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Important contributors to the field are listed below. |
Karl Marx. |
Philosopher and economist Karl Marx influenced the fields of political economy and economic anthropology. His ideas on labor, modes and means of production and social class related to the frameworks used to understand the creation and exercise of power. Anthropologists used Marx’s ideas to provide perspective on archaeological and anthropological data. Marx’s theories on how the production and consumption of goods relate to social and political power were useful to those studying the evolution of trade and exchange in ancient societies. |
Karl Polanyi. |
Karl Polanyi, a 20th-century economic theorist, introduced the idea of substantivism. Substantivism argues that economies operate within distinct cultural contexts, rather than operating separately from culture. Polanyi introduced concepts to economic anthropology that remain important to describe the movements of goods and their link to power: reciprocity, redistribution and exchange. |
Marcel Mauss and Bronislaw Malinowski. |
Bronislaw Malinowski and Marcel Mauss contributed to economic anthropology on gift-giving. They independently studied its economics and the social and political importance, especially in non-capitalist cultures. Their work is important in the study of ancient trade and exchange as a reminder of the significance and complexity of the movement of goods in non-capitalist societies. |
George Dalton. |
Anthropologist George Dalton contributed to the early study of trade and exchange in non-capitalistic systems through his work on “primitive economies.” Dalton took part in a debate begun by Polanyi regarding “formal” versus “substantive” meanings of economy. The “formal” economy involves the mechanisms of trade and exchange based on rational decision-making, whereas the “substantive” economy is the process by which individuals subsist. |
Approaches for studying the archaeology of trade. |
Approaches taken to the study of the archaeology of trade and exchange can be organized in three groups: the scalar approach (focusing on a particular level of interaction); the examination of different types of trade; or through the study of a particular phase of the economy (such as production). |
Scalar approaches. |
Global scale. |
World-systems theory and network theory are commonly-used analytical tools that study global trade and exchange. |
In the 1970s, Immanuel Wallerstein proposed World-systems theory to study the unequal relationships between developed “core” countries and underdeveloped “periphery” countries. Because of its strong analytical power in connecting societies under a comprehensive framework, world-systems theory was adapted by both anthropologists and archaeologists, who used it to study ancient societies (even though Wallerstein himself never agreed to this). Christopher Chase-Dunn and Thomas D. Hall apply the model to a range of human societies, from sedentary forager hamlets to the capitalist global system. |
Network theory attempts to make sense of individual objects within a broad web of connection with other objects. In the 1950s, social scientists used this theory as a quantitative method for more accurate social analysis. This was known as social network theory and focused on the contact patterns of individuals and social groups. The connections between entities are “mapped out” to show the frequency and strength of connections across space and time, demonstrating the relative importance of various nodes. |
Regional scale. |
Regional approaches to trade and exchange generally take a meso-scalar focus: at the inter-regional (between) and the intra-regional (within) levels. Various approaches are used in both descriptive and explanatory frameworks of social systems and their transformation. These include peer polity interaction, interaction spheres, social network analysis and modified core-periphery models of Wallerstein’s world-systems theory. Peer polity interaction (PPI) was introduced by Colin Renfrew and John F. Cherry. PPI posits that regional interaction and competition can be drivers for social change. Polities, “the highest order sociopolitical unit in the region in question,” are considered autonomous from one another socio-politically, even though they may share aspects of trade, art, architecture and/or ideology. Through PPI, adjacent polities adopt or develop similar aspects of social complexity and archaeologists study how institutional features develop and how they are adopted. Interaction Spheres, developed by Joe Caldwell in 1964, examines how independent societies within and across regions could coherently interact within different institutional frameworks. Caldwell used the mortuary and ritual practices of the Hopewell culture of North America as a prime example of an interaction sphere. Like PPI, Interaction Spheres argues that interaction among different regional groups may leads to innovation in cultural traditions. |
Local scale (household). |
Trade between households and trade within communities are both “local” scales of analysis that can play a major role in shaping both domestic economies and large-scale systems. Ordinary goods—often produced at the household-level—are a significant part of community sustainability. Moreover, the local economy may consume most of the daily activities for a community, thereby defining the identity of many ancient peoples. Study of the local economy may also highlight the role of marginalized groups (gender, class, etc.) that may have a significant impact in the economy. The study of household-level production and trade may also be used to extrapolate larger systems of trade and exchange. |
Types of trade. |
Staple or adornment goods move between individuals of the same or different groups by multiple modes. Those modes include those identified by Polanyi (reciprocity, redistribution and exchange) and market exchange. |
Reciprocity. |
In cultural anthropology, reciprocity is the non-market exchange of goods or labor ranging from barter to gift exchange. The act of giving creates a tacit commitment to provide a service or object in return at some future time. |
Redistribution. |
Redistribution concerns the distribution of power within a society. Within a chiefdom, the chief accumulates goods and resources from the population to later redistribute them according to local custom. |
Exchange. |
Exchange and—more significantly—market exchange involves specific places (marketplaces) where goods and services can be negotiated and purchased. Archaeologists argue that evidence reveals market exchange in pre-Industrial societies such as the Prehistoric Hohokam, the Aztecs and the Maya. Market economies have involved signature features such as commodities, set prices and regulating institutions. |
Trade as a process. |
The production, circulation and consumption of goods provide another way that ancient trade and exchange can be studied. Production concerns the activity by which ideas are materialized in utilitarian and ritual goods. In archaeology, production is most often associated with either the sources of specific materials or labor specialization. Circulation is the flow of products from the source or the place of manufacture toward locations with sufficient demand for that product. Consumption is the acquisition and use of products. These three components of the commodity chain may be studied separately or in tandem. |
Techniques. |
Sourcing. |
Sourcing involves identifying the characteristic properties of the raw materials used to fashion items in order to determine the original material source of an artifact. It helps to determine social, political and economic connections among groups. Pinpointing the locations of sources helps archaeologists analyze the distribution range of goods and/or commodities. In order for sourcing to be effective, something must distinguish the material source from similar sources. For materials such as obsidian, determining the source can be easy; while for others, such as flint and some metals, it is more difficult. Moreover, not all materials can provide good data for sourcing, such as organic remains. Analytical methods used for sourcing may include: |
Agent-based modeling. |
Agent-based modeling (ABM) is the simulation of agents (humans and social systems) based on a series of specified inputs. It models how humans (agents) and societies respond to inputs and stresses. For example, archaeologists working on social interactions in the Roman world used ABM to understand how social exchange affected the development of Roman expansionism in different regions. Elsewhere, archaeologists working on human subsistence mechanisms modeled how economics affected social complexity in Eastern North America. |
Geographic information systems. |
Geographic information systems (GIS) provide an environment to model and measure the conditions by which spatial relationships develop and change. GIS software serves as an important tool to visualize such metrics. In Mexico, archaeologists used GIS models to examine transportation corridors between sites that prove useful in learning about trade relationships among polities through time. Archaeologists working in the Caribbean used GIS to model cultural landscapes to assess cultural and economic change in plantation societies. In the South American Andes, archaeologists used GIS to understand the exchange of the goods and ideologies of Chavín De Huantar. |
The ARIA Digital Track Chart is a chart that ranks the best-performing digital tracks singles of Australia. It is published by Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), an organisation who collect music data for the weekly ARIA Charts. |
To be eligible to appear on the chart, the recording must be a single not an EP and only paid downloads counted from downloadable outlets. |
Godbold's Vegetable Balsam was an English patent medicine concocted by Nathaniel Godbold (d.1799) in 1785, and produced by Godbold and later his sons into the 19th century. |
Godbold was originally a gingerbread baker, but his product became one of the best-selling patent medicines of the 18th century for syphilis and various other maladies. Though profits tailed off after the first ten years, Godbold made a small fortune and purchased a country estate from his profits. |
Novel advertising. |
After his death in 1799, his epitaph at the Church of St. Peter & St. Paul, Godalming was a literal advertisement for the product. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica even cited the epitaph in its entirety in its entry for advertising: |
Ingredients. |
An examination of the product around 1808 noted "we do not discover any property that can possibly entitle it to the appellation of a balsam, but the propriety of the term vegetable, we cannot dispute, as vinegar, sugar, and honey are vegetable productions." The product claimed to be produced from forty-two different vegetables, preserved separately in syrups, mixed with other gums and ingredients, and dissolved in double-distilled vinegar with some storax dissolved in spirits of wine and oil of cinnamon. It was then claimed to be bottled and held for three years before use. These elaborate directions would be impossible to ever follow, and scientific observers concluded the product was simply an "oxymel" (a form of mead created from honey and wine vinegar), though at times with some variation in ingredients. |
Michael B. Wunderman is a Los Angeles-based entrepreneur, filmmaker, and the former intern of Corum. |
Biography. |
Born and raised in Los Angeles, California, Michael is the son of the late Severin Wunderman. The senior Wunderman came to the United States as a child when his family fled Belgium during World War II. A businessman, art collector, and philanthropist, Severin acquired the license to distribute and manufacture Gucci watches in 1972 and is credited with having expanded the business over the ensuing two and a half decades. |
During the mid-1990s, Michael Wunderman launched his career in the luxury watch industry. He began working for Gucci Timepieces in the sales and marketing division then became General Manager of Gucci Timepieces in the United Kingdom. |
Following the sale of the Gucci license in 1997, Wunderman briefly left the watch industry to pursue business endeavors elsewhere. He was involved in the purchase and marketing of the Coffee Bean and Tea Leaf chain of specialty coffee stores and established a multimedia marketing company called Wunder Entertainment. |
Wunderman returned to the business of high watchmaking following Severin’s acquisition of Corum, a high-end watch manufacturer based in La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland, in 2000. He served as the company’s president from 2004 until its sale in 2013. |
Since departing from Corum, Wunderman has pursued filmmaking and real estate. His real estate company is developing a home in the Trousdale Estates neighborhood of Beverly Hills (scheduled for completion in June 2015). |
Wunderman is a board member of the Next Generation Council of the Shoah Foundation, an organization founded by Steven Spielberg, which concerns the remembrance of the Holocaust of World War II. |
Corum. |
Within a few months of the Wundermans’ purchase of Corum, Severin and Michael introduced twelve new models for the 2000 Basel Watch Fair. The Bubble watch, with its domed sapphire crystal face, was particularly successful; it has since been lauded as an icon of the Corum brand. |
Michael Wunderman was actively involved in design and marketing at Corum as of 2000. He worked closely with former head of production for Panerai, Antonio Calce, and with designer, Xavier Perrenoud. In 2004, he became president of the company. During his tenure, he focused on the four “pillars” of the Corum brand: the Admiral’s Cup, Romvlvs, Artisans, and Golden Bridge collections. Corum watches reached record sales with Wunderman at the helm. |
In 2013, Wunderman sold the company to China Haidian Group. |
Filmmaking. |
Wunderman’s first film credit was as Executive Producer of Atlas Independent’s comedy-drama, Revenge for Jolly!, starring Oscar Isaac, Elijah Wood, Ryan Phillippe, and Kristen Wiig. The film premiered at the 2012 Tribeca Film Festival and was distributed in North America by Sony Pictures. |
Wunderman went on to produce a second picture with Atlas Independent: Open Grave. This zombie suspense film was directed by Gonzalo López-Gallego and was released in the United States in 2014. |
In 2012, Colleen Zenk opened the ceremony at New World Stages with a live musical performance, while Fan Yang's Gazillion Bubble Show closed the show. |
Awards. |
Nominations were announced on December 19, 2011, with "Pretty" receiving a record 13 nominations. Winners are listed first and highlighted in boldface: |
Brendan Edward Hassett is an American mathematician who works as a professor of mathematics at Brown University. His research interests include algebraic geometry and number theory. |
Hassett graduated from Yale College in 1992, and earned his doctorate in 1996 from Harvard University under the supervision of Joe Harris. After temporary positions at the Mittag-Leffler Institute, University of Chicago, and Chinese University of Hong Kong, he joined the Rice University faculty in 2000. He was promoted to full professor in 2006, chaired the department from 2009 to 2014, and was named as the Milton Brockett Porter Professor of Mathematics in 2013. In July 2015 he moved to Brown University. He is currently the Director of the Institute for Computational and Experimental Research in Mathematics. |
Hassett is the author of the textbook "Introduction to Algebraic Geometry" (Cambridge University Press, 2007). |
In 2013, Hassett was named as a fellow of the American Mathematical Society "for contributions to higher-dimensional arithmetic geometry and birational geometry." |
The Latin expression nolo episcopari is the traditional formal refusal made by a cleric in the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches of an offer as appointment as a bishop. It means, literally, "I do not wish to be bishoped". A historical myth has arisen that it was customary and decorous for any candidate for a bishopric to decline the office twice by use of the expression, only a third use of which would indicate a true intention of refusal. |
Henry Fielding in his 1749 novel "The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling" uses the phrase to show becoming modesty on the part of a lady asked for in marriage: |
Orest Ivanovych Levytsky (; – 9 May 1922) was a Ukrainian historian, ethnographer, and writer. He was a member of Kiev Hromada (Hromada), an editor of "Kievan Past" and a Russian language philologist. |
Born near Poltava, in Mayachka village, into the family of a priest, Levytsky graduated the Poltava Divinity School and Seminary in 1869. In 1869-70 he worked as a private teacher in village Vepryk (near Hadiach). As the best student, Levytsky was referred to be studied at a theological academy, but unexpectedly enrolled into the Law faculty of Kiev University. Later he transferred to the History and Philology faculty, from which he graduated in 1874. Led by Volodymyr Antonovych, in 1874 Levytsky defended his dissertation "Overview of internal history of Little Russia in the second half of 17th century". |
In 1874-1921 Levytsky was a secretary of the Provisional Commission in reviewing of old acts while teaching Russian language (1874-1909) in the Fourth Kiev Gymnasium and geography (1876-1877) in a music school. In 1879-87 he was a chief deputy of the Kiev Central Archive. He was one of founders of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine where he worked as a secretary in 1918-1920 and head of department on Social and Economical Sciences. |
Tony Daniel Frazier (born January 25, 1981), who goes by the stage name Tony Tillman or previously Brothatone, is an American Christian hip hop musician. As Brothatone, he released an EP in 2006, "The Gift". As Tony Tillman, "Mic Check" was released by Reflection Music in 2013, and it is his breakthrough release on the "Billboard" charts. He followed it up with 2013's "The Tillman EP" that charted on two "Billboard" charts. His second studio album, "Camden", charted on two "Billboard" magazine charts. |
Early life. |
Tony Tillman was born, Tony Daniel Frazier, on January 25, 1981, in Camden, Arkansas. Raised in a single-parent home, Tony Tillman was faced with many challenges urban youths face today. As a youth Tony joined the Crips but later left due to religious influence. |
He began traveling with Seventh Day Slumber, and opening shows for several CCM and Hip-Hop artists. He has released two successful projects, and will soon release his first official studio album, called Camden, in summer 2015. The album is based on his previous gang involvement. Tillman currently serves with Fellowship Bible in Murfreesboro, Tennessee. |
Music career. |
Tony Tillman started making music in 2006 as Brothatone, releasing "The Gift EP". Tony Tillman started using that moniker in 2012. He signed to Reflection Music and released, an album "Mic Check" and a follow-up EP "The Tillman EP" both in 2013 that charted on "Billboard" charts. His second studio album, "Camden", was released on August 7, 2015, from Reflection Music Group. The album charted on two "Billboard" magazine charts, where it peaked at No. 25 on Christian Albums, and No. 19 on Heatseekers Albums. |
Many communities, governments, and organizations have established rules and regulations that specifically govern ridesharing companies. In some jurisdictions, for-profit ridesharing operations are completely illegal. Regulations can include requirements for driver background checks, fares, the number of drivers, and licensing. |
Taxi industry groups have argued that ridesharing companies are illegal taxicab operations which take away their business. Others have called for governments to relax legislation in favor of ridesharing companies. |
Ridesharing companies are banned from or have voluntary pulled out of, due to legal restrictions, the following jurisdictions: parts of Oregon, Bulgaria, Denmark, Hungary, and parts of Germany. The UberPop level of service is banned in Italy, France, Netherlands, and Finland. |
Legality by country. |
Australia. |
Requirement of drivers to pay GST. |
In May 2015, the Australian Taxation Office (ATO) issued a directive stating that drivers that generate income via a ridesharing company need to have an Australian Business Number and be registered to pay the Goods and Services Tax (GST). Uber filed suit in the Federal Court of Australia, arguing that the public issue by the ATO "unfairly targets Uber's driver-partners". In February 2017, a justice found in favor of the ATO, requiring drivers to register, collect and pay GST. The ATO ruling overrides the standard applied to other small Australian businesses, which only requires businesses grossing more than A$75,000 to collect and remit GST. |
Australian Capital Territory. |
Ridesharing was legalized in the Australian Capital Territory in September 2015. At the same time, fees for taxis and hire cars were reduced to enable them to compete against rideshare operators. Taxis will continue to have the exclusive right to work at taxi ranks or be hailed. |
New South Wales. |
On 30 April 2014, Transport for New South Wales clarified that ridesharing company services must be provided in a licensed taxi or hire car, by an appropriately accredited driver. In December 2014, the New South Wales government confirmed that in April 2014, it conducted an unannounced search of Uber's Sydney offices in April. |
In August 2015, the New South Wales government created a task force to look into regulating Uber. From 17 December 2015, taxi and ridesharing passengers pay a $1 levy per trip for five years to fund a $250 million compensation fund for taxi licence holders. |
Northern Territory. |
Ridesharing was legalized in the Northern Territory in January 2018, with a $1 levy being imposed on all taxi, minibus, private hire and ridesharing trips. |
Queensland. |
In mid-November 2014, the Taxi Council of Queensland (TCQ) launched an anti-Uber media campaign. Uber defended itself against the claims. |
Effective 5 September 2016, Uber was legalized in Queensland. |
South Australia. |
Ridesharing was legalised in South Australia on 1 July 2016, following a review that commenced in January 2015. As part of the reform package, compensation was offered for those in the taxi industry, and a $1 metropolitan ride levy was introduced to fund the compensation. Taxis will continue to have the exclusive right to work at ranks or be hailed. |
Tasmania. |
Ridesharing companies were legalized in Tasmania in December 2016. |
Victoria. |