiting essential ones like lysine, threonine and methionine, often lacking in plant-based protein sources for non-ruminants 19 ."},{"index":3,"size":178,"text":"The Black Soldier Fly (BSF) Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), the common house fly Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae) and the yellow mealworm Tenebrio molitor L. (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) are among the insect species that have been recognized as promising alternative sources of protein for animal feed [20][21][22] . The first two naturally occur in animal droppings but also flourish on other organic waste substrates such as coffee bean pulp, vegetables residues, catering waste, municipal organic waste, straw, dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS), and fish offal 15 , and can add value by reducing organic waste biomass by 50-60% and turning them into high protein biomass 23 . The yellow mealworm can be reared on vegetables and DDGS 24,25 . The dry weight of Black Soldier Fly larvae (BSFL) contain up to 50% crude protein(CP), up to 35% lipids and have an amino acid profile that is similar to that of fishmeal 26 . They are recognized and utilized as alternative sources of protein for feed of poultry, pigs, and several species of fish and shrimp 27 ."},{"index":4,"size":262,"text":"The adult fly can typically live for one to two weeks without the need to feed as it appears it can rely on fat body reserve that was acquired during larval stages and can even live longer when fed with water 28 . It does not carry diseases, and actively feeding BSFL secrete an info-chemical that keeps away other species of flies, thereby repelling potential insect pests and disease vectors such as M. domestica 29 . The same authors also reported that BSFL significantly influence the reduction of Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica presence in cow dung while Liu and colleagues 30 reported the same influence on Escherichia coli in chicken manure. The economic feasibility of the use of insects as feed largely depends on cost effective and readily available organic waste streams, both in the developed and in particular in the developing world. So far, very few studies assessed the holistic nutritional contents of BSFL in terms of quality using experimental diets that were established within the means of the developing world. Unlike rationed diets, organic waste streams in the developing world are heterogeneous in nutritional composition and might be an environment where heavy metals can accumulate. Therefore, the current study sought to perform a comparative holistic analysis of the quality of the nutritional composition of BSFL reared on organic waste streams that are largely and readily available in urban areas of Kenya and the developing world in general. A comparative study that is essential when deciding which organic waste streams are potentially suitable for industrial large-scale BSFL production in Kenya."}]},{"head":"Results","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"Aflatoxins and proximate composition analysis. LC-Qtof-MS analysis for mycotoxins did not identify any traces of aflatoxin in the BSFL. There was an effect of substrate in all the proximate nutritional parameters (Table 1). The DM content of SG substrate was lower in comparison to the two other rearing substrates (DF = 2; F = 23.23; R 2 = 0.939; p = 0.0149) (Table 1). The ash content of CM was higher while the KW and SG ash contents were comparable (DF = 2; F = 233.89; R 2 = 0.851; p = 0.0005). Organic matter was lower in KW while the values obtained from CM and SG were comparable (DF = 2; F = 115.42; R 2 = 0.987; p = 0.0015). Crude protein content was higher in KW in comparison to CM and SG (DF = 2; F = 169.8; R 2 = 0.991; p = 0.0008). Moreover, the values of NDF (DF = 2; F = 87.89; R 2 = 0.983; p = 0.0022) and ADF (DF = 2; F = 36.87; R 2 = 0.983; p = 0.0077) contents in SG were higher in comparison to the two other rearing substrates. The EE contents (DF = 2; F = 45.51; R2 = 0.968; p = 0.0057) of the three substrates were rather low (2.7-7.2% DM) with CM the lowest."},{"index":2,"size":169,"text":"There was an effect of substrate in all the proximate nutritional parameters of the BSFL except for ash (Table 2). The DM (DF = 2; F = 7.70; R2 = 0.507; p = 0.0050) content of the BSFL was higher in KW fed ones. Crude protein (DF = 2; F = 38.48; R 2 = 0.838; p < 0.0001) was high in the CM and SG fed larvae and lowest in the KW fed ones, though larvae fed on the latter substrate showed higher crude fat (DF = 2; F = 27.65; R 2 = 0.787; p < 0.0001) content than the others. Organic matter (DF = 2; F = 306.09; R 2 = 0.976; p < 0.0001) was lower in CM fed larvae as compared to larvae fed on the two other substrates. Both NDF (DF = 2; F = 32.91; R2 = 0.814; p < 0.0001) and ADF (DF = 2; F = 6.33; R2 = 0.456; p = 0.0101) contents were higher in SG fed BSF."},{"index":3,"size":437,"text":"There was a high correlation between DM content of the rearing substrates and those of the BSFL for CM (DF = 1; F = 34.34; R 2 = 0.851; p = 0.0011) and KW (DF = 1; F = 8.14; R 2 = 0.576; p = 0.0290). However, there was no high correlation between DM content of SG and that of the BSFL (p = 0.6391). Moreover, there was a high correlation between OM content of the rearing substrates and those of the BSFL for CM (DF = 1; F = 1140.79; R 2 = 0.994768; p < 0.0001), KW (DF = 1; F = 11.99; R2 = 0.666481; p = 0.0134; p = 0.0134) and SG (DF = 1; F = 842.98; R 2 = 0.992; p < 0.0001). Moreover, there was a high correlation between the ash content of CM and SG and that of the BSFL (DF = 1; F = 10.66; R 2 = 0.640; p = 0.0171 for CM) (DF = 1; F = 23.93; R 2 = 0.800; p = 0.0027 for SG) while there was no high correlation between the ash content KW and that of the BSFL (p = 0.4196). There was a high correlation between CP content of two of the three rearing substrates and those of the BSFL (R 2 = 0.983; p < 0.0001 for CM, R 2 = 0.899; p = 0.0003 for KW and R 2 = 0.993; p < 0.0001 for SG). Moreover, a high correlation was observed between the EE contents of substrates and those of the BSFL (DF = 1; F = 1149.06; R 2 = 0.995; p < 0.0001 for CM; DF = 1; F = 1413.99; R 2 = 0.996; p < 0.0001 for KW; and DF = 1; F = 842.98; R 2 = 0.992; p < 0.0001 for SG). There was a high correlation between the NDF content of the rearing substrates and those of the BSFL (DF = 1; F = 132.95; R 2 = 0.956819; p < 0.0001 for CM; DF = 1; F = 32.85; R 2 = 0.845562; p = 0.0012 for KW; DF = 1; F = 516.05; R 2 = 0.988507; p < 0.0001 for SG). Likewise, there was a high correlation between the ADF contents of the rearing substrates and those of the BSFL for CM (DF = 1; F = 75.40; R 2 = 0.926294; p = 0.0001), KW (DF = 1; F = 332.94; R 2 = 0.982298; p < 0.0001) and SG (DF = 1; F = 159.60; R 2 = 0.963769; p < 0.0001 for SG)."}]},{"head":"Mineral composition analysis.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"The three rearing substrates exhibited different accumulation patterns of minerals (Table 3). Five major minerals, i.e. required in amounts greater >100 mg/day, were detected. Of those, phosphorus (DF = 2; F = 82.18; R 2 = 0.982; p = 0.0024), magnesium (DF = 2; F = 63.38; R 2 = 0.934; p < 0.0001) and sodium (DF = 2; F = 237.67; R 2 = 0.981; p < 0.0001) significantly differed among the tested BSFL whereas potassium and calcium did not. BSFL fed on the different substrates exhibited different accumulation patterns of minerals (Table 4). Five major minerals, i.e. required in amounts greater >100 mg/day, were detected. Of those, potassium (DF = 2; F = 13.41; R 2 = 0.641; p = 0.0005), calcium (DF = 2; F = 68.58; R 2 = 0.901; p < 0.0001) and magnesium (DF = 2; F = 3.65; R 2 = 0.328; p = 0.051) significantly differed among the tested BSFL whereas sodium did not."},{"index":2,"size":292,"text":"There was no significant correlation between phosphorus concentrations of the rearing substrates and those of the BSFL (p = 0.0354 for CM; p = 0.1591 for KW; and p = 0.8562). Moreover, there was no significant correlation between potassium concertation of KW rearing substrate and that of the BSFL (p = 0.0153). However, there was a high correlation between potassium concentrations of CM and SG rearing substrates and those of the BSFL (DF = 1; F = 74.15; R 2 = 0.902618; p < 0.0001 for CM and DF = 1; F = 84.50; R 2 = 0.913509; p < 0.0001 for SG). For calcium concentrations, there was a high correlation between the concentrations in two of the three rearing substrates tested i.e. CM and SG and those of the BSFL (DF = 1; F = 45.77; R 2 = 0.851213; p = 0.0001 for CM, p = 0.1453 for KW and DF = 1; F = 13.07; R 2 = 0.620257; p = 0.0068 for SG). Similarly, there was a high correlation between sodium concentrations in the three rearing substrates tested (DF = 1; F = 22.72; R2 = 0.739595; p = 0.0014 for CM, DF = 1; F = 27.13; R 2 = 0.772271; p = 0.0008 for KW and DF = 1; F = 22.00; R 2 = 0.733312; p = 0.0015 for SG). Moreover, there was a high correlation between magnesium concentrations of the three rearing substrates tested and those of the BSFL (DF = 1; F = 74.66; R 2 = 0.903213; p < 0.0001 for CM, DF = 1; F = 262.88; R 2 = 0.970466; p < 0.0001 for KW DF = 1; F = 762.03; R 2 = 0.989611; p < 0.0001 for SG)."},{"index":3,"size":244,"text":"Amino acids composition analysis. Both limiting and non-limiting amino acids were detected in the BSFL, with the choice of substrate significantly affecting their concentrations (Table 5). Yet, in general and for the most limiting amino acids like lysine, methionine, isoleucine and tyrosine no significant substrate effect was found. Tryptophan was not detected in the analysis, as it might have been destroyed during the acid hydrolysis process. However, no significant substrate effect was detected in the BSFL for the most important amino acids in animal nutrition, especially for non-ruminants, i.e. methionine (p = 0.2891), lysine (p = 0.9296), isoleucine (p = 0.7181) and leucine (p = 0.342). KW reared larvae showed significantly higher levels of the non-essential amino acids' proline (DF = 2; F = 59.69; R 2 = 0.888; p < 0.0001), hydro-proline (DF = 2; F = 4.48; R 2 = 0.374; p = 0.0298) and tyrosine (DF = 2; F = 11.27; R 2 = 0.600; p = 0.001) compared to the larvae fed on the other tested substrates. Glutamine was detected in larvae reared on KW. Glutamic acid (DF = 1; F = 28.97; R 2 = 0.743; p = 0.0003) was only detected in CM fed BSFL, while KW fed BSFL in most cases showed the highest concentrations of the different amino acids especially in the Phenylalanine (DF = 2; F = 20.07; R 2 = 0.727; p < 0.0001) content, followed by SG and CM fed BSFL (Table 3)."}]},{"head":"Flavonoid composition analysis.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"A total of five flavonoids were detected, with two of them showing a significant substrate effect in their concentrations (Table 6). For both apigenin (DF = 2; F = 6.78; R 2 = 0.492; p = 0.0087) and kaempferol (DF = 2; F = 5.40; R 2 = 0.454; p = 0.0196) lower concentrations were recorded in KW fed BSFL as compared to the other substrates."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Vitamins composition analysis. Three vitamins were detected though the substrate had no significant effects on their concentrations, i.e. Gamma tocopherol (p = 0.3767), Alpha tocopherol (p = 0.0713) and Provitamin D3 (p = 0.1399) (Table 7)."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Fatty acids composition analysis. In total, eleven fatty acids were detected in BSFL (Table 8). Except for linoleic and arachidonic acid, concentrations of fatty acids in SG fed BSFL were always higher, and in some cases even significantly higher than in BSFL fed on the two other substrates (Table 8)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":202,"text":"With the rapid rise in urban populations in Kenya and elsewhere in Africa, the problem of waste management increases. Organic waste accounts for more than 78% of the entire solid waste stream in developing countries 31 , waste in Africa and beyond in the Global South is often dumped in landfills without prior separation of organic waste streams leading to the loss of valuable organic resources that could otherwise be reclaimed 32 . Centralized waste management systems that are widely applied in the developed world require sophisticated infrastructures and are often economically beyond the means of most developing countries. Therefore, there is a need to establish alternative waste management systems that can valorise and recycle organic waste streams yet within the economic means of the developing world. In addition, rapid population growth in Africa and Asia, coupled with urbanization and changes in consumer preferences lead to an increasing demand for food, particularly in terms of animal protein 4 . Because of the ecological and economic shortfalls of common protein sources like fish and soy meal in most animal feed 33 , sustainable and yet nutritionally promising alternative sources of protein are urgently needed to ascertain food security today and in the future."},{"index":2,"size":303,"text":"In this study, we measured the potential of recycling three readily available organic waste streams in Nairobi, Kenya, and arguably also in other megacities in the developing world, and their influence on the nutritional quality of BSFL as a proposed alternative protein source for livestock feed. As the quality of livestock feed is mainly measured in the concentrations of CP present in the feed's dry matter, we conducted a proximate analysis applying the standard methods described by the Association of Official Analytical Chemist 34 using a nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor of 4.76 35  other commonly used plant proteins in livestock feeds such as canola, cottonseed and sunflower meal 36 . The CP values we obtained in our study ranged between 33 and 41% which is slightly lower than the range of values (39 to 43%) reported by Spranghers and colleagues 37 for BSFL reared on various organic waste streams. Moreover, Nguyen and colleagues 38 reported a CP value of 39% for BSFL reared on fruits and vegetables waste while Sheppard and colleagues 23 reported 42% CP for BSFL reared on chicken manure. However, the previously mentioned CP values were obtained using the Kjeldahl standard nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor of 6.25 while the values we reported were obtained using the conversion factor of 4.76. The total nitrogen content in insects in general and BSF in specific contain nitrogen originating from both protein and non-protein sources such as chitin. Hence, separating non protein from protein nitrogen was necessary in order to obtain accurate crude protein content and to avoid over estimated values that were previously reported using the standard conversion factor 35,39 . When calculated using the standard nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor of 6.25, the range of CP values we obtained from this study (39 to 54%) surpassed the range of values previously reported in literature 23,37,38 ."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"Our results were closer to that obtained by Caligiani and colleagues 39 and Janssen and colleagues 35 who both used a nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor of 4.76. Similarly, the EE content we found in BSFL was higher than those reported from full fat soybean meal 36 and commercially available fishmeal 40 . Newton and colleagues 41 and St-Hilaire and colleagues 42 reported even higher EE values in BSFL than we found in our study. Previous studies reported an influence of the rearing substrate on the EE content. For instance, Nguyen and colleagues 38 reported higher EE content for larvae reared on fish and liver in comparison to chicken feed. However, there was no apparent influence of the rearing substrates on the EE content of BSFL in our study."},{"index":4,"size":296,"text":"In addition to CP, other nutritional components of livestock feed can greatly enhance the quality of animal production, including several minerals and vitamins including calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, copper, cobalt and vitamins A or D. For example, calcium and phosphorous play important roles in x physiological functions of animals including muscle mass reductions, neuro-signaling, enzymatic activity, metabolic reactions, construction of proteins, maintenance of osmotic and acidic-alkaline equilibria, construction of membranes etc. 43,44 . When referring to bone and egg formation in layer hens, calcium in particular plays a crucial role as it contributes to more than 90% of the mineral matrix in the bones 45 . Therefore, deficiencies in calcium and phosphorus can result in bone loss, growth retardation and abnormal posture 45 . The range of calcium concentrations reported in this study (1.7 to 3.2%) was lower than that reported in literature (2.4 to 5.8%) [46][47][48] . Previous studies already established an influence of the rearing substrate on the mineral content of BSFL. Moreover, Newton and colleagues 48 reported higher calcium concentration for BSFL reared on poultry manure in comparison to the concentration we obtained from BSFL reared on a similar substrate. Such a variability could be further justified by the fact that the outer layer of the larvae's skin releases a deposit of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ) which may lead to the high calcium and ash content 49,50 . However, while the BSFL calcium levels we detected varied among the three organic waste streams tested, phosphorus levels remained unaffected in our study. The again, Newton and colleagues 41 reported higher levels of phosphorus in BSFL reared on poultry manure than those reared on swine manure. This variability could also be attributed to the influence of the rearing substrate on the mineral content of BSFL."},{"index":5,"size":117,"text":"Animal feed needs to contain sufficient quantities of vitamins to facilitate the development of proper and healthy body functions 51 . Vitamins contribute essentially to the development of the immune system in animals while also helping in the digestion of other nutrients for energy production 51 . We did not observe any influence of the rearing substrates on vitamins in the BSFL. Though gamma and alpha tocopherol and provitamin D3 were detected in all BSFL samples in our study, Finke and colleagues 46 and St-Hillarie and colleagues 42 reported relatively higher levels of alpha tocopherol and provitamin D3. In addition, they found more vitamins including biotin, folic acid, vitamin A, and niacin in their studies with BSFL."},{"index":6,"size":323,"text":"Amino acids are essential for quality livestock production, especially their ability to break down other proteins and to produce energy 52 . Though the amino acid profile of soymeal is generally of a better quality than that of other plant-based feeds, it is still deficient in lysine, methionine, threonine and valine when compared to an animal based protein source 52 . Previous studies established that the amino acid profile of several edible insects including the yellow mealworm, common housefly, and BSF is comparable to that of soybean meal with methionine or methionine and cysteine and sometimes arginine as the most limiting essential amino acids for growing swine and broilers 53 . We could show that BSFL reared on the three tested organic waste streams had a higher quality amino acid profile than the FAO 54 standard amino acid profiles reported for soybean and sunflower meal. The BSFL methionine levels in our study even surpassed that of fishmeal reported by FAO 54 and corresponded with the recommended range for broiler chickens as per the standards of the National Research Council (NRC) 55 . Similarly, the range of methionine levels (6.4 to 7.9%) in BSFL detected in our study surpassed those of methionine (0.7 to 0.9%) of BSFL reared on various organic waste streams and previously reported in literature 49 . Moreover, we detected higher lysine levels in BSFL than commonly found in soybean and sunflower meals 2 and ours were only slightly lower than in fish meal 2 . Moreover, lysine levels detected in our study (4.1%) were higher than the levels previously detected by Arango Gutiérrez and colleagues 56 , viz. 2.1% for BSFL reared on chicken manure. Thus, rearing BSFL on the three tested organic waste streams resulted in terms of amino acids profile in a high quality protein source that would be in this respect nearly at par with fish meal and clearly surpass many plant-based protein sources in livestock feed."},{"index":7,"size":274,"text":"FAs are usually subdivided into either saturated fatty acids (SFA) or unsaturated fatty acids (USFA). High levels of SFAs in diets such as palmitic and myristic acid are not favorable because they raise the level of low density lipoproteins (LDLs) by suppressing the expression of LDL receptors 57,58 . USFAs are important for human growth, skin protection and can decrease the possibility of thrombosis formation 59 . Insect fat is abundant in USFAs and resembles chicken and fish in their level of unsaturation 60 ; yet, FAs profiles considerably vary among different insect species 61 . Such variability may be associated with environmental conditions such as the insect's age, sex or size and its digestion and enzymatic activities 62 . We obtained higher USFA in comparison to SFA contents confirming the high quality of the BSFL FA profile. Like Makkar and colleagues 2 we observed that the FA profile is influenced by the rearing substrate, with SG in general resulting in higher FA levels than the other two tested organic waste stream materials. BSFL FA profiles were predominantly composed of lauric, oleic and stearic acids. This corresponds to previous studies done by Leong and colleagues 63 Zheng and colleagues 64 though their values of lauric acid were relatively high compared to our results. The total amount of USFA in BSFL is close to those in olive, or soya oils 65 . In particular, the concentration of lauric acid in BSFL-derived oil is considerably higher than in those derived from soybean, sunflower, and oil palm 66 . Lauric acid is known to react against lipid enveloped viruses, and many pathogenic bacteria and protozoa [67][68][69] ."},{"index":8,"size":146,"text":"Flavonoids occur naturally in vegetables, fruits and medicinal plants. Flavonoids occur naturally in vegetables, fruits and medicinal plants. They perform significant biological actions by acting as antioxidants, anti-carcinogens, anti-allergens, anti-pathogens and growth promoters in different animal species 70 . Studies on insects like edible stink bugs confirmed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids and steroids among other bioactive compounds 71,72 . Flavonoid rich feed are sometimes associated with pharmacological effects 73 . In our BSFL we found rutin, apeginin and luteolin, belonging to the flavone class, usually associated with fruit skins, red wine, buckwheat, red pepper and tomato skin 74,75 and kaemferol and quercetin belonging to the flavonol class that are more prevalent in onion, red wine, olive oil, berries and grapefruits 76 . The presence of these flavonoids in the insects can probably be traced back to the different rearing substrates and were acquired through feeding."},{"index":9,"size":349,"text":"Contrary to previous studies which showed that insects are prone to accumulate toxins or heavy metals ingested through contaminated feed or water (e.g. 77 ) we did not detect any aflatoxins or other mycotoxins in our BSFL. Mycotoxins are metabolic products of fungi with harmful poisoning effects to animals and humans. Monogastrics like pigs and poultry are highly susceptible to such contaminated feed 78 . Thus, to further promote insect-derived feeds, routine and rigorous testing schemes for toxins and heavy metals, both in the rearing substrates as well in the harvested BSFL, have to be implemented. Purschke and colleagues 79 reported that BSFL accumulated heavy metals but not mycotoxins when fed with contaminated substrates, though their concentrations in BSFL tissues -apart from Cd and Pb-remained below the initial substrate concentrations. Therefore, in order to ensure feed and food safety from farm to fork, screening of both the substrates and the BSFL-derived feeds as for contaminants such as Cd and Pb is a necessity. In addition to toxins, microbiological contamination might be a matter of concern when it comes to the utilization of insects in feedstock production. Indeed, insects are often affiliated to various microbes such as bacteria, fungi and viruses which are part of their defense repertoire 18,80 . However, BSF have shown an extreme resistance to various environmental conditions through their ability to reduce and possibly suppress possible bacterial and fungal contaminations aided by chemical and biological agents they produce 81,82 . It is suggested that contact with wild insects and other sources of contamination should be avoided in order for properly maintained insect mass rearing facilities to remain free from pathogenic hazards 80 . Moreover, the possibility of insects to harbor parasites can be limited and contained through introducing and maintaining environmental conditions that are unfavorable to parasitic existence 80 . Therefore and on the basis of our current knowledge, biological risks associated with insect consumption can be minimized using simple hygienic measures such as appropriate processing methods, i.e. heating or freezing similar to measures that are applied during processing of poultry, pork and fish 80 ."},{"index":10,"size":111,"text":"Comparing the nutritional composition and quality of BSFL we found in our study with previous research indicates considerable variability. This might be due to differences in methodological set-up, environmental conditions, rearing substrates, time of harvest, as well as harvesting and processing methods 15,16,30,41,42,83,84 . Yet we found the differences between our results and those by Newton and colleagues 41 and St-Hilaire and colleagues 42 puzzling, considering that these authors tested similar organic waste streams and processed and harvested the BSFL more or less the same as we did. Hence, we hypothesize that genetic heterogeneity of BSFs is an additional factor that needs to be considered and should thus be looked at."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"We could show that commonly available organic waste streams in urban environments of the developing world can be successfully used to produce high quality BSFL that have the potential to substitute other animal-or plant-derived protein sources in commercial livestock feed. Wide-scale application of this approach would greatly reduce the ecological and economic footprint of feed, thereby contributing to more sustainable animal husbandry systems. Moreover, it can provide valuable ecosystem services through the bioconversion of municipal and organic waste streams into biocompost. To achieve this, the next step has to be the development of appropriate and cost-effective BSF mass-rearing technologies. Following the footsteps of Kenya and Uganda where dried insect products were recently approved for use in all animal and fish feed 85 , a regional African insect feed policy aiming to ensure safety of production within adequate hygiene standards should be introduced."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"The study was carried in the laboratories of the International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), in Nairobi, Kenya."},{"index":2,"size":434,"text":"Stock colony. icipe insectarium maintains a population of BSF adults which act as a stock colony. The population of the stock colony was originally collected from the surroundings of icipe in Nairobi and was maintained in the insectarium for 1 year before use in this study. Adult BSF are housed in an outdoors metal framed cage with screen mesh (1.8 × 1.8 × 1.8 m with 1.5 mm mesh) with strong access to daylight spectra and temperatures maintained at 28 ± 5 °C to encourage mating to occur. The flies are supplied with water to prolong their life. Corrugated cardboard and some SG are placed within the cage to attract adult females for egg laying. Preparation of substrate and larvae feeding. The tested substrates, i.e. chicken manure (CM), kitchen waste (KW) and brewers' spent grain (SG), were all sourced locally. CM was collected form a broiler poultry farm in the greater Nairobi area and used one week after it was harvested. Though the use of manure in feeding farmed animals including insects is prohibited in the European Union (EU), feeding farmed insects with any type of substrate is not an issue as long as the end product is free of heavy metals, microbial and mycotoxins contaminants 85,86 . KW was a mixture of potato peeling, carrot remaining and peelings, rice and bread debris (contained no meat) collected from a local restaurant in Nairobi. SG was sourced from Tusker House, Kenya Breweries Ltd. in Nairobi after fermentation of barley in the beer production process. The substrates were chosen on the basis of their availability in Nairobi, with a view of their potential future use for large scale industrial BSFL production in Kenya and beyond in Africa. Metallic trays measuring 23 × 15 cm were used to contain 1 kg of the different substrates. Each substrate had six replications placed randomly in a wooden frame in a room. Five-hundred (500) neonatal BSFL were placed carefully on top of the substrate in each of the trays. During the rearing process, the temperature was maintained at 28 ± 2 °C and relative humidity (r.h.) at 65 ± 5%. Distilled water was sprinkled on the substrate to ensure 65-70% moisture content. All substrates were replenished weekly with fresh ones. After reaching the prepupal stage, the insects were harvested, washed with tap water, oven dried at 60 °C for 48 hours, crushed using a laboratory blender and then stored for subsequent analyses in a refrigerator at −20 °C. A sample of the BSFL was collected from each replication, pooled and a 200 g sample was used for the subsequent analyses."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Chemicals. Aflatoxin B1, B2 G1 and G2, were purchased from Supelco (Bellefonte, Pennsylvania, USA), apigenin (>99%), luteolin (>97%), rutin hydrate (>94%), quercetin dehydrate (>98%), octadecanoic acid (>98.5%), glutamic acid, myristoleic acid, tetradecanoic acid, hexadecanoic acid, (Z)-9-hexadecenoic acid, linoleic acid, (Z)-9-octadecenoic acid, octadecanoic acid, (Z,Z)-9,12-0ctadecadienoic acid, oleic acid, eicosanoic acid and amino acid standard solution (AAS 18) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Chemie GmbH Munich, Germany)."}]},{"head":"Proximate analysis.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":191,"text":"Prior to the proximate analysis and after reaching the prepupal stage, the insects were harvested, washed with tap water, oven dried at 60 °C for 48 hours, crushed using a laboratory blender and then stored for subsequent analyses in a refrigerator at −20 °C. Then, the BSFL samples were taken for proximate analysis using standard methods of the Association of Official Analytical Chemist 34 . Dry matter was calculated by the weight difference between before and after drying the sample in the oven at 135 °C for two hours; ash was determined by heating the samples in a muffle furnace set at 600 °C for three hours while CP was determined using the Kjeldahl method and a nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor of 4.76 was used in the calculation of CP 35 . Diethyl ether was used as an extractant in the determination of crude fat using the Velp solvent extractor (SER 148/6). Acid detergent fiber (ADF) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) were analyzed with a Velp fiber analyzer (FIWE 6) (VELP Scientifica, Usmate Velate, Italy) using reagents described by Van Soest and colleagues 87 . All the analyses were done in duplicates."}]},{"head":"Amino acids.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":325,"text":"The method for protein extraction was adopted from Hamilton and colleagues 88 and detailed in Musundire and colleagues 89 Briefly, the BSFL samples were separately snap-frozen in liquid nitrogen and crushed into fine powder. The samples (2 g each) were extracted for 1 hour in ice cold 5 v/w 100 mM 4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1piperazineethanesulfonic acid (HEPES) pH 7.2, 2 mM dithiothreitol (DTT), 2.5% Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), 0.5 mM Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), 1 mM benzamidine 0.1 mM phenylmethanesulfonylfluoride (PMSF) in a magnetic stirrer. The samples were filtered through KERLIX ™ Gauze Bandage Rolls Sterile Soft Pouch 5.7 × 2.7 cm centrifuged at 8,000 rpm for 30 min at 4 °C to remove solid debris. Protein was precipitated between 45% and 80% (NH4)2SO4 and the pellet recovered by centrifugation at 21,000 rpm for 30 min at 4 °C. The protein pellets were desalted in 20 mM HEPES-NaOH pH 8 containing 2mMDTT using Sephadex G-25 gel filtration chromatography (PD-10 columns, GE Healthcare, Chicago, USA) to give 80.2 mg and 77.9 mg of proteins from processed and unprocessed insect samples, respectively. Ten (10) mg from each of the samples were separately transferred into a 5 ml micro-reaction vial into which 2 ml of 6 N HCl were added and closed after careful introduction of nitrogen gas. The samples were hydrolyzed for 24 hours at 110 °C. For tryptophan analysis, 10 mg from each of the samples were separately transferred into a 5 ml micro-reaction vial into which 2 ml of 6 N NaOH were added and then capped after careful introduction of nitrogen gas. The samples were hydrolyzed for 24 hours at 110 °C. After the hydrolysis, the mixtures were evaporated to dryness under vacuum. The hydrolysates were reconstituted in 1 ml 90:10 water: acetonitrile, vortexed for 30 s, sonicated for 30 min, and then centrifuged at 14,000 rpm and the supernatant analyzed using a liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-Qtof-MS) (Waters Corporation, Milford, USA). The analysis was replicated three times."}]},{"head":"Mineral analysis.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"After drying the prepupae and pre-experiment substrates, they were crushed using a laboratory blender and then ashed and digested in 6 N HCl. An Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Model AA6300, Shimadu, Japan) was used to analyze the following minerals: phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, iron, copper, manganese, cobalt and zinc."},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"Analysis of mycotoxins. Samples of BSFL were analyzed for mycotoxins according to methods described by Cheng and Cappozzo 90 and Musundire and colleagues 89 . Ten (10) g of every sample were snap frozen in liquid nitrogen, crushed into fine powder and extracted in 40 mL acetonitrile-water (86:16, v/v) for 30 min while sonicating. Each mixture was allowed to settle for 30 min and then 6 mL of each sample was filtered through a solid phase extraction cartridge Multisep ® 228 AflaPat multifunctional columns (Roer Labs, USA). An aliquot (4 ml) of each cleaned extract was evaporated to dryness in a stream of nitrogen gas. The dried samples were re-dissolved in 400 μL methanol-water (20:80, v/v), vortexed for 1 min and then centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 5 min prior to analysis using a Waters liquid chromatography coupled to quadruple time of flight mass spectrometry (LC-QtoF-MS) (Waters Corporation, Milford, USA). Samples derived from different substrates were analyzed in five replicates."},{"index":3,"size":269,"text":"Analysis of fatty acids. BSFL samples reared on the three different substrates were snap frozen in liquid nitrogen and then ground into a fine powder and analyzed for fatty acids following the procedures described by Musundire and colleagues 89 . Briefly, a methyl esterification reaction was performed on 5 g of each sample according to procedures outlined by Christie 91 . A solution of sodium methoxide in methanol was prepared to generate a concentration of 15 mg/ml. An aliquot of the solution (500 µL) was added to each ground insect sample, vortexed for 1 min and then sonicated for 5 min. The reaction mixture was incubated at 60 °C for 1 hour, thereafter quenched by adding 100 µL deionized water followed by vortexing for another 1 min. The resulting methyl esters were extracted using GC-grade hexane (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, USA) and then centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 5 min. The supernatant was dried over anhydrous Na 2 SO 4 and then analyzed using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC/MS) (Agilent Technologies, CA, USA). Fatty acids were identified as their methyl esters by comparison of GC retention times and fragmentation patterns with those authentic standards and reference spectra published by library-MS databases National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) 05, 08 and 11. Serial dilutions of the authentic standard octadecanoic acid (0.2-125 ng/µg) were analyzed by GC/MS in full scan mode to generate a linear calibration curve (peak areas vs. concentration) with the following equation [y = 7E + 06x − 4E + 07(R 2 = 0.9757)], which was used for the external quantification of the different fatty acids."}]},{"head":"Analyses of flavonoids.","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"BSFL samples reared on the three different substrates were analyzed for flavonoids following the procedures described by Musundire and colleagues 89 The samples were separately crushed into fine powder in liquid nitrogen. Two-and-a-half (2.5) g of each sample were independently extracted in 50 mL methanol-water (80:20 v/v) by ultrasonication in a sonication bath (Branson 2510, Danbury, USA) for 1 hour followed by filtration through a Whatman filter paper No. 32. The remaining residue was re-extracted twice, and the filtrate pooled separately. The extracting solvent was removed under reduced pressure at 40 °C using a rotary evaporator (Laborata 4000, Heidolph Instrument, Germany) to give 60, 80, 100 and 120 mg for KW, CM and SG, respectively. The extracts (5 mg) from each of the samples were re-dissolved in 1 mL water-methanol (95:5 v/v), centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 5 min and the supernatant analyzed using LC-Qtof-MS (Waters Corporation, Milford, USA). Five replicates were carried out with each replicate done on a different larvae sample."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Instruments' conditions. The instrument conditions were similar to those described by Musundire and colleagues 89 . LC-Qtof-MS and GC-MS instruments were used in the analysis. The instrument conditions included:"},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"LC-Qtof-MS. The chromatographic separation was achieved on a Waters ACQUITY ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) I-class system (Waters Corporation, Milford, USA). For amino acids analysis, the UPLC was fitted with an ACE C18 column (250mmx4.6 mm, 5 µ (Aberdeen, UK) with a heater turned off and an autosampler tray cooled to 5 °C. Mobile phases of water (A) and acetonitrile (B), each containing 0.01% formic acid, was employed. The following gradients were used: 0 min, 5% B; 0-3 min, 5-30% B; 3-6 min, 30% B; 6-7.5 min, 30-80% B; 7.5-10.5 min, 80% B; 10.5-13.0 min, 80-100% B, 13-18 min, 100% B; 18-20 min, 100-5% B; and 20-22 min, 5% B. The flow rate was held constant at 0.7 ml min −1 . The injection volume was 1 µL."},{"index":4,"size":136,"text":"For analyses of flavonoids and aflatoxin, a UPLC was fitted to a Waters ACQUITY UPLC BEH C18 column (2.1 mm × 50 mm, 1.7 µm particle size; Waters Corporation, Milford, USA) heated to 40 °C and an auto sampler tray cooled to 15 °C. Mobile phases of water (A) and methanol (B), each with 0.01% formic acid, were employed. The following gradients were used for i) flavonoids: 0-0.2 min, 10% B; 0.2-3 min, 10-60% B; 3-5 min, 60-80% B; 6-8 min, 80% B; 8-9 min, 100% B; 9-10 min, 100% B; 10-10.5 min 100-10% B; and 10.5-12 min 10% B; ii) aflatoxin: 0-0.2 min, 10% B; 0.2-3 min, 10-90% B; 3-5 min, 90% B; 5-6 min, 90-10% B; and 6-7 min, 10%B. The flow rate was held constant at 0.4 ml min −1 for both analyses."},{"index":5,"size":161,"text":"The UPLC system was interfaced with electrospray ionization (ESI) to a Waters Xevo QToF-MS operated in full scan based on independent information acquisition (MS E ) in positive mode. Data were acquired in resolution mode over the m/z range 100-1,200 for flavonoids: m/z 100-700 for amino acid analysis with a scan time of 1 s using a capillary voltage of 0.5 kV, sampling cone voltage of 40 V, source temperature 100 °C and desolvation temperature of 350 °C. The nitrogen desolvation flow rate was 500 L/h. For the high-energy scan function, a collision energy ramp of 25-45 eV was applied in the T-wave collision cell using ultrahigh purity argon (>99.999%) as the collision gas. A continuous lock spray reference compound (leucine enkephalin; [M + H) + = 556.2766) was sampled at 10 s intervals for centroid data mass correction. The MS was calibrated across the 50-1,200 Da mass using a 0.5 mM sodium formate solution prepared in 90: 10 2-propanol/water (v/v)."},{"index":6,"size":96,"text":"MassLynx version 4.1 SCN 712 (Waters Corporation, Milford, USA) was used for data acquisition and processing. The elemental composition was generated for every analyte. Potential assignments were calculated using mono-isotopic masses with a tolerance of 10ppm deviation and both odd-and even-electron states possible. The number and types of expected atoms was set as follows: carbon < 100; hydrogen < 100; oxygen < 50; nitrogen < 6; sulphur < 6 92 . The empirical formula generated was used to predict structures which were proposed based on the online database, fragmentation pattern, literature and confirmed using authentic standards."},{"index":7,"size":249,"text":"Serial dilutions of authentic standards of aflatoxin B 1 (0.01-20 ng/μl), rutin, quercetin, luteolin, apigenin (1.8-181 ng/μl), and glutamic acid (0.01-10 ng/μl) were also analyzed by LC-Qtof-MS in MS E mode to generate linear calibration curves (peak area vs. concentration) with the following linear equations: aflatoxin GC/MS. Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) were analyzed by GC/MS on a 7890 A gas chromatograph (Agilent Technologies Inc., Santa Clara, USA) linked to a 5975 C mass selective detector (Agilent Technologies Inc., Santa Clara, USA) by using the following conditions: inlet temperature 270 °C, transfer line temperature of 280 °C, and column oven temperature programmed from 35 to 285 °C with the initial temperature maintained for 5 min then 10 °C min −1 to 280 °C, and held at this temperature for 20.4 min. The GC was fitted with a HP-5 MS low bleed capillary column (30 m × 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 µm) (J & W, Folsom, USA). Helium at a flow rate of 1.25 ml min −1 served as the carrier gas. The mass selective deceptive was maintained at ion source temperature of 230 °C and quadrapole temperature of 180 °C. Electron impact (EI) mass spectra were obtained at the acceleration energy of 70 eV. A 1.0 µl aliquot of sample was injected in the splitless mode using an auto sampler 7683 (Agilent Technologies Inc., Beijing, China). Fragment ions were analyzed over 40-550 m/z mass range in the full scan mode. The filament delay time was set at 3.3 min."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Statistical Analysis System (SAS, version 9.1) was used for analyses. Collected data was subjected to Levene-test to test for normality, followed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the general linear model (GLM) procedure to test for significant differences among the means. In case of significant F-values, Bon-Tukey was used to separate the means at p < 0.05."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" B 1 [y = 13738x + 6611.5 (R 2 = 0.9571)], rutin [y = 5578.4x − 39094 (R2 = 0.9960)], quercetin [y = 4372.4x + 79607 (R2 = 0.9854)], luteolin [y = 13433x − 23256 (R2 = 0.9994)] apigenin [y = 10288x − 11117 (R2 = 0.9995)] and glutamic acid [y = 40137x − 1353.1 (R2 = 0.9999)] which served as the basis for the external quantification of the aflatoxin, flavonoids and amino acids. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Means (±standard error) of proximate composition (in % dry matter) of three common organic waste streams in Kenya. Parameters CM KW SG p-values Parameters CMKWSGp-values DM 93.3 a* ± 0.2 92.7 a ± 0.1 84.6 b ± 0.5 0.0149 DM93.3 a* ± 0.2 92.7 a ± 0.184.6 b ± 0.50.0149 Ash 20.2 a ± 0.3 7.2 b ± 0.3 6.2 b ± 0.8 0.0005 Ash20.2 a ± 0.37.2 b ± 0.36.2 b ± 0.80.0005 OM 86.6 a ± 0.8 80.4 b ± 0.4 92.0 a ± 0.1 0.0015 OM86.6 a ± 0.8 80.4 b ± 0.492.0 a ± 0.10.0015 CP 15.3 a ± 0.0 20.0 b ± 0.5 12.2 a ± 0.2 0.0008 CP15.3 a ± 0.0 20.0 b ± 0.512.2 a ± 0.20.0008 NDF 35.5 a ± 0.8 38.9 a ± 0.2 49.9 b ± 1.2 0.0022 NDF35.5 a ± 0.8 38.9 a ± 0.249.9 b ± 1.20.0022 ADF 18.3 a ± 0.9 25.2 a ± 1.3 38.6 b ± 2.5 0.0077 ADF18.3 a ± 0.9 25.2 a ± 1.338.6 b ± 2.50.0077 EE 2.7 a ± 0.6 7.2 b ± 0.3 7.2 b ± 0.2 0.0057 EE2.7 a ± 0.67.2 b ± 0.37.2 b ± 0.20.0057  "},{"text":"Parameters CM fed BSFL KW fed BSFL SG fed BSFL p-values  DM 80.7 a* ± 1.2 87.7 b ± 1.0 83.1 a ± 1.6 0.0050 DM80.7 a* ± 1.287.7 b ± 1.083.1 a ± 1.60.0050 Ash 9.3 ± 1.8 9.6 ± 1.6 11.6 ± 0.5 0.4818 Ash9.3 ± 1.89.6 ± 1.611.6 ± 0.50.4818 OM 59.8 a ± 0.4 90.4 b ± 1.6 88.4 b ± 0.5 <0.0001 OM59.8 a ± 0.490.4 b ± 1.688.4 b ± 0.5<0.0001 CP 41.1 a ± 0.3 33.0 b ± 1.0 41.3 a ± 0.5 <0.0001 CP41.1 a ± 0.333.0 b ± 1.041.3 a ± 0.5<0.0001 NDF 21.9 a ± 0.6 20.4 a ± 0.6 28.6 b ± 1.0 <0.0001 NDF21.9 a ± 0.620.4 a ± 0.628.6 b ± 1.0<0.0001 ADF 12.6 a ± 0.3 13.2 a ± 0.1 15.0 b ± 0.8 0.0101 ADF12.6 a ± 0.313.2 a ± 0.115.0 b ± 0.80.0101 EE 30.1 a ± 0.4 34.3 b ± 0.4 31 a ± 0.4 <0.0001 EE30.1 a ± 0.434.3 b ± 0.431 a ± 0.4<0.0001 Table 2. Means (±standard error) of proximate composition (in % dry matter) of Black Soldier Fly larvae reared on three different rearing substrates. * Means (n = 2) in the same row followed with different superscripts Table 2. Means (±standard error) of proximate composition (in % dry matter) of Black Soldier Fly larvae reared on three different rearing substrates. * Means (n = 2) in the same row followed with different superscripts are significantly different at p < 0.05; DM, Dry Matter; OM, Organic Matter; CP, Crude Protein; NDF, Neutral are significantly different at p < 0.05; DM, Dry Matter; OM, Organic Matter; CP, Crude Protein; NDF, Neutral Detergent Fiber; ADF, Acid Detergent Fiber; EE, Ether Extract; CM, Chicken Manure; KW, Kitchen Waste; SG, Detergent Fiber; ADF, Acid Detergent Fiber; EE, Ether Extract; CM, Chicken Manure; KW, Kitchen Waste; SG, Spent Grain; BSFL, Black Soldier Fly larvae.  Spent Grain; BSFL, Black Soldier Fly larvae. Parameters CM fed BSFL KW fed BSFL SG fed BSFL p-values ParametersCM fed BSFLKW fed BSFLSG fed BSFLp-values Phosphorus 1.0 a* ± 2.74 2.0 a ± 0.58 4.8 b ± 1.37 0.0024 Phosphorus1.0 a* ± 2.742.0 a ± 0.584.8 b ± 1.370.0024 Potassium 1.7 ± 5.07 3.6 ± 1.01 1.3 ± 0.36 0.0688 Potassium1.7 ± 5.073.6 ± 1.011.3 ± 0.360.0688 Calcium 1.94 ± 1.90 1.93 ± 0.42 3.5 ± 0.62 0.0528 Calcium1.94 ± 1.901.93 ± 0.423.5 ± 0.620.0528 Magnesium 1.0 a ± 0.23 1.3 a ± 0.14 2.2 b ± 0.01 <0.0001 Magnesium1.0 a ± 0.231.3 a ± 0.142.2 b ± 0.01<0.0001 Sodium 3.3 a ± 0.05 1.3 b ± 0.14 0.8 c ± 1.71 <0.0001 Sodium3.3 a ± 0.051.3 b ± 0.140.8 c ± 1.71<0.0001 Iron 2.1 ± 1.43 0.9 ± 0.15 0.4 ± 0.05 0.3662 Iron2.1 ± 1.430.9 ± 0.150.4 ± 0.050.3662 Copper 0.6 ± 0.20 0.6 ± 0.19 0.9 ± 0.31 0.5311 Copper0.6 ± 0.200.6 ± 0.190.9 ± 0.310.5311 Manganese 0.3 ± 0.09 0.2 ± 0.07 0.3 ± 0.09 0.5980 Manganese0.3 ± 0.090.2 ± 0.070.3 ± 0.090.5980 Cobalt 2.5 ± 0.76 1.1 ± 0.29 3.2 ± 1.00 0.1601 Cobalt2.5 ± 0.761.1 ± 0.293.2 ± 1.000.1601 Zinc 0.9. ± 2.93 0.5 ± 1.45 1.0 ± 3.32 0.2131 Zinc0.9. ± 2.930.5 ± 1.451.0 ± 3.320.2131  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Means (±standard error) of mineral composition (g/kg DM) of three common organic waste streams in Kenya. * Means (n = 2) in the same row followed with different superscripts are significantly different at p < 0.05; CM, Chicken Manure; KW, Kitchen Waste; SG, Spent Grain; BSFL, Black Soldier Fly larvae.  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Means (±standard error) of mineral composition (g/kg DM) of Black Soldier Fly larvae reared on three different rearing substrates. * Means (n = 2) in the same row followed with different superscripts are significantly different at p < 0.05; CM, Chicken Manure; KW, Kitchen Waste; SG, Spent Grain; BSFL, Black Soldier Fly larvae. Parameters CM fed BSFL KW fed BSFL SG fed BSFL p-values Parameters CM fed BSFLKW fed BSFL SG fed BSFLp-values Phosphorus 3.9 ± 0.31 4.1 ± 0.33 4.6 ± 0.56 0.3446 Phosphorus 3.9 ± 0.314.1 ± 0.334.6 ± 0.560.3446 Potassium 4.9 a* ± 0.08 5.7 b ± 0.04 4.4 a ± 0.01 0.0005 Potassium4.9 a* ± 0.085.7 b ± 0.044.4 a ± 0.010.0005 Calcium 3.2 a ± 2.32 2. b ± 1.41 1.7 c ± 0.51 <0.0001 Calcium3.2 a ± 2.322. b ± 1.411.7 c ± 0.51<0.0001 Magnesium 4.0 a ± 0.34 3.3 b ± 0.06 3.5 ab ± 0.09 0.0510 Magnesium 4.0 a ± 0.343.3 b ± 0.063.5 ab ± 0.090.0510 Sodium 2.4 ± 0.12 2.0 ± 0.09 2.6 ± 0.07 0.1371 Sodium2.4 ± 0.122.0 ± 0.092.6 ± 0.070.1371 Iron 0.6 a ± 0.43 2.2 b ± 0.00 0.3 a ± 0.00 0.0045 Iron0.6 a ± 0.432.2 b ± 0.000.3 a ± 0.000.0045 Copper 0.4 a ± 0.00 0.2 a ± 0.00 0.5 b ± 0.00 0.0006 Copper0.4 a ± 0.000.2 a ± 0.000.5 b ± 0.000.0006 Manganese 1.4 a ± 0.01 0.9 b ± 0.01 1.1 a ± 0.01 0.0050 Manganese 1.4 a ± 0.010.9 b ± 0.011.1 a ± 0.010.0050 Cobalt 4.6 a ± 0.01 2.6 b ± 0.01 6.5 c ± 0.02 <0.0001 Cobalt4.6 a ± 0.012.6 b ± 0.016.5 c ± 0.02<0.0001 Zinc 0.3 ± 0.01 0.3 ± 0.01 0.3 ± 0.02 0.1831 Zinc0.3 ± 0.010.3 ± 0.010.3 ± 0.020.1831 Ca: P (ratio) 8.3 5.2 3.7  Ca: P (ratio) 8.35.23.7 Parameter CM fed BSFL KW fed BSFL SG fed BSFL p-values ParameterCM fed BSFL KW fed BSFLSG fed BSFL p-values Histidine  † 3.5 ± ± 0.3 3.3 ± 1.6 4.7 ± 0.5 0.6138 Histidine  †3.5 ± ± 0.33.3 ± 1.64.7 ± 0.50.6138 Arginine  † 1.1 b* ± 1.8 5.0 c ± 4.3 2.5 a ± 2.2 <0.0001 Arginine  †1.1 b* ± 1.85.0 c ± 4.32.5 a ± 2.2<0.0001 Lysine  † 4.1 ± 0.6 4.7 ± 0.5 4.7 ± 1.6 0.9296 Lysine  †4.1 ± 0.64.7 ± 0.54.7 ± 1.60.9296 Glutamine 0 8.1 ± 0.8 0 0.0229 Glutamine08.1 ± 0.800.0229 Glutamic acid 0 6.1 b ± 0.5 3 a ± 0.2 0.0003 Glutamic acid06.1 b ± 0.53 a ± 0.20.0003 Proline 1.5 a ± 1.8 5.1 b ± 3.5 2.4 a ± 1.6 <0.0001 Proline1.5 a ± 1.85.1 b ± 3.52.4 a ± 1.6<0.0001 Valine  † 7.2 ± 0.8 1.2 ± 2.2 9.3 ± 0.8 0.0729 Valine  †7.2 ± 0.81.2 ± 2.29.3 ± 0.80.0729 Methionine  † 6.1 ± 0.8 7.9 ± 0.8 7.4 ± 0.8 0.2891 Methionine  †6.1 ± 0.87.9 ± 0.87.4 ± 0.80.2891 Tyrosine 2. 2 a ± 3.4 4.6 b ± 3.8 3.0 a ± 3.5 0.0010 Tyrosine2. 2 a ± 3.44.6 b ± 3.83.0 a ± 3.50.0010 Isoleucine  † 1.6 ± 1.5 2.6 ± 4.5 1.8 ± 1.4 0.7181 Isoleucine  †1.6 ± 1.52.6 ± 4.51.8 ± 1.40.7181 Leucine  † 3. 0 ± 5.2 2.9 ± 5.2 3.7 ± 4.8 0.3420 Leucine  †3. 0 ± 5.22.9 ± 5.23.7 ± 4.80.3420 Hydro-proline 7.7 a ± 4.7 2.5 b ± 4.5 8.7 a ± 2.5 0.0298 Hydro-proline7.7 a ± 4.72.5 b ± 4.58.7 a ± 2.50.0298 Phenylalanine  † 1.9 a ± 2.4 4.6 b ± 4.7 2.4 a ± 1.7 <0.0001 Phenylalanine  † 1.9 a ± 2.44.6 b ± 4.72.4 a ± 1.7<0.0001  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Means  "},{"text":"Table 6 . and obtained significantly high values of CP, surpassing those of soybean meal and Means (±standard error) of concentration of flavonoids (mg/g) in Black Soldier Fly larvae reared on three different rearing substrates. * Means (n = 2) in the same row followed with different superscripts are significantly different at p < 0.05; CM, Chicken Manure; KW, Kitchen Waste; SG, Spent Grain; BSFL, Black Soldier Fly larvae.  CM fed KW fed SG fed   CM fedKW fedSG fed Substrate BSFL BSFL BSFL p-values  SubstrateBSFLBSFLBSFLp-values Luteolin 8.2 ± 0.7 9.1 ± 3.6 9.5 ± 7.3 0.8752  Luteolin8.2 ± 0.79.1 ± 3.69.5 ± 7.3 0.8752 Apegenin 8.3 a * ± 1.1 3.7 b ± 6.2 8.2 a ± 1.1 0.0087  Apegenin8.3 a * ± 1.1 3.7 b ± 6.28.2 a ± 1.1 0.0087 Quercetin 4.6 ± 1.0 7.9 ± 3.9 5 ± 8.2 0.142  Quercetin4.6 ± 1.07.9 ± 3.95 ± 8.2 0.142 Rutin 8.1 ± 2.8 4.1 ± 0.7 5.1 ± 2.7 0.4538  Rutin8.1 ± 2.84.1 ± 0.75.1 ± 2.7 0.4538 Kaempferol 24.7 a ± 4.6 4.2 b ± 0.6 17.4 a ± 6.6 0.0196  Kaempferol24.7 a ± 4.6 4.2 b ± 0.617.4 a ± 6.6 0.0196   Retention time CM fed KW fed  Retention timeCM fedKW fed Parameter  (min) BSFL BSFL SG fed BSFL p-value Parameter(min)BSFLBSFLSG fed BSFLp-value Gamma tocopherol 34.3 2.3 ± 0.2 2.0 ± 0.2 1.7 ± 0.1 0.3767 Gamma tocopherol34.32.3 ± 0.22.0 ± 0.21.7 ± 0.10.3767 Alpha tocopherol 34.8 7.3 ± 1.3 9.9 ± 0.7 17.6 ± 2.5 0.0713 Alpha tocopherol34.87.3 ± 1.39.9 ± 0.717.6 ± 2.50.0713 Provitamin D3  35.3 1.3 ± 0.1 1.5 ± 0.1 1.6 ± 0.1 0.1399 Provitamin D335.31.3 ± 0.11.5 ± 0.11.6 ± 0.10.1399  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Means (±standard error) of concentrations (µg/g) of vitamins detected in Black Soldier Fly larvae reared on three different rearing substrates. CM, Chicken Manure; KW, Kitchen Waste; SG, Spent Grain; BSFL, Black Soldier Fly larvae.  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Means (±standard error) of fatty acids concentrations (µg/g) in Black Soldier Fly larvae reared on three different rearing substrates. * Means (n = 2) in the same row followed with different superscripts are significantly different at p < 0.05; CM, Chicken Manure; KW, Kitchen Waste; SG, Spent Grain; BSFL, Black Soldier Fly larvae.  Retention CM fed KW fed   RetentionCM fedKW fed Parameter Time (min) BSFL BSFL SG fed BSFL p-values ParameterTime (min)BSFLBSFLSG fed BSFLp-values Lauric acid 19.3 7.1 a* ± 1.0 7.4 a ± 9.0 11.0 b ± 1.1 0.0098 Lauric acid19.37.1 a* ± 1.07.4 a ± 9.011.0 b ± 1.10.0098 Myristic acid 19.6 6.8 ± 0.2 6.9 ± 11.1 7 ± 0.3 0.872 Myristic acid19.66.8 ± 0.26.9 ± 11.17 ± 0.30.872 Palmitic acid 19.8 6.5 ± 0.2 0 6.1 ± 0.3 0.3448 Palmitic acid19.86.5 ± 0.206.1 ± 0.30.3448 Stearic acid 26.1 6.9 a ± 0.1 5.6 a ± 0.4 9.6 b ± 1.6 0.001 Stearic acid26.16.9 a ± 0.15.6 a ± 0.49.6 b ± 1.60.001 Arachidic acid 26.9 6.9 a ± 0.4 6.1 a ± 0.5 8.5 b ± 0.6 0.0061 Arachidic acid26.96.9 a ± 0.46.1 a ± 0.58.5 b ± 0.60.0061 Palmitoleic acid 23.05 4.4 ± 5.6 4.2 ± 3.8 5.1 ± 3.9 0.3641 Palmitoleic acid23.054.4 ± 5.64.2 ± 3.85.1 ± 3.90.3641 Oleic acid 25.0 8.0 ± 0.2 7.2 ± 0.1 8 ± 11.9 0.3348 Oleic acid25.08.0 ± 0.27.2 ± 0.18 ± 11.90.3348 Linoleic acid 25.3 5.8 ± 0.3 7.5 ± 0.1 0 0.0766 Linoleic acid25.35.8 ± 0.37.5 ± 0.100.0766 g-Linolenic acid 25.0 5.6 a ± 0.1 5.5 ab ± 0.5 7.4 b ± 0.4 0.0009 g-Linolenic acid25.05.6 a ± 0.15.5 ab ± 0.57.4 b ± 0.40.0009 Arachidonic acid 26.4 6.7 a ± 0.3 5.7 b ± 0.1 0 ± 0.1 0.0018 Arachidonic acid26.46.7 a ± 0.35.7 b ± 0.10 ± 0.10.0018 Eicosapentaenoic acid 26.4 5.6 a ± 0.3 5.9 a ± 0.1 6.8 b ± 0.1 0.0106 Eicosapentaenoic acid26.45.6 a ± 0.35.9 a ± 0.16.8 b ± 0.10.0106  "}],"sieverID":"78f33e09-4b3c-4428-977a-335835843499","abstract":"In Africa, livestock production currently accounts for about 30% of the gross value of agricultural production. However, production is struggling to keep up with the demands of expanding human populations, the rise in urbanization and the associated shifts in diet habits. High costs of feed prevent the livestock sector from thriving and to meet the rising demand. Insects have been identified as potential alternatives to the conventionally used protein sources in livestock feed due to their rich nutrients content and the fact that they can be reared on organic side streams. Substrates derived from organic by-products are suitable for industrial large-scale production of insect meal. Thus, a holistic comparison of the nutritive value of Black Soldier Fly larvae (BSFL) reared on three different organic substrates, i.e. chicken manure (CM), brewers' spent grain (SG) and kitchen waste (KW), was conducted. BSFL samples reared on every substrate were collected for chemical analysis after the feeding process. Five-hundred (500) neonatal BSFL were placed in 23 × 15 cm metallic trays on the respective substrates for a period of 3-4 weeks at 28 ± 2 °C and 65 ± 5% relative humidity. The larvae were harvested when the prepupal stage was reached using a 5 mm mesh size sieve. A sample of 200 grams prepupae was taken from each replicate and pooled for every substrate and then frozen at −20 °C for chemical analysis. Samples of BSFL and substrates were analyzed for dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), ether extracts (EE), ash, acid detergent fibre (ADF), neutral detergent fibre (NDF), amino acids (AA), fatty acids (FA), vitamins, flavonoids, minerals and aflatoxins. The data were then subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using general linear model procedure. BSFL differed in terms of nutrient composition depending on the organic substrates they were reared on. CP, EE, minerals, amino acids, ADF and NDF but not vitamins were affected by the different rearing substrates. BSFL fed on different substrates exhibited different accumulation patterns of minerals, with CM resulting in the largest turnover of minerals. Low concentrations of heavy metals (cadmium and lead) were detected in the BSFL, but no traces of aflatoxins were found. In conclusion, it is possible to take advantage of the readily available organic waste streams in Kenya to produce nutrient-rich BSFL-derived feed.The global food demand is expected to increase by 70% by the year 2050 in order to meet the demands of the 9.7 billion people who are forecasted to inhibit the globe by that time 1 . In the recent past already major shifts in diets have happened, favoring more animal-based foods, in particular milk, meat, fish and eggs, and these preferences are expected to increase with time 2 . These changes in dietarian pattern have been accelerated by economic growth, coupled with rapid migration from rural to urban areas, as well an increasing awareness in nutritional needs. By the middle of the current century, cereal and meat production are expected to increase from 2.1 billion and 258 million tons produced per annum between 2005 and 2007 to 3.0 billion and455 million tons, respectively, raising worldwide concerns regarding the status of food security 3 ."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"093a9b9095809b76ab0de008a6ee4fc3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9c288677-12ff-4d02-8fb0-3649e0b40baf/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Market institutions such as livestock traders' associations and intermediaries, both at local and national levels (sociétés de convoyage), have emerged to play roles, which should ordinarily be undertaken by the public sector. These roles are aimed at lowering transactions costs and facilitating livestock trade and regional integration."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"• Livestock traders' associations, especially the Cooperative des Marchands de Bétail de Sikasso (COBAS) of Mali and the Union Nationale des Associations de Commerçants et Exportateurs de Bétail du Burkina Faso (UNACEB), appear to have the required knowledge and managerial skills to successfully administer credit and supply transport facilities to needy members but lack the financial strength to fully achieve these objectives. Their methods of credit administration merit further study as these could provide lessons for overcoming the constraints posed by lack of credit to livestock traders."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"• Some governments in the region are not fully committed to the implementation of agreed trade policy reforms concerning trade liberalisation and facilitation, exchange and payments systems and investment facilitation. This negatively affects costs of livestock trade and regional integration."},{"index":4,"size":124,"text":"Promoting livestock marketing and intraregional trade in West Africa I. Okike, T.O. Williams and I. Baltenweck L ivestock are the highest valued agricultural commodity in intra-regional trade in West Africa. Historically, they have linked the Sahelian countries (e.g. Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger), which are livestock exporters, to the humid coastal countries of Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Nigeria, which are net importers. Intra-regional trade in live animals, including cattle, sheep and goats, increased in real value terms from US$ 17 million in 1970 to US$ 211 million in 2000, with cattle accounting for roughly 70% of trade. Livestock provide livelihood opportunities for millions of resource poor smallholder producers and, if properly promoted, livestock trade has the potential to contribute significantly to foreign exchange earnings."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"As part of the Common Fund for Commodities (CFC) funded project on \"Improvement of Livestock Marketing and Regional Trade in West Africa\", the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) conducted a study in 1999 to identify the major economic, institutional and policy barriers to achieving the full benefits and possibilities of livestock trade. Major findings of the study are presented in this brief."}]},{"head":"Livestock marketing channels: Competition and market performance","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Beef produced under the pastoral systems in the Sahel in 2001 at an average price of US$ 1500/t is competitive compared with the global price of US$ 1900 and US$ 2500 and US$ 3100/t in the United States and the European Union, respectively (Boutonnet et al. 2000;World Bank 2001). How- "}]},{"head":"Transportation and handling (transfer) costs as a major constraint to marketing","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":239,"text":"The purchase price of cattle at an average of 105,850 FCFA in the exporting countries represents 83% of all costs incurred in cross-border cattle marketing. Livestock trade in West Africa is based on live animals and, as such, transportation and handling go together in the process of transferring animals from one location/owner to another. Transportation and handling alone account for almost half of the other associated marketing costs (Figure 2). Cross-border transportation and handling expenses remain high due to a shortage of trucks, high fuel taxes, activities of sociétés de convoyage (see livestock market institutions below), handling costs and inadequate or deteriorating transport infrastructure (see Brief 3). Promoting effective livestock marketing and intra-regional trade will require the elimination of illegal road taxation at checkpoints, reforming conveyance companies, and lowering fuel taxes. These policy actions could potentially lower shipment costs by 37% or 5250 FCFA/head of cattle from the current 13,650 FCFA/head (see Brief 3). Value added processing, in the medium to long run, will further reduce costs in the cross-border segment by eliminating the need to pay fees to drovers who drive (conduct) herds of animals to market as trade becomes based mostly on meat rather than live animals. ever, marketing problems in the region lower this competitive advantage and partly prevent Sahelian livestock producing countries from participating in the lucrative global market for red meat. Competitiveness remains a matter of concern for various reasons presented in this brief."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"The domestic segment of the livestock marketing channel starts at the farm gates and village collection markets and ends at frontier markets-markets which are located at the border of neighbouring countries with the aim of facilitating cross-border trade. This segment is operated by small to medium scale traders with a capital base ranging from 0.5 to 2.5 million FCFA 1 and was found to be very competitive with marketing margins ranging from 2.7 to 5.5% of final market prices for cattle. The main distinguishing factor between big livestock (export) traders and domestic traders was the capital outlay required to export a truckload of cattle-about 4.4 million FCFA."},{"index":3,"size":147,"text":"The number of traders operating in the cross-border segment have remained limited due to the higher capital outlay required, lowering the necessity to adopt competitive behaviour. This is partly reflected in the size of the marketing margins of export traders which is two to five times higher than in the domestic segment (Figure 1). In total, this can represent as much as 6.52 billion FCFA per year for cattle exports from Burkina Faso and Mali alone. The higher margins partly compensate for the higher risks and transactions costs (including loss of animal and illicit taxation) involved in cross-border trade. Nevertheless, the results suggest that improved market performance in the entire livestock marketing chain can be achieved by making credit readily available to livestock traders to increase the number of participants and competition in the cross-border segment, and also by reducing the risks associated with cross-border livestock trade."}]},{"head":"Premium on high-grade cattle and advancing production towards exportable surplus","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Analyses of factors that determine livestock prices showed that buyers paid a premium for large, castrated, zebu cattle in excellent body condition (see Brief 2). All traded cattle were graded by body condition, with only 14% of weighed cattle proving to be in excellent body condition (Table 1)."}]},{"head":"Table 1. Average prices (FCFA/kg liveweight) paid by cattle traders for the five grades of cattle presented at the 3 frontier markets studied (sample size = 3811).","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Tests for equality of means show that prices differed at 0.01 level of significance between grades"},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"The price per kg liveweight of cattle varied from 289 FCFA for very lean cattle to 413 FCFA for cattle in excellent body condition. Improving the body condition of cattle presented for sale to an excellent rating would result in a 34% increase in beef production, or a 39% increase in value. In real terms, the value of intra-regional cattle trade in 2000 could have been worth US$ 208 million instead of the US$ 150 million it achieved if farmers had consistently produced zebu cattle in excellent body condition.  "}]},{"head":"Very lean","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Weak price transmission between markets","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Comparing cattle prices over time in Bittou and Niangoloko markets, and their respective supply markets, showed that livestock prices tend to move in the same direction in the short run for pairs of frontier and supply markets. However, prices in the frontier markets do not respond to changes in farmers' supply (Bittou) or only weakly (Niangoloko). This suggests that traders, especially in the case of Bittou where all cattle exports were purchased at the frontier market, dictate prices."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"In contrast, export traders in Niangoloko made 69% of their purchases from upstream collection markets and farm gates. This higher level of upstream activity assisted price transmission, which explains the higher level of price responsiveness recorded in Niangoloko."},{"index":3,"size":36,"text":"The low level of market integration and weak livestock price transmission indicate a need to put in place effective market information systems as a policy option for improving pricing that would benefit West Africa's livestock producers."}]},{"head":"Livestock market institutions","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Information on livestock prices and supplies of livestock and objective standards for buying and selling animals in the markets studied were not available. The absence of these resources negatively impacts trade by increasing the time required for buyers to search for animals with appealing qualities, the ensuing negotiations, payment, and transfer of ownership. At times, these transactions costs are so high that no exchange takes place. This has led to the emergence of market institutions to lower costs and promote exchange."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"The most important institutions are traders' associations and intermediaries. Intermediaries exist both as individuals (brokers) and as organised bodies, such as sociétés de convoyage (conveyance companies)."}]},{"head":"Individual intermediaries (brokers)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Individual intermediaries act ex ante and ex post to influence livestock market transactions costs (see Box 1). Their roles often lower transactions costs and increase the number of successful negotiations, though the marketing margins of sellers may be lowered in the process. For each cattle transaction, the buyer pays the intermediary a flat fee of 500 FCFA. Export traders use intermediaries (up to 97% of the time) for reselling to avoid selling on credit, and only 6% of the time for purchases, probably in order to control cash disbursement directly."}]},{"head":"Sociétés de convoyage as organised intermediaries","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"Traders' accounts show that the shipment of cattle by truck from the Sahel to the coast attracts illegal payments to public agents averaging 150,000 FCFA/truckload of 35 cattle. Traders are obliged to make these illegal payments partly because they often fail to fulfil certain obligations, e.g. vaccination of animals and possession of valid trading licences etc. To facilitate trade and assist illiterate traders to fulfil their obligations, including completion of necessary paper work, sociétés de convoyage emerged and for fees that averaged 35,000 FCFA/trip in 2000 but grew to 80,000 FCFA in 2001 would provide services to traders. Traders that engage the services of these companies end up paying a token illegal tax of 1,000 FCFA/checkpoint. Initially, traders found the services provided by these companies convenient as they saved them time and money considering the proliferation of checkpoints, especially in Côte d'Ivoire (see Brief 3). However, the increased fees charged by these companies negate their usefulness by increasing traders' costs and reducing the competitiveness of Sahelian beef in coastal markets."}]},{"head":"Livestock traders' associations","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"The Cooperative des Marchands de Bétail de Sikasso (COBAS) of Mali and the Union Nationale des Associations de Commerçants et Exportateurs de Bétail du Burkina Faso (UNACEB) are the two most important livestock traders associations encountered in the frontier markets. Membership fees range from 3500 to 5000 FCFA with annual dues of about 1500 FCFA. Such market associations seek solutions to some of the constraints faced by traders, which the public sector has insufficiently responded to (see Box 2)."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"In Sikasso, many of the traders interviewed revealed that they joined COBAS mainly to:"},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"• reduce search time for trucks used in exporting animals • solve administrative and social problems related to operating in the frontier market • obtain cheaper animal feeds sold to members"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• acquire an allocation of space in the market stalls available for livestock fattening."}]},{"head":"Box 1. Roles of individual intermediaries","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Individual intermediaries carry out the following functions:"}]},{"head":"•","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Identify sellers having the types of animals that buyers want"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• Provide buyers with information on market prices, types, grades and numbers of animals in the market"}]},{"head":"•","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Link buyers to sellers and moderate negotiations"}]},{"head":"•","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Enforce the terms of exchange by collecting money from buyers and paying sellers"}]},{"head":"•","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Witness the transfer of animals and"}]},{"head":"•","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Arrange the grouping and transportation of purchased animals for an export trader."}]},{"head":"Box 2. Ten priority constraints: Traders' account","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"The most important constraints to livestock marketing as listed by the livestock traders, in order of importance, are as follows: i. Limited capital and difficult access to credit ii. Too many formalities, fees and taxes (legal and illegal) paid during trips iii. Shortage of trucks at the frontier markets to transport animals to terminal markets iv. Lack of stock routes-routes specifically created to facilitate movement of animals along cultivated areas to prevent damage to crops and property-for trekking animals to frontier markets v. Shortage of livestock feed at frontier markets vi. System of selling on credit to buyers which lengthens the time to recover capital outlay vii. Lack of training for traders in livestock marketing viii. Limited external market outlets in other countries ix. Insufficient support from livestock traders' associations"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"x. Lack of security (risk of losing animal or money along the trading route)."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"In line with previous work, this study shows that opportunities exist for improving livestock marketing and regional trade in West Africa. This can be done by:"},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"• making credit readily available to livestock traders and private entrepreneurs who wish to go into value added processing of livestock. This can be achieved through the strengthening of traders' associations"}]},{"head":"• lowering transportation and handling costs","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"• developing reliable livestock market information systems and • liberalising, harmonising, and implementing regional policies on livestock trade with total commitment."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Ninety percent of the traders interviewed in Bittou and Niangoloko stated that UNACEB played an important role in obtaining credit from a bank and on-lending to its members at interest rates that are 5-10% lower than market rates (which ranged from 25-32%). Roughly, 50% of the traders joined the association to build social capital, 19% to have access to market information and 16% to be able to control or fix livestock prices."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"COBAS and UNACEB have, for the most part, succeeded in arranging for transport for their members and in providing them with credit facilities. In doing so they have demonstrated sufficient knowledge and skills to manage transportation and organise finance for the benefit of their members. Organising a network of successful market associations and expanding and strengthening their capacity could, therefore, prove rewarding in solving some of the constraints to livestock trade. Ways of linking successful associations to one another and to financial institutions should be studied, thus enabling associations to mediate between livestock traders and financial institutions. The capacity of market associations to purchase and rent out trucks to their members should also be explored."}]},{"head":"Trade policy","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Trade policy, in addition to the economic and institutional issues already discussed, also affects intraregional livestock trade. For example, key trade policy reforms such as trade liberalisation, trade facilitation, exchange and payments systems and investment facilitation are being implemented in different ways and at varying speeds by countries in the region (see Brief 1). Lack of commitment in handling these issues will raise the costs of livestock trade and continue to fuel illegal taxation to the detriment of improved regional trade."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"This publication is an output from the Common Fund for Commodities (CFC) financed project \"Improvement of Livestock Marketing and Regional Trade\". However, the views expressed here are not necessarily those of CFC or CILSS. "}]},{"head":"CONTACTS","index":22,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 2 Figure 2 Components of cross-border cattle marketing costs (%) (excluding purchase cost of cattle). "},{"text":" , Ghana and Nigeria as net importers of livestock. "},{"text":"West Africa Livestock Marketing: Brief 4  Figure 1. Marketing margins of domestic and cross-border Figure 1. Marketing margins of domestic and cross-border traders in Sikasso (Mali), Bittou and Niangoloko (Burkina traders in Sikasso (Mali), Bittou and Niangoloko (Burkina Faso).    Faso).  16   16  14   14  10 12 14.3 13.9 11.6 10 1214.313.911.6  8   8  6   6 % 4 5.5  %45.5  2  2.7 3.6 22.73.6  0   0   Sikasso Bittou Niangoloko SikassoBittouNiangoloko  "},{"text":"of fin al cattle p rice  Domestic traders' margin Domestic traders' margin Export traders' margin Export traders' margin  "}],"sieverID":"6cca892e-59ce-47d7-9972-10ff2406757c","abstract":"Livestock trade is more competitive and functions better within countries (domestic segment) than between countries (crossborder segment). This is mainly due to high capital outlay, lack of credit and the increased risk of losing animals associated with cross-border trade.• Transportation and handling costs are the single largest component of marketing costs. These can be reduced through reduction of tariffs on new trucks and spares and the reduction of official taxes, including fuel tax. Elimination of illegal taxation along the trade routes could also contribute to improved market performance.• Value-added processing will eliminate the need for handling costs incurred during cross-border transportation.• Beef production and value of livestock trade can be substantially increased through fattening schemes in response to the premium being paid by export traders for high quality beef. This should also pave the way for the region to achieve exportable surplus and earn foreign exchange.• Market integration is low. Livestock market information systems have to be developed and effectively deployed at national and regional levels to overcome this problem."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a1d5316efa683c8c09017887aeb4fc6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f020b58b-2291-4da4-a734-3ee511c84172/retrieve"},"pageCount":38,"title":"Characterizing farm households in Western Bangladesh through a quantitative farming systems typology","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Table of contents","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"The Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems (SIMFS) is a CGIAR initiative. This initiative 'aims to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification within target agroecological and socioeconomic settings. To achieve this, different methodologies, innovations, and practices have been implemented to understand and improve the agroecological/productive conditions to assess a benefit on nutrition, food security and welfare. SIMFS works closely with the CGIAR Regional Integrated Initiative on Transforming Agrifood Systems in South Asia (TAFSSA) that propels evidence into impact through engagement with public and private partners across the production-to-consumption continuum, to achieve productive, environmentallysound South Asian agrifood systems that support equitable access to sustainable healthy diets."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"The use of Principal Component Analysis through Hierarchical Clustering (PCA-HC) is a tool which provides relevant information for farmers, practitioners, and other stakeholders. The development of typologies is a methodological approach to systematically arrange and interpret data associated with the categorization of groups of variables. In farming systems analysis, household-level data are critical in delineating internal farm dynamics that include production processes, adaptive strategies, and resilience metrics. Structural variables, characterized by their stability over short to medium-term periods, are key to discerning consistent trends and patterns within farming systems. These variables assist in identifying the strategic choices made by farm households to advance their welfare and nutrition. The analytical process is structured to support the establishment of sustainable and productive mixed crop-livestock-tree farming systems."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"Table 1.1 outlines the survey's scope, which was conducted in three regions of interest: North, South, and West (as depicted in Figure 1.1), aligning with the areas of intervention for the SI-MFS, Asian Mega Deltas, and/or TAFSSA Initiatives. The survey was carried out in the Bengali language by local enumerators, utilizing electronic devices equipped with Kobo toolbox application. Data collection occurred between December 2022 and May 2023, resulting in a total of 1857 records. Following a thorough data cleaning process, 1680 records were retained. This farm typology report specifically focuses on the data obtained from the West region, encompassing 432 entries, covering the districts of Chapainawabganj (217) and Rajshahi (215). "}]},{"head":"Typology construction","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Data sources and processing","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Data source","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The original data frame was recorded in a CSV file. The land definition was provided by the farmers, and the local units were changed into a metric system. Some tests were applied to identify possible outliers in Excel of Office 360 and corrected with expertise from the CIMMYT-Bangladesh team. For the analysis some variables were used as collected, meanwhile other were created from original information, as ratios or indexes."}]},{"head":"Software","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The analysis was conducted using R (v 4.2.2), in R-Studio (v 2022.12.0 Build 353), over Windows 10 Enterprise 22H2. The packages used for analysis included dplyr, reshape, ggpubr, corrplot, psych, caret, Hmisc, agricolae for data analysis and factoextra, ade4, vioplot, sf, tmap, grid, gridExtra, ggplot2 for graphical representation."}]},{"head":"Data cleaning. Near-Zero Variance, outliers, and collinearity","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Before conducting the PCA-HC analysis, a preliminary step involved the removal of variables from the available dataset in order to mitigate dimensionality. To accomplish this, we classified variables into two distinct categories: structural and non-structural. Structural variables, exemplified by attributes such as land surface area, active subsystems within the farm, and land use, exhibit minimal year-to-year variability. In contrast, non-structural variables such as crop yields or income, can change dramatically within a year. Binomial or categorical variables were considered within the dataset, although their treatment in the analysis is not specified in this context. The decision to exclusively retain the structural variables for the subsequent PCA-HC analysis stems from their inherent stability over time."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Subsequently, all initially selected variables were tested and those having more ≥74% of the data as NA, or a prevalence of ≥80% of 0 (zero) value as responses, were consequently excluded from further analysis. This systematic approach was undertaken to augment the distinctions between farms within the PCA-HCA framework. In the context of PCA-HCA, the resulting 'reduced' dataset was used in a two-step testing process to refine and obtain a cleaner version for typological analysis:"},{"index":3,"size":142,"text":"To assess the near-zero variance of each variable, a statistical test, as outlined by Kuhn (2023), was utilized to demonstrate significant near-zero variance behavior. This test relied on the ratio of the most frequently occurring high values to the percent uniqueness of values within all data vectors. We next conducted a visual examination of the dataset's variable distributions through the use of boxplots and histograms, with the aim of identifying patterns resembling normal distributions. In order to evaluate relationships between variables, we utilized Pearson's correlation to examine data that were comprised of numerical variables. Following Barba-Escoto et al. (2019), a threshold of 0.7 was employed as a discriminating point. Any correlations exceeding this absolute reference value were scrutinized across all related variables, and for interpretation purposes, the most significant variable was selected among those with multiple correlations or varying levels of significance."},{"index":4,"size":115,"text":"Before the cleaning process 54 variables and 432 farmer respondents' data were preselected for the farm typology characterization of Rajshahi and Chapainawabganj districts. 11 variables linked to the identification of each survey were directly removed. Another 17 variables were removed after the cleaning process. The final farm type definition presented in this document is based on a matrix of 26 variables 432 farmer household survey respondents. The ratio of surveys to variables in this analysis is 16.6, which exceeds the commonly accepted threshold of 5, indicating the reliability of the analysis. For more detailed information on the original pre-selected variables, please refer to Table 5.1, and for numerical data, consult Table 5.2 in the annexes."}]},{"head":"PCA-HCA. Defining types","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Our process of typology construction (Barba-Escoto, et al., 2019) is divided into two main processes: a) PCA relevant components definition (dimensions), and b) HCA clustering for groups definition. Thereafter, the farm types are described by the differences between the groups."}]},{"head":"PCA-HCA","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"The definition of the dimensions is based on the eigenvalues for each potential component; those with eigenvalues >1 were considered relevant. The scree test provides a visual support for this step. In this case, 10 dimensions were defined (Table 2.1, Figure 2.1). Following the preliminary assessment, the farm system components are delineated, and the districts are allocated into these components (as illustrated in Figure 2.2). This classification is based on the distance of each district's corresponding value in the vector created by each variable and the direction across these components. The significance or weighting of each selected variable can be found in ¡Error! No se encuentra el origen de la referencia., provided in the annexes.    "}]},{"head":"Clustering (HCA)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"In the second phase of the typology construction, the grouping process is established, guided by the Within Group Squared Sum (WGSS) and a hierarchical classification (as depicted in Figure 2.4). Combining the insights derived from both methods, three distinct farm types were defined. Subsequently, each record was categorized and allocated to one of these three groups, as depicted in Figure 2.5. Table 2.2 summarizes the distribution of the records into the different farm types.   "}]},{"head":"Definition of farm types","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"As described in the previous section, utilizing the PCA-HCA approach, three distinct farm types have been identified. It is essential to note that the farm type descriptions presented below provide a relative perspective on the characteristics among these farm types. The variables employed in designing the farm types are visually represented in a heatmap (¡Error! No se encuentra el origen de la referencia.) to emphasize group differences. For each farm type a graphic representation showing the average component characteristics as well as the average interactions/flows between components is given (Figures 2.6 to 2.8)."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Several key considerations also include (i) the TLU score, based on the simplified model by Njuki et al. (2011), considers solely the reported number of animals to derive a value based on weight and fodder requirements; and (ii) there are three primary productive seasons: spring (kharif-1), monsoon (kharif-2), and winter (rabi) seasons; (iii) naming of the farm types was done with the support of Chat GPT (3.6 v); (iv) these are preliminary results."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Supplementary information is available in the annexes, it includes: i."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"A map displaying the surveyed farms and their corresponding farm types (Figure 5.1). ii."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"The results of a Bonferroni test carried out to assess significant differences between farm types for the definitive variables (Table 5.5) as well as the results of a Chi-squared test applied to analyse the variables (Table 5.6). iii."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"A comprehensive visualization of variables across all districts presented through boxplots (Figures 5.2 to 5.7). It's important to note that this information relies on the same dataset; however, additional outliers were removed specifically when examining production. The key topics addressed encompass household information, income sources, land allocations, production, and indicators of system resilience."},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"Type 1 (130 n / 30.1 %) -Small-scale, income restricted rice-based farms with limited crop diversity."},{"index":8,"size":105,"text":"Among the three identified farm types, Type 1 (T1) farms exhibit characteristics including the smallest average landholdings, amounting to 0.7 hectares, which are typically divided into a medium number of plots (5.3). Crop cultivation dominates during the kharif-2 season (98.3%) and is less prominent during the winter rabi season (32.7%). Notably, the main crops cultivated by T1 farms are predominantly irrigated (97.6%). However, the land available per person and per animal is relatively low, at 0.2 hectares per person and 0.3 hectares per animal, respectively. Surprisingly, despite limited land resources, land occupancy on their land is the lowest among the farm types, standing at 89.3%."},{"index":9,"size":28,"text":"Rice cultivation plays a primary role on T1 farms, with the highest share of land allocated to this crop (98.4%) and generating the largest proportion of income (95.7%)."},{"index":10,"size":69,"text":"In contrast, other crops hold less importance, both in terms of land allocation and income generation. These farms exhibit the least crop diversity (0.8) and appear to have no significant diversity in vegetable production (0.0). Their homesteads show limited diversity in leafy vegetables (0.5), but they have a relatively higher diversity in fruit trees (0.5) and moderate timber diversity (2.3). Approximately 74.5% of homestead produce is utilized for self-consumption."},{"index":11,"size":61,"text":"T1 farms maintain a small number of animals, with a Total Livestock Units (TLU) score of 1, including 0.9 for cattle-buffalo, 0.1 for goats, and a substantial number of chickens (0.8). Despite this, they produce the smallest quantity of milk, totalling 160 liters per year, and the income share from animal production is the lowest among the farm types, at 7.2%."},{"index":12,"size":49,"text":"Income sources for T1 farms predominantly stem from selling their own labour (16%) and trade-related services (18.9%), whereas cropping contributes the least to their income (57.0%). Additionally, T1 farms receive the lowest levels of support from both government (2.2 out of 12) and other organizations (1.0 out of 12) "}]},{"head":"Type 2 (213 n / 49.3 %) -Intensive and moderately diversified rice-based farms generating income from mustard cultivation.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Type 2 (T2) farms exhibit slightly larger average landholdings, approximately 0.8 hectares, yet are divided into fewer plots, averaging around 4.8 fields per farm. Notably, they present the lowest area under cultivation during the kharif-2 season (92.0%) but the highest during the rabi season (86.8%). They consequently display the highest land occupancy (108%) among the three identified farm types. A significant portion of their crop production relies on irrigation, accounting for approximately 90.2% of the total cropped area."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"The land available per person and per animal is similar to T1 farms, standing at 0.2 hectares per person and 0.4 hectares per animal, respectively. In terms of crop allocation, T2 farms allocate the lowest proportion of land to rice cropping (66.1%), while dedicating the highest share to mustard cultivation (17.9%) and maintaining a moderate allocation for other winter crops, including wheat (9.9%) and lentils (4.1%)."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Consequently, the contribution of rice sales to their income is the lowest among the farm types (69.8%), whereas mustard generates 14.8% of their total income, and wheat contributes 8.6%."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"This farm type demonstrates a moderate level of crop diversity (1.0) and boasts the highest vegetable diversity among western Bangladesh farm types (0.3). T2 farms exhibit the highest diversity in homestead leafy vegetable production (0.7), maintain a moderate level of diversity in fruit trees (0.4), and possess the lowest diversity in timber resources (1.8). Approximately 71.3% of homestead produce is intended for selfconsumption."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"Regarding animal husbandry, T2 farms maintain a similar number of goats as the other two farm types (goat TLU 0.1) and possess a TLU score of 1.3, including a cattlebuffalo TLU of 1.2. They maintain the lowest number of chickens (0.7) but exhibit the highest annual milk production, averaging 315 liters. Nonetheless, income generated from animal production activities remains relatively low, contributing only 8.4% to the overall income mix."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"In terms of income sources, cropping constitutes the majority, representing 65.4%, followed by trade and services at 17.2%, while labour sales constitute only 7.7% of their income. T2 farms receive moderate support from both government (2.6 out of 12) and private organizations (1.3 out of 12). "}]},{"head":"Type 3 (89 n / 20.6 %) -Large rice-wheat farmers integrating livestock and generating income from cropping.","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The third farm type (T3) exhibits the largest average landholding, averaging 1.6 hectares, and the highest number of plots, approximately 11.7, resulting in a corresponding increase in available land per person and per animal, measuring 0.3 hectares per person and 0.8 hectares per animal, respectively. These farms allocate a substantial 95.6% of their land area to cultivation during the kharif-2 season, followed by 59.9% during rabi, culminating in a moderate land occupancy of 96.4%. Interestingly, this farm type relies slightly less on irrigation, with 85.6% of cultivation being irrigated."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"T3 farms allocate a noteworthy portion of their land to rice cropping, encompassing 75.4%, and allocate the largest share among the three farm types to wheat cultivation, accounting for 10.6% of their land. Additionally, while lentils remain a marginal crop, they hold more significance for this farm type than the others, constituting 6.4% of land allocation and contributing 4.9% to overall income. This farm type also boasts the highest percentage of rice sold (66%) and exhibits the highest crop diversity (1.3)."},{"index":3,"size":104,"text":"In terms of homestead agriculture, T3 farms share the same leafy vegetable production score as T2 (0.7), albeit with a lower quantity of fruit trees (0.3) and a higher quantity of timber crops (3.2). A substantial 81.0% of homestead produce is dedicated to self-consumption. Furthermore, T3 farms maintain the largest number of animals, with a TLU of 1.4 (total) and 1.3 cattle-buffalo, along with 0.6 goats and 0.8 chickens. These farms achieve an average yearly milk production of 211.2 liters, exceeding T1 but falling short of T2. The income share derived from animal production is the highest among the three farm types, at 10.9%."},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":"The income structure of T3 farms is characterized by a predominant reliance on cropping income, constituting 72.6% of their total income, while other income sources, such as trade and services (12.8%) and labour sales (3.7%), contribute less significantly. These farms receive the highest level of support from both government (2.8 out of 12) and private organizations (1.5 out of 12).  Note: The heatmap is based on a 3-colour scale for numerical values for each variable, with green for the largest value and red for lowest, to facilitate visual analysis. For deeper analysis in important to evaluate the larger distances between values as a broad description."}]},{"head":"Preliminary conclusions","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Small scale farming systems are often complex combining several farm (e.g. crop, livestock, aquaculture) and non-farm activities for the livelihood of rural families. This complexity often generates, within the same region or agroecological zone, a large diversity of farming systems with, for example, different levels of specialisation on certain crops and/or livestock activities, differences in the reliance on farming and non-farming activities for the generation of income or differences in the labour engagement for the different activities carried out by the household."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Capturing such diversity and complexity of farming systems is an essential step towards developing suitable (baskets of) socio-technical innovation bundles (Barret, et al, 2022) that i) address the main challenges for the sustainability of specific types of farming systems and ii) identify distinctive (best fit) opportunities and entry points for improving their performance. Not all farmers are the same and no innovation is a best fit for all farmers."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"In this analysis we have identified three relatively homogeneous and significantly different types of farming systems for two districts of Western Bangladesh based on a survey applied to 432 farm households in Chapainawabganj (217) and Rajshashi (215) districts: Type 1 (T1) -Small-scale, income restricted rice-based farms with limited crop diversity; Type 2 (T2) -Intensive and moderately diversified rice-based farms generating income from mustard cultivation; and; Type 3 (T3) -Large rice-wheat farmers integrating livestock and generating income from cropping."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"For each of these farm household types we have identified their distinctive features, the main components of the farming systems and their relative importance, as well as some internal and external flows. This systemic characterization of the diversity of farming systems in Chapainawabganj and Rajshahi can be conceived as a first step toward the analysis and design of more sustainable Mixed Farming Systems in this part of Bangladesh."},{"index":5,"size":290,"text":"In the OneCGIAR SI-MFS initiative the DEED framework has been adopted for the codesign of more sustainable MFS. The DEED framework encompasses a series of phases for systems analysis and co-design (Describe, Explain, Explore, and Design; Figure 3.1) (Gebreyes et al., 2023). The definition of farm typologies is part of the \"Describe\" phase of this framework. Based on this typology developed for Western Bangladesh, further analysis of the detailed dataset for the different types as well as focus group discussions (FGD) and semi-structured interviews, would allow to identify the main limitations and inefficiencies for different types of farming systems, their differentiated priorities and indicators of success and assess their performance through multi-criteria assessment. For example, Type 1 farms have small landholding, few animals and focus on rice production mainly; further they generate a significant part of their income by selling their labor and engaging in trade and service activities. Thus, they would probably seek innovations that can enhance their rice harvest but do not require big investments in time and labour. On the other hand Type 2 farms have slightly bigger landholdings but moreover they have a strong focus on winter crops production (e.g. mustard); therefore they would probably seek innovations that allow them to grow winter crops more successfully. Further they also have the highest milk production among the farm types of western Bangladesh, even higher than Type 3 farms that have more land available, thus innovations linked to livestock production or a better integration between crop and livestock production within the farm might also be of interest for these type of households. Formalising these hypotheses and assessing specific process trough empirical or analytical pathways would need to be carried out during the Explain phase of the DEED cycle."},{"index":6,"size":160,"text":"Exploring the potential effect of specific socio-technical innovation bundles for different types of farm households would allow to identify type-specific areas of improvement and identify potential trade-offs and synergies that need to be addressed or exploited in the process of co-design of more sustainable MFS. Such trade-off and synergies would be different for different farm types and will delimit their specific window of opportunities for improving systems performance and will inform the most promising pathways for successful co-design. Finally, based on action research and informed by previous phases of the DEED cycle, novel practices and systems configurations can be designed, suitable for different types of farming systems and engage in a process of co-innovation where farmers and researchers put together their learning tools to improve the sustainability of mixed farming systems.  Note: each variable compares the media's types assigning a letter, in which similar letters imply no-statistical difference between types. The green colour highlights statistical difference between types.    cgiar.org/initiative/mixed-farming-systems cgiar.org/initiative/transforming-agrifood-systems-in-south-asia-tafssa/"}]},{"head":"Variable","index":15,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Abbreviations and acronyms .................................................................................................... iv Glossary ............................................................................................................................................. iv 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 5 2. Typology construction .......................................................................................................... 8 Data sources and processing ........................................................................................................................ 8 Data source .......................................................................................................................................................... 8 Software ................................................................................................................................................................. 8 Data cleaning. Near-Zero Variance, outliers, and collinearity .............................................. 8 PCA-HCA. Defining types .................................................................................................................................9 PCA-HCA ................................................................................................................................................................9 Clustering (HCA) ............................................................................................................................................... 11 Definition of farm types ................................................................................................................................... 13 Type 1 (130 n / 30.1 %) -Small-scale, income restricted rice-based farms with limited crop diversity. ..................................................................................................................................................... 14 Type 2 (213 n / 49.3 %) -Intensive and moderately diversified rice-based farms generating income from mustard cultivation. ............................................................................ 16 Type 3 (89 n / 20.6 %) -Large rice-wheat farmers integrating livestock and generating income from cropping. ..................................................................................................... 18 3. Preliminary conclusions ...................................................................................................... 21 4. References .............................................................................................................................. 24 5. Annexes .................................................................................................................................... 25 "},{"text":"Figure 2 . 1 Figure 2.1 Scree test result defining 10 dimensions for PCA-HCA. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . 2 Figure 2.2 Variable weightings identified through PCA. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . 3 Figure 2.3 Observations in dimension 1-2 of PCA. "},{"text":"Figure 2 Figure 2.4 Within Group Squared Sum (above) and hierarchical cluster dendrogram (below). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . 5 Figure 2.5 Types clustering (dimension 1-2 and 1-3). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . 6 Figure 2.6 Map Diagram -Farm type 1, \"Small-scale, income restricted rice-based farms with limited crop diversity\" (130 n / 30.1 %). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . 7 Figure 2.7 Map Diagram -Farm type 2, \"Intensive and moderately diversified rice-based farms generating income from mustard cultivation\" (213 n / 49.3 %). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . 8 Figure 2.8 Map Diagram -Farm type 3, \"Large rice-wheat farmers integrating livestock and generating income from cropping (89 n / 20.6 %). "},{"text":"Figure 3 . 1 Figure 3.1 The DEED cycle for co-designing more sustainable Mixed Farming Systems and examples of methodological tools (Gebreyes et al., 2023). "},{"text":"Figure 5 . 2 Figure 5.2 Family characteristics for Rajshahi and Chapainawabganj districts. Note that the index for \"HH head education\" is defined as: informal, 1; informal with reading skills, 3; elementary, 6; secondary, 9; college or above, 16. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . 3 Figure 5.3 Income characteristics, Rajshahi and Chapainawabganj districts. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . 6 Figure 5.6 Resilience characteristics, Rajshahi and Chapainawabganj districts.Note that the index for \"Food worries\" is defined as never, 0; sometimes, 0.5; often, 1. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . 7 Figure 5.7 System characteristics, Rajshahi and Chapainawabganj districts.Note that the index for \"use manure as fertilizer\" is defined as no, 0; yes, 1. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . 1 Farm characterization survey questionnaire modules. Farm characterization survey Farm characterization survey Module 1  Module 1 Sub-module 1 Basic characteristics of the household Sub-module 1Basic characteristics of the household Sub-module 2 Module 2 Basic farm and farming information Farm characteristics Sub-module 2 Module 2Basic farm and farming information Farm characteristics Sub-module 1 Sub-module 2 Field crops Homestead crops Sub-module 1 Sub-module 2Field crops Homestead crops Sub-module 3 Livestock and/or poultry Sub-module 3Livestock and/or poultry Sub-module 4 Sub-module 5 Aquaculture Interactions among farming components Sub-module 4 Sub-module 5Aquaculture Interactions among farming components Sub-module 6a Sub-module 6b Inputs Machinery use Sub-module 6a Sub-module 6bInputs Machinery use Sub-module 7 Module 3 Water consumption and irrigation Sub-module 7 Module 3Water consumption and irrigation Sub-module 1 Non-farm income sources Sub-module 1Non-farm income sources Sub-module 2 Module 4 Gender and decision making Farming system futures (aspirations) Sub-module 2 Module 4Gender and decision making Farming system futures (aspirations) Module 5 Module 6 Household consumption Climate impacts and services Module 5 Module 6Household consumption Climate impacts and services  "},{"text":"Study area of the farm characterization household survey carried out in Bangladesh between December 2022 and May 2023.   "},{"text":"Table 2   "},{"text":"Table 2 . 2 Farm type distribution across Rajshahi and Chapainawabganj districts. District T1 T2 T3 All DistrictT1T2T3All  n (%) n (%) n (%) n n (%)n (%)n (%)n Nawabganj 31 (14.3) 133 (61.3) 53 (24.4) 217 Nawabganj 31 (14.3)133 (61.3)53 (24.4)217 Rajshahi 99 (46) 80 (37.2) 36 (16.7) 215 Rajshahi99 (46)80 (37.2)36 (16.7)215 All 130 (30.1) 213 (49.3) 89 (20.6) 432 All130 (30.1)213 (49.3)89 (20.6)432  "},{"text":"Table 2 . 3 Heatmap displaying farm type variables, with the variables used for PCA highlighted in grey and aligned to the right. Conversely, variables excluded during the cleaning process (through near zero analysis, correlation, and visualization) are shown in white and aligned to the left. Variable Unit T1 T2 T3 All VariableUnitT1T2T3All   130n 213n 89n  130n213n89n   30.1 % 49.3 % 20.6 %  30.1 %49.3 %20.6 % Farm plots n 5.30 4.80 11.70 6.40 Farm plotsn5.304.8011.706.40 Total land holding ha 0.70 0.80 1.60 0.90 Total land holdingha0.700.801.600.90 Total land holding per HH habitants ha/person 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.20 Total land holding per HH habitantsha/person0.200.200.300.20 Land share Kharif-2 % 98.30 92.00 95.60 94.60 Land share Kharif-2%98.3092.0095.6094.60 Land share Rabi % 32.70 86.80 59.90 65 Land share Rabi%32.7086.8059.9065 Crop diversity n (max 6) 0.80 1.00 1.30 1 Crop diversityn (max 6)0.801.001.301 Vegetable diversity (all seasons) n (max 15) 0.00 0.30 0.10 0.20 Vegetable diversity (all seasons)n (max 15)0.000.300.100.20 Land occupancy % 89.30 108.70 96.40 100.3 Land occupancy%89.30108.7096.40100.3 Irrigated main crop surface (all seasons) % 97.80 90.80 88.00 92.4 Irrigated main crop surface (all seasons)%97.8090.8088.0092.4 Rice relative share (all seasons) % 98.40 66.10 75.40 77.70 Rice relative share (all seasons)%98.4066.1075.4077.70 Wheat relative share (all seasons) % 0.10 9.90 10.80 7.1 Wheat relative share (all seasons)%0.109.9010.807.1 Lentils relative share (all seasons) % 0.20 4.10 6.40 3.4 Lentils relative share (all seasons)%0.204.106.403.4 Mustard relative share (all seasons) % 0.30 17.90 4.70 9.9 Mustard relative share (all seasons)%0.3017.904.709.9 Rice income share % 95.70 69.80 80.60 79.8 Rice income share%95.7069.8080.6079.8 Wheat income share % 0.00 8.60 8.60 6 Wheat income share%0.008.608.606 Lentils income share % 0.20 3.80 4.90 2.90 Lentils income share%0.203.804.902.90 Mustard income share % 0.70 14.80 3.40 8.2 Mustard income share%0.7014.803.408.2 Rice sold share % 56.10 57.20 66.00 58.70 Rice sold share%56.1057.2066.0058.70 Wheat sold share % 0.00 31.80 44.40 24.8 Wheat sold share%0.0031.8044.4024.8 Lentils sold share % 1.80 17.50 31.20 15.6 Lentils sold share%1.8017.5031.2015.6 Mustard sold share % 2.70 55.40 24.40 33.2 Mustard sold share%2.7055.4024.4033.2 Homestead leafy vegetables n 0.50 0.70 0.70 0.60 Homestead leafy vegetablesn0.500.700.700.60 Homestead fruit trees n 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.4 Homestead fruit treesn0.500.400.300.4 Total timber crops by season n 2.30 1.80 3.20 2.2 Total timber crops by seasonn2.301.803.202.2 Homestead produce self-consumption % 74.50 71.30 81.00 74.20 Homestead produce self-consumption%74.5071.3081.0074.20 Land pressure by animals (no birds or small animals) ha/n 0.30 0.40 0.80 0.50 Land pressure by animals (no birds or small animals)ha/n0.300.400.800.50 Total TLU index 1.00 1.30 1.40 1.20 Total TLUindex1.001.301.401.20 TLU for cattle and buffalo index 0.90 1.20 1.30 1.1 TLU for cattle and buffaloindex0.901.201.301.1 TLU for goats index 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.1 TLU for goatsindex0.100.100.100.1 Local cattle amount n 1.20 1.60 1.70 1.5 Local cattle amountn1.201.601.701.5 Goat amount n 0.50 0.60 0.60 0.5 Goat amountn0.500.600.600.5 Chicken amount n 0.80 0.70 0.80 0.7 Chicken amountn0.800.700.800.7 Ducks amount n 0.30 0.20 0.30 0.3 Ducks amountn0.300.200.300.3 Milk production per year l 160.30 315.30 211.20 247.2 Milk production per yearl160.30315.30211.20247.2 Off-farm activities that generate income n 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.4 Off-farm activities that generate incomen0.400.400.400.4 Income share from trade, services and capital % 18.90 17.20 12.80 16.8 Income share from trade, services and capital %18.9017.2012.8016.8 Income share from animals % 7.20 8.40 10.90 8.5 Income share from animals%7.208.4010.908.5 Income share from labour % 16.00 7.70 3.70 9.4 Income share from labour%16.007.703.709.4 Income share from cropping % 57.00 65.40 72.60 64.3 Income share from cropping%57.0065.4072.6064.3 Have support from Government for inputs or information n (max 12) 2.20 2.60 2.80 2.5 Have support from Government for inputs or informationn (max 12)2.202.602.802.5 Have support from private organizations for inputs or information n (max 12) 1.00 1.30 1.50 1.2 Have support from private organizations for inputs or informationn (max 12)1.001.301.501.2  "},{"text":"Table 5 . 3 Variable's weights across components. Variable Comp Comp Comp Comp Comp Comp Comp Comp Comp Comp VariableCompCompCompCompCompCompCompCompCompComp  1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12345678910 Farm plots -0.04 -0.6 -0.07 0.12 0.1 -0.17 0.02 -0.14 -0.15 0.05 Farm plots-0.04-0.6-0.070.120.1-0.170.02-0.14-0.150.05 Total land holding -0.11 -0.82 0 -0.11 0.17 -0.02 0.15 -0.13 -0.15 0.03 Total land holding-0.11-0.820-0.110.17-0.020.15-0.13-0.150.03 Land share Kharif-2 0.2 0.07 0.11 0.18 -0.03 -0.65 -0.31 0.09 -0.38 0.13 Land share Kharif-20.20.070.110.18-0.03-0.65-0.310.09-0.380.13 Land share Rabi -0.7 0.06 -0.11 0.28 -0.05 -0.08 -0.05 0.01 0.19 0.18 Land share Rabi-0.70.06-0.110.28-0.05-0.08-0.050.010.190.18 Crop diversity -0.31 -0.5 0.01 -0.41 -0.05 -0.18 0 0.22 -0.02 -0.15 Crop diversity-0.31-0.50.01-0.41-0.05-0.1800.22-0.02-0.15 Vegetable diversity (all seasons) -0.76 -0.02 0.05 0.18 0.01 0.16 0 -0.31 -0.07 -0.04 Vegetable diversity (all seasons)-0.76-0.020.050.180.010.160-0.31-0.07-0.04 Land occupancy -0.39 0.04 -0.05 0.48 -0.12 -0.58 -0.15 -0.07 0.05 0.08 Land occupancy-0.390.04-0.050.48-0.12-0.58-0.15-0.070.050.08 Rice relative share (all seasons) 0.93 -0.01 0.13 0.07 -0.06 -0.01 0.06 -0.11 -0.02 0.07 Rice relative share (all seasons)0.93-0.010.130.07-0.06-0.010.06-0.11-0.020.07 Wheat relative share (all seasons) -0.53 -0.02 0 -0.29 0.03 0.14 -0.45 0.34 -0.17 -0.16 Wheat relative share (all seasons)-0.53-0.020-0.290.030.14-0.450.34-0.17-0.16 Lentils relative share (all seasons) -0.26 -0.1 -0.33 -0.26 0.15 -0.43 0.22 0.31 0.37 0.14 Lentils relative share (all seasons)-0.26-0.1-0.33-0.260.15-0.430.220.310.370.14 Mustard relative share (all seasons) -0.71 0.11 0.06 0.38 -0.04 0.16 0.18 -0.34 -0.03 -0.01 Mustard relative share (all seasons)-0.710.110.060.38-0.040.160.18-0.34-0.03-0.01 Rice income share 0.67 -0.29 0.24 0.21 -0.21 0.03 0.05 -0.04 0.08 0.14 Rice income share0.67-0.290.240.21-0.210.030.05-0.040.080.14 Rice sold share 0.09 -0.66 0.19 0.39 -0.12 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.29 -0.02 Rice sold share0.09-0.660.190.39-0.120.060.040.020.29-0.02 Homestead leafy vegetables -0.28 0.01 0.6 0.17 0.22 0.16 -0.02 0.25 -0.05 0 Homestead leafy vegetables-0.280.010.60.170.220.16-0.020.25-0.050 Total timber crops by season 0.01 -0.33 0.25 -0.1 0.22 0 -0.37 -0.1 0.34 0.32 Total timber crops by season0.01-0.330.25-0.10.220-0.37-0.10.340.32 Homestead produce self-consumption 0.01 -0.13 0.54 0.21 0.26 0.02 -0.19 0.23 0.36 -0.24 Homestead produce self-consumption0.01-0.130.540.210.260.02-0.190.230.36-0.24 Land pressure by animals -0.01 -0.69 -0.32 0.03 0.29 0.08 0.02 -0.09 -0.26 -0.05 Land pressure by animals-0.01-0.69-0.320.030.290.080.02-0.09-0.26-0.05 (no birds or small animals)           (no birds or small animals) Total TLU -0.23 -0.03 0.56 -0.22 -0.38 -0.15 0.37 0.09 0.01 -0.02 Total TLU-0.23-0.030.56-0.22-0.38-0.150.370.090.01-0.02 TLU for goats -0.18 -0.03 0.15 -0.44 -0.1 -0.03 -0.04 -0.37 0.22 0.04 TLU for goats-0.18-0.030.15-0.44-0.1-0.03-0.04-0.370.220.04 Chicken amount 0.13 -0.09 0.2 0.09 -0.25 -0.03 -0.45 -0.12 -0.16 -0.39 Chicken amount0.13-0.090.20.09-0.25-0.03-0.45-0.12-0.16-0.39 Ducks amount 0.02 0.02 0.03 -0.34 -0.15 -0.21 -0.22 -0.51 0.16 -0.12 Ducks amount0.020.020.03-0.34-0.15-0.21-0.22-0.510.16-0.12 Milk production per year -0.21 -0.07 0.39 -0.06 -0.36 -0.14 0.38 0.1 -0.26 0.01 Milk production per year-0.21-0.070.39-0.06-0.36-0.140.380.1-0.260.01 Off-farm activities that generate 0.07 0 0.03 0.08 0.34 -0.24 0.28 -0.09 0.06 -0.64 Off-farm activities that generate0.0700.030.080.34-0.240.28-0.090.06-0.64 income           income Income share from animals -0.18 0 0.51 -0.36 0.12 -0.05 -0.07 -0.19 -0.16 0.2 Income share from animals-0.1800.51-0.360.12-0.05-0.07-0.19-0.160.2 Income share from cropping -0.16 -0.39 -0.19 0.06 -0.53 0.28 -0.16 0.2 -0.07 0.11 Income share from cropping-0.16-0.39-0.190.06-0.530.28-0.160.2-0.070.11 Have support from Government for 0.01 -0.17 -0.25 -0.02 -0.61 -0.03 -0.06 0.02 0.27 -0.27 Have support from Government for0.01-0.17-0.25-0.02-0.61-0.03-0.060.020.27-0.27 inputs or information           inputs or information  "},{"text":"Table 5 . 4 Bonferroni test result to show significant differences between farm type definitory variables.  "}],"sieverID":"18152fe8-48f0-4e64-b90e-0cef1774aee3","abstract":"The Sustainable Intensification of Mixed Farming Systems Initiative aims to provide equitable, transformative pathways for improved livelihoods of actors in mixed farming systems through sustainable intensification within target agroecology and socio-economic settings.Through action research and development partnerships, the Initiative will improve smallholder farmers' resilience to weather-induced shocks, provide a more stable income and significant benefits in welfare, and enhance social justice and inclusion for 13 million people by 2030.Activities will be implemented in six focus countries globally representing diverse mixed farming systems as follows: Ghana (cereal-root crop mixed), Ethiopia (highland mixed), Malawi: (maize mixed), Bangladesh (rice mixed), Nepal (highland mixed), and Lao People's Democratic Republic (upland intensive mixed/ highland extensive mixed).The Transforming Agrifood Systems in South Asia Initiative (TAFSSA) is a CGIAR Regional Integrated Initiative that supports actions improving equitable access to sustainable healthy diets, that boosts farmers' livelihoods and resilience, and that conserves land, air, and water resources in a climate crisis."}