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Philip II of Spain ( ; 21 May 1527 – 13 September 1598 ) , called `` the Prudent '' ( el Prudente ) , was King of Spain ( 1556–98 ) , King of Portugal ( 1581–98 , as Philip I , Filipe I ) , King of Naples and Sicily ( both from 1554 ) , and during his marriage to Queen Mary I ( 1554–58 ) King of England and Ireland . He was also Duke of Milan . From 1555 , he was lord of the Seventeen Provinces of the Netherlands . Known in Spain as `` Felipe el Prudente '' ( ' '' Philip the Prudent ' '' ) , his empire included territories on every continent then known to Europeans , including his namesake the Philippine Islands . During his reign , Spain reached the height of its influence and power . This is sometimes called the Golden Age . The expression , `` the empire on which the sun never sets , '' was coined during Philip 's time to reflect the extent of his dominion . During Philip 's reign there were separate state bankruptcies in 1557 , 1560 , 1569 , 1575 , and 1596 . This was partly the cause for the declaration of independence which created the Dutch Republic in 1581 . A devout Catholic , Philip is also known for organising a huge naval expedition against Protestant England in 1588 , known usually as the Spanish Armada , which was unsuccessful , mostly due to storms and grave logistical problems . Philip was described by the Venetian ambassador Paolo Fagolo in 1563 as `` slight of stature and round-faced , with pale blue eyes , somewhat prominent lip , and pink skin , but his overall appearance is very attractive . '' The Ambassador went on to say `` He dresses very tastefully , and everything that he does is courteous and gracious . '' Early years : 1527–54 The son of Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire , and his wife , Infanta Isabella of Portugal , Philip was born in the Spanish capital of Valladolid on 21 May 1527 at Palacio de Pimentel owned by Don Bernardino Pimentel ( the first Marqués de Távara ) . The culture and courtly life of Spain were an important influence in his early life . He was tutored by Juan Martínez Siliceo – the future Archbishop of Toledo . Philip displayed reasonable aptitude in arms and letters alike . Later he would study with more illustrious tutors , including the humanist Juan Cristóbal Calvete de Estrella . Philip , though he had good command over Latin , Spanish and Portuguese , never managed to equal his father , Charles V , as a polyglot . Despite being also a German archduke from the House of Habsburg , Philip was seen as a foreigner in the Holy Roman Empire . The feeling was mutual . Philip felt himself to be culturally Spanish ; he had been born in Spain and raised in the Castilian court , his native tongue was Spanish , and he preferred to live in Spain . This would ultimately impede his succession to the imperial throne . In April 1528 , when Philip was eleven months old , he received the oath of allegiance as heir to the crown from the Cortes of Castile , and from that time until the death of his mother Isabella in 1539 , Philip was raised in the royal court of Castile under the care of his mother , and one of her Portuguese ladies , Dona Leonor de Mascarenhas , to whom he was devotedly attached . Philip was also close to his two sisters , María and Juana , and to his two pages , the Portuguese nobleman Rui Gomes da Silva and Luis de Requesens , the son of his governor Juan de Zúñiga . These men would serve Philip throughout their lives , as would Antonio Pérez , his secretary from 1541 . Philip 's martial training was undertaken by his governor , Juan de Zúñiga , a Castilian nobleman who served as the commendador mayor of Castile . The practical lessons in warfare was overseen by the Duke of Alba during the Italian Wars . Philip was present at the Siege of Perpignan in 1542 , but did not see action as the Spanish army under Alba decisively defeated the besieging French forces under the Dauphin of France . On his way back to Castile , Philip received the oath of allegiance of the Aragonese Cortes at Monzón . His political training had begun a year previously under his father , who had found his son studious , grave , and prudent beyond his years , and having decided to train and initiate him in the government of Spain . The king-emperor 's interactions with his son during his stay in Spain convinced him of Philip 's precocity in statesmanship , and so he determined to leave in his hands the regency of Spain in 1543 . Philip , who had previously been made the Duke of Milan in 1540 , began governing the most extensive empire in the world at the young age of sixteen . Charles left Philip with experienced advisors—notably the secretary Francisco de los Cobos and the general Duke of Alba . Philip was also left with extensive written instructions which emphasised `` piety , patience , modesty , and distrust . '' These principles of Charles were gradually assimilated by his son , who would grow up to become grave , self-possessed and cautious . Personally , Philip spoke softly , and had an icy self-mastery ; in the words of one of his ministers , `` he had a smile that cut like a sword . '' Domestic policy After living in the Netherlands in the early years of his reign , Philip II decided to return to Spain . Although sometimes described as an absolute monarch , Philip faced many constitutional constraints on his authority . This was largely influenced by the growing strength of the bureaucracy during Philip 's reign . The Spanish Empire was not a single monarchy with one legal system but a federation of separate realms , each jealously guarding its own rights against those of the House of Habsburg . In practice , Philip often found his authority over-ruled by local assemblies , and his word less effective than that of local lords . Philip carried several titles including Prince of Asturias as heir to the Spanish kingdoms and empire . The newest constituent kingdom in the empire was Navarre , a realm invaded by Ferdinand II of Aragon mainly with Castilian troops ( 1512 ) , and annexed to Castile with an ambiguous status ( 1513 ) . War across Navarre continued until 1528 ( Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai ) . Charles V proposed to end hostilities with King Henry II of Navarre—the legitimate monarch of Navarre—by marrying his son Philip to the heiress of Navarre , Jeanne III of Navarre . The marriage would provide a dynastic solution to instability in Navarre , it would make him king of all Navarre and prince of independent Béarn , as well as lord of a large part of southern France . However , the French nobility under Francis I opposed the arrangement , and successfully ended the prospects of marriage between the heirs of Habsburg and Albret in 1541 . In his will Charles stated his doubts over Navarre and recommended his son to give the kingdom back . Both King Charles and his son Philip II failed to abide by the elective ( contractual ) nature of the Crown of Navarre , and took the kingdom for granted . This sparked mounting tension not only with King Henry II of Navarre and Queen Jeanne III of Navarre , but with the Parliament of the Spanish Navarre ( Cortes , The Three States ) and the Diputación for breach of the realm specific laws ( fueros ) —violation of the pactum subjectionis as ratified by Ferdinand . Tensions in Navarre came to a head in 1592 after several years of disagreements over the agenda of the intended parliamentary session . In November 1592 , the Parliament ( Cortes ) of Aragón revolted against another breach of the realm specific laws , so the Attorney General ( Justicia ) of the kingdom Juan de Lanuza was executed on Philip II 's orders , with his secretary Antonio Perez taking to exile in France . In Navarre the major strongholds of the kingdom were garrisoned by troops alien to the kingdom ( Castilians ) in conspicuous violation of the laws of Navarre , and the Parliament had long been refusing to pledge loyalty to Philip II 's son and heir apparent without a proper ceremony . On 20 November 1592 a ghostly Parliament session was called pushed by Philip II , who had arrived in Pamplona at the head of an unspecified military force , and one only point on his agenda—attendance to the session was kept blank on the minutes : unlawful appointments of trusted Castilian officials and an imposition of his son as future king of Navarre at the Santa Maria Cathedral . A ceremony was held before the bishop of Pamplona ( 22 November ) , but its customary procedure and terms were altered . Protests erupted in Pamplona , but they were quelled . Philip II also grappled with the problem of the large Morisco population in Spain , who were sometimes forcibly converted to Christianity by his predecessors . In 1569 , the Morisco Revolt broke out in the southern province of Granada in defiance of attempts to suppress Moorish customs ; and Philip ordered the expulsion of the Moriscos from Granada and their dispersal to other provinces . Despite its immense dominions , Spain was a country with a sparse population that yielded a limited income to the crown ( in contrast to France , for example , which was much more heavily populated ) . Philip faced major difficulties in raising taxes , the collection of which was largely farmed out to local lords . He was able to finance his military campaigns only by taxing and exploiting the local resources of his empire . The flow of income from the New World proved vital to his militant foreign policy , but nonetheless his exchequer several times faced bankruptcy . Philip 's reign saw a flourishing of cultural excellence in Spain , the beginning of what is called the Golden Age , creating a lasting legacy in literature , music , and the visual arts . Economy Charles V had left Philip with a debt of about 36 million ducats and an annual deficit of 1 million ducats . This debt caused Phillip II to default on loans in 1557 , 1560 , 1575 , and 1596 ( including debt to Poland , known as Neapolitan sums ) . This happened because the lenders had no power over the king and could not force him to repay his loans . These defaults were just the beginning of Spain 's economic troubles as Spain 's kings would default six more times in the next 65 years . Aside from reducing state revenues for overseas expeditions , the domestic policies of Philip II further burdened Spain , and would , in the following century , contribute to its decline , as maintained by some historians . Spain was subject to different assemblies : the Cortes in Castile along with the assembly in Navarre and one each for the three regions of Aragon , which preserved traditional rights and laws from the time when they were separate kingdoms . This made Spain and its possessions difficult to rule , unlike France which , while divided into regional states , had a single Estates-General . The lack of a viable supreme assembly led to power defaulting into Philip 's hands , especially as manager and final arbiter of the constant conflict between different authorities . To deal with the difficulties arising from this situation , authority was administered by local agents appointed by the crown and viceroys carrying out crown instructions . Philip felt it necessary to be involved in the detail and presided over specialised councils for state affairs , finance , war , and the Inquisition . He played groups against each other , leading to a system of checks and balances that managed affairs inefficiently , even to the extent of damaging state business , as in the Perez affair . Following a fire in Valladolid in 1561 , he resisted calls to move his Court to Lisbon , an act that could have curbed centralisation and bureaucracy domestically as well as relaxed rule in the Empire . Instead , with the traditional Royal and Primacy seat of Toledo now essentially obsolete , Philip moved his Court to the Castilian stronghold of Madrid . Except for a brief period under Philip III , Madrid has remained the capital of Spain to the present day . Whereas his father had been forced to an itinerant rule as a medieval king , Philip ruled at a critical turning point in European history toward modernity . He mainly directed state affairs , even when not at Court . Indeed , when his health began failing , he worked from his quarters in the Palace-Monastery-Pantheon of El Escorial he had built . But Philip did not enjoy the supremacy that Louis XIV of France would in the next century , nor was such a rule necessarily possible at his time . The inefficiencies of the Spanish state and restrictively regulated industry under his rule were common to many contemporary countries . Further , the dispersal of the Moriscos from Granada – motivated by the fear they might support a Muslim invasion – had serious negative economic effects , particularly in that region . Foreign policy Philip 's foreign policies were determined by a combination of Catholic fervour and dynastic objectives . He considered himself the chief defender of Catholic Europe , both against the Ottoman Turks and against the forces of the Protestant Reformation . He never relented from his fight against heresy , defending the Catholic faith and limiting freedom of worship within his territories . These territories included his patrimony in the Netherlands , where Protestantism had taken deep root . Following the Revolt of the Netherlands in 1568 , Philip waged a campaign against Dutch heresy and secession . It also dragged in the English and the French at times and expanded into the German Rhineland with the Cologne War . This series of conflicts lasted for the rest of his life . Philip 's constant involvement in European wars took a significant toll on the treasury and played a huge role in leading the Crown into economic difficulties and even bankruptcies . In 1588 , the English defeated Philip 's Spanish Armada , thwarting his planned invasion of the country to reinstate Catholicism . But the war continued for the next sixteen years , in a complex series of struggles that included France , Ireland and the main battle zone , the Low Countries . It would not end until all the leading protagonists , including himself , had died . Earlier , however , after several setbacks in his reign and especially that of his father , Philip did achieve a decisive victory against the Turks at the Lepanto in 1571 , with the allied fleet of the Holy League , which he had put under the command of his illegitimate brother , John of Austria . He also successfully secured his succession to the throne of Portugal . With regard to Philip 's overseas possessions , in response to the reforms imposed by the Ordenanzas , extensive questionnaires were distributed to every major town and region in New Spain called relaciones geográficas . These surveys helped the Spanish monarchy to govern these overseas conquests more effectively . Italy Charles V formally abdicated the throne of Naples to Philip on 25 July 1554 , and the young king was invested with the kingdom ( officially called `` Naples and Sicily '' ) on 2 October by Pope Julius III . The date of Charles ' abdication of the throne of Sicily is uncertain , but Philip was invested with this kingdom ( officially `` Sicily and Jerusalem '' ) on 18 November 1554 by Julius . In 1556 , Philip decided to declare war in the Papal States and temporarily gobbled up territory there , perhaps in response to Pope Paul IV 's anti-Spanish outlook . According to Philip II , he was doing it for the benefit of the Church . In a letter from Francisco de Vargas to the Princess Dowager of Portugal , Regent of Spain , dated 22 September 1556 , it is written : Pope Paul IV charged a seven-member commission with preparing a peace agreement . The efforts were later abandoned and the war continued . On 27 August 1557 , Fernando Alvarez de Toledo , Duke of Alba and Viceroy of Naples , was at the walls of Rome , ready to lead his troops for a final assault . On 13 September 1557 , Cardinal Carlo Carafa signed a peace agreement , accepting all of the duke 's conditions . Philip led Spain into the final phase of the Italian Wars . The Spanish army decisively defeated the French at St. Quentin in 1557 and at Gravelines in 1558 . The resulting Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559 secured Piedmont , Savoy , and Corsica for the Spanish allied states , the Duchy of Savoy , and the Republic of Genoa . France recognised Spanish control over the Franche-Comté , but , more importantly , the treaty also confirmed the direct control of Philip over Milan , Naples , Sicily , Sardinia , and the State of Presidi , and indirectly ( through his dominance of the rulers of Tuscany , Genoa , and other minor states ) of all Italy . The Pope was a natural Spanish ally . The only truly independent entities on Italian soil were the allied Duchy of Savoy and the Republic of Venice . Spanish control of Italy would last until the early eighteenth century . Ultimately , the treaty ended the 60-year , Franco-Spanish wars for supremacy in Italy . By the end of the wars in 1559 , Habsburg Spain had been established as the premier power of Europe , to the detriment of France . In France , Henry II was fatally wounded in a joust held during the celebrations of the peace . His death led to the accession of his 15-year-old son Francis II , who in turn soon died . The French monarchy was thrown into turmoil , which increased further with the outbreak of the French Wars of Religion that would last for several decades . The states of Italy were reduced to second-rate powers and Milan and Naples were annexed directly to Spain . Mary Tudor 's death in 1558 enabled Philip to seal the treaty by marrying Henry II 's daughter , Elisabeth of Valois , later giving him a claim to the throne of France on behalf of his daughter by Elisabeth , Isabel Clara Eugenia . France The French Wars of Religion ( 1562–98 ) were primarily fought between French Catholics and Protestants ( Huguenots ) . The conflict involved the factional disputes between the aristocratic houses of France , such as the House of Bourbon and House of Guise ( Lorraine ) , and both sides received assistance from foreign sources . Philip signed the Treaty of Vaucelles with Henry II of France in 1556 . Based on the terms of the treaty , the territory of the Franche-Comté was to be relinquished to Philip . However , the treaty was broken shortly afterwards . France and Spain waged war in northern France and Italy over the following years . Spanish victories at St. Quentin and Gravelines led to the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis , in which France recognised Spanish sovereignty over the Franche-Comté . During the War of the Portuguese Succession , the pretender António fled to France following his defeats and , as Philip ’ s armies had not yet occupied the Azores , he sailed there with a large Anglo-French fleet under Filippo Strozzi , a Florentine exile in the service of France . The naval Battle of Terceira took place on 26 July 1582 , in the sea near the Azores , off São Miguel Island , as part of the War of the Portuguese Succession and the Anglo-Spanish War ( 1585–1604 ) . The Spanish navy defeated the combined Anglo-French fleet that had sailed to preserve control of the Azores under António . The French naval contingent was the largest French force sent overseas before the age of Louis XIV . The Spanish victory at Terceira was followed by the Battle of the Azores between the Portuguese loyal to the claimant António , supported by French and English troops , and the Spanish-Portuguese forces loyal to Philip commanded by the admiral Don Álvaro de Bazán . Victory in Azores completed the incorporation of Portugal into the Spanish Empire . Philip financed the Catholic League during the French Wars of Religion . He directly intervened in the final phases of the wars ( 1589–1598 ) , ordering the Duke of Parma into France in an effort to unseat Henry IV , and perhaps dreaming of placing his favourite daughter , Isabel Clara Eugenia , on the French throne . Elizabeth of Valois , Philip 's third wife and Isabella 's mother , had already ceded any claim to the French Crown with her marriage to Philip . However the Parlement de Paris , in power of the Catholic party , gave verdict that Isabella Clara Eugenia was `` the legitimate sovereign '' of France . Philip 's interventions in the fighting – sending the Duke of Parma , to end Henry IV 's siege of Paris in 1590 – and the siege of Rouen in 1592 contributed in saving the French Catholic Leagues 's cause against a Protestant monarchy . In 1593 , Henry agreed to convert to Catholicism ; weary of war , most French Catholics switched to his side against the hardline core of the Catholic League , who were portrayed by Henry 's propagandists as puppets of a foreign monarch , Philip . By the end of 1594 certain League members were still working against Henry across the country , but all relied on the support of Spain . In January 1595 , therefore , Henry officially declared war on Spain , to show Catholics , that Philip was using religion as a cover for an attack on the French state , and Protestants , that he had not become a puppet of Spain through his conversion , while hoping to take the war to Spain and make territorial gain . French victory at the Battle of Fontaine-Française marked an end to the Catholic League in France . Spain launched a concerted offensive in 1595 , taking Doullens , Cambrai and Le Catelet and in the spring of 1596 capturing Calais by April . Following the Spanish capture of Amiens in March 1597 the French crown laid siege to it until it managed to reconquer Amiens from the overstretched Spanish forces in September 1597 . Henry then negotiated a peace with Spain . The war was only drawn to an official close , however , after the Edict of Nantes , with the Peace of Vervins in May 1598 . The 1598 Treaty of Vervins was largely a restatement of the 1559 Peace of Câteau-Cambrésis and Spanish forces and subsidies were withdrawn ; meanwhile , Henry issued the Edict of Nantes , which offered a high degree of religious toleration for French Protestants . The military interventions in France thus ended in an ironic fashion for Philip : they had failed to oust Henry from the throne or suppress Protestantism in France and yet they had played a decisive part in helping the French Catholic cause gain the conversion of Henry , ensuring that Catholicism would remain France 's official and majority faith – matters of paramount importance for the devoutly Catholic Spanish king . Mediterranean In the early part of his reign Philip was concerned with the rising power of the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman the Magnificent . Fear of Islamic domination in the Mediterranean caused him to pursue an aggressive foreign policy . In 1558 , Turkish admiral Piyale Pasha captured the Balearic Islands , especially inflicting great damage on Minorca and enslaving many , while raiding the coasts of the Spanish mainland . Philip appealed to the Pope and other powers in Europe to bring an end to the rising Ottoman threat . Since his father 's losses against the Ottomans and against Hayreddin Barbarossa in 1541 , the major European sea powers in the Mediterranean , namely Spain and Venice , became hesitant in confronting the Ottomans . The myth of `` Turkish invincibility '' was becoming a popular story , causing fear and panic among the people . In 1560 , Philip II organised a Holy League between Spain and the Republic of Venice , the Republic of Genoa , the Papal States , the Duchy of Savoy and the Knights of Malta . The joint fleet was assembled at Messina and consisted of 200 ships ( 60 galleys and 140 other vessels ) carrying a total of 30,000 soldiers under the command of Giovanni Andrea Doria , nephew of the famous Genoese admiral Andrea Doria . On 12 March 1560 , the Holy League captured the island of Djerba which had a strategic location and could control the sea routes between Algiers and Tripoli . As a response , Suleiman the Magnificent sent an Ottoman fleet of 120 ships under the command of Piyale Pasha , which arrived at Djerba on 9 May 1560 . The battle lasted until 14 May 1560 , and the forces of Piyale Pasha and Turgut Reis ( who joined Piyale Pasha on the third day of the battle ) had an overwhelming victory at the Battle of Djerba . The Holy League lost 60 ships ( 30 galleys ) and 20,000 men , and Giovanni Andrea Doria was barely able to escape with a small vessel . The Ottomans retook the Fortress of Djerba , whose Spanish commander , D. Álvaro de Sande attempted to escape with a ship but was followed and eventually captured by Turgut Reis . In 1565 the Ottomans sent a large expedition to Malta , which laid siege to several forts on the island , taking some of them . The Spanish sent a relief force , which finally drove the Ottoman army out of the island . The grave threat posed by the increasing Ottoman domination of the Mediterranean was reversed in one of history 's most decisive battles , with the destruction of nearly the entire Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 , by the Holy League under the command of Philip 's half brother , Don Juan of Austria . A fleet sent by Philip , again commanded by Don John , reconquered Tunis from the Ottomans in 1573 . However , the Turks soon rebuilt their fleet and in 1574 Uluç Ali Reis managed to recapture Tunis with a force of 250 galleys and a siege which lasted 40 days . However , Lepanto marked a permanent reversal in the balance of naval power in the Mediterranean and the end of the threat of Ottoman control . In 1585 a peace treaty was signed with the Ottomans . Revolt in the Netherlands Philip 's rule in the seventeen separate provinces known collectively as the Netherlands faced many difficulties ; this led to open warfare in 1568 . He insisted on direct control over events in the Netherlands despite being over two weeks ' ride away in Madrid . There was discontent in the Netherlands about Philip 's taxation demands , and the incessant persecution of Protestants . In 1566 , Protestant preachers sparked anti-clerical riots known as the Iconoclast Fury ; in response to growing Protestant influence , the Duke of Alba 's army went on the offensive , further alienating the local aristocracy . In 1572 a prominent exiled member of the Dutch aristocracy , William the Silent ( Prince of Orange ) , invaded the Netherlands with a Protestant army , but he only succeeded in holding two provinces , Holland and Zeeland . The war continued . The States General of the northern provinces , united in the 1579 Union of Utrecht , passed an Act of Abjuration declaring that they no longer recognised Philip as their king . The southern Netherlands ( what is now Belgium and Luxembourg ) remained under Spanish rule . In 1584 , William the Silent was assassinated by Balthasar

odql_5900--Philip_II_of_Spain.txt

Name the palace and monastery , situated some 25 miles north of Madrid, founded by King Phillip II of Spain?

An opera house is a theatre building used for opera performances that consists of a stage , an orchestra pit , audience seating , and backstage facilities for costumes and set building . While some venues are constructed specifically for operas , other opera houses are part of larger performing arts centers . History The first public opera house came into existence in 1637 as the Teatro San Cassiano in Venice , Italy , in a country where opera has been popular through the centuries among ordinary people as well as wealthy patrons ; it still has a large number of working opera houses . In contrast , there was no opera house in London when Henry Purcell was composing and the first opera house in Germany was built in Hamburg in 1678 . Early United States opera houses served a variety of functions in towns and cities , hosting community dances , fairs , plays , and vaudeville shows as well as operas and other musical events . In the 17th and 18th centuries , opera houses were often financed by rulers , nobles , and wealthy people who used patronage of the arts to endorse their political ambitions and social positions or prestige . With the rise of bourgeois and capitalist social forms in the 19th century , European culture moved away from its patronage system to a publicly supported system . In the 2000s , most opera and theatre companies raise funds from a combination of government and institutional grants , ticket sales , and private donations . Features The Teatro San Carlo in Naples introduces the plant horseshoe , the oldest in the world , a model for the Italian theater . On this model were built following theaters of Italy and Europe , among others , the court theater of the Palace of Caserta , who will become the model for other theaters . Given the popularity of opera in 18th and 19th century Europe , opera houses are usually large , with generally more than 1,000 seats and often several thousand . Traditionally , Europe 's major opera houses built in the 19th century contained between about 1,500 to 3,000 seats , examples being Brussels ' La Monnaie ( after renovations , with 1,700 seats ) , Odessa Opera and Ballet Theater ( with 1,636 ) , Warsaw 's Grand Theatre ( the main auditorium with 1,841 ) , Paris ' Opéra Garnier ( with 2,200 ) , the Royal Opera House in London ( with 2,268 ) and the Vienna State Opera ( the new auditorium with reduced capacity of 2,280 ) . Modern opera houses of the twentieth century such as New York 's Metropolitan Opera ( with 3,800 ) and the San Francisco Opera ( with 3,146 ) are larger . Many operas are better suited to being presented in smaller theatres , such as Venice 's La Fenice with about 1,000 seats . In a traditional opera house , the auditorium is U-shaped , with the length of the sides determining the audience capacity . Around this are tiers of balconies , and often , nearer to the stage , are boxes ( small partitioned sections of a balcony ) . Since the latter part of the nineteenth century , opera houses generally have an orchestra pit , where a large number of orchestra players may be seated at a level below the audience , so that they can play without overwhelming the singing voices . This is especially true of Wagner 's Bayreuth Festspielhaus where the pit is almost completely covered . The size of an opera orchestra varies , but for some operas , oratorios and other works , it may be very large ; for some romantic period works ( or for many of the operas of Richard Strauss ) , it can be well over 100 players . Similarly , an opera may have a large cast of characters , chorus , dancers and supernumeraries . Therefore , a major opera house will have extensive dressing room facilities . Opera houses often have on-premises set and costume building shops and facilities for storage of costumes , make-up , masks , and stage properties , and may also have rehearsal spaces . Major opera houses throughout the world often have highly mechanized stages , with large stage elevators permitting heavy sets to be changed rapidly . At the Metropolitan Opera , for instance , sets are often changed during the action , as the audience watches , with singers rising or descending as they sing . This occurs in the Met 's productions of operas such as Aida and Tales of Hoffman . London 's Royal Opera House , which was remodeled in the late 1990s , retained the original 1858 auditorium at its core , but added completely new backstage and wing spaces in addition to an additional performance space and public areas . Much the same happened in the remodeling of Milan 's La Scala opera house between 2002 and 2004 . Although stage , lighting and other production aspects of opera houses often make use of the latest technology , traditional opera houses have not used sound reinforcement systems with microphones and loudspeakers to amplify the singers , since trained opera singers are normally able to project their unamplified voices in the hall . Since the 1990s , however , many opera houses have begun using a subtle form of sound reinforcement called acoustic enhancement ( see below ) . Often , operas are presented in their original languages , which may be different from the first language of the audience . For example , a Wagnerian opera presented in London may be in German . Therefore , since the 1980s modern opera houses have assisted the audience by providing translated supertitles , projections of the words above or near to the stage . More recently , electronic libretto systems have begun to be used in some opera houses , including New York 's Metropolitan Opera , Milan 's La Scala , and the Crosby Theatre of The Santa Fe Opera , which provide two lines of text on individual screens attached to the backs of the seats so as to not interfere with the visual aspects of the performance . Acoustic enhancement with loudspeakers A subtle type of sound reinforcement called acoustic enhancement is used in some opera houses . Acoustic enhancement systems help give a more even sound in the hall and prevent `` dead spots '' in the audience seating area by `` ... augment [ ing ] a hall 's intrinsic acoustic characteristics . '' The systems use `` ... an array of microphones connected to a computer [ which is ] connected to an array of loudspeakers . '' However , as concertgoers have become aware of the use of these systems , debates have arisen , because `` ... purists maintain that the natural acoustic sound of [ Classical ] voices [ or ] instruments in a given hall should not be altered . '' Kai Harada states that opera houses have begun using electronic acoustic enhancement systems `` ... to compensate for flaws in a venue 's acoustical architecture . '' Despite the uproar that has arisen amongst operagoers , Harada points out that none of the opera houses using acoustic enhancement systems `` ... use traditional , Broadway-style sound reinforcement , in which most if not all singers are equipped with radio microphones mixed to a series of unsightly loudspeakers scattered throughout the theatre . '' Instead , most opera houses use the sound reinforcement system for acoustic enhancement , and for subtle boosting of offstage voices , onstage dialogue , and sound effects ( e.g. , church bells in Tosca or thunder in Wagnerian operas ) . One example of the use of this kind of enhancement is the New York State Theater when it was used by the New York City Opera company .

qb_2359--Opera_house.txt

The ‘La Scala Opera House’ is in which European city?

Rugby union , or simply rugby , is a contact team sport which originated in England in the first half of the 19th century . One of the two codes of rugby football , it is based on running with the ball in hand . In its most common form , a game is between two teams of 15 players ( two more than rugby league ) using an oval-shaped ball on a rectangular field with H-shaped goalposts on each try line . In 1845 , the first football laws were written by Rugby School pupils ; other significant events in the early development of rugby include the Blackheath Club 's decision to leave the Football Association in 1863 and the split between rugby union and rugby league in 1895 . Historically an amateur sport , in 1995 restrictions on payments to players were removed , making the game openly professional at the highest level for the first time . World Rugby , originally the International Rugby Football Board ( IRFB ) and from 1998 to 2014 the International Rugby Board ( IRB ) , has been the governing body for rugby union since 1886 . Rugby union spread from the Home Nations of Great Britain and Ireland , and was absorbed by many of the countries associated with the British Empire . Early exponents of the sport included Australia , New Zealand , South Africa and France . Countries that have adopted rugby union as their de facto national sport include Fiji , Georgia , Madagascar , New Zealand , Samoa , Tonga and Wales . Rugby union is played in over 100 countries across six continents ; there are 101 full members and 18 associate members of World Rugby . The Rugby World Cup , first held in 1987 , takes place every four years with the winner of the tournament receiving the Webb Ellis Cup . The Six Nations Championship in Europe and The Rugby Championship in the Southern Hemisphere are major annual competitions . Major domestic competitions include the English Premiership in England , Top 14 in France , the Mitre 10 Cup in New Zealand and the Currie Cup in South Africa . Other transnational competitions include the Pro12 , involving Irish , Italian , Scottish and Welsh teams ; the European Rugby Champions Cup , involving the top European teams from their respective domestic competitions ; and Super Rugby , launched in 1996 with Australian , New Zealand and South African teams and since 2016 also including teams in Argentina and Japan . History The origin of rugby football is reputed to be an incident during a game of English school football at Rugby School in 1823 , when William Webb Ellis is said to have picked up the ball and run with it . Although the evidence for the story is doubtful , it was immortalised at the school with a plaque unveiled in 1895 . Despite the doubtful evidence , the Rugby World Cup trophy is named after Webb Ellis . Rugby football stems from the form of game played at Rugby School , which former pupils then introduced to their university . Old Rugbeian Albert Pell , a student at Cambridge , is credited with having formed the first `` football '' team . During this early period different schools used different rules , with former pupils from Rugby and Eton attempting to carry their preferred rules through to their universities . A significant event in the early development of rugby football was the production of the first written laws of the game at Rugby School in 1845 , which was followed by the 'Cambridge Rules ' drawn up in 1848 . Other important events include the Blackheath Club 's decision to leave the Football Association in 1863 and the formation of the Rugby Football Union in 1871 . The code was originally known as `` rugby football '' ; it was not until after the schism in England in 1895 , which resulted in the separate code of rugby league , that the sport took on the name `` rugby union '' to differentiate it from the league game . Despite the sport 's full name of rugby union , it is known simply as rugby throughout most of the world . First internationals The first rugby football international was played on 27 March 1871 between Scotland and England . Scotland won the game 1-0 . By 1881 both Ireland and Wales had representative teams , and in 1883 the first international competition , the Home Nations Championship had begun . 1883 is also the year of the first rugby sevens tournament , the Melrose Sevens , which is still held annually . Two important overseas tours took place in 1888 : a British Isles team visited Australia and New Zealand—although a private venture , it laid the foundations for future British and Irish Lions tours ; and the 1888–89 New Zealand Native football team brought the first overseas team to British spectators . During the early history of rugby union , a time before commercial air travel , teams from different continents rarely met . The first two notable tours both took place in 1888the British Isles team touring New Zealand and Australia , followed by the New Zealand team touring Europe . Traditionally the most prestigious tours were the Southern Hemisphere countries of Australia , New Zealand and South Africa making a tour of a Northern Hemisphere , and the return tours made by a joint British and Irish team . Tours would last for months , due to long traveling times and the number of games undertaken ; the 1888 New Zealand team began their tour in Hawkes Bay in June and did not complete their schedule until August 1889 , having played 107 rugby matches . Touring international sides would play Test matches against international opponents , including national , club and county sides in the case of Northern Hemisphere rugby , or provincial/state sides in the case of Southern Hemisphere rugby . Between 1905 and 1908 , all three major Southern Hemisphere rugby countries sent their first touring teams to the Northern Hemisphere : New Zealand in 1905 , followed by South Africa in 1906 and Australia in 1908 . All three teams brought new styles of play , fitness levels and tactics , and were far more successful than critics had expected . The New Zealand 1905 touring team performed a haka before each match , leading Welsh Rugby Union administrator Tom Williams to suggest that Wales player Teddy Morgan lead the crowd in singing the Welsh National Anthem , Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau , as a response . After Morgan began singing , the crowd joined in : the first time a national anthem was sung at the start of a sporting event . In 1905 France played England in its first international match . Rugby union was included as an event in the Olympic Games four times during the early 20th century . No international rugby games and union-sponsored club matches were played during the First World War , but competitions continued through service teams such as the New Zealand Army team . During the Second World War no international matches were played by most countries , though Italy , Germany and Romania played a limited number of games , and Cambridge and Oxford continued their annual University Match . The first officially sanctioned international rugby sevens tournament took place in 1973 at Murrayfield , one of Scotland 's biggest stadiums , as part of the Scottish Rugby Union centenary celebrations . World Cup and professionalism In 1987 the first Rugby World Cup was held in Australia and New Zealand , and the inaugural winners were New Zealand . The first World Cup Sevens tournament was held at Murrayfield in 1993 . Rugby Sevens was introduced into the Commonwealth Games in 1998 and has been added to the Olympic Games of 2016 . Rugby union was an amateur sport until the IRB declared the game `` open '' in 1995 , removing restrictions on payments to players . However , the pre-1995 period of rugby union was marked by frequent accusations of `` shamateurism '' , including an investigation in Britain by a House of Commons Select committee . Following the introduction of professionalism trans-national club competitions were started , with the Heineken Cup in the Northern Hemisphere and Super Rugby in the Southern Hemisphere . The Tri Nations , an annual international tournament involving Australia , New Zealand and South Africa , kicked off in 1996 . In 2012 , this competition was extended to include Argentina , a country whose impressive performances in international games ( especially finishing in third place in the 2007 Rugby World Cup ) was deemed to merit inclusion in the competition . As a result of the expansion to four teams , the tournament was renamed The Rugby Championship . Teams and positions Each team starts the match with 15 players on the field and seven or eight substitutes . Players in a team are divided into eight forwards ( two more than in rugby league ) and seven backs . Forwards The main responsibilities of the forward players are to gain and retain possession of the ball . Players in these positions are generally bigger and stronger and take part in the scrum and line-out . The forwards are often collectively referred to as the 'pack ' , especially when in the scrum formation . Front row The front row consists of three players : two props ( the loosehead prop and the tighthead prop ) and the hooker . The role of the two props is to support the hooker during scrums , to provide support for the jumpers during line-outs and to provide strength and power in rucks and mauls . The third position in the front row is the hooker . The hooker is a key position in attacking and defensive play and is responsible for winning the ball in the scrum . Hookers normally throw the ball in at line-outs . Second row The second row consists of two locks or lock forwards . Locks are usually the tallest players in the team , and specialise as line-out jumpers . The main role of the lock in line-outs is to make a standing jump , often supported by the other forwards , to either collect the thrown ball or ensure the ball comes down on their side . Locks also have an important role in the scrum , binding directly behind the three front row players and providing forward drive . Back row The back row , not to be confused with ‘ Backs ’ , is the third and final row of the forward positions , they are often referred to as the loose forwards . The three positions in the back row are the two flankers and the number 8 . The two flanker positions , called the blindside flanker and openside flanker , are the final row in the scrum . They are usually the most mobile forwards in the game . Their main role is to win possession through 'turn overs ' . The number 8 packs down between the two locks at the back of the scrum . The role of the number 8 in the scrum is to control the ball after it has been heeled back from the front of the pack and the position provides a link between the forwards and backs during attacking phases . Backs The backs ' role is to create and convert point-scoring opportunities . They are generally smaller , faster and more agile than the forwards . Another distinction between the backs and the forwards is that the backs are expected to have superior kicking and ball handling skills , especially the fly-half , scrum-half and full-back . Half-backs The half-backs consist of two positions , the scrum-half and the fly-half . The fly-half is crucial to a team 's game plan , orchestrating the team 's performance . They are usually the first to receive the ball from the scrum-half following a breakdown , lineout , or scrum , and need to be decisive with what actions to take and be effective at communicating with the outside backs . Many fly-halfs are also their team 's goal kickers . The scrum-half is the link between the forwards and the backs . They receive the ball from the lineout and remove the ball from the back of the scrum , usually passing it to the fly-half . They also feed the scrum and sometimes have to act as a fourth loose forward . Three quarters There are four three quarter positions , the inside centre , outside centre and left and right wings . The centres will attempt to tackle attacking players ; whilst in attack they should employ speed and strength to breach opposition defences . The wings are generally positioned on the outside of the backline . Their primary function is to finish off moves and score tries . Wings are usually the fastest players in the team and are elusive runners who use their speed to avoid tackles . Fullbacks The fullback normally positions himself several metres behind the back line . He fields any opposition kicks and is often the last line of defence should an opponent break through the back line . Two of the most important attributes of a good fullback are dependable catching skills and a good kicking game . Laws Scoring Rugby union is played between two teams – the one that scores more points wins the game . Points can be scored in several ways : a try , scored by grounding the ball in the in-goal area ( between the goal line and the dead-ball line ) , is worth 5 points and a subsequent conversion kick scores 2 points ; a successful penalty kick or a drop goal each score 3 points . The values of each of these scoring methods have been changed over the years . Playing field The field of play on a rugby pitch is as near as possible to a maximum of 144 m long by 70 m wide . In actual gameplay there should be a maximum of 100 m between the two try-lines , with anywhere between 10 and 22 metres behind each try line to serve as the in-goal area . Several lines cross the field , notably the half way line and the `` twenty two '' , which is 22 m from the goal line . Stricter rules apply to the pitch size for matches between national representative teams . The same maximums apply in this case , but the distance between the two try-lines must also be at least 94 m and the pitch must be at least 68 m wide . Rugby goalposts are H-shaped , and consist of two poles , apart , connected by a horizontal crossbar 3 m above the ground . Match structure At the beginning of the game , the captains and the referee toss a coin to decide which team will kick off first . Play then starts with a drop kick , with the players chasing the ball into the opposition 's territory , and the other side trying to retrieve the ball and advance it . If the ball does not reach the opponent ’ s 10-metre line the opposing team has two choices : to have the ball kicked off again , or to have a scrum at the centre of the half-way line . If the player with the ball is tackled , frequently a ruck will result . Games are divided into 40-minute halves , with a break in the middle . The sides exchange ends of the field after the half-time break . Stoppages for injury or to allow the referee to take disciplinary action do not count as part of the playing time , so that the elapsed time is usually longer than 80 minutes . The referee is responsible for keeping time , even when—as in many professional tournaments—he is assisted by an official time-keeper . If time expires while the ball is in play , the game continues until the ball is `` dead '' , and only then will the referee blow the whistle to signal half-time or full-time ; but if the referee awards a penalty or free-kick , the game continues . In the knockout stages of rugby competitions , most notably the Rugby World Cup , two extra time periods of 10 minutes periods are played ( with an interval of 5 minutes in between ) if the game is tied after full-time . If scores are level after 100 minutes then the rules call for 20 minutes of sudden-death extra time to be played . If the sudden-death extra time period results in no scoring a kicking competition is used to determine the winner . However , no match in the history of the Rugby World Cup has ever gone past 100 minutes into a sudden-death extra time period . Passing and kicking Forward passing ( throwing the ball ahead to another player ) is not allowed ; the ball can be passed laterally or backwards . The ball tends to be moved forward in three ways — by kicking , by a player running with it or within a scrum or maul . Only the player with the ball may be tackled or rucked . When a ball is knocked forward by a player with his/her arms , a `` knock-on '' is committed , and play is restarted with a scrum . Any player may kick the ball forward in an attempt to gain territory . When a player anywhere in the playing area kicks indirectly into touch so that the ball first bounces in the field of play , the throw-in is taken where the ball went into touch . If the player kicks directly into touch ( i.e . without bouncing in-field first ) from within one 's own 22-metre line , the lineout is taken by the opposition where the ball went into touch , but if the ball is kicked into touch directly by a player outside the 22-metre line , the lineout is taken level to where the kick was taken . Breakdowns The aim of the defending side is to stop the player with the ball , either by bringing them to ground ( a tackle , which is frequently followed by a ruck ) , or by contesting for possession with the ball-carrier on their feet ( a maul ) . Such a circumstance is called a breakdown and each is governed by a specific law . Tackling A player may tackle an opposing player who has the ball by holding them while bringing them to ground . Tacklers can not tackle above the shoulder ( the neck and head are out of bounds ) , and the tackler has to attempt to wrap their arms around the player being tackled to complete the tackle . It is illegal to push , shoulder-charge , or to trip a player using feet or legs , but hands may be used ( this being referred to as a tap-tackle or ankle-tap ) . Tacklers may not tackle an opponent who has jumped to catch a ball until the player has landed . Rucking Mauls occur after a player with the ball has come into contact with an opponent but the handler remains on his feet ; once any combination of at least three players have bound themselves a maul has been set . A ruck is similar to the maul , but in this case the ball has gone to ground with at least three attacking players binding themselves on the ground in an attempt to secure the ball . Set pieces Lineout When the ball leaves the side of the field , a line-out is awarded against the team which last touched the ball . Forward players from each team line up a metre apart , perpendicular to the touchline and between 5 m and 15 m from the touchline . The ball is thrown from the touchline down the centre of the lines of forwards by a player ( usually the hooker ) from the team that did not play the ball into touch . The exception to this is when the ball went out from a penalty , in which case the side who gained the penalty throws the ball in . Both sides compete for the ball and players may lift their teammates . A jumping player can not be tackled until they stand and only shoulder-to-shoulder contact is allowed ; deliberate infringement of this law is dangerous play , and results in a penalty kick . Scrum A scrum is a way of restarting the game safely and fairly after a minor infringement . It is awarded when the ball has been knocked or passed forward , if a player takes the ball over his own try line and puts the ball down , when a player is accidentally offside or when the ball is trapped in a ruck or maul with no realistic chance of being retrieved . A team may also opt for a scrum if awarded a penalty . A scrum is formed by the eight forwards from each team binding together in three rows . The front row consists of the two props ( loosehead and tighthead ) either side of the hooker . The second row consists of two locks and the two flankers . Behind the second row is the number 8 . This formation is known as the 3–4–1 formation . Once a scrum is formed the scrum-half from the team awarded the feed rolls the ball into the gap between the two front-rows known as the tunnel . The two hookers then compete for possession by hooking the ball backwards with their feet , while each pack tries to push the opposing pack backwards to help gain possession . The side that wins possession transfers the ball to the back of the scrum , where it is picked up either by the number 8 or by the scrum-half . Officials and offences There are three match officials : a referee , and two assistant referees . The latter , formerly known as touch judges , had the primary function of indicating when the ball had gone into `` touch '' ; their role has been expanded and they are now expected to assist the referee in a number of areas , such as watching for foul play and checking offside lines . In addition , for matches in high level competitions , there is often a television match official ( TMO ; popularly called the `` video referee '' ) , to assist with certain decisions , linked up to the referee by radio . The referees have a system of hand signals to indicate their decisions . Common offences include tackling above the shoulders , collapsing a scrum , ruck or maul , not releasing the ball when on the ground , or being offside . The non-offending team has a number of options when awarded a penalty : a `` tap '' kick , when the ball is kicked a very short distance from hand , allowing the kicker to regather the ball and run with it ; a punt , when the ball is kicked a long distance from hand , for field position ; a place-kick , when the kicker will attempt to score a goal ; or a scrum . Players may be sent off ( signalled by a red card ) or temporarily suspended ( `` sin-binned '' ) for ten minutes ( yellow card ) for foul play or repeated infringements , and may not be replaced . Occasionally , infringements are not caught by the referee during the match and these may be `` cited '' by the citing commissioner after the match and have punishments ( usually suspension for a number of weeks ) imposed on the infringing player . Replacements and substitutions During the match , players may be replaced ( for injury ) or substituted ( for tactical reasons ) . A player who has been replaced may not rejoin play unless he was temporarily replaced to have bleeding controlled ; a player who has been substituted may return temporarily , to replace a player who has a blood injury or has suffered a concussion , or permanently , if he is replacing a front-row forward . In international matches , eight replacements are allowed ; in domestic or cross-border tournaments , at the discretion of the responsible national union ( s ) , the number of replacements may be nominated to a maximum of eight , of whom three must be sufficiently trained and experienced to provide cover for the three front row positions . Prior to 2016 , all substitutions , no matter the cause , counted against the limit during a match . In 2016 , World Rugby changed the law so that substitutions made to replace a player deemed unable to continue due to foul play by the opposition would no longer count against the match limit . This change was introduced in January of that year in the Southern Hemisphere and June in the Northern Hemisphere . Equipment The most basic items of equipment for a game of rugby union are the ball itself , a rugby shirt ( also known as a `` jersey '' ) , rugby shorts , socks and boots . The rugby ball is oval in shape , ( technically a prolate spheroid ) , and is made up of four panels . The ball was historically made of leather , but in the modern era most games use a ball made from a synthetic material . The WR lays out specific dimensions for the ball , 280-300mm in length , 740-770mm in circumference of length and 580-620mm in circumference of width . Rugby boots have soles with studs to allow grip on the turf of the pitch . The studs may be either metal or plastic but must not have any sharp edges or ridges . Protective equipment is optional and strictly regulated . The most common items are mouthguards , which are worn by almost all players , and are compulsory in some rugby-playing nations . Other protective items that are permitted include head gear ; thin ( not more than 10 mm thick ) , non-rigid shoulder pads and shin guards ; which are worn underneath socks . Bandages or tape can be worn to support or protect injuries ; some players wear tape around the head to protect the ears in scrums and rucks . Female players may also wear chest pads . Although not worn for protection , some types of fingerless mitts are allowed to aid grip . It is the responsibility of the match officials to check players ' clothing and equipment before a game to ensure that it conforms to the laws of the game . Governing bodies The international governing body of rugby union ( and associated games such as sevens ) is World Rugby ( WR ) . The WR headquarters are in Dublin , Ireland . WR , founded in 1886 , governs the sport worldwide and publishes the game 's laws and rankings . As of February 2014 , WR ( then known as the IRB , for International Rugby Board ) recorded 119 unions in its membership , 101 full members and 18 associate member countries . According to WR , rugby union is played by men and women in over 100 countries . WR controls the Rugby World Cup , the Women 's Rugby World Cup , Rugby World Cup Sevens , HSBC Sevens Series , HSBC Women 's Sevens Series , World Under 20 Championship , World Under 20 Trophy , Nations Cup and the Pacific Nations Cup . WR holds votes to decide where each of these events are be held , except in the case of the Sevens World Series for men and women , for which WR contracts with several national unions to hold individual events . Six regional associations , which are members of WR , form the next level of administration ; these are : * Rugby Africa , formerly Confederation of African Rugby ( CAR ) * Asia Rugby , formerly Asian Rugby Football Union ( ARFU ) * Rugby Americas North , formerly North America Caribbean Rugby Association ( NACRA ) * Rugby Europe , previously Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur – Association Européenne de Rugby ( FIRA-AER ) *

qb_6653--Rugby_union.txt

What number shirt did England rugby union player Jonny Wilkinson wear in the 2011 World Cup?

Canals and navigations are human-made channels for water . In the vernacular both are referred to as 'canals ' . The main difference between them is that a navigation parallels a river and shares its drainage basin , while a canal cuts across a drainage divide . Canals deliver water where there is lack of water . Types of artificial waterways A navigation is a series of channels that run roughly parallel to the valley and stream bed of an unimproved river . A navigation always shares the drainage basin of the river . A vessel uses the calm parts of the river itself as well as improvements , traversing the same changes in height . A true canal is a channel that cuts across a drainage divide , making a navigable channel connecting two different drainage basins . Most commercially important canals of the first half of the 19th-century were a little of each , using rivers in long stretches , and divide crossing canals in others . This is true for many canals still in use . Structures used in artificial waterways Both navigations and canals use engineered structures to improve navigation : * weirs and dams to raise river water levels to usable depths ; * looping descents to create a longer and gentler channel around a stretch of rapids or falls ; * locks to allow ships and barges to ascend/descend . Since they cut across drainage divides , canals are more difficult to construct and often need additional improvements , like viaducts and aqueducts to bridge waters over streams and roads , and ways to keep water in the channel . Types of canals There are two broad types of canal : * Waterways : canals and navigations used for carrying vessels transporting goods and people . These can be subdivided into two kinds : * Those connecting existing lakes , rivers , other canals or seas and oceans . * Those connected in a city network : such as the Canal Grande and others of Venice Italy ; the gracht of Amsterdam , and the waterways of Bangkok . * Aqueducts : water supply canals that are used for the conveyance and delivery of potable water for human consumption , municipal uses , hydro power canals and agriculture irrigation . Importance Historically canals were of immense importance to commerce and the development , growth and vitality of a civilization . Modern canals are a mere remnant of the numbers that once fueled 17th–20th century industries and economies . The surviving canals today primarily service only bulk cargo and large ship transportation industries , whereas the once critical inland boat and barge canals have largely been supplanted , initially by faster and cheaper to maintain railways , later by using the flexibility and slope climbing capability of lorries . Construction Canals are built in one of three ways , or a combination of the three , depending on available water and available path : ; Human made streams * A canal can be created where no stream presently exists . Either the body of the canal is dug or the sides of the canal are created by making dykes or levees by piling dirt , stone , concrete or other building materials . The water for the canal must be provided from an external source , like streams or reservoirs . Where the new waterway must change elevation engineering works like locks , lifts or elevators are constructed to raise and lower vessels . Examples include canals that connect valleys over a higher body of land , like Canal du Midi , Canal de Briare and the Panama Canal . * A canal can be constructed by dredging a channel in the bottom of an existing lake . When the channel is complete , the lake is drained and the channel becomes a new canal , serving both drainage of the surrounding polder and provinding transport there . Examples include the . One can also build two parallel dikes in an existing lake , forming the new canal in between , and then drain the remaining parts of the lake . The eastern and central parts of the North Sea Canal were constructed in this way . In both cases pumping stations are required to keep the land surrounding the canal dry , either pumping water from the canal into surrounding waters , or pumping it from the land into the canal . ; Canalization and navigations * A stream can be canalized to make its navigable path more predictable and easier to maneuver . Canalization modifies the stream to carry traffic more safely by controlling the flow of the stream by dredging , damming and modifying its path . This frequently includes the incorporation of locks and spillways , that make the river a navigation . Examples include the Lehigh Canal in Northeastern Pennsylvania 's coal Region , Basse Saône , Canal de Mines de Fer de la Moselle , and Aisne River . Riparian zone restoration may be required . ; Lateral canals * When a stream is too difficult to modify with canalization , a second stream can be created next to or at least near the existing stream . This is called a lateral canal , and may meander in a large horshoe bend or series of curves some distance from the source waters stream bed lengthening the effective length in order to lower the ratio of rise over run ( slope or pitch ) . The existing stream usually acts as the water source and the landscape around its banks provide a path for the new body . Examples include the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal , Canal latéral à la Loire , Garonne Lateral Canal and Juliana Canal . Smaller transportation canals can carry barges or narrowboats , while ship canals allow seagoing ships to travel to an inland port ( e.g. , Manchester Ship Canal ) , or from one sea or ocean to another ( e.g. , Caledonian Canal , Panama Canal ) . Features At their simplest , canals consist of a trench filled with water . Depending on the stratum the canal passes through , it may be necessary to line the cut with some form of watertight material such as clay or concrete . When this is done with clay , it is known as puddling . Canals need to be level , and while small irregularities in the lie of the land can be dealt with through cuttings and embankments , for larger deviations other approaches have been adopted . The most common is the pound lock , which consists of a chamber within which the water level can be raised or lowered connecting either two pieces of canal at a different level or the canal with a river or the sea . When there is a hill to be climbed , flights of many locks in short succession may be used . Prior to the development of the pound lock in 984 AD in China by Chhaio Wei-Yo and later in Europe in the 15th century , either flash locks consisting of a single gate were used or ramps , sometimes equipped with rollers , were used to change the level . Flash locks were only practical where there was plenty of water available . Locks use a lot of water , so builders have adopted other approaches for situations where little water is available . These include boat lifts , such as the Falkirk Wheel , which use a caisson of water in which boats float while being moved between two levels ; and inclined planes where a caisson is hauled up a steep railway . To cross a stream , road or valley ( where the delay caused by a flight of locks at either side would be unacceptable ) the valley can be spanned by a navigable aqueduct - a famous example in Wales is the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct ( now a UNESCO World Heritage Site ) across the valley of the River Dee . Another option for dealing with hills is to tunnel through them . An example of this approach is the Harecastle Tunnel on the Trent and Mersey Canal . Tunnels are only practical for smaller canals . Some canals attempted to keep changes in level down to a minimum . These canals known as contour canals would take longer , winding routes , along which the land was a uniform altitude . Other , generally later , canals took more direct routes requiring the use of various methods to deal with the change in level . Canals have various features to tackle the problem of water supply . In cases , like the Suez Canal , the canal is simply open to the sea . Where the canal is not at sea level , a number of approaches have been adopted . Taking water from existing rivers or springs was an option in some cases , sometimes supplemented by other methods to deal with seasonal variations in flow . Where such sources were unavailable , reservoirs—either separate from the canal or built into its course—and back pumping were used to provide the required water . In other cases , water pumped from mines was used to feed the canal . In certain cases , extensive `` feeder canals '' were built to bring water from sources located far from the canal . Where large amounts of goods are loaded or unloaded such as at the end of a canal , a canal basin may be built . This would normally be a section of water wider than the general canal . In some cases , the canal basins contain wharfs and cranes to assist with movement of goods . When a section of the canal needs to be sealed off so it can be drained for maintenance stop planks are frequently used . These consist of planks of wood placed across the canal to form a dam . They are generally placed in pre-existing grooves in the canal bank . On more modern canals , `` guard locks '' or gates were sometimes placed to allow a section of the canal to be quickly closed off , either for maintenance , or to prevent a major loss of water due to a canal breach . History The transport capacity of pack animals and carts is limited . A mule can carry an eighth-ton [ 250 lb ] maximum load over a journey measured in days and weeks , though much more for shorter distances and periods with appropriate rest . Besides carts need roads . Transport over water is much more efficient and cost-effective for large cargoes . It goes back to the earliest days of recorded history . Ancient canals The oldest known canals were irrigation canals , built in Mesopotamia circa 4000 BC , in what is now Iraq and Syria . The Indus Valley Civilization , Ancient India , ( circa 2600 BC ) had sophisticated irrigation and storage systems developed , including the reservoirs built at Girnar in 3000 BC . In Egypt , canals date back at least to the time of Pepi I Meryre ( reigned 2332–2283 BC ) , who ordered a canal built to bypass the cataract on the Nile near Aswan . In ancient China , large canals for river transport were established as far back as the Warring States period ( 481–221 BC ) , the longest one of that period being the Hong Gou ( Canal of the Wild Geese ) , which according to the ancient historian Sima Qian connected the old states of Song , Zhang , Chen , Cai , Cao , and Wei . By far the longest canal was the Grand Canal of China , still the longest canal in the world today , and the oldest extant one . It is 1794 km long and was built to carry the Emperor Yang Guang between Beijing and Hangzhou . The project began in 605 and was completed in 609 , although much of the work combined older canals , the oldest section of the canal existing since at least 486 BC . Even in its narrowest urban sections it is rarely less than 30 m wide . Greek engineers were the first to use canal locks , by which they regulated the water flow in the Ancient Suez Canal as early as the 3rd century BC . Middle Ages In the Middle Ages , water transport was several times cheaper and faster than transport overland . Overland transport by animal drawn conveyances was used around settled areas , but unimproved roads required pack animal trains , usually of mules to carry any degree of mass , and while a mule could carry an eighth ton , it also needed teamsters to tend it and one man could only tend perhaps five mules , meaning overland bulk transport was also expensive , as men expect compensation in the form of wages , room and board . This was because long-haul roads were unpaved , more often than not too narrow for carts , much less wagons , and in poor condition , wending their way through forests , marshy or muddy quagmires as often as unimproved but dry footing . In that era , as today , greater cargoes , especially bulk goods and raw materials , could be transported by ship far more economically than by land ; in the pre-railroad days of the industrial revolution , water transport was the gold standard of fast transportation . The first artificial canal in Western Europe was the Fossa Carolina built at the end of the 8th century under personal supervision of Charlemagne . In Britain , the Glastonbury Canal is believed to be the first post-Roman canal and was built in the middle of the 10th century to link the River Brue at Northover with Glastonbury Abbey , a distance of about . Its initial purpose is believed to be the transport of building stone for the abbey , but later it was used for delivering produce , including grain , wine and fish , from the abbey 's outlying properties . It remained in use until at least the 14th century , but possibly as late as the mid-16th century . More lasting and of more economic impact were canals like the Naviglio Grande built between 1127 and 1257 to connect Milan with the Ticino River . The Naviglio Grande is the most important of the lombard “ navigli ” and the oldest functioning canal in Europe.Later , canals were built in the Netherlands and Flanders to drain the polders and assist transportation of goods and people . Canal building was revived in this age because of commercial expansion from the 12th century . River navigations were improved progressively by the use of single , or flash locks . Taking boats through these used large amounts of water leading to conflicts with watermill owners and to correct this , the pound or chamber lock first appeared , in the 10th century in China and in Europe in 1373 in Vreeswijk , Netherlands . Another important development was the mitre gate , which was , it is presumed , introduced in Italy by Bertola da Novate in the 16th century . This allowed wider gates and also removed the height restriction of guillotine locks . To break out of the limitations caused by river valleys , the first summit level canals were developed with the Grand Canal of China in 581–617 AD whilst in Europe the first , also using single locks , was the Stecknitz Canal in Germany in 1398 . Early modern period c. 1500–1800def lede : Early modern period The first canal to use pound locks was the Briare Canal connecting the Loire and Seine ( 1642 ) , followed by the more ambitious Canal du Midi ( 1683 ) connecting the Atlantic to the Mediterranean . This included a staircase of 8 locks at Béziers , a 157 m tunnel and three major aqueducts . Canal building progressed steadily in Germany in the 17th and 18th centuries with three great rivers , the Elbe , Oder and Weser being linked by canals . In post-Roman Britain , the first early modern period canal built appears to have been the Exeter Canal , which was surveyed in 1563 , and open in 1566.Exeter history by www.exeter.gov.uk , .pdf file [ http : //www.exeter.gov.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx ? id7972 & p 0 Exeter Ship Canal , The First Four Hundred Years ] , accessdate=13 September 2013 The oldest canal , technically a mill race built for industrial purposes in North America is Mother Brook , also known as mill brook , in between the two Boston , Massachusetts neighborhoods of Dedham and Hyde Park connecting the higher waters of the Charles River and the mouth of the Neponset River and the sea . It was constructed in 1639 to provide water power for mills . In Russia , the Volga–Baltic Waterway , a nationwide canal system connecting the Baltic Sea and Caspian Sea via the Neva and Volga rivers , was opened in 1718 . Industrial Revolution * See also : History of the British canal system * See also : History of turnpikes and canals in the United States The modern canal system was mainly a product of the 18th century and early 19th century . It came into being because the Industrial Revolution ( which began in Britain during the mid-18th century ) demanded an economic and reliable way to transport goods and commodities in large quantities . By the early 18th century , river navigations such as the Aire and Calder Navigation were becoming quite sophisticated , with pound locks and longer and longer `` cuts '' ( some with intermediate locks ) to avoid circuitous or difficult stretches of river . Eventually , the experience of building long multi-level cuts with their own locks gave rise to the idea of building a `` pure '' canal , a waterway designed on the basis of where goods needed to go , not where a river happened to be . The claim for the first pure canal in Great Britain is debated between `` Sankey '' and `` Bridgewater '' supporters.Burton , ( 1995 ) . Chapter 3 : Building the Canals The first true canal in what is now the United Kingdom was the Newry Canal in Northern Ireland constructed by Thomas Steers in 1741 . The Sankey Brook Navigation , which connected St Helens with the River Mersey , is often claimed as the first modern `` purely artificial '' canal because although originally a scheme to make the Sankey Brook navigable , it included an entirely new artificial channel that was effectively a canal along the Sankey Brook valley.Rolt , Inland Waterways However , `` Bridgewater '' supporters point out that the last quarter-mile of the navigation is indeed a canalised stretch of the Brook , and that it was the Bridgewater Canal ( less obviously associated with an existing river ) that captured the popular imagination and inspired further canals . In the mid-eighteenth century the 3rd Duke of Bridgewater , who owned a number of coal mines in northern England , wanted a reliable way to transport his coal to the rapidly industrialising city of Manchester . He commissioned the engineer James Brindley to build a canal for that purpose . Brindley 's design included an aqueduct carrying the canal over the River Irwell . This was an engineering wonder which immediately attracted tourists . The construction of this canal was funded entirely by the Duke and was called the Bridgewater Canal . It opened in 1761 and was the first major British canal . The new canals proved highly successful . The boats on the canal were horse-drawn with a towpath alongside the canal for the horse to walk along . This horse-drawn system proved to be highly economical and became standard across the British canal network . Commercial horse-drawn canal boats could be seen on the UK 's canals until as late as the 1950s , although by then diesel-powered boats , often towing a second unpowered boat , had become standard . The canal boats could carry thirty tons at a time with only one horse pulling - more than ten times the amount of cargo per horse that was possible with a cart . Because of this huge increase in supply , the Bridgewater canal reduced the price of coal in Manchester by nearly two-thirds within just a year of its opening . The Bridgewater was also a huge financial success , with it earning what had been spent on its construction within just a few years . This success proved the viability of canal transport , and soon industrialists in many other parts of the country wanted canals . After the Bridgewater canal , early canals were built by groups of private individuals with an interest in improving communications . In Staffordshire the famous potter Josiah Wedgwood saw an opportunity to bring bulky cargoes of clay to his factory doors and to transport his fragile finished goods to market in Manchester , Birmingham or further away , by water , minimising breakages . Within just a few years of the Bridgewater 's opening , an embryonic national canal network came into being , with the construction of canals such as the Oxford Canal and the Trent & Mersey Canal . The new canal system was both cause and effect of the rapid industrialisation of The Midlands and the north . The period between the 1770s and the 1830s is often referred to as the `` Golden Age '' of British canals . For each canal , an Act of Parliament was necessary to authorise construction , and as people saw the high incomes achieved from canal tolls , canal proposals came to be put forward by investors interested in profiting from dividends , at least as much as by people whose businesses would profit from cheaper transport of raw materials and finished goods . In a further development , there was often out-and-out speculation , where people would try to buy shares in a newly floated company simply to sell them on for an immediate profit , regardless of whether the canal was ever profitable , or even built . During this period of `` canal mania '' , huge sums were invested in canal building , and although many schemes came to nothing , the canal system rapidly expanded to nearly 4,000 miles ( over 6,400 kilometres ) in length . Many rival canal companies were formed and competition was rampant . Perhaps the best example was Worcester Bar in Birmingham , a point where the Worcester and Birmingham Canal and the Birmingham Canal Navigations Main Line were only seven feet apart . For many years , a dispute about tolls meant that goods travelling through Birmingham had to be portaged from boats in one canal to boats in the other . Canal companies were initially chartered by individual states in the United States . These early canals were constructed , owned , and operated by private joint-stock companies . Three were completed when the War of 1812 broke out ; these were the Santee Canal ( opened 1800 ) in South Carolina , the Middlesex Canal ( opened 1802 ) in Massachusetts and the Dismal Swamp Canal ( opened 1805 ) in Virginia . The Erie Canal ( opened 1825 ) was chartered and owned by the state of New York and financed by bonds bought by private investors . The Erie canal runs about 363 mi from Albany , New York , on the Hudson River to Buffalo , New York , at Lake Erie . The Hudson River connects Albany to the Atlantic port of New York City and the Erie Canal completed a navigable water route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes . The canal contains 36 locks and encompasses a total elevation differential of around 565 ft. ( 169 m ) . The Erie Canal with its easy connections to most of the U.S. mid-west and New York City soon quickly paid back all its invested capital ( US $ 7 million ) and started turning a profit . By cutting transportation costs in half or more it became a large profit center for Albany and New York City as it allowed the cheap transportation of many of the agricultural products grown in the mid west of the United States to the rest of the world . From New York City these agricultural products could easily be shipped to other U.S. states or overseas . Assured of a market for their farm products the settlement of the U.S. mid-west was greatly accelerated by the Erie Canal . The profits generated by the Erie Canal project started a canal building boom in the United States that lasted until about 1850 when railroads started becoming seriously competitive in price and convenience . The Blackstone Canal ( finished in 1828 ) in Massachusetts and Rhode Island fulfilled a similar role in the early industrial revolution between 1828 and 1848 . The Blackstone Valley was a major contributor of the American Industrial Revolution where Samuel Slater built his first textile mill . Power canals * See also : Power canal A power canal refers to a canal used for hydraulic power generation , rather than for transport . Nowadays power canals are built almost exclusively as parts of hydroelectric power stations . Parts of the United States , particularly in the Northeast , had enough fast-flowing rivers that water power was the primary means of powering factories ( usually textile mills ) until after the American Civil War . For example , Lowell , Massachusetts , considered to be `` The Cradle of the American Industrial Revolution , '' has 6 mi of canals , built from around 1790 to 1850 , that provided water power and a means of transportation for the city . The output of the system is estimated at 10,000 horsepower . Other cities with extensive power canal systems include Lawrence , Massachusetts , Holyoke , Massachusetts , Manchester , New Hampshire , and Augusta , Georgia . The most notable power canal was built in 1862 for the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company . 19th century Competition , from railways from the 1830s and roads in the 20th century , made the smaller canals obsolete for most commercial transport , and many of the British canals fell into decay . Only the Manchester Ship Canal and the Aire and Calder Canal bucked this trend . Yet in other countries canals grew in size as construction techniques improved . During the 19th century in the US , the length of canals grew from 100 mi to over 4,000 , with a complex network making the Great Lakes navigable , in conjunction with Canada , although some canals were later drained and used as railroad rights-of-way . In the United States , navigable canals reached into isolated areas and brought them in touch with the world beyond . By 1825 the Erie Canal , 363 mi long with 82 locks , opened up a connection from the populated Northeast to the Great Lakes . Settlers flooded into regions serviced by such canals , since access to markets was available . The Erie Canal ( as well as other canals ) was instrumental in lowering the differences in commodity prices between these various markets across America . The canals caused price convergence between different regions because of their reduction in transportation costs , which allowed Americans to ship and buy goods from farther distances much cheaper . Ohio built many miles of canal , Indiana had working canals for a few decades , and the Illinois and Michigan Canal connected the Great Lakes to the Mississippi River system until replaced by a channelized river waterway . Three major canals with very different purposes were built in what is now Canada . The first Welland Canal , which opened in 1829 between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie , bypassing Niagara Falls and the Lachine Canal ( 1825 ) , which allowed ships to skirt the nearly impassable rapids on the St. Lawrence River at Montreal , were built for commerce . The Rideau Canal , completed in 1832 , connects Ottawa on the Ottawa River to Kingston , Ontario on Lake Ontario . The Rideau Canal was built as a result of the War of 1812 to provide military transportation between the British colonies of Upper Canada and Lower Canada as an alternative to part of the St. Lawrence River , which was susceptible to blockade by the United States . In France , a steady linking of

qg_2134--Canal.txt

On July 4,1817, construction began on what canal, linking the Great Lakes to the Hudson River, and ultimately, the Atlantic ocean?

Archer is an American adult animated spy comedy television series , created by Adam Reed for the FX network . The pilot episode of the series aired as a sneak peek on September 17 , 2009 , before the show made its official debut on January 14 , 2010 . On June 21 , 2016 , FX renewed the series for an eighth , ninth , and tenth season , each to consist of eight episodes . It was announced at San Diego Comic-Con 2016 that Season 8 will premiere in January 2017 , but the series is moving to FX ’ s sister network , FXX . Premise Originally working for the `` International Secret Intelligence Service '' ( ISIS ) in New York City , suave , profoundly self-centered master spy Sterling Archer deals with global espionage , as well as his domineering , emotionally-distant mother and boss Malory Archer , fellow ISIS agent and ex-girlfriend Lana Kane , and ISIS employees Ray Gillette , Cyril Figgis , Pam Poovey , Cheryl Tunt , and Dr. Algernop Krieger . A season-long arc took place in the fifth season , re-configuring the show from a spy series to a Miami Vice-style satire of the drug industry . To reflect this , the season was titled Archer Vice . When ISIS is disbanded by the U.S. government , its employees take a stockpile of cocaine that they acquired from previous operations and form a drug cartel to fund their retirements . Meanwhile , Cheryl decides to launch a new career as a country singer . In the sixth season , the series returned to the spy format , and essentially `` unrebooted '' the characters back to their personalities before the fifth season . However , some elements from the fifth season had a big impact on the series going forward , including new character introductions ( Lana Kane giving birth to her daughter , and Christian Slater playing a fictional version of himself ) , and the revelation of the CIA 's involvement in some of the events that happened during Archer Vice . The characters now started working as contractors for the CIA . The seventh season once again retooled the show , after the characters were fired from the CIA and blacklisted from espionage in the sixth season finale following failure during a mission . They move to Los Angeles , California to start their own private detective agency , known as The Figgis Agency ( named after character Cyril Figgis ) . The show once again took on a serialized , season-long story arc . Time period The show 's time setting is comically anachronistic , deliberately mixing technologies , clothing styles and historical backdrops of different decades . The characters wear 1960s clothing and hairstyles , and many episodes feature references to the Soviet Union as a current nation , yet in the fourth-season episode `` Once Bitten '' , Turkmenistan is an independent nation rather than a Soviet republic . It also contains references to Fidel Castro as the current leader of Cuba . The show frequently uses pop-culture references which are contemporary to the 2010s , yet character backstories place them at older events — such as Woodhouse 's service in World War I , or Malory 's involvement in various espionage events of World War II and the Cold War era — which would require them to be much older than they are if the show were actually set in the 21st century . The technological sophistication within the series also varies , with characters using dated computer technology ( e.g . reel-to-reel mainframe systems , desktop computers closely resembling the Macintosh XL , dot-matrix printers , and punch cards ) and making surveillance recordings on cassette tape rather than digitally , but also using modern technologies such as GPS devices , the Internet , laser gunsights , cryptocurrencies , USB flash drives and cellular phones ( season 6 saw the appearance of touchscreen devices and flip phones ) . This ambiguity is explicitly recognized in at least two episodes , in which characters are unable to answer when asked what year they think it is . Episodes Archer officially premiered on FX on January 14 , 2010 . The show 's seventh season , which premiered on March 31 , 2016 , was originally announced to contain 13 episodes , but creator Adam Reed later stated in an interview that the season would be a `` 10-episode story '' . Before season 7 premiered , the show was announced to be moved to sister network FXX to be paired with a new action-buddy comedy series , Cassius and Clay . However , when Cassius and Clay was cancelled before it started airing , Archer stayed on FX for season 7 . The move to FXX will again be attempted for the series ' 8th season , slated to premiere in January 2017 . Cast and characters Main * Sterling Malory Archer ( referred to as simply `` Archer '' by most other characters but not his mother who calls him Sterling ) ( voiced by H. Jon Benjamin ) , is considered the world 's most dangerous secret agent , comparable to James Bond . He is extremely egotistical and self-involved , and usually does n't take any situation seriously . Though he shows proficiency in stereotypical spy skills , such as weapons , driving , and martial arts , his primary interest in the job is the opportunity to enjoy a jet-setting lifestyle full of sex , alcohol , thrills , lacrosse , fast cars , designer clothing , and spy gadgets . His obsessions include Burt Reynolds , Kenny Loggins , and big cats such as tigers and ocelots . Archer 's favorite catch-phrases include the exclamation `` Phrasing ! '' ( which he utters when someone inadvertently says something that can be construed as sexual ) , `` I had something for this '' ( when he is searching his mind for a pun or an insulting nickname ) , and `` Danger Zone '' , said in expected situations . Despite his gross negligence , incompetence , and willful ignorance , Archer is usually successful to some degree in most of his endeavors , though sometimes due to blind luck . He possesses an encyclopedic knowledge of pop culture and literature , and peppers his speech with esoteric references . * Lana Anthony Kane ( voiced by Aisha Tyler ) is the top female agent at ISIS . A beautiful black woman , she is a competent and deadly agent but is constantly frustrated that she is treated as the number two ISIS field agent behind Sterling , as his mother runs the agency . The fact that she is 6 ft tall with abnormally large hands is often a source of jokes at her expense . She is revealed to be pregnant at the end of season 4 , via a sperm donor . In the season 5 finale , Lana gives birth to a daughter , whom she reveals to Sterling is his daughter , conceived through in-vitro fertilization . Lana almost always wears one-piece , cowl-neck dresses , thigh-high stiletto boots , and a shoulder holster which carries her twin TEC-9 guns . Due to various circumstances , Lana is often forced into desperate situations wearing only her underwear . * Malory Archer ( voiced by Jessica Walter ) is Sterling Archer 's mother and the head of ISIS . A self-centered alcoholic , she regularly hatches half-baked and invariably disastrous schemes to use the agency 's resources to her own personal advantage . She is a compulsive micromanager , and constantly belittles all of the employees at the agency . Malory was an absentee mother for Archer much of the time , leaving him to be raised by his valet , Woodhouse , or in the care of various boarding schools . What little parenting she did typically resulted in some form of negative reinforcement such as spanking Sterling with a ping pong paddle , taking all of his Halloween candy as his bet for a game of Blackjack , and stealing his brand new bike ( and later a new car ) and selling it to someone else to `` teach him a lesson '' . Despite her highly abrasive nature , Mallory does show genuine remorse for Sterling whenever she is presented with the likelihood of him being killed , though she immediately reverts to her normal self-centered personality after he is confirmed to be alive . * Cyril Figgis ( voiced by Chris Parnell ) is the comptroller of ISIS . Cyril is portrayed as quite competent at his job , but is plagued by a number of personal issues . He was Lana Kane 's love interest at the beginning of season 1 , but due to residual trust issues from her relationship with Sterling ( and her finding out Cyril was cheating on her repeatedly ) , she refused to call Cyril her boyfriend or say she loved him . Later seasons see him struggling with sex addiction and becoming an active field agent , with generally ( though not consistently ) disastrous results . Cyril has an abnormally large penis , a debilitating inferiority complex with Sterling , and has had sex with all the main female characters . As of Season 7 , Cyril officially owns and operates `` The Figgis Agency '' , and allows Archer and the others to work under him as private investigators after they were fired and blacklisted by the CIA at the conclusion of Season 6 . * Cheryl Tunt ( voiced by Judy Greer , speaking ; Jessy Lynn Martens , singing , Archer Vice ) also known as Carol and various other similar first names , is Malory 's secretary . In the pilot episode , she was portrayed as a lovesick , ditzy secretary frequently taken advantage of by Sterling , but that side of her character was gradually phased out as her behavior became more and more unhinged ; she has pyromaniacal and masochistic tendencies , eats an office plant , and is often sniffing or swallowing rubber cement . She is also revealed to be an heiress with a fortune of half a billion dollars . During Season 5 , Cheryl allowed Archer and the others to use her mansion as their main headquarters after the dismantling of ISIS , during which time , Cheryl began a country music career , adopting the name `` Cherlene '' . * Pamela `` Pam '' Poovey ( voiced by Amber Nash ) is ISIS 's human resources director . A gossipy , impulsive hedonist and subject of many jokes regarding her weight , she serves as a foil for most of the members of the cast , often calling them out on their zany schemes . Though initially portrayed as being socially inept with few life skills , it is gradually revealed that she is a trained drift-car racer and bare-knuckle fighter , with over a dozen kills under her belt ( represented on her back , along with the third verse of Lord Byron 's poem `` The Destruction of Sennacherib '' in tattoo form ) . Among her other interests are graffiti , directing amateur tentacle porn , putting billiard balls in her mouth , and cockfighting with Siamese fighting fish . Archer and Pam have sex several times and Archer claims it 's the best sex he 's ever had . Pam eventually convinced Malory to approve her for field work . During season 5 , Archer Vice , she developed an ever-present cocaine addiction , ingesting the drug in both conventional and creative ways . As a result , her weight during the season is significantly lower , although it returns to normal in season 6 . * Doctor Algernop Krieger ( voiced by Lucky Yates ) is the head of the ISIS applied research department . He spends most of his time working on projects to facilitate his kinky sexual fantasies . He has had several holographic anime-style girlfriends , and has developed the technology to turn human beings into cyborgs . It is discovered that he is possibly a clone of Adolf Hitler , being one of the `` Boys from Brazil '' , but there is some ambiguity to his status as a clone , as he points out in the season 6 finale that he does n't actually look like Adolf Hitler . Krieger 's credentials are often called into question , and he admits that he 's not really a doctor . However , he is often as competent as the show needs him to be , alternating between being ingenious and horribly inept . * Raymond Q . `` Ray '' Gillette ( voiced by Adam Reed ) is an openly gay intelligence analyst/field agent and one of the few competent members of ISIS . Along with Lana , he often serves as the voice of reason on the show . Ray appeared only three times in season 1 , becoming a regular character in season 2 . Raised in a trailer park in Ferlin , West Virginia , he was once an ordained minister , as well as an Olympic bronze medalist in the giant slalom . Malory frequently emasculates him , often calling him `` Ms. Gillette '' . The show has made a running gag of Ray sustaining serious injuries including being shot in the abdomen , twice injuring one of his eyes , being repeatedly crippled and wheelchair-bound , and losing his right hand . Krieger equips Ray with bionic legs , feet , and a ( dark skinned ) right hand as a result of his various injuries , turning him into a cyborg . * Woodhouse ( voiced by George Coe [ 2009–2015 ] ; Roy McCrery , flashbacks ; Tom Kane , Archer Vice ) is Sterling 's long-suffering , heroin-addicted , English valet , who patiently accepts the unending stream of abuse hurled at him by Sterling , in part due to Sterling 's resemblance to a pilot friend of his from World War I upon whom Woodhouse had an unrequited crush . He is an old acquaintance of Malory and one of the few people she ( generally ) treats respectfully . As of Season 6 , Woodhouse has mysteriously gone missing , which is acknowledged by the other characters . Recurring * Maj. Nikolai Jakov ( voiced by Peter Newman ) is the head of the KGB and one of Malory Archer 's ( numerous ) lovers . He is killed by Barry Dylan in season 3 after Barry usurps him as head of the KGB . Like most of Malory 's lovers , he is possibly Sterling Archer 's biological father . * Barry Dylan ( voiced by Dave Willis ) is initially a top agent at ISIS 's rival agency , ODIN . Like Sterling Archer , he is a highly adept field agent , though while ODIN is portrayed as the competent and professional agency , Barry , himself , is constantly the hapless victim of Sterling 's chicanery . Sterling twice allows Barry to fall from considerable heights , the first time causing Barry to have pins inserted into his leg , the second time resulting in Barry being turned into a Terminator-like cyborg by the KGB . Barry has a peculiar habit of carrying on conversations with himself , referring to himself in the third person as both `` Barry '' and `` Other Barry '' . After being turned into a cyborg at the end of season 2 , Barry becomes obsessed with killing Sterling , though his efforts are always thwarted due to unforeseen circumstances . He eventually ends up married to Sterling 's former fiance , Katya Kazanova . In season 6 , Barry is incinerated in an explosion , and while his cybernetic skeleton survives , his ultimate fate is unknown . He returns in season 7 , having kidnapped Malory in order to force Sterling and the rest of the group to help him in finding his birth mother . * Katya Kazanova ( voiced by Ona Grauer ) is a former KGB agent who defected to ISIS after seeing a picture of Sterling and instantly falling in love with him . Upon meeting her , Sterling reciprocates her amorous feelings , and the two quickly decide to marry with Katya set to become an agent for ISIS . Barry Dylan crashes the wedding and Katya is killed when she falls from the terrace in an effort to save Sterling . Krieger later turns Katya into a cyborg and she enters into a relationship with Barry . She eventually dumps Barry and supplants him as head of the KGB . * Ron Cadillac ( voiced by Ron Leibman ) is Malory 's husband as of season 4 . He is the owner of six Cadillac dealerships on the East Coast . In contrast to the antics of the staff at the spy agency , Ron is a relatively straight-laced and competent businessman who leads a life of leisure , trusting his managers and sales associates to run his dealerships . This is in contrast to Malory , who insists she ca n't trust anyone at ISIS to do anything , thus justifying her compulsive tendency to micromanage . * Slater ( voiced by Christian Slater ) is a fictionalized version of the actor himself , a CIA operative who frequently calls on the services of ISIS to perform secret operations that the CIA deems too politically sensitive to do themselves . Such operations are usually in foreign countries controlled by dictatorial regimes . * Len Trexler ( voiced by Jeffrey Tambor ) is the head of ODIN , the rival spy agency that constantly one-ups ISIS . He is a former lover of Malory 's , and wishes to resume his relationship with her until Sterling and Krieger subject him to a series of shock treatments ( in the style of A Clockwork Orange ) designed to make him hate and fear Malory . Production Adam Reed is the creator of Archer . The inspiration for the series came to Reed while in a cafe in Salamanca , Spain . Finding himself unable to approach a beautiful woman seated nearby , Reed conjured up the idea of a spy who `` would have a perfect line '' . Reed conceived the show 's concept while walking along the Vía de la Plata in 2008 . He pitched his idea to FX , which accepted it and ordered six episodes , along with an additional four scripts . While developing the sixth season , the show 's producers decided to end the use of the term `` ISIS '' ( which , in the series , was an acronym for `` International Secret Intelligence Service '' , the fictional spy agency the characters worked for in seasons 1-4 ) due to its growing association with the Islamist terrorist organization of the same initials . Archer merchandise with the ISIS initials was also withdrawn from sale . While developing the seventh season , the creative team took inspiration from Magnum , P.I . while developing the stories , and they also used the series ' location switch from New York City to Los Angeles to change the series from the 1960s-aesthetic of prior seasons forward to 1970's-style , which included new clothing for the main characters . The seventh season also marked the first time the show had a composer , J. G. Thirlwell , scoring the soundtrack for the season , a notable difference from previous seasons , in which only the opening and ending music themes were made by composers ( Scott Sims and Mel Young , respectively ) , and the episodes used stock library music . In an interview before season 5 , show producer and art director Neil Holman stated that `` An average episode takes about eleven weeks from the moment we get a script to the moment we turn it in . We generally have four episodes in production at a time in staggered phases , so we end up doing 13 episodes in 10 months . '' In an interview before season 6 , show creator and main writer Adam Reed stated that each episode takes five weeks to make , from start to finish . The show is mostly animated by Reed 's Floyd County Productions in Atlanta , Georgia , while 3D background models are made by Trinity Animation in Kansas City , Missouri . Originally , Radical Axis housed the show 's animation staff for season 1 , but the crew has since moved to their own facilities close to Emory University and the Georgia Institute of Technology . The artistic style of the series was designed to be as realistic as possible , so the character designers used as much reference material as they could . [ http : //www.fanbolt.com/headline/10837/Exclusive : _Adam_Reed_On_The_Origins_Of_FX % 27s_ % 27Archer % 27 Exclusive : Adam Reed On The Origins Of FX 's 'Archer ' ] The character drawings are based on Atlanta-area models ; they coincidentally resemble some of the voice actors in the series . As Chad Hurd , the lead character designer for the series , noted , the end result resembles `` a 1960s comic book come to life . '' Television critics have also compared the show 's overall visual style to that of the drama series Mad Men , and noted that lead character Sterling Archer bears a substantial resemblance to Mad Men protagonist Don Draper . The artwork is also similar to the original Jonny Quest cartoon series penned by artist Doug Wildey in the 1960s . Stylistically , the show is a mix of several different time periods ; show creator Adam Reed described it as `` intentionally ill-defined '' , noting that the show `` cherry-pick [ ed ] the best and easiest from several decades '' . Numerous plot details arise from contemporary culture , such as affirmative action and sexual harassment complaints . Archer is influenced by the early James Bond films , as well as OSS 117 , The Man from U.N.C.L.E . and The Pink Panther , and can be compared to Reed 's former shows for Adult Swim , Frisky Dingo and Sealab 2021 . Driven by rapid-fire dialogue and interaction-based drama , the series is `` stuff [ ed ] ... with pop-culture references '' and features an anachronistic style , using fashion from the early 1960s , cars and vans from the 1970s , a mix of 1980s-era and modern technology , and a political status quo in which `` the Cold War never ended '' . Relation to other media Arrested Development Jessica Walter , Jeffrey Tambor , David Cross , and Judy Greer previously starred in the critically acclaimed Fox sitcom Arrested Development . Since both shows largely revolve around feuds and rivalry disputes between family members , Archer has been described by its creator , Adam Reed , as `` James Bond meets Arrested Development '' . There are also notable similarities between the characters played by Greer , Walter , and Tambor . Of particular note is Archer 's relationship with his mother , which parallels somewhat Buster Bluth 's relationship with Lucille Bluth , including the fact that both sons refer to her as `` Mother '' and are still under great parental influence as adults . Judy Greer 's character is a `` lovelorn secretary '' , Walter is the wealth-wielding alcoholic matriarch , and Tambor , while not the husband , is her long-lost love interest and possibly Sterling 's biological father ( which is similar to Tambor 's secondary role on Arrested Development , Oscar ) . Both shows also frequently use callbacks and catchphrases . Walter said in an interview that she became interested in Archer after her manager sent her the pilot script describing Malory as `` Think Jessica Walter in Arrested Development . '' Sealab 2021 and Frisky Dingo Just as some series voice-actors have worked together previously , notable people on the Archer animation and production teams , including Adam Reed and Matt Thompson , were also cooperatively involved in several shows for Adult Swim , most notably Frisky Dingo and Sealab 2021 . All three shows share similar animation styles , which began with Sealab 's cut-and-paste juxtaposition of vintage cartoon clips and modern dialogue , was modernized with computer animation for Frisky Dingo , and continues with essentially unchanged appearances for some characters in Archer . The show also shares numerous stylistic and character development similarities with its two predecessors . One of the supporting characters from Frisky Dingo , Mr. Ford , makes a cameo appearance in `` Drift Problem '' , the seventh episode of Season 3 of Archer , repeating one of his Frisky Dingo catchphrases ( `` My ass is everywhere . `` ) . Simone , Frisky Dingo 's homeless prostitute/heroin addict , makes a cameo appearance in the seventh episode of Season 6 of Archer , telling Archer that he does n't have `` kick pants '' ( a reference to Xander Crews wearing the bottom half of an Xtacles suit ) . Additionally , the season 4 finale ( Sea Tunt : Part II ) included a nod to Sealab 2021 ( a show that series creator Adam Reed previously worked on ) , featuring an underwater research laboratory with an insane commander named Captain Murphy ( Sealab 2021 revolved around an underwater research laboratory with an insane commander named Captain Murphy ) . The character bore a heavy resemblance to the aforementioned Sealab 2021 character both in appearance and mannerisms . He is later killed by an off brand soda machine , which is the central plot of an episode of Sealab 2021 . As a tribute to Harry Goz , the actor who played Captain Murphy in Sealab 2021 ( who died in 2003 ) , the soda machine dispenses Goz soda in the Archer episode . In `` Midnight Ron '' , the 4th episode in Season 4 , Archer 's exclamation `` Aw , Fat Mike , too ? '' upon hearing Fat Mike had been arrested , is a line uttered by Xander Crews on hearing he had just killed Fat Mike , an Xtacle in the show `` Frisky Dingo '' . The character of Xander Crews was in many ways a prototype for Archer The character `` Mr. Ford '' from Frisky Dingo makes a few appearances , most notably `` Legs '' in episode 3 of season 4 and `` Drift Problem '' in episode 7 , season 3 . Ford even says his catchphrase `` my ass is everywhere '' . `` The Double Deuce '' , episode 5 from Season 2 of Archer includes another nod to Frisky Dingo where Cody 2 appears in the tontine bracket under Lana . Luckily for the staff at ISIS , Cody 2 died shortly after his birth in Frisky Dingo . The character `` Simone '' appears in `` Nellis '' in episode 7 , season 6 telling Archer that he does n't have `` kick pants '' ( a reference to Xander Crews wearing the bottom half of an Xtacles suit ) . `` Reignition Sequence '' , episode 10 from Season 6 of Archer includes another nod to Frisky Dingo where Cheryl says `` In the immortal words of Wendell Stamps : that 's going in the slideshow ! '' Wendell Stamps being a character that would reference his slideshow that is never seen by the viewer . Bob 's Burgers Since 2011 , H. Jon Benjamin has simultaneously voiced the title characters in both Archer and the Fox animated series Bob 's Burgers . Since then , the show has referenced Bob 's Burgers as well as guest-starred various cast members . Prior to Season 4 , Bob 's Burgers cast member Larry Murphy made a minor appearance in the Season 3 episode `` The Limited '' as Frank , one of Cheryl 's train conductors . During the season 4 premiere , Archer , after getting amnesia , is convinced he is Bob Belcher and works at the Bob 's Burgers restaurant . The episode featured a cameo by John Roberts as Linda Belcher . The opening action sequence also paid homage to the David Cronenberg movie A History of Violence . Additionally , the two-part season finale of season four stars Bob 's Burgers actors Eugene Mirman and Kristen Schaal ; Mirman played Cheryl 's philanthropic brother Cecil Tunt , while Schaal played Cecil 's opinionated girlfriend . Reception Archer has received critical acclaim , with review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes & Metacritic . Home release Each season of the series , except for season 1 , has received a DVD and Blu-ray release on the same date , in region 1 . Season 1 was originally released only

qg_4216--Archer_(TV_series).txt

What fictional spy show showcases the dysfunctional International Secret Intelligence Service (ISIS)?

Arden is an area , located mainly in Warwickshire , England , and also part of Staffordshire and Worcestershire traditionally regarded as extending from the River Avon to the River Tame . It was once heavily wooded , giving rise to the name 'Forest of Arden ' . It does not seem that the area was subject to forest law however . History Believed to be derived from a Brythonic word ardu- `` high '' ( cf . Welsh ardd ) , by extension `` highland '' , the area was formerly thickly forested and known as the Forest of Arden . Located near the geographical centre of England , the Forest of Arden , through which no Roman roads were built , was bounded by the Roman roads Icknield Street , Watling Street , Fosse Way , and a prehistoric salt track leading from Droitwich . It encompassed an area corresponding to the north-western half of the traditional county of Warwick , stretching from Stratford-on-Avon in the south to Tamworth ( in Staffordshire ) in the north , and included what are now the large cities of Birmingham and Coventry , in addition to areas that are still largely rural with numerous areas of woodland . The most important and largest settlement in the forest was the town Henley-in-Arden ( in a valley of the River Alne , approximately 15 miles southeast of Birmingham ) , the site of an Iron Age hillfort . An ancient mark stone known as `` Coughton Cross '' is still present at the south western corner of the forest , at the junction of Icknield Street ( now A435 ) and the salt track . It is located at the southern end of the frontage of Coughton Court and is owned by the National Trust . According to local tradition , travellers prayed here for safe passage through the forest . From around 1162 , until the suppression of the order in 1312 , the Knights Templar owned a preceptory at Temple Balsall in the middle of the Forest of Arden . The property then passed to the Knights Hospitaller , who held it until the Reformation during the 16th century . Robert Catesby , leader of the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 , was a native of Lapworth , a village in Arden . It is believed that many local families had resisted the Reformation and retained Catholic sympathies , possibly including the family of Shakespeare , whose paternal ancestors were from Temple Balsall . Thorkell of Arden , a descendant of the ruling family of Mercia , was one of the few major English landowners who retained extensive properties after the Norman conquest , and his progeny , the Arden family , remained prominent in the area for centuries . Mary Arden , mother of William Shakespeare , was a member . Shakespeare 's play As You Like It is set in the Forest of Arden , however it is an imaginary version incorporating elements from the Ardennes forest in Thomas Lodge 's prose romance Rosalynde and the real forest ( both as it was then , subjected to deforestation and enclosure , and the romanticized version of his youth ) . Towns in the area include Hampton-in-Arden , Henley-in-Arden , and Tanworth-in-Arden . Proposal for a new national forest The Countryside Commission considered creating a new national forest in the area in 1989 , but the proposal was not taken up . A national forest has been established in the northern midlands however . Heart of England forest Publisher Felix Dennis planted substantial areas of woodland in the area , known as the Heart of England Forest and on his death in 2014 left most of his fortune to be used for this purpose . 3000 acres have been planted in Spernall , Dorsington and Honeybourne .

sfq_18289--Arden,_Warwickshire.txt

Which Shakespeare play is set in the Forest of Arden?

The United Kingdom is a unitary governed within the framework of a constitutional monarchy , in which the Monarch is the head of state and the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of government . Executive power is exercised by Her Majesty 's Government , on behalf of and by the consent of the Monarch , as well as by the devolved Governments of Scotland and Wales , and the Northern Ireland Executive . Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the Parliament of the United Kingdom , the House of Commons and the House of Lords , as well as in the Scottish parliament and Welsh and Northern Ireland assemblies . The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature . The highest court is the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom . The UK political system is a multi-party system . Since the 1920s , the two largest political participation have been the Conservative Party and the Labour Party . Before the Labour Party rose in British politics , the Liberal Party was the other major political party along with the Conservatives . Though coalition and minority governments have been an occasional feature of parliamentary politics , the first-past-the-post electoral system used for general elections tends to maintain the dominance of these two parties , though each has in the past century relied upon a third party such as the Liberal Democrats to deliver a working majority in Parliament . A Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government held office from 2010 until 2015 , the first coalition since 1945 . The coalition ended following Parliamentary elections on May 7 , 2015 , in which the Conservative Party won an outright majority of 330 seats in the House of Commons , while their coalition partners lost all but eight seats . With the partition of Ireland , Northern Ireland received home rule in 1920 , though civil unrest meant direct rule was restored in 1972 . Support for nationalist parties in Scotland and Wales led to proposals for devolution in the 1970s though only in the 1990s did devolution actually happen . Today , Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland each possess a legislature and executive , with devolution in Northern Ireland being conditional on participation in certain all-Ireland institutions . The United Kingdom remains responsible for non-devolved matters and , in the case of Northern Ireland , co-operates with the Republic of Ireland . It is a matter of dispute as to whether increased autonomy and devolution of executive and legislative powers has contributed to the increase in support for independence . The principal pro-independence party , the Scottish National Party , became a minority government in 2007 and then went on to win an overall majority of MSPs at the 2011 Scottish parliament elections and forms the Scottish Government administration . A 2014 referendum on independence led to a rejection of the proposal , but with 45 % voting to secede . In Northern Ireland , the largest Pro-Belfast Agreement party , Sinn Féin , not only advocates Northern Ireland 's unification with the Republic of Ireland , but also abstains from taking their elected seats in the Westminster government , as this would entail taking a pledge of allegiance to the British monarch . The constitution of the United Kingdom is uncodified , being made up of constitutional conventions , statutes and other elements such as EU law . This system of government , known as the Westminster system , has been adopted by other countries , especially those that were formerly parts of the British Empire . The United Kingdom is also responsible for several dependencies , which fall into two categories : the Crown dependencies , in the immediate vicinity of the UK , and British Overseas Territories , which originated as colonies of the British Empire . History The Crown The British Monarch , currently Queen Elizabeth II , is the Chief of State of the United Kingdom . Though she takes little direct part in government , the Crown remains the fount in which ultimate executive power over Government lies . These powers are known as Royal Prerogative and can be used for a vast amount of things , such as the issue or withdrawal of passports , to the dismissal of the Prime Minister or even the Declaration of War . The powers are delegated from the Monarch personally , in the name of the Crown , and can be handed to various ministers , or other Officers of the Crown , and can purposely bypass the consent of Parliament . The head of Her Majesty 's Government ; the Prime Minister , also has weekly meetings with the sovereign , where she may express her feelings , warn , or advise the Prime Minister in the Government 's work . According to the uncodified constitution of the United Kingdom , the monarch has the following powers : Domestic Powers * The power to dismiss and appoint a Prime Minister * The power to dismiss and appoint other ministers * The power to summon , prorogue and dissolve Parliament * The power to grant or refuse Royal Assent to bills ( making them valid and law ) * The power to commission officers in the Armed Forces * The power to command the Armed Forces of the United Kingdom * The power to appoint members to the Queen 's Council * The power to issue and withdraw passports * The power to grant Prerogative of mercy ( though Capital Punishment is abolished , this power is still used to remedy errors in sentence calculation ) * The power to grant honours * The power to create corporations via Royal Charter Foreign Powers * The power to ratify and make treaties * The power to declare War and Peace * The power to deploy the Armed Forces overseas * The power to recognize states * The power to credit and receive diplomats Executive Executive power in the United Kingdom is exercised by the Sovereign , Queen Elizabeth II , via Her Majesty 's Government and the devolved national authorities - the Scottish Government , the Welsh Assembly Government and the Northern Ireland Executive . The United Kingdom Government The monarch appoints a Prime Minister as the head of Her Majesty 's Government in the United Kingdom , guided by the strict convention that the Prime Minister should be the member of the House of Commons most likely to be able to form a Government with the support of that House . In practice , this means that the leader of the political party with an absolute majority of seats in the House of Commons is chosen to be the Prime Minister . If no party has an absolute majority , the leader of the largest party is given the first opportunity to form a coalition . The Prime Minister then selects the other Ministers which make up the Government and act as political heads of the various Government Departments . About twenty of the most senior government ministers make up the Cabinet and approximately 100 ministers in total comprise the government . In accordance with constitutional convention , all ministers within the government are either Members of Parliament or peers in the House of Lords . As in some other parliamentary systems of government ( especially those based upon the Westminster System ) , the executive ( called `` the government '' ) is drawn from and is answerable to Parliament - a successful vote of no confidence will force the government either to resign or to seek a parliamentary dissolution and a general election . In practice , members of parliament of all major parties are strictly controlled by whips who try to ensure they vote according to party policy . If the government has a large majority , then they are very unlikely to lose enough votes to be unable to pass legislation . The Prime Minister and the Cabinet The Prime Minister is the most senior minister in the Cabinet . He or she is responsible for chairing Cabinet meetings , selecting Cabinet ministers ( and all other positions in Her Majesty 's government ) , and formulating government policy . The Prime Minister being the de facto leader of the UK , he or she exercises executive functions that are nominally vested in the sovereign ( by way of the Royal Prerogatives ) . Historically , the British monarch was the sole source of executive powers in the government . However , following the lead of the Hanoverian monarchs , an arrangement of a `` Prime Minister '' chairing and leading the Cabinet began to emerge . Over time , this arrangement became the effective executive branch of government , as it assumed the day-to-day functioning of the British government away from the sovereign . Theoretically , the Prime Minister is primus inter pares ( , i.e . Latin for `` first among equals '' ) among their Cabinet colleagues . While the Prime Minister is the senior Cabinet Minister , they are theoretically bound to make executive decisions in a collective fashion with the other Cabinet ministers . The Cabinet , along with the PM , consists of Secretaries of State from the various government departments , the Lord High Chancellor , the Lord Privy Seal , the President of the Board of Trade , the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and Ministers without portfolio . Cabinet meetings are typically held weekly , while Parliament is in session . Government departments and the Civil Service The Government of the United Kingdom contains a number of ministries known mainly , though not exclusively as departments , e.g. , Department for Education . These are politically led by a Government Minister who is often a Secretary of State and member of the Cabinet . He or she may also be supported by a number of junior Ministers . In practice , several government departments and Ministers have responsibilities that cover England alone , with devolved bodies having responsibility for Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland , ( for example - the Department of Health ) , or responsibilities that mainly focus on England ( such as the Department for Education ) . Implementation of the Minister 's decisions is carried out by a permanent politically neutral organisation known as the civil service . Its constitutional role is to support the Government of the day regardless of which political party is in power . Unlike some other democracies , senior civil servants remain in post upon a change of Government . Administrative management of the Department is led by a head civil servant known in most Departments as a Permanent Secretary . The majority of the civil service staff in fact work in executive agencies , which are separate operational organisations reporting to Departments of State . `` Whitehall '' is often used as a metonym for the central core of the Civil Service . This is because most Government Departments have headquarters in and around the former Royal Palace Whitehall . Devolved national administrations Scottish Government The Scottish Government is responsible for all issues that are not explicitly reserved to the United Kingdom Parliament at Westminster , by the Scotland Act ; including NHS Scotland , education , justice , rural affairs , and transport . It manages an annual budget of more than £25 billion . The government is led by the First Minister , assisted by various Ministers with individual portfolios and remits . The Scottish Parliament nominates a Member to be appointed as First Minister by the Queen . The First Minister then appoints their Ministers ( now known as Cabinet Secretaries ) and junior Ministers , subject to approval by the Parliament . The First Minister , the Ministers ( but not junior ministers ) , the Lord Advocate and Solicitor General are the Members of the 'Scottish Executive ' , as set out in the Scotland Act 1998 . They are collectively known as `` the Scottish Ministers '' . Welsh Government The Welsh Government and the National Assembly for Wales have more limited powers than those devolved to Scotland , although following the passing of the Government of Wales Act 2006 and the Welsh devolution referendum , 2011 , the Assembly can now legislate in some areas through an Act of the National Assembly for Wales . Following the 2011 election , Welsh Labour held exactly half of the seats in the Assembly , falling just short of an overall majority . A Welsh Labour Government was subsequently formed headed by Carwyn Jones . Northern Ireland Executive The Northern Ireland Executive and Assembly have powers closer to those already devolved to Scotland . The Northern Ireland Executive is led by a diarchy , currently First Minister Arlene Foster ( Democratic Unionist Party ) and deputy First Minister Martin McGuinness ( Sinn Féin ) . Legislatures The UK Parliament is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom ( i.e. , there is parliamentary sovereignty ) , and Government is drawn from and answerable to it . Parliament is bicameral , consisting of the House of Commons and the House of Lords . There is also a devolved Scottish Parliament and devolved Assemblies in Wales and Northern Ireland , with varying degrees of legislative authority . UK Parliament House of Commons The Countries of the United Kingdom are divided into parliamentary constituencies of broadly equal population by the four Boundary Commissions . Each constituency elects a Member of Parliament ( MP ) to the House of Commons at General Elections and , if required , at by-elections . As of 2010 there are 650 constituencies ( there were 646 before that year 's general election ) . Of the 650 MPs , all but one - Lady Sylvia Hermon - belong to a political party . In modern times , all Prime Ministers and Leaders of the Opposition have been drawn from the Commons , not the Lords . Alec Douglas-Home resigned from his peerages days after becoming Prime Minister in 1963 , and the last Prime Minister before him from the Lords left in 1902 ( the Marquess of Salisbury ) . One party usually has a majority in Parliament , because of the use of the First Past the Post electoral system , which has been conducive in creating the current two party system . The monarch normally asks a person commissioned to form a government simply whether it can survive in the House of Commons , something which majority governments are expected to be able to do . In exceptional circumstances the monarch asks someone to 'form a government ' with a parliamentary minority which in the event of no party having a majority requires the formation of a coalition government . This option is only ever taken at a time of national emergency , such as war-time . It was given in 1916 to Andrew Bonar Law , and when he declined , to David Lloyd George and in 1940 to Winston Churchill . A government is not formed by a vote of the House of Commons , it is a commission from the monarch . The House of Commons gets its first chance to indicate confidence in the new government when it votes on the Speech from the Throne ( the legislative programme proposed by the new government ) . House of Lords The House of Lords was previously a largely hereditary aristocratic chamber , although including life peers , and Lords Spiritual . It is currently mid-way through extensive reforms , the most recent of these being enacted in the House of Lords Act 1999 . The house consists of two very different types of member , the Lords Temporal and Lords Spiritual . Lords Temporal include appointed members ( life peers with no hereditary right for their descendants to sit in the house ) and ninety-two remaining hereditary peers , elected from among , and by , the holders of titles which previously gave a seat in the House of Lords . The Lords Spiritual represent the established Church of England and number twenty-six : the Five Ancient Sees ( Canterbury , York , London , Winchester and Durham ) , and the 21 next-most senior bishops . The House of Lords currently acts to review legislation initiated by the House of Commons , with the power to propose amendments , and can exercise a suspensive veto . This allows it to delay legislation if it does not approve it for twelve months . However , the use of vetoes is limited by convention and by the operation of the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 : the Lords may not veto the `` money bills '' or major manifesto promises ( see Salisbury convention ) . Persistent use of the veto can also be overturned by the Commons , under a provision of the Parliament Act 1911 . Often governments will accept changes in legislation in order to avoid both the time delay , and the negative publicity of being seen to clash with the Lords . However the Lords still retain a full veto in acts which would extend the life of Parliament beyond the 5-year term limit introduced by the Parliament Act 1911 . The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 outlined plans for a Supreme Court of the United Kingdom to replace the role of the Law Lords . The House of Lords was replaced as the final court of appeal on civil cases within the United Kingdom on 1 October 2009 , by the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom . Devolved national legislatures Though the UK parliament remains the sovereign parliament , Scotland has a parliament and Wales and Northern Ireland have assemblies . De jure , each could have its powers broadened , narrowed or changed by an Act of the UK Parliament . The UK is a unitary state with a devolved system of government . This contrasts with a federal system , in which sub-parliaments or state parliaments and assemblies have a clearly defined constitutional right to exist and a right to exercise certain constitutionally guaranteed and defined functions and can not be unilaterally abolished by Acts of the central parliament . All three devolved institutions are elected by proportional representation : the Additional Member System is used in Scotland and Wales , and Single Transferable Vote is used in Northern Ireland . England , therefore , is the only country in the UK not to have its own devolved parliament . However , senior politicians of all main parties have voiced concerns in regard to the West Lothian Question , which is raised where certain policies for England are set by MPs from all four constituent nations whereas similar policies for Scotland or Wales might be decided in the devolved assemblies by legislators from those countries alone . Alternative proposals for English regional government have stalled , following a poorly received referendum on devolved government for the North East of England , which had hitherto been considered the region most in favour of the idea , with the exception of Cornwall , where there is widespread support for a Cornish Assembly , including all five Cornish MPs . England is therefore governed according to the balance of parties across the whole of the United Kingdom . The government has no plans to establish an English parliament or assembly although several pressure groups are calling for one . One of their main arguments is that MPs ( and thus voters ) from different parts of the UK have inconsistent powers . Currently an MP from Scotland can vote on legislation which affects only England but MPs from England ( or indeed Scotland ) can not vote on matters devolved to the Scottish parliament . Indeed , the former Prime Minister Gordon Brown , who is an MP for a Scottish constituency , introduced some laws that only affect England and not his own constituency . This anomaly is known as the West Lothian question . The policy of the UK Government in England was to establish elected regional assemblies with no legislative powers . The London Assembly was the first of these , established in 2000 , following a referendum in 1998 , but further plans were abandoned following rejection of a proposal for an elected assembly in North East England in a referendum in 2004 . Unelected regional assemblies remain in place in eight regions of England . Scottish Parliament The Scottish Parliament is the national , unicameral legislature of Scotland , located in the Holyrood area of the capital Edinburgh . The Parliament , informally referred to as `` Holyrood '' ( cf . `` Westminster '' ) , is a democratically elected body comprising 129 members who are known as Members of the Scottish Parliament , or MSPs . Members are elected for four-year terms under the mixed member proportional representation system . As a result , 73 MSPs represent individual geographical constituencies elected by the plurality ( `` first past the post '' ) system , with a further 56 returned from eight additional member regions , each electing seven MSPs . The current Scottish Parliament was established by the Scotland Act 1998 and its first meeting as a devolved legislature was on 12 May 1999 . The parliament has the power to pass laws and has limited tax-varying capability . Another of its roles is to hold the Scottish Government to account . The `` devolved matters '' over which it has responsibility include education , health , agriculture , and justice . A degree of domestic authority , and all foreign policy , remains with the UK Parliament in Westminster . The public take part in Parliament in a way that is not the case at Westminster through Cross-Party Groups on policy topics which the interested public join and attend meetings of alongside Members of the Scottish Parliament ( MSPs ) . The resurgence in Celtic language and identity , as well as 'regional ' politics and development , has contributed to forces pulling against the unity of the state . This was clearly demonstrated when - although some argue it was influenced by general public dillusionment with Labour - the Scottish National Party ( SNP ) became the largest party in the Scottish Parliament by one seat . Alex Salmond ( leader of SNP ) has since made history by becoming the first First Minister of Scotland from a party other than Labour . The SNP governed as a minority administration at Holyrood following the 2007 Scottish Parliament election . Nationalism ( support for breaking up the UK ) has experienced a dramatic rise in popularity in recent years , with a pivotal moment coming at the 2011 Scottish Parliament election where the SNP capitalised on the collapse of the Liberal Democrat support to improve on their 2007 performance to win the first ever outright majority at Holyrood ( despite the voting system being specifically designed to prevent majorities ) , with Labour remaining the largest opposition party . This election result prompted the leader of the three main opposition parties to resign . Iain Gray was succeeded as Scottish Labour leader by Johann Lamont , Scottish Conservative and Unionist leader , Annabel Goldie was replaced by Ruth Davidson , and Tavish Scott , leader of the Scottish Liberal Democrats was replaced by Willie Rennie . A major SNP manifesto pledge was to hold a referendum on Scottish Independence , which was duly granted by the UK Government and held on the 18th September 2014 . When the nationalists came to power in 2011 , opinion polls placed support for independence at around 31 % , but in 2014 , 45 % voted to leave the union . In the wake of the referendum defeat , membership of the SNP surged to over 100,000 , overtaking the Liberal Democrats as the third largest political party in the UK by membership , and in the general election of May 2015 the SNP swept the board and took 56 of the 59 Westminster constituencies in Scotland ( far surpassing their previous best of 11 seats in the late 1970s ) and winning more than 50 % of the Scottish vote . Alex Salmond resigned as First Minister of Scotland and leader of the SNP following the country 's rejection of independence in September 2014 , and was succeeded in both roles by the deputy First Minister and deputy leader of the SNP , Nicola Sturgeon . Also in the wake of the referendum , Scottish Labour leader , Johann Lamont , stood down and Jim Murphy was elected to replace her . As Mr. Murphy is not currently an MSP , the Labour group in the Scottish Parliament is led by their deputy leader in Scotland , Kezia Dugdale . National Assembly for Wales The National Assembly for Wales is the devolved assembly with power to make legislation in Wales . The Assembly comprises 60 members , who are known as Assembly Members , or AMs ( ) . Members are elected for four-year terms under an additional members system , where 40 AMs represent geographical constituencies elected by the plurality system , and 20 AMs from five electoral regions using the d'Hondt method of proportional representation . The Assembly was created by the Government of Wales Act 1998 , which followed a referendum in 1997 . On its creation , most of the powers of the Welsh Office and Secretary of State for Wales were transferred to it . The Assembly had no powers to initiate primary legislation until limited law-making powers were gained through the Government of Wales Act 2006 . Its primary law-making powers were enhanced following a Yes vote in the referendum on 3 March 2011 , making it possible for it to legislate without having to consult the UK parliament , nor the Secretary of State for Wales in the 20 areas that are devolved . Northern Ireland Assembly The government of Northern Ireland was established as a result of the 1998 Good Friday Agreement . This created the Northern Ireland Assembly . The Assembly is a unicameral body consisting of 108 members elected under the Single Transferable Vote form of proportional representation . The Assembly is based on the principle of power-sharing , in order to ensure that both communities in Northern Ireland , unionist and nationalist , participate in governing the region . It has power to legislate in a wide range of areas and to elect the Northern Ireland Executive ( cabinet ) . It sits at Parliament Buildings at Stormont in Belfast . The Assembly has authority to legislate in a field of competences known as `` transferred matters '' . These matters are not explicitly enumerated in the Northern Ireland Act 1998 but instead include any competence not explicitly retained by the Parliament at Westminster . Powers reserved by Westminster are divided into `` excepted matters '' , which it retains indefinitely , and `` reserved matters '' , which may be transferred to the competence of the Northern Ireland Assembly at a future date . Health , criminal law and education are `` transferred '' while royal relations are all `` excepted '' . While the Assembly was in suspension , due to issues involving the main parties and the Provisional Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) , its legislative powers were exercised by the UK government , which effectively had power to legislate by decree . Laws that would normally be within the competence of the Assembly were passed by the UK government in the form of Orders-in-Council rather than legislative acts . There has been a significant decrease in violence over the last twenty years , though the situation remains tense , with the more hard-line parties such as Sinn Féin and the Democratic Unionist Party now holding the most parliamentary seats ( see Demographics and politics of Northern Ireland ) . Judiciary The United Kingdom does not have a single legal system due to it being created by the political union of previously independent countries with the terms of the Treaty of Union guaranteeing the continued existence of Scotland 's separate legal system . Today the UK has three distinct systems of law : English law , Northern Ireland law and Scots law . Recent constitutional changes saw a new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom come into being in October 2009 that took on the appeal functions of the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords . The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council , comprising the same members as the Supreme Court , is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries , the UK overseas territories , and the British

sfq_9889--Politics_of_the_United_Kingdom.txt

Who was the last British Prime Minister to represent a Welsh constituency?

The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840 . This transition included going from hand production methods to machines , new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes , improved efficiency of water power , the increasing use of steam power , the development of machine tools and the rise of the factory system . Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment , value of output and capital invested ; the textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods . The Industrial Revolution began in the United Kingdom and most of the important technological innovations were British . The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history ; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way . In particular , average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth . Some economists say that the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history , although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries . At approximately the same time the Industrial Revolution was occurring , Britain was undergoing an agricultural revolution , which also helped to improve living standards . Mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century , with important centres in France . A major iron making centre developed in Belgium . Since then industrialisation has spread throughout the world . The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians , as is the pace of economic and social changes . GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy , while the Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies . Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants . The First Industrial Revolution evolved into the Second Industrial Revolution in the transition years between 1840 and 1870 , when technological and economic progress continued with the increasing adoption of steam transport ( steam-powered railways , boats and ships ) , the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the increasing use of machinery in steam-powered factories . Etymology The earliest recorded use of the term `` Industrial Revolution '' seems to have been in a letter from 6 July 1799 written by French envoy Louis-Guillaume Otto , announcing that France had entered the race to industrialise . In his 1976 book Keywords : A Vocabulary of Culture and Society , Raymond Williams states in the entry for `` Industry '' : `` The idea of a new social order based on major industrial change was clear in Southey and Owen , between 1811 and 1818 , and was implicit as early as Blake in the early 1790s and Wordsworth at the turn of the [ 19th ] century . '' The term Industrial Revolution applied to technological change was becoming more common by the late 1830s , as in Jérôme-Adolphe Blanqui 's description in 1837 of la révolution industrielle . Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of `` an industrial revolution , a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society '' . However , although Engels wrote in the 1840s , his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s , and his expression did not enter everyday language until then . Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee , whose 1881 lectures gave a detailed account of the term . Some historians , such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts , have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer . This is still a subject of debate among historians . Important technological developments The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations , beginning in the second half of the 18th century . By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies : * Textiles – Mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker . The power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40 . The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50 . Large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen , but they were not as great as in cotton . * Steam power – The efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel . The adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses . The high pressure engine had a high power to weight ratio , making it suitable for transportation . Steam power underwent a rapid expansion after 1800 . * Iron making – The substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron and wrought iron production . Using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces , resulting in economies of scale . The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 . It was later improved by making it double acting , which allowed higher furnace temperatures . The puddling process produced a structural grade iron at a lower cost than the finery forge . The rolling mill was fifteen times faster than hammering wrought iron . Hot blast ( 1828 ) greatly increased fuel efficiency in iron production in the following decades . Textile manufacture In the late 17th and early 18th centuries the British government passed a series of Calico Acts in order to protect the domestic woollen industry from the increasing amounts of cotton fabric imported from India . The demand for heavier fabric was met by a domestic industry based around Lancashire that produced fustian , a cloth with flax warp and cotton weft . Flax was used for the warp because wheel spun cotton did not have sufficient strength , but the resulting blend was not as soft as 100 % cotton and was more difficult to sew . On the eve of the Industrial Revolution , spinning and weaving were done in households , for domestic consumption and as a cottage industry under the putting-out system . Occasionally the work was done in the workshop of a master weaver . Under the putting-out system , home-based workers produced under contract to merchant sellers , who often supplied the raw materials . In the off season the women , typically farmers ' wives , did the spinning and the men did the weaving . Using the spinning wheel it took anywhere from four to eight spinners to supply one hand loom weaver . The flying shuttle patented in 1733 by John Kay , with a number of subsequent improvements including an important one in 1747 , doubled the output of a weaver , worsening the imbalance between spinning and weaving . It became widely used around Lancashire after 1760 when John 's son , Robert , invented the drop box . Lewis Paul patented the roller spinning frame and the flyer-and-bobbin system for drawing wool to a more even thickness . The technology was developed with the help of John Wyatt of Birmingham . Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered by a donkey . In 1743 , a factory opened in Northampton with fifty spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt 's machines . This operated until about 1764 . A similar mill was built by Daniel Bourn in Leominster , but this burnt down . Both Lewis Paul and Daniel Bourn patented carding machines in 1748 . Based on two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds , it was later used in the first cotton spinning mill . Lewis 's invention was later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright in his water frame and Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule . In 1764 in the village of Stanhill , Lancashire , James Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny , which he patented in 1770 . It was the first practical spinning frame with multiple spindles . The jenny worked in a similar manner to the spinning wheel , by first clamping down on the fibres , then by drawing them out , followed by twisting . It was a simple , wooden framed machine that only cost about £6 for a 40 spindle model in 1792 , and was used mainly by home spinners . The jenny produced a lightly twisted yarn only suitable for weft , not warp . The spinning frame or water frame was developed by Richard Arkwright who , along with two partners , patented it in 1769 . The design was partly based on a spinning machine built for Thomas High by clock maker John Kay , who was hired by Arkwright . For each spindle , the water frame used a series of four pairs of rollers , each operating at a successively higher rotating speed , to draw out the fibre , which was then twisted by the spindle . The roller spacing was slightly longer than the fibre length . Too close a spacing caused the fibres to break while too distant a spacing caused uneven thread . The top rollers were leather covered and loading on the rollers was applied by a weight . The weights kept the twist from backing up before the rollers . The bottom rollers were wood and metal , with fluting along the length . The water frame was able to produce a hard , medium count thread suitable for warp , finally allowing 100 % cotton cloth to be made in Britain . A horse powered the first factory to use the spinning frame . Arkwright and his partners used water power at a factory in Cromford , Derbyshire in 1771 , giving the invention its name . Samuel Crompton 's Spinning Mule , introduced in 1779 , was a combination of the spinning jenny and the water frame in which the spindles were placed on a carriage , which went through an operational sequence during which the rollers stopped while the carriage moved away from the drawing roller to finish drawing out the fibres as the spindles started rotating . Crompton 's mule was able to produce finer thread than hand spinning and at a lower cost . Mule spun thread was of suitable strength to be used as warp , and finally allowed Britain to produce good quality calico cloth . Realising that the expiration of the Arkwright patent would greatly increase the supply of spun cotton and lead to a shortage of weavers , Edmund Cartwright developed a vertical power loom which he patented in 1785 . In 1776 he patented a two-man operated loom , that was more conventional . Cartwright built two factories ; the first burned down and the second was sabotaged by his workers . Cartwright 's loom design had several flaws , the most serious being thread breakage . Samuel Horrocks patented a fairly successful loom in 1813 . Horock 's loom was improved by Richard Roberts in 1822 and these were produced in large numbers by Roberts , Hill & Co . The demand for cotton presented an opportunity to planters in the Southern United States , who thought upland cotton would be a profitable crop if a better way could be found to remove the seed . Eli Whitney responded to the challenge by inventing the inexpensive cotton gin . With a cotton gin a man could remove seed from as much upland cotton in one day as would have previously taken a woman working two months to process at one pound per day . Other inventors increased the efficiency of the individual steps of spinning ( carding , twisting and spinning , and rolling ) so that the supply of yarn increased greatly . This in turn fed a weaving industry that advanced with improvements to shuttles and the loom or 'frame ' . The output of an individual labourer increased dramatically , with the effect that the new machines were seen as a threat to employment , and early innovators were attacked and their inventions destroyed . To capitalise upon these advances , it took a class of entrepreneurs , of whom the best known is Richard Arkwright . He is credited with a list of inventions , but these were actually developed by such people as Thomas Highs and John Kay ; Arkwright nurtured the inventors , patented the ideas , financed the initiatives , and protected the machines . He created the cotton mill which brought the production processes together in a factory , and he developed the use of power—first horse power and then water powerwhich made cotton manufacture a mechanised industry . Before long steam power was applied to drive textile machinery . Manchester acquired the nickname Cottonopolis during the early 19th century owing to its sprawl of textile factories . Metallurgy A major change in the metal industries during the era of the Industrial Revolution was the replacement of wood and other bio-fuels with coal . For a given amount of heat , coal required much less labour to mine than cutting wood and converting it to charcoal , and coal was more abundant than wood . Use of coal in smelting started somewhat before the Industrial Revolution , based on innovations by Sir Clement Clerke and others from 1678 , using coal reverberatory furnaces known as cupolas . These were operated by the flames playing on the ore and charcoal or coke mixture , reducing the oxide to metal . This has the advantage that impurities ( such as sulphur ash ) in the coal do not migrate into the metal . This technology was applied to lead from 1678 and to copper from 1687 . It was also applied to iron foundry work in the 1690s , but in this case the reverberatory furnace was known as an air furnace . The foundry cupola is a different ( and later ) innovation . This was followed by Abraham Darby , who made great strides using coke to fuel his blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale in 1709 . However , the coke pig iron he made was used mostly for the production of cast-iron goods , such as pots and kettles . He had the advantage over his rivals in that his pots , cast by his patented process , were thinner and cheaper than theirs . Coke pig iron was hardly used to produce bar iron in forges until the mid-1750s , when his son Abraham Darby II built Horsehay and Ketley furnaces ( not far from Coalbrookdale ) . By then , coke pig iron was cheaper than charcoal pig iron . Since cast iron was becoming cheaper and more plentiful , it began being a structural material following the building of the innovative Iron Bridge in 1778 by Abraham Darby III . Bar iron for smiths to forge into consumer goods was still made in finery forges , as it long had been . However , new processes were adopted in the ensuing years . The first is referred to today as potting and stamping , but this was superseded by Henry Cort 's puddling process . Henry Cort developed two significant iron manufacturing processes : rolling in 1783 and puddling in 1784 . Rolling replaced hammering for consolidating wrought iron and expelling some of the dross . Rolling was 15 times faster than hammering with a trip hammer . Roller mills were first used for making sheets , but also were developed for rolling structural shapes such as angles and rails . Puddling produced a structural grade iron at a relatively low cost.Puddling was a means of decarburizing pig iron by slow oxidation , with iron ore as the oxygen source , as the iron was manually stirred using a long rod . The decarburized iron , having a higher melting point than cast iron , was raked into globs by the puddler . When the glob was large enough the puddler would remove it . Puddling was backbreaking and extremely hot work . Few puddlers lived to be 40 . Puddling was done in a reverberatory furnace , allowing coal or coke to be used as fuel . The puddling process continued to be used until the late 19th century when iron was being displaced by steel . Because puddling required human skill in sensing the iron globs , it was never successfully mechanised . Up to that time , British iron manufacturers had used considerable amounts of imported iron to supplement native supplies . This came principally from Sweden from the mid-17th century and later also from Russia from the end of the 1720s . However , from 1785 , imports decreased because of the new iron making technology , and Britain became an exporter of bar iron as well as manufactured wrought iron consumer goods . Hot blast , patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828 , was the most important development of the 19th century for saving energy in making pig iron . By using waste exhaust heat to preheat combustion air , the amount of fuel to make a unit of pig iron was reduced at first by between one-third using coal or two-thirds using coke ; however , the efficiency gains continued as the technology improved . Hot blast also raised the operating temperature of furnaces , increasing their capacity . Using less coal or coke meant introducing fewer impurities into the pig iron . This meant that lower quality coal or anthracite could be used in areas where coking coal was unavailable or too expensive ; however , by the end of the 19th century transportation costs fell considerably . Two decades before the Industrial Revolution an improvement was made in the production of steel , which was an expensive commodity and used only where iron would not do , such as for cutting edge tools and for springs . Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel technique in the 1740s . The raw material for this was blister steel , made by the cementation process . The supply of cheaper iron and steel aided a number of industries , such as those making nails , hinges , wire and other hardware items . The development of machine tools allowed better working of iron , causing it to be increasingly used in the rapidly growing machinery and engine industries . Steam power The development of the stationary steam engine was an important element of the Industrial Revolution ; however , during the early period of the Industrial Revolution , the majority of industrial power was supplied by water and wind . In Britain by 1800 an estimated 10,000 horsepower was being supplied by steam . By 1815 steam power had grown to 210,000 hp . Small power requirements continued to be provided by animal and human muscle until the late 19th century . The first commercially successful industrial use of steam power was due to Thomas Savery in 1698 . He constructed and patented in London a low-lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump , that generated about one horsepower ( hp ) and was used in numerous water works and in a few mines ( hence its `` brand name '' , The Miner 's Friend ) . Savery 's pump was economical in small horsepower ranges , but was prone to boiler explosions in larger sizes . Savery pumps continued to be produced until the late 18th century . The first successful piston steam engine was introduced by Thomas Newcomen before 1712 . A number of Newcomen engines were successfully put to use in Britain for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines , with the engine on the surface ; these were large machines , requiring a lot of capital to build , and produced about 5 hp . They were extremely inefficient by modern standards , but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads , opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper . Despite their disadvantages , Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the 19th century . By 1729 , when Newcomen died , his engines had spread ( first ) to Hungary in 1722 , Germany , Austria , and Sweden . A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired , of which 14 were abroad . In the 1770s , the engineer John Smeaton built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements . A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800 . A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by Scotsman James Watt . In close collaboration with Englishman Matthew Boulton , he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine , which incorporated a series of radical improvements , notably the closing off of the upper part of the cylinder thereby making the low pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere , use of a steam jacket and the celebrated separate steam condenser chamber . The separate condenser did away with the cooling water that had been injected directly into the cylinder , which cooled the cylinder and wasted steam . Likewise , the steam jacket kept steam from condensing in the cylinder , also improving efficiency . These improvements increased engine efficiency so that Boulton & Watts engines used only 20–25 % as much coal per horsepower-hour as Newcomen 's . Boulton and Watt opened the Soho Foundry , for the manufacture of such engines , in 1795 . By 1783 the Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double-acting rotative type , which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill . Both of Watt 's basic engine types were commercially very successful , and by 1800 , the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines , with 164 driving reciprocating pumps , 24 serving blast furnaces , and 308 powering mill machinery ; most of the engines generated from 5 to 10 hp . The development of machine tools , such as the engine lathe , planing , milling and shaping machines powered by these engines , enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines . Until about 1800 , the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine , built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine-house , but soon various patterns of self-contained rotative engines ( readily removable , but not on wheels ) were developed , such as the table engine . Around the start of the 19th century , the Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick , and the American , Oliver Evans began to construct higher pressure non-condensing steam engines , exhausting against the atmosphere . High pressure yielded an engine and boiler compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steam boats . Machine tools The Industrial Revolution created a demand for metal parts used in machinery . This led to the development of several machine tools for cutting metal parts . They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch-produce small mechanisms . Before the advent of machine tools , metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers , files , scrapers , saws and chisels . Consequently , the use of metal was kept to a minimum . Wooden components had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity , and the various joints tended to rack ( work loose ) over time . As the Industrial Revolution progressed , machines with metal parts and frames became more common . Hand methods of production were very laborious and costly and precision was difficult to achieve . Pre-industrial machinery was built by various craftsmen—millwrights built water and wind mills , carpenters made wooden framing , and smiths and turners made metal parts . The first large machine tool was the cylinder boring machine used for boring the large-diameter cylinders on early steam engines . The planing machine , the milling machine and the shaping machine were developed in the early decades of the 19th century . Although the milling machine was invented at this time , it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until somewhat later in the 19th century . Henry Maudslay , who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century , was a mechanic with superior ability who had been employed at the Royal Arsenal , Woolwich . He was hired away by Joseph Bramah for the production of high security metal locks that required precision craftsmanship . Bramah patented a lathe that had similarities to the slide rest lathe . Maudslay perfected the slide rest lathe , which could cut machine screws of different thread pitches by using changeable gears between the spindle and the lead screw . Before its invention screws could not be cut to any precision using various earlier lathe designs , some of which copied from a template . The slide rest lathe was called one of history 's most important inventions , although not entirely Maudslay 's idea . Maudslay left Bramah 's employment and set up his own shop . He was engaged to build the machinery for making ships ' pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Portsmouth Block Mills . These machines were all-metal and were the first machines for mass production and making components with a degree of interchangeability . The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools , and in his workshops he trained a generation of men to build on his work , such as Richard Roberts , Joseph Clement and Joseph Whitworth . James Fox of Derby had a healthy export trade in machine tools for the first third of the century , as did Matthew Murray of Leeds . Roberts was a maker of high-quality machine tools and a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement . The impact of machine tools during the Industrial Revolution was not that great because other than firearms , threaded fasteners and a few other industries there were few mass-produced metal parts . In the half century following the invention of the fundamental machine tools the machine industry became the largest industrial sector of the economy , by value added , in the U.S . Chemicals The large scale production of chemicals was an important development during the Industrial Revolution . The first of these was the production of sulphuric acid by the lead chamber process invented by the Englishman John Roebuck ( James Watt 's first partner ) in 1746 . He was able to greatly increase the scale of the manufacture by replacing the relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used with larger , less expensive chambers made of riveted sheets of lead . Instead of making a small amount each time , he was able to make around 100 lb in each of the chambers , at least a tenfold increase . The production of an alkali on a large scale became an important goal as well , and Nicolas Leblanc succeeded in 1791 in introducing a method for the production of sodium carbonate . The Leblanc process was a reaction of sulphuric acid with sodium chloride to give sodium sulphate and hydrochloric acid . The sodium sulphate was heated with limestone ( calcium carbonate ) and coal to give a mixture of sodium carbonate and calcium sulphide . Adding water separated the soluble sodium carbonate from the calcium sulphide . The process produced a large amount of pollution ( the hydrochloric acid was initially vented to the air , and calcium sulphide was a useless waste product ) . Nonetheless , this synthetic soda ash proved economical compared to that from burning specific plants ( barilla ) or from kelp , which were the previously dominant sources of soda ash , and also to potash ( potassium carbonate ) derived from hardwood ashes . These two chemicals were very important because they enabled the introduction of a host of other inventions , replacing many small-scale operations with more cost-effective and controllable

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Name the Leicester-born eponymous inspiration of the early 19th textile machinery smashers of the English industrial revolution, whose collective name is now a term for someone resisting new technology?

The 100 metres , or 100-meter dash , is a sprint race in track and field competitions . The shortest common outdoor running distance , it is one of the most popular and prestigious events in the sport of athletics . It has been contested at the Summer Olympics since 1896 for men and since 1928 for women . The reigning 100 m Olympic champion is often named `` the fastest runner in the world . '' The World Championships 100 metres has been contested since 1983 . Jamaicans Usain Bolt and Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce are the reigning world and Olympic champions in the men 's and women 's 100 metres , respectively . On an outdoor 400 metres running track , the 100 m is run on the home straight , with the start usually being set on an extension to make it a straight-line race . Runners begin in the starting blocks and the race begins when an official fires the starter 's pistol . Sprinters typically reach top speed after somewhere between 50–60 m. Their speed then slows towards the finish line . The 10-second barrier has historically been a barometer of fast men 's performances , while the best female sprinters take eleven seconds or less to complete the race . The current men 's world record is 9.58 seconds , set by Jamaica 's Usain Bolt in 2009 , while the women 's world record of 10.49 seconds set by American Florence Griffith-Joyner in 1988 remains unbroken . The 100 m ( 109.361 yards ) emerged from the metrication of the 100 yards ( 91.44 m ) , a now defunct distance originally contested in English-speaking countries . The event is largely held outdoors as few indoor facilities have a 100 m straight . US athletes have won the men 's Olympic 100 metres title more times than any other country , 17 out of the 27 times that it has been run . Race dynamics Start At the start , some athletes play psychological games such as trying to be last to the starting blocks . At high level meets , the time between the gun and first kick against the starting block is measured electronically , via sensors built in the gun and the blocks . A reaction time less than 0.1 s is considered a false start . The 0.2-second interval accounts for the sum of the time it takes for the sound of the starter 's pistol to reach the runners ' ears , and the time they take to react to it . For many years a sprinter was disqualified if responsible for two false starts individually . However , this rule allowed some major races to be restarted so many times that the sprinters started to lose focus . The next iteration of the rule , introduced in February 2003 , meant that one false start was allowed among the field , but anyone responsible for a subsequent false start was disqualified . This rule led to some sprinters deliberately false-starting to gain a psychological advantage : an individual with a slower reaction time might false-start , forcing the faster starters to wait and be sure of hearing the gun for the subsequent start , thereby losing some of their advantage . To avoid such abuse and to improve spectator enjoyment , the IAAF implemented a further change in the 2010 season – a false starting athlete now receives immediate disqualification . This proposal was met with objections when first raised in 2005 , on the grounds that it would not leave any room for innocent mistakes . Justin Gatlin commented , `` Just a flinch or a leg cramp could cost you a year 's worth of work . '' The rule had a dramatic impact at the 2011 World Championships , when current world record holder Usain Bolt was disqualified . Mid-race Runners normally reach their top speed just past the halfway point of the race and they progressively decelerate in the later stages of the race . Maintaining that top speed for as long as possible is a primary focus of training for the 100 m. Pacing and running tactics do not play a significant role in the 100 m , as success in the event depends more on pure athletic qualities and technique . Finish The winner , by IAAF Competition Rules , is determined by the first athlete with his or her torso ( not including limbs , head , or neck ) over the nearer edge of the finish line . When the placing of the athletes is not obvious , a photo finish is used to distinguish which runner was first to cross the line . Climatic conditions Climatic conditions , in particular air resistance , can affect performances in the 100 m. A strong head wind is very detrimental to performance , while a tail wind can improve performances significantly . For this reason , a maximum tail wind of 2.0 m/s is allowed for a 100 m performance to be considered eligible for records , or `` wind legal . '' Furthermore , sprint athletes perform better at high altitudes because of the thinner air , which provides less air resistance . In theory , the thinner air would also make breathing slightly more difficult ( due to the partial pressure of oxygen being lower ) , but this difference is negligible for sprint distances where all the oxygen needed for the short dash is already in the muscles and bloodstream when the race starts ( explaining why many athletes choose not to breathe for the duration of the race ) . While there are no limitations on altitude , performances made at altitudes greater than 1000 m above sea level are marked with an `` A . `` [ http : //www.iaaf.org/community/athletics/trackfield/newsid 4666.html 100 metres ] IAAF 10-second barrier Gender and ethnicity Only male sprinters have beaten the 100 m 10-second barrier , nearly all of them being of West African descent . Namibian ( formerly South-West Africa ) Frankie Fredericks became the first man of non-West African heritage to achieve the feat in 1991 and in 2003 Australia 's Patrick Johnson ( an Indigenous Australian with Irish heritage ) became the first sub-10-second runner without an African background . In the Prefontaine Classic 2015 Diamond League meet at Eugene , Su Bingtian ran a time of 9.99 seconds , becoming the first Asian athlete to officially break the 10-second barrier . In the 2015 Birmingham Grand Prix Diamond League meet , British athlete Adam Gemili , who is of mixed Iranian and Moroccan descent , ran a time of 9.97 seconds on home soil , becoming the first athlete with either North African or Middle Eastern heritage to break the ten-second barrier . Of the six men 's continental record holders , currently three of them were born in Nigeria . It is believed that biological factors may be largely responsible for the notable success in sprinting events enjoyed by athletes of West African descent . This includes : Relatively less subcutaneous fat on arms and legs and proportionately more lean body and muscle mass , larger quadriceps , and bigger , more developed musculature in general ; Higher center of gravity , generally shorter sitting height , narrower hips , and lighter calves ; Longer arm span and `` distal elongation of segments '' – the hand is relatively longer than the forearm , which in turn is relatively longer than the upper arm ; the foot is relatively longer than the tibia ( leg ) , which is relatively longer than the thigh ; Faster patellar tendon reflex ; Modestly , but significantly , higher levels of plasma testosterone ( 3–19 per cent ) , which is anabolic , theoretically contributing to greater muscle mass , lower fat , and the ability to perform at a higher level of intensity with quicker recovery ; The ACTN3 protein , a `` speed gene '' most common among persons of West African descent that renders fast twitch muscle fibers fast . African American 200 m and 400 m world champion Michael Johnson has suggested that the presence of ACTN3 is at the root of the success of these athletes in sprinting events ; And finally , a higher percentage of fast-twitch muscle fibers ( Type II ) and more anaerobic enzymes , which can translate into more explosive energy . The enzyme creatine kinase is abundantly expressed in these fibers . The enzyme rapidly regenerates the biological fuel molecule ATP needed for the sprint . The enzyme has been reported to be twice as high in subjects of sub-Saharan African descent . Creatine kinase is the final common pathway of muscle activity . It is tightly bound to the muscle fibers and directly fuels fast muscle contraction . Therefore , the creatine kinase system is considered to be the major factor , downstream of other factors , that modulates the biological capacity to sprint . Top sprinters of differing ancestry , such as Christophe Lemaitre , are believed to be exceptions in that they too likely have the genes favourable for sprinting . Colin Jackson , an athlete with mixed ethnic background and former world record holder in the 110 metre hurdles , noted that both his parents were talented athletes and suggested that biological inheritance was the greatest influence , rather than any perceived racial factor . Furthermore , successful black role models in track events may reinforce the racial disparity.Barling , Kurt ( 2000-09-04 ) . [ http : //www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/runaway-success-in-the-sports-arena-is-never-simply-a-question-of-race-701120.html Runaway success in the sports arena is never simply a question of race ] . The Independent . Retrieved on 2009-06-18 . Record performances Major 100 m races , such as at the Olympic Games , attract much attention , particularly when the world record is thought to be within reach . The men 's world record has been improved upon twelve times since electronic timing became mandatory in 1977 . The current men 's world record of 9.58 s is held by Usain Bolt of Jamaica , set at the 2009 World Athletics Championships final on 16 August 2009 , breaking his own previous world record by 0.11 s. The current women 's world record of 10.49 s was set by Florence Griffith-Joyner of the US , at the 1988 United States Olympic Trials in Indianapolis , Indiana , on 16 July 1988 . Some records have been marred by prohibited drug use – in particular , the scandal at the 1988 Summer Olympics when the winner , Canadian Ben Johnson was stripped of his medal and world record . Jim Hines , Ronnie Ray Smith and Charles Greene were the first to break the 10-second barrier in the 100 m , all on 20 June 1968 , the Night of Speed . Hines also recorded the first legal electronically timed sub-10 second 100 m in winning the 100 metres at the 1968 Olympics . Bob Hayes ran a wind-assisted 9.91 seconds at the 1964 Olympics . Continental records Updated 5 July 2015 . Notes * Represents a time set at a high altitude . * World record All-time top 25 men As of 4 July 2016 : More facts about these male runners * Usain Bolt also holds the record for the fastest 100 metres with a running start at 8.70 ( 41 km/h ) . This was achieved during a 150 metres race in Manchester 2009 , completed in 14.35 ( also a World Record ) . He also ran times of 9.63 ( 2012 ) , 9.69 , 9.72 ( 2008 ) , 9.76 ( 2008 , 2011 , 2012 ) , 9.77 ( 2008 ) , 9.79 ( 2009 , 2015 ) , 9.80 ( 2013 ) , 9.81 ( 2009 ) , 9.82 ( 2010 , 2012 ) , 9.83 ( 2008 ) , 9.84 ( 2010 ) , 9.85 ( 2008 , 2011 , 2013 ) , 9.86 ( 2009 , 2010 , 2012 ) , 9.87 ( 2012 , 2015 ) and 9.88 ( 2011 , 2016 ) * Justin Gatlin ran 9.77 in Doha on 12 May 2006 , which was at the time ratified as a world record . However , the record was rescinded in 2007 after he failed a doping test in April 2006 . He also ran times of 9.77 ( 2014 ) , 9.79 ( 2012 ) , 9.80 ( 2016 ) , 9.85 ( 2004 , 2013 ) , 9.88 ( 2005 ) * Tim Montgomery 's time of 9.78 at Paris on 14 September 2002 was rescinded following his indictment in the BALCO scandal on drug use and drug trafficking charges . The time had stood as the world record until Asafa Powell first ran 9.77 . * Ben Johnson ran 9.79 at Seoul on 24 September 1988 , but he was disqualified after he tested positive for stanozolol after the race . He subsequently admitted to drug use between 1981 and 1988 , and his time of 9.83 at Rome on 30 August 1987 was rescinded . Carl Lewis 's 9.92 in the Seoul race was therefore recognized as the world record , and his two prior runs of 9.93 were seen as having equalled the previous world record . * Ato Boldon ran four 9.86 races ( two in 1998 , two in 1999 ) . * Dwain Chambers time of 9.87 ( +2.0 ) on 14 September 2002 in Paris was later annulled due to doping offense . * Steve Mullings is serving a lifetime ban for doping . * Jimmy Vicaut also ran 9.86 and 9.88 in June 2016 . Assisted marks Any performance with a following wind of more than 2.0 metres per second is not counted for record purposes . Below is a list of the fastest wind-assisted times ( 9.80 or better ) . Only times that are superior to legal bests are shown . * Tyson Gay ( USA ) ran 9.68 s ( +4.1 m/s ) on 29 June 2008 during the U.S. Olympic Trials at Hayward Field in Eugene , Oregon * Obadele Thompson ( BAR ) ran 9.69 ( +5.7 m/s ) in El Paso , Texas in April 1996 , which stood as the fasters ever 100 metres time for 12 years . * Richard Thompson ( TTO ) ran a wind-assisted 9.74 ( exact wind unknown ) in Clermont on 31 May 2014 . * Darvis Patton ( USA ) ran 9.75 ( +4.3 m/s ) in Austin , Texas on 30 March 2013 . * Andre De Grasse ( CAN ) ran 9.75 ( +2.7 m/s ) on 12 June 2015 at the NCAA Championships in in Eugene , Oregon * Churandy Martina ( AHO ) ran 9.76 at altitude ( +6.1 m/s ) in El Paso on 13 May 2006 . * Trayvon Bromell ( USA ) ran 9.76 ( +3.7 m/s ) in Eugene , Oregon on 26 June 2015 . * Carl Lewis ( USA ) ran 9.78 ( +5.2 m/s ) at the 1988 U.S. Olympic Trials in Indianapolis . * Andre Cason ( USA ) twice ran 9.79 ( +4.5 m/s ) and ( +5.3 m/s ) in Eugene , Oregon on 16 June 1993 . All-time top 25 women As of June 2016 More facts about these female runners * Florence Griffith-Joyner 's World Record has been the subject of a controversy due to strong suspicion of a defective anemometer measuring a tailwind lower than actually present ; since 1997 the International Athletics Annual of the Association of Track and Field Statisticians has listed this performance as `` probably strongly wind assisted , but recognized as a world record . '' It can be reasonable to assume a wind reading of about +4.7 m/s for Griffith-Joyner 's quarter-final . Her 10.61 the following day and 10.62 at the 1988 Olympics would still make her the world record holder . Below is a list of all other legal times equal or superior to 10.75 . * As well as the 10.61 ( 1988 ) and 10.62 ( 1988 ) mentioned in the more facts section , Florence Griffith-Joyner also ran 10.70 ( 1988 ) * Carmelita Jeter also ran 10.67 ( 2009 ) , 10.70 ( 2011 ) * Marion Jones also ran 10.70 ( 1999 ) , 10.71 ( May 1998 ) , 10.71 ( June 1998 ) , 10.71 ( June 1998 ) , 10.72 August 8 , 1998 ) , 10.72 ( August 25 , 1998 ) , 10.75 ( 1998 ) * Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce also ran 10.71 ( 2013 ) , 10.72 ( 2013 ) , 10.73 ( 2009 ) , 10.74 ( 2015 ) , 10.75 ( 2012 ) * Kerron Stewart also ran 10.75 ( August 2009 ) Assisted marks Any performance with a following wind of more than 2.0 metres per second is not counted for record purposes . Below is a list of the fastest wind-assisted times ( 10.82 or better ) . Only times that are superior to legal bests are shown . * Tori Bowie of the USA ran a wind-assisted 10.72 ( +3.2 ) in Eugene , Oregon on 26 June 2015 and 10.74 ( +3.1 ) on July 3 2016 . * Blessing Okagbare of Nigeria ran a wind-assisted 10.75 ( +2.2 ) in Eugene , Oregon on 1 June 2013 . * Marshevet Hooker of the USA ran a wind-assisted 10.76 ( +3.4 ) in Eugene , Oregon on 27 June 2008 . * Gail Devers of the USA ran a wind-assisted 10.77 ( +2.3 ) in San Jose , California on 28 May 1994 . * Ekateríni Thánou of Greece ran a wind-assisted 10.77 ( +2.3 ) in Rethimnó , Greece on 29 May 1999 . * Gwen Torrence of the USA ran a wind-assisted 10.78 ( +5.0 ) in Indianapolis , Indiana on 16 July 1988 . * Muna Lee of the USA ran a wind-assisted 10.78 ( +3.3 ) in Eugene , Oregon on 26 June 2009 . * Marlies Göhr of East Germany ran a wind-assisted 10.79 ( +3.3 ) in Cottbus , East Germany on 16 July 1980 . * Kelli White of the USA ran a wind assisted 10.79 ( +2.3 ) in Carson , California on June 1 , 2001 . This performance was later annulled due to doping offense . * Pam Marshall of the USA ran a wind-assisted 10.80 ( +2.9 ) in Eugene , Oregon on 20 June 1986 . * Jenna Prandini of the USA ran a wind-assisted 10.81 ( +3.6 ) in Eugene , Oregon on 2 July 2016 . * Silke Gladisch of East Germany ran a wind-assisted 10.82 ( +2.2 ) in Rome , Italy on 30 August 1987 . Best Year Performances As of June 1 , 2015 Men Women Top 10 Junior ( under-20 ) men Notes * British sprinter Mark Lewis-Francis recorded a time of 9.97 seconds on 5 August 2001 ( aged 18 years , 334 days ) but the wind gauge malfunctioned , invalidating the run . * Nigerian sprinter Davidson Ezinwa ran 10.05 ( 4 January 1990 ) respectively , but without wind gauge . * Trayvon Bromell recorded a time of 9.77 s with a strong tailwind of +4.2 m/s on May 2014 during the Big 12 Outdoor Track Championships Top 10 Junior ( under-20 ) women Top 10 Youth ( under-18 ) boys Top 10 Youth ( under-18 ) girls Paralympic men Updated to 1 January 2015 Paralympic women Updated to 1 January 2015 Olympic medalists Men Women World Championship medalists Men Women

qw_6212--100_metres.txt

Of the 26 times that the 100 metres has been included in the Olympic Games to 2008, which country has won the most gold medals (16)?

Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci , more commonly Leonardo da Vinci or simply Leonardo ( 15 April 14522 May 1519 ) , was an Italian polymath whose areas of interest included invention , painting , sculpting , architecture , science , music , mathematics , engineering , literature , anatomy , geology , astronomy , botany , writing , history , and cartography . He has been variously called the father of paleontology , ichnology , and architecture , and is widely considered one of the greatest painters of all time . Sometimes credited with the inventions of the parachute , helicopter and tank , he epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal . Many historians and scholars regard Leonardo as the prime exemplar of the `` Universal Genius '' or `` Renaissance Man '' , an individual of `` unquenchable curiosity '' and `` feverishly inventive imagination '' . According to art historian Helen Gardner , the scope and depth of his interests were without precedent in recorded history , and `` his mind and personality seem to us superhuman , while the man himself mysterious and remote '' . Marco Rosci notes that while there is much speculation regarding his life and personality , his view of the world was logical rather than mysterious , and that the empirical methods he employed were unorthodox for his time . Born out of wedlock to a notary , Piero da Vinci , and a peasant woman , Caterina , in Vinci in the region of Florence , Leonardo was educated in the studio of the renowned Florentine painter Andrea del Verrocchio . Much of his earlier working life was spent in the service of Ludovico il Moro in Milan . He later worked in Rome , Bologna and Venice , and he spent his last years in France at the home awarded to him by Francis I of France . Leonardo was , and is , renowned primarily as a painter . Among his works , the Mona Lisa is the most famous and most parodied portrait and The Last Supper the most reproduced religious painting of all time , their fame approached only by Michelangelo 's The Creation of Adam . Leonardo 's drawing of the Vitruvian Man is also regarded as a cultural icon , being reproduced on items as varied as the euro coin , textbooks , and T-shirts . Perhaps fifteen of his paintings have survived.There are 15 significant artworks which are ascribed , either in whole or in large part , to Leonardo by most art historians . This number is made up principally of paintings on panel but includes a mural , a large drawing on paper and two works which are in the early stages of preparation . There are a number of other works that have also been variously attributed to Leonardo . Nevertheless , these few works , together with his notebooks , which contain drawings , scientific diagrams , and his thoughts on the nature of painting , compose a contribution to later generations of artists rivalled only by that of his contemporary , Michelangelo . Leonardo is revered for his technological ingenuity . He conceptualised flying machines , a type of armoured fighting vehicle , concentrated solar power , an adding machine , and the double hull , also outlining a rudimentary theory of plate tectonics . Relatively few of his designs were constructed or even feasible during his lifetime , as the modern scientific approaches to metallurgy and engineering were only in their infancy during the Renaissance . Some of his smaller inventions , however , such as an automated bobbin winder and a machine for testing the tensile strength of wire , entered the world of manufacturing unheralded . A number of Leonardo 's most practical inventions are nowadays displayed as working models at the Museum of Vinci . He made substantial discoveries in anatomy , civil engineering , optics , and hydrodynamics , but he did not publish his findings and they had no direct influence on later science . Today , Leonardo is widely considered one of the most diversely talented individuals ever to have lived . Life Childhood , 1452–1466 Leonardo was born on 15 April 1452 ( Old Style ) `` at the third hour of the night '' in the Tuscan hill town of Vinci , in the lower valley of the Arno river in the territory of the Medici-ruled Republic of Florence.His birth is recorded in the diary of his paternal grandfather Ser Antonio , as cited by Angela Ottino della Chiesa in Leonardo da Vinci , p. 83 He was the out-of-wedlock son of the wealthy Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci , a Florentine legal notary , and Caterina , a peasant.It has been suggested that Caterina may have been a slave from the Middle East `` or at least , from the Mediterranean '' . According to Alessandro Vezzosi , head of the Leonardo Museum in Vinci , there is evidence that Piero owned a Middle Eastern slave called Caterina . That Leonardo had Middle Eastern blood is claimed to be supported by the reconstruction of a fingerprint as reported by The evidence , as stated in the article , is that 60 % of people of Middle Eastern origin share the pattern of whirls found on the reconstructed fingerprint . The article also states that the claim is refuted by Simon Cole , associate professor of criminology , law and society at the University of California at Irvine : `` You ca n't predict one person 's race from these kinds of incidences , especially if looking at only one finger . '' See also Leonardo had no surname in the modern sense – `` da Vinci '' simply meaning `` of Vinci '' ; his full birth name was `` Lionardo di ser Piero da Vinci '' , meaning `` Leonardo , ( son ) of ( Mes ) ser Piero from Vinci '' . The inclusion of the title `` ser '' indicated that Leonardo 's father was a gentleman . Little is known about Leonardo 's early life . He spent his first five years in the hamlet of Anchiano in the home of his mother , and from 1457 lived in the household of his father , grandparents and uncle , Francesco , in the small town of Vinci . His father had married a sixteen-year-old girl named Albiera Amadori , who loved Leonardo but died young in 1465 without children . When Leonardo was sixteen ( 1468 ) , his father married again to twenty-year-old Francesca Lanfredini , who also died without children . Piero 's legitimate heirs were born from his third wife Margherita di Guglielmo ( who gave birth to six children : Antonio , Giulian , Maddalena , Lorenzo , Violante and Domenico ) and his fourth and final wife , Lucrezia Cortigiani ( who bore him another six children : Margherita , Benedetto , Pandolfo , Guglielmo , Bartolomeo and Giovanni ) . In all Leonardo had twelve half-siblings , who were much younger than him ( the last was born when Leonardo was forty years old ) and with whom he had very few contacts , but they caused him difficulty after his father 's death in the dispute over the inheritance . Leonardo received an informal education in Latin , geometry and mathematics . In later life , Leonardo recorded only two childhood incidents . One , which he regarded as an omen , was when a kite dropped from the sky and hovered over his cradle , its tail feathers brushing his face . The second occurred while he was exploring in the mountains : he discovered a cave and was both terrified that some great monster might lurk there and driven by curiosity to find out what was inside . Leonardo 's early life has been the subject of historical conjecture . Vasari , the 16th-century biographer of Renaissance painters , tells of how a local peasant made himself a round shield and requested that Ser Piero have it painted for him . Leonardo responded with a painting of a monster spitting fire that was so terrifying that Ser Piero sold it to a Florentine art dealer , who sold it to the Duke of Milan . Meanwhile , having made a profit , Ser Piero bought a shield decorated with a heart pierced by an arrow , which he gave to the peasant . Verrocchio 's workshop , 1466–76 In 1466 , at the age of fourteen , Leonardo was apprenticed to the artist Andrea di Cione , known as Verrocchio , whose bottega ( workshop ) was `` one of the finest in Florence '' . He apprenticed as a garzone ( studio boy ) to Andrea del Verrocchio , the leading Florentine painter and sculptor of his day . Other famous painters apprenticed or associated with the workshop include Domenico Ghirlandaio , Perugino , Botticelli , and Lorenzo di Credi . Leonardo would have been exposed to both theoretical training and a vast range of technical skills , including drafting , chemistry , metallurgy , metal working , plaster casting , leather working , mechanics and carpentry as well as the artistic skills of drawing , painting , sculpting and modelling.The `` diverse arts '' and technical skills of Medieval and Renaissance workshops are described in detail in the 12th-century text On Divers Arts by Theophilus Presbyter and in the early 15th-century text Il Libro Dell'arte O Trattato Della Pittui by Cennino Cennini . Much of the painted production of Verrocchio 's workshop was done by his employees . According to Vasari , Leonardo collaborated with Verrocchio on his The Baptism of Christ , painting the young angel holding Jesus ' robe in a manner that was so far superior to his master 's that Verrocchio put down his brush and never painted again . On close examination , the painting reveals much that has been painted or touched-up over the tempera using the new technique of oil paint , with the landscape , the rocks that can be seen through the brown mountain stream and much of the figure of Jesus bearing witness to the hand of Leonardo . Leonardo may have been the model for two works by Verrocchio : the bronze statue of David in the Bargello and the Archangel Raphael in Tobias and the Angel . By 1472 , at the age of twenty , Leonardo qualified as a master in the Guild of Saint Luke , the guild of artists and doctors of medicine , but even after his father set him up in his own workshop , his attachment to Verrocchio was such that he continued to collaborate with him . Leonardo 's earliest known dated work is a drawing in pen and ink of the Arno valley , drawn on 5 August 1473.This work is now in the collection of the Uffizi , Drawing No . 8P . Professional life , 1476–1513 Florentine court records of 1476 show that Leonardo and three other young men were charged with sodomy but acquitted ; homosexual acts were illegal in Renaissance Florence . From that date until 1478 there is no record of his work or even of his whereabouts . In 1478 , he left Verrocchio 's studio and was no longer resident at his father 's house . One writer , the `` Anonimo '' Gaddiano , claims that in 1480 Leonardo was living with the Medici and working in the Garden of the Piazza San Marco in Florence , a Neo-Platonic academy of artists , poets and philosophers that the Medici had established . In January 1478 , he received an independent commission to paint an altarpiece for the Chapel of St. Bernard in the Palazzo Vecchio ; in March 1481 , he received a second independent commission for The Adoration of the Magi for the monks of San Donato a Scopeto . Neither commission was completed , the second being interrupted when Leonardo went to Milan . In 1482 , Leonardo , who according to Vasari was a most talented musician , created a silver lyre in the shape of a horse 's head . Lorenzo de ' Medici sent Leonardo to Milan , bearing the lyre as a gift , to secure peace with Ludovico Sforza , Duke of Milan . At this time Leonardo wrote an often-quoted letter describing the many marvellous and diverse things that he could achieve in the field of engineering and informing Ludovico that he could also paint . Leonardo worked in Milan from 1482 until 1499 . He was commissioned to paint the Virgin of the Rocks for the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception and The Last Supper for the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie . In the spring of 1485 , Leonardo travelled to Hungary on behalf of Ludovico to meet Matthias Corvinus , for whom he is believed to have painted a Holy Family . Between 1493 and 1495 , Leonardo listed a woman called Caterina among his dependents in his taxation documents . When she died in 1495 , the list of funeral expenditures suggests that she was his mother . Leonardo was employed on many different projects for Ludovico , including the preparation of floats and pageants for special occasions , designs for a dome for Milan Cathedral and a model for a huge equestrian monument to Francesco Sforza , Ludovico 's predecessor . Seventy tons of bronze were set aside for casting it . The monument remained unfinished for several years , which was not unusual for Leonardo . In 1492 , the clay model of the horse was completed . It surpassed in size the only two large equestrian statues of the Renaissance , Donatello 's Gattamelata in Padua and Verrocchio 's Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice , and became known as the `` Gran Cavallo '' .Verrocchio 's statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni was not cast until 1488 , after his death , and after Leonardo had already begun work on the statue for Ludovico . Leonardo began making detailed plans for its casting ; however , Michelangelo insulted Leonardo by implying that he was unable to cast it . In November 1494 , Ludovico gave the bronze to be used for cannon to defend the city from invasion by Charles VIII . At the start of the Second Italian War in 1499 , the invading French troops used the life-size clay model for the Gran Cavallo for target practice . With Ludovico Sforza overthrown , Leonardo , with his assistant Salai and friend , the mathematician Luca Pacioli , fled Milan for Venice , della Chiesa , p.85 where he was employed as a military architect and engineer , devising methods to defend the city from naval attack . On his return to Florence in 1500 , he and his household were guests of the Servite monks at the monastery of Santissima Annunziata and were provided with a workshop where , according to Vasari , Leonardo created the cartoon of The Virgin and Child with St Anne and St John the Baptist , a work that won such admiration that `` men and women , young and old '' flocked to see it `` as if they were attending a great festival '' . In Cesena in 1502 , Leonardo entered the service of Cesare Borgia , the son of Pope Alexander VI , acting as a military architect and engineer and travelling throughout Italy with his patron . Leonardo created a map of Cesare Borgia 's stronghold , a town plan of Imola in order to win his patronage . Maps were extremely rare at the time and it would have seemed like a new concept . Upon seeing it , Cesare hired Leonardo as his chief military engineer and architect . Later in the year , Leonardo produced another map for his patron , one of Chiana Valley , Tuscany , so as to give his patron a better overlay of the land and greater strategic position . He created this map in conjunction with his other project of constructing a dam from the sea to Florence , in order to allow a supply of water to sustain the canal during all seasons . Leonardo returned to Florence where he rejoined the Guild of Saint Luke on 18 October 1503 , and spent two years designing and painting a mural of The Battle of Anghiari for the Signoria , with Michelangelo designing its companion piece , The Battle of Cascina . In Florence in 1504 , he was part of a committee formed to relocate , against the artist 's will , Michelangelo 's statue of David . In 1506 Leonardo returned to Milan . Many of his most prominent pupils or followers in painting either knew or worked with him in Milan , including Bernardino Luini , Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio and Marco d'Oggiono.D'Oggiono is known in part for his contemporary copies of the Last Supper . At this time he may have commenced a project for an equestrian figure of Charles II d'Amboise , the acting French governor of Milan . A wax model survives , and if genuine , is the only example of Leonardo 's sculpture . Leonardo did not stay in Milan for long because his father had died in 1504 , and in 1507 he was back in Florence trying to sort out problems with his brothers over his father 's estate . By 1508 Leonardo was back in Milan , living in his own house in Porta Orientale in the parish of Santa Babila.della Chiesa , p.86 Old age , 1513–1519 From September 1513 to 1516 , under Pope Leo X , Leonardo spent much of his time living in the Belvedere in the Vatican in Rome , where Raphael and Michelangelo were both active at the time . In October 1515 , King Francis I of France recaptured Milan . On 19 December , Leonardo was present at the meeting of Francis I and Pope Leo X , which took place in Bologna . Leonardo was commissioned to make for Francis a mechanical lion which could walk forward , then open its chest to reveal a cluster of lilies . In 1516 , he entered François ' service , being given the use of the manor house Clos Lucé , now a public museum , near the king 's residence at the royal Château d'Amboise . It was here that he spent the last three years of his life , accompanied by his friend and apprentice , Count Francesco Melzi , and supported by a pension totalling 10,000 scudi . Leonardo died at Clos Lucé , on 2 May 1519 . Francis I had become a close friend . Vasari records that the king held Leonardo 's head in his arms as he died , although this story , beloved by the French and portrayed in romantic paintings by Ingres , Ménageot and other French artists , as well as by Angelica Kauffman , may be legend rather than fact.On the day of Leonardo 's death , a royal edict was issued by the king at Saint-Germain-en-Laye , a two-day journey from Clos Lucé . This has been taken as evidence that King François can not have been present at Leonardo 's deathbed . However , White in Leonardo : The First Scientist points out that the edict was not signed by the king . Vasari states that in his last days , Leonardo sent for a priest to make his confession and to receive the Holy Sacrament . In accordance with his will , sixty beggars followed his casket.This was a charitable legacy as each of the sixty paupers would have been awarded an established mourner 's fee in the terms of Leonardo 's will . Melzi was the principal heir and executor , receiving as well as money , Leonardo 's paintings , tools , library and personal effects . Leonardo also remembered his other long-time pupil and companion , Salai and his servant Battista di Vilussis , who each received half of Leonardo 's vineyards , his brothers who received land , and his serving woman who received a black cloak `` of good stuff '' with a fur edge.The black cloak , of good quality material , was a ready-made item from a clothier , with the fur trim being an additional luxury . The possession of this garment meant that Leonardo 's house keeper could attend his funeral `` respectably '' attired at no expense to herself . Leonardo da Vinci was buried in the Chapel of Saint-Hubert in Château d'Amboise , in France . Some 20 years after Leonardo 's death , Francis was reported by the goldsmith and sculptor Benvenuto Cellini as saying : `` There had never been another man born in the world who knew as much as Leonardo , not so much about painting , sculpture and architecture , as that he was a very great philosopher . '' Relationships and influences Florence : Leonardo 's artistic and social background Florence at the time of Leonardo 's youth was the centre of Christian Humanist thought and culture . Leonardo commenced his apprenticeship with Verrocchio in 1466 , the year that Verrocchio 's master , the great sculptor Donatello , died . The painter Uccello , whose early experiments with perspective were to influence the development of landscape painting , was a very old man . The painters Piero della Francesca and Filippo Lippi , sculptor Luca della Robbia , and architect and writer Leon Battista Alberti were in their sixties . The successful artists of the next generation were Leonardo 's teacher Verrocchio , Antonio del Pollaiuolo and the portrait sculptor Mino da Fiesole , whose lifelike busts give the most reliable likenesses of Lorenzo Medici 's father Piero and uncle Giovanni.Rosci , Leonardo , chapter 1 , the historical setting , pp.9–20 Leonardo 's youth was spent in a Florence that was ornamented by the works of these artists and by Donatello 's contemporaries , Masaccio , whose figurative frescoes were imbued with realism and emotion , and Ghiberti , whose Gates of Paradise , gleaming with gold leaf , displayed the art of combining complex figure compositions with detailed architectural backgrounds . Piero della Francesca had made a detailed study of perspective , and was the first painter to make a scientific study of light . These studies and Alberti 's treatise De Pictura were to have a profound effect on younger artists and in particular on Leonardo 's own observations and artworks . Massaccio 's `` Expulsion from the Garden of Eden '' depicting the naked and distraught Adam and Eve created a powerfully expressive image of the human form , cast into three dimensions by the use of light and shade , which was to be developed in the works of Leonardo in a way that was to be influential in the course of painting . The humanist influence of Donatello 's `` David '' can be seen in Leonardo 's late paintings , particularly John the Baptist . A prevalent tradition in Florence was the small altarpiece of the Virgin and Child . Many of these were created in tempera or glazed terracotta by the workshops of Filippo Lippi , Verrocchio and the prolific della Robbia family . Leonardo 's early Madonnas such as The Madonna with a carnation and the Benois Madonna followed this tradition while showing idiosyncratic departures , particularly in the case of the Benois Madonna in which the Virgin is set at an oblique angle to the picture space with the Christ Child at the opposite angle . This compositional theme was to emerge in Leonardo 's later paintings such as The Virgin and Child with St. Anne . Leonardo was a contemporary of Botticelli , Domenico Ghirlandaio and Perugino , who were all slightly older than he was . He would have met them at the workshop of Verrocchio , with whom they had associations , and at the Academy of the Medici . Botticelli was a particular favourite of the Medici family , and thus his success as a painter was assured . Ghirlandaio and Perugino were both prolific and ran large workshops . They competently delivered commissions to well-satisfied patrons who appreciated Ghirlandaio 's ability to portray the wealthy citizens of Florence within large religious frescoes , and Perugino 's ability to deliver a multitude of saints and angels of unfailing sweetness and innocence . These three were among those commissioned to paint the walls of the Sistine Chapel , the work commencing with Perugino 's employment in 1479 . Leonardo was not part of this prestigious commission . His first significant commission , The Adoration of the Magi for the Monks of Scopeto , was never completed . In 1476 , during the time of Leonardo 's association with Verrocchio 's workshop , the Portinari Altarpiece by Hugo van der Goes arrived in Florence , bringing from Northern Europe new painterly techniques that were to profoundly affect Leonardo , Ghirlandaio , Perugino and others . In 1479 , the Sicilian painter Antonello da Messina , who worked exclusively in oils , traveled north on his way to Venice , where the leading painter Giovanni Bellini adopted the technique of oil painting , quickly making it the preferred method in Venice . Leonardo was also later to visit Venice . Like the two contemporary architects Bramante and Antonio da Sangallo the Elder , Leonardo experimented with designs for centrally planned churches , a number of which appear in his journals , as both plans and views , although none was ever realised . Leonardo 's political contemporaries were Lorenzo Medici ( il Magnifico ) , who was three years older , and his younger brother Giuliano , who was slain in the Pazzi conspiracy in 1478 . Leonardo was sent as an ambassador by the Medici court to Ludovico il Moro , who ruled Milan between 1479 and 1499 . With Alberti , Leonardo visited the home of the Medici and through them came to know the older Humanist philosophers of whom Marsiglio Ficino , proponent of Neo Platonism ; Cristoforo Landino , writer of commentaries on Classical writings , and John Argyropoulos , teacher of Greek and translator of Aristotle were the foremost . Also associated with the Academy of the Medici was Leonardo 's contemporary , the brilliant young poet and philosopher Pico della Mirandola . Leonardo later wrote in the margin of a journal , `` The Medici made me and the Medici destroyed me . '' While it was through the action of Lorenzo that Leonardo received his employment at the court of Milan , it is not known exactly what Leonardo meant by this cryptic comment . Although usually named together as the three giants of the High Renaissance , Leonardo , Michelangelo and Raphael were not of the same generation . Leonardo was twenty-three when Michelangelo was born and thirty-one when Raphael was born . Raphael lived until the age of only 37 and died in 1520 , the year after Leonardo died , but Michelangelo went on creating for another 45 years . Personal life Within Leonardo 's lifetime , his extraordinary powers of invention , his `` outstanding physical beauty '' , `` infinite grace '' , `` great strength and generosity '' , `` regal spirit and tremendous breadth of mind '' , as described by Vasari , as well as all other aspects of his life , attracted the curiosity of others . One such aspect was his respect for life , evidenced by his vegetarianism and his habit , according to Vasari , of purchasing caged birds and releasing them . Leonardo had many friends who are now renowned either in their fields or for their historical significance . They included the mathematician Luca Pacioli , with whom he collaborated on the book De divina proportione in the 1490s . Leonardo appears to have had no close relationships with women except for his friendship with Cecilia Gallerani and the two Este sisters , Beatrice and Isabella . While on a journey that took him through Mantua , he drew a portrait of Isabella that appears to have been used to create a painted portrait , now lost . Beyond friendship , Leonardo kept his private life secret . His sexuality has been the subject of satire , analysis , and speculation . This trend began in the mid-16th century and was revived in the 19th and 20th centuries , most notably by Sigmund Freud . Leonardo 's most intimate relationships were perhaps with his pupils Salai and Melzi . Melzi , writing to inform Leonardo 's brothers of his death , described Leonardo 's feelings for his pupils as both loving and passionate . It has been claimed since the 16th century that these relationships were of a sexual or erotic nature . Court records of 1476 , when he was aged twenty-four , show that Leonardo and three other young men

qb_7855--Leonardo_da_Vinci.txt

In May 1999, after over 20 years of restoration work, which painting by Leonardo da Vinci was placed back on display in Milan?

Cheddar Gorge is a limestone gorge in the Mendip Hills , near the village of Cheddar , Somerset , England . The gorge is the site of the Cheddar show caves , where Britain 's oldest complete human skeleton , Cheddar Man , estimated to be over 9,000 years old , was found in 1903 . Older remains from the Upper Late Palaeolithic era ( 12,000–13,000 years ago ) have been found . The caves , produced by the activity of an underground river , contain stalactites and stalagmites . The gorge is part of a Site of Special Scientific Interest called Cheddar Complex . Cheddar Gorge , including the caves and other attractions , has become a tourist destination . In a 2005 poll of Radio Times readers , following its appearance on the 2005 television programme Seven Natural Wonders , Cheddar Gorge was named as the second greatest natural wonder in Britain , surpassed only by Dan yr Ogof caves . The gorge attracts about 500,000 visitors per year . Geology Cheddar is a gorge lying on the southern edge of the Mendip Hills . The maximum depth of the gorge is 137 m , with a near-vertical cliff-face to the south , and steep grassy slopes to the north . The B3135 road runs along the bottom of the gorge . The area is underlain by Black Rock slate , Burrington Oolite and Clifton Down Limestone of the Carboniferous Limestone Series , which contain ooliths and fossil debris , on top of Old Red Sandstone and by Dolomitic Conglomerate of the Keuper . Evidence for Variscan orogeny is seen in the sheared rock and cleaved shales . In many places weathering of these strata has resulted in the formation of immature calcareous soils . The gorge was formed by meltwater floods during the cold periglacial periods which have occurred over the last 1.2 million years . During the ice ages permafrost blocked the caves with ice and frozen mud and made the limestone impermeable . When this melted during the summers , water was forced to flow on the surface , and carved out the gorge . During warmer periods the water flowed underground through the permeable limestone , creating the caves and leaving the gorge dry , so that today much of the gorge has no river until the underground Cheddar Yeo river emerges in the lower part from Gough 's Cave . The river is used by Bristol Water , who maintain a series of dams and ponds which supply the nearby Cheddar Reservoir , via a 137 cm diameter pipe that takes water just upstream of the Rotary Club Sensory Garden , a public park in the gorge opposite Jacob 's Ladder . The gorge is susceptible to flooding . In the Great Flood of 1968 the flow of water washed large boulders down the gorge , damaging the cafe and entrance to Gough 's Cave and washing away cars . In the cave itself the flooding lasted for three days . In 2012 the B3135 , the road through the gorge , was closed for several weeks following damage to the road surface during extensive flooding . Ownership and commercialisation The south side of the gorge is owned and administered by the Marquess of Bath 's Longleat Estate . The cliffs on the north side of the gorge are owned by The National Trust . Every year both of the gorge 's owners contribute funds towards the clearance of scrub bush and trees from the area . Most of the commercial visitor activity in the gorge is on the Longleat-owned south side , including access to the two main commercial show caves and the visitor centre , which is operated by Longleat-owned company Cheddar Gorge and Caves Ltd under director Hugh Cornwell . Due to the fact that tourist numbers have dropped through the show caves from 400,000 a year in the 1980s to 150,000 , in 2013 Ceawlin Thynn , Viscount Weymouth who runs the Longleat estate on behalf of the family trust , proposed installation of a 600 m 18-gondola cable car estimated to cost £10M , taking visitors from the entrance area to the caves directly to the top of the southside cliffs . The National Trust have opposed the proposed development , stating that it will spoil the view and cheapen the experience , creating a `` fairground ride '' that will make the area feel more like an amusement park . If planning permission is gained in Spring 2014 , then operations would start in Spring 2016 . Ecology Notable species at the gorge include dormice , yellow-necked mice , slow worms and adders and the rare large blue butterfly ( Maculinea arion ) , and small pearl-bordered fritillary ( Boloria selene ) . A wide variety of wild birds may be seen in Cheddar Gorge including peregrine falcons , buzzards , kestrels , ravens and the grasshopper warbler ( Locustella naevia ) . The flora include chalk grassland-loving species such as marjoram and wild thyme . The Cheddar pink , Dianthus gratianopolitanus , also known as firewitch , only grows in the wild in the gorge . It was once common in the gorge but declined after being picked by collectors . It is also home to unique species of whitebeam . The nationally rare little robin geranium ( Geranium purpureum ) , and Cheddar bedstraw ( Galium fleurotii ) and the nationally scarce species include slender tare ( Vicia tenuissima ) , dwarf mouse-ear ( Cerastium pumilum ) and rock stonecrop ( Sedum forsteranum ) also occur in the gorge . It is one of the very few areas in southern Britain where the lichens Solorina saccata , Squamaria cartilaginea and Caloplaca cirrochroa can be found . The gorge is also an important site for whitebeams and in 2009 a survey was carried out by botanists from the Welsh National Herbarium as part of a nationwide survey of whitebeams . Among the eight species identified were three new species previously unknown to science . Nineteen specimens with oval-shaped leaves , were named the `` Cheddar whitebeam '' , Sorbus cheddarensis , fifteen specimens with roundish leaves and greyish brown bark were named the `` Twin Cliffs whitebeam '' , Sorbus eminentoides , and thirteen with long , narrow leaves were named `` Gough ’ s Rock whitebeam '' , Sorbus rupicoloides . The Cheddar whitebeam , which has evolved as a cross between the common whitebeam and the grey-leaved whitebeam , is unique to the gorge , but its survival is threatened by the goats that were introduced specifically to keep down the growth of new trees and encourage the proliferation of rare plant species such as the Cheddar pink . Cuttings have been taken from the trees to be grafted and grown on at the Welsh National Herbarium . Longleat Estate has fenced off a large part of its land and has introduced goats , as part of a programme to encourage the biodiversity of the area ; the goats were intended to replace the sheep that grazed in the gorge until the 1970s . The National Trust announced in March 2007 that it plans to release a flock of sheep on its side of the gorge for the same purpose , but will first consult local residents and interested parties on whether to fence off the gorge or introduce cattle grids to prevent the sheep from straying . There is already a small flock of feral Soay sheep in the gorge . Caves The two main caves open to the public are on the southside of the Gorge , owned by Longleat Estate . The extensive Gough 's Cave and the smaller Cox 's Cave are both named after their respective discoverers . Both are known for their geology , and it has been suggested that the caves were the site of prehistoric cheese-making . Gough 's cave , which was discovered in 1903 , leads around 400 m into the rock-face , and contains a variety of large rock chambers and formations . Cox 's Cave , discovered in 1837 , is smaller but contains many intricate formations . In 2016 Cox 's cave was turned into `` Dreamhunters '' , a multimedia walk-through experience with theatrical lighting and video projection . The Gorge 's many caves are home to colonies of Greater and Lesser horseshoe bats . In 1999 the Channel 4 television programme Time Team investigated Cooper 's Hole in an attempt to find evidence of Palaeolithic human activity . These caves are the inspirations for the caves behind Helm 's Deep in J.R.R . Tolkien 's The Two Towers . Several of the caves have been scheduled as ancient monuments as nationally important archaeological sites including : Gough 's Old Cave , Great Oone 's Hole , Saye 's Hole , Soldier 's Hole and Sun Hole . Recreational use Cliff Road ( B3135 ) , which runs through the Gorge , offers a popular climb for bicyclists and has a maximum gradient of 16 % . The ascent featured in stage 6 of the 2011 Tour of Britain . There are about 350 officially graded rock climbing routes on the 27 cliffs that make up Cheddar Gorge , which are generally open to climbers between 1 October and 15 March each year . Each of the routes is named and included in the British Mountaineering Council guidebook . Although the majority of the climbs are `` trad '' or `` traditional '' , which means that the leader places protection as they go up , there are also some `` sport '' routes where bolts are left in place . Climber Chris Bonington was the first to scale the Coronation Street route in 1965 . Visitors to the gorge have experienced a number of accidents . Rescue services , including local mountain rescue and cave rescue groups , frequently use the gorge to stage exercises . It is also used as a training location for military rescue helicopter pilots . The Cheddar Man Museum of Prehistory inspired by the discovery of ancient hominids such as Cheddar Man contains information about the caves and their palaeontological development . Exhibits include original flint tools and human remains excavated from the caves . There is a clifftop walk from Jacob 's Ladder along the crest of the gorge and back to the road , with views of the gorge . A caving experience is offered within Gough 's Cave . There is a path of 275 steps , built up the side of the gorge , known as Jacob 's Ladder after the Biblical description of a ladder to the heavens . A watchtower at the top provides a 360–degree view of the entire area and village . An open-top bus tour operates during the summer . Cheddar cheese is made in the lower part of the gorge . Cultural references UK 1960s Garage Rock band The Troggs used Cheddar Caves as the backdrop for the band photo on their debut album From Nowhere – The Troggs , which included the US Billboard no.1 hit single ( no.2 UK ) , `` Wild Thing '' . Cheddar Gorge is a panel game played on the BBC Radio 4 series I 'm Sorry I Have n't a Clue . The gorge was used as a location for a Chimeran Tower in the Resistance : Fall of Man , a science fiction first-person shooter video game for the PlayStation 3 , developed by Insomniac Games . Cheddar Gorge was the site of Into the Labyrinth starring Ron Moody and Pamela Salem .

sfq_23524--Cheddar_Gorge.txt

In which range of hills is the Cheddar Gorge?

Birds ( Aves ) are a group of endothermic vertebrates , characterised by feathers , toothless beaked jaws , the laying of hard-shelled eggs , a high metabolic rate , a four-chambered heart , and a lightweight but strong skeleton . Birds live worldwide and range in size from the 5 cm bee hummingbird to the ostrich . They rank as the class of tetrapods with the most living species , at approximately ten thousand , with more than half of these being passerines , sometimes known as perching birds or , less accurately , as songbirds . The fossil record indicates that birds are the last surviving group of dinosaurs , having evolved from feathered ancestors within the theropod group of saurischian dinosaurs . True birds first appeared during the Cretaceous period , around . DNA-based evidence finds that birds diversified dramatically around the time of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that killed off all other dinosaurs . Birds , especially those in the southern continents , survived this event and then migrated to other parts of the world while diversifying during periods of global cooling . Primitive bird-like dinosaurs that lie outside class Aves proper , in the broader group Avialae , have been found dating back to the mid-Jurassic period . Many of these early `` stem-birds '' , such as Archaeopteryx , were not yet capable of fully powered flight , and many retained primitive characteristics like toothy jaws in place of beaks , and long bony tails . Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species ; the only known groups without wings are the extinct moas and elephant birds . Wings , which evolved from forelimbs , give most birds the ability to fly , although further speciation has led to some flightless birds , including ratites , penguins , and diverse endemic island species of birds . The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight . Some bird species of aquatic environments , particularly the aforementioned flightless penguins , and also members of the duck family , have also evolved for swimming . Birds , specifically Darwin 's finches , played an important part in the inception of Darwin 's theory of evolution by natural selection . Some birds , especially corvids and parrots , are among the most intelligent animals ; several bird species make and use tools , and many social species pass on knowledge across generations , which is considered a form of culture . Many species annually migrate great distances . Birds are social , communicating with visual signals , calls , and bird songs , and participating in such social behaviours as cooperative breeding and hunting , flocking , and mobbing of predators . The vast majority of bird species are socially monogamous , usually for one breeding season at a time , sometimes for years , but rarely for life . Other species have polygynous ( `` many females '' ) or , rarely , polyandrous ( `` many males '' ) breeding systems . Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilized through sexual reproduction . They are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents . Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching . Some birds , such as hens , lay eggs even when not fertilized , though unfertilized eggs do not produce offspring . Many species of birds are economically important . Domesticated and undomesticated birds ( poultry and game ) are important sources of eggs , meat , and feathers . Songbirds , parrots , and other species are popular as pets . Guano ( bird excrement ) is harvested for use as a fertilizer . Birds prominently figure throughout human culture . About 120–130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century , and hundreds more before then . Human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction , though efforts are underway to protect them . Recreational birdwatching is an important part of the ecotourism industry . Evolution and classification The first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae . Carl Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use . Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy . Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the dinosaur clade Theropoda . Definition Aves and a sister group , the clade Crocodilia , contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria . During the late 1990s , Aves was most commonly defined phylogenetically as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and Archaeopteryx lithographica . However , an earlier definition proposed by Jacques Gauthier gained wide currency in the 21st century , and is used by many scientists including adherents of the Phylocode system . Gauthier defined Aves to include only the crown group of the set of modern birds . This was done by excluding most groups known only from fossils , and assigning them , instead , to the Avialae , in part to avoid the uncertainties about the placement of Archaeopteryx in relation to animals traditionally thought of as theropod dinosaurs . Gauthier identified four conflicting ways of defining the term `` Aves '' , which is a problem because the same biological name is being used four different ways . Gauthier proposed a solution , number 4 below , which is to reserve the term Aves only for the crown group , the last common ancestor of all living birds and all of its descendants . He assigned other names to the other groups . # Aves can mean those advanced archosaurs with feathers ( alternately Avifilopluma ) # Aves can mean those that fly ( alternately Avialae ) # Aves can mean all reptiles closer to birds than to crocodiles ( alternately Avemetatarsalia [ =Panaves ] ) # Aves can mean the last common ancestor of all the currently living birds and all of its descendants ( a `` crown group '' ) . ( alternately Neornithes ) Under the fourth definition Archaeopteryx is an avialan , and not a member of Aves . Gauthier 's proposals have been adopted by many researchers in the field of paleontology and bird evolution , though the exact definitions applied have been inconsistent . Avialae , initially proposed to replace the traditional fossil content of Aves , is often used synonymously with the vernacular term `` bird '' by these researchers . Most researchers define Avialae as branch-based clade , though definitions vary . Many authors have used a definition similar to `` all theropods closer to birds than to Deinonychus . '' Avialae is also occasionally defined as an apomorphy-based clade ( that is , one based on physical characteristics ) . Jacques Gauthier , who named Avialae in 1986 , re-defined it in 2001 as all dinosaurs that possessed feathered wings used in flapping flight , and the birds that descended from them . Dinosaurs and the origin of birds Based on fossil and biological evidence , most scientists accept that birds are a specialized subgroup of theropod dinosaurs , and more specifically , they are members of Maniraptora , a group of theropods which includes dromaeosaurs and oviraptorids , among others . As scientists have discovered more theropods closely related to birds , the previously clear distinction between non-birds and birds has become blurred . Recent discoveries in the Liaoning Province of northeast China , which demonstrate many small theropod feathered dinosaurs , contribute to this ambiguity . The consensus view in contemporary paleontology is that the flying theropods , or avialans , are the closest relatives of the deinonychosaurs , which include dromaeosaurids and troodontids . Together , these form a group called Paraves . Some basal members of this group , such as Microraptor , have features which may have enabled them to glide or fly . The most basal deinonychosaurs were very small . This evidence raises the possibility that the ancestor of all paravians may have been arboreal , have been able to glide , or both . Unlike Archaeopteryx and the non-avialan feathered dinosaurs , who primarily ate meat , recent studies suggest that the first avialans were omnivores . The Late Jurassic Archaeopteryx is well known as one of the first transitional fossils to be found , and it provided support for the theory of evolution in the late 19th century . Archaeopteryx was the first fossil to display both clearly traditional reptilian characteristics : teeth , clawed fingers , and a long , lizard-like tail , as well as wings with flight feathers similar to those of modern birds . It is not considered a direct ancestor of birds , though it is possibly closely related to the true ancestor . Early evolution The earliest known avialan fossils come from the Tiaojishan Formation of China , which has been dated to the late Jurassic period ( Oxfordian stage ) , about 160 million years ago . The avialan species from this time period include Anchiornis huxleyi , Xiaotingia zhengi , and Aurornis xui . The well-known early avialan , Archaeopteryx , dates from slightly later Jurassic rocks ( about 155 million years old ) from Germany . Many of these early avialans shared unusual anatomical features that may be ancestral to modern birds , but were later lost during bird evolution . These features include enlarged claws on the second toe which may have been held clear of the ground in life , and long feathers or `` hind wings '' covering the hind limbs and feet , which may have been used in aerial maneuvering . Avialans diversified into a wide variety of forms during the Cretaceous Period . Many groups retained primitive characteristics , such as clawed wings and teeth , though the latter were lost independently in a number of avialan groups , including modern birds ( Aves ) . While the earliest forms , such as Archaeopteryx and Jeholornis , retained the long bony tails of their ancestors , the tails of more advanced avialans were shortened with the advent of the pygostyle bone in the group Pygostylia . In the late Cretaceous , around 95 million years ago , the ancestor of all modern birds also evolved a better sense of smell . Early diversity of bird ancestors The first large , diverse lineage of short-tailed avialans to evolve were the enantiornithes , or `` opposite birds '' , so named because the construction of their shoulder bones was in reverse to that of modern birds . Enantiornithes occupied a wide array of ecological niches , from sand-probing shorebirds and fish-eaters to tree-dwelling forms and seed-eaters . While they were the dominant group of avialans during the Cretaceous period , enantiornithes became extinct along with many other dinosaur groups at the end of the Mesozoic era . Many species of the second major avialan lineage to diversify , the Euornithes ( meaning `` true birds '' , because they include the ancestors of modern birds ) , were semi-aquatic and specialized in eating fish and other small aquatic organisms . Unlike the enantiornithes , which dominated land-based and arboreal habitats , most early euornithes lacked perching adaptations and seem to have included shorebird-like species , waders , and swimming and diving species . The later included the superficially gull-like Ichthyornis , the Hesperornithiformes , which became so well adapted to hunting fish in marine environments that they lost the ability to fly and became primarily aquatic . The early euornithes also saw the development of many traits associated with modern birds , like strongly keeled breastbones , toothless , beaked portions of their jaws ( though most non-avian euornithes retained teeth in other parts of the jaws ) . Euornithes also included the first avialans to develop true pygostyle and a fully mobile fan of tail feathers , which may have replaced the `` hind wing '' as the primary mode of aerial maneuverability and braking in flight . Diversification of modern birds All modern birds lie within the crown group Aves ( alternately Neornithes ) , which has two subdivisions : the Palaeognathae , which includes the flightless ratites ( such as the ostriches ) and the weak-flying tinamous , and the extremely diverse Neognathae , containing all other birds . These two subdivisions are often given the rank of superorder , although Livezey and Zusi assigned them `` cohort '' rank . Depending on the taxonomic viewpoint , the number of known living bird species varies anywhere from 9,800 to 10,050 . Due largely to the discovery of Vegavis , a late Cretaceous neognath member of the duck lineage , Aves is known to have split into several modern lineages by the end of the Mesozoic era . Studies using a `` morphological clock '' analysis have estimated that the actual origin of modern birds probably occurred slightly earlier than the earliest known fossils , during the mid-Cretaceous period . The earliest divergence within the Neognathes was that of the Galloanserae , the superorder containing the Anseriformes ( ducks , geese , swans and screamers ) and the Galliformes ( the pheasants , grouse , and their allies , together with the mound builders and the guans and their allies ) . The earliest fossil remains of true birds come from the possible galliform Austinornis lentus , dated to about 85 million years ago , but the dates for the actual splits are much debated by scientists . The Aves are agreed to have evolved in the Cretaceous , and the split between the Galloanseri from other Neognathes occurred before the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event , but there are different opinions about whether the radiation of the remaining Neognathes occurred before or after the extinction of the other dinosaurs . This disagreement is in part caused by a divergence in the evidence ; molecular dating suggests a Cretaceous radiation , while fossil evidence supports a Cenozoic radiation . Attempts to reconcile the molecular and fossil evidence have proved controversial , but recent results show that all the extant groups of birds originated from only a small handful of species that survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction . Classification of bird orders Cladogram of modern bird relationships based on Jarvis , E.D . et al . ( 2014 ) with some clade names after Yury , T. et al . ( 2013 ) . The classification of birds is a contentious issue . Sibley and Ahlquist 's Phylogeny and Classification of Birds ( 1990 ) is a landmark work on the classification of birds , although it is frequently debated and constantly revised . Most evidence seems to suggest the assignment of orders is accurate , but scientists disagree about the relationships between the orders themselves ; evidence from modern bird anatomy , fossils and DNA have all been brought to bear on the problem , but no strong consensus has emerged . More recently , new fossil and molecular evidence is providing an increasingly clear picture of the evolution of modern bird orders . The most recent effort is drawn above and is based on whole genome sequencing of 48 representative species . Distribution Birds live and breed in most terrestrial habitats and on all seven continents , reaching their southern extreme in the snow petrel 's breeding colonies up to 440 km inland in Antarctica . The highest bird diversity occurs in tropical regions . It was earlier thought that this high diversity was the result of higher speciation rates in the tropics , however recent studies found higher speciation rates in the high latitudes that were offset by greater extinction rates than in the tropics . Several families of birds have adapted to life both on the world 's oceans and in them , with some seabird species coming ashore only to breed and some penguins have been recorded diving up to 300 m . Many bird species have established breeding populations in areas to which they have been introduced by humans . Some of these introductions have been deliberate ; the ring-necked pheasant , for example , has been introduced around the world as a game bird . Others have been accidental , such as the establishment of wild monk parakeets in several North American cities after their escape from captivity . Some species , including cattle egret , yellow-headed caracara and galah , have spread naturally far beyond their original ranges as agricultural practices created suitable new habitat . Anatomy and physiology Compared with other vertebrates , birds have a body plan that shows many unusual adaptations , mostly to facilitate flight . Skeletal system The skeleton consists of very lightweight bones . They have large air-filled cavities ( called pneumatic cavities ) which connect with the respiratory system . The skull bones in adults are fused and do not show cranial sutures . The orbits are large and separated by a bony septum . The spine has cervical , thoracic , lumbar and caudal regions with the number of cervical ( neck ) vertebrae highly variable and especially flexible , but movement is reduced in the anterior thoracic vertebrae and absent in the later vertebrae . The last few are fused with the pelvis to form the synsacrum . The ribs are flattened and the sternum is keeled for the attachment of flight muscles except in the flightless bird orders . The forelimbs are modified into wings . Excretory system Like the reptiles , birds are primarily uricotelic , that is , their kidneys extract nitrogenous waste from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid instead of urea or ammonia through the ureters into the intestine . Birds do not have a urinary bladder or external urethral opening and ( with exception of the ostrich ) uric acid is excreted along with feces as a semisolid waste . However , birds such as hummingbirds can be facultatively ammonotelic , excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia . They also excrete creatine , rather than creatinine like mammals . This material , as well as the output of the intestines , emerges from the bird 's cloaca . The cloaca is a multi-purpose opening : waste is expelled through it , most birds mate by joining cloaca , and females lay eggs from it . In addition , many species of birds regurgitate pellets . Males within Palaeognathae ( with the exception of the kiwis ) , the Anseriformes ( with the exception of screamers ) , and in rudimentary forms in Galliformes ( but fully developed in Cracidae ) possess a penis , which is never present in Neoaves . The length is thought to be related to sperm competition . When not copulating , it is hidden within the proctodeum compartment within the cloaca , just inside the vent . The digestive system of birds is unique , with a crop for storage and a gizzard that contains swallowed stones for grinding food to compensate for the lack of teeth . Most birds are highly adapted for rapid digestion to aid with flight . Some migratory birds have adapted to use protein from many parts of their bodies , including protein from the intestines , as additional energy during migration . ( Erratum in Proceedings of the Royal Society B 267 ( 1461 ) :2567 . ) Respiratory and circulatory systems Birds have one of the most complex respiratory systems of all animal groups . Upon inhalation , 75 % of the fresh air bypasses the lungs and flows directly into a posterior air sac which extends from the lungs and connects with air spaces in the bones and fills them with air . The other 25 % of the air goes directly into the lungs . When the bird exhales , the used air flows out of the lung and the stored fresh air from the posterior air sac is simultaneously forced into the lungs . Thus , a bird 's lungs receive a constant supply of fresh air during both inhalation and exhalation . Sound production is achieved using the syrinx , a muscular chamber incorporating multiple tympanic membranes which diverges from the lower end of the trachea ; PMID 15313772 the trachea being elongated in some species , increasing the volume of vocalizations and the perception of the bird 's size . In birds , the main arteries taking blood away from the heart originate from the right aortic arch ( or pharyngeal arch ) , unlike in the mammals where the left aortic arch forms this part of the aorta . The postcava receives blood from the limbs via the renal portal system . Unlike in mammals , the circulating red blood cells in birds retain their nucleus . Heart type and features The avian circulatory system is driven by a four-chambered , myogenic heart contained in a fibrous pericardial sac . This pericardial sac is filled with a serous fluid for lubrication.Whittow , G. ( 2000 ) . Sturkie 's Avian Physiology/ edited by G. Causey Whittow . San Diego : Academic Press , 2000 . The heart itself is divided into a right and left half , each with an atrium and ventricle . The atrium and ventricles of each side are separated by atrioventricular valves which prevent back flow from one chamber to the next during contraction . Being myogenic , the heart 's pace is maintained by pacemaker cells found in the sinoatrial node , located on the right atrium . The sinoatrial node uses calcium to cause a depolarizing signal transduction pathway from the atrium through right and left atrioventricular bundle which communicates contraction to the ventricles . The avian heart also consists of muscular arches that are made up of thick bundles of muscular layers . Much like a mammalian heart , the avian heart is composed of endocardial , myocardial and epicardial layers . The atrium walls tend to be thinner than the ventricle walls , due to the intense ventricular contraction used to pump oxygenated blood throughout the body . Avian hearts are generally larger than mammalian hearts when compared to body mass . This adaptation allows more blood to be pumped to meet the high metabolic need associated with flight . Organization Birds have a very efficient system for diffusing oxygen into the blood ; birds have a ten times greater surface area to gas exchange volume than mammals . As a result , birds have more blood in their capillaries per unit of volume of lung than a mammal . The arteries are composed of thick elastic muscles to withstand the pressure of the ventricular constriction , and become more rigid as they move away from the heart . Blood moves through the arteries , which undergo vasoconstriction , and into arterioles which act as a transportation system to distribute primarily oxygen as well as nutrients to all tissues of the body.Hill , Richard W. ( 2012 ) Animal Physiology/ Richard W. Hill , Gordon A. Wyse , Margaret Anderson . Third Edition pp 647-678 . Sinauer Associates , 23 Plumtree Road , Sunderland , MA 01375 USA As the arterioles move away from the heart and into individual organs and tissues they are further divided to increase surface area and slow blood flow . Travelling through the arterioles blood moves into the capillaries where gas exchange can occur . Capillaries are organized into capillary beds in tissues , it is here that blood exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide waste . In the capillary beds blood flow is slowed to allow maximum diffusion of oxygen into the tissues . Once the blood has become deoxygenated it travels through venules then veins and back to the heart . Veins , unlike arteries , are thin and rigid as they do not need to withstand extreme pressure . As blood travels through the venules to the veins a funneling occurs called vasodilation bringing blood back to the heart . Once the blood reaches the heart it moves first into the right atrium , then the right ventricle to be pumped through the lungs for further gas exchange of carbon dioxide waste for oxygen . Oxygenated blood then flows from the lungs through the left atrium to the left ventricle where it is pumped out to the body . Nervous system The nervous system is large relative to the bird 's size . The most developed part of the brain is the one that controls the flight-related functions , while the cerebellum coordinates movement and the cerebrum controls behaviour patterns , navigation , mating and nest building . Most birds have a poor sense of smell with notable exceptions including kiwis , New World vultures and tubenoses . The avian visual system is usually highly developed . Water birds have special flexible lenses , allowing accommodation for vision in air and water . Some species also have dual fovea . Birds are tetrachromatic , possessing ultraviolet ( UV ) sensitive cone cells in the eye as well as green , red and blue ones . This allows them to perceive ultraviolet light , which is involved in courtship . Birds have [ https : //birdsnews.com/2014/scientists-document-light-sensitive-eye-within-brain-birds/ # .U8ArB_ldWCl specialized light-sensing cells deep in their brains ] that respond to light without input from eyes or other sensory neurons . These photo-receptive cells in the hypothalamus are involved in detecting the longer days of spring , and thus regulate breeding activities . Many birds show plumage patterns in ultraviolet that are invisible to the human eye ; some birds whose sexes appear similar to the naked eye are distinguished by the presence of ultraviolet reflective patches on their feathers . Male blue tits have an ultraviolet reflective crown patch which is displayed in courtship by posturing and raising of their nape feathers . Ultraviolet light is also used in foraging—kestrels have been shown to search for prey by detecting the UV reflective urine trail marks left on the ground by rodents . The eyelids of a bird are not used in blinking . Instead the eye is lubricated by the nictitating membrane , a third eyelid that moves horizontally . The nictitating membrane also covers the eye and acts as a contact lens in many aquatic birds . The bird retina has a fan shaped blood supply system called the pecten . Most birds can not move their eyes , although there are exceptions , such as the great cormorant . Birds with eyes on the sides of their heads have a wide visual field , while birds with eyes on the front of their heads , such as owls , have binocular vision and can estimate the depth of field . The avian ear lacks external pinnae but is covered by feathers , although in some birds , such as the Asio , Bubo and Otus owls , these feathers form tufts which resemble ears . The inner ear has a cochlea , but it is not spiral as in mammals . Defence and intraspecific combat A few species are able to use chemical defenses against predators ; some Procellariiformes can eject an unpleasant oil against an aggressor , and some species of pitohuis from New Guinea have a powerful neurotoxin in their skin and feathers . A dearth of field observations limit our knowledge , but intraspecific conflicts are known to sometimes result in injury or death . The screamers ( Anhimidae ) , some jacanas ( Jacana , Hydrophasianus ) , the spur-winged goose ( Plectropterus ) , the torrent duck ( Merganetta ) and nine species of lapwing ( Vanellus ) use a sharp spur on the wing as a weapon . The steamer ducks ( Tachyeres ) , geese and swans ( Anserinae ) , the solitaire ( Pezophaps ) , sheathbills ( Chionis ) , some guans ( Crax ) and stone curlews ( Burhinus ) use a bony knob on the alular metacarpal to punch and hammer opponents . The jacanas Actophilornis and Irediparra have an expanded , blade-like radius . The extinct Xenicibis was unique in having an elongate forelimb and massive hand which likely functioned in combat or defence as a jointed club or flail . Swans , for instance , may strike with the bony spurs and bite when defending eggs or young . Chromosomes Birds have two sexes : either female or male . The sex of birds is determined by the Z and W sex chromosomes , rather than by the X and Y chromosomes present in mammals . Male birds have two Z chromosomes ( ZZ ) , and female birds have a W chromosome and a Z chromosome ( WZ ) . In nearly all species of birds , an individual 's sex is determined at fertilization . However , one recent study demonstrated temperature-dependent sex determination among the Australian brushturkey , for which higher temperatures during incubation resulted in a higher female-to-male sex ratio . This , however

odql_8742--Bird.txt

As which bird is the ancient Egyptian god Horus represented?

Top Hat the Musical is a 2011 stage musical based on the 1935 film of the same name , featuring music and lyrics by Irving Berlin with additional orchestration by Chris Walker . The show opened on 16 August 2011 at the Milton Keynes Theatre , touring the United Kingdom before transferring to the Aldwych Theatre in London 's West End . Top Hat won multiple 2013 Laurence Olivier Awards after receiving seven nominations . The musical closed in London on 26 October 2013 , with a UK and Ireland tour commencing in August 2014 . Background The musical is based on the 1935 film of the same name , with music by Irving Berlin . It took the show 's producer , Kenny Wax , sixteen months to obtain the rights from Berlin 's estate to adapt the film into a stage musical . A first read-through of the adapted script was held at Sadler 's Wells in November 2010 , and it was performed for the first time 76 years after the original film . The show features fourteen songs by Berlin , six more songs than the original production . Featuring a 31-person cast , the production was adapted from the original screenplay by Matthew White and Howard Jacques . The show was directed by White with choreography by Bill Deamer , set designs by Hildegard Bechtler , costume design by Jon Morrell , lighting by Peter Mumford , sound by Gareth Owen , new orchestrations by Chris Walker and musical supervision by Richard Balcombe . The producers for the original tour and the West End production originally approached Anton du Beke to play Jerry Travers , before casting Strictly Come Dancing winner Tom Chambers in the role originated by Fred Astaire . During the competition Chambers was compared to Astaire , his hero . Astaire 's daughter was in the audience for the show 's opening in London , and described Chambers as `` wonderful '' : `` There will always be comparisons , but what this show has done is bring a version to the world to see for the future '' . Two of Berlin 's daughters described the show as `` a beautiful production '' : `` It could definitely give new life to these songs and to Top Hat for a younger generation '' . Production history The show had its world premiere on 16 August 2011 at the Milton Keynes Theatre , at the beginning of a 17-week UK tour stopping in Birmingham , Southampton , Salford , Plymouth , Norwich , Canterbury , Edinburgh and Leeds . The original cast included Summer Strallen as Dale Tremont , Tom Chambers as Jerry Travers , Martin Ball as Horace , Vivien Parry as Madge Hardwick , Ricardo Alfonso as Alberto Beddini and Stephen Boswell as Bates . An additional pre-West-End tour took place in spring 2012 , at the New Victoria Theatre in Woking from 13–17 March and the Bristol Hippodrome from 21–31 March . The production then moved to the West End 's Aldwych Theatre on 19 April 2012 , with its opening night on 9 May and an initial booking until the end of January 2013 . Charlotte Gooch took over the role of Dale Tremont in November 2012 ; on 5 February 2013 Gavin Lee took over the role of Jerry , Broadway star Kristen Beth Williams took over as Dale , Clive Hayward became Horace and Alex Gaumond became Alberto . A final cast change took place after Gaumond left to play Miss Trunchbull in Matilda the Musical : Russell-Leighton Dixon , previously the understudy for Alberto , took over the part . Although the production 's run had been extended until April 2014 , it closed on 26 October 2013 . A further 47-week tour of the United Kingdom and Ireland commenced at the New Wimbledon Theatre , on 12 August 2014 , running until July 2015 . Featuring a new cast , the production visited Wimbledon , Milton Keynes , Newcastle , Aberdeen , Edinburgh , Wolverhampton , Nottingham , Bristol , Glasgow , Leeds , Cardiff , Oxford , Manchester , Sheffield , Birmingham , Norwich , Canterbury , Plymouth , Southampton , Dublin , Belfast , Sunderland , Woking and Eastbourne . The tour was led by Charlotte Gooch , who reprises the role of Dale , Alan Burkitt as Jerry , Clive Hayward as Horace Hardwick , Rebecca Thornhill as Madge Hardwick , Sebastien Torkia as Alberton Beddini and John Conroy as Bates . Music Musical numbers ; Act I ; New York , USA * `` You Ca n't Brush Me Off '' ; London , England * `` How Can I Change My Luck ? '' * `` No Strings ( I 'm Fancy Free ) ? '' * `` Hotel Scene ? '' * `` I 'm Putting All My Eggs in One Basket ? '' * `` Is n't This a Lovely Day ( To Be Caught in the Rain ) ? '' * `` Is n't This a Lovely Day ( To Be Caught in the Rain ) ? '' ( Reprise ) * `` Gentlemen Prefer Blondes '' * `` Top Hat , White Tie and Tails '' ; Act II ; Venice , Italy * `` The Piccolino '' * `` You Ca n't Brush Me Off '' ( Reprise ) * `` Wild About You '' * `` Cheek To Cheek '' * `` Better Luck Next Time '' * `` Latins Know How '' * `` Let 's Face The Music And Dance '' * `` Outside Of That , I Love You '' * `` Finale '' The performance runs 2hrs 45mins , including one interval . Cast album Featuring 18 tracks from the London production of Top Hat , the cast album was released by First Night Records on 27 August 2012 . Principal roles and cast members The show features a cast of thirty one and a fifteen member band . Critical reception After its world premiere , most Top Hat critics appreciated the spectacle but agreed that the plot was weak ; “ the plot , for want of a better word , does n't bear too much close inspection ” , said Christopher Hart in the Sunday Times . [ http : //www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/culture/arts/theatre/article1034467.ece Top Hat , Aldwych | The Sunday Times ] The musical was also criticised for its length . “ The second half could be cut down by a good 15 minutes “ , according to Exeunt magazine . [ http : //exeuntmagazine.com/reviews/top-hat/ Review of Top Hat at Aldwych Theatre | Exeunt Magazine ] Michael Billington of The Guardian wrote , “ The evening can be quickly summed up as 'great songs , daft book ' '' . Paul Taylor of The Independent said , “ The producers of this irresistible show , a freely adapted version of the Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers movie , do n't subscribe to the precept of deferred gratification ” . London Evening Standard critic Henry Hitchings described the show as “ a bit slow hitting its stride ” . [ http : //www.standard.co.uk/goingout/theatre/top-hat-aldwych -- review-7733159.html Top Hat , Aldwych - review - Theatre - Going Out - London Evening Standard ] Top Hat received positive reviews on blogs , with Zoe Craig describing it on the Londonist as “ pure , fun , cheery escapist entertainment ” . [ https : //londonist.com/2012/05/theatre-review-top-hat-the-aldwych-theatre.php Theatre Review : Top Hat @ The Aldwych Theatre | Londonist ] Bechtler 's set design and Deamer ’ s choreography were praised ( “ This clever collaboration is clearly evident in every scene transition as the cast dance and interact with the set , making the whole changeover seem like a fluid part of the story '' ) [ http : //www.bestoftheatre.co.uk/blog/post/top-hat-review Top Hat Review - Best of Theatre News ] on BestOfTheatre . Awards and nominations Despite its mixed reception by critics , Top Hat won the Best Night Out award at the Evening Standard Theatre Awards in 2012 , won the 2013 Olivier Award [ http : //www.olivierawards.com/news/view/item183913/hats-off-to-best-new-musical/ Hats off to Best New Musical – Laurence Olivier Awards ] for Best New Musical , Best Choreographer ( Bill Deamer ) and Best Costume Design ( Jon Morrell ) . The musical was also nominated for five Whatsonstage.com Awards . Original London production

sfq_22650--Top_Hat_(musical).txt

Who wrote the songs for the musical Top Hat?

Marlon Brando , Jr. ( April 3 , 1924 – July 1 , 2004 ) was an American actor , film director , and activist . He is credited with bringing a gripping realism to film acting , and is often cited as one of the greatest and most influential actors of all time . He helped to popularize the Stanislavski system of acting , today more commonly referred to as method acting . Brando is most famous for his Academy Award-winning performances as Terry Malloy in On the Waterfront ( 1954 ) and Vito Corleone in The Godfather ( 1972 ) , as well as influential performances in A Streetcar Named Desire ( 1951 ) , Viva Zapata ! ( 1952 ) , Julius Caesar ( 1953 ) , The Wild One ( 1953 ) , Reflections in a Golden Eye ( 1967 ) , Last Tango in Paris ( 1972 ) , and Apocalypse Now ( 1979 ) . Brando was also an activist for many causes , notably the African-American Civil Rights Movement and various Native American movements . He initially gained acclaim and an Academy Award nomination for reprising the role of Stanley Kowalski in the 1951 film adaptation of Tennessee Williams ' play A Streetcar Named Desire , a role that he had originated successfully on Broadway . He received further praise for his performance as Terry Malloy in On the Waterfront , and his portrayal of the rebel motorcycle gang leader Johnny Strabler in The Wild One proved to be a lasting image in popular culture . Brando received Academy Award nominations for playing Emiliano Zapata in Viva Zapata ! ; Mark Antony in Joseph L. Mankiewicz 's 1953 film adaptation of Shakespeare 's Julius Caesar ; and Air Force Major Lloyd Gruver in Sayonara ( 1957 ) , an adaption of James Michener 's 1954 novel . Brando was included in a list of Top Ten Money Making Stars three times in the 1950s , coming in at number 10 in 1954 , number 6 in 1955 , and number 4 in 1958 . The 1960s proved to be a fallow decade for Brando . He directed and starred in the cult western film One-Eyed Jacks , a critical and commercial flop , after which he delivered a series of box-office failures , beginning with the 1962 film adaptation of the novel Mutiny on the Bounty . After 10 years , during which he did not appear in a successful film , he won his second Academy Award for playing Vito Corleone in Francis Ford Coppola 's The Godfather , a role critics consider among his greatest . The Godfather was then one of the most commercially successful films of all time . With that and his Oscar-nominated performance in Last Tango in Paris , Brando re-established himself in the ranks of top box-office stars , placing sixth and tenth in the Money Making Stars poll in 1972 and 1973 , respectively . Brando took a four-year hiatus before appearing in The Missouri Breaks ( 1976 ) . After this , he was content with being a highly paid character actor in cameo roles , such as in Superman ( 1978 ) and The Formula ( 1980 ) , before taking a nine-year break from motion pictures . According to the Guinness Book of World Records , Brando was paid a record $ 3.7 million ( $ million in inflation-adjusted dollars ) and 11.75 % of the gross profits for 13 days ' work on Superman . He finished out the 1970s with his controversial performance as Colonel Kurtz in another Coppola film , Apocalypse Now , a box-office hit for which he was highly paid and which helped finance his career layoff during the 1980s . Brando was ranked by the American Film Institute as the fourth-greatest movie star among male movie stars whose screen debuts occurred in or before 1950 . He was one of only three professional actors , along with Charlie Chaplin and Marilyn Monroe , named in 1999 by Time magazine as one of its 100 Most Important People of the Century . He died of respiratory failure on July 1 , 2004 , at age 80 . Early life Brando was born on April 3 , 1924 , in Omaha , Nebraska , to Marlon Brando , Sr. , a pesticide and chemical feed manufacturer , and Dorothy Julia ( née Pennebaker ) . Brando had two older sisters , Jocelyn Brando ( 1919–2005 ) and Frances ( 1922–1994 ) . His ancestry included German , Dutch , English , and Irish . His patrilineal immigrant ancestor , Johann Wilhelm Brandau , arrived in New York in the early 1700s from the Palatinate of Germany.Kanfer 2008 , pp . 5 , 6 . Brando was raised a Christian Scientist . His mother , known as Dodie , was unconventional for her time ; an actress herself , she smoked , wore trousers and drove cars—all unusual for women at the time—and was even a theatre administrator , helping Henry Fonda begin his acting career . However , she was an alcoholic and often had to be brought home from Chicago bars by her husband . In his autobiography , Songs My Mother Taught Me , Brando expressed sadness when writing about his mother : `` The anguish that her drinking produced was that she preferred getting drunk to caring for us . '' Dodie and Brando 's father eventually joined Alcoholics Anonymous . Brando harbored far more enmity for his father , stating , `` I was his namesake , but nothing I did ever pleased or even interested him . He enjoyed telling me I could n't do anything right . He had a habit of telling me I would never amount to anything . '' Brando 's parents moved to Evanston , Illinois , when his father 's work took him to Chicago , but separated when Brando was 11 years old . His mother took the three children to Santa Ana , California , where they lived with her mother . In 1937 , Brando 's parents reconciled and moved together to Libertyville , Illinois , a small town north of Chicago . In 1939 and 1941 , he worked as an usher at the town 's only movie theatre , The Liberty.Forrest , Lauren , `` [ http : //www.lhsdoi.com/5241/showcase/a-look-at-historical-libertyville/ A Look At Historical Libertyville ] '' in Drops of Ink , May 5 , 2015 . Retrieved January 6 , 2015 . Brando , whose childhood nickname was `` Bud '' , was a mimic from his youth . He developed an ability to absorb the mannerisms of kids he played with and display them dramatically while staying in character . He was introduced to neighborhood boy Wally Cox and the two were unlikely closest friends until Cox ' death in 1973. the 2007 TCM biopic , Brando : The Documentary , childhood friend George Englund recalls Brando 's earliest acting as imitating the cows and horses on the family farm as a way to distract his mother from drinking . His sister Jocelyn was the first to pursue an acting career , going to study at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in New York City . She appeared on Broadway , then films and television . Brando 's sister Frances left college in California to study art in New York . Brando had been held back a year in school and was later expelled from Libertyville High School for riding his motorcycle through the corridors . He was sent to Shattuck Military Academy , where his father had studied before him . Brando excelled at theatre and did well in the school . In his final year ( 1943 ) , he was put on probation for being insubordinate to a visiting army colonel during maneuvers . He was confined to his room , but sneaked into town and was caught . The faculty voted to expel him , though he was supported by the students , who thought expulsion was too harsh . He was invited back for the following year , but decided instead to drop out of high school . Brando worked as a ditch-digger as a summer job arranged by his father . He tried to enlist in the Army , but his induction physical revealed that a football injury he had sustained at Shattuck had left him with a trick knee . He was classified 4-F and not inducted . New York and acting Brando decided to follow his sisters to New York , studying at the American Theatre Wing Professional School , part of the Dramatic Workshop of the New School , with influential German director Erwin Piscator . In a 1988 documentary , Marlon Brando : The Wild One , Brando 's sister Jocelyn remembered , `` He was in a school play and enjoyed it ... So he decided he would go to New York and study acting because that was the only thing he had enjoyed . That was when he was 18 . '' In the A & E Biography episode on Brando , George Englund said Brando fell into acting in New York because `` he was accepted there . He was n't criticized . It was the first time in his life that he heard good things about himself . '' Brando was an avid student and proponent of Stella Adler , from whom he learned the techniques of the Stanislavski System . This technique encouraged the actor to explore his own feelings and past experiences to fully realize the character being portrayed . Brando 's remarkable insight and sense of realism was evident early on . Adler used to recount that when teaching Brando , she had instructed the class to act like chickens , and added that a nuclear bomb was about to fall on them . Most of the class clucked and ran around wildly , but Brando sat calmly and pretended to lay an egg . Asked by Adler why he had chosen to react this way , he said , `` I 'm a chicken—what do I know about bombs ? '' Despite being commonly regarded as a Method actor , Brando disagreed . He claimed to have abhorred Lee Strasberg 's teachings : Career Early career : 1944–1951 Brando used his Stanislavski System skills for his first summer-stock roles in Sayville , New York , on Long Island . Brando established a pattern of erratic , insubordinate behavior in the few shows he had been in . His behavior had him kicked out of the cast of the New School 's production in Sayville , but he was soon afterwards discovered in a locally produced play there . Then , in 1944 , he made it to Broadway in the bittersweet drama I Remember Mama , playing the son of Mady Christians . The Lunts wanted Brando to play the role of Alfred Lunt 's son in O Mistress Mine , and Lunt even coached him for his audition , but Brando 's reading during the audition was so desultory that they could n't hire him . New York Drama Critics voted him `` Most Promising Young Actor '' for his role as an anguished veteran in Truckline Café , although the play was a commercial failure . In 1946 , he appeared on Broadway as the young hero in the political drama A Flag is Born , refusing to accept wages above the Actors ' Equity rate . In that same year , Brando played the role of Marchbanks alongside Katharine Cornell in her production 's revival of Candida , one of her signature roles . Cornell also cast him as the Messenger in her production of Jean Anouilh 's Antigone that same year . He was also offered the opportunity to portray one of the principal characters in the Broadway premiere of Eugene O'Neill 's The Iceman Cometh , but turned the part down after falling asleep while trying to read the massive script and pronouncing the play `` ineptly written and poorly constructed '' . In 1945 , Brando 's agent recommended he take a co-starring role in The Eagle Has Two Heads with Tallulah Bankhead , produced by Jack Wilson . Tallulah had turned down the role of Blanche Dubois in a A Streetcar Named Desire , which Williams had written for her , to tour the play for the 1946-1947 season . Bankhead recognized Brando 's potential , despite her disdain ( which most Broadway veterans shared ) for method acting , and agreed to hire him even though he auditioned poorly . The two clashed greatly during the pre-Broadway tour , with Bankhead reminding Brando of his mother , being her age and also having a drinking problem . Jack Wilson was largely tolerant of Brando 's behavior , but he reached his limit when Brando mumbled through a dress rehearsal shortly before the November 28 , 1946 , opening . `` I do n't care what your grandmother did , '' Wilson exclaimed , `` and that Method stuff , I want to know what you 're going to do ! '' Brando in turn raised his voice , and acted with great power and passion . `` It was marvelous , '' a cast member recalled . `` Everybody hugged him and kissed him . He came ambling offstage and said to me , 'They do n't think you can act unless you can yell . ' '' A review of Brando 's performance in the opening assessed that Brando was `` still building his character , but at present fails to impress '' . One Boston critic remarked of Brando 's prolonged death scene , `` Brando looked like a car in midtown Manhattan searching for a parking space . '' He received better reviews at subsequent tour stops , but what his colleagues recalled was only occasional indications of the talent he would later demonstrate . `` There were a few times when he was really magnificent , '' Tallulah admitted to an interviewer in 1962 . `` He was a great young actor when he wanted to be , but most of the time I could n't even hear him on the stage . '' Brando displayed his apathy for the production by demonstrating some shocking onstage manners . He `` tried everything in the world to ruin it for her '' , Tallulah 's stage-manager claimed . `` He nearly drove her crazy : scratching his crotch , picking his nose , doing anything . '' After several weeks on the road , they reached Boston , by which time Tallulah was ready to dismiss him . This proved to be one of the greatest blessings of his career , as it freed him up to play the role of Stanley Kowalski in Tennessee Williams 's 1947 play A Streetcar Named Desire , directed by Elia Kazan . Bankhead had recommended him to Williams for the role of Stanley , thinking he was perfect for the part . Pierpont writes that John Garfield was first choice for the role , but `` made impossible demands '' . It was Kazan 's decision to fall back on the far less experienced ( and technically too young for the role ) Brando . In a letter dated August 29 , 1947 , Williams confided to his agent Audrey Wood : `` It had not occurred to me before what an excellent value would come through casting a very young actor in this part . It humanizes the character of Stanley in that it becomes the brutality and callousness of youth rather than a vicious old man ... A new value came out of Brando 's reading which was by far the best reading I have ever heard . '' Brando based his portrayal of Kowalski on the boxer Rocky Graziano , whom he had studied at a local gymnasium . Graziano did not know who Brando was , but attended the production with tickets provided by the young man . He said , `` The curtain went up and on the stage is that son of a bitch from the gym , and he 's playing me . '' In 1947 , Brando performed a screen test for an early Warner Brothers script for the novel Rebel Without a Cause ( 1944 ) , which bore no relation to the film eventually produced in 1955 . The screen test is included as an extra in the 2006 DVD release of A Streetcar Named Desire . Brando 's first screen role was the bitter paraplegic veteran in The Men ( 1950 ) . He spent a month in bed at the Birmingham Army Hospital in Van Nuys to prepare for the role . The New York Times reviewer Bosley Crowther wrote that Brando as Ken `` is so vividly real , dynamic and sensitive that his illusion is complete '' and noted , `` Out of stiff and frozen silences he can lash into a passionate rage with the tearful and flailing frenzy of a taut cable suddenly cut . '' By Brando 's own account , it may have been because of this film that his draft status was changed from 4-F to 1-A . He had had surgery on his trick knee , and it was no longer physically debilitating enough to incur exclusion from the draft . When Brando reported to the induction center , he answered a questionnaire by saying his race was `` human '' , his color was `` Seasonal–oyster white to beige '' , and he told an Army doctor that he was psychoneurotic . When the draft board referred him to a psychiatrist , Brando explained that he had been expelled from military school and had severe problems with authority . Coincidentally , the psychiatrist knew a doctor friend of Brando . Brando avoided military service during the Korean War . Early in his career , Brando began using cue cards instead of memorizing his lines . Despite the objections of several of the film directors he worked with , Brando felt that this helped bring realism and spontaneity to his performances . He felt otherwise he would appear to be reciting a writer 's speech . In the TV documentary The Making of Superman : The Movie , Brando explained : However , some thought Brando used the cards out of laziness or an inability to memorize his lines . Once on The Godfather set , Brando was asked why he wanted his lines printed out . He responded , `` Because I can read them that way . '' Rise to fame : 1951–1954 Brando brought his performance as Stanley Kowalski to the screen in Tennessee William 's A Streetcar Named Desire ( 1951 ) . The role is regarded as one of Brando 's greatest . The reception of Brando 's performance was so positive that Brando quickly became a male sex symbol in Hollywood . The role earned him his first Academy Award nomination in the Best Actor category . He was also nominated the next year for Viva Zapata ! ( 1952 ) , a fictionalized account of the life of Mexican revolutionary Emiliano Zapata . It recounted his peasant upbringing , his rise to power in the early 20th century , and death . The film was directed by Elia Kazan and co-starred Anthony Quinn . In the biopic Marlon Brando : The Wild One , Sam Shaw says , `` Secretly , before the picture started , he went to Mexico to the very town where Zapata lived and was born in and it was there that he studied the speech patterns of people , their behavior , movement . '' Most critics focused on the actor rather than the film , with Time and Newsweek publishing rave reviews . Years later , in his autobiography , Brando remarked : `` Tony Quinn , whom I admired professionally and liked personally , played my brother , but he was extremely cold to me while we shot that picture . During our scenes together , I sensed a bitterness toward me , and if I suggested a drink after work , he either turned me down or else was sullen and said little . Only years later did I learn why . '' Brando related that , to create on-screen tension between the two , `` Gadg '' ( Kazan ) had told Quinn—who had taken over the role of Stanley Kowalski on Broadway after Brando had finished—that Brando had been unimpressed with his work . After achieving the desired effect , Kazan never told Quinn that he had misled him . It was only many years later , after comparing notes , that Brando and Quinn realized the deception . Brando 's next film , Julius Caesar ( 1953 ) , received highly favorable reviews . Brando portrayed Mark Antony . While most acknowledged Brando 's talent , some critics felt Brando 's `` mumbling '' and other idiosyncrasies betrayed a lack of acting fundamentals and , when his casting was announced , many remained dubious about his prospects for success . Directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz and co-starring British stage actor John Gielgud , Brando delivered an impressive performance , especially during Antony 's noted `` Friends , Romans , countrymen ... '' speech . Gielgud was so impressed that he offered Brando a full season at the Hammersmith Theatre , an offer he declined . In his biography on the actor , Stefan Kanfer writes , `` Marlon 's autobiography devotes one line to his work on that film : Among all those British professionals , 'for me to walk onto a movie set and play Mark Anthony was asinine'—yet another example of his persistent self-denigration , and wholly incorrect . '' Kanfer adds that after a screening of the film , director John Huston commented , `` Christ ! It was like a furnace door opening—the heat came off the screen . I do n't know another actor who could do that . '' During the filming of Julius Caesar , Brando learned that Elia Kazan had cooperated with congressional investigators , naming a whole string of `` subversives '' to the House Committee on Un-American Activities . By all accounts , Brando was upset by his mentor 's decision , but he worked with him again in On The Waterfront . `` None of us is perfect , '' he later wrote in his memoir , `` and I think that Gadg has done injury to others , but mostly to himself . '' In 1953 , Brando also starred in The Wild One , riding his own Triumph Thunderbird 6T motorcycle . Triumph 's importers were ambivalent at the exposure , as the subject matter was rowdy motorcycle gangs taking over a small town . The film was criticized for its perceived gratuitous violence at the time , with Time stating , `` The effect of the movie is not to throw light on the public problem , but to shoot adrenaline through the moviegoer 's veins . '' Brando allegedly did not see eye to eye with the Hungarian director László Benedek and did not get on with costar Lee Marvin . To Brando 's expressed puzzlement , the movie inspired teen rebellion and made him a role model to the nascent rock-and-roll generation and future stars such as James Dean and Elvis Presley . After the movie 's release , the sales of leather jackets and blue jeans skyrocketed . Reflecting on the movie in his autobiography , Brando concluded that it had not aged very well but said : Later that same year , Brando starred in Lee Falk 's production of George Bernard Shaw 's Arms and the Man in Boston . Falk was proud to tell people that Brando turned down an offer of $ 10,000 per week on Broadway , in favor of working in his production in Boston , for less than $ 500 per week . It was the last time Brando acted in a stage play . On the Waterfront In 1954 , Brando starred in On the Waterfront , a crime drama film about union violence and corruption among longshoremen . The film was directed by Elia Kazan and written by Budd Schulberg ; it also stars Karl Malden , Lee J. Cobb , Rod Steiger and , in her film debut , Eva Marie Saint . When initially offered the role , Brando—still stung by Kazan 's testimony to HUAC—demurred and the part of Terry Malloy nearly went to Frank Sinatra . According to biographer Stefan Kanfer , the director believed that Sinatra , who grew up in Hoboken , would work as Malloy , but eventually producer Sam Spiegel wooed Brando to the part , signing him for $ 100,000 . `` Kazan made no protest because , he subsequently confessed , ' I always preferred Brando to anybody . ' '' Brando won the Oscar for his role as Terry Malloy in On the Waterfront . His performance , spurred on by his rapport with Eva Marie Saint and Kazan 's direction , was praised as a tour de force . For the famous I coulda been a contender scene , he convinced Kazan that the scripted scene was unrealistic . Schulberg 's script had Brando acting the entire scene with his character being held at gunpoint by his brother Charlie , played by Rod Steiger . Brando insisted on gently pushing away the gun , saying that Terry would never believe that his brother would pull the trigger and doubting that he could continue his speech while fearing a gun on him . Kazan let Brando improvise and later expressed deep admiration for Brando 's instinctive understanding , saying : Upon its release , On the Waterfront received glowing reviews from critics and was a commercial success , earning an estimated $ 4.2 million in rentals at the North American box office in 1954 . In his July 29 , 1954 , review , The New York Times critic A. H. Weiler praised the film , calling it `` an uncommonly powerful , exciting , and imaginative use of the screen by gifted professionals . '' Film critic Roger Ebert lauded the film , stating that Brando and Kazan changed acting in American films forever and added it to his `` Great Movies '' list . In his autobiography , Brando was typically dismissive of his performance : `` On the day Gadg showed me the complete picture , I was so depressed by my performance I got up and left the screening room ... I thought I was a huge failure . '' After Brando won the Academy Award for Best Actor , the statue was stolen . Much later , it turned up at a London auction house , which contacted the actor and informed him of its whereabouts . Box office successes and directorial debut : 1954–1959 Brando 's first six films—The Men , A Streetcar Named Desire , Viva Zapata ! , Julius Caesar , The Wild One and On the Waterfront—laid a standard of excellence that would sustain him throughout his career—a standard that Brando himself would have difficulty reattaining . As the decade continued , Brando remained a top box office draw but critics felt his performances were half-hearted , lacking the intensity and commitment found in his earlier work , especially in his work with Kazan . He portrayed Napoleon in the 1954 film Désirée . According to co-star Jean Simmons , Brando 's contract forced him to star in the movie . He put little effort into the role , claiming he did n't like the script , and later dismissed the entire movie as `` superficial and dismal '' . Brando was especially contemptuous of director Henry Koster . Brando and Simmons were paired together again in the film adaptation of the musical Guys and Dolls ( 1955 ) . Guys and Dolls would be Brando 's first and last musical role . Time found the picture `` false to the original in its feeling '' , remarking that Brando `` sings in a faraway tenor that sometimes tends to be flat . '' Appearing in Edward Murrow 's Person to Person interview in early 1955 , he admitted to having problems with his singing voice , which he called `` pretty terrible . '' In the 1965 documentary `` Meet Marlon Brando '' he revealed that the final product heard in the movie was a result of countless singing takes being cut into one and later joked , `` I could n't hit a note with a baseball bat ; some notes I missed by extraordinary margins ... They sewed my words together on one song so tightly that when I mouthed it in front of the camera , I nearly asphyxiated myself '' . Relations between Brando and Sinatra were also frosty , with Stefan Kanfer observing , `` The two men were diametrical opposites : Marlon required multiple takes ; Frank detested repeating himself .

qb_2215--Marlon_Brando.txt

Which actor succeeded Marlon Brando as head of the Corleone family in the Godfather films?

Aloysius Paulus Maria `` Louis '' van Gaal , OON ( ; born 8 August 1951 ) , is a Dutch football manager and former player . He was formerly manager of Ajax , Barcelona , AZ , Bayern Munich , the Netherlands and Manchester United . He is one of the most decorated managers in world football . Before his career as a coach , Van Gaal played as a midfielder for Royal Antwerp , Telstar , Sparta Rotterdam , Ajax and AZ . He is also a fully qualified physical education teacher and has worked as such at high schools during various stages of his career as a semi-professional footballer . After a brief spell as coach at AZ , Van Gaal served as assistant coach under Leo Beenhakker at Ajax and eventually took over as head coach in 1991 . Under his lead , the club won three Eredivisie titles , the UEFA Cup , and the Champions League . He moved to Barcelona in 1997 and won two Spanish league titles and one Copa del Rey . After some disagreements at Barcelona , he was appointed coach of the Netherlands national team , but failed to qualify for the 2002 World Cup . Another brief spell at Barcelona followed before he became manager of AZ . After winning the Eredivisie with AZ in 2008–09 , he was hired by Bayern Munich on 1 July 2009 . In his first season at Bayern , he secured the Bundesliga title , won the DFB-Pokal , and reached the final of the Champions League . In July 2012 , he was appointed manager of the Netherlands for the second time and led them to third place at the 2014 FIFA World Cup , before leaving for Manchester United . He had a satisfactory first season . However , after only finishing fifth in his second season he was sacked and replaced by José Mourinho , despite winning the FA Cup . Playing and early coaching career Van Gaal was born in Amsterdam . As a youngster , he started playing for the Amsterdam amateur side RKSV 'De Meer ' . At the age of 20 , he joined the second team of Ajax , but was never chosen to play in the first team , which at the time boasted players such as Johan Cruyff and Johan Neeskens in the midfield positions . He was loaned to Belgian First Division side Royal Antwerp playing under Guy Thys with whom he was runner-up in the Belgian top division in 1974 and 1975 . After four years spent in Belgium , he returned to his homeland and made his Eredivisie debut for Telstar under the guidance of manager , Mircea Petescu , whom he followed to Sparta Rotterdam . He later joined AZ , where he also became assistant coach in 1986 . After a short career at AZ , he returned to Ajax to become Leo Beenhakker 's assistant . When Beenhakker left in 1991 , Van Gaal took over as manager . Management career Ajax ( 1991–1997 ) Van Gaal was Ajax manager from 1991 until 1997 and had a very successful tenure . Under Van Gaal , Ajax became the Eredivisie champions three times , in 1994 , 1995 ( notably going the entire 1994–95 season unbeaten in both the league and the Champions League ) and 1996 . He also led Ajax to the KNVB Cup in 1993 and the Johan Cruijff Shield in 1993 , 1994 , and 1995 . On the European scene , Ajax captured the UEFA Cup in 1992 and the UEFA Champions League in 1995 after beating Milan in the final . The latter win was followed by a 5–1 aggregate win over Real Zaragoza in the 1995 UEFA Super Cup . Late in 1995 , Ajax beat Brazilian side Grêmio on penalties to win the Toyota Cup ( formerly Intercontinental Cup ) . Ajax were also Champions League runners-up in 1996 after losing to Juventus on penalties . Ajax was so successful under Van Gaal 's leadership that during the 1990s , the Dutch national team was dominated by Ajax players such as Patrick Kluivert , Marc Overmars , Dennis Bergkamp , Frank and Ronald de Boer , Edgar Davids , Clarence Seedorf , Winston Bogarde , Michael Reiziger , and Edwin van der Sar . After serving out his contract at Ajax ( 1997 ) , Van Gaal received his knighthood in the Order of Orange-Nassau . Barcelona ( 1997–2000 ) Van Gaal moved to Barcelona in 1997 , taking over from Bobby Robson , and helped the team win two league championships ( 1997–98 , 1998–99 ) and the Copa del Rey once . Despite this success , he clashed with the media and came under criticism . He expressed that it was difficult to implement his football philosophy at Barcelona due to cultural differences , and that he struggled hard as some players were unwilling to follow his lead . His rows with Rivaldo are an example of this : he insisted Rivaldo play as a left winger , whereas Rivaldo argued that he wanted to play in the centre , in effect undermining Van Gaal . Van Gaal eventually left the Catalan side on 20 May 2000 , days after losing the league title to Deportivo de La Coruña , uttering the immortal line : `` Amigos de la prensa . Yo me voy . Felicidades . '' ( Friends of the press . I am leaving . Congratulations . ) He returned to the Netherlands to manage the Dutch national team in preparation for the 2002 FIFA World Cup . Netherlands national team ( 2000–2002 ) Under Van Gaal , the Netherlands started their campaign to qualify for the 2002 FIFA World Cup poorly . Placed in Group 2 , an injury-hit side could only manage to secure a late 2–2 draw at home to the Republic of Ireland , having been 2–0 down with 20 minutes to go . A 4–0 win over Cyprus was followed by a 2–0 defeat to Portugal , though the team went on to defeat Spain 2–1 in a friendly at the end of the year . In 2001 , the Netherlands beat Andorra , Cyprus and Estonia , but despite leading group leaders Portugal 2–0 with seven minutes left , drew 2–2 and fell three points behind second-place Ireland , who were unbeaten . When the sides met in Dublin , Van Gaal boasted before the match that his squad was so much more talented , even the Irish fans would want them to qualify . Ireland went down to 10 men after 58 minutes but scored 9 minutes later and won 1–0 . The Netherlands fell seven points behind them with two games left to play , meaning that they failed to qualify for the World Cup for the first time since 1986 . Van Gaal stepped down as manager on 31 January 2002 to be replaced by Dick Advocaat . After this , speculation began that Van Gaal would succeed Sir Alex Ferguson at Manchester United once Ferguson claimed he would retire that year . According to Van Gaal , Ferguson decided against retiring and the deal fell through . Return to Barcelona ( 2002–2003 ) Van Gaal returned to Barcelona for the start of the 2002–03 season on a contract until June 2005 , but results were inconsistent . The club won a record-equalling ten successive matches in the Champions League but struggled in La Liga . After four wins , four draws and three defeats from their opening 11 league matches , Barcelona lost three matches in a row , to Real Sociedad , relegation-threatened Rayo Vallecano and Sevilla . Two wins and a draw improved things but after successive defeats to Valencia and Celta de Vigo , he left by mutual consent on 28 January 2003 with the club in 12th place , just three points above the relegation zone and 20 points behind leaders Real Sociedad . His transfers , particularly the signings of goalkeeper Robert Enke , midfielder Gaizka Mendieta and playmaker Juan Román Riquelme , all disappointed . Riquelme had been bought to replace Rivaldo , whom Van Gaal had released on a free transfer despite having a year left on his contract . The two had fallen out during Van Gaal 's previous tenure and after Van Gaal returned , Rivaldo said : `` Van Gaal is the main cause of my departure . I do n't like Van Gaal , and I am sure that he does n't like me , either . '' Van Gaal replied that Rivaldo 's lack of commitment was the reason he was released , saying that he `` was only interested in making more money and playing less . He was chosen as the best player in 1999 , but he has not handled himself well since then and has not behaved like a footballer should . He had illusions about Barca and was requesting to take holidays when important Champions League games were approaching . He then hides back home in Brazil . He plays for Brazil like we needed him to at Barcelona , and he has proved this in the World Cup finals , showing he reserved himself for Japan . '' Rivaldo joined A.C. Milan and won that season 's Champions League . Return to Ajax ( 2004 ) In 2004 , he returned to Ajax as a technical director , but resigned later that year due to an internal conflict with Ronald Koeman . AZ ( 2005–2009 ) In January 2005 , it was announced that he would replace Co Adriaanse as AZ manager on 1 July 2005 . Under Van Gaal , AZ finished second in the Eredivisie in 2005–06 and third in 2006–07 . Van Gaal also led AZ to a runners-up finish in the 2006–07 KNVB Cup and lost a 2007–08 UEFA Champions League qualification play-off to Ajax 4–2 on aggregate . Van Gaal initially announced he would leave AZ at the end of the 2007–08 season due to disappointing results , with the club finishing 11th in the Eredivisie . However , when several players of the AZ squad pointed out that they would like him to stay with AZ , he said he would give the players a chance to prove themselves . AZ started the 2008–09 season with two losses : 2–1 to NAC Breda and 0–3 to ADO Den Haag , but after that the Alkmaar-based club remained unbeaten until 18 April , topping the table ahead of FC Twente and Ajax for the entire season , despite being predicted to finish as low as 13th by pundits . AZ had the best defensive record in the Eredivisie and the second-best goalscoring record , behind Ajax , thanks to its offensive duo of league topscorer Mounir El Hamdaoui and Brazilian Ari . They were crowned league champions on 19 April , one day after AZ suffered an unexpected loss at home to Vitesse Arnhem , which ended a string of 28 unbeaten games ( surpassing the team 's 1980–81 record of 25 unbeaten games ) . That same day Ajax , the only opponent still in theory able to surpass AZ , lost 6–2 to PSV . Bayern Munich ( 2009–2011 ) On 1 July 2009 , Van Gaal took over as coach of Bayern Munich . He referred to his new employer as a `` dream club '' . On 28 August 2009 , he strengthened his team by signing compatriot Arjen Robben from Real Madrid ; this reunited the two , with Van Gaal selecting Robben for his debut in the Netherlands U20 team . Van Gaal got off to a poor start as Bayern coach , winning only one of his first four matches in charge , and by November the club was on the brink of a first-round Champions League exit following two losses to Bordeaux . With Bayer Leverkusen at the top of the Bundesliga , speculation was rampant that he was on the brink of a departure from Bayern even earlier than his predecessor Jürgen Klinsmann . Van Gaal , however , kept insisting he is a prozesstrainer meaning that his team needs time to play the way he imagines . Van Gaal installed many youth players as fixtures in the starting 11 , including Thomas Müller and Holger Badstuber , and also converted the winger Bastian Schweinsteiger into a defensive midfielder . A feud with Italian striker Luca Toni , who had played an important role in Bayern 's 2007–08 league and cup double , led to Toni 's move to Roma . However , Bayern Munich 's form improved with two Champions League victories including an impressive 4–1 victory over Juventus in Turin , which allowed them to progress from their group in second position behind Bordeaux . By March , Bayern had moved to the semi-finals of the DFB-Pokal and were top of the Bundesliga ahead of Leverkusen . On 8 May 2010 , FC Bayern were crowned Bundesliga champions following a 3–1 win at Hertha BSC , making Van Gaal the first ever Dutch coach to win the Bundesliga . On 15 May 2010 , Bayern won the DFB-Pokal with a 4–0 victory over SV Werder Bremen , thus securing the domestic double . In the Champions League , Bayern won 4–4 on the away goals rule in the quarter-final against Manchester United and 4–0 on aggregate against Olympique Lyonnais in the semi-final , securing them a spot in the final , where Van Gaal was to meet his former pupil and assistant at Barcelona , Internazionale coach José Mourinho . Bayern lost the Champions League final 2–0 , handing Inter a first Italian treble and thus failing to secure the treble themselves . On 25 May 2010 , Karl-Heinz Rummenigge expressed his desire to extend Van Gaal 's contract as the club was very happy with his performance , even though Van Gaal still had one year of his contract to fulfil . At the end of the season , Van Gaal was voted Manager of the Year by the German professional footballers in the yearly poll organized by VDV ( professional players ' union in Germany ) and kicker . Van Gaal 's Bayern started the 2010–11 season by winning the DFL-Supercup , which had been officially reinstated after a 14-year absence . On 7 March 2011 , Bayern Munich declared that Van Gaal 's contract was to be cancelled after the end of the 2010–11 season . However , he was instead sacked on 10 April 2011 after losing the third place in the Bundesliga . Return to Netherlands national team ( 2012–2014 ) On 6 July 2012 , Van Gaal was presented as the new Netherlands coach . `` I am happy that the KNVB approached me , '' said Van Gaal , who was assisted by former Dutch internationals Danny Blind and Patrick Kluivert , both part of his successful Ajax squad from 1995 . `` This is the challenge which I have been waiting for . '' He led the Netherlands through its 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification group as the team won nine and drew one of their ten matches with a goal difference of 34–5 . Qualification was secured with two matches to spare , following a 2–0 away win against Andorra on 10 September 2013 . Despite their successful qualifying campaign , expectations surrounding the Netherlands national team were comparatively low due to mixed pre-tournament friendly performances and the failure of the Dutch squad in Euro 2012 ( they suffered 3 defeats out of 3 in the group stages in that tournament ) . In their first group game at the World Cup , at the Estádio Fonte Nova in Salvador , however , Van Gaal 's Dutch team came from behind to defeat reigning champions Spain 5–1 . The Dutch victory over Spain was attributed in part to Van Gaal 's use of counter-attacking tactics which disrupted the tiki-taka possession-based football of the Spanish team . His use of a 3–5–2 formation was notable , as opposed to the typical Dutch 4–3–3 and this helped the Netherlands to tactically take advantage of Spain 's weaknesses . In their next match , the Dutch were trailing 2–1 to Australia in the second half of their second group game , before winning 2–3 with the winning goal from young substitute Memphis Depay . Ahead of the last game in the group , Van Gaal accused FIFA of `` playing tricks '' in the scheduling of matches to advantage the home nation , as Brazil were to play their last group match four hours after the Dutch , who they could meet in the Last 16 depending on their result . Brazilian manager Luiz Felipe Scolari reacted by saying `` It was FIFA who chose the kick-off time . Some people expressed a view that we were going to choose who we were going to play . Those sorts of comments are either stupid or ill-intentioned '' . Van Gaal also criticised the referees who had awarded penalties against the Dutch in both of their matches , calling the decisions `` unjustified '' and `` incorrect '' . The Dutch won their last group match against Chile 2–0 to advance through as group winners . They then defeated Mexico 2–1 in the round of 16 . During their quarter-final match versus Costa Rica in the World Cup , Van Gaal made the decision to substitute first-choice goalkeeper Jasper Cillessen for Tim Krul in the final minute of extra time . This decision paid off as Krul saved two of the Costa Rican penalties , sending the Netherlands through to the semi-finals to face Argentina . The Dutch team lost to Argentina in another penalty shootout . Van Gaal ended his tenure as Netherlands manager on 12 July 2014 when the Dutch beat the hosts Brazil 3–0 in the third/fourth place play-off match with goals from Robin van Persie , Daley Blind and Georginio Wijnaldum . Manchester United ( 2014–2016 ) Van Gaal was confirmed to replace David Moyes as the new manager for Manchester United on 19 May 2014 . He signed a three-year contract coming into effect after the 2014 World Cup . He named Ryan Giggs as his assistant manager , Marcel Bout as assistant coach , specialising in oppositional scouting , and Frans Hoek as goalkeeping coach . Albert Stuivenberg was appointed as assistant coach . Van Gaal claimed he had inherited a `` broken '' United squad , and that he would give youth a chance . Ed Woodward said Van Gaal had `` impressed everyone around the club '' and that there was `` a real positive energy and buzz around the place '' . Van Gaal 's first signings were midfielder Ander Herrera for £29 million , and defender Luke Shaw for £30 million . On 20 August , Argentine defender Marcos Rojo was bought for €20m from Sporting Clube de Portugal and , on 26 August , United signed Argentine winger Ángel Di María from Real Madrid on a five-year contract . Di María 's £59.7 million fee set a new record for a signing by an English club , and took the club 's summer spending to a reported £130 million . On transfer deadline day , Van Gaal signed Daley Blind from Ajax for a fee of £14 million and was granted an extension to sign Radamel Falcao on loan from Monaco for a reported £6 million . On 24 July , he managed United for the first time as they beat LA Galaxy 7–0 in a pre-season friendly , using a 3–5–2 formation . Manchester United won the 2014 International Champions Cup under Van Gaal , winning the final 3–1 against rivals Liverpool on 4 August . Van Gaal lost his first official game in charge , a 1–2 home defeat to Swansea City in the opening match of the 2014–15 Premier League season . On 26 August , United lost 4–0 to League One side Milton Keynes Dons in the second round of the League Cup . He won his first competitive game in United 's fourth match of the league season , a 4–0 home victory over Queens Park Rangers with goals from Di María , Herrera , Wayne Rooney and Juan Mata . After ten league matches , United were in ninth place with 13 points and two victories , their worst start to the season since 1986–87 under Ron Atkinson . They were also suffering from injuries , including to new signings Herrera , Rojo and Falcao . Van Gaal reacted to the poor form by saying that it would take three years to take his United team to their full potential . On 4 February 2015 , Van Gaal was charged by The Football Association over comments he made about the referee Chris Foy , saying , `` Every aspect of a match is against us – the pitch , the referee '' during United 's goalless draw with Cambridge United . After a requested hearing with the FA , Van Gaal was cleared of his charges , but was warned of future conduct . On 8 February , Van Gaal was criticised by West Ham United manager Sam Allardyce for his long ball tactics after the Hammers conceded a late equaliser to United . Van Gaal responded to the criticism with statistics which seem to show that West Ham have played more long balls than his side . His tactics were defended by fellow managers Arsène Wenger and Garry Monk . United 's form improved as the season progressed . A run of seven consecutive Premier League wins was part of ten match unbeaten run that started with a 1–0 home win over Crystal Palace on 8 November 2014 and was ended by Southampton , who won 1–0 at Old Trafford on 11 January 2015 . United completed another sequence of seven league wins in a row between 28 February and 12 April , concluding with an impressive 4–2 defeat of champions and local rivals Manchester City . This was followed by three consecutive losses to Chelsea , Everton and West Bromwich Albion . United were also knocked out at the quarter-final stage of the 2014–15 FA Cup by holders and eventual winners Arsenal , who inflicted a 2–1 home defeat on Van Gaal 's team on 9 March . In his first season , Van Gaal led Manchester United to a fourth-place finish , three places and six points higher than the previous season . During the summer transfer window , Van Gaal strengthened his squad by bringing in Memphis Depay from PSV Eindhoven , Matteo Darmian from Torino , Sergio Romero from Sampdoria , Morgan Schneiderlin from Southampton , Bastian Schweinsteiger from Bayern Munich and Anthony Martial from Monaco . United comfortably defeated Club Brugge in the qualifying round of the 2015–16 UEFA Champions League to earn a place in the group stage . Domestically , United were solid in defence and went top of the Premier League at the end of September ; however , mixed results followed , leaving them in fourth position going into November . They were eliminated from the League Cup by Football League Championship team Middlesbrough and were eliminated from the Champions League at the group stage on 8 December after a 3–2 loss away to VfL Wolfsburg . They finished third in their group and subsequently dropped down to the Europa League . Fifteen days later , Van Gaal walked out of a press conference after being questioned about his future , amid speculations of dismissal following a six-game run without a win . He concluded `` I wish you a merry Christmas and maybe also a happy new year when I see you . '' The new year began well for the Dutchman with wins against Swansea , Sheffield United and Liverpool , and a draw against Newcastle . However , United lost to Southampton on 23 January , bringing back rumors about Van Gaal offering to resign , but having his resignation rejected by Ed Woodward . After a 0-3 away loss to Tottenham Hotspur on 10 April , several United players reportedly turned on Van Gaal in the dressing room , calling him `` clueless '' and questioning his tactics after he openly chastised young striker Marcus Rashford and several other players and made several questionable decisions during the match , a result which left United four points off fourth-place Manchester City . On 21 May 2016 , Van Gaal won his first trophy with Manchester United , the FA Cup , when his side defeated Crystal Palace 2–1 after extra time , with Jesse Lingard scoring the winning goal . United matched Arsenal 's record of 12 FA Cups . Two days later , Van Gaal and the Dutch members of his staff were sacked by the club . Personal life The youngest of nine brothers and sisters , Van Gaal was brought up as a Catholic . His father , a salesman , died when Van Gaal was 11 . At the age if 18 , he met Fernanda Obbes at a Catholic youth group . They married three years later , and had two daughters , Brenda and Renate . In 1994 , Obbes died of liver and pancreatic cancer in 1994 ; Van Gaal was mocked by fans of Ajax 's opponents for her illness . In 2008 , he married his current wife , Truus , with whom he shares a holiday home near Albufeira in the Portuguese Algarve . According to The Daily Telegraph it emerged in 2009 that Van Gaal had lost millions of pounds investing in fraudster Bernie Madoff 's Ponzi scheme . Career statistics Club Managerial statistics Honours Managerial honours ; Ajax * Eredivisie : 1993–94 , 1994–95 , 1995–96 * KNVB Cup : 1992–93 * Johan Cruijff Shield : 1993 , 1994 , 1995 * UEFA Champions League : 1994–95 * UEFA Cup : 1991–92 * UEFA Super Cup : 1995 * Intercontinental Cup : 1995 ; Barcelona * La Liga : 1997–98 , 1998–99 * Copa del Rey : 1997–98 * UEFA Super Cup : 1997 ; AZ * Eredivisie : 2008–09 ; Bayern Munich * Bundesliga : 2009–10 * DFB-Pokal : 2009–10 * DFB-Supercup : 2010 ; Manchester United * FA Cup : 2015–16 ; Netherlands * 2014 FIFA World Cup : Third place Awards and achievements * World Soccer Manager of the Year : 1995 * Onze d'Or Coach of the Year : 1995 * Rinus Michels Award : 2007 , 2009 * Dutch Sports Coach of the Year : 2009 , 2014 * Die Sprachwahrer des Jahres ( 3rd place ) : 2009 * German Football Manager of the Year : 2010 Orders * Knight of the Order of Orange-Nassau : 1997

odql_559--Louis_van_Gaal.txt

Which premiership manager upset Louis Van Gaal in February 2015, when he described his team as long ball united?

Staphylococcus ( from the , staphylē , `` grape '' and κόκκος , kókkos , `` granule '' ) is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria . Under the microscope , they appear round ( cocci ) , and form in grape-like clusters . The Staphylococcus genus includes at least 40 species . Of these , nine have two subspecies , one has three subspecies , and one has four subspecies . Most are harmless and reside normally on the skin and mucous membranes of humans and other organisms . Found worldwide , they are a small component of soil microbial flora . Taxonomy The taxonomy is based on 16s rRNA sequences , and most of the staphylococcal species fall into 11 clusters : # S. aureus group – S. aureus , S. simiae # S. auricularis group – S. auricularis # S. carnosus group – S. carnosus , S. condimenti , S. massiliensis , S. piscifermentans , S. simulans # S. epidermidis group – S. capitis , S. caprae , S. epidermidis , S. saccharolyticus # S. haemolyticus group – S. devriesei , S. haemolyticus , S. hominis # S. hyicus-intermedius group – S. agnetis , S. chromogenes , S. felis , S. delphini , S. hyicus , S. intermedius , S. lutrae , S. microti , S. muscae , S. pseudintermedius , S. rostri , S. schleiferi # S. lugdunensis group – S. lugdunensis # S. saprophyticus group – S. arlettae , S. cohnii , S. equorum , S. gallinarum , S. kloosii , S. leei , S. nepalensis , S. saprophyticus , S. succinus , S. xylosus # S. sciuri group – S. fleurettii , S. lentus , S. sciuri , S. stepanovicii , S. vitulinus # S. simulans group – S. simulans # S. warneri group – S. pasteuri , S. warneri A 12th group – that of S. caseolyticus – has now been moved to a new genus , Macrococcus , the species of which are currently the closest known relatives of Staphylococcus . Subspecies S. aureus subsp . aureus S. aureus subsp . anaerobius S. capitis subsp . capitis S. capitis subsp . urealyticus S. carnosus subsp . carnosus S. carnosus subsp . utilis S. cohnii subsp . cohnii S. cohnii subsp . urealyticus S. equorum subsp . equorum S. equorum subsp . linens S. hominis subsp . hominis S. hominis subsp . novobiosepticus S petrasii subsp . croceilyticus S petrasii subsp . jettensis S petrasii subsp . petrasii S petrasii subsp . pragensis S. saprophyticus subsp . bovis S. saprophyticus subsp . saprophyticus S. schleiferi subsp . coagulans S. schleiferi subsp . schleiferi S. sciuri subsp . carnaticus S. sciuri subsp . rodentium S. sciuri subsp . sciuri S. succinus subsp . casei S. succinus subsp . succinus Notes As with all generic names in binomial nomenclature , Staphylococcus is capitalized when used alone or with a specific species . Also , the abbreviations Staph and S. when used with a species ( S. aureus ) are correctly italicized and capitalized ( though often errors in this are seen in popular literature ) . However , Staphylococcus is not capitalized or italicized when used in adjectival forms , as in a staphylococcal infection , or as the informal plural ( staphylococci ) . The S. saprophyticus and S. sciuri groups are generally novobiocin-resistant , as is S. hominis subsp . novobiosepticus . Members of the S. sciuri group are oxidase-positive due to their possession of the enzyme cytochrome c oxidase . This group is the only clade within the staphylococci to possess this gene . The S. sciuri group appears to be the closest relations to the genus Macrococcus . S. pulvereri has been shown to be a junior synonym of S. vitulinus . Within these clades , the S. haemolyticus and S. simulans groups appear to be related , as do the S. aureus and S. epidermidis groups . S. lugdunensis appears to be related to the S. haemolyticus group . S. petrasii may be related to S. haemolyticus , but this needs to be confirmed . The taxonomic position of S. lyticans , S. pettenkoferi , S. petrasii , and S. pseudolugdunensis has yet to be clarified . The published descriptions of these species do not appear to have been validly published . Biochemical identification Assignment of a strain to the genus Staphylococcus requires it to be a Gram-positive coccus that forms clusters , produces catalase , has an appropriate cell wall structure ( including peptidoglycan type and teichoic acid presence ) and G + C content of DNA in a range of 30–40 mol % . Staphylococcus species can be differentiated from other aerobic and facultative anaerobic , Gram-positive cocci by several simple tests . Staphylococcus species are facultative anaerobes ( capable of growth both aerobically and anaerobically ) . All species grow in the presence of bile salts . All species were once thought to be coagulase-positive , but this has since been disproven . Growth can also occur in a 6.5 % NaCl solution . On Baird Parker medium , Staphylococcus species grow fermentatively , except for S. saprophyticus , which grows oxidatively . Staphylococcus species are resistant to bacitracin ( 0.04 U disc : resistance 2O2 ) to water and oxygen , which makes the catalase test useful to distinguish staphylococci from enterococci and streptococci . S. pseudintermedius inhabits and sometimes infects the skin of domestic dogs and cats . This organism , too , can carry the genetic material that imparts multiple bacterial resistance . It is rarely implicated in infections in humans , as a zoonosis . S. epidermidis , a coagulase-negative species , is a commensal of the skin , but can cause severe infections in immunosuppressed patients and those with central venous catheters . S. saprophyticus , another coagulase-negative species that is part of the normal vaginal flora , is predominantly implicated in genitourinary tract infections in sexually active young women . In recent years , several other Staphylococcus species have been implicated in human infections , notably S. lugdunensis , S. schleiferi , and S. caprae . Common abbreviations for coagulase-negative staphylococci are CoNS , CNS , or CNST . The American Society for Microbiology abbreviates coagulase-negative staphylococci as `` CoNS '' . Genomics and molecular biology The first S. aureus genomes to be sequenced were those of N315 and Mu50 , in 2001 . Many more complete S. aureus genomes have been submitted to the public databases , making it one of the most extensively sequenced bacteria . The use of genomic data is now widespread and provides a valuable resource for researchers working with S. aureus . Whole genome technologies , such as sequencing projects and microarrays , have shown an enormous variety of S. aureus strains . Each contains different combinations of surface proteins and different toxins . Relating this information to pathogenic behaviour is one of the major areas of staphylococcal research . The development of molecular typing methods has enabled the tracking of different strains of S. aureus . This may lead to better control of outbreak strains . A greater understanding of how the staphylococci evolve , especially due to the acquisition of mobile genetic elements encoding resistance and virulence genes is helping to identify new outbreak strains and may even prevent their emergence . The widespread incidence of antibiotic resistance across various strains of S. aureus , or across different species of Staphylococcus has been attributed to horizontal gene transfer of genes encoding antibiotic/metal resistance and virulence . A recent study demonstrated the extent of horizontal gene transfer among Staphylococcus to be much greater than previously expected , and encompasses genes with functions beyond antibiotic resistance and virulence , and beyond genes residing within the mobile genetic elements . Various strains of Staphylococcus are available from biological research centres , such as the National Collection of Type Cultures . Host range Members of the genus Staphylococcus frequently colonize the skin and upper respiratory tracts of mammals and birds . Some species specificity has been observed in host range , such that the Staphylococcus species observed on some animals appear more rarely on more distantly related host species . Some of the observed host specificity includes : S. arlattae – chickens , goats S. aureus - humans S. auricularis – deer , dogs , humans S. capitis – humans S. caprae – goats , humans S. cohnii – chickens , humans S. delphini – dolphins S. devriesei – cattle S. epidermidis – humans S. equorum – horses S. felis – cats S. fleurettii – goats S. gallinarum – chickens , goats , pheasants S. haemolyticus – humans , Cercocebus , Erythrocebus , Lemur , Macca , Microcebus , Pan S. hyicus – pigs S. leei – humans S. lentus – goats , rabbits , sheep S. lugdunensis – humans , goats S. lutrae – otters S. microti – voles ( Microtus arvalis ) S. nepalensis – goats S. pasteuri – humans , goats S. pettenkoferi – humans S. pseudintermedius – dogs S. rostri – pigs S. schleiferi – humans S. sciuri – humans , dogs , goats S. simiae – South American squirrel monkeys ( Saimiri sciureus ) S. simulans – humans S. warneri – humans , Cercopithecoidea , Pongidae S. xylosus – humans Clinical Staphylococcus can cause a wide variety of diseases in humans and animals through either toxin production or penetration . Staphylococcal toxins are a common cause of food poisoning , for they can be produced by bacteria growing in improperly stored food items . The most common sialadenitis is caused by staphylococci , as bacterial infections .

bb_4263--Staphylococcus.txt

Staphylococcus and Streptococcus are types of?

Jahangir Khan , HI , ( ) born 10 December 1963 in Karachi , Pakistan ( sometimes spelled `` Jehangir Khan '' ) is a former World No . 1 professional squash player from Pakistan , who is considered to be the greatest player in the history of squash . Jahangir Khan is originally from Neway Kelay Payan , Peshawar . During his career he won the World Open six times and the British Open a record ten times . From 1981 to 1986 , he was unbeaten in competitive play . During that time he won 555 matches consecutively , the longest winning streak by any athlete in top-level professional sports as recorded by Guinness World Records . He retired as a player in 1993 , and has served as President of the World Squash Federation from 2002 to 2008 , when he became Emeritus President . Playing career Jahangir was coached initially by his father , Roshan , the 1957 British Open champion , then by his late brother Torsam . After his brother 's sudden death he was coached by his cousin Rehmat Khan , who guided Jahangir through most of his career . Jahangir was physically very weak as a child . Though the doctors had advised him not to take part in any sort of physical activity , after undergoing a couple of hernia operations his father let him play and try out their family game . In 1979 , the Pakistan selectors decided not to select Jahangir to play in the world championships in Australia , judging him too weak from a recent illness . Jahangir decided instead to enter the World Amateur Individual Championship and , at the age of 15 , became the youngest-ever winner of that event . In November 1979 , Jahangir 's older brother Torsam , who had been one of the leading international squash players in the 1970s , died suddenly of a heart attack during a tournament match in Australia . Torsam 's death profoundly affected Jahangir . He considered quitting the game , but decided to pursue a career in the sport as a tribute to his brother . Notable achievements * Won World Amateur Championships at age 15 * Youngest ever World Open Champion ( aged 17 ) * Unbeaten in 555 consecutive matches over 5 years and 8 months * Won the British Open Championship 10 times in succession ( 1982-1993 ) * Six-times World Open Champion * First player to win World Open Championships without dropping a game * Played the second longest match in the squash history 2.46 h Five-year unbeaten run In 1981 , when he was 17 , Jahangir became the youngest winner of the World Open , beating Australia 's Geoff Hunt ( the game 's dominant player in the late-1970s ) in the final . That tournament marked the start of an unbeaten run which lasted for five years and 555 matches . The hallmark of his play was his incredible fitness and stamina , which Rehmat Khan helped him build up through a punishing training and conditioning regime . Jahangir was quite simply the fittest player in the game , and would wear his opponents down through long rallies played at a furious pace . In 1982 , Jahangir astonished everyone by winning the International Squash Players Association Championship without losing a single point . The unbeaten run finally came to end in the final of the World Open in 1986 in Toulouse , France , when Jahangir lost to New Zealand 's Ross Norman . Norman had been in pursuit of Jahangir 's unbeaten streak , being beaten time and time again . `` One day Jahangir will be slightly off his game and I will get him '' , he vowed for five years . Speaking about his unbeaten streak , Jahangir said : `` It was n't my plan to create such a record . All I did was put in the effort to win every match I played and it went on for weeks , months and years until my defeat to Ross Norman in Toulouse in 1986 . '' `` The pressure began to mount as I kept winning every time and people were anxious to see if I could be beaten . In that World Open final , Ross got me . It was exactly five years and eight months . I was unbeaten for another nine months after that defeat . '' Success in the hardball game With his dominance over the international squash game in the first half of the 1980s secure , Jahangir decided to test his ability on the North American hardball squash circuit in 1983–1986 . ( Hardball squash is a North American variant of the game , played on smaller courts with a faster-moving ball . ) Jahangir played in 13 top-level hardball tournaments during this period , winning 12 of them . He faced the leading American player on the circuit at the time , Mark Talbott , on 11 occasions ( all in tournament finals ) , and won 10 of their encounters . With his domination of both the softball and hardball versions of the game , Jahangir truly cemented his reputation as the world 's greatest squash player . His success in North America is considered by some observers to be among the factors which led to growing interest in the international `` softball '' version of squash in the continent , and the demise of the hardball game in the late-1980s and 1990s . Rivalry with Jansher Khan At the end of 1986 another Pakistani squash player , Jansher Khan , appeared on the international scene to challenge Jahangir 's domination . Jahangir won their first few encounters in late-1986 and early-1987 . But Jansher scored his first win over Jahangir in September 1987 , beating him in straight games in the semi-finals of the Hong Kong Open . Jansher then went on to beat Jahangir in their next eight consecutive encounters and capture the 1987 World Open title . Jahangir ended Jansher 's winning streak in March 1988 , and went on to win 11 of their next 15 encounters . The pair met in the 1988 World Open final , with Jahangir emerging the victor . But by that point it had become clear that squash now had two dominant players . The pair would continue to dominate the game for the rest of the decade . Jansher and Jahangir met a total of 37 times in tournament play . Jansher won 19 matches ( 74 games and 1,426 points ) , and Jahangir 18 matches ( 79 games and 1,459 points ) . This record does n't include exhibition matches and league matches between them . Jahangir did not win the World Open again after 1988 , but he continued a stranglehold over the British Open title which he captured a record ten successive times between 1982 and 1991 . World Open final appearances British Open final appearances Training regimen In a documentary on himself telecast on GEO Super , Jahangir revealed that he never had any fixed training regimen particularly designed for him , nor had he any specially formulated diet - he would eat anything hygienic but never miss two glasses of milk every day . For his training , he would often start his day with a 9 mi jog which he would complete in 60–120 minutes at a moderate pace , followed by short bursts of timed sprints . Later he would weight train in the gym finally cooling down in the pools . He would follow this routine 5 days a week . On the 6th day he would match practice and rest on the 7th day . He also said that he has experienced running on every surface - from custom-built tracks to asphalt roads , grass & farm fields to sea shores & knee-deep waters . Sometimes he would also visit the northern areas of Pakistan to train in high altitude fields under low oxygen conditions . All in all it made Jahangir one of the most physically and mentally fit athletes in the world . Awards , services and recognition Jahangir retired as a player in 1993 after helping Pakistan win the World Team Championship in Karachi . The Government of Pakistan honoured Jahangir with the awards of Pride of Performance and civil award of Hilal-e-Imtiaz ( Crescent of Distinction ) for his achievements in squash . They also awarded him the title of Sportsman of the Millennium . In 1990 , Jahangir was elected Chairman of the Professional Squash Association , and in 1997 , Vice-President of the Pakistan Squash Federation . He was elected as Vice-President of the World Squash Federation in November 1998 , and in October 2002 was elected WSF President . In 2004 , he was again unanimously re-elected as President of the World Squash Federation at the International Federation 's 33rd Annual General Meeting in Casa Noyale , Mauritius . Time Magazine has named Jahangir as one of Asia 's Heroes in the last 60 years . Jahangir Khan was conferred with an honorary Doctorate of Philosophy by London Metropolitan University for his contributions to the sport . Due to his immense and absolute dominance in squash he was nicknamed `` The Conqueror '' ( a loose translation of his first name ) . Personal life Jahangir and his family originate from a village near Peshawar named Nawakille SWABI ( نواں کلی صوابی ) ( sometimes spelled `` Noakili '' ) . He currently lives in Karachi with his wife Rubina , and their two children Mariam and Omar . He is the cousin of Rehmat Khan who married to Salma Agha and musician Natasha Khan , better known as Bat for Lashes , and actress Sashaa Agha are Jahangir 's nieces . He is the son of Roshan Khan and brother of Torsam Khan .

sfq_23946--Jahangir_Khan.txt

With which sport were the players Peter Nicol and Jahangir Khan associated?

The President of the Soviet Union ( ) , officially called President of the USSR ( ) or President of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics ( ) , was the head of state of the Soviet Union from 15 March 1990 to 25 December 1991 . Mikhail Gorbachev was the only person to occupy the office . Gorbachev was also General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union between March 1985 and August 1991 . He derived an increasingly greater share of his power from his position as president until he finally resigned as General Secretary after the Soviet coup d'état attempt of 1991 . The presidency was an executive post , based on a mixture of the U. S. and French presidencies . Prior to the creation of the post of president , the de jure head of state of the Soviet Union was the chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , who was often called `` president '' by non-Soviet sources . For most of the Soviet Union 's existence , all effective executive political power was in the hands of the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , with the Chairman of the Presidium exercising largely symbolic and figurehead duties . Starting with Leonid Brezhnev in 1977 , the last four General Secretaries—Brezhnev , Yuri Andropov , Konstantin Chernenko and Gorbachev—simultaneously served as de jure head of state during their time in office . The president was initially elected by the Congress of People 's Deputies and served as ex officio chairman of that body , but all future elections were to have been by popular vote . During the election of the president several candidates were nominated , among leading contenders were KGB persona Vadim Bakatin and Premier Nikolai Ryzhkov . The Vice President of the Soviet Union was Gennady Yanayev , who briefly usurped Gorbachev as president in the 1991 attempted coup as leader of the State Committee of the State of Emergency . List of Presidents of the Soviet Union

sfq_22152--President_of_the_Soviet_Union.txt

Name the year in which Driving Miss Daisy won the Best Picture Oscar, Mikhail Gorbachev is elected as the first executive President of the Soviet Union and Iraq invaded Kuwait?

The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in two equal parts , between the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and Al Gore `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . Announcement The Norwegian Nobel Committee announced the award on 12 October 2007 . It stated that responses to indications of future climate changes must follow the precautionary principle , and that extensive changes would damage living standards , leading to likelihood of wars and violent conflicts . It paid tribute to the work of the IPCC : It said that `` Al Gore has for a long time been one of the world ’ s leading environmentalist politicians '' , and described him as `` probably the single individual who has done most to create greater worldwide understanding of the measures that need to be adopted . '' In conclusion , it said the Nobel Committee was `` seeking to contribute to a sharper focus on the processes and decisions that appear to be necessary to protect the world ’ s future climate , and thereby to reduce the threat to the security of mankind . Action is necessary now , before climate change moves beyond man ’ s control . '' The award was given immediate publicity : an Associated Press article published by USA Today on 12 October 2007 and headlined `` Gore , scientists share Nobel Peace Prize '' quoted Pachauri as saying `` All the scientists that have contributed to the work of the IPCC are the Nobel laureates who have been recognized and acknowledged by the Nobel Prize Committee '' . He added that `` they should feel deeply encouraged and inspired . It is their contribution which has been recognized '' , and said `` I only happen to be a functionary that essentially oversees the process . '' On the same day , the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory listed its scientists who had contributed to the IPCC 's work , and said that Pachauri had sent a letter to lead authors of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report saying that he had `` been stunned in a pleasant way with the news of the award of the Nobel Peace Prize for the IPCC . This makes each of you a Nobel Laureate and it is my privilege to acknowledge this honour on your behalf '' . The letter went on to say that `` The fact that the IPCC has earned the recognition that this award embodies , is really a tribute to your knowledge , hard work and application . '' Presentation In Oslo on 10 December 2007 , the presentation was made with a speech by Ole Danbolt Mjøs as Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee , and followed by Nobel Lectures given by Rajendra K. Pachauri , representing the IPCC , and Al Gore . In his lecture , Pachauri thanked those contributing to the IPCC : IPCC certificates The IPCC presented scientists who had `` contributed substantially to the preparation of IPCC reports '' with personalized certificates for `` contributing to the award of the Nobel Peace Prize for 2007 to the IPCC '' . The certificates , which name the individual and feature a reproduction of the Nobel Peace Prize diploma , were sent to `` coordinating lead authors , lead authors , review editors , Bureau members , staff of the technical support units and staff of the secretariat from the IPCC ’ s inception in 1988 until the award of the prize in 2007 . '' In a statement of 29 October 2012 the IPCC clarified that the `` prize was awarded to the IPCC as an organisation , and not to any individual involved with the IPCC . Thus it is incorrect to refer to any IPCC official , or scientist who worked on IPCC reports , as a Nobel laureate or Nobel Prize winner . It would be correct to describe a scientist who was involved with AR4 or earlier IPCC reports in this way : ' X contributed to the reports of the IPCC , which was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 . ' '' It stated that it had not sent the certificates to `` contributing authors , expert reviewers and focal points . ''

bb_7364--2007_Nobel_Peace_Prize.txt

Who won the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for his environmental work including the controversial film An Inconvenient Truth?

The original Siegfried Line ( ) was a First World War line of defensive forts and tank defences built by Germany in northern France during 1916–17 as a section of the Hindenburg Line . In English the term `` Siegfried Line '' commonly refers to the `` Westwall '' , the German term for a similar Second World War-era defensive line built further east during the 1930s opposite the French Maginot Line . This line stretched more than 630 km and featured more than 18,000 bunkers , tunnels and tank traps . The network of defensive structures stretched from Kleve on the border with the Netherlands , along the western border of the old German Empire , to the town of Weil am Rhein on the border to Switzerland . It was planned in 1936 and built between 1938 and 1940 . Origin of the name Westwall The official name for the Second World War-era defensive line construction program that collectively came to be known as the `` Westwall '' in German and `` Siegfried Line '' in English changed several times during the late 1930s reflecting areas in progress : * Border Watch programme ( pioneering programme ) for the most advanced positions ( 1938 ) * Limes Programme ( 1938 ) * Aachen-Saar Programme ( 1939 ) * Geldern Emplacement between Brüggen and Kleve ( 1939–1940 ) * Western Air Defence Zone ( 1938 ) These programmes were all pushed forward with the highest priority , using every available resource . The origin of the name `` Westwall '' is unknown , but it appeared in popular use from the middle of 1939 ; there is a record of Hitler sending an Order of the Day to the soldiers and the workers at the `` Westwall '' on 20 May 1939 . Construction programmes Elements Standard construction elements such as large Regelbau bunkers , smaller concrete `` pillboxes '' , and `` dragon 's teeth '' anti-tank obstacles were built as part of each construction phase , sometimes by the thousands . This standardisation was the most effective use of scarce raw materials , transport and workers . `` Dragon 's teeth '' tank traps were also known as Höcker in German ( `` humps '' or `` pimples '' in English ) because of their shape . These blocks of reinforced concrete stand in several rows on a single foundation . There are two typical sorts of barrier : Type 1938 with four teeth getting higher toward the back , and Type 1939 with five such teeth . Many other irregular lines of teeth were also built . Another design of tank obstacle , known as the Czech hedgehog , was made by welding together several bars of steel in such a way that any tank rolling over it would get stuck . If the contour of the land allowed it , water-filled ditches were dug instead of tank traps . Examples of this kind of defence are those north of Aachen near Geilenkirchen . Border Watch Small bunkers with 50 cm thick walls were set up with three embrasures towards the front . Sleeping accommodations were hammocks . In exposed positions , similar small bunkers were erected with small round armoured `` lookout '' sections on the roofs . The programme was carried out by the Border Watch ( Grenzwacht ) , a small military troop activated in the Rhineland immediately after the region was re-militarised by Germany after having been de-militarised following the First World War . Limes The Limes Programme began in 1938 following an order by Hitler to strengthen fortifications on the western German border . Limes refers to the former borders of the Roman Empire ; the cover story for the programme was that it was an archaeological study . Its Type 10 bunkers were more strongly constructed than the earlier border fortifications . These had thick ceilings and walls . A total of 3,471 were built along the entire length of the Siegfried Line . They featured a central room or shelter for 10-12 men with a stepped embrasure facing backwards and a combat section 50 cm higher . This elevated section had embrasures at the front and sides for machine guns . More embrasures were provided for riflemen , and the entire structure was constructed so as to be safe against poison gas . Heating was from a safety oven , the chimney of which was covered with a thick grating . Space was tight , with about 1 m2 per soldier , who was given a sleeping-place and a stool ; the commanding officer had a chair . Surviving examples still retain signs warning `` Walls have ears '' and `` Lights out when embrasures are open ! '' Aachen-Saar The Aachen-Saar programme bunkers were similar to those of the Limes programme : Type 107 double MG casemates with concrete walls up to thick . One difference was that there were no embrasures at the front , only at the sides of the bunkers . Embrasures were only built at the front in special cases and were then protected with heavy metal doors . This construction phase included the towns of Aachen and Saarbrücken , which were initially west of the Limes Programme defence line . Western Air Defence Zone The Western Air Defence Zone ( Luftverteidigungszone West or LVZ West ) continued parallel to the two other lines toward the east , and consisted mainly of concrete FlaK foundations . Scattered MG42 and MG34 emplacements added additional defence against both air and land targets . Flak turrets were designed to force enemy planes to fly higher , thus decreasing the accuracy of their bombing . These towers were protected at close range by bunkers from the Limes and Aachen-Saar programmes . Geldern Emplacement The Geldern Emplacement lengthened the Siegfried Line northwards as far as Kleve on the Rhine , and was built after the start of the Second World War . The Siegfried Line originally ended in the north near Brüggen in the Viersen district . The primary constructions were unarmed dugouts which were extremely strongly built out of concrete . For camouflage they were often built near farms . Working conditions The early fortifications were mostly built by private firms , but the private sector was not able to provide the number of workers needed for the programmes that followed . This gap was filled by the Todt Organisation . With this organisation 's help , huge numbers of forced labourers — up to 500,000 at a time — were found to work on the Siegfried Line . Transport of materials and workers from all across Germany was managed by the Deutsche Reichsbahn railway company , which took advantage of the well-developed strategic railway lines built on Germany 's western border in World War I . Working conditions were highly dangerous ; for example , the most primitive means had to be used to handle and assemble extremely heavy armour plating weighing up to 60 t. Life on the building site and after work was monotonous and many people gave up and left . Most workers received a medal depicting a bunker for their service . Armour and arms shortage German industry could not deliver as many steel armour plates as were needed for the mounting of weapons in the bunkers . The armour-plated sections were designed to include the embrasures and their shutters as well as armoured cupolas for 360° defence . Germany depended on other countries to provide the alloys required in producing armoured plates ( mostly nickel and molybdenum ) , so either the armour plates were left out or they were produced with low-quality replacement materials . The bunkers were still fitted with guns , which proved inadequate in the first war years and were therefore dismantled , but the large-calibre weapons necessary for efficient defence could not be built into the bunkers . During the Second World War Minor early role The Siegfried Line at the start of the war had serious weaknesses . German General Alfred Jodl said after the war that it was `` little better than a building site in 1939 '' , and when Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt inspected the line its weak construction and insufficient weapons caused him to laugh . Fortunately for Germany , despite France 's declaration of war on Germany at the beginning of the Second World War , there was no major combat at the Siegfried Line at the start of the campaign in the west . Instead , both sides remained stuck in the so-called Phoney War , where neither side attacked the other and both stayed in their safe positions . The Reich Ministry of Information and Propaganda drew foreign attention to the unfinished Westwall , in several instances showcasing incomplete or test positions to portray the project finished and ready for action . During the Battle of France , French forces made minor attacks against some parts of the line but the majority was left untested . When the campaign finished , transportable weapons were removed from the Siegfried Line and used in other places . The concrete sections were left in place in the countryside and soon became completely unfit for defence . The bunkers were instead used for storage . Reactivation in 1944 With the D-Day landings in Normandy on 6 June 1944 , war in the west broke out once more . On 24 August 1944 , Hitler gave a directive for renewed construction on the Siegfried Line . 20,000 forced labourers and members of the Reichsarbeitsdienst ( Reich Labour Service ) , most of whom were 14–16-year-old boys , attempted to re-equip the line for defence purposes . Local people were also called in to carry out this kind of work , mostly building anti-tank ditches . During construction , it was already clear that the bunkers could not withstand the newly developed armour-piercing weapons . At the same time as the Siegfried Line was reactivated , small concrete `` Tobruk '' bunkers were built along the border to the occupied area . These bunkers were mostly dugouts for single soldiers . Clashes In August 1944 , the first clashes took place on the Siegfried Line ; the section of the line where most fighting took place was the Hürtgenwald ( Hürtgen Forest ) area in the Eifel , 20 km southeast of Aachen . The Americans committed an estimated 120,000 troops plus reinforcements to the Battle of Hurtgen Forest . The battle in this heavily forested area claimed the lives of 24,000 American soldiers plus 9,000 non-battle casualties . The German death toll is not documented . After the Battle of Hurtgen Forest , the Battle of the Bulge began , starting in the area south of the Hürtgenwald , between Monschau and the Luxembourgish town of Echternach . This offensive was a last-ditch attempt by the Germans to reverse the course of the war in the West . German loss of life and material was severe in the failed effort . There were serious clashes along other parts of the Siegfried Line and soldiers in many bunkers refused to surrender , often fighting to the death . By early 1945 the last Siegfried Line bunkers had fallen at the Saar and Hunsrück . In propaganda ( Song ) German propaganda , both at home and abroad , repeatedly portrayed the Westwall during its construction as an unbreachable bulwark . At the start of the war , the opposing troops remained behind their own defence lines . As a morale booster for British troops marching off to France the Siegfried Line was the subject of a popular song : `` We 're Going to Hang out the Washing on the Siegfried Line '' : We 're going to hang out the washing on the Siegfried Line . Have you any dirty washing , mother dear ? We 're gon na hang out the washing on the Siegfried Line 'Cause the washing day is here . Whether the weather may be wet or fine We 'll just rub along without a care . We 're going to hang out the washing on the Siegfried Line If the Siegfried Line 's still there ... ( ( Kennedy/Carr ) Peter Maurice Music Co Ltd 1939 ) When asked about the Siegfried Line , General George S. Patton reportedly said `` Fixed fortifications are monuments to man 's stupidity . '' Post-war period During the post-war period , many sections of the Siegfried Line were removed using explosives . Preservation and destruction In North Rhine Westphalia , about 30 bunkers still remain ; most of the rest were either destroyed with explosives or covered with earth . Tank traps still exist in many areas ; in the Eifel , for example , they run over several kilometres . Since 1997 , with the motto `` The value of the unpleasant as a memorial '' ( Der Denkmalswert des Unerfreulichen ) , an effort has been made to preserve the remains of the Siegfried Line as a historical monument . This was intended to stop radical fascist groups making propaganda out of the Siegfried Line . At the same time , state funding was still being provided to destroy the remains of the Siegfried Line . For this reason , emergency archaeological digs took place whenever any part of the line was removed , for example for road building . Archaeological activity was not able to stop the destruction of these sections but furthered scientific knowledge and revealed details of the line 's construction . Nature conservation Nature conservationists consider the remains of the Siegfried Line valuable as a chain of biotopes where , thanks to its size , rare animals and plants can take refuge and reproduce . This effect is magnified because the concrete ruins can not be used for farming or forestry purposes .

sfq_12333--Siegfried_Line.txt

The German's called it the Siegfried Line, what did the allies call it?

São Paulo is one of the 26 states of the Federative Republic of Brazil and is named after Saint Paul of Tarsus . As the richest Brazilian state and a major industrial complex , often dubbed the `` locomotive of Brazil '' , the state alone is responsible for a third of Brazilian GDP . São Paulo also has the second highest Human Development Index ( HDI ) and GDP per capita , the fourth lowest infant mortality rate and the third lowest rate of illiteracy among the federative units of Brazil . If it were an independent country , its nominal GDP would be ranked among the top 20 in the world ( 2010 estimate ) . With more than 45 millions inhabitants in 2014 , São Paulo is the most populous Brazilian state , the most populous national subdivision in the Americas , and the third most populous political unit of South America , surpassed only by the rest of the Brazilian Federation and Colombia . The local population is one of the most diverse in the country and descended mostly from Italians , who began immigrating to the country in the late 19th century ; of the Portuguese , who colonized Brazil and installed the first European settlements in the region ; indigenous peoples , a large number of distinct ethnic groups ; African peoples , who were brought from Africa in colonial era to be enslaved ; and migrants from other regions of the country . Other major immigration flows , as Arabs , Germans , Spanish , Japanese and Chinese , also had a significant presence in the ethnic composition of the local population . The area that today corresponds to the state territory was already inhabited by indigenous peoples from approximately 12,000 BC . In the early 16th century , the coast of the region began to be visited by Portuguese and Spanish navigators . However , only in 1532 Martim Afonso de Sousa would establish the first Portuguese permanent settlement in the Americas - the village of São Vicente , in the Baixada Santista . In the 17th century , the paulistas bandeirantes intensified the exploration of the interior of the colony , which eventually expand the territorial domain of the Portuguese Empire in South America . In the 18th century , after the establishment of the Province of São Paulo , the region begins to gain political weight . After independence , during the Empire of Brazil , São Paulo begins to become a major agricultural producer ( mainly coffee ) , which ultimately create a rich regional rural oligarchy , which would switch on the command of the Brazilian government with the Minas Gerais 's elites during the early republican period . Under the Vargas Era , the state was one of the first to initiate a process of industrialization and its population becomes one of the most urban of the federation . The city of São Paulo , the homonymous state capital , is ranked as the 12th largest city on the planet and its metropolitan area , with 20 millions inhabitants , is the 9th largest in the world and second in the Americas , after Greater Mexico City . Regions near the city of São Paulo are also metropolitan areas , such as Campinas , Santos , Sorocaba and São José dos Campos . The total population of these areas coupled with the capital – the so-called Expanded Metropolitan Complex – exceeds 30 million inhabitants , i.e . approximately 75 % of the population of São Paulo statewide , the first macro-metropolis in the southern hemisphere , joining 65 municipalities that together are home to 12 % of the Brazilian population . History Early period In pre-European times , the area that is now São Paulo state was occupied by the Tupi people 's nation , who subsisted through hunting and cultivation . The first European to settle in the area was João Ramalho , a Portuguese sailor who may have been shipwrecked around 1510 , ten years after the first Portuguese landfall in Brazil . He married the daughter of a local chieftain and became a settler . In 1532 , the first colonial expedition , led by Martim Afonso de Sousa of Portugal , landed at São Vicente ( near the present-day port at Santos ) . De Sousa added Ramalho 's settlement to his colony . Early European colonisation of Brazil was very limited . Portugal was more interested in Africa and Asia . But with English and French privateer ships just off the coast , the territory had to be protected . Unwilling to shoulder the burden of defence himself , the Portuguese ruler , King João III of Portugal , divided the coast into `` captaincies '' , or swathes of land , 50 leagues apart . He distributed them among well-connected Portuguese , hoping that each would be self-reliant . The early port and sugar-cultivating settlement of São Vicente was one rare success connected to this policy . In 1548 , João III brought Brazil under direct royal control . Fearing Indian attack , he discouraged development of the territory 's vast interior . Some whites headed nonetheless for Piratininga , a plateau near São Vicente , drawn by its navigable rivers and agricultural potential . Borda do Campo , the plateau settlement , became an official town ( Santo André da Borda do Campo ) in 1553 . The history of São Paulo city proper begins with the founding of a Jesuit mission on January 25 , 1554—the anniversary of Saint Paul 's conversion . The station , which is at the heart of the current city , was named São Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga ( or just Pateo do Colégio ) . In 1560 , the threat of Indian attack led many to flee from the exposed Santo André da Borda do Campo to the walled Colegio . Two years later , the Colégio was besieged . Though the town survived , fighting took place sporadically for another three decades . By 1600 , the town had about 1,500 citizens and 150 households . Little was produced for export , save a number of agricultural goods . The isolation was to continue for many years , as the development of Brazil centred on the sugar plantations in the north-east . The city 's location , at the mouth of the Tietê-Paranapanema river system ( which winds into the interior ) , made it an ideal base for another activity : enslaving expeditions . The economics were simple . Enslaved manpower for Brazil 's northern sugar plantations were in short supply . Enslaved Africans were expensive , so demand for indigenous captives soared . The task was , nonetheless , hard , if not impossible , to achieve . Expansion Among those who attempted to enslave the native were explorers of the hinterland called bandeirantes . From their base in São Paulo , they also combed the interior in search of natural riches . Silver , gold and diamonds were companion pursuits , as well as the exploration of unknown territories . Roman Catholic missionaries sometimes tagged along , as efforts at converting the native worked hand in hand with Portuguese colonialism . Despite their atrocities , the bandeirantes are now equally remembered for penetrating Brazil 's vast interior . Trading posts established by them became permanent settlements . Interior routes opened up . Though the bandeirantes had no loyalty to the Portuguese crown , they did claim land for the king . Thus , the borders of Brazil were pushed forward to the Amazon region and the Andes Mountains . Napoleon 's invasion of Portugal in 1807 prompted the British Royal Navy to evacuate King João VI of Portugal , Portugal 's prince regent , from the capital Lisbon , to Rio de Janeiro and Brazil became the temporary headquarters of the Portuguese Empire . João VI rewarded his hosts with economic reforms that would prove crucial to São Paulo 's rise . Brazil 's ports—long closed to non-Portuguese ships—were opened up to international trade . Restrictions on manufacturing were waived . When Napoleon was defeated in 1815 , João gave political shape to his territory , which became the United Kingdom of Portugal , Brazil and the Algarves . Portugal and Brazil , in other words , were ostensibly co-equals . Returning to Portugal six years later , João left his son , Pedro , to rule as regent and governor . Empire of Brazil period Pedro inherited his father 's love of Brazil , resisting demands from Lisbon that Brazil should be ruled from Europe once again . Legend has it that in 1822 the regent was riding outside São Paulo when a messenger delivered a missive demanding his return to Europe , and Dom Pedro waved his sword and shouted `` Independência ou morte ! '' ( Independence or death ) . João had whetted the appetite of Brazilians , who now sought a full break from the monarchy . The ever-restless Paulistas were at the vanguard of the independence movement . The small mother country of Portugal was in no position to resist—on September 7 , 1822 , Dom Pedro rubber-stamped Brazil 's independence . He was crowned emperor shortly afterwards . The emperors ruled an independent Brazil until 1889 . Over this time , the growth of liberalism in Europe had a parallel in Brazil . As the Brazilian provinces became more assertive , São Paulo was the scene of a minor ( and unsuccessful ) liberal revolution in 1842 . When independence was declared , the city of São Paulo had just 25,000 people and 4,000 houses , but the next 60 years would see gradual growth . In 1828 , the Law School , the pioneer of the city 's intellectual tradition , opened . The first newspaper , O Farol Paulistano , appeared in 1827 . Municipal developments such as botanical gardens , an opera house and a library , gave the city a cultural boost . Regardless , São Paulo still faced many hurdles , especially transport . Mule-trains were the main method of transportation , and the road from the plateau down to the port of Santos was famously arduous . In the late 1860s São Paulo got its first railway line , developed by British engineers , to the Port of Santos . Other lines , such as a railway to Campinas , were soon built . This was good timing , because in the 1880s the coffee craze hit in earnest . Brazil , which had been growing it since the mid-18th century , could grow more . The Paraíba valley , which spans the states of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo , had suitable soil and climate . São Paulo city , at the western end of the Paraíba valley , was well positioned to channel the coffee to the port of Santos . Republican era Meanwhile , the Brazilian monarchy had fallen in 1889 . A feudalistic regime , the new republic had friends only among the sugar planters of the Northeast , whose dominance Paulistanos , among others , despised . In 1891 , a new federal constitution , which delegated power to the states , was approved . The new coffee elite saw its chance . São Paulo ironed out a power-sharing understanding—known as the `` café com leite '' ( coffee-and-milk ) deal—with dairy-rich Minas Gerais , Brazil 's other dominant state . Together , they held a virtual lock on federal power . Brazilian politics now became a favourite pastime of the once-rebellious Paulistanos , who sent several presidents to Rio de Janeiro— including Prudente de Morais , Brazil 's first civilian president , who took office in 1894 . Plantation labour was needed—this time for coffee , not sugar . Slavery had been fading since the import of enslaved Africans was outlawed in 1850 . São Paulo , thanks to such figures as Luiz Gama ( a former slave ) , was a centre of abolitionism . In 1888 , Brazil abolished slavery ( it was the last country in the Americas to do so ) and the freed African-Brazilians who had been helping build the nation were then forced to beg for their jobs back , working for food and shelter only because of the failure of the system to integrate them as equal citizens with Euro-Brazilians . In an effort to `` bleach the race '' , as the nation 's leaders feared Brazil was becoming a `` black country '' , Spanish , Portuguese and Italian nationals were given incentives to become farm workers in São Paulo . The state government was so eager to bring in European immigrants that it paid for their trips and provided varying levels of subsidy . By 1893 , foreigners made up over 55 % of São Paulo 's population . Fearing oversupply , the government applied the brakes briefly in 1899 ; then the boom resumed . From 1908 , the Japanese arrived in great numbers , many destined for the plantations on fixed-term contracts . By 1920 , São Paulo was Brazil 's second-largest city ; a half-century before , it had been just the tenth-largest . Immigration and migration of Paulistas from other towns as well as Nordestinos and citizens from other states , the coffee industry , and modernization through the manufacturing of textiles , car and airplane parts , as well as food and technological industries , construction , fashion , and services transformed the greater São Paulo area into a thriving megalopolis and one of the world 's greatest multiethnic regions . Early 20th century Between 1901 and 1910 , coffee made up 51 % of Brazil 's total exports , far overshadowing rubber , sugar and cotton . But reliance on coffee made Brazil ( and São Paulo in particular ) vulnerable to poor harvests and the whims of world markets . The development of plantations in the 1890s , and widespread reliance on credit , took place against fluctuating prices and supply levels , culminating in saturation of the international market around the start of the 20th century . The government 's policies of `` valorisaton '' —borrowing money to buy coffee and stockpiling it , in order to have a surplus during bad harvests , and meanwhile taxing coffee exports to pay off loans—seemed feasible in the short term ( as did its manipulation of foreign-exchange rates to the advantage of coffee growers ) . But in the longer term , these actions contributed to oversupply and eventual collapse . São Paulo 's industrial development , from 1889 into the 1940s , was gradual and inward looking . Initially industry was closely associated with agriculture : cotton plantations led to the growth of textile manufacturing . Coffee planters were among the early industrial investors . The boom in immigration provided a market for goods , and sectors such as food processing grew . Traditional immigrant families such as the Matarazzo , Diniz , Mofarrej and Maluf became industrialists , entrepreneurs , and leading politicians . Restrictions on imports forced by world wars and government policies of `` import substitution '' and trade tariffs , all contributed to industrial growth . By 1945 , São Paulo had become the largest industrial centre in South America . World War I sent ripples through Brazil . Inflation was rampant . Some 50,000 workers went on strike . The growing of the urban population grew increasingly resentful of the coffee elite . Disaffected intellectuals expressed their views during a memorable `` Week of Modern Art '' in 1922 . Two years later , a garrison of soldiers staged a revolt ( eventually quashed by government troops ) . The stand-off was also political : politics had been long monopolised by the Paulista Republican Party , but in 1926 a more left-leaning party rose in opposition . In 1928 , the PRP amended São Paulo 's state constitution to give it more control over the city . The turbulence was mirrored on Brazil 's national scene . With the Great Depression , coffee prices plunged , as did real GDP . Americans , keen investors during the 1920s , backed away . The opening of the first highway between São Paulo and Rio in 1928 was one of the few bright spots . Into the breach stepped Getúlio Vargas , a southerner veteran in state politics . In Brazil 's 1930 presidential elections , he opposed Júlio Prestes , a favourite son of São Paulo . Vargas lost the election , but with backing from Minas Gerais state—São Paulo 's ever-jealous former ally and neighbor to the north— , he seized power regardless . Paulista War The Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932 or Paulista War is the name given to the uprising of the population of the Brazilian state of São Paulo against the federal government of Vargas . Its main goal was to press the provisional government headed by Getúlio Vargas to enact a new Constitution , since it had revoked the previous one , adopted in 1889 . However , as the movement developed and resentment against President Vargas grew deeper , it came to advocate the overthrow of the Federal Government and the secession of São Paulo from the Brazilian federation . But , it is noted that the separatist scenario was used as guerrilla tactics by the Federal Government to turn the population of the rest of the country against the state of São Paulo , broadcasting the alleged separatist notion throughout the country . There is no evidence that the movement 's commanders sought separatism . The uprising started on July 9 , 1932 , after five protesting students were killed by government troops on May 23 , 1932 . On the wake of their deaths , a movement called MMDC ( from the initials of the names of each of the four students killed , Martins , Miragaia , Dráusio and Camargo ) started . A fifth victim , Alvarenga , was also shot that night , but died months later . Revolutionary troops entrenched in the battlefield . In a few months , the state of São Paulo rebelled against the federal government . Counting on the solidarity of three other powerful states , ( Rio Grande do Sul , Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro ) , the politicians of São Paulo expected a quick war . However , that solidarity was never translated into actual support , and the São Paulo civil war was won by the Federation on October 2 , 1932 . In spite of its military defeat , some of the movement 's main demands were finally granted by Vargas afterwards : the appointment of a non-military state Governor , the election of a Constituent Assembly and , finally , the enactment of a new Constitution in 1934 . However that Constitution was short lived , as in 1937 , amidst growing extremism on the left and right wings of the political spectrum , Vargas closed the National Congress and enacted another Constitution , which established an authoritarian regime called Estado Novo . Late 20th century Vargas 's rule was a study in political turbulence . Elected in 1934 , he ruled by dictatorship ( albeit a popular one , thanks to his health and social-welfare programmes ) from 1937 to 1945—a period dubbed the `` Estado Novo '' . Thrown out by a coup in 1945 , he ran for office again in 1950 , and was overwhelmingly elected . On the verge of being overthrown from office again , he committed suicide in 1954 . Vargas 's main legacy was the centralisation of power . The encouragement of industry and diversification of agriculture , not to mention the abolition of subsidies on coffee , finally did away with the dominance of the coffee oligarchies . His replacement , Juscelino Kubitschek , focused on heavy industry . Kubitschek built car factories , steel plants , hydropower infrastructure and roads . Petrobras , Brazil 's oil monolith , was set up in 1953 . By 1958 , São Paulo state controlled some 55 % of Brazil 's industrial production , up from 17 % in 1907 . Another of Kubitschek 's pet projects was the creation of Brasília , which became Brazil 's capital in 1960—the year Kubitschek stepped down . The University of São Paulo was founded in 1934 ; two years after São Paulo 's failed uprising . It has established itself as the most prestigious higher learning institution in the country . With a transitional government from military to civil and a new currency that made stagnant the economy during the mid- to late 1980s , unemployment and crime became rampant . São Paulo , by now the world 's third-largest city after Mexico City and Tokyo , was hard-hit . Wealthy Brazilians retreated to suburban highly secured housing complexes such as Alphaville , and favelas , pockets of substandard living slums that lined the periphery , had a tremendous growth . For the first time in history , Brazil experienced large segments of its population immigrating to continents such as North America , Europe , Australia , and East Asia , particularly to Japan . Geography São Paulo is one of 27 states of Brazil , located southwest of the Southeast Region . The state area is , most of the north of the Tropic of Capricorn , and the 12th unit of the brazilian federation in area and the second in the Southeast region , behind only Minas Gerais . The state has a relatively high relief , having 85 % of its surface between three hundred and nine hundred meters above sea level , 8 % below three hundred meters and 7 % over nine hundred meters . The distance between its north and south end points is 611 km , and 923 km between the east-west extremes . The state time zone follows the Brasilia time , which is three hours late in relation to the Greenwich Meridian . It is limited to the states of Minas Gerais to the north and northeast , the Paraná to the south , and Rio de Janeiro north and Mato Grosso do Sul to the west , and the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast . The coastline consists of plains below 300 metre , that border the Serra do Mar . Located in the Serra da Mantiqueira , Mine Stone , with 2798 metre above sea level , is the highest point the state territory and the fifth in the country . São Paulo has its territory divided into 21 watersheds , inserted in three river basin districts , the largest of which is the Paraná , which covers much of the state territory . Noteworthy is the Rio Grande , which born in Minas Gerais and join with Paranaiba to form the Parana River , which separates São Paulo from Mato Grosso do Sul . Two major rivers Paulistas tributaries of the left bank of the Paraná River are the Paranapanema , a 930 km kilometers long and a natural divider between São Paulo and Paraná in most of its course , and the Tiete River , which has a length of 1136 km and runs through the state territory from southeast to northwest , from its source in Salesópolis , to its mouth in the city of Itapura . Climate The state territory covers seven distinct climatic types , taking into account the temperature and rainfall . In the mountain areas of the state , there are subtropical climate ( Cfa in Köppen climate classification ) , in areas of high altitude such as the Serra do Mar e Serra da Mantiqueira , having humid , hot summers and average temperatures below 18 °C in the month cooler year ; and oceanic ( Cfb and Cwb ) with regular and well distributed throughout the year and warmer summers rains . On the coast , the climate is super-humid tropical type , very similar to the prevailing equatorial climate in the Amazon ( Af ) , with rainfall exceeding sixty monthly millimeters in every month of the year , without the existence of a dry season . The tropical climate of altitude ( Cwa ) , predominant in the state territory , specifically in the center of the state , is characterized by a summer rainy season and a dry season in winter , with temperatures above 22 °C in the hottest month of the year . In other areas , there is tropical savanna climate ( Aw ) with rainfall less than 60 mm in one or more months of the year and warmer , with average temperatures above 18 °C during the year . There are also small areas with characteristics of monsoons ( Am ) . The occurrence of snow is very rare , but has been recorded in Campos do Jordão and there are also reports that the phenomenon has occurred in several parts of the south of the state , except for the Ribeira Valley . The frosts are common , especially in higher areas with altitude of 800 metre . Demographics According to the IBGE estimates for 2014 , there were 44,035,304 people residing in the state . The population density was . The last PNAD ( National Research for Sample of Domiciles ) research revealed the following numbers : 27,612,000 White people ( 63.1 % ) , 12,842,000 Brown ( Multiracial ) people ( 29.3 % ) , 2,810,000 Black people ( 6.4 % ) , 451,000 Asian people ( 1 % ) , and 54,000 Amerindian people ( 0.1 % ) . People of Italian descent predominate in many towns , including the capital city , where 65 % of the population has at least one Italian ancestor . The Italians mostly came from Veneto and Campania . [ http : //www.lorenzato.org.br/nordeste % 20em % 20busca % 20de % 20investidores.asp Fundaçãolo Lorenzato ] Portuguese and Spanish descendants predominate in most towns . Most of the Portuguese immigrants and settlers came from the Entre-Douro-e-Minho Province in northern Portugal , the Spanish immigrants mostly came from Galicia and Andalusia . People of African or Mixed background are relatively numerous . São Paulo is also home to the largest Asian population in Brazil , as well to the largest Japanese community outside Japan itself . There are many people of Levantine descent , mostly Syrian and Lebanese people . The majority of Brazilian Jews live in the state , especially in the capital city but there are also communities in Greater São Paulo , Santos , Guarujá , Campinas , Valinhos , Vinhedo , São José dos Campos , Ribeirão Preto , Sorocaba and Itu . People of more than 70 different nationalities emigrated to Brazil in the past centuries , most of them through the Port of Santos in Santos , São Paulo . Although many of them spread to other areas of Brazil , São Paulo can be considered a true melting-pot . People of German , Hungarian , Lithuanian , Russian , Chinese , Korean , American , Bolivian , Greek and French background , as well as dozens of other immigrant groups , form sizable groups in the state . A genetic study , from 2013 , showed the overall composition of São Paulo to be : 61.9 % European , 25.5 % African and 11.6 % Native American , respectively . According to an autosomal DNA genetic study ( from 2006 ) , based on self-declared `` white '' Brazilian samples from São Paulo , the overall results were : 79 % of the ancestry was European , 14 % are of African origin , and 7 % Native American . Major cities Religion According to the census of 2010 , the main religious groups are : Catholic Roman ( 60.06 % ) , Evangelicals ( 24.08 % ) , Kardecists ( 3.29 % ) , Jehovah 's witnesses ( 1.08 % ) , Buddhists ( 0.37 % ) , Umbanda and Candomblé ( 0.34 % ) , Brazilian Catholic Apostolic ( 0.20 % ) , East Asian religions ( 0.17 % ) , Mormon ( 0.16 % ) , Jews ( 0.12 % ) , Eastern Orthodox Church ( 0.08 % ) , Spiritualists ( 0.05 % ) , Western esoterics ( 0.04 % ) , Muslims ( 0.04 % ) and indigenous traditions ( 0.01 % ) . There are also a large number of irreligious people ( 8.14 % ) , people with indeterminate or multiple religions ( 0.52 % ) , people who were unable to specify a religion ( 0.12 % ) and have disclosed ( 0.04 % ) . Crime São Paulo , as well as other states of Brazil , has two types of police

bb_6707--São_Paulo_(state).txt

Which country occupying 47% of South America has states including Amazonas, Sao Paulo, Bahia and Para?

Clark Gable ( February 1 , 1901 – November 16 , 1960 ) was an American film actor , often referred to as `` The King of Hollywood '' or just simply as `` The King '' . Gable began his career as a stage actor and appeared as an extra in silent films between 1924 and 1926 , and progressed to supporting roles with a few films for MGM in 1931 . The next year , he landed his first leading Hollywood role and became a leading man in more than 60 motion pictures over the next three decades . Gable won an Academy Award for Best Actor for It Happened One Night ( 1934 ) , and was nominated for leading roles in Mutiny on the Bounty ( 1935 ) and for his arguably best-known role as Rhett Butler in the epic Gone with the Wind ( 1939 ) . Gable also found success commercially and critically with films such as Red Dust ( 1932 ) , Manhattan Melodrama ( 1934 ) , San Francisco ( 1936 ) , Saratoga ( 1937 ) Boom Town ( 1940 ) , The Hucksters ( 1947 ) Homecoming ( 1948 ) , and The Misfits ( 1961 ) , which was his final screen appearance . Gable appeared opposite some of the most popular actresses of the time : Joan Crawford , who was his favorite actress with whom to work , was partnered with Gable in eight films , Myrna Loy worked with him seven times , and he was paired with Jean Harlow in six productions . He also starred with Lana Turner in four features , and with Norma Shearer and Ava Gardner in three each . Gable 's final film , The Misfits ( 1961 ) , united him with Marilyn Monroe ( also in her last screen appearance ) . Gable is considered one of the most consistent box-office performers in history , appearing on Quigley Publishing 's annual Top Ten Money Making Stars Poll 16 times . He was named the seventh-greatest male star of classic American cinema by the American Film Institute . Life and career Early life William Clark Gable was born in Cadiz , Ohio , to William Henry `` Will '' Gable ( 1870–1948 ) , an oil-well driller , and his wife , Adeline ( née Hershelman ; 1869–1901 ) . Gable was named William after his father , but even in childhood , he was almost always called Clark . He was mistakenly listed as a female on his birth certificate . Among Gable 's ancestors were Pennsylvania Dutch ( German ) , Rhinelanders , and Bavarians . When he was six months old , his mother had him baptized as a Roman Catholic . She died when he was ten months old , possibly from a brain tumor . Will Gable refused to raise his son Catholic , provoking criticism from Adeline 's side of the family . The dispute was resolved when Will Gable agreed to allow his son to spend time with his maternal uncle , Charles Hershelman , and his wife on their farm in Vernon Township , Pennsylvania . In April 1903 , Gable 's father married Jennie Dunlap ( 1874–1924 ) , whose family came from the small neighboring town of Hopedale . The marriage produced no children . Gable was a tall , shy child with a loud voice . His stepmother raised him to be well-dressed and well-groomed . Jennie played the piano and gave her stepson lessons at home . Later he took up brass instruments . At 13 , he was the only boy in the men 's town band . He was very mechanically inclined and loved to strip down and repair cars with his father . Though his father insisted on Gable doing `` manly '' things , like hunting and hard physical work , Gable loved language . Among trusted company , he would recite Shakespeare , particularly the sonnets . Will Gable agreed to buy a 72-volume set of The World 's Greatest Literature to improve his son 's education , but claimed he never saw his son use it . In 1917 , when Gable was in high school , his father had financial difficulties . Will decided to settle his debts and try his hand at farming , and the family moved to Ravenna , Ohio , near Akron . Despite his father 's insistence that he work the farm , Gable soon left to work in Akron 's B.F. Goodrich tire factory . Early career At 17 , Clark Gable was inspired to be an actor after seeing the play The Bird of Paradise , but he was not able to make a real start until he turned 21 and inherited some money . By then , his stepmother had died , and his father moved to Tulsa , Oklahoma to go back to the oil business . Gable toured in stock companies , as well as working the oil fields and as a horse manager . He found work with several second-class theater companies , thus making his way across the Midwest to Seaside , Oregon , working as a logger , and to Portland , Oregon , where he worked as a necktie salesman in the Meier & Frank department store . While in Portland , he met Laura Hope Crews , a stage and film actress , who encouraged him to return to the stage with another theater company . 20 years later , Crews played Aunt Pittypat alongside Gable 's Rhett Butler in Gone With the Wind ( 1939 ) . His acting coach was a theater manager in Portland , Josephine Dillon , who was 17 years his senior . She paid to have his teeth repaired and his hair styled . She guided him in building up his chronically undernourished body , and taught him better body control and posture . She spent considerable time training his naturally high-pitched voice , which he slowly managed to lower , to gain better resonance and tone . As his speech habits improved , his facial expressions became more natural and convincing . After a long period of training , Dillon considered him ready to attempt a film career . Stage and silent films In 1924 , with Dillon 's financing , they went to Hollywood , where she became Gable 's manager and first wife . He changed his stage name from W. C. Gable to Clark Gable . He found work as an extra in such silent films as Erich von Stroheim 's The Merry Widow ( 1925 ) , The Plastic Age ( 1925 ) , which starred Clara Bow , Forbidden Paradise ( 1924 ) , starring Pola Negri , plus a series of two-reel comedies called The Pacemakers . He appeared as an extra in Fox 's The Johnstown Flood ( 1926 ) . 17-year-old Carole Lombard , later his third wife , also appeared as an extra in that film , although they were not in the same scene . He also appeared as a bit player in a series of shorts . However , he was not offered any major film roles , so he returned to the stage . He became lifelong friends with Lionel Barrymore , who , in spite of initially bawling Gable out for amateurish acting , urged him to pursue a career on stage . During the 1927–28 theater season , he acted with the Laskin Brothers Stock Company in Houston , Texas , where he played many roles , gained considerable experience , and became a local matinee idol . He then moved to New York City , and Dillon sought work for him on Broadway . He received good reviews in Machinal ; `` He 's young , vigorous and brutally masculine '' , wrote the critic at the Morning Telegraph . The start of talking pictures and the beginning of the Great Depression caused cancellation of many plays in the 1929–30 season , and acting work became harder to get . Early success and rising star In 1930 , after his impressive appearance as the seething and desperate character Killer Mears in the Los Angeles stage production of The Last Mile , Gable was offered a contract with MGM . His first role in a sound picture was as the unshaven villain in a low-budget William Boyd Western called The Painted Desert ( 1931 ) . He received a lot of fan mail as a result of his powerful voice and appearance ; the studio took notice . In 1930 , Gable and Josephine Dillon were divorced . A few days later , he married Texas socialite Maria Franklin Prentiss Lucas Langham , nicknamed `` Rhea '' . After moving to California , they were married again in 1931 , possibly due to differences in state legal requirements . `` His ears are too big and he looks like an ape '' , said executive Darryl F. Zanuck , then at Warner Bros. , about Gable after testing him for the lead in the studio 's gangster drama Little Caesar ( 1931 ) . The same year , in Night Nurse , Gable played a villainous chauffeur who was gradually starving two adorable little girls to death , then knocked Barbara Stanwyck 's character unconscious with his fist , a supporting role originally slated for James Cagney until the release of The Public Enemy abruptly made Cagney a leading man . After several failed screen tests for Barrymore and Zanuck , Gable was signed in 1930 by MGM 's Irving Thalberg . He became a client of well-connected agent Minna Wallis , sister of producer Hal Wallis and a very close friend of Norma Shearer . Gable 's timing in arriving in Hollywood was excellent , as MGM was looking to expand its stable of male stars and he fitted the bill . Gable first worked mainly in supporting roles , often as the villain . He made two pictures in 1931 with Wallace Beery , a supporting role in The Secret Six , then with his part increasing in size to almost match Beery 's in the naval aviation film Hell Divers . MGM 's publicity manager Howard Strickling developed Gable 's studio image , playing up his he-man experiences and his 'lumberjack in evening clothes ' persona . To bolster his increasing popularity , MGM frequently paired him with well-established female stars . Joan Crawford asked for him as her co-star in Dance , Fools , Dance ( 1931 ) . He built his fame and public visibility in such movies as A Free Soul ( 1931 ) , in which he played a gangster who shoved the character played by Norma Shearer ; Gable never played a supporting role again . The Hollywood Reporter wrote `` A star in the making has been made , one that , to our reckoning , will outdraw every other star ... Never have we seen audiences work themselves into such enthusiasm as when Clark Gable walks on the screen '' . He followed that with Susan Lenox ( Her Fall and Rise ) ( 1931 ) with Greta Garbo , and Possessed ( 1931 ) , in which Crawford ( then married to Douglas Fairbanks , Jr. ) and he steamed up the screen . Adela Rogers St. Johns later dubbed Gable and Crawford 's real-life relationship as `` the affair that nearly burned Hollywood down '' . Louis B. Mayer threatened to terminate both their contracts , and for a while they kept apart . Gable shifted his attentions to Marion Davies . However , Gable and Garbo disliked each other . She thought he was a wooden actor , while he considered her a snob . Gable was considered for the role of Tarzan in Tarzan the Ape Man , but lost out to Johnny Weissmuller 's more imposing physique and superior swimming prowess . However , Gable 's unshaven lovemaking with braless Jean Harlow in Red Dust ( 1932 ) soon made him MGM 's most important male star . After the hit Hold Your Man ( 1933 ) , MGM recognized the goldmine of the Gable-Harlow pairing , putting them in two more films , China Seas ( 1935 ; with Gable and Harlow billed above Wallace Beery ) and Wife vs. Secretary ( 1936 ) with Myrna Loy and James Stewart . An enormously popular combination , on-screen and off-screen , Gable and Harlow made six films together , the most notable being Red Dust ( 1932 ) and Saratoga ( 1937 ) . Harlow died during production of Saratoga . Ninety percent completed , the remaining scenes were filmed with long shots or the use of doubles like Mary Dees ; Gable said that he felt as if he were `` in the arms of a ghost '' . According to legend , Gable was lent to Columbia Pictures , then considered a second-rate operation , as punishment for refusing roles ; however , this has been refuted by more recent biographies . MGM did not have a project ready for Gable and was paying him $ 2,000 per week , under his contract , to do nothing . Studio head Louis B. Mayer lent him to Columbia for $ 2,500 per week , making a $ 500 per week profit . Gable was not the first choice to play the lead role of Peter Warne in It Happened One Night ( 1934 ) . Robert Montgomery was originally offered the role , but he felt that the script was poor . Filming began in a tense atmosphere , but both Gable and director Frank Capra enjoyed making the movie , although Colbert reportedly did not . Gable and Colbert won the Academy Award for Best Actor and Best Actress for their performances in the film , and the movie won the Academy Award for Best Picture . To Capra , Gable 's character in the film most closely resembled his real personality : He returned to MGM a bigger star than ever . He received an Academy Award nomination for his portrayal of Fletcher Christian in Mutiny on the Bounty ( 1935 ) . Spencer Tracy collaborations Gable made three pictures with Spencer Tracy , which boosted Tracy 's career and cemented them in the public mind as a team . San Francisco ( 1936 ) featured Tracy in a brief but Oscar-nominated role in which he played a priest who knocks Gable , by then the studio 's foremost leading man , down in a boxing ring . Despite being onscreen for only 17 minutes , the appearance immediately catapulted Tracy , whose career had floundered for years despite delivering superb performances in quality films , into major stardom in the wake of the picture becoming the year 's biggest box-office attraction . Test Pilot ( 1938 ) gave Tracy a larger supporting part as the agonizing friend of Gable 's glamorous pilot while Boom Town ( 1940 ) depicted an epic rivalry between Gable and Tracy 's characters over Claudette Colbert and their oil businesses . Each pairing was a box-office phenomenon . MGM had teamed Tracy with Gable every two years until Tracy finally insisted upon a star billing clause in his contract , ending any further Gable-Tracy collaborations . Gone with the Wind Despite his reluctance to play the role , Gable is best known for his performance in Gone with the Wind ( 1939 ) , for which he gained a Best Actor Oscar nomination . Carole Lombard may have been the first to suggest that he play Rhett Butler ( and she play Scarlett ) when she bought him a copy of the bestseller , which he refused to read . Butler 's last line in Gone with the Wind , `` Frankly , my dear , I do n't give a damn , '' is one of the most famous lines in movie history . Gable was an almost immediate favorite for the role of Rhett with both the public and producer David O. Selznick . Since Selznick had no male stars under long-term contract , though , he needed to go through the process of negotiating to borrow an actor from another studio . Gary Cooper was Selznick 's first choice . When Cooper turned down the role of Butler , he was quoted as saying , `` Gone With the Wind is going to be the biggest flop in Hollywood history . I ’ m glad it 'll be Clark Gable who 's falling flat on his nose , not me . '' By then , Selznick had become determined to hire Gable , and set about finding a way to borrow him from MGM . Gable was wary of potentially disappointing an audience that had decided that no one else could play the part . He later conceded , `` I think I know now how a fly must react after being caught in a spider 's web . '' By all accounts , Gable got along well with his co-stars during filming . Gable was great friends with actress Hattie McDaniel , and he even slipped her a real alcoholic drink during the scene in which they were supposed to be celebrating the birth of Scarlett and Rhett 's daughter . Gable tried to boycott the premiere of Gone with the Wind in Atlanta , Georgia , because the African American McDaniel was not permitted to attend . He reportedly only went after she pleaded with him to go . Gable remained friends with McDaniel , and he always attended her Hollywood parties , especially when she was raising funds during World War II . Gable did not want to shed tears for the scene after Rhett inadvertently causes Scarlett to miscarry their second child . Olivia de Havilland made him cry , later commenting , `` ... Oh , he would not do it . He would not ! Victor ( Fleming ) tried everything with him . He tried to attack him on a professional level . We had done it without him weeping several times and then we had one last try . I said , 'You can do it , I know you can do it and you will be wonderful ... ' Well , by heaven , just before the cameras rolled , you could see the tears come up at his eyes and he played the scene unforgettably well . He put his whole heart into it . '' Decades later , Gable said that whenever his career would start to fade , a rerelease of Gone with the Wind would soon revive his popularity , and he continued as a top leading actor for the rest of his life . Marriage to Carole Lombard Gable 's marriage in 1939 to his third wife , actress Carole Lombard ( 1908–1942 ) , was the happiest period of his personal life . They met while filming 1932 's No Man of Her Own , when Lombard was still married to actor William Powell , but their romance did not take off until 1936 . They became reacquainted at a party and soon were inseparable , cited in fan magazines and tabloids as an official couple . Gable thrived being around Lombard 's youthful , charming , and frank personality , once stating , `` You can trust that little screwball with your life or your hopes or your weaknesses , and she would n't even know how to think about letting you down . '' Lombard , for her part , seemed to gain personal stability and a contented home life that she had previously lacked . She taught herself how to hunt and fish and accompanied Gable on trips with his hunting companions . Gable , who was still legally married , though , prolonged a lengthy and expensive divorce from his second wife Rhea Langham . His salary from Gone with the Wind enabled him to reach a divorce settlement with Langham , however , on March 7 , 1939 . On March 29 , during a production break on Gone with the Wind , Gable and Lombard were married in Kingman , Arizona , They purchased a ranch previously owned by director Raoul Walsh in Encino , California , and made it their home . They raised chickens and horses , and had a menagerie of cats and dogs . On January 16 , 1942 , Lombard was a passenger on Transcontinental and Western Air Flight 3 with her mother and press agent Otto Winkler . She had just finished her 57th movie , To Be or Not to Be , and was on her way home from a successful war bond selling tour when the flight 's DC-3 airliner crashed into a mountain near Las Vegas , Nevada , killing all 22 passengers aboard , including 15 servicemen en route to training in California . Gable flew to the crash site to claim the bodies of his wife , mother-in-law , and Winkler , who had been the best man at Gable and Lombard 's wedding . Lombard was declared to be the first war-related American female casualty of World War II , and Gable received a personal note of condolence from President Roosevelt . The Civil Aeronautics Board investigation into the crash concluded that pilot error was its cause . Gable returned to their Encino ranch and carried out her funeral wishes as she had requested in her will . A month later , he returned to the studio to work with Lana Turner in the movie Somewhere I 'll Find You . Having lost 20 pounds since the tragedy , Gable evidently was emotionally and physically devastated by it , but Turner stated that Gable remained a professional for the duration of filming . He acted in 27 more films and remarried twice more . `` But he was never the same , '' said Esther Williams . `` He had been devastated by Carole 's death . '' World War II For details of Gable 's combat missions , see RAF Polebrook In 1942 , following Lombard 's death , Gable joined the U.S. Army Air Forces . Lombard had suggested that Gable enlist as part of the war effort , but MGM was reluctant to let him go , and he resisted the suggestion . Gable made a public statement after Lombard 's death that prompted the Commanding General of the U.S. Army Air Forces Henry H. `` Hap '' Arnold to offer Gable a `` special assignment '' in aerial gunnery . Gable had earlier expressed an interest in officer candidate school , but he enlisted on August 12 , 1942 , with the intention of becoming an enlisted aerial gunner on a bomber . MGM arranged for his studio friend , the cinematographer Andrew McIntyre , to enlist with him and accompany him through training . However , shortly after his enlistment , McIntyre and he were sent to Miami Beach , Florida , where they entered USAAF OCS Class 42-E on August 17 , 1942 . Both completed training on October 28 , 1942 , commissioned as second lieutenants . His class of about 2,600 fellow students ( of which he ranked about 700th in class standing ) selected Gable as its graduation speaker , at which General Arnold presented the cadets with their commissions . Arnold then informed Gable of his special assignment : to make a recruiting film in combat with the Eighth Air Force to recruit aerial gunners . Gable and McIntyre were immediately sent to Flexible Gunnery School at Tyndall Field , Florida , followed by a photography course at Fort George Wright , Washington State and promoted to first lieutenants upon its completion . Gable reported to Biggs Army Air Base , Texas , on January 27 , 1943 , to train with and accompany the 351st Bomb Group to England as head of a six-man motion picture unit . In addition to McIntyre , he recruited the screenwriter John Lee Mahin , camera operators Sgts . Mario Toti and Robert Boles , and the sound man Lt. Howard Voss to complete his crew . Gable was promoted to captain while he was with the 351st Bomb Group at Pueblo Army Air Base , Colorado , a rank commensurate with his position as a unit commander . ( As first lieutenants , McIntyre and he had equal seniority . ) Gable spent most of 1943 in England at RAF Polebrook with the 351st Bomb Group . Gable flew five combat missions , including one to Germany , as an observer-gunner in B-17 Flying Fortresses between May 4 and September 23 , 1943 , earning the Air Medal and the Distinguished Flying Cross for his efforts . During one of the missions , Gable 's aircraft was damaged by flak and attacked by fighters , which knocked out one of the engines and shot up the stabilizer . In the raid on Germany , one crewman was killed and two others were wounded , and flak went through Gable 's boot and narrowly missed his head . When word of this reached MGM , studio executives began to badger the Army Air Forces to reassign its most valuable screen actor to noncombat duty . In November 1943 , Gable returned to the United States to edit his film , only to find that the personnel shortage of aerial gunners had already been rectified . He was allowed to complete the film anyway , joining the First Motion Picture Unit in Hollywood . In May 1944 , Gable was promoted to major . He hoped for another combat assignment , but when the invasion of Normandy came and went in June without any further orders , Gable was relieved from active duty as a major on June 12 , 1944 , at his request , since he was over-age for combat . His discharge papers were signed by Captain ( later U.S. President ) Ronald Reagan . Gable completed editing of the film Combat America in September 1944 , giving the narration himself and making use of numerous interviews with enlisted gunners as focus of the film . Because his motion picture production schedule made it impossible for him to fulfill reserve officer duties , he resigned his commission on September 26 , 1947 , a week after the Air Force became an independent service branch . Adolf Hitler favored Gable above all other actors . During World War II , Hitler offered a sizable reward to anyone who could capture and bring Gable to him unscathed . Gable 's military awards were the Distinguished Flying Cross , Air Medal , American Campaign Medal , European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal , and World War II Victory Medal . He also qualified for and received aerial gunner wings . After World War II Immediately after his discharge from the service , Gable returned to his ranch and rested . He resumed a prewar relationship with Virginia Grey and dated other starlets . He introduced his golf caddie Robert Wagner to MGM casting . Gable 's first movie after World War II was Adventure ( 1945 ) , with his ill-matched co-star Greer Garson . It was a critical and commercial failure despite the famous teaser tagline `` Gable 's back and Garson 's got him '' . After Joan Crawford 's third divorce , Gable and she resumed their affair and lived together for a brief time . Gable was acclaimed for his performance in The Hucksters ( 1947 ) , a satire of postwar Madison Avenue corruption and immorality . A very public and brief romance with Paulette Goddard occurred after that . In 1949 , Gable married Sylvia Ashley , a British divorcée and the widow of Douglas Fairbanks . The relationship was profoundly unsuccessful ; they divorced in 1952 . Soon followed Never Let Me Go ( 1953 ) , opposite Gene Tierney . Tierney was a favorite of Gable and he was very disappointed when she was replaced in Mogambo ( because of her mental health problems ) by Grace Kelly . Mogambo ( 1953 ) , directed by John Ford , was a somewhat sanitized remake of his earlier Pre-Code film Red Dust , with Jean Harlow and Mary Astor , which had been a greater success . Gable 's on-location affair with Grace Kelly ( 1929–1982 ) , who was young enough to be his daughter , gradually ended after filming was completed . Gable became increasingly unhappy with what he considered mediocre roles offered him by MGM , while the studio regarded his salary as excessive . Studio head Louis B. Mayer was fired in 1951 amid slumping Hollywood production and revenue , due primarily to the rising popularity of television . Studio chiefs struggled to cut costs . Many MGM stars were fired or their contracts were not renewed , including Greer Garson and Judy Garland .

odql_4497--Clark_Gable.txt

Name the year: John F Kennedy was elected president; U-2 spy plane was shot down and Hollywood actor Clark Gable died?

The Muscovy duck ( Cairina moschata ) is a large duck native to Mexico , Central , and South America . Small wild and feral breeding populations have established themselves in the United States , particularly in Florida and the lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas as well as in many other parts of North America , including southern Canada . Feral Muscovy ducks are found in New Zealand , Australia , and in parts of Europe . They are large ducks , with the males about 76 cm long , and weighing up to 7 kg . Females are considerably smaller , and only grow to 3 kg , roughly half the males ' size . The bird is predominantly black and white , with the back feathers being iridescent and glossy in males , while the females are more drab . The amount of white on the neck and head is variable , as well as the bill , which can be yellow , pink , black , or any mixture of these . They may have white patches or bars on the wings , which become more noticeable during flight . Both sexes have pink or red wattles around the bill , those of the male being larger and more brightly colored . Although the Muscovy duck is a tropical bird , it adapts well to cooler climates , thriving in weather as cold as and able to survive even colder conditions . In general , Barbary duck is the term used for C. moschata in a culinary context . The domestic breed , Cairina moschata forma domestica , is commonly known in Spanish as the pato criollo ( `` creole duck '' ) . They have been bred since pre-Columbian times by Native Americans and are heavier and less able to fly long distances than the wild subspecies . Their plumage color is also more variable . Other names for the domestic breed in Spanish are pato casero ( `` backyard duck '' ) and pato mudo ( `` mute duck '' ) . Description All Muscovy ducks have long claws on their feet and a wide flat tail . In the domestic drake ( male ) , length is about 86 cm and weight is , while the domestic hen ( female ) is much smaller , at 64 cm in length and in weight . Large domesticated males often weigh up to 8 kg , and large domesticated females up to 5 kg . The true wild Muscovy duck , from which all domesticated Muscovys originated , is blackish , with large white wing patches . Length can range from 66 to , wingspan from 137 to and weight from in wild Muscovys . On the head , the wild male has short crest on the nape . The bill is black with a speckling of pale pink . A blackish or dark red knob can be seen at the bill base , and the bare skin of the face is similar to that in color . The eyes are yellowish-brown . The legs and webbed feet are blackish . The wild female is similar in plumage , but is also much smaller , and she has feathered face and lacks the prominent knob . The juvenile is duller overall , with little or no white on the upperwing . Domesticated birds may look similar ; most are dark brown or black mixed with white , particularly on the head . Other colors such as lavender or all-white are also seen . Both sexes have a nude black-and-red or all-red face ; the drake also has pronounced caruncles at the base of the bill and a low erectile crest of feathers . C. moschata ducklings are mostly yellow with buff-brown markings on the tail and wings . Some domesticated ducklings have a dark head and blue eyes , others a light brown crown and dark markings on their nape . They are agile and speedy precocial birds . The drake has a low breathy call , and the hen a quiet trilling coo . The karyotype of the Muscovy duck is 2n=80 , consisting of three pairs of macrochromosomes , 36 pairs of microchromosomes , and a pair of sex chromosomes . The two largest macrochromosome pairs are submetacentric , while all other chromosomes are acrocentric or ( for the smallest microchromosomes ) probably telocentric . The submetacentric chromosomes and the Z ( female ) chromosome show rather little constitutive heterochromatin ( C bands ) , while the W chromosomes are at least two-thirds heterochromatin . Male Muscovy ducks have spiralled penises which can become erect to 20 cm in one third of a second . Females have cloacas that spiral in the opposite direction that appear to have evolved to limit forced copulation by males . Domestic varieties * Black * Blue * Chocolate * Pied ( white with any color mixed ) * White * Lavender * Bronze * Ripple * and many more pastel colors , but these are very rare . Etymology , taxonomy and systematics The term `` Muscovy '' means `` from the Moscow region '' , but these ducks are neither native there nor were they introduced there before they became known in Western Europe . It is not quite clear how the term came about ; it very likely originated between 1550 and 1600 , but did not become widespread until somewhat later . In one suggestion , it has been claimed that the Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands traded these ducks to Europe occasionally after 1550 ; this chartered company became eventually known as the Muscovy Company or `` Muscovite Company '' so the ducks might thus have come to be called `` Muscovite ducks '' or `` Muscovy ducks '' in keeping with the common practice of attaching the importer 's name to the products they sold . But while the Muscovite Company initiated vigorous trade with Russia , they hardly , if at all , traded produce from the Americas ; thus they are unlikely to have traded C. moschata to a significant extent . Alternatively—just as in the `` turkey '' ( which is also from America ) , or the `` guineafowl '' ( which are not limited to Guinea ) — '' Muscovy '' might be simply a generic term for a hard-to-reach and exotic place , in reference to the singular appearance of these birds . This is evidenced by other names suggesting the species came from lands where it is not actually native , but from where much `` outlandish '' produce was imported at that time ( see below ) . Yet another view—not incompatible with either of those discussed above—connects the species with the Muisca , a Native American nation in today 's Colombia . The duck is native to these lands too , and it is likely that it was kept by the Muisca as a domestic animal to some extent . It is conceivable that a term like `` Muisca duck '' , hard to comprehend for the average European of those times , would be corrupted into something more familiar . The Miskito Indians of the Miskito Coast in Nicaragua and Honduras relied heavily on this domestic species . The ducks may have been named after this region . The species was first scientifically described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 edition of Systema Naturae as Anas moschata , literally meaning `` musk duck '' . His description only consists of a curt but entirely unequivocal [ Anas ] facie nuda papillosa ( `` A duck with a naked and carunculated face '' ) , and his primary reference is his earlier work Fauna Svecica . But Linnaeus refers also to older sources , and therein much information on the origin of the common name is found . Conrad Gessner is given by Linnaeus as a source , but the Historiae animalium mentions the Muscovy duck only in passing . Ulisse Aldrovandi discusses the species in detail , referring to the wild birds and its domestic breeds variously as anas cairina , anas indica or anas libyca – `` Duck from Cairo '' , `` Indian duck '' ( in reference to the West Indies ) or `` Libyan duck '' . But his anas indica ( based , like Gessner 's brief discussion , ultimately on the reports of Christopher Columbus 's travels ) also seems to have included another species , perhaps a whistling-duck ( Dendrocygna ) . Already however the species is tied to some more or less nondescript `` exotic '' locality – `` Libya '' could still refer to any place in Northern Africa at that time – where it did not natively occur . Francis Willughby discusses `` The Muscovy duck '' as anas moschata and expresses his belief that Aldrovandi 's and Gessner 's anas cairina , anas indica and anas libyca ( which he calls `` The Guiny duck '' , adding another mistaken place of origin to the list ) refer to the very same species . Finally , John Ray clears up much of the misunderstanding by providing a contemporary explanation for the bird 's etymology : `` In English , it is called The Muscovy-Duck , though this is not transferred from Muscovia [ the New Latin name of Muscovy ] , but from the rather strong musk odour it exudes . '' Linnaeus came to witness the birds ' `` gamey '' aroma first-hand , as he attests in the Fauna Svecica and again in the travelogue of this 1746 Västergötland excursion . Similarly , the Russian name of this species , muskusnaya utka ( Мускусная утка ) , means `` musk duck '' – without any reference to Moscow – as do the Bokmål and Danish moskusand , Dutch muskuseend , Finnish myskisorsa , French canard musqué , German Moschusente , Italian anatra muschiata , Spanish pato almizclado and Swedish myskand . In English however , musk duck refers to the Australian species Biziura lobata . In some regions the name Barbary duck is used for domesticated and `` Muscovy duck '' for wild birds ; in other places `` Barbary duck '' refers specifically to the dressed carcass , while `` Muscovy duck '' applies to living C. moschata , regardless of whether they are wild or domesticated . In general , `` Barbary duck '' is the usual term for C. moschata in a culinary context . This species was formerly placed into the paraphyletic `` perching duck '' assemblage , but subsequently moved to the dabbling duck subfamily ( Anatinae ) . Analysis of the mtDNA sequences of the cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 genes , however , indicates that it might be closer to the genus Aix and better placed in the shelduck subfamily Tadorninae . In addition , the other species of Cairina , the rare white-winged duck ( C. scutulata ) , seems to belong to a distinct genus . The generic name Cairina , meanwhile , traces its origin to Aldrovandi , and ultimately to the mistaken belief that the birds came from Egypt : translated , the current scientific name of the Muscovy duck means `` the musky one from Cairo '' . Ecology This non-migratory species normally inhabits forested swamps , lakes , streams and nearby grassland and farm crops , and often roosts in trees at night . The Muscovy duck 's diet consists of plant material obtained by grazing or dabbling in shallow water , and small fish , amphibians , reptiles , crustaceans , insects , and millipedes . This is a somewhat aggressive duck ; males often fight over food , territory or mates . The females fight with each other less often . Some adults will peck at the ducklings if they are eating at the same food source . The Muscovy duck has benefited from nest boxes in Mexico , but is somewhat uncommon in much of the east of its range due to excessive hunting . It is not considered a globally threatened species by the IUCN however , as it is widely distributed . Reproduction This species , like the mallard , does not form stable pairs . They will mate on land or in water ( note the submerged female in the image below ) . Domesticated Muscovy ducks can breed up to three times each year . The hen lays a clutch of 8–16 white eggs , usually in a tree hole or hollow , which are incubated for 35 days . The sitting hen will leave the nest once a day from 20 minutes to one and a half hours , and will then defecate , drink water , eat and sometimes bathe . Once the eggs begin to hatch it may take 24 hours for all the chicks to break through their shells . When feral chicks are born they usually stay with their mother for about 10–12 weeks . Their bodies can not produce all the heat they need , especially in temperate regions , so they will stay close to the mother especially at night . Often , the drake will stay in close contact with the brood for several weeks . The male will walk with the young during their normal travels in search for food , providing protection . Anecdotal evidence from East Anglia , UK suggests that , in response to different environmental conditions , other adults assist in protecting chicks and providing warmth at night . It has been suggested that this is in response to local efforts to cull the eggs , which has led to an atypical distribution of males and females as well as young and mature birds . For the first few weeks of their lives , Muscovy ducklings feed on grains , corn , grass , insects , and almost anything that moves . Their mother instructs them at an early age how to feed . File : Bariken kid.JPG|Hatchling File : Lucky George Muscovy duckling.JPG|Young duckling File : Muscovy Duckling Graniteville SC USA.JPG|Older duckling File : Bill the duckling.jpg|Fledgling File : Fledgling Muscovy Duck.jpg|One-year-old ( still immature ) File : Cairina moschata reproduction.jpg|Mating pair File : Cairina moschata 001.jpg|White Muscovy duck File : Muscovy Duck 's Mating Graniteville , SC.JPG|Mating in water ; the large drake entirely submerges the female File : Muscovy Duck Baton Rouge 1 April 2016 3.jpg|Black Muscovy Duck in Baton Rouge Feral bird Feral Muscovy ducks can breed near urban and suburban lakes and on farms , nesting in tree cavities or on the ground , under shrubs in yards , on apartment balconies , or under roof overhangs . Some feral populations , such as that in Florida , have a reputation of becoming nuisance pests on occasion . At night they often sleep at water , if there is a water source available , to flee quickly from predators if awoken . A small population of Muscovy ducks can also be found in Ely , Cambridgeshire , and in Lincoln , Lincolnshire UK . Muscovy ducks have also been spotted in Walsall Arboretum . In the US , Muscovy ducks are considered an invasive species . An owner may raise them for food production only ( not for hunting ) . Similarly , if the ducks have no owner , 50CFR Part 21 allows the removal or destruction of the Muscovy ducks , their eggs and nests anywhere in the United States outside of Hidalgo , Starr , and Zapata counties in Texas where they are considered indigenous . The population in southern Florida is considered , with a population in the several thousands , to be established enough to be considered `` countable '' for bird watchers . Legal methods to restrict breeding include not feeding these ducks , deterring them with noise or by chasing , and finding nests and vigorously shaking the eggs to render them non-viable . Returning the eggs to the nest will avoid re-laying as the female would if the clutch were removed . Recent legislation in the USA prohibits trading of Muscovy ducks and plans for eradication are in order to solve nuisance problems . Domestication Muscovy ducks had been domesticated by various Native American cultures in the Americas when Columbus arrived in the Bahamas . The first few were brought onto the Columbus ship Santa Maria they then sailed back to Europe by the 16th century . The Muscovy duck has been domesticated for centuries , and is widely traded as `` Barbary duck '' . Muscovy breeds are popular because they have stronger-tasting meat—sometimes compared to roasted beef—than the usual domestic ducks which are descendants of the mallard ( Anas platyrhynchos ) . The meat is lean when compared to the fatty meat of mallard-derived ducks , its leanness and tenderness being often compared to veal . Muscovy ducks are also less noisy , and sometimes marketed as a `` quackless '' duck ; even though they are not completely silent , they do n't actually quack ( except in cases of extreme stress ) . The carcass of a Muscovy duck is also much heavier than most other domestic ducks , which makes it ideal for the dinner table . Domesticated Muscovy ducks , like those pictured , often have plumage features differing from other wild birds . White breeds are preferred for meat production , as darker ones can have much melanin in the skin , which some people find unappealing . The Muscovy duck can be crossed with mallards in captivity to produce hybrids , known as mulard duck ( `` mule duck '' ) because they are sterile . Muscovy drakes are commercially crossed with mallard-derived hens either naturally or by artificial insemination . The 40–60 % of eggs that are fertile result in birds raised only for their meat or for production of foie gras : they grow fast like mallard-derived breeds but to a large size like Muscovy ducks . Conversely , though crossing Mallard drakes with Muscovy hens is possible , the offspring are neither desirable for meat nor for egg production . In addition , Muscovy ducks are reportedly cross-bred in Israel with Mallards to produce kosher duck products . The kashrut status of the Muscovy duck has been a matter of rabbinic discussion for over 150 years . Oscillococcinum is a homeopathic preparation made from Muscovy duck liver and heart manufactured by the French company Boiron ; similar products are also available from other manufacturers . Typically diluted with lactose and sucrose to 1:10400 ( far less than one in one googol ) , they are advertised to relieve influenza-like symptoms , but no evidence has been found of its efficacy . A study examining birds in northwestern Colombia for blood parasites found the Muscovy duck to be more frequently infected with Haemoproteus and malaria ( Plasmodium ) parasites than chickens , domestic pigeons and domestic turkeys . and in fact almost all wild bird species studied also . It was noted that in other parts of the world , chickens were more susceptible to such infections than in the study area , but it may well be that Muscovy ducks are generally more often infected with such parasites ( which might not cause pronounced disease though , and are harmless to humans ) .

qw_5633--Muscovy_duck.txt

Mallard, Mandarin, Red-crested Pochard, Teal, Muscovy and Eider are all types of what?

Persuasion is Jane Austen 's last completed novel , published posthumously . She began it soon after she had finished Emma and completed it in August 1816 . Persuasion was published in December 1817 , but is dated 1818 . The author died earlier in 1817 . As the Napoleonic Wars come to an end in 1814 , Admirals and Captains of the Royal Navy are put ashore , their work done . Anne Elliot meets Captain Frederick Wentworth after seven years , by the chance of his sister and brother-in-law renting her father 's estate , while she stays for a few months with her married sister , living nearby . They fell in love the first time , but she broke off the engagement . Besides the theme of persuasion , the novel evokes other topics , with which Austen was familiar : the Royal Navy , in which two of Jane Austen 's brothers rose to the rank of admiral ; and the superficial social life of Bath . It is portrayed extensively and serves as a setting for the second half of Persuasion . In many respects , Persuasion marks a break with Austen 's previous works , both in the more biting , even irritable satire directed at some of the novel 's characters and in the regretful , resigned outlook of its otherwise admirable heroine , Anne Elliot , in the first part of the story . Against this is set the energy and appeal of the Royal Navy , which symbolises for Anne and the reader the possibility of a more outgoing , engaged , and fulfilling life , and it is this worldview which triumphs for the most part at the end of the novel . Persuasion is linked to Northanger Abbey not only by the fact that the two books were originally bound up in one volume and published together , but also because both stories are set partly in Bath , a fashionable city with which Austen was well acquainted , having lived there from 1801 to 1805 . Title as variation on a theme Although readers of Persuasion might conclude that Austen intended `` persuasion '' to be the unifying theme of the story , the book 's title is not hers but her brother Henry 's , who named it after her untimely death . Certainly the idea of persuasion runs through the book , with vignettes within the story as variations on that theme . But there is no known source that documents what Austen intended to call her novel . Whatever her intentions might have been , she spoke of it as The Elliots , according to family tradition , and some critics believe that is probably the title she planned for it . As for Northanger Abbey , published at the same time , it was probably her brother Henry who chose that title as well . On the other hand , the literary scholar Gillian Beer establishes that Austen had profound concerns about the levels and applications of `` persuasion '' employed in society , especially as it related to the pressures and choices facing the young women of her day . Beer writes that for Austen and her readers , persuasion was indeed `` fraught with moral dangers '' ; she notes particularly that Austen personally was appalled by what she came to regard as her own misguided advice to her beloved niece Fanny Knight on the very question of whether Fanny ought to accept a particular suitor , even though it would have meant a protracted engagement . Beer writes : Fanny ultimately rejected her suitor and after her aunt 's death married someone else . Thus , Beer explains , Austen was keenly aware that the human quality of persuasion—to persuade or to be persuaded , rightly or wrongly—is fundamental to the process of human communication , and that , in her novel `` Jane Austen gradually draws out the implications of discriminating 'just ' and 'unjust ' persuasion . '' Indeed , the narrative winds through a number of situations in which people are influencing or attempting to influence other people—or themselves . Finally , Beer calls attention to `` the novel 's entire brooding on the power pressures , the seductions , and also the new pathways opened by persuasion '' . Plot introduction Over seven years before the novel opens , Anne Elliot , then a lovely , thoughtful , warm-hearted 19-year-old , accepted a proposal of marriage from the handsome young naval officer Frederick Wentworth . He was clever , confident , and ambitious , but poor and with no particular family connections to recommend him . Sir Walter , Anne 's vain father and her equally self-involved older sister Elizabeth were dissatisfied with her choice , maintaining that he was no match for an Elliot of Kellynch Hall , the family estate . Her older friend and mentor , Lady Russell , acting in place of Anne 's late mother , persuaded her to break the engagement , for she , too , felt it was an imprudent match for one so young . They are the only ones who know about this short engagement , as younger sister Mary was away at school . Plot summary The Elliot family is in financial trouble , needing to reduce expenses . The family estate , Kellynch Hall will be let , and the family will settle in Bath until finances improve . Baronet Sir Walter , the vain , socially-conscious father and his eldest daughter Elizabeth look forward to the move . Second daughter Anne Elliot is less sure she will enjoy Bath , so she plans visits before joining her father and sister . Anne takes after her late mother , while Elizabeth takes after her father . The youngest sister Mary is married to Charles Musgrove of nearby Uppercross Hall , the heir to a respected local squire . Anne finishes tasks of moving out , and then visits Mary and her family ; Anne is well-loved by her sister 's children and in-laws . During that visit , Wentworth reenters Anne 's life . Kellynch 's tenants are Wentworth 's sister , Sophia , and her husband , the recently retired Admiral Croft . Frederick visits his sister and soon meets the Uppercross family , including Anne . The Musgroves , including Mary , Charles , and Charles 's sisters , Henrietta and Louisa , are happy to welcome the Crofts and Wentworth . He is cautious with Anne , whom he says he almost does not recognize , and friendly and attentive with the Musgrove girls , who both respond in kind . Henrietta is engaged to her clergyman cousin Charles Hayter , who is away for the first few days that Wentworth joins their social circle . Both the Crofts and Musgroves enjoy speculating about which sister Wentworth might marry . Once Hayter returns , Charles Musgrove persuades his sister to talk with him again , leaving the field to Louisa . Anne still loves Wentworth , so each meeting with him requires preparation for her own strong emotions . She overhears a conversation where Louisa mentions to Wentworth that Charles first proposed to Anne , who turned him down . This is startling news to him . Anne and the young adults of the Uppercross family accompany Captain Wentworth on a visit to two of his brother officers , Captain Harville and Captain James Benwick , in the coastal town of Lyme Regis . Benwick is in mourning for the death of his fiancée , Captain Harville 's sister , and he appreciates Anne 's sympathy and understanding . He admires the Romantic poets , whom Anne reads also . The visit to Lyme agrees with Anne , who shows the life and sparkle that Captain Wentworth remembered . She attracts the attention of a gentleman passing through Lyme , the heir to the Elliot estate , William Elliot , who broke ties with Sir Walter many years earlier . At first sight , he does not know who she is . The last morning of the visit , Louisa Musgrove sustains a serious concussion in a fall brought about by her impetuous behaviour with Wentworth . Anne coolly administers first aid and summons assistance . Wentworth is impressed with Anne , while feeling guilty about his actions with Louisa . He re-examines his feelings about Anne . Following this sad accident , Anne travels to Bath with Lady Russell to join her father and sister , while Louisa , and her parents , stay in Lyme to recover her health at the Harvilles . Wentworth visits his older brother in Shropshire . In Bath , Anne finds that her father and sister adapt to their new home . They are flattered by the attentions of William Elliot , recently widowed , who has now reconciled with Sir Walter . Elizabeth assumes that he wishes to court her while Lady Russell more correctly suspects that he admires Anne . Although Anne likes William Elliot and enjoys his company , she finds his character disturbingly opaque . Admiral Croft and his wife arrive in Bath , and soon afterward comes the news that Louisa Musgrove is engaged to Captain Benwick . Wentworth comes to Bath , where he is not pleased to see Mr Elliot courting Anne , which Anne notices . He and Anne renew their acquaintance . Anne visits an old school friend , Mrs Smith , who is now a widow living in Bath in straitened circumstances . Through her she discovers that behind his charming veneer , Mr Elliot is a cold , calculating opportunist who had led Mrs Smith 's late husband into crippling debt , and as executor to her husband 's will , takes no actions to improve her situation . Although Mrs Smith believes that he is genuinely attracted to Anne , she feels that his first aim is preventing Mrs Clay from marrying Sir Walter . A new marriage might mean a new son , and the end of Mr Elliott 's inheritance . Anne is shocked and dismayed by this news . The Musgroves visit Bath to purchase wedding clothes for Louisa and Henrietta , both soon to marry . Captains Wentworth and Harville encounter them and Anne at the Musgroves ' hotel in Bath , where Wentworth overhears Anne and Harville conversing about the relative faithfulness of men and women in love . Deeply moved by what Anne has to say about women never giving up their feelings of love even when all hope is lost , Wentworth writes her a note declaring his feelings for her . Outside the hotel , Anne and Wentworth reconcile , affirm their love for each other , and renew their engagement . William Elliot leaves Bath with Mrs Clay , whose charming ways may yet attract him . Lady Russell admits she was wrong about Wentworth ; she and Anne remain friends . Once Anne and Frederick marry , he helps Mrs Smith recover some of her lost assets . Anne settles into life as the wife of a Navy captain , he who is to be called away when his country needs him . Literary significance and criticism While writing Persuasion , Austen became ill with the disease that would kill her less than two years later . As a result , the novel is both shorter and arguably less polished than Mansfield Park and Emma since it was not subject to the author 's usual careful retrospective revision . Although the impact of Austen 's failing health at the time of writing Persuasion can not be overlooked , the novel is strikingly original in several ways . It is the first of Austen 's novels to feature as the central character a woman who , by the standards of the time , is past the first bloom of youth . Austen biographer Claire Tomalin characterises the book as Austen 's `` present to herself , to Miss Sharp , to Cassandra , to Martha Lloyd . . . to all women who had lost their chance in life and would never enjoy a second spring . '' The novel is described in the introduction to the Penguin Classics edition as a great Cinderella story . It features a heroine who is generally unappreciated and to some degree exploited by those around her ; a handsome prince who appears on the scene but seems more interested in the `` more obvious '' charms of others ; a moment of realisation ; and the final happy ending . It has been said that it is not that Anne is unloved , but rather that those around her no longer see her clearly : she is such a fixed part of their lives that her likes and dislikes , wishes and dreams are no longer considered , even by those who claim to value her , like Lady Russell . At the same time , the novel is a paean to the self-made man and the power and prestige of the Royal Navy . Captain Wentworth is just one of several upwardly mobile officers in the story who have risen from humble beginnings to affluence and status on the strength of merit and pluck , not inheritance . It reflects a period in Britain when the very shape of society was changing , as landed wealth ( exemplified by Sir Walter ) finds it necessary to accommodate the growing prominence of the nouveau riche ( such as Wentworth and the Crofts ) . The success of two of Austen 's brothers in the Royal Navy is probably significant . There are also clear parallels with the earlier novel Mansfield Park , which also emphasised , in a rather different context , the importance of constancy in the face of adversity , and the need to endure . As in her earlier novels , Austen makes some biting comments about `` family '' and how one chooses whom to associate with . Mary Musgrove wants to nurse her sister-in-law Louisa but does not want to stay home to care for her own injured son if it means she will miss making the acquaintance of the famous Captain Wentworth . Elizabeth prefers the plebeian Mrs Clay to her own sister , and avidly seeks the attentions of Lady Dalrymple who is `` amongst the nobility of England and Ireland . '' Through her heroine 's words , Austen also makes a powerful point about the condition of women as `` rational creatures '' who are nevertheless at the mercy of males when it comes to recounting their own story through history and books , nearly all of which have been produced by men , and many of which castigate women 's `` inconstancy '' and `` fickleness . '' `` Men have had every advantage of us in telling their own story . . . the pen has been in their hands , '' Anne tells Captain Harville . `` I will not allow books to prove anything . '' ( Persuasion Volume 2 Chapter 11 ) . Austen ends her last completed novel on a note similar in many respects to Pride and Prejudice . The heroine marries for love , with money , moves into a social , emotional , and intellectual sphere worthy of her , and leaves her less admirable connections behind . Main characters Sir Walter Elliot , Bt . — A vain , self-satisfied baronet , Sir Walter 's extravagance since the death of his prudent wife 13 years before has put his family in financial straits . These are severe enough to force him to lease his estate , Kellynch Hall , to Admiral Croft and take a more economical residence in Bath . Despite being strongly impressed by wealth and status he allows the insinuating Mrs Clay , who is beneath him in social standing , in his household as a companion to his eldest daughter . Elizabeth Elliot — The eldest and most beautiful daughter of Sir Walter encourages her father 's imprudent spending and extravagance . She and her father regard Anne as inconsequential . Elizabeth wants to marry , and has run the Elliot household since her mother died a dozen years earlier . Anne Elliot — The second daughter of Sir Walter is intelligent , accomplished and attractive , and she is unmarried at 27 , having broken off her engagement to Wentworth over seven years earlier . She fell in love with Captain Wentworth but was persuaded by her mentor , Lady Russell , to reject his proposal because of his poverty and uncertain future and her youth . Anne rejects a proposal a few years later , knowing she loves Wentworth . Mary Musgrove — The youngest daughter of Sir Walter , married to Charles Musgrove , is attention-seeking , always looking for ways she might have been slighted or not given her full due , and often claims illness when she is upset . She opposes sister-in-law Henrietta 's interest in marrying Charles Hayter , who Mary feels is beneath them . Charles Musgrove — Husband of Mary and heir to the Musgrove estate . He first proposed to Anne , who said no . He married Mary about five years before the story opens , and they have two sons . He is a cheerful man , who loves hunting , and easily endures his wife 's faults . Lady Russell — A friend of the Elliots , particularly Anne , of whom she is the godmother . She is instrumental in Sir Walter 's decision to leave Kellynch Hall and avoid financial crisis . Years earlier , she persuaded Anne to turn down Captain Wentworth 's proposal of marriage . She was the intimate friend of the mother , and has watched over the three sisters since their mother died . She values social rank and finds in Anne the daughter most like her late friend . Mrs Clay — A poor widow with children , daughter of Sir Walter 's lawyer , and companion of Elizabeth Elliot . She aims to flatter Sir Walter into marriage , while her oblivious friend looks on . Captain Frederick Wentworth — A naval officer who was briefly engaged to Anne some years ago . At the time , he had no fortune and uncertain prospects , but owing to his achievements in the Napoleonic Wars , he advanced in rank and in fortunes . He is one of two brothers of Sophia Croft . He gained his step to post Captain , and gained wealth amounting to about £25,000 from prize money awarded for capturing enemy vessels . He is an eminently eligible bachelor . Admiral Croft — Good-natured , plainspoken tenant at Kellynch Hall and brother-in-law of Captain Wentworth . In his naval career , he was a captain when he married , present at the major battle of Trafalgar in 1805 , then assigned in the east Indies , and holds the rank of rear admiral of the white . Sophia Croft — Sister of Captain Wentworth and wife of Admiral Croft for the last 15 years . She is 38 years old . She offers Anne an example of a strong-minded woman who has married for love instead of money and who has a good life married to a Navy man . Louisa Musgrove — Second sister of Charles Musgrove , Louisa , aged about 19 , is a high-spirited young lady who has returned with her sister from school . She likes Captain Wentworth and seeks his attention . She is ultimately engaged to Captain Benwick , after recovering from her serious fall . Her brother Charles notices that she is less lively after suffering the concussion . Henrietta Musgrove — Eldest sister of Charles Musgrove . Henrietta , aged about 20 , is informally engaged to her cousin , Charles Hayter , but is nevertheless tempted by the more dashing Captain Wentworth . Once he returns home , she again connects with Hayter . Captain Harville — A friend of Captain Wentworth . Wounded two years previously , he is slightly lame . Wentworth had not seen his friend since the time of that injury . Harville and his family are settled in nearby Lyme for the winter . Captain James Benwick — A friend of Captains Harville and Wentworth . Benwick had been engaged to marry Captain Harville 's sister Fanny , but she died while Benwick was at sea . He gained prize money as a lieutenant and not long after was promoted to commander ( thus called Captain ) . Benwick 's enjoyment of reading gives him a connection with Anne , as does her willingness to listen to him in his time of deep sadness . He might have enjoyed more time with her , before she returned to Lady Russell , but that did not occur . Benwick was with Louisa Musgrove the whole time of her recovery , at the end of which , they become engaged to marry . Mr William Elliot — A distant relation ( `` great grandson of the second Sir Walter '' when it is not stated from which Sir Walter the present one descends ) and the heir presumptive of Sir Walter , Mr Elliot became estranged from the family when he wed a woman of lower social rank for her fortune and actively insulted Sir Walter . Sir Walter and Elizabeth had hoped William would marry Elizabeth Elliot . He is a widower , and now has interest in the social value of the title that he will someday inherit . He mends the rupture to keep an eye on the ambitious Mrs Clay . If Sir Walter married her , William 's inheritance would be endangered . When Mr Elliot sees Anne by chance , and then learns she is Sir Walter 's daughter , his interest is piqued : if he could marry Anne his title and inheritance likely would be secured because her father would be less inclined to disinherit his daughter . Rumors circulate in Bath that Anne and he are attached . Mrs Smith — A friend of Anne Elliot who lives in Bath . Mrs Smith is a widow who suffers ill health and financial difficulties . She keeps abreast of the doings of Bath society through news she gets from her nurse , Rooke , who tends the wife of a friend of William Elliot 's . Her financial problems could have been straightened out with assistance from William Elliot , her husband 's friend and executor of his will , but Elliot would not exert himself , leaving her much impoverished . Wentworth eventually acts on her behalf . Lady Dalrymple — A viscountess , cousin to Sir Walter . She occupies an exalted position in society by virtue of wealth and rank . Sir Walter and Elizabeth are eager to be seen at Bath in the company of this great relation . Allusions/references within other works This novel is mentioned in a major 1969 novel , and inspired many modern versions or follow-on stories in the 21st century . * Persuasion is referenced in John Fowles 's The French Lieutenant 's Woman ( 1969 ) ( ISBN 0-224-61654-4 ) . * The plot of Helen Fielding 's Bridget Jones : The Edge of Reason ( 2001 ) ( ISBN 978-0140298475 ) is loosely based on Persuasion — Fielding paid extra tribute by naming the fourth chapter of Reason straight after the Austen novel . * Persuading Annie ( 2004 ) ( ISBN 978-0060595807 ) , a novel by Melissa Nathan , is a modern version of Persuasion . * Persuasion is featured in the 2006 movie The Lake House , and provides a thematic background for the lovers . * The novel is referenced in 2004 novel The Jane Austen Book Club , by Karen Joy Fowler , which was later made into a film by the same name in 2007 . * Persuasion is quoted in the movie The Book of Ruth which was made for television in 2004 . ( The Book of Ruth was originally a novel by Jane Hamilton . ) * Jane Austen in Scarsdale : Or Love , Death , and the SATs , ( 2007 ) ( ISBN 978-0312366575 ) a novel by Paula Marantz Cohen , is based on the plot of Persuasion . Cohen 's novel features Anne Ehrlich , a high school guidance counselor dealing with parents ' and students ' anxiety over college admissions . * Captain Wentworth 's Diary by Amanda Grange ( 2008 ) ( ISBN 978-1440630385 ) is a parallel novel , showing the story from Wentworth 's point of view . * The Family Fortune , a novel by Laurie Horowitz ( 2009 ) ( ISBN 978-0061868436 ) , is a modern version of Persuasion set in Boston , Massachusetts . * Echoes of Love ( 21st Century Austen # 5 ) , a novel by Rosie Rushton ( 2010 ) ( ISBN 978-1848120549 ) , is a modern version of Anne 's story , from Rusthon 's 21st century Austen series . * Persuade Me ( Darcy & Friends # 2 ) , a novel by Juliet Archer ( 2011 ) ( ISBN 978-1906931216 ) is a modern version of Persuasion . * For Darkness Shows the Stars , a novel by Diana Peterfreund ( 2012 ) ( ISBN 978-0062114372 ) , is a post-apocalyptic retelling of Persuasion . * Connivance ( 2013 ) ( ISBN 978-1-4475-6190-3 ) , a novel by Helen Baker , is a continuation of Persuasion in which clever Mrs Clay continues to charm both Sir Walter Elliot and Mr Elliot , his heir . * Sway ( 2015 ) ( ISBN 978-1-61923-224-2 ) , a novel by Melanie Stanford , is a modern version of Persuasion set in Los Angeles . Adaptations Persuasion has been the subject of several adaptations . Television * 1960 : Persuasion , BBC miniseries starring Daphne Slater as Anne and Paul Daneman as Captain Wentworth . * 1971 : Persuasion , BBC miniseries starring Anne Firbank as Anne and Bryan Marshall as Captain Wentworth . * 1995 : Persuasion , made-for-television film ( which was released in US theatres by Sony Pictures Classics ) starring Amanda Root as Anne and Ciarán Hinds as Captain Wentworth . * 2007 : Persuasion , teleplay , filmed in Bath in September 2006 for ITV1 , with Sally Hawkins as Anne , Rupert Penry-Jones as Captain Wentworth . Theatre * 2010 : Persuasion , a musical drama adapted from the novel by Barbara Landis , using music from the period selected from Austen 's own writings . It was performed by Chamber Opera Chicago first in 2010 , and subsequently performed in New York and several cities in England , in 2013 and 2014 . * 2011 : An adaptation for the stage of Persuasion by Tim Luscombe , was produced by Salisbury Playhouse in 2011 . * 2012 : Persuasion , adapted for the theatre by Jon Jory , world-premiere at Onstage Playhouse in Chula Vista , CA

sfq_22280--Persuasion_(novel).txt

In which Jane Austen novel is Frederick Wentworth the lover of Anne Elliot?

A water clock or clepsydra ( Greek κλεψύδρα from κλέπτειν kleptein , 'to steal ' ; ὕδωρ hydor , 'water ' ) is any timepiece in which time is measured by the regulated flow of liquid into ( inflow type ) or out from ( outflow type ) a vessel where the amount is then measured . Water clocks , along with sundials and hourglasses , are likely to be the oldest time-measuring instruments , with the only exceptions being the vertical gnomon and the day-counting tally stick . Where and when they were first invented is not known , and given their great antiquity it may never be . The bowl-shaped outflow is the simplest form of a water clock and is known to have existed in Babylon and in Egypt around the 16th century BC . Other regions of the world , including India and China , also have early evidence of water clocks , but the earliest dates are less certain . Some authors , however , claim that water clocks appeared in China as early as 4000 BC . Some modern timepieces are called `` water clocks '' but work differently from the ancient ones . Their timekeeping is governed by a pendulum , but they use water for other purposes , such as providing the power needed to drive the clock by using a water wheel or something similar , or by having water in their displays . The Greeks and Romans advanced water clock design to include the inflow clepsydra with an early feedback system , gearing , and escapement mechanism , which were connected to fanciful automata and resulted in improved accuracy . Further advances were made in Byzantium , Syria and Mesopotamia , where increasingly accurate water clocks incorporated complex segmental and epicyclic gearing , water wheels , and programmability , advances which eventually made their way to Europe . Independently , the Chinese developed their own advanced water clocks , incorporating gears , escapement mechanisms , and water wheels , passing their ideas on to Korea and Japan . Some water clock designs were developed independently and some knowledge was transferred through the spread of trade . These early water clocks were calibrated with a sundial . While never reaching a level of accuracy comparable to today 's standards of timekeeping , the water clock was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for millennia , until it was replaced by more accurate pendulum clocks in 17th-century Europe . A water clock , also known as a clepsydra , uses a flow of water to measure time . If viscosity is neglected , the physical principle required to study such clocks is the Torricelli 's law . There are two types of water clocks : inflow and outflow . In an outflow water clock , a container is filled with water , and the water is drained slowly and evenly out of the container . This container has markings that are used to show the passage of time . As the water leaves the container , an observer can see where the water is level with the lines and tell how much time has passed . An inflow water clock works in basically the same way , except instead of flowing out of the container , the water is filling up the marked container . As the container fills , the observer can see where the water meets the lines and tell how much time has passed . Regional development Persia According to Callisthenes , the Persians were using water clocks in 328 BCE to ensure a just and exact distribution of water from qanats to their shareholders for agricultural irrigation . The use of water clocks in Iran , especially in Zibad , dates back to 500BCE . Later they were also used to determine the exact holy days of pre-Islamic religions , such as the Nowruz , Chelah , or Yaldā - the shortest , longest , and equal-length days and nights of the years . The water clocks used in Iran were one of the most practical ancient tools for timing the yearly calendar . [ http : //www.aftabir.com/articles/view/science_education/technical/c3c1183387267p1.php/ % D9 % 82 % D9 % 86 % D8 % A7 % D8 % AA- % D9 % 85 % DB % 8C % D8 % B1 % D8 % A7 % D8 % AB- % D9 % 81 % D8 % B1 % D9 % 87 % D9 % 86 % DA % AF % DB % 8C- % D9 % 88- % D8 % B9 % D9 % 84 % D9 % 85 % DB % 8C- % D8 % A7 % DB % 8C % D8 % B1 % D8 % A7 % D9 % 86 % DB % 8C % D8 % A7 % D9 % 86 Conference of Qanat in Iran - water clock in Persia 1383 ] , in Persian [ http : //www.farheekhtegan.ir/newspaper/pagepdf/16545 ] The water clock , or Fenjaan , was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for calculating the amount or the time that a farmer must take water from a qanat or well for irrigation , until it was replaced by more accurate current clocks . [ http : //parssea.org/ ? p=2734 ] [ http : //vista.ir/article/265134/ % D9 % 82 % D9 % 86 % D8 % A7 % D8 % AA- % D9 % 85 % DB % 8C % D8 % B1 % D8 % A7 % D8 % AB- % D9 % 81 % D8 % B1 % D9 % 87 % D9 % 86 % DA % AF % DB % 8C- % D9 % 88- % D8 % B9 % D9 % 84 % D9 % 85 % DB % 8C- % D8 % A7 % DB % 8C % D8 % B1 % D8 % A7 % D9 % 86 % DB % 8C % D8 % A7 % D9 % 86 ] -Persian water clocks were a practical and useful tool for the qanat 's shareholders to calculate the length of time they could divert water to their farm . The qanat ( Kariz ) was the only water source for agriculture and irrigation so a just and fair water distribution was very important . Therefore , a very fair and clever old person was elected to be the manager of the water clock ( MirAab ) , and at least two full-time managers were needed to control and observe the number of fenjaans and announce the exact time during the days and nights . The Fenjaan consisted of a large pot full of water and a bowl with a small hole in the center . When the bowl became full of water , it would sink into the pot , and the manager would empty the bowl and again put it on the top of the water in the pot . He would record the number of times the bowl sank by putting small stones into a jar . The place where the clock was situated , and its managers , were collectively known as khaneh Fenjaan . Usually this would be the top floor of a public-house , with west- and east-facing windows to show the time of Sunset and Sunrise . There was also another time-keeping tool named a staryab or astrolabe , but it was mostly used for superstitious beliefs and was not practical for use as a farmers ' calendar . The Zeebad Gonabad water clock was in use until 1965 when it was substituted by modern clocks . Egypt The oldest water clock of which there is physical evidence dates to c. 1417-1379 BCE , during the reign of Amenhotep III where it was used in the Temple of Amen-Re at Karnak . The oldest documentation of the water clock is the tomb inscription of the 16th century BCE Egyptian court official Amenemhet , which identifies him as its inventor . These simple water clocks , which were of the outflow type , were stone vessels with sloping sides that allowed water to drip at a nearly constant rate from a small hole near the bottom . There were twelve separate columns with consistently spaced markings on the inside to measure the passage of `` hours '' as the water level reached them . The columns were for each of the twelve months to allow for the variations of the seasonal hours . These clocks were used by priests to determine the time at night so that the temple rites and sacrifices could be performed at the correct hour . These clocks may have been used in daylight as well . Babylon In Babylon , water clocks were of the outflow type and were cylindrical in shape . Use of the water clock as an aid to astronomical calculations dates back to the Old Babylonian period ( c. 2000 BCE–c . 1600 BCE ) . While there are no surviving water clocks from the Mesopotamian region , most evidence of their existence comes from writings on clay tablets . Two collections of tablets , for example , are the Enuma-Anu-Enlil ( 1600–1200 BCE ) and the MUL.APIN ( 7th century BC ) . In these tablets , water clocks are used in reference to payment of the night and day watches ( guards ) . These clocks were unique , as they did not have an indicator such as hands ( as are typically used today ) or grooved notches ( as were used in Egypt ) . Instead , these clocks measured time `` by the weight of water flowing from '' it . The volume was measured in capacity units called qa . The weight , mana ( the Greek unit for about one pound ) , is the weight of water in a water clock . It is important to note that during Babylonian times , time was measured with temporal hours . So , as seasons changed , so did the length of a day . `` To define the length of a 'night watch ' at the summer solstice , one had to pour two mana of water into a cylindrical clepsydra ; its emptying indicated the end of the watch . One-sixth of a mana had to be added each succeeding half-month . At equinox , three mana had to be emptied in order to correspond to one watch , and four mana were emptied for each watch of the winter solstitial night . '' India N. Kameswara Rao proved that pots excavated from Mohenjo daro dating back to 2800 BCE had been used as water clocks . They are tapered at the bottom , have a hole on the side , and are similar to the utensil used to perform abhishekam ( pour holy water ) on shivalingam . N. Narahari Achar and Subhash Kak suggest that the use of the water clock in ancient India is mentioned in the Atharvaveda from the 2nd millennium BCE . Ghati or Kapala ( clepsydra or water clock ) is referred to in Jyotisha Vedanga , where the amount of water that measures a nadika ( 24 minutes ) is mentioned . A more developed form of the clepsydra is described in chapter xiii , 23 of the Suryasiddhanta . At Nalanda , a Buddhist university , four hours a day and four hours at night were measured by a water clock , which consisted of a copper bowl holding two large floats in a larger bowl filled with water . The bowl was filled with water from a small hole at its bottom ; it sank when completely filled and was marked by the beating of a drum at daytime . The amount of water added varied with the seasons and this clock was operated by the students of the university . The description of a water clock in astrologer Varahimira 's Pancasiddhantika ( 505 ) adds further detail to the account given in the Suryasiddhanta . The description given by mathematician Brahmagupta in his work Brahmasphutasiddhanta matches with that given in the Suryasiddhanta . Astronomer Lallacharya describes this instrument in detail . In practice , the dimensions were determined by experiment . China In China , as well as throughout eastern Asia , water clocks were very important in the study of astronomy and astrology . The oldest archaeological evidence of a water clock is around 4000 BCE . The oldest written reference dates the use of the water-clock in China to the 6th century BCE . From about 200 BCE onwards , the outflow clepsydra was replaced almost everywhere in China by the inflow type with an indicator-rod borne on a float . Huan Tan ( 40 BCE – 30 CE ) , a Secretary at the Court in charge of clepsydrae , wrote that he had to compare clepsydrae with sundials because of how temperature and humidity affected their accuracy , demonstrating that the effects of evaporation , as well as of temperature on the speed at which water flows , were known at this time . In 976 , Zhang Sixun addressed the problem of the water in clepsydrae freezing in cold weather by using liquid mercury instead . Again , instead of using water , the early Ming Dynasty engineer Zhan Xiyuan ( c. 1360-1380 ) created a sand-driven wheel clock , improved upon by Zhou Shuxue ( c. 1530-1558 ) . The use of clepsydrae to drive mechanisms illustrating astronomical phenomena began with Zhang Heng ( 78-139 ) in 117 , who also employed a waterwheel . Zhang Heng was the first in China to add an extra compensating tank between the reservoir and the inflow vessel , which solved the problem of the falling pressure head in the reservoir tank . Zhang 's ingenuity led to the creation by Yi Xing ( 683–727 ) and Liang Lingzan in 725 of a clock driven by a waterwheel linkwork escapement mechanism . The same mechanism would be used by Su Song ( 1020–1101 ) in 1088 to power his astronomical clock tower , as well as a chain drive . Su Song 's clock tower , over 30 ft tall , possessed a bronze power-driven armillary sphere for observations , an automatically rotating celestial globe , and five front panels with doors that permitted the viewing of changing mannequins which rang bells or gongs , and held tablets indicating the hour or other special times of the day . Today , in Beijing 's Drum Tower an outflow clepsydra is operational and displayed for tourists . It is connected to automata so that every quarter-hour a small brass statue of a man claps his cymbals . Greco-Roman world In Greece , a water clock was known as a clepsydra ( water thief ) . The Greeks considerably advanced the water clock by tackling the problem of the diminishing flow . They introduced several types of the inflow clepsydra , one of which included the earliest feedback control system . Ctesibius invented an indicator system typical for later clocks such as the dial and pointer . The Roman engineer Vitruvius described early alarm clocks , working with gongs or trumpets . A commonly used water clock was the simple outflow clepsydra . This small earthenware vessel had a hole in its side near the base . In both Greek and Roman times , this type of clepsydra was used in courts for allocating periods of time to speakers . In important cases , when a person 's life was at stake for example , it was filled . But , for more minor cases , it was only partially filled . If proceedings were interrupted for any reason , such as to examine documents , the hole in the clepsydra was stopped with wax until the speaker was able to resume his pleading . In the 4th century BCE , the clepsydra is known to have been used as a stop-watch for imposing a time limit on clients ' visits in Athenian brothels . Slightly later , in the early 3rd century BCE , the Hellenistic physician Herophilos employed a portable clepsydra on his house visits in Alexandria for measuring his patients ' pulse-beats . By comparing the rate by age group with empirically obtained data sets , he was able to determine the intensity of the disorder . Between 270 BCE and 500 CE , Hellenistic ( Ctesibius , Hero of Alexandria , Archimedes ) and Roman horologists and astronomers were developing more elaborate mechanized water clocks . The added complexity was aimed at regulating the flow and at providing fancier displays of the passage of time . For example , some water clocks rang bells and gongs , while others opened doors and windows to show figurines of people , or moved pointers , and dials . Some even displayed astrological models of the universe . The 3rd century BCE engineer Philo of Byzantium referred in his works to water clocks already fitted with an escapement mechanism , the earliest known of its kind . The biggest achievement of the invention of clepsydrae during this time , however , was by Ctesibius with his incorporation of gears and a dial indicator to automatically show the time as the lengths of the days changed throughout the year , because of the temporal timekeeping used during his day . Also , a Greek astronomer , Andronicus of Cyrrhus , supervised the construction of his Horologion , known today as the Tower of the Winds , in the Athens marketplace ( or agora ) in the first half of the 1st century BCE . This octagonal clocktower showed scholars and shoppers both sundials and mechanical hour indicators . It featured a 24-hour mechanized clepsydra and indicators for the eight winds from which the tower got its name , and it displayed the seasons of the year and astrological dates and periods . Medieval Islamic world In the medieval Islamic world ( 632-1280 ) , the use of water clocks has its roots from Archimedes during the rise of Alexandria in Egypt and continues on through Byzantium . The water clocks by Persian engineer Al-Jazari , however , are credited for going `` well beyond anything '' that had preceded them . In al-Jazari 's 1206 treatise , he describes one of his water clocks , the elephant clock . The clock recorded the passage of temporal hours , which meant that the rate of flow had to be changed daily to match the uneven length of days throughout the year . To accomplish this , the clock had two tanks , the top tank was connected to the time indicating mechanisms and the bottom was connected to the flow control regulator . Basically , at daybreak the tap was opened and water flowed from the top tank to the bottom tank via a float regulator that maintained a constant pressure in the receiving tank . The most sophisticated water-powered astronomical clock was Al-Jazari 's castle clock , considered by some to be an early example of a programmable analog computer , in 1206 . It was a complex device that was about 11 ft high , and had multiple functions alongside timekeeping . It included a display of the zodiac and the solar and lunar orbits , and a pointer in the shape of the crescent moon which traveled across the top of a gateway , moved by a hidden cart and causing automatic doors to open , each revealing a mannequin , every hour . Routledge Hill , Donald , `` Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East '' , Scientific American , May 1991 , pp . 64–69 . ( cf . Donald Routledge Hill , [ http : //home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm Mechanical Engineering ] ) It was possible to re-program the length of day and night in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year , and it also featured five musician automata who automatically play music when moved by levers operated by a hidden camshaft attached to a water wheel . Other components of the castle clock included a main reservoir with a float , a float chamber and flow regulator , plate and valve trough , two pulleys , crescent disc displaying the zodiac , and two falcon automata dropping balls into vases . The first water clocks to employ complex segmental and epicyclic gearing was invented earlier by the Arab engineer Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi in Islamic Iberia c. 1000 . His water clocks were driven by water wheels , as was also the case for several Chinese water clocks in the 11th century . Comparable water clocks were built in Damascus and Fez . The latter ( Dar al-Magana ) remains until today and its mechanism has been reconstructed . The first European clock to employ these complex gears was the astronomical clock created by Giovanni de Dondi in c. 1365 . Like the Chinese , Arab engineers at the time also developed an escapement mechanism which they employed in some of their water clocks . The escapement mechanism was in the form of a constant-head system , while heavy floats were used as weights.Hassan , Ahmad Y , [ http : //www.history-science-technology.com/Articles/articles % 2071.htm Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West , Part II : Transmission Of Islamic Engineering ] , History of Science and Technology in Islam Korea In 1434 during the Choson ( or Joseon ) Dynasty , Chang Yongsil ( or Jang Young Sil ) ( 장영실 in Korean ) , Palace Guard and later Chief Court Engineer , constructed the Jagyeongnu ( self-striking water clock or striking clepsydra ) for King Sejong . What made the Jagyeongnu self-striking ( or automatic ) was the use of jack-work mechanisms , by which three wooden figures ( jacks ) struck objects to signal the time . This innovation no longer required the reliance of human workers , known as `` rooster men '' , to constantly replenish it . By 1554 , the water clock spread from Korea to Japan . Water clocks were used and improved upon throughout Asia well into the 15th century . Modern water clock designs Only a few modern water clocks exist today . In 1979 , French scientist Bernard Gitton began creating his Time-Flow Clocks , which are a modern-day approach to the historical version . His unique glass tube designs can be found in over 30 locations throughout the world , including one at Europa-Center 's The Clock of Flowing Time in Berlin , Centre Commercial Milenis in Guadeloupe , the Giant Water Clock at The Children 's Museum of Indianapolis in Indianapolis , Indiana , the Abbotsford International Airport ( formerly at Sevenoaks Shopping Centre ) in Abbotsford , British Columbia , and the Shopping Iguatemi in São Paulo and Porto Alegre , Brazil . Gitton 's design relies on gravity powering multiple siphons in same principle as the Pythagorean cup ; for example , after the water level in the minute or hour display tubes is reached , an overflow tube starts to act as a siphon and thus empties the display tube . Actual time keeping is done by a calibrated pendulum powered by a water stream piped from the clock 's reservoir . The pendulum has a carefully constructed container attached to it ; this measures the water that is then poured into the display system . There are other modern designs of water clocks , including the Royal Gorge water clock in Colorado , the Woodgrove Mall in Nanaimo , British Columbia , and the Hornsby Water Clock in Sydney , Australia . Temperature , water viscosity , and clock accuracy When viscosity can be neglected , the outflow rate of the water is governed by the Torricelli 's law , or more generally , by the Bernoulli 's principle . Viscosity will dominate the outflow rate if the water flows out through a nozzle that is sufficiently long and thin , as given by the Hagen–Poiseuille equation . Approximately , the flow rate is for such design inversely proportional to the viscosity , which depends on the temperature . Liquids generally become less viscous as the temperature increases . In the case of water , the viscosity varies by a factor of about seven between zero and 100 degrees Celsius . Thus , a water clock with such a nozzle would run about seven times faster at 100 °C than at 0 °C . Water is about 25 percent more viscous at 20 °C than at 30 °C , and a variation in temperature of one degree Celsius , in this `` room temperature '' range , produces a change of viscosity of about two percent . Therefore , a water clock with such a nozzle that keeps good time at some given temperature would gain or lose about half an hour per day if it were one degree Celsius warmer or cooler . To make it keep time within one minute per day would require its temperature to be controlled within °C ( about ° Fahrenheit ) . There is no evidence that this was done in antiquity , so ancient water clocks with sufficiently thin and long nozzles ( unlike the modern pendulum-controlled one described above ) can not have been reliably accurate by modern standards .

qw_3591--Water_clock.txt

The Babylonians invented the clepsydra. What was it?

Mark Lamarr ( born Mark Jones , 7 January 1967 ) is an English comedian , radio DJ , and television presenter . He was a team captain on Shooting Stars from 1995 to 1997 , and hosted Never Mind the Buzzcocks from 1996 to 2005 . Early life Lamarr was born in the Park South area of Swindon , Wiltshire . He has three elder sisters . His father is Irish . He passed five O-Levels at Park School ( renamed Oakfield School ) but dropped out of school at 17 and moved to Harrow , London , which was the centre of the early 1980s British rockabilly revival scene . After his poem Too Fast to Live , Too Young to Work was published in 1987 , his act developed from poetry to stand-up comedy . He took to performing at London 's Comedy Store in 1985 , was spotted on the touring circuit for the launch of Channel 4 's The Big Breakfast in 1992 and co-presented The Word . Career Television Lamarr first came to the public 's attention as a co-presenter of the early 1990s late night variety show The Word . The magazine format of the series allowed for interviews , live music , features and even game shows . The flexible late-night format meant that guests could do just about anything to be controversial . Talking about his TV career to Jo Brown of Cheers Magazine , Lamarr said The Word was : After leaving The Word , Lamarr was an outside presenter on The Big Breakfast from 1992 to 1996 . Between 1995 and 1997 he appeared as a team captain in the surreal panel show Shooting Stars , where he displayed a mixture of dour boredom and contempt towards hosts Vic Reeves and Bob Mortimer who , in turn , mocked his `` 50s throw-back '' appearance . Lamarr declined to return for the fourth series in 2002 , claiming he did not want to be typecast for appearing on panel shows . He said of his experience on the show : Lamarr was host of Never Mind the Buzzcocks when the show launched in 1996 and continued in this role for 17 series until 2005 . Under Lamarr , the show grew a reputation as a scathing , almost rebellion like stand against the boy bands and pop music that had dominated the music scene since the early '90s , a theme that was kept by his successor . Although Lamarr initially intended to return to Buzzcocks after one series away , he was ultimately replaced by Simon Amstell from the 19th series . The two series of the sitcom 15 Storeys High were co-written by Lamarr with comedian Sean Lock and Martin Trenaman , although Lamarr was credited under his real name , Mark Jones . Radio Lamarr has previously presented shows on BBC GLR , BBC Radio 5 and BBC Radio 1 . He also often guest presented the late night BBC Radio 2 show , sitting in for Mark Radcliffe . He hosted the show on the day that John Peel died ( 28 October 2004 ) . During this time he also had to cope with the BBC moving studios from Birmingham , so his link to Janice Long was often poor . On 20 July 1998 , Lamarr launched a new show on BBC Radio 2 called Shake , Rattle and Roll , where he played tracks from his own sizeable record collection of obscure rock and roll gems . He also presented The Reggae Show series and Mark Lamarr 's Alternative '60s , where he presents lesser known tracks from the 1960s . On 22 April 2006 , Lamarr started a new Radio 2 show called God 's Jukebox . The show aired from midnight to 3.00am on Saturdays where he played a wide variety of music from the previous 70 years including soul , ska , reggae , country , gospel and rap . He also , with Jo Brand , regularly covered the Jonathan Ross Saturday morning show on Radio 2 when Ross was away . His final God 's Jukebox show was broadcast Christmas Eve/Day , 2010 . At the end of 2010 Lamarr left Radio 2 , claiming the station had lost interest in non-mainstream music . Lamarr presented a music show for British Airways on-board listeners as part of their in-flight entertainment . In this show he presented a mix of rock and roll , blues , reggae , soul and R 'n B . Post-radio Lamarr has continued to produce various compilation albums for several record labels , with a focus on lesser-known rock 'n ' roll tracks . He produced a compilation for Vee-Tone Records in 2015 . Stand-up videos * Uncensored And Live ( 17 November 1997 )

qz_1189--Mark_Lamarr.txt

Which Channel 4 TV show's presenters included Mark Lamarr, Amanda De Cadenet and Terry Christian?

Anthrax is an infection caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis . It can occur in four forms : skin , inhalation , intestinal , and injection . Symptoms begin between one day and two months after contracting the infection . The skin form presents with a small blister with surrounding swelling that often turns into a painless ulcer with a black center . The inhalation form presents with fever , chest pain , and shortness of breath . The intestinal form presents with nausea , vomiting , diarrhea , or abdominal pain . The injection form presents with fever and an abscess at the site of drug injection . Anthrax is spread by contact with the spores of the bacteria , which are often from infectious animal products . Contact is by breathing , eating , or through an area of broken skin . It does not typically spread directly between people . Risk factors include people who work with animals or animal products , travelers , postal workers , and military personnel . Diagnosis can be confirmed based on finding antibodies or the toxin in the blood or by culture of a sample from the infected site . The anthrax vaccine is recommended for people who are at high risk . Immunizing animals against anthrax is recommended in areas where previous infections have occurred . Two months of antibiotics , such as doxycycline or ciprofloxacin , after exposure can also prevent infection . If infection occurs treatment is with antibiotics and possibly antitoxin . The type and number of antibiotics used depends on the type of infection . Antitoxin is recommended for those with widespread infection . Anthrax among people is most common in Africa and central and southern Asia . It also occurs fairly regularly in southern Europe , but is uncommon in northern Europe and North America . Globally , at least 2,000 cases occur a year , with about two cases a year in the United States . Skin infections represent more than 95 % of cases . Without treatment the risk of death from skin anthrax is 24 % . For intestinal infection the risk of death is 25 % to 75 % while in inhaled anthrax despite treatment it is around 50 % to 80 % . Until the 20th century , anthrax infections killed hundreds of thousands of people and other animals each year . Anthrax has been developed as a weapon by a number of countries . In plant eating animals infection occurs when they eat or breathe in the spores while grazing . Carnivores may become infected by eating infected animals . Signs and symptoms Skin Cutaneous anthrax , also known as Hide porter 's disease , is when anthrax occurs on the skin . It presents as a boil-like skin lesion that eventually forms an ulcer with a black center ( eschar ) . The black eschar often shows up as a large , painless necrotic ulcer ( beginning as an irritating and itchy skin lesion or blister that is dark and usually concentrated as a black dot , somewhat resembling bread mold ) at the site of infection . In general , cutaneous infections form within the site of spore penetration between two and five days after exposure . Unlike bruises or most other lesions , cutaneous anthrax infections normally do not cause pain . Cutaneous anthrax is typically caused when B. anthracis spores enter through cuts on the skin . This form is found most commonly when humans handle infected animals and/or animal products . Cutaneous anthrax is rarely fatal if treated , because the infection area is limited to the skin , preventing the lethal factor , edema factor , and protective antigen from entering and destroying a vital organ . Without treatment , about 20 % of cutaneous skin infection cases progress to toxemia and death . Lungs Respiratory infection in humans is relatively rare and initially presents with cold or flu-like symptoms for several days , followed by pneumonia and severe ( and often fatal ) respiratory collapse . Historical mortality rates were over 85 % , but , when treated early ( seen in the 2001 anthrax attacks ) , observed case fatality rate dropped to 45 % . Distinguishing pulmonary anthrax from more common causes of respiratory illness is essential to avoiding delays in diagnosis and thereby improving outcomes . An algorithm for this purpose has been developed . Gastrointestinal Gastrointestinal ( GI ) infection in humans is most often caused by consuming anthrax-infected meat and is characterized by serious GI difficulty , vomiting of blood , severe diarrhea , acute inflammation of the intestinal tract , and loss of appetite . Lesions have been found in the intestines and in the mouth and throat . After the bacterium invades the gastrointestinal system , it spreads to the bloodstream and throughout the body , while continuing to make toxins . GI infections can be treated , but usually result in fatality rates of 25 % to 60 % , depending upon how soon treatment commences . This form of anthrax is the rarest form . Cause Bacteria Bacillus anthracis is a rod-shaped , Gram-positive , aerobic bacterium about 1 by 9 μm in size . It was shown to cause disease by Robert Koch in 1876 when he took a blood sample from an infected cow , isolated the bacteria and put them into a mouse . The bacterium normally rests in endospore form in the soil , and can survive for decades in this state . Herbivores are often infected whilst grazing , especially when eating rough , irritant , or spiky vegetation : the vegetation has been hypothesized to cause wounds within the gastrointestinal tract permitting entry of the bacterial endospores into the tissues , though this has not been proven . Once ingested or placed in an open wound , the bacterium begins multiplying inside the animal or human and typically kills the host within a few days or weeks . The endospores germinate at the site of entry into the tissues and then spread by the circulation to the lymphatics , where the bacteria multiply . The production of two powerful exotoxins and lethal toxin by the bacteria causes death . Veterinarians can often tell a possible anthrax-induced death by its sudden occurrence , and by the dark , nonclotting blood that oozes from the body orifices . Most anthrax bacteria inside the body after death are outcompeted and destroyed by anaerobic bacteria within minutes to hours post mortem . However , anthrax vegetative bacteria that escape the body via oozing blood or through the opening of the carcass may form hardy spores . One spore forms per one vegetative bacterium . The triggers for spore formation are not yet known , though oxygen tension and lack of nutrients may play roles . Once formed , these spores are very hard to eradicate . The infection of herbivores ( and occasionally humans ) by the inhalational route normally proceeds as follows : Once the spores are inhaled , they are transported through the air passages into the tiny air sacs ( alveoli ) in the lungs . The spores are then picked up by scavenger cells ( macrophages ) in the lungs and are transported through small vessels ( lymphatics ) to the lymph nodes in the central chest cavity ( mediastinum ) . Damage caused by the anthrax spores and bacilli to the central chest cavity can cause chest pain and difficulty in breathing . Once in the lymph nodes , the spores germinate into active bacilli that multiply and eventually burst the macrophages , releasing many more bacilli into the bloodstream to be transferred to the entire body . Once in the blood stream , these bacilli release three proteins named lethal factor , edema factor , and protective antigen . The three are not toxic by themselves , but the combination is incredibly lethal to humans . Protective antigen combines with these other two factors to form lethal toxin and edema toxin , respectively . These toxins are the primary agents of tissue destruction , bleeding , and death of the host . If antibiotics are administered too late , even if the antibiotics eradicate the bacteria , some hosts will still die of toxemia because the toxins produced by the bacilli remain in their system at lethal dose levels . The lethality of the anthrax disease is due to the bacterium 's two principal virulence factors : the poly-D-glutamic acid capsule , which protects the bacterium from phagocytosis by host neutrophils , and the tripartite protein toxin , called anthrax toxin . Anthrax toxin is a mixture of three protein components : protective antigen ( PA ) , edema factor ( EF ) , and lethal factor ( LF ) . PA plus LF produces lethal toxin , and PA plus EF produces edema toxin . These toxins cause death and tissue swelling ( edema ) , respectively . To enter the cells , the edema and lethal factors use another protein produced by B. anthracis called protective antigen , which binds to two surface receptors on the host cell . A cell protease then cleaves PA into two fragments : PA20 and PA63 . PA20 dissociates into the extracellular medium , playing no further role in the toxic cycle . PA63 then oligomerizes with six other PA63 fragments forming a heptameric ring-shaped structure named a prepore . Once in this shape , the complex can competitively bind up to three EFs or LFs , forming a resistant complex . Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs next , providing the newly formed toxic complex access to the interior of the host cell . The acidified environment within the endosome triggers the heptamer to release the LF and/or EF into the cytosol . It is unknown how exactly the complex results in the death of the cell . Edema factor is a calmodulin-dependent adenylate cyclase . Adenylate cyclase catalyzes the conversion of ATP into cyclic AMP ( cAMP ) and pyrophosphate . The complexation of adenylate cyclase with calmodulin removes calmodulin from stimulating calcium-triggered signaling , thus inhibiting the immune response . To be specific , LF inactivates neutrophils ( a type of phagocytic cell ) by the process just described so they can not phagocytose bacteria . Throughout history , lethal factor was presumed to caused macrophages to make TNF-alpha and interleukin 1 , beta ( IL1B ) . TNF-alpha is a cytokine whose primary role is to regulate immune cells , as well as to induce inflammation and apoptosis or programmed cell death . Interleukin 1 , beta is another cytokine that also regulates inflammation and apoptosis . The overproduction of TNF-alpha and IL1B ultimately leads to septic shock and death . However , recent evidence indicates anthrax also targets endothelial cells that line serous cavities such as the pericardial cavity , pleural cavity , and the peritoneal cavity , lymph vessels , and blood vessels , causing vascular leakage of fluid and cells , and ultimately hypovolemic shock and septic shock . File : Bacillus Anthracis.png|Bacillus anthracis File : Anthrax color enhanced micrograph.JPG|Color-enhanced scanning electron micrograph shows splenic tissue from a monkey with inhalational anthrax ; featured are rod-shaped bacilli ( yellow ) and an erythrocyte ( red ) . File : Gram Stain Anthrax.jpg|Gram-positive anthrax bacteria ( purple rods ) in cerebrospinal fluid . If present , a Gram-negative bacterial species would appear pink . ( The other cells are white blood cells ) . Exposure The spores are able to survive in harsh conditions for decades or even centuries . Such spores can be found on all continents , including Antarctica . Disturbed grave sites of infected animals have been known to cause infection after 70 years . Occupational exposure to infected animals or their products ( such as skin , wool , and meat ) is the usual pathway of exposure for humans . Workers who are exposed to dead animals and animal products are at the highest risk , especially in countries where anthrax is more common . Anthrax in livestock grazing on open range where they mix with wild animals still occasionally occurs in the United States and elsewhere . Many workers who deal with wool and animal hides are routinely exposed to low levels of anthrax spores , but most exposure levels are not sufficient to develop anthrax infections . A lethal infection is reported to result from inhalation of about 10,000–20,000 spores , though this dose varies among host species . Little documented evidence is available to verify the exact or average number of spores needed for infection . Historically , inhalational anthrax was called woolsorters ' disease because it was an occupational hazard for people who sorted wool . Today , this form of infection is extremely rare , as almost no infected animals remain . The last fatal case of natural inhalational anthrax in the United States occurred in California in 1976 , when a home weaver died after working with infected wool imported from Pakistan . To minimize the chance of spreading the disease , the deceased was transported to UCLA in a sealed plastic body bag within a sealed metal container for autopsy . In November 2008 , a drum maker in the United Kingdom who worked with untreated animal skins died from anthrax . Gastrointestinal anthrax is exceedingly rare in the United States , with two cases on record , the first was reported in 1942 , according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . In December 2009 , an outbreak of anthrax occurred amongst heroin addicts in Glasgow , Scotland , resulting in 14 deaths . The source of the anthrax is believed to be dilution of the heroin with bone meal in Afghanistan . Also during December 2009 , the New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services confirmed a case of gastrointestinal anthrax in an adult female . The CDC investigated the source and the possibility that it was contracted from an African drum recently used by the woman taking part in a drumming circle . The woman apparently inhaled anthrax [ in spore form ] from the hide of the drum . She became critically ill , but with gastrointestinal anthrax rather than inhaled anthrax , which made her unique in American medical history . The building where the infection took place was cleaned and reopened to the public and the woman recovered . Jodie Dionne-Odom , New Hampshire state epidemiologist , stated , `` It is a mystery . We really do n't know why it happened . '' Mode of infection Anthrax can enter the human body through the intestines ( ingestion ) , lungs ( inhalation ) , or skin ( cutaneous ) and causes distinct clinical symptoms based on its site of entry . In general , an infected human will be quarantined . However , anthrax does not usually spread from an infected human to a noninfected human . But , if the disease is fatal to the person 's body , its mass of anthrax bacilli becomes a potential source of infection to others and special precautions should be used to prevent further contamination . Inhalational anthrax , if left untreated until obvious symptoms occur , may be fatal . Anthrax can be contracted in laboratory accidents or by handling infected animals or their wool or hides . It has also been used in biological warfare agents and by terrorists to intentionally infect as exemplified by the 2001 anthrax attacks . Diagnosis Various techniques are used for the direct identification of B. anthracis in clinical material . Firstly , specimens may be Gram stained . Bacillus spp . are quite large in size ( 3 to 4 μm long ) , they grow in long chains , and they stain Gram-positive . To confirm the organism is B. anthracis , rapid diagnostic techniques such as polymerase chain reaction-based assays and immunofluorescence microscopy may be used . All Bacillus species grow well on 5 % sheep blood agar and other routine culture media . Polymyxin-lysozyme-EDTA-thallous acetate can be used to isolate B. anthracis from contaminated specimens , and bicarbonate agar is used as an identification method to induce capsule formation . Bacillus spp . usually grow within 24 hours of incubation at 35 °C , in ambient air ( room temperature ) or in 5 % CO2 . If bicarbonate agar is used for identification , then the medium must be incubated in 5 % CO2 . B. anthracis colonies are medium-large , gray , flat , and irregular with swirling projections , often referred to as having a `` medusa head '' appearance , and are not hemolytic on 5 % sheep blood agar . The bacteria are not motile , susceptible to penicillin , and produce a wide zone of lecithinase on egg yolk agar . Confirmatory testing to identify B. anthracis includes gamma bacteriophage testing , indirect hemagglutination , and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay to detect antibodies . The best confirmatory precipitation test for anthrax is the Ascoli test . Prevention If a person is suspected as having died from anthrax , precautions should be taken to avoid skin contact with the potentially contaminated body and fluids exuded through natural body openings . The body should be put in strict quarantine . A blood sample should then be collected and sealed in a container and analyzed in an approved laboratory to ascertain if anthrax is the cause of death . Then , the body should be incinerated . Microscopic visualization of the encapsulated bacilli , usually in very large numbers , in a blood smear stained with polychrome methylene blue ( McFadyean stain ) is fully diagnostic , though culture of the organism is still the gold standard for diagnosis . Full isolation of the body is important to prevent possible contamination of others . Protective , impermeable clothing and equipment such as rubber gloves , rubber apron , and rubber boots with no perforations should be used when handling the body . No skin , especially if it has any wounds or scratches , should be exposed . Disposable personal protective equipment is preferable , but if not available , decontamination can be achieved by autoclaving . Disposable personal protective equipment and filters should be autoclaved , and/or burned and buried . B. anthracis bacillii range from 0.5–5.0 μm in size . Anyone working with anthrax in a suspected or confirmed person should wear respiratory equipment capable of filtering this size of particle or smaller . The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – and Mine Safety and Health Administration-approved high-efficiency respirator , such as a half-face disposable respirator with a high-efficiency particulate air filter , is recommended . All possibly contaminated bedding or clothing should be isolated in double plastic bags and treated as possible biohazard waste . The infected person should be sealed in an airtight body bag . Dead people who are opened and not burned provide an ideal source of anthrax spores . Cremating people is the preferred way of handling body disposal . No embalming or autopsy should be attempted without a fully equipped biohazard laboratory and trained , knowledgeable personnel . Vaccines Vaccines against anthrax for use in livestock and humans have had a prominent place in the history of medicine . The French scientist Louis Pasteur developed the first effective vaccine in 1881 . Human anthrax vaccines were developed by the Soviet Union in the late 1930s and in the US and UK in the 1950s . The current FDA-approved US vaccine was formulated in the 1960s . Currently administered human anthrax vaccines include acellular ( United States ) and live spore ( Russia ) varieties . All currently used anthrax vaccines show considerable local and general reactogenicity ( erythema , induration , soreness , fever ) and serious adverse reactions occur in about 1 % of recipients . The American product , BioThrax , is licensed by the FDA and was formerly administered in a six-dose primary series at 0 , 2 , 4 weeks and 6 , 12 , 18 months , with annual boosters to maintain immunity . In 2008 , the FDA approved omitting the week-2 dose , resulting in the currently recommended five-dose series . New second-generation vaccines currently being researched include recombinant live vaccines and recombinant subunit vaccines . In the 20th century the use of a modern product ( BioThrax ) to protect American troops against the use of anthrax in biological warfare was controversial . Antibiotics Preventative antibiotics are recommended in those who have been exposed . Early detection of sources of anthrax infection can allow preventive measures to be taken . In response to the anthrax attacks of October 2001 , the United States Postal Service ( USPS ) installed biodetection systems ( BDSs ) in their large-scale mail cancellation facilities . BDS response plans were formulated by the USPS in conjunction with local responders including fire , police , hospitals and public health . Employees of these facilities have been educated about anthrax , response actions , and prophylactic medication . Because of the time delay inherent in getting final verification that anthrax has been used , prophylactic antibiotic treatment of possibly exposed personnel must be started as soon as possible . Treatment Anthrax can not be spread directly from person to person , but a person 's clothing and body may be contaminated with anthrax spores . Effective decontamination of people can be accomplished by a thorough wash-down with antimicrobial soap and water . Waste water should be treated with bleach or other antimicrobial agent . Effective decontamination of articles can be accomplished by boiling them in water for 30 minutes or longer . Chlorine bleach is ineffective in destroying spores and vegetative cells on surfaces , though formaldehyde is effective . Burning clothing is very effective in destroying spores . After decontamination , there is no need to immunize , treat , or isolate contacts of persons ill with anthrax unless they were also exposed to the same source of infection . Antibiotics Early antibiotic treatment of anthrax is essential ; delay significantly lessens chances for survival . Treatment for anthrax infection and other bacterial infections includes large doses of intravenous and oral antibiotics , such as fluoroquinolones ( ciprofloxacin ) , doxycycline , erythromycin , vancomycin , or penicillin . FDA-approved agents include ciprofloxacin , doxycycline , and penicillin . In possible cases of pulmonary anthrax , early antibiotic prophylaxis treatment is crucial to prevent possible death . If death occurs from anthrax , the body should be isolated to prevent possible spread of anthrax germs . Burial does not kill anthrax spores . In recent years , many attempts have been made to develop new drugs against anthrax , but existing drugs are effective if treatment is started soon enough . Monoclonal antibodies In May 2009 , Human Genome Sciences submitted a Biologic License Application ( BLA , permission to market ) for its new drug , raxibacumab ( brand name ABthrax ) intended for emergency treatment of inhaled anthrax . On 14 December 2012 , the US Food and Drug Administration approved raxibacumab injection to treat inhalational anthrax . Raxibacumab is a monoclonal antibody that neutralizes toxins produced by B. anthracis . On March , 2016 , FDA approved a second anthrax treatment using a monoclonal antibody which neutralizes the toxins produced by B. anthracis . Obiltoxaximab is approved to treat inhalational anthrax in conjunction with appropriate antibacterial drugs , and for prevention when alternative therapies are not available or appropriate . History Etymology The English name comes from anthrax ( ) , the Greek word for coal , possibly having Egyptian etymology , because of the characteristic black skin lesions developed by victims with a cutaneous anthrax infection . The central , black eschar , surrounded by vivid red skin has long been recognised as typical of the disease . The first recorded use of the word `` anthrax '' in English is in a 1398 translation of Bartholomaeus Anglicus ' work ' ( On the Properties of Things , 1240 ) . Anthrax has been known by a wide variety of names , indicating its symptoms , location and groups considered most vulnerable to infection . These include Siberian plague , Cumberland disease , charbon , splenic fever , malignant edema , woolsorter 's disease , and even ' . Discovery Robert Koch , a German physician and scientist , first identified the bacterium that caused the anthrax disease in 1875 in Wolsztyn ( now part of Poland ) . His pioneering work in the late 19th century was one of the first demonstrations that diseases could be caused by microbes . In a groundbreaking series of experiments , he uncovered the lifecycle and means of transmission of anthrax . His experiments not only helped create an understanding of anthrax , but also helped elucidate the role of microbes in causing illness at a time when debates still took place over spontaneous generation versus cell theory . Koch went on to study the mechanisms of other diseases and won the 1905 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery of the bacterium causing tuberculosis . Although Koch arguably made the greatest theoretical contribution to our understanding of anthrax , other researchers were more concerned with the practical questions of how to prevent the disease . In Britain , where anthrax affected workers in the wool , worsted , hides and tanning industries , it was viewed with fear . John Henry Bell , a doctor based in Bradford , first made the link between the mysterious and deadly `` woolsorter 's disease '' and anthrax , showing in 1878 that they were one and the same . In the early twentieth century , Friederich Wilhelm Eurich , the German bacteriologist who settled in Bradford with his family as a child , carried out important research for the local Anthrax Investigation Board . Eurich also made valuable contributions to a Home Office Departmental Committee of Inquiry , established in 1913 to address the continuing problem of industrial anthrax . His work in this capacity , much of it collaboration with the factory inspector G. Elmhirst Duckering , led directly to the Anthrax Prevention Act ( 1919 ) . First vaccination Anthrax posed a major economic challenge in France and elsewhere during the nineteenth century . Horses , cattle and sheep were particularly vulnerable , and national funds were set aside to investigate the production of a vaccine . The noted French scientist Louis Pasteur was charged with the production of a vaccine , following his successful work in developing methods which helped to protect the important wine and silk industries . In May 1881 , Pasteur - in collaboration with his assistants Jean-Joseph Henri Toussaint , Émile Roux and others - performed a public experiment at Pouilly-le-Fort to demonstrate his concept of vaccination . He prepared two groups of 25 sheep , one goat , and several cows . The animals of one group were injected with an anthrax vaccine prepared by Pasteur twice , at an interval of 15 days ; the control group was left unvaccinated . Thirty days after the first injection , both groups were injected with a culture of live anthrax bacteria . All the animals in the unvaccinated group died , while all of the animals in the vaccinated group survived . After this apparent triumph , which was widely reported in the local , national and international press , Pasteur made strenuous efforts to export the vaccine beyond France . He used his celebrity status to establish Pasteur Institutes across Europe and Asia , and his nephew , Adrien Loir , travelled to Australia in 1888 to try and introduce the vaccine to combat anthrax in New South Wales . Ultimately the vaccine was unsuccessful in the challenging climate of rural Australia , and it was soon superseded by a more robust version developed by local researchers John Gunn and John McGarvie Smith . The human vaccine for anthrax became available in 1954 . This was a cell-free vaccine instead of the live-cell Pasteur-style vaccine used for veterinary purposes . An improved cell-free vaccine became available in 1970 . Society and culture The virulent Ames strain , which was used in the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States , has received the most news coverage of any anthrax outbreak . The Ames strain contains two virulence plasmids , which separately encode for a three-protein toxin , called anthrax toxin , and a polyglutamic acid capsule . Nonetheless , the Vollum strain , developed but never used as a biological weapon during the Second World War , is much more dangerous . The Vollum ( also incorrectly referred to as Vellum ) strain was isolated in 1935 from a cow in Oxfordshire . This same strain

odql_15015--Anthrax.txt

Which French chemist produced the first vaccine against Anthrax?

In heraldry , gules is the tincture with the colour red , and belongs to the class of dark tinctures called `` colours '' . In engraving , it is sometimes depicted as a region of vertical lines or else marked with gu . as an abbreviation . In Polish heraldry , gules is the most common tincture of the field . Through the sixteenth century , nearly half of all noble coats of arms in Poland had a field gules with one or more argent charges on them . The original coat of arms of the d'Albret family was plain gules . Sometimes , the different tinctures are said to be connected with special meanings or virtues , and represent certain elements and precious stones . Even if this is an idea mostly disregarded by serious heraldists throughout the centuries , it may be of anecdotal interest to see what they are , since people often ask for this information . Many sources give different meanings , but the gules tincture is often said to represent the following : * of jewels , the ruby ; * of heavenly bodies , Mars . Etymology The term `` gules '' derives from the Old French word goules , literally meaning `` throats '' ( related to the English gullet ; modern French gueules ) , but also used to refer to a fur neckpiece , usually made of red fur . For many decades , heraldic authors have believed that the term may have arisen from the Persian word gol `` rose '' ( coming to Europe via Muslim Spain or brought back by returning Crusaders ) , but according to Brault there is no evidence to support this derivation .

sfq_20180--Gules.txt

What colour is the heraldic colour gules?

Opera ( ; English plural : operas ; Italian plural : opere ) is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text ( libretto ) and musical score , usually in a theatrical setting . In traditional opera , singers do two types of singing : recitative , a speech-inflected style and arias , a more melodic style . Opera incorporates many of the elements of spoken theatre , such as acting , scenery , and costumes and sometimes includes dance . The performance is typically given in an opera house , accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble , which since the early 19th century has been led by a conductor . Opera is part of the Western classical music tradition . It started in Italy at the end of the 16th century ( with Jacopo Peri 's lost Dafne , produced in Florence in 1598 ) and soon spread through the rest of Europe : Schütz in Germany , Lully in France , and Purcell in England all helped to establish their national traditions in the 17th century . In the 18th century , Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe ( except France ) , attracting foreign composers such as Handel . Opera seria was the most prestigious form of Italian opera , until Gluck reacted against its artificiality with his `` reform '' operas in the 1760s . In the 2000s , the most renowned figure of late 18th-century opera is Mozart , who began with opera seria but is most famous for his Italian comic operas , especially The Marriage of Figaro ( Le Nozze Di Figaro ) , Don Giovanni , and Così fan tutte , as well as The Magic Flute ( Die Zauberflöte ) , a landmark in the German tradition . The first third of the 19th century saw the high point of the bel canto style , with Rossini , Donizetti and Bellini all creating works that are still performed in the 2000s It also saw the advent of Grand Opera typified by the works of Auber and Meyerbeer . The mid-to-late 19th century was a `` golden age '' of opera , led and dominated by Wagner in Germany and Verdi in Italy . The popularity of opera continued through the verismo era in Italy and contemporary French opera through to Puccini and Strauss in the early 20th century . During the 19th century , parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe , particularly in Russia and Bohemia . The 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles , such as atonality and serialism ( Schoenberg and Berg ) , Neoclassicism ( Stravinsky ) , and Minimalism ( Philip Glass and John Adams ) . With the rise of recording technology , singers such as Enrico Caruso and Maria Callas became known to much wider audiences that went beyond the circle of opera fans . Since the invention of radio and television , operas were also performed on ( and written for ) these mediums . Beginning in 2006 , a number of major opera houses began to present live high-definition video transmissions of their performances in cinemas around the world . In 2009 , an opera company offered an online download of a complete performance . Operatic terminology The words of an opera are known as the libretto ( literally `` small book '' ) . Some composers , notably Richard Wagner , have written their own libretti ; others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists , e.g . Mozart with Lorenzo Da Ponte . Traditional opera , often referred to as `` number opera '' , consists of two modes of singing : recitative , the plot-driving passages sung in a style designed to imitate and emphasize the inflections of speech , and aria ( an `` air '' or formal song ) in which the characters express their emotions in a more structured melodic style . Vocal duets , trios and other ensembles often occur , and choruses are used to comment on the action . In some forms of opera , such as singspiel , opéra comique , operetta , and semi-opera , the recitative is mostly replaced by spoken dialogue . Melodic or semi-melodic passages occurring in the midst of , or instead of , recitative , are also referred to as arioso . The terminology of the various kinds of operatic voices is described in detail below . During both the Baroque and Classical periods , recitative could appear in two basic forms , each of which was accompanied by a different instrumental ensemble : secco ( dry ) recitative , sung with a free rhythm dictated by the accent of the words , accompanied only by basso continuo , which was usually a harpsichord and a cello ; or accompagnato ( also known as strumentato ) in which the orchestra provided accompaniment . Over the 18th century , arias were increasingly accompanied by the orchestra . By the 19th century , accompagnato had gained the upper hand , the orchestra played a much bigger role , and Richard Wagner revolutionised opera by abolishing almost all distinction between aria and recitative in his quest for what he termed `` endless melody '' . Subsequent composers have tended to follow Wagner 's example , though some , such as Stravinsky in his The Rake 's Progress have bucked the trend . The changing role of the orchestra in opera is described in more detail below . History Origins The Italian word opera means `` work '' , both in the sense of the labour done and the result produced . The Italian word derives from the Latin opera , a singular noun meaning `` work '' and also the plural of the noun opus . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the Italian word was first used in the sense `` composition in which poetry , dance , and music are combined '' in 1639 ; the first recorded English usage in this sense dates to 1648 . Dafne by Jacopo Peri was the earliest composition considered opera , as understood today . It was written around 1597 , largely under the inspiration of an elite circle of literate Florentine humanists who gathered as the `` Camerata de ' Bardi '' . Significantly , Dafne was an attempt to revive the classical Greek drama , part of the wider revival of antiquity characteristic of the Renaissance . The members of the Camerata considered that the `` chorus '' parts of Greek dramas were originally sung , and possibly even the entire text of all roles ; opera was thus conceived as a way of `` restoring '' this situation . Dafne is unfortunately lost . A later work by Peri , Euridice , dating from 1600 , is the first opera score to have survived to the present day . The honour of being the first opera still to be regularly performed , however , goes to Claudio Monteverdi 's L'Orfeo , composed for the court of Mantua in 1607 . The Mantua court of the Gonzagas , employers of Monteverdi , played a significant role in the origin of opera employing not only court singers of the concerto delle donne ( till 1598 ) , but also one of the first actual `` opera singers '' ; Madama Europa . Italian opera The Baroque era Opera did not remain confined to court audiences for long . In 1637 , the idea of a `` season '' ( Carnival ) of publicly attended operas supported by ticket sales emerged in Venice . Monteverdi had moved to the city from Mantua and composed his last operas , Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria and L'incoronazione di Poppea , for the Venetian theatre in the 1640s . His most important follower Francesco Cavalli helped spread opera throughout Italy . In these early Baroque operas , broad comedy was blended with tragic elements in a mix that jarred some educated sensibilities , sparking the first of opera 's many reform movements , sponsored by the Arcadian Academy , which came to be associated with the poet Metastasio , whose libretti helped crystallize the genre of opera seria , which became the leading form of Italian opera until the end of the 18th century . Once the Metastasian ideal had been firmly established , comedy in Baroque-era opera was reserved for what came to be called opera buffa . Before such elements were forced out of opera seria , many libretti had featured a separately unfolding comic plot as sort of an `` opera-within-an-opera . '' One reason for this was an attempt to attract members of the growing merchant class , newly wealthy , but still not as cultured as the nobility , to the public opera houses . These separate plots were almost immediately resurrected in a separately developing tradition that partly derived from the commedia dell'arte , a long-flourishing improvisatory stage tradition of Italy . Just as intermedi had once been performed in-between the acts of stage plays , operas in the new comic genre of `` intermezzi '' , which developed largely in Naples in the 1710s and '20s , were initially staged during the intermissions of opera seria . They became so popular , however , that they were soon being offered as separate productions . Opera seria was elevated in tone and highly stylised in form , usually consisting of secco recitative interspersed with long da capo arias . These afforded great opportunity for virtuosic singing and during the golden age of opera seria the singer really became the star . The role of the hero was usually written for the high-pitched male castrato voice , which was produced by castration of the singer before puberty , which prevented a boy 's larynx from being transformed at puberty . Castrati such as Farinelli and Senesino , as well as female sopranos such as Faustina Bordoni , became in great demand throughout Europe as opera seria ruled the stage in every country except France . Farinelli was one of the most famous singers of the 18th century . Italian opera set the Baroque standard . Italian libretti were the norm , even when a German composer like Handel found himself composing the likes of Rinaldo and Giulio Cesare for London audiences . Italian libretti remained dominant in the classical period as well , for example in the operas of Mozart , who wrote in Vienna near the century 's close . Leading Italian-born composers of opera seria include Alessandro Scarlatti , Vivaldi and Porpora . Reform : Gluck , the attack on the Metastasian ideal , and Mozart Opera seria had its weaknesses and critics . The taste for embellishment on behalf of the superbly trained singers , and the use of spectacle as a replacement for dramatic purity and unity drew attacks . Francesco Algarotti 's Essay on the Opera ( 1755 ) proved to be an inspiration for Christoph Willibald Gluck 's reforms . He advocated that opera seria had to return to basics and that all the various elements—music ( both instrumental and vocal ) , ballet , and staging—must be subservient to the overriding drama . In 1765 Melchior Grimm published `` '' , an influential article for the Encyclopédie on lyric and opera librettos . Several composers of the period , including Niccolò Jommelli and Tommaso Traetta , attempted to put these ideals into practice . The first to succeed however , was Gluck . Gluck strove to achieve a `` beautiful simplicity '' . This is evident in his first reform opera , Orfeo ed Euridice , where his non-virtuosic vocal melodies are supported by simple harmonies and a richer orchestra presence throughout . Gluck 's reforms have had resonance throughout operatic history . Weber , Mozart , and Wagner , in particular , were influenced by his ideals . Mozart , in many ways Gluck 's successor , combined a superb sense of drama , harmony , melody , and counterpoint to write a series of comedies , notably Così fan tutte , The Marriage of Figaro , and Don Giovanni ( in collaboration with Lorenzo Da Ponte ) which remain among the most-loved , popular and well-known operas today . But Mozart 's contribution to opera seria was more mixed ; by his time it was dying away , and in spite of such fine works as Idomeneo and La clemenza di Tito , he would not succeed in bringing the art form back to life again . Bel canto , Verdi and verismo The bel canto opera movement flourished in the early 19th century and is exemplified by the operas of Rossini , Bellini , Donizetti , Pacini , Mercadante and many others . Literally `` beautiful singing '' , bel canto opera derives from the Italian stylistic singing school of the same name . Bel canto lines are typically florid and intricate , requiring supreme agility and pitch control . Examples of famous operas in the bel canto style include Rossini 's Il barbiere di Siviglia and La Cenerentola , as well as Donizetti 's Lucia di Lammermoor . Following the bel canto era , a more direct , forceful style was rapidly popularized by Giuseppe Verdi , beginning with his biblical opera Nabucco . This opera , and the ones that would follow in Verdi 's career , revolutionized Italian opera , changing it from merely a display of vocal fireworks , with Rossini 's and Donizetti 's works , to dramatic story-telling . Verdi 's operas resonated with the growing spirit of Italian nationalism in the post-Napoleonic era , and he quickly became an icon of the patriotic movement for a unified Italy . In the early 1850s , Verdi produced his three most popular operas : Rigoletto , Il trovatore and La traviata . The first of these , Rigoletto , proved the most daring and revolutionary . In it , Verdi blurs the distinction between the aria and recitative as it never before was , leading the opera to be `` an unending string of duets '' . La traviata was also novel . It tells the story of courtesan , and is often cited as one of the first `` realistic '' operas , because rather than featuring great kings and figures from literature , it focuses on the tragedies of ordinary life and society . After these , he continued to develop his style , composing perhaps the greatest French Grand Opera , Don Carlos , and ending his career with two Shakespeare-inspired works , Otello and Falstaff , which reveal how far Italian opera had grown in sophistication since the early 19th century . These final two works showed Verdi at his most masterfully orchestrated , and are both incredibly influential , and modern . In Falstaff , Verdi sets the preeminent standard for the form and style that would dominate opera throughout the twentieth century . Rather than long , suspended melodies , Falstaff contains many little motifs and mottos , that , rather than being expanded upon , are introduced and subsequently dropped , only to be brought up again later . These motifs never are expanded upon , and just as the audience expects a character to launch into a long melody , a new character speaks , introducing a new phrase . This fashion of opera directed opera from Verdi , onward , exercising tremendous influence on his successors Giacomo Puccini , Richard Strauss , and Benjamin Britten . After Verdi , the sentimental `` realistic '' melodrama of verismo appeared in Italy . This was a style introduced by Pietro Mascagni 's Cavalleria rusticana and Ruggero Leoncavallo 's Pagliacci that came virtually to dominate the world 's opera stages with such popular works as Giacomo Puccini 's La bohème , Tosca , and Madama Butterfly . Later Italian composers , such as Berio and Nono , have experimented with modernism . German-language opera The first German opera was Dafne , composed by Heinrich Schütz in 1627 , but the music score has not survived . Italian opera held a great sway over German-speaking countries until the late 18th century . Nevertheless , native forms would develop in spite of this influence . In 1644 , Sigmund Staden produced the first Singspiel , Seelewig , a popular form of German-language opera in which singing alternates with spoken dialogue . In the late 17th century and early 18th century , the Theater am Gänsemarkt in Hamburg presented German operas by Keiser , Telemann and Handel . Yet most of the major German composers of the time , including Handel himself , as well as Graun , Hasse and later Gluck , chose to write most of their operas in foreign languages , especially Italian . In contrast to Italian opera , which was generally composed for the aristocratic class , German opera was generally composed for the masses and tended to feature simple folk-like melodies , and it was not until the arrival of Mozart that German opera was able to match its Italian counterpart in musical sophistication . Mozart 's Singspiele , Die Entführung aus dem Serail ( 1782 ) and Die Zauberflöte ( 1791 ) were an important breakthrough in achieving international recognition for German opera . The tradition was developed in the 19th century by Beethoven with his Fidelio , inspired by the climate of the French Revolution . Carl Maria von Weber established German Romantic opera in opposition to the dominance of Italian bel canto . His Der Freischütz ( 1821 ) shows his genius for creating a supernatural atmosphere . Other opera composers of the time include Marschner , Schubert and Lortzing , but the most significant figure was undoubtedly Wagner . Wagner was one of the most revolutionary and controversial composers in musical history . Starting under the influence of Weber and Meyerbeer , he gradually evolved a new concept of opera as a Gesamtkunstwerk ( a `` complete work of art '' ) , a fusion of music , poetry and painting . He greatly increased the role and power of the orchestra , creating scores with a complex web of leitmotifs , recurring themes often associated with the characters and concepts of the drama , of which prototypes can be heard in his earlier operas such as Der fliegende Holländer , Tannhäuser and Lohengrin ; and he was prepared to violate accepted musical conventions , such as tonality , in his quest for greater expressivity . In his mature music dramas , Tristan und Isolde , Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg , Der Ring des Nibelungen and Parsifal , he abolished the distinction between aria and recitative in favour of a seamless flow of `` endless melody '' . Wagner also brought a new philosophical dimension to opera in his works , which were usually based on stories from Germanic or Arthurian legend . Finally , Wagner built his own opera house at Bayreuth with part of the patronage from Ludwig II of Bavaria , exclusively dedicated to performing his own works in the style he wanted . Opera would never be the same after Wagner and for many composers his legacy proved a heavy burden . On the other hand , Richard Strauss accepted Wagnerian ideas but took them in wholly new directions , along with incorporating the new form introduced by Verdi . He first won fame with the scandalous Salome and the dark tragedy Elektra , in which tonality was pushed to the limits . Then Strauss changed tack in his greatest success , Der Rosenkavalier , where Mozart and Viennese waltzes became as important an influence as Wagner . Strauss continued to produce a highly varied body of operatic works , often with libretti by the poet Hugo von Hofmannsthal . Other composers who made individual contributions to German opera in the early 20th century include Alexander von Zemlinsky , Erich Korngold , Franz Schreker , Paul Hindemith , Kurt Weill and the Italian-born Ferruccio Busoni . The operatic innovations of Arnold Schoenberg and his successors are discussed in the section on modernism . During the late 19th century , the Austrian composer Johann Strauss II , an admirer of the French-language operettas composed by Jacques Offenbach , composed several German-language operettas , the most famous of which was Die Fledermaus , which is still regularly performed today . Nevertheless , rather than copying the style of Offenbach , the operettas of Strauss II had distinctly Viennese flavor to them , which have cemented the Strauss II 's place as one of the most renowned operetta composers of all time . French opera In rivalry with imported Italian opera productions , a separate French tradition was founded by the Italian Jean-Baptiste Lully at the court of King Louis XIV . Despite his foreign origin , Lully established an Academy of Music and monopolised French opera from 1672 . Starting with Cadmus et Hermione , Lully and his librettist Quinault created tragédie en musique , a form in which dance music and choral writing were particularly prominent . Lully 's operas also show a concern for expressive recitative which matched the contours of the French language . In the 18th century , Lully 's most important successor was Jean-Philippe Rameau , who composed five tragédies en musique as well as numerous works in other genres such as opéra-ballet , all notable for their rich orchestration and harmonic daring . Despite the popularity of Italian opera seria throughout much of Europe during the Baroque period , Italian opera never gained much of a foothold in France , where its own national operatic tradition was more popular instead . After Rameau 's death , the German Gluck was persuaded to produce six operas for the Parisian stage in the 1770s . They show the influence of Rameau , but simplified and with greater focus on the drama . At the same time , by the middle of the 18th century another genre was gaining popularity in France : opéra comique . This was the equivalent of the German singspiel , where arias alternated with spoken dialogue . Notable examples in this style were produced by Monsigny , Philidor and , above all , Grétry . During the Revolutionary period , composers such as Méhul and Cherubini , who were followers of Gluck , brought a new seriousness to the genre , which had never been wholly `` comic '' in any case . Another phenomenon of this period was the 'propaganda opera ' celebrating revolutionary successes , e.g . Gossec 's Le triomphe de la République ( 1793 ) . By the 1820s , Gluckian influence in France had given way to a taste for Italian bel canto , especially after the arrival of Rossini in Paris . Rossini 's Guillaume Tell helped found the new genre of Grand Opera , a form whose most famous exponent was another foreigner , Giacomo Meyerbeer . Meyerbeer 's works , such as Les Huguenots emphasised virtuoso singing and extraordinary stage effects . Lighter opéra comique also enjoyed tremendous success in the hands of Boïeldieu , Auber , Hérold and Adolphe Adam . In this climate , the operas of the French-born composer Hector Berlioz struggled to gain a hearing . Berlioz 's epic masterpiece Les Troyens , the culmination of the Gluckian tradition , was not given a full performance for almost a hundred years . In the second half of the 19th century , Jacques Offenbach created operetta with witty and cynical works such as Orphée aux enfers , as well as the opera Les Contes d'Hoffmann ; Charles Gounod scored a massive success with Faust ; and Bizet composed Carmen , which , once audiences learned to accept its blend of Romanticism and realism , became the most popular of all opéra comiques . Jules Massenet , Camille Saint-Saëns and Léo Delibes all composed works which are still part of the standard repertory , examples being Massenet 's Manon , Saint-Saëns ' Samson et Dalila and Delibes ' Lakmé . At the same time , the influence of Richard Wagner was felt as a challenge to the French tradition . Many French critics angrily rejected Wagner 's music dramas while many French composers closely imitated them with variable success . Perhaps the most interesting response came from Claude Debussy . As in Wagner 's works , the orchestra plays a leading role in Debussy 's unique opera Pelléas et Mélisande ( 1902 ) and there are no real arias , only recitative . But the drama is understated , enigmatic and completely unWagnerian . Other notable 20th-century names include Ravel , Dukas , Roussel and Milhaud . Francis Poulenc is one of the very few post-war composers of any nationality whose operas ( which include Dialogues des Carmélites ) have gained a foothold in the international repertory . Olivier Messiaen 's lengthy sacred drama Saint François d'Assise ( 1983 ) has also attracted widespread attention . English-language opera In England , opera 's antecedent was the 17th-century jig . This was an afterpiece which came at the end of a play . It was frequently libellous and scandalous and consisted in the main of dialogue set to music arranged from popular tunes . In this respect , jigs anticipate the ballad operas of the 18th century . At the same time , the French masque was gaining a firm hold at the English Court , with even more lavish splendour and highly realistic scenery than had been seen before . Inigo Jones became the quintessential designer of these productions , and this style was to dominate the English stage for three centuries . These masques contained songs and dances . In Ben Jonson 's Lovers Made Men ( 1617 ) , `` the whole masque was sung after the Italian manner , stilo recitativo '' . [ http : //www.webrarian.co.uk/ivanhoe/ivan01.html From Webrarian.com 's ] Ivanhoe site . The approach of the English Commonwealth closed theatres and halted any developments that may have led to the establishment of English opera . However , in 1656 , the dramatist Sir William Davenant produced The Siege of Rhodes . Since his theatre was not licensed to produce drama , he asked several of the leading composers ( Lawes , Cooke , Locke , Coleman and Hudson ) to set sections of it to music . This success was followed by The Cruelty of the Spaniards in Peru ( 1658 ) and The History of Sir Francis Drake ( 1659 ) . These pieces were encouraged by Oliver Cromwell because they were critical of Spain . With the English Restoration , foreign ( especially French ) musicians were welcomed back . In 1673 , Thomas Shadwell 's Psyche , patterned on the 1671 'comédie-ballet ' of the same name produced by Molière and Jean-Baptiste Lully . William Davenant produced The Tempest in the same year , which was the first musical adaption of a Shakespeare play ( composed by Locke and Johnson ) . About 1683 , John Blow composed Venus and Adonis , often thought of as the first true English-language opera . Blow 's immediate successor was the better known Henry Purcell . Despite the success of his masterwork Dido and Aeneas ( 1689 ) , in which the action is furthered by the use of Italian-style recitative , much of Purcell 's best work was not involved in the composing of typical opera , but instead he usually worked within the constraints of the semi-opera format , where isolated scenes and masques are contained within the structure of a spoken play , such as Shakespeare in Purcell 's The Fairy-Queen ( 1692 ) and Beaumont and Fletcher in The Prophetess ( 1690 ) and Bonduca ( 1696 ) . The main characters of the play tend not to be involved in the musical scenes , which means that Purcell was rarely able to develop his characters through song . Despite these hindrances , his aim ( and that of his collaborator John Dryden ) was to establish serious opera in England , but these hopes ended with Purcell 's early death at the age of 36 . Following Purcell , the popularity of opera in England dwindled for several decades . A revived interest in opera occurred in the 1730s which is largely attributed to Thomas Arne , both for his own compositions and for alerting Handel to the commercial possibilities of large-scale works in English . Arne was the first English composer to experiment with Italian-style all-sung comic opera , with his greatest success being Thomas and Sally in 1760 . His opera Artaxerxes ( 1762 ) was the first attempt to set a full-blown opera seria in English and was a huge success , holding the stage until the 1830s . Although Arne imitated many elements of Italian opera , he was perhaps the only English composer at that time who was able to move beyond the Italian influences and create his own unique and distinctly English voice . His modernized ballad opera , Love in a Village ( 1762 ) , began a vogue for pastiche opera that lasted well into

odql_3864--Opera.txt

Which composer of the opera The Bartered Bride died on this date in 1884?

The Hunter Valley is one of Australia 's best known wine regions . Located in the state of New South Wales , the region has played a pivotal role in the history of Australian wine as one of the first wine regions planted in the early 19th century . Hunter Valley Semillon is widely considered the iconic wine of the region but the Hunter produces wine from a variety of grapes including Shiraz , Chardonnay , Cabernet Sauvignon and Verdelho . Under Australia 's wine appellation system , the Hunter Valley zone Australian Geographical Indication ( GI ) covers the entire catchment of the Hunter River and its tributaries . Within that , the Hunter region is almost as large , and includes most of the wine-producing areas , excluding the metropolitan area of Newcastle and nearby coastal areas , some national parks , and any land that was in the Mudgee Shire ( at the western heights of the catchment ) . There are three named subregions in the Hunter region . These are the Upper Hunter Valley , Broke Fordwich and Pokolbin subregions . The Lower Hunter Valley is not strictly defined , but in general includes the Pokolbin subregion , along with the districts around Wollombi , Mount View , Cessnock and Lovedale . Much of the history of Hunter was played out in this area and it is generally what is referred as the Hunter Valley wine country . The majority of the Hunter Valley 's most prestigious vineyards are located on the southern valley and foothills of the Brokenback Range ( part of the Great Dividing Range ) . The topography of the Hunter includes mostly gently sloping hills with modest gradients . The one notable exception are the vineyards of Mount View just west of the town of Cessnock . The terrain of the Upper Hunter is noticeably flatter as the Goulburn River and other tributaries of the Hunter River dominate the area . Despite being the area 's namesake , the Hunter River itself is not the dominant feature of the region—falling behind the Brokenback Range for that distinction . The greater river system of the Hunter , which includes the Goulburn and important tributaries such as Giants Creek , do provide needed irrigation for areas such as the Upper Hunter than can be prone to drought condition . The origins of the river begin the Liverpool Range of the volcanic Barrington Tops and flows south and then east down to the Pacific Ocean at the seaport city of Newcastle . The success of the Hunter Valley wine industry has been dominated by its proximity to Sydney with its settlement and plantings in the 19th century fuelled by the trade network that linked the valley to the city . The steady demand of consumers from Sydney continues to drive much of the Hunter Valley wine industry , including a factor in the economy by the tourism industry . History Over 30,000 years ago the Wonnarua tribe of aboriginal Australians inhabited the land that is now known as the Hunter Valley wine region . Along with the Worimi tribe to the north and the Awabakal to the south , the Wonnarua developed a trading route connecting the Coquun ( Hunter ) Valley to the harbour now known as Sydney harbour . The wine-making history of Hunter Valley begins with the European settlement of the Sydney and the New South Wales region of Australia in the late 18th century as a penal colony of the British Empire . The Hunter River itself was discovered , by accident , in 1797 by British Lieutenant John Shortland as he searched for escaped convicts . The region soon became a valuable source for timber and coal that fuelled the steamship trade coming out of Sydney . Grapevines were planted in Sydney soon after its discovery in 1788 and as settlements fanned northward up towards the Hunter , government authorities actively encouraged plantings as a means of promoting both public sobriety and safety . The logic behind the promotion of viticulture and winemaking was that men tend to become more drunk and disorderly when under the influence of highly alcoholic spirits . If enough wine was provided , it was believed , it could be a moderate influence that could tame the `` savagery '' . It was under these auspices that the grapevine followed land prospector John Howe as he cut a path through the Australian wilderness from Sydney up to the overland area in what is now known as the ( Lower ) Hunter Valley proper in 1820 . Today , the modern Putty Road between the cities of Windsor and Singleton follows Howe 's exact path and is a major thoroughfare for wine tourists coming into the Hunter Valley from Sydney . As previous plantings in the coastal areas around Sydney succumbed to the humidity and wetness , and plantings to the west were limited by spring frost damage , northern reaches leading to the Hunter became , almost by default , the wine region of the new colony . James Busby and further plantings The first major planting in the Hunter Valley came in 1825 when James Busby , widely considered the father of Australian wine , purchased vineyard land between the settlements of Branxton and Singleton and named it Kirkton after his Scottish birthplace near Edinburgh . In 1831 , Busby travelled extensively throughout Europe and South Africa , collected cuttings from over 500 vineyards , including six cuttings of Syrah from the Hermitage hill in the Rhône . When he returned , many of these cuttings were planted in the Hunter Valley at the Kirkton estate now owned by his brother-in-law William Kelman . In the 1830s , several vineyards were planted in the Hunter Valley , including the first vineyards by George Wyndham of Wyndham Estate , many with cuttings directly provided by Busby at Kirkton . In 1847 , the Hunter Valley Viticulture Society was founded with the mission of expanding viticultural knowledge and improving techniques in the region . By the end of the decade , plantings had expanded from to over . Between 1866 and 1876 the region saw further expansion as the acreage of planted vines topped 1800 . Most of the early vineyards of the Hunter were located in the northeast section of the valley in the fertile alluvial plains along the Hunter River . The river provided easy transport of the wine down to the seaside port of Newcastle and onto Sydney . By the 1860s , plantings began to move further south and west towards the foothills of the Brokenback range near Pokolbin and Rothbury where many of the most highly esteemed vineyards of the Hunter are now found . Mid-19th century to early 20th century In the mid 19th century , wines from the Hunter Valley began to garner international acclaim . In 1855 , at the Paris Exhibition ( notable in wine history for the unveiling of the Bordeaux Wine Official Classification ) , Hunter Valley wines won numerous awards from tasting panel judges . In the official report for the exhibition , the judges wrote `` The [ Hunter Valley 's ] wines included white wine akin to those of the Rhone ; red light wines like those of Burgundy ; Mousseux varieties with a bouquet , body and flavor equal to the first Champagnes ; Muscat and other sweet wines , rivaling the Montignac of the Cape . '' A Hunter Valley sparkling wine made from James King of Irrawang Vineyard bested the French Champagnes to win the honour of being served at the table of Emperor Napoleon III during the exhibition 's closing ceremonies . The expansive growth of the Hunter Valley in the mid to late 19th century came directly from its monopoly position of the lucrative Sydney market . The provincial government of New South Wales had enacted regulations that placed prohibitive duties on wines from other areas such as Victoria and South Australia . This had the effect of limiting any competition for Hunter Valley winemakers in Sydney . But the turn of the 20th century brought a shifting dynamic to the Hunter Valley wine industry as the provinces on the Australian continent became federated into states and a new constitution was drafted that banned such interstate trade barriers . The opening of the Sydney market to the flux of out of state wine , as well as the changing public tastes from dry wines to sweet , fortified ports , muscats and sherry signalled a period of steep decline for the Hunter Valley . Following World War I , many returning Australian veterans were given land grants in the Hunter Valley . This temporarily produced an up-tick in plantings but the global Great Depression as well as a series of devastating hail storms between 1929–30 caused many growers to abandon their vineyards . Some of the land was bought up by the growing wine estates of Tyrrell , Elliotts and Wyndham that would later become driving forces behind the Hunter Valley 's next boom period . Another pivotal figure during this period was Maurice O'Shea of Mount Pleasant vines in the Pokolbin area . While many producers in Australia were focusing on fortified wine , O'Shea continued to espouse the virtue of Australian dry table wines . O'Shea 's foresight would pay off as consumer taste shifted towards drier styles of wine in the 1950s and 1960s . A flurry of plantings began in the Hunter , including 1963 establishment of Lake 's Folly by a Sydney surgeon , Dr. Max Lake . Along with Rudy Komon , Johnny Walker and wine columnist Len Evans , who all believed in the future of the Australian wine industry , Lake begin to extensively plant red wine varietals , including the reintroduction of Cabernet Sauvignon to the Hunter Valley . 1960s to present-day In the 1960s , a Sydney wine merchant named Leo Buring began marketing the first commercially successful Hunter Valley Semillon under the label `` Rhine Gold '' . In 1971 , Murray Tyrrell released Australia 's first commercial bottling of Chardonnay which signalled the beginning of the Australian Chardonnay craze . According to wine experts Hugh Johnson and Jancis Robinson , Tyrrell 's Vat 47 Hunter Valley Chardonnay was the wine that `` launched a million bottles . '' From 1956 to 1976 , plantings in the Hunter Valley grew from to over . Despite a slight reduction during the global recession of the 1980s , the Australian wine boom of the 1990s pushed plantings even further to over . While the Hunter Valley has been supplanted by the massive Riverina wine region as the largest producer of New South Wales wine , it still accounts for around 3 % of Australia 's total wine production and is one of the country 's most recognisable regions . Today there are over 120 wineries in the Hunter , producing a wide range of wine . Climate While the Hunter Valley is usually grouped in with the rest of Australia as having a Mediterranean climate , the climate is actually sub-tropical with distinctive maritime influences from the Pacific Ocean . With its northerly latitude and close oceanic influences , the Hunter Valley is one of Australia 's hottest and wettest wine regions . Flanked by mountains to the west and north the Hunter Valley acts as a funnel , pulling cool ocean breezes into the area . This effect is similar to the cooling that Napa Valley receives from San Pablo Bay in California . Without these cooling breezes , quality wine grape production would be nearly impossible . However , with those cooling breezes also comes heavy rainfall and periodic cyclonic storms in the summer and autumn months . In the summer , the average daily temperature regularly exceeds while during the winter the temperature averages around . Through the growing year , January tends to be the warmest month while July is usually the coolest . Temperatures during the peak growing month of January average between , with the temperature becoming progressively hotter the further inland you move away from the cooling influence of the sea . During the growing season the Hunter Valley receives an average of 7.3–7.5 hours of sunshine a day , but with the cloud cover coming in off the ocean the sunlight is slightly diffuse which gives the vines some protection from heat stress . During the growing season the Lower Hunter will average around 2070 degree days ( Celsius ) with the Upper Hunter having 2170 degree days putting it under the Winkler heat summation scale as a Region IV . Mid-latitude westerly winds bring high pressure weather front that alternate with cold fronts on the winter . This leads to generally drier conditions in the winter months of July and August . In the summer , southeasterly winds bring weather fronts harbouring extensive amounts of moisture . Between October and April more than two thirds of the region 's annual rainfall will fall with January and February being the wettest months . As much as of rain can fall during harvest months , creating the Hunter 's biggest viticultural hazard , though the inverse problem of winter drought can also be a problem . The rain , coupled with the heat , encourages high relative humidity in the region and subsequent threat of mould . During the growing season months of October–April , the 3pm average for relative humidity in the Lower Hunter is 49 % while it is 43 % in the Upper Hunter . Geography The Hunter Region covers most of the Hunter Valley of New South Wales which is considered a transitional area between the Paleozoic rock foundation of the New England Fold Belt located to the south and the Early Permian and Middle Triassic period rock formations of the Sydney Basin to the south . Between these two geological areas is the Hunter-Mooki Thrust fault . At one time this fault was very geologically active and gave rise to the Brokenback range that feature prominently in the Hunter region . Strips of basalt found throughout the region also bear witness to the volcanic activity that has occurred in the history of this fault . The Permian rocks in the central and southeastern expanse of the Lower Hunter Valley were formed when the area was underneath a shallow marine estuary . The remnants of this period has left an extensive network of coal seams that fuelled the early population boom of the Hunter Valley in the 19th century as well a high degree of salinity in the water table of much of the area . The further north and west , towards the Brokenback Range and the Upper Hunter , the more Triassic sandstone that can be found leading eventually to the carboniferous rocks that form the northern boundary of the Hunter with the New England Fold Belt and the foothills of the Barrington Tops . Soils Overall , the Hunter Valley has more soils ( mostly hard , acidic patches of poorly draining heavy clay ) that are unsuitable for viticulture than they have areas that are ideal for growing grapes . The soils of the Lower Hunter vary widely from sandy alluvial flats ( often planted to Semillon ) , to deep friable loam ( often planted with Shiraz ) and friable red duplex soils . In the Upper Hunter , the rivers and creeks of the region contribute to the areas black , silty loam soils that are often overlaid on top of alkaline clay loam . Among the hills of the Brokenback range are strips of volcanic basalt that are prized by growers for their tendencies to restrict vigor and concentrate mineral flavours in the grapes . Wine regions and subregions The Hunter Valley Wine Zone Australian Geographical Indication was registered on 1 May 1996 and is approximately the entire Hunter River catchment . It contains only one named wine region , Hunter . The Hunter Wine Region Australian Geographical Indication was declared on 18 March 1997 . It is not as large as the Hunter Valley zone , but includes most of the significant vineyards . It does not extend east of the Pacific Highway . The Hunter region has three subregions . The three recognised subregions of the Hunter Wine Region are Broke Fordwich ( registered 2 September 1997 ) , Pokolbin ( registered 29 July 2010 ) and Upper Hunter Valley ( registered 29 July 2010 ) . Broke Fordwich Broke Fordwich surrounds the towns of Broke , Fordwich and Bulga . Some of the oldest vines in the Hunter Valley were planted in 1924 around the village of Fordwich . The Broke Fordwich subregion is between the Upper Hunter Valley to the northwest and the lower Hunter Valley ( including Pokolbin ) to the east . Broke Fordwich is sheltered on the south side of the valley on the Fordwich Sill volcanic red clay and nearby free-draining alluvial soils and sandy loam . It has lower rainfall and higher diurnal temperature variation than Pokolbin . The Broke Fordwich area is located along the Hunter River tributary of the Wollombi Brook near the suburb of . The area was founded in 1830 by Major Thomas Mitchell who named the region after his fellow Napoleonic War veteran Sir Charles Broke-Vere . The area 's location along the `` convict trail '' helped it to flourish as convicts were shuttled through to work in the coal mines of Cessnock . In September 1997 , it was granted official sub-region status of the Hunter Valley . For most of the Hunter Valley 's history , Broke Fordwich was noted for the quality of its fruit . Max Lake , of Lake 's Folly , noted in 1970 that `` Much of the reputation of Pokolbin rests with fruit from Fordwich '' . The Broke Fordwich subregion includes the communities of Broke , Bulga , Fordwich and Milbrodale . Many of the vineyards of the area are located on the undulating hills around the villages of Broke and Bulga leading up to the southwestern edge of the Brokenback range . The large Yellow Rock escarpment that border Broke also has numerous vineyards and is the regions dominant geographical feature . The area is one of the warmest in the Lower Hunter with some continental influences due to extenuating foothills of the Brokenback range that particularly encircle the area and block many of the breezes coming off the coast . Broke Fordwich accounts for around 14 % of all the Hunter Valley 's plantings . More than third-quarter of the vineyard land in the area is dedicated to Chardonnay , Semillon , Verdelho , Shiraz , Pinot noir and Merlot . Other varieties grown in the area include Cabernet Sauvignon , Cabernet Franc , Chambourcin , Malbec , Traminer , Barbera , Trebbiano , Viognier , Sangiovese , Tempranillo and Dolcetto . Pokolbin The Pokolbin subregion , which surrounds provides most of the grapes known as `` Lower Hunter Valley '' . It covers an area including and west of the road between Cessnock and Branxton , but stops short of both of those places . The eastern boundary is Black Creek east of that road , and the western boundary is the Pokolbin State Forest . The area includes numerous wineries , ranging from large multi-national to small family run operations , which are a popular tourist destination . In addition to long-established names like Drayton , Lindeman 's , Tulloch , Lake 's Folly and Tyrrell , newer plantings from the likes of Brokenwood Wines , Don Francois , Allandale , Petersons and Bimbadgen can be found . Much of the rolling countryside around Pokolbin is under vine with the traditional varieties Shiraz and Sémillon still dominating but extensive plantings of Chardonnay , Cabernet Sauvignon and the occasional plot of Pinot noir can be seen . Despite hot summers and freezing winters with frequent frost presenting a constant challenge to vineyard managers and winemakers , the area is a successful wine growing region thanks to mountains that encircle three sides of the valley , the cloud cover , and afternoon easterly sea breezes which , during summer , help to mitigate the blazing sunshine and keep humidity moderated on the valley floor . Soil types vary from rich red volcanic soil from the long-extinct volcano of Mount View and sandy loam which benefits most white varieties . The red volcanic soil is found mostly on the southern ridges . However , it can be found in patches on the valley floor . Over the decades , the style of Hunter whites and reds has changed vastly , from robust , muscular reds exhibiting the famous Hunter Valley `` sweaty saddle '' and extraordinarily long-lived Semillon whites to reds showing more fruit , complexity and delicacy and whites exhibiting fruit-driven characters . Upper Hunter Valley The main town in the Upper Hunter Valley subregion is Muswellbrook . The Upper Hunter Valley is the most northern and western subregion of the Hunter region , on higher slopes of the Hunter Valley . The Upper Hunter region was first planted in 1860 by a German settler named Carl Brecht . From his vineyard planted at the junction of Wybong Creek and the Goulburn river , Brecht 's wines would win numerous gold medals at international wine competitions in the 1870s . Brecht 's success would spur some interest in the area but the same turn of the 20th century events that saw decline throughout the Hunter Valley would compound to virtually extinguish all viticulture in the Upper Hunter . It was n't until the 1960s when Penfolds purchased land near Brecht 's old Wybong estate that significant viticulture interest in the Upper Hunter re-emerged . Through many years of trial and error , the viticulturalists at Penfolds were able to determine that the area was most suitable for white wine grape varieties . In comparison to the Lower Hunter , the Upper Hunter receives less overall rain ( annually to Lower Hunter 's ) . As the vast majority of this rainfall takes place during the late summer and early autumn , irrigation is a necessity for many vineyards during the early growing season of the spring and summer . Being further inland , the Upper Hunter receives less maritime influence from the cooling sea breezes and has a much hotter heat summation with 2170 degree days ( Celsius ) to the 2070 degree days generally seen by the Lower Hunter . Several small wineries operate in the region . The Upper Hunter has experienced a decline in vineyard area since the withdrawal of large wine producers Rosemount and Arrowfield from buying large quantities of Upper Hunter grapes early in the 21st century . Viticulture Like most New World wine regions , there is little to no government restrictions on the type of viticultural practices used in the Hunter Valley . Growers are free to plant whatever grape variety they wish , utilise any pruning or vine training system , and harvest as large or small of yields as they wish . To that extent , there is a wide range of viticultural practices seen in the Hunter Valley though some commonality does occur . As with many areas of Australia with labour shortages , viticulture in the Hunter is highly mechanised with machine harvesting the norm and experiments in mechanical pruning and leaf pulling also widely practised . Harvest usually takes place from mid-January to early March . The high humidity and propensity for harvest rains leads many growers to utilise open canopy management techniques and trellising as well as frequent leaf pulling in order to keep mould and rot at bay . Some examples of vine training systems found in the Hunter including the Scott Henry , Smart-Dyson and V-Trellis . In the Upper Hunter , the Vertical Shoot Positioning ( VSP ) is often used in areas that have problem with sunburn . Despite the generally wet climate , irrigation is often used in the slightly drier Upper Hunter where the winter and early growing seasons are prone to drought . Hazards The chief viticultural hazard in the Hunter Valley is the threat posed by vintage season rains . Site selection on well drained soils are considered of vital importance and much effort is put into ensuring the canopy is open so air flow can help dry the grapes off . Of particular concern is bunch rot often caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea . In the production of late harvest wines , such as Semillon , Botrytis can be desirable and is known as noble rot . But for other grape varieties , particularly red wine grapes , the fungus is unwelcome with its infection described as grey rot . In the late 1990s , research in Hunter Valley vineyards discovered that a wide range of pathogens caused various occurrences of bunch rot in the vineyards . These other pathogens included Colletotrichum acutatum ( ripe rot ) , Greeneria uvicola ( bitter rot ) and other fungi from the genera of Aspergillus , Penicillium and Alternaria . Susceptibility of certain wine grape varieties were found to increase as the grapes reached higher Brix sugar levels . Further research in the 2000s , showed that some of the open canopy techniques used to prevent Botrytis grey rot may actually promote the development of some of these other types of rot . Ripe rot , in particular , seemed to thrive at the higher ultraviolet B ( 280–320 nm ) light exposure that open canopies allow . To compound the potential problem for Hunter Valley wine growers is that , as of 2010 , there was n't any fungicides registered for use for this disease . Other concerns The unique environmental pressures of the Hunter Valley also conspire to give growers problem with `` dieback diseases '' that damage the wood parts of the vine and eventually lead to death . While the fungus Eutypa lata is present in the Hunter , research in the 2000s indicated that another pathogenic species related to Botryosphaeria is also present in the area . Semillon vines , in particular seem to be susceptible to Botryosphaeria ( also known as bot canker ) while , conversely , Eutypa dieback is rarely observed in the variety . Vines suffering from Eutypa die-back and bot canker exhibit similar wood symptoms and similarly experiences reduce growth and yields . A major difference between the two is that bot canker do not exhibit the same outward foliage symptoms that Eutypa die-back leave on the leaves and buds of the vine . In addition to the pests noted above , vineyards in the Hunter Valley are usually grafted on phylloxera resistant rootstock to help keep the louse at bay . During the growing season kangaroos are frequent threats to the young buds and shoots of grapevines , requiring tall barb wire fences to keep the hopping creature out . Ever present nuisances near harvest time are the frequent birds that descend upon the area . Grape varieties The most widely planted grape varieties in the Hunter Valley , in descending order , are Chardonnay , Semillon and Verdelho among the whites and Shiraz , Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot among the reds . Prior to the late 1960s , there was very little Chardonnay found in Australia . In the Hunter Valley Penfolds has a small experimental planting . According to Murray Tyrrell of Tyrrell Vineyards , one night he jumped the barb wire fence of Penfolds and pruned a couple cuttings from Penfolds ' vine and planted them in his vineyard . Whether or not that story is true is hard to prove but Tyrrell 's 1971 Vat 47 Chardonnay is widely credited with ushering in the Australian Chardonnay craze of the late 20th century . Today in the Upper Hunter Valley , Chardonnay account for more than 70 % of the areas planted and is sometimes blended with Semillon . Hunter Valley Chardonnay is characterised by its rich , oaky flavours with peaches and cream notes . James Busby 's collection is the likely origin of Hunter Valley Shiraz and today the Hunter Valley is home to some of the oldest own rooted Shiraz vine in the world with some vineyards boasting vines that are in excess of 120 years of age . Hunter Valley Shiraz is characterised but its astringent , gamy noted but has a tendency to develop in the bottle over 20 to 30 years into a silky , texture earthy wine with notes reminiscent of a Rhone . Traditionally Hunter Shiraz has carried the descriptor of `` sweaty saddle '' . While this was once thought to be a terroir characteristic of the areas volcanic soils , it is now known to be caused by ethyl-4-phenol that comes from the exposure of the wine to certain strains of yeast in the Brettanomyces family . While

sfq_13543--Hunter_Valley_wine.txt

The Hunter Valley is which country's oldest wine region?

From the 1340s to the 19th century , excluding two brief intervals in the 1360s and the 1420s , the kings and queens of England ( and , later , of Great Britain ) also claimed the throne of France . The claim dates from Edward III , who claimed the French throne in 1340 as the sororal nephew of the last direct Capetian , Charles IV . Edward and his heirs fought the Hundred Years War to enforce this claim , and were briefly successful in the 1420s under Henry V and Henry VI , but the House of Valois , a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty , was ultimately victorious and retained control of France . Despite this , English and British monarchs continued to prominently call themselves kings of France , and the French fleur-de-lys were included in the royal arms . This continued until 1801 , by which time France had no monarch , having become a republic . The Jacobite claimants , however , did not explicitly relinquish the claim . Overview The title was first assumed in 1340 by Edward III of England , the Kingdom of England being ruled by the French Plantagenet dynasty at the time . Edward III claimed the throne of France after the death of his uncle Charles IV of France . At the time of Charles IV 's death in 1328 , Edward was his nearest male relative through Edward 's mother Isabella of France . Since the election of Hugh Capet in 987 , the French crown had always passed based on male-line relations ( father to son until 1316 ) . There was no precedent for someone succeeding to the French throne based on his maternal ancestry , nor had there been a need to . There had been no shortage of sons for more than three centuries from the inception of the House of Capet until the early 14th century , when new precedents concerning female inheritance finally had to be introduced . On the death of Philip IV the Fair 's son Louis X in 1316 , immediately followed by that of his posthumous son John I , it had to be decided whether his young daughter Joan or his brother Philip would succeed to the throne . Philip arranged for his coronation , and became Philip V of France . He was challenged by the supporters of the Princess Joan , daughter of Louis X , on the basis of his right to the throne . In response , he convened an assembly of prelates , barons , and burgesses at Paris , who acknowledged him as their lawful king , and declared that `` Women do not succeed to the throne of France . '' This was later said to have been based on the 5th century Salic law , but it is now known that the Salic Law was only rediscovered later and used by the lawyers of the Valois kings to fortify their masters ' title with an additional aura of authenticity . At the time of Charles 's death in 1328 , there was once again a dispute over the succession . Although it had come to be accepted that a woman could not possess the French throne in her own right , Edward III , the nephew of the deceased king and thus the nearest adult male relative , based his claim on the theory that a woman could transmit a right of inheritance to her son . This claim was rejected by French jurists however , under the principle Nemo plus juris ad alium transfere potest quam ipse habet ( no one can transfer a greater right to another than he himself has ) , and the throne was given to the male line heir , Philip , Count of Valois , a first cousin of the deceased king . At the time , Edward accepted this result , and paid homage to Philip VI for his Duchy of Aquitaine . However , in 1337 , Edward , in his capacity as Duke of Aquitaine , refused to pay homage to Philip . The French king 's response was to confiscate what was left of lands in English held Aquitaine , namely Gascony , thus precipitating the Hundred Years ' War and Edward 's revival of his claim to the throne and title of King of France in 1340 . The decision to assume the title of `` King of France '' was made at the solicitation of his Flemish allies , who had signed a treaty that they would no longer attack the French king . They said that if Edward took the French royal title , then the Flemish would be able to keep their honor , since they would not be attacking the `` true King of France '' ( Edward III ) . Edward continued to use this title until the Treaty of Brétigny on 8 May 1360 , when he abandoned his claims in return for substantial lands in France . After the resumption of hostilities between the English and the French in 1369 , however , Edward resumed his claim and the title of King of France . His successors also used the title until the Treaty of Troyes on 21 May 1420 , in which the English recognised Charles VI as King of France , but with his new son-in-law King Henry V of England as his heir ( disinheriting Charles VI 's son , the Dauphin Charles ) . Henry V then adopted the title Heir of France instead . Henry V and Charles VI died within two months of each other in 1422 , and Henry V 's infant son ( Charles VI 's grandson ) Henry VI became King of France . He was the only English king who was de facto King of France , rather than using the style as a mere title of pretense . However , by 1429 Charles VII , with the support of Joan of Arc , had been crowned at Reims and begun to push the English out of northern France . In 1435 , an end to the French civil war between Burgundians and Armagnacs allowed Charles to return to Paris the following year , and by 1453 the English had been driven out of their last strongholds in Normandy and Guyenne . The only French territory left to the English was Calais which they held until 1558 . Nonetheless the kings and queens of England ( and , later , of Great Britain ) continued to claim the French throne for centuries , through the early modern period . The words `` of France '' was prominently included among their realms as listed in their titles and styles , and the French fleur-de-lys were included in the royal arms . This continued until 1801 , by which time France had no monarch , having become a republic . The original claimants `` Kings of France '' ( 1340 ) * Edward III , King of England ( reigned , first term 24 January 1340 – 8 May 1360 ) . `` Kings of France '' ( title resumed 1369 ) * Edward III , King of England ( reigned , second term 1369 – 21 June 1377 ) . * Richard II , King of England ( reigned 22 June 1377 – 30 September 1399 ) . * Henry IV , King of England ( reigned 30 September 1399 – 20 March 1413 ) . * Henry V , King of England ( reigned 21 March 1413 – 21 May 1420 ) . Heir of France de jure ( 1420 ) * Henry V , King of England ( term 21 May 1420 – 31 August 1422 ) * Henry VI , King of England ( term 31 August – 21 October 1422 ) . Succeeded as King of France upon the death of Charles VI , according to the Treaty of Troyes . Kings of France ( 1422 ) * Henry VI , King of England ( reigned , from England , 21 October 1422 – 4 March 1461 ; 31 October 1470 – 11 April 1471 ) was de facto King of northern France ( crowned 16 December 1431 ) from 1422 to 1435 , and continued to hold onto significant portions of France until 1453 . The de facto King of southern France was Charles VII since 1422 . After 1453 , the only remaining English holding in France was Calais . Henry , though deposed in England by Edward IV on 4 March 1461 , continued to be recognised as King by supporters of the House of Lancaster , and was briefly restored to the English throne in 1470 . Rulers of Calais Following an episode of insanity on the part of Henry VI of England in 1453 and the subsequent outbreak of the Wars of the Roses ( 1455–87 ) , the English were no longer in any position to pursue their claim to the French throne and lost all their land on the continent , except for Calais . Calais was ruled by eight more English Kings and Queens of France until 1558 : * Edward IV of England ( 4 March 1461 – 30 October 1470 ; 11 April 1471 – 9 April 1483 ) . * Edward V of England ( 9 April – 25 June 1483 ) . * Richard III of England ( 25 June 1483 – 22 August 1485 ) . * Henry VII of England ( 22 August 1485 – 21 April 1509 ) . * Henry VIII of England ( 21 April 1509 – 28 January 1547 ) . * Edward VI of England ( 28 January 1547 – 6 July 1553 ) . * Lady Jane Grey ( 6/10 – 19 July 1553 ) , de facto monarch . * Mary I of England ( 19 July 1553 – 7 January 1558 ) . * Philip of England ( jure uxoris ; 25 July 1554 – 7 January 1558 ) . Tudor claimants Ill feeling between the two nations continued well into the 16th century . Calais was captured by French troops under Francis , Duke of Guise on 7 January 1558 . Mary and Philip continued , however , to be styled Queen and King of France for the rest of her reign , as did Mary I 's half-sister and successor Elizabeth I , despite her abandonment of her claims to Calais in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis of 1559 . Elizabeth I revived England 's claims to Calais and took the French port of Le Havre in 1561 . French forces ejected the English in 1563 , and the Treaty of Troyes ( 1564 ) , recognised French ownership of Calais , in return for payment to England of 120,000 crowns . * Mary I and Philip of England ( 7 January – 17 November 1558 ) * Elizabeth I of England ( 17 November 1558 – 24 March 1603 ) The Stuart dynasty claimants Elizabeth died childless . Her successor was her cousin James VI of Scotland . The thrones of England and Scotland were joined in a dynastic union until 1707 . The seven monarchs of this period continued to use the style King/Queen of France , though their claim was merely nominal . None of them was willing to engage in military campaigns for France against the actual Kings of France Henry IV , Louis XIII and Louis XIV of France . Indeed , Charles I married a sister of Louis XIII , and his son Charles II spent much of his exile during the Interregnum in France ( at which time , even if not formally abandoning his claim for its throne , he certainly did not emphasise it ) . * James I of England and VI of Scotland ( 24 March 1603 – 27 March 1625 ) . * Charles I of England and Scotland ( 27 March 1625 – 30 January 1649 ) . * Charles II of England and Scotland ( 30 January 1649 – 6 February 1685 ) . * James II of England and VII of Scotland ( 6 February 1685 – 12 February 1689 ) . * Mary II of England and Scotland ( 13 February 1689 – 28 December 1694 ) . * William III of England and II of Scotland ( 13 February 1689 – 8 March 1702 ) . * Anne of England and Scotland ( 8 March 1702 – 1 May 1707 ) . The claimants of Great Britain The Act of Union 1707 declared the joining of the Kingdom of England with the Kingdom of Scotland to a new Kingdom of Great Britain . The Kingdom had four Monarchs until 1801 . They also styled themselves Queen/King of France ; however , none of them actually questioned the rights of Louis XIV and his successors Louis XV , Louis XVI , Louis XVII and Louis XVIII : * Anne , Queen of Great Britain ( 1 May 1707 – 1 August 1714 ) . * George I of Great Britain ( 1 August 1714 – 11 June 1727 ) . * George II of Great Britain ( 11 June 1727 – 25 October 1760 ) . * George III of Great Britain ( 25 October 1760 – 1 January 1801 ) . Ending the claim The French Revolution overthrew and abolished the monarchy on 21 September 1792 and replaced it with the French First Republic . During the peace negotiations at the Conference of Lille , lasting from July to November 1797 , the French delegates demanded that the King of Great Britain abandon the title of King of France as a condition of peace . In 1800 , the Act of Union joined the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland to a new United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . George III chose this opportunity to drop his claim to the now defunct French throne , whereupon the fleurs de lis , part of the coat of arms of all claimant Kings of France since the time of Edward III , were also removed from the British royal arms . Britain recognised the French Republic by the Treaty of Amiens of 1802 . The change was not acknowledged by Jacobite claimant Cardinal Henry Benedict Stuart . He continued to formally style himself King of England , Scotland , France and Ireland until his death on 13 July 1807 . Although the fleurs-de-lys were completely removed from the Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom , they were later included in the arms of Canada , the British dominion , where they symbolise the French population of Canada ( Quebec ) , not the former British claim to the French throne . While the position of King of France was restored in 1814 ( and later abolished for the final time in 1848 ) the British monarchs after then did not pursue the claim to the French throne . The Jacobite pretenders The Jacobite pretenders were James II of England and his successors , continuing to be styled `` Kings of England , Scotland , France and Ireland '' past their deposition in 1689 . All four pretenders continued to actively claim the title King of France as well as that of King of England , Scotland and Ireland from 1689 till 1807 : * James II and VII ( 12 February 1689 – 16 September 1701 ) . * James Francis Edward Stuart ( 16 September 1701 – 1 January 1766 ) , styled James III and VIII , also known as the Chevalier de St. George or as the Old Pretender . * Charles Edward Stuart ( 1 January 1766 – 31 January 1788 ) , styled Charles III , also known as Bonnie Prince Charlie , the Young Chevalier , or as the Young Pretender . * Henry Benedict Stuart ( 31 January 1788 – 13 July 1807 ) , styled Henry IX and I . James II for the last twelve years of his life and his son , the Old Pretender , until the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 , were actually pensioners of Louis XIV at the very time they were claiming his title . The Jacobite successors The Jacobite succession has continued since 1807 but none of the eight subsequent holders of the claims has actively pursued them . They continue to be customarily known as `` King ( or Queen ) of France '' by the Jacobites . * Charles Emmanuel IV of Sardinia ( 13 July 1807 – 6 October 1819 ) , descended from the youngest daughter of Charles I . * Victor Emmanuel I of Sardinia ( 6 October 1819 – 10 January 1824 ) , his brother . * Maria Beatrice , Princess of Sardinia and later by marriage Duchess of Modena ( 10 January 1824 – 15 September 1840 ) , his daughter . * Francis V , Duke of Modena ( 15 September 1840 – 20 November 1875 ) , her son . * Maria Theresia , Princess of Modena and later Queen consort of Bavaria ( 20 November 1875 – 3 February 1919 ) , his niece . * Rupprecht , Crown Prince of Bavaria ( 3 February 1919 – 2 August 1955 ) , her son . * Albrecht , Duke of Bavaria ( 2 August 1955 – 8 July 1996 ) , his son . * Franz , Duke of Bavaria ( since 8 July 1996 ) , his son . The heir presumptive of the Jacobite claim is Franz 's younger brother * Prince Max , Duke in Bavaria ; then his daughter * * Sophie , Hereditary Princess of Liechtenstein ; and then her eldest son * * * Prince Joseph Wenzel of Liechtenstein , born 24 May 1995 in London – the first heir in the Jacobite line born in the British Isles since James III and VIII , The Old Pretender , in 1688 . Failed claimants In addition two failed claimants to the throne of England were also styled King of France . They are usually omitted from regnal lists . * Lambert Simnel , impersonating Edward Plantagenet , 17th Earl of Warwick . Styled `` Edward VI , King of England and France '' ( 24 May – 16 June 1487 ) . Captured in the Battle of Stoke Field by Henry VII . * James Scott , 1st Duke of Monmouth . Styled `` King of England , Scotland , France and Ireland '' ( 20 June – 6 July 1685 ) . Captured in the Battle of Sedgemoor by James II/VII .

odql_1393--English_claims_to_the_French_throne.txt

In 1337 which English king claimed the throne of France, precipitating the '100 Years War'?

`` Who 's on First ? '' is a comedy routine made famous by Abbott and Costello . The premise of the sketch is that Abbott is identifying the players on a baseball team for Costello , but their names and nicknames can be interpreted as non-responsive answers to Costello 's questions . For example , the first baseman is named `` Who '' ; thus , the utterance `` Who 's on first '' is ambiguous between the question ( `` Which person is the first baseman ? '' ) and the answer ( `` The name of the first baseman is 'Who ' '' ) . History `` Who 's on First ? '' is descended from turn-of-the-century burlesque sketches that used plays on words and names . Examples are `` The Baker Scene '' ( the shop is located on Watt Street ) and `` Who Dyed '' ( the owner is named `` Who '' ) . In the 1930 movie Cracked Nuts , comedians Bert Wheeler and Robert Woolsey examine a map of a mythical kingdom with dialogue like this : `` What is next to Which . '' `` What is the name of the town next to Which ? '' `` Yes . '' In English music halls ( England 's equivalent of vaudeville theatres ) , comedian Will Hay performed a routine in the early 1930s ( and possibly earlier ) as a schoolmaster interviewing a schoolboy named Howe who came from Ware but now lives in Wye . By the early 1930s , a `` Baseball Routine '' had become a standard bit for burlesque comics across the United States . Abbott 's wife recalled him performing the routine with another comedian before teaming with Costello . Bud Abbott stated that it was taken from an older routine called `` Who 's The Boss ? `` , a performance of which can be heard in an episode of the radio comedy program It Pays to Be Ignorant from the 1940s . After they formally teamed up in burlesque in 1936 , he and Costello continued to hone the sketch . It was a big hit in 1937 , when they performed the routine in a touring vaudeville revue called `` Hollywood Bandwagon '' . In February 1938 , Abbott and Costello joined the cast of The Kate Smith Hour radio program , and the sketch was first performed for a national radio audience that March . The routine may have been further polished before this broadcast by burlesque producer John Grant , who became the team 's writer , and Will Glickman , a staff writer on the radio show . Glickman may have added the nicknames of then-contemporary baseball players like Dizzy and Daffy Dean to set up the routine 's premise . This version , with extensive wordplay based on the fact that most of the fictional baseball team 's players had `` strange nicknames '' that seemed to be questions , became known as `` Who 's on First ? '' Some versions continue with references to Enos Slaughter , which Costello misunderstands as `` He knows '' Slaughter . By 1944 , Abbott and Costello had the routine copyrighted . Abbott and Costello performed `` Who 's on First ? '' numerous times in their careers , rarely performing it exactly the same way twice . They did the routine for President Franklin Roosevelt several times . An abridged version was featured in the team 's 1940 film debut , One Night in the Tropics . The duo reprised the bit in their 1945 film The Naughty Nineties , and it is that longer version which is considered their finest recorded rendition . They also performed `` Who 's on First ? '' numerous times on radio and television ( notably in The Abbott and Costello Show episode `` The Actor 's Home '' , widely considered the definitive version ) . In 1956 , a gold record of `` Who 's on First ? '' was placed in the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in Cooperstown , New York . A video ( taken from The Naughty Nineties ) now plays continuously on screens at the Hall . In the 1970s , Selchow and Righter published a `` Who 's on First ? '' board game . In 1999 , Time named the routine Best Comedy Sketch of the 20th century . An early radio recording was placed in the Library of Congress 's National Recording Registry in 2003 . In 2005 , the line `` Who 's on First ? '' was included on the American Film Institute 's list of 100 memorable movie quotations . Sketch The names given in the routine for the players at each position are : * First base : Who * Second base : What * Third base : I Do n't Know * Left field : Why * Center field : Because * Pitcher : Tomorrow * Catcher : Today * Shortstop : I Do n't Give a Darn The name of the shortstop is not given until the very end of the routine , and the right fielder is never identified . In the Selchow and Righter board game , the right fielder 's name is `` Nobody '' . At one point in the routine , Costello thinks that the first baseman is named Naturally : Abbott : You throw the ball to first base . Costello : Then who gets it ? Abbott : Naturally . Costello : Naturally . Abbott : Now you 've got it . Costello : I throw the ball to Naturally . Abbott : You do n't ! You throw it to Who ! Costello : Naturally . Abbott : Well , that 's it—say it that way . Costello : That 's what I said . Abbott : You did not . Costello : I said I throw the ball to Naturally . Abbott : You do n't ! You throw it to Who ! Costello : Naturally . Abbott 's explanations leave Costello hopelessly confused and infuriated , until the end of the routine when Costello finally appears to catch on . Costello : Now I throw the ball to first base , whoever it is drops the ball , so the guy runs to second . Who picks up the ball and throws it to What . What throws it to I Do n't Know . I Do n't Know throws it back to Tomorrow—a triple play . Abbott : Yeah , it could be . Costello : Another guy gets up and it 's a long fly ball to Because . Why ? I do n't know . He 's on third , and I do n't give a darn ! Abbott : What was that ? Costello : I said , I DO N'T GIVE A DARN ! Abbott : Oh , that 's our shortstop ! That is the most commonly heard ending . `` I Do n't Care '' and `` I Do n't Give a Damn '' have also turned up on occasion , depending on the perceived sensibilities of the audience . The skit was usually performed on the team 's radio series at the start of the baseball season . In one instance it serves as a climax for a broadcast which begins with Costello receiving a telegram from Joe DiMaggio asking Costello to take over for him due to his injury . ( In this case , the unidentified right fielder would have been Costello himself . While Joe DiMaggio was best known as a center fielder , when Abbott and Costello honed the sketch in 1936-7 , Joe DiMaggio had played a number of games at right field ( 20 in 1936 ) . ) Writing credit Numerous people over the years have claimed credit for writing the sketch , but such claims typically lack reasonable corroboration . For example , in a 1993 obituary of comedy sketch writer Michael J. Musto , it stated that shortly after Abbott and Costello teamed up , they paid Musto $ 15 to write the script . Furthermore , several 1996 obituaries of songwriter Irving Gordon mention that he had written the sketch . Notable performances and derivatives The sketch has been reprised , updated , alluded to , and parodied innumerable times over the years in all forms of media . Some notable examples include : * The comedy troupe The Credibility Gap did a rock group variation on this routine involving a promoter , played by Harry Shearer , and a newspaper advertising salesman , played by David L. Lander , confusing the night 's acts as proper nouns . The acts were The Who , The Guess Who and Yes . * Eugene Levy and Tony Rosato performed a variation on this theme on the TV series SCTV , with the rock groups The Band , The Who , and Yes . The final punchline changed to `` This is for the birds ( The Byrds ) ! '' `` Ah , they broke up long ago ! '' * In an episode of Animaniacs , Slappy and Skippy Squirrel attend the 1969 Woodstock Festival , where they pay homage to the routine . As with the SCTV version , Slappy confuses The Who , The Band , and Yes for proper nouns . * An episode of Garfield and Friends includes a U.S . Acres cartoon featuring three dogs named Who , What and Where . Roy and Wade try desperately to know the dogs ' names in an homage to the `` Who 's on First ? '' routine . At the end of the cartoon , they say Why is the name of their sister and Forget It is the name of their uncle . * In an episode of The Simpsons , Superintendent Chalmers and Principal Skinner attempt to perform the routine , but Chalmers gives up after Skinner says his first line : `` Not the pronoun , but rather a player with the unlikely name of 'Who ' is on first . '' * The popular TV show How I Met Your Mother adapted the routine for a sixth season episode titled `` Hopeless '' where the group is trying to decide which night club to go to . However , the names of the clubs , such as `` Was '' , `` Where '' , `` Lame '' , etc . lead to nothing but confusion . The skit references the Abbott and Costello routine when the oldest character , played by John Lithgow , blurts out , `` I do n't know . Third base ! '' * In a 2012 edition of NBC 's Late Night with Jimmy Fallon , the host , joined by fellow comedians Billy Crystal and Jerry Seinfeld , performed a `` sequel '' to the Abbott and Costello bit , shown in black-and-white . In the routine , Crystal plays `` Who , '' while Seinfeld portrays `` I Do n't Know . '' * In Season One ( 1989-1990 ) , Episode 10 of The Kids in The Hall television program , David Foley and Kevin McDonald play two vaudevillians ( named McGillicutty and Green ) who attempt to perform the `` Who 's on First '' sketch ; however , McGillcutty ( Foley 's character ) ruins the routine when he immediately realizes the confusion and proceeds to laboriously explain the joke , much to Green 's dismay . * Dustin Hoffman 's character in the 1988 film Rain Man , who is an autistic savant , recites the entire `` Who 's on First '' routine from memory believing it to be an actual puzzle that is meant to be solved . * In 2008 Mike Schroeder made a World of Warcraft-themed `` Who 's on First '' parody called `` Who 's the tank ? '' mimicking a raid group line up with the silly names with Who being the tank , What the mage , and I Do n't Know the priest . * In 2002 playwright Jim Sherman wrote a variation called `` Hu 's on First '' featuring George W. Bush being confused when Condoleezza Rice tells him that the new leader of China is named Hu , pronounced similarly to the word `` Who '' . Bush also misunderstands Rice 's references to Yassir Arafat ( `` yes , sir '' ) and Kofi Annan ( `` coffee '' ) . * Two decades before Sherman 's version , a similar routine was played on The Tonight Show , with Johnny Carson as President Ronald Reagan growing increasingly confused in a meeting with his Chief of Staff , James Baker . [ https : //www.youtube.com/watch ? v=1Evt6As72m4 ] In addition to Hu and Yassir , James G. Watt ( `` What ? '' ) is referenced , and the YMCA ( `` Why ? `` ) . * In an episode of Family Guy , a conversation between Chris and Stewie cuts away to a scene with Costello doing the routine with an owl that repeatedly says `` Who '' ( reference to the similarity in sound of an owl 's hoot to saying the word `` who '' ) . They are referred to as `` Owl and Costello . '' * A 2014 Pearls Before Swine comic strip also did a rock group variation which got more than 2,700,000 views and 27,000 shares in two days . * A scene in Rush Hour 3 depicts `` Who 's on First , '' changing the words to the Chinese `` Yu '' and `` Mi '' which Carter mistakes for the English words `` You '' and `` Me '' causing confusion between the two people . * Comedians Jay Leibowitz and David Foubert wrote and performed a Shakespearean version of `` Who 's on First '' called `` Who Doth Inhabit the Primary Position '' . * In the Season 5 episode of My Little Pony : Friendship is Magic , `` Tanks For The Memories '' , the skit is referenced by three pegasi . * In the eleventh episode of the first season of BoJack Horseman , there was a character named Dr. Allen Hu ( Who ) and BoJack thought it was Doctor Who because Sarah Lynn explains that she first met him at a Halloween party . When BoJack tries to explain that he thought it was Who , no one in the room knew Doctor Who . At the end , the original skit is referred to by Sarah Lynn saying `` third base '' after Todd says `` I do n't know '' . * In the claymation TV series The PJs , Thurgood and Smokey play a policeman and a crack addict as part of a comedy act entitled `` Who 's on Crack ? `` , where Thurgood would try to find out the street names of the neighborhood 's drug addicts . * The videogame Keep Talking and Nobody Explodes has a module named `` Who 's on First '' , where players must press specific buttons labeled with similarly confusing words . * During the 2015 Canadian federal election , Bonnie Hu , the Libertarian candidate in South Surrey—White Rock , joked `` Remember : Hu 's on first , Watts ' on second ! '' in reference to Dianne Watts , the Conservative candidate . * The biography of Lou Costello written by his daughter Chris is titled Lou 's on First . Real-life parallels * On October 3 , 1920 , Allie Watt played one game at second base for the Washington Senators so that , for a brief time , 'What 's on second ' . * In September 2007 , Los Angeles Dodgers shortstop Chin-Lung Hu , a late-season callup from Albuquerque , got his first major league hit against the Arizona Diamondbacks ; upon stopping at first base , Dodgers announcer Vin Scully proclaimed `` Shades of Abbott and Costello , I can finally say Hu is on first base '' .

dpql_3436--Who's_on_First?.txt

Which duo are associated with the classic comedy routine “Who’s on First”?

The Winter Olympic Games ( French : Jeux olympiques d'hiver ) is a major international sporting event that occurs once every four years . Unlike the Summer Olympics , the Winter Olympics feature sports practiced on snow and ice . The first Winter Olympics , the 1924 Winter Olympics , was held in Chamonix , France . The original five sports ( broken into nine disciplines ) were bobsleigh , curling , ice hockey , Nordic skiing ( consisting of the disciplines military patrol , cross-country skiing , Nordic combined , and ski jumping ) , and skating ( consisting of the disciplines figure skating and speed skating ) . The Games were held every four years from 1924 until 1936 , after which they were interrupted by World War II . The Olympics resumed in 1948 and was again held every four years . Until 1992 , the Winter and Summer Olympic Games were held in the same years , but in accordance with a 1986 decision by the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) to place the Summer and Winter Games on separate four-year cycles in alternating even-numbered years , the next Winter Olympics after 1992 was in 1994 . The Winter Games have evolved since its inception . Sports and disciplines have been added and some of them , such as Alpine skiing , luge , short track speed skating , freestyle skiing , skeleton , and snowboarding , have earned a permanent spot on the Olympic program . Others ( such as curling and bobsleigh ) have been discontinued and later reintroduced , or have been permanently discontinued ( such as military patrol , though the modern Winter Olympic sport of biathlon is descended from it ) . Still others , such as speed skiing , bandy and skijoring , were demonstration sports but never incorporated as Olympic sports . The rise of television as a global medium for communication enhanced the profile of the Games . It created an income stream , via the sale of broadcast rights and advertising , which has become lucrative for the IOC . This allowed outside interests , such as television companies and corporate sponsors , to exert influence . The IOC has had to address several criticisms , internal scandals , the use of performance-enhancing drugs by Winter Olympians , as well as a political boycott of the Winter Olympics . Nations have used the Winter Games to showcase the claimed superiority of their political systems . The Winter Olympics has been hosted on three continents by eleven different countries . The United States has hosted the Games four times ( 1932 , 1960 , 1980 , 2002 ) ; France has been the host three times ( 1924 , 1968 , 1992 ) ; Austria ( 1964 , 1976 ) , Canada ( 1988 , 2010 ) , Japan ( 1972 , 1998 ) , Italy ( 1956 , 2006 ) , Norway ( 1952 , 1994 ) , and Switzerland ( 1928 , 1948 ) have hosted the Games twice . Germany ( 1936 ) , Yugoslavia ( 1984 ) , and Russia ( 2014 ) have hosted the Games once . The IOC has selected Pyeongchang , South Korea , to host the 2018 Winter Olympics and Beijing , China , to host the 2022 Winter Olympics . No country in the southern hemisphere has hosted or even been an applicant to host the Winter Olympics ; the major challenge preventing one hosting the games is the dependence on winter weather , and the traditional February timing of the games falls in the middle of the southern hemisphere summer . Twelve countries – Austria , Canada , Finland , France , Great Britain , Hungary , Italy , Norway , Poland , Sweden , Switzerland and the United States – have sent athletes to every Winter Olympic Games . Six of those – Austria , Canada , Finland , Norway , Sweden and the United States – have earned medals at every Winter Olympic Games , and only one – the United States – has earned gold at each Games . Germany and Japan have been banned at times from competing in the Games . Sports The Olympic Charter limits winter sports to `` those ... which are practised on snow or ice . '' Since 1992 a number of new sports have been added to the Olympic programme ; which include short track speed skating , snowboarding , freestyle and moguls skiing . The addition of these events has broadened the appeal of the Winter Olympics beyond Europe and North America . While European powers such as Norway and Germany still dominate the traditional Winter Olympic sports , countries such as South Korea , Australia and Canada are finding success in the new sports . The results are more parity in the national medal tables , more interest in the Winter Olympics and higher global television ratings . Current sport disciplines Note 1 . Figure skating events were held at the 1908 and 1920 Summer Olympics . Note 2 . A men 's ice hockey tournament was held at the 1920 Summer Olympics . Note 3 . The IOC 's website now treats Men 's Military Patrol at the 1924 games as an event within the sport of Biathlon . Demonstration events Demonstration sports have historically provided a venue for host countries to attract publicity to locally popular sports by having a competition without granting medals . Demonstration sports were discontinued after 1992 . Military patrol , a precursor to the biathlon , was a medal sport in 1924 and was demonstrated in 1928 , 1936 and 1948 , becoming an official sport in 1960 . The special figures figure skating event was only contested at the 1908 Summer Olympics . Bandy ( Russian hockey ) is a sport popular in the Nordic countries and Russia . In the latter it 's considered a national sport . It was demonstrated at the Oslo Games . Ice stock sport , a German variant of curling , was demonstrated in 1936 in Germany and 1964 in Austria . The ski ballet event , later known as ski-acro , was demonstrated in 1988 and 1992 . Skijöring , skiing behind dogs , was a demonstration sport in St. Moritz in 1928 . A sled-dog race was held at Lake Placid in 1932 . Speed skiing was demonstrated in Albertville at the 1992 Winter Olympics . Winter pentathlon , a variant of the modern pentathlon , was included as a demonstration event at the 1948 Games in Switzerland . It was composed of cross-country skiing , shooting , downhill skiing , fencing and horse riding . History Early years A predecessor , the Nordic Games , were organized by General Viktor Gustaf Balck in 1901 and were held again in 1903 and 1905 and then every fourth year thereafter until 1926 . Balck was a charter member of the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) and a close friend of Olympic Games founder Pierre de Coubertin . He attempted to have winter sports , specifically figure skating , added to the Olympic program but was unsuccessful until the 1908 Summer Olympics in London , United Kingdom . Four figure skating events were contested , at which Ulrich Salchow ( 10-time world champion ) and Madge Syers won the individual titles . Three years later , Italian count Eugenio Brunetta d'Usseaux proposed that the IOC stage a week of winter sports included as part of the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm , Sweden . The organizers opposed this idea because they desired to protect the integrity of the Nordic Games and were concerned about a lack of facilities for winter sports . The idea was resurrected for the 1916 Games , which were to be held in Berlin , Germany . A winter sports week with speed skating , figure skating , ice hockey and Nordic skiing was planned , but the 1916 Olympics was cancelled after the outbreak of World War I . The first Olympics after the war , the 1920 Summer Olympics , were held in Antwerp , Belgium , and featured figure skating and an ice hockey tournament . Germany , Austria , Hungary , Bulgaria and Turkey were banned from competing in the Games . At the IOC Congress held the following year it was decided that the host nation of the 1924 Summer Olympics , France , would host a separate `` International Winter Sports Week '' under the patronage of the IOC . Chamonix was chosen to host this `` week '' ( actually 11 days ) of events . The Games proved to be a success when more than 250 athletes from 16 nations competed in 16 events . Athletes from Finland and Norway won 28 medals , more than the rest of the participating nations combined . Germany remained banned until 1925 , and instead hosted a series of games called Deutsche Kampfspiele , starting with the Winter edition of 1922 ( which predated the first Winter Olympics ) . In 1925 the IOC decided to create a separate Olympic Winter Games and the 1924 Games in Chamonix was retroactively designated as the first Winter Olympics . St. Moritz , Switzerland , was appointed by the IOC to host the second Olympic Winter Games in 1928 . Fluctuating weather conditions challenged the hosts . The opening ceremony was held in a blizzard while warm weather conditions plagued sporting events throughout the rest of the Games . Because of the weather the 10,000 metre speed-skating event had to be abandoned and officially cancelled . The weather was not the only noteworthy aspect of the 1928 Games : Sonja Henie of Norway made history when she won the figure skating competition at the age of 15 . She became the youngest Olympic champion in history , a distinction she would hold for 74 years . The next Winter Olympics was the first to be hosted outside of Europe . Seventeen nations and 252 athletes participated . This was less than in 1928 as the journey to Lake Placid , United States , was a long and expensive one for most competitors who had little money in the midst of the Great Depression . The athletes competed in fourteen events in four sports . Virtually no snow fell for two months before the Games , and it was not until mid-January that there was enough snow to hold all the events . Sonja Henie defended her Olympic title and Eddie Eagan , who had been an Olympic champion in boxing in 1920 , won the gold in the men 's bobsleigh event to become the first , and so far only , Olympian to have won gold medals in both the Summer and Winter Olympics . The German towns of Garmisch and Partenkirchen joined to organise the 1936 edition of the Winter Games , held on 6–16 February . This would be the last time the Summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same country in the same year . Alpine skiing made its Olympic debut , but skiing teachers were barred from entering because they were considered to be professionals . Because of this decision the Swiss and Austrian skiers refused to compete at the Games . World War II World War II interrupted the celebrations of the Winter Olympics . The 1940 Games had been awarded to Sapporo , Japan , but the decision was rescinded in 1938 because of the Japanese invasion of China . The Games were moved to Garmisch-Partenkirchen , Germany , but the German invasion of Poland in 1939 forced the complete cancellation of the 1940 Games . Due to the ongoing war the 1944 Games , originally scheduled for Cortina D'Ampezzo , Italy , were cancelled . 1948 to 1960 St. Moritz was selected to host the first post-war Games in 1948 . Switzerland 's neutrality had protected the town during World War II and most of the venues were in place from the 1928 Games , which made St. Moritz a logical choice . It became the first city to host a Winter Olympics twice . Twenty-eight countries competed in Switzerland , but athletes from Germany and Japan were not invited . Controversy erupted when two hockey teams from the United States arrived , both claiming to be the legitimate U.S. Olympic hockey representative . The Olympic flag presented at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp was stolen , as was its replacement . There was unprecedented parity at these Games , during which 10 countries won gold medals—more than any Games to that point . The Olympic Flame for the 1952 Games in Oslo , was lit in the fireplace by skiing pioneer Sondre Nordheim and the torch relay was conducted by 94 participants entirely on skis . Bandy , a popular sport in the Nordic countries , was featured as a demonstration sport , though only Norway , Sweden and Finland fielded teams . Norwegian athletes won 17 medals , which outpaced all the other nations . They were led by Hjalmar Andersen who won three gold medals in four events in the speed skating competition . After not being able to host the Games in 1944 , Cortina d'Ampezzo was selected to organise the 1956 Winter Olympics . At the opening ceremonies the final torch bearer , Guido Caroli , entered the Olympic Stadium on ice skates . As he skated around the stadium his skate caught on a cable and he fell , nearly extinguishing the flame . He was able to recover and light the cauldron . These were the first Winter Games to be televised and the first Olympics ever broadcast nationwide , though no television rights would be sold until the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome.Guttman ( 1986 ) , p. 135 The Cortina Games were used to test the feasibility of televising large sporting events . The Soviet Union made its Olympic debut and had an immediate impact , winning more medals than any other nation . Chiharu Igaya won the first Winter Olympics medal for Japan and the continent of Asia , when he placed second in the slalom . The IOC awarded the 1960 Olympics to Squaw Valley , United States . Since the village was underdeveloped , there was a rush to construct infrastructure and sports facilities like an ice arena , speed-skating track , and a ski-jump hill.Judd ( 2008 ) , pp . 27–28 The opening and closing ceremonies were produced by Walt Disney.Judd ( 2008 ) , p. 28 The Squaw Valley Olympics had a number of notable firsts : it was the first Olympics to have a dedicated athletes ' village , it was the first to use a computer ( courtesy of IBM ) to tabulate results , and the first to feature female speed skating events . The bobsleigh events were absent for the only time , because the organising committee found it too expensive to build the bobsleigh run . 1964 to 1980 The Austrian city of Innsbruck was the host in 1964 . Although Innsbruck was a traditional winter sports resort , warm weather caused a lack of snow during the Games and the Austrian army was asked to transport snow and ice to the sport venues . Soviet speed-skater Lidia Skoblikova made history by sweeping all four speed-skating events . Her career total of six gold medals set a record for Winter Olympics athletes . Luge was first contested in 1964 , although the sport received bad publicity when a competitor was killed in a pre-Olympic training run . Held in the French town of Grenoble , the 1968 Winter Olympics were the first Olympic Games to be broadcast in colour . There were 37 nations and 1,158 athletes competing in 35 events . Frenchman Jean-Claude Killy became only the second person to win all the men 's alpine skiing events . The organising committee sold television rights for $ 2 million , which was more than double the price of the broadcast rights for the Innsbruck Games.Findling and Pelle ( 2004 ) , p. 277 Venues were spread over long distances requiring three athletes ' villages . The organisers claimed this was required to accommodate technological advances . Critics disputed this , alleging that the layout was necessary to provide the best possible venues for television broadcasts at the expense of the athletes . The 1972 Winter Games , held in Sapporo , Japan , were the first to be hosted outside North America or Europe . The issue of professionalism became contentious during the Sapporo Games . Three days before the Games IOC president Avery Brundage threatened to bar a number of alpine skiers from competing because they participated in a ski camp at Mammoth Mountain in the United States . Brundage reasoned that the skiers had financially benefited from their status as athletes and were therefore no longer amateurs . Eventually only Austrian Karl Schranz , who earned more than all the other skiers , was not allowed to compete . Canada did not send teams to the 1972 or 1976 ice hockey tournaments in protest of their inability to use players from professional leagues . Francisco Fernández Ochoa became the first ( and only ) Spaniard to win a Winter Olympic gold medal ; he triumphed in the slalom . The 1976 Winter Olympics had been awarded in 1970 to Denver , United States , but in November 1972 the voters of the state of Colorado voted against public funding of the games by a 3 to 2 margin . The IOC turned to offer the Games to Vancouver-Garibaldi , British Columbia , which had been a candidate for the 1976 Games . However , a change in provincial government brought in an administration which did not support the Olympic bid , so the offer was rejected . Salt Lake City , a candidate for the 1972 Games , offered itself , but the IOC opted to ask Innsbruck , which had maintained most of the infrastructure from the 1964 Games . With half the time to prepare for the Games as intended , Innsbruck accepted the invitation to replace Denver in February 1973 . Two Olympic flames were lit because it was the second time the Austrian town had hosted the Games . The 1976 Games featured the first combination bobsleigh and luge track , in neighbouring Igls . The Soviet Union won its fourth consecutive ice hockey gold medal . In 1980 the Olympics returned to Lake Placid , which had hosted the 1932 Games . The first boycott of a Winter Olympics occurred in 1980 when Taiwan refused to participate after an edict by the IOC mandated that they change their name and national anthem . The IOC was attempting to accommodate China , who wished to compete using the same name and anthem that had been used by Taiwan . American speed-skater Eric Heiden set either an Olympic or world record in each of the five events he competed in . Hanni Wenzel won both the slalom and giant slalom and her country , Liechtenstein , became the smallest nation to produce an Olympic gold medallist . In the `` Miracle on Ice '' the American hockey team beat the favoured Soviets , and then went on to win the gold medal . 1984 to 1998 Sapporo , Japan , and Gothenburg , Sweden , were front-runners to host the 1984 Winter Olympics . It was therefore a surprise when Sarajevo , Yugoslavia , was selected as host . The Games were well-organised and displayed no indication of the war that would engulf the country eight years later . A total of 49 nations and 1,272 athletes participated in 39 events . Host nation Yugoslavia won its first Olympic medal when alpine skier Jure Franko won a silver in the giant slalom . Another sporting highlight was the free dance performance of British ice dancers Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean . Their performance to Ravel 's Boléro earned the pair the gold medal after achieving unanimous perfect scores for artistic impression . In 1988 , the Canadian city of Calgary hosted the first Winter Olympics to span 16 days . New events were added in ski-jumping and speed skating ; while future Olympic sports curling , short track speed skating and freestyle skiing made their appearance as demonstration sports . For the first time the speed skating events were held indoors , on the Olympic Oval . Dutch skater Yvonne van Gennip won three gold medals and set two world records , beating skaters from the favoured East German team in every race . Her medal total was equalled by Finnish ski jumper Matti Nykänen , who won all three events in his sport . Alberto Tomba , an Italian skier , made his Olympic debut by winning both the giant slalom and slalom . East German Christa Rothenburger won the women 's 1,000 metre speed skating event . Seven months later she would earn a silver in track cycling at the Summer Games in Seoul , to become the only athlete to win medals in both a Summer and Winter Olympics in the same year . The 1992 Games were the last to be held in the same year as the Summer Games . They were hosted in the French Savoie region in the city of Albertville , though only 18 events were held in the city . The rest of the events were spread out over the Savoie . Political changes of the time were reflected in the Olympic teams appearing in France : this was the first Games to be held after the fall of Communism and the dismantling of the Berlin Wall , and Germany competed as a single nation for the first time since the 1964 Games ; former Yugoslavian republics Croatia and Slovenia made their debuts as independent nations ; most of the former Soviet republics still competed as a single team known as the Unified Team , but the Baltic States made independent appearances for the first time since before World War II . At 16 years old , Finnish ski jumper Toni Nieminen made history by becoming the youngest male Winter Olympic champion . New Zealand skier Annelise Coberger became the first Winter Olympic medallist from the southern hemisphere when she won a silver medal in the women 's slalom . In 1986 the IOC had voted to separate the Summer and Winter Games and place them in alternating even-numbered years . This change became effective for the 1994 Games , held in Lillehammer , Norway , which became the first Winter Olympics to be held separate from the Summer Games . After the division of Czechoslovakia in 1993 the Czech Republic and Slovakia made their Olympic debuts . The women 's figure skating competition garnered media attention when American skater Nancy Kerrigan was injured on 6 January 1994 , in an assault planned by the ex-husband of opponent Tonya Harding . Both skaters competed in the Games , but the gold medal was won by Oksana Baiul . She became Ukraine 's first Olympic champion . Johann Olav Koss of Norway won three gold medals , coming first in all of the distance speed skating events . The 1998 Winter Olympics were held in the Japanese city of Nagano and were the first Games to host more than 2,000 athletes . The men 's ice hockey tournament was opened to professionals for the first time . Canada and the United States , with their many NHL players , were favoured to win the tournament . Neither won any hockey medals however , as the Czech Republic prevailed . Women 's ice hockey made its debut and the United States won the gold medal . Bjørn Dæhlie of Norway won three gold medals in Nordic skiing . He became the most decorated Winter Olympic athlete with eight gold medals and twelve medals overall . Austrian Hermann Maier survived a crash during the downhill competition and returned to win gold in the super-g and the giant slalom . A wave of new world records were set in speed skating because of the introduction of the clap skate . 2002 to 2010 The 2002 Winter Olympics were held in Salt Lake City , United States , hosting 77 nations and 2,399 athletes in 78 events in 7 sports . These games were the first to take place since 11 September 2001 , which meant a higher degree of security to avoid a terrorist attack . The opening ceremonies of the games saw signs of the aftermath of the events of that day , including the flag that flew at Ground Zero , NYPD officer Daniel Rodríguez singing `` God Bless America '' , and honor guards of NYPD and FDNY members . German Georg Hackl won a silver in the singles luge , becoming the first athlete in Olympic history to win medals in the same individual event in five consecutive Olympics . Canada achieved an unprecedented double by winning both the men 's and women 's ice hockey gold medals . Canada became embroiled with Russia in a controversy that involved the judging of the pairs figure skating competition . The Russian pair of Yelena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze competed against the Canadian pair of Jamie Salé and David Pelletier for the gold medal . The Canadians appeared to have skated well enough to win the competition , yet the Russians were awarded the gold . The judging broke along Cold War lines with judges from former Communist countries favouring the Russian pair and judges from Western nations voting for the Canadians . The only exception was the French judge , Marie-Reine Le Gougne , who awarded the gold to the Russians . An investigation revealed that she had been pressured to give the gold to the Russian pair regardless of how they skated ; in return the Russian judge would look favourably on the French entrants in the ice dancing competition . The IOC decided to award both pairs the gold medal in a second medal ceremony held later in the Games . Australian Steven Bradbury became the first gold medallist from the southern hemisphere when he won the 1,000 metre short-track speed skating event . The Italian city of Turin hosted the 2006 Winter Olympics . It was the second time that Italy had hosted the Winter Olympic Games . South Korean athletes won 10 medals , including 6 gold in the short-track speed skating events . Sun-Yu Jin won three gold medals while her teammate Hyun-Soo Ahn won three gold medals and a bronze . In the women 's Cross-Country team pursuit Canadian Sara Renner broke one of her poles and , when he saw her dilemma , Norwegian coach Bjørnar Håkensmoen decided to lend her a pole . In so doing she was able to help her team win a silver medal in the event at the expense of the Norwegian team , who finished fourth . Claudia Pechstein of Germany became the first speed skater to earn nine career medals . In February 2009 Pechstein tested positive for `` blood manipulation '' and received a two-year suspension , which she appealed . The Court of Arbitration for Sport upheld her suspension but a Swiss court ruled that she could compete for a spot on the 2010 German Olympic team . This ruling was brought to the Swiss Federal Tribunal , which overturned the lower court 's ruling and precluded her from competing in Vancouver . In 2003 the IOC awarded the 2010 Winter Olympics to Vancouver , thus allowing Canada to host its second Winter Olympics . With a population of more than 2.5 million people Vancouver is the largest metropolitan area to ever host a Winter Olympic Games . Over 2,500 athletes from 82 countries participated in 86 events . The death of Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili in a training run on the day of the opening ceremonies resulted in the Whistler Sliding Centre changing the track layout on safety grounds . Norwegian cross-country skier Marit Bjørgen won five medals in the six cross-country events on the women 's programme . She finished the Olympics with three golds , a silver and a bronze . The Vancouver Games were notable for the poor performance of the Russian athletes . From their first Winter Olympics in 1956 to the 2006 games , a Soviet or Russian delegation had never been outside the top five medal-winning nations . In 2010 they finished sixth in total medals and eleventh in gold medals . President Dmitry Medvedev called for the resignation of top sports officials immediately after the Games . The success of Asian countries stood in stark contrast to the under-performing Russian team , with Vancouver marking a high point for medals won by Asian countries . In 1992 the Asian countries had won fifteen medals , three of which were gold . In Vancouver the total number of medals won by athletes from Asia had increased to thirty-one , with eleven of them being gold . The rise of Asian nations

qb_765--Winter_Olympic_Games.txt

Which European country hosted the 1956 Winter Olympic Games?

Puerto Rico ( Spanish for 'Rich Port ' ) ( or ; , ) , officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( , `` Associated Free State of Puerto Rico '' ) is the largest insular territory of the United States , and it is located in the northeastern Caribbean Sea . It is an archipelago that includes the main island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller islands such as Mona , Culebra , and Vieques . The capital and most populous city is San Juan . The territory does not observe daylight saving time , and its official languages are Spanish , which is predominant , and English . The island 's population is approximately 3.5 million . Puerto Rico 's rich history , tropical climate , diverse natural scenery , renowned traditional cuisine , and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world . Originally populated by the aboriginal Taíno people , the island was claimed in 1493 by Christopher Columbus for the Kingdom of Spain , enduring several invasion attempts by the French , Dutch , and British . During the four centuries of Spanish rule , the island 's ethnic , cultural and physical landscapes were transformed , as the island was settled overwhelmingly by Spanish settlers , primarily from the Canary Islands and Andalusia , continuing right up until the end of the 19th century , as a result of which it is overwhelmingly Catholic and markedly Hispanic territory in terms of culture and language . In 1898 , following the Spanish–American War , the United States annexed the island under the terms of the Treaty of Paris . Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States . Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress , which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950 . As a U.S. territory , American citizens residing on the island are `` disenfranchised at the national level '' and may not vote for president and vice president of the United States . However , Congress approved a local constitution , allowing U.S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor . A 2012 referendum showed a majority ( 54 % of the electorate ) disagreed with `` the present form of territorial status , '' with full statehood as the preferred option among those who voted for a change of status . However , 470,000 voters left the second question blank , leading statehood opponents to suggest that the referendum actually revealed only 45 % support for statehood . Following the vote , the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico enacted a concurrent resolution to request the president and Congress of the United States to end its current status as an unincorporated U.S. territory and begin the process of admission to the union as a state . Etymology Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén , its indigenous Taíno name , which means `` Land of the Valiant Lord . '' The terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively , and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage . The island is also popularly known in Spanish as la isla del encanto , meaning `` the island of enchantment . '' Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista , in honor of Saint John the Baptist , while the capital city was named Ciudad de Puerto Rico ( ) . Eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico , while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city . The island 's name was briefly changed to `` Porto Rico '' by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898 . The anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises . The name was finally changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931 . History Pre-Columbian era The ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known . Unlike other larger , more advanced indigenous communities in the New World ( Aztec and Inca ) whose people left behind abundant archeological and physical evidence of their societies , the indigenous population of Puerto Rico left scant artifacts and evidence . The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them . The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786 , almost three centuries after the first Spaniards arrived on the island . The first settlers were the Ortoiroid people , an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland . Some scholars suggest that their settlement dates back 4000 years.Rouse , Irving . The Tainos : Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus ISBN 0-300-05696-6 . An archeological dig at the island of Vieques in 1990 found the remains of a man , named the `` Puerto Ferro Man , '' which was dated to around 2000 BC . The Ortoiroid were displaced by the Saladoid , a culture from the same region that arrived on the island between 430 and 250 BC . The Igneri tribe migrated to Puerto Rico between 120 and 400 AD from the region of the Orinoco river in northern South America . The Arcaico and Igneri co-existed on the island between the 4th and 10th centuries . Between the 7th and 11th centuries , the Taíno culture developed on the island . By approximately 1000 AD , it had become dominant . At the time of Columbus ' arrival , an estimated 30,000 to 60,000 Taíno Amerindians , led by the cacique ( chief ) Agüeybaná , inhabited the island . They called it Boriken , meaning `` the great land of the valiant and noble Lord . '' The natives lived in small villages , each led by a cacique . They subsisted by hunting and fishing , done generally by men , as well as by the women 's gathering and processing of indigenous cassava root and fruit . This lasted until Columbus arrived in 1493 . Spanish colony ( 1493–1898 ) Conquest and early settlement When Columbus arrived in Puerto Rico during his second voyage on , 1493 , the island was inhabited by the Taíno . They called it Borikén ( Borinquen in Spanish transliteration ) . Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista , in honor of the Catholic saint , John the Baptist . Having reported the findings of his first travel , Columbus brought with him this time a letter from King Ferdinand empowered by a papal bull that authorized any course of action necessary for the expansion of the Spanish Empire and the Christian faith . Juan Ponce de León , a lieutenant under Columbus , founded the first Spanish settlement , Caparra , on August 8 , 1508 . He later served as the first governor of the island . Eventually , traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico , and San Juan became the name of the main trading/shipping port . At the beginning of the 16th century , the Spanish people began to colonize the island . Despite the Laws of Burgos of 1512 and other decrees for the protection of the indigenous population , some Taíno Indians were forced into an encomienda system of forced labor in the early years of colonization . The population suffered extremely high fatalities from epidemics of European infectious diseases . Colonization , the Habsburgs In 1520 , King Charles I of Spain issued a royal decree collectively emancipating the remaining Taíno population . By that time , the Taíno people were few in number . Enslaved Africans had already begun to compensate for the native labor loss , but their numbers were proportionate to the diminished commercial interest Spain soon began to demonstrate for the island colony . Other nearby islands , like Cuba , Saint-Domingue , and Guadeloupe , attracted more of the slave trade than Puerto Rico , probably because of greater agricultural interests in those islands , on which colonists had developed large sugar plantations and had the capital to invest in the Atlantic slave trade . From the beginning , the colonial administration relied heavily on the industry of enslaved Africans and creole blacks for public works and defenses , primarily in coastal ports and cities , where the tiny colonial population had hunkered down . With no significant industries or large-scale agricultural production as yet , enslaved and free communities lodged around the few littoral settlements , particularly around San Juan , also forming lasting Afro-creole communities . Meanwhile , in the island 's interior , there developed a mixed and independent peasantry that relied on a subsistence economy . This mostly unsupervised population supplied villages and settlements with foodstuffs and , in relative isolation , set the pattern for what later would be known as the Puerto Rican Jíbaro culture . By the end of the 16th Century , the Spanish Empire was diminishing and , in the face of increasing raids from European competitors , the colonial administration throughout the Americas fell into a `` bunker mentality . '' Imperial strategists and urban planners redesigned port settlements into military posts with the objective of protecting Spanish territorial claims and ensuring the safe passing of the king 's silver-laden Atlantic Fleet to the Iberian Peninsula . San Juan served as an important port-of-call for ships driven across the Atlantic by its powerful trade winds . West Indies convoys linked Spain to the island , sailing between Cádiz and the Spanish West Indies . The colony 's seat of government was on the forested Islet of San Juan and for a time became one of the most heavily fortified settlements in the Spanish Caribbean earning the name of the `` Walled City . '' Today , the islet is still dotted with the various forts and walls , such as La Fortaleza , Castillo San Felipe del Morro , and Castillo San Cristóbal , designed to protect the population and the strategic Port of San Juan from the raids of the Spanish European competitors . In 1625 , in the Battle of San Juan , the Dutch commander Boudewijn Hendricksz tested the defenses ' limits like no one else before . Learning from Francis Drake 's previous failures here , he circumvented the cannons of the castle of San Felipe del Morro and quickly brought his 17 ships into the San Juan Bay . He then occupied the port and attacked the city while the population hurried for shelter behind the Morro 's moat and high battlements . Historians consider this event the worst attack on San Juan . Though the Dutch set the village on fire , they failed to conquer the Morro , and its batteries pounded their troops and ships until Hendricksz deemed the cause lost . Hendricksz 's expedition eventually helped propel a fortification frenzy . Constructions of defenses for the San Cristóbal Hill were soon ordered so as to prevent the landing of invaders out of reach of the Morro 's artillery . Urban planning responded to the needs of keeping the colony in Spanish hands . Late colonial period During the late 16th and early 17th centuries , Spain concentrated its colonial efforts on the more prosperous mainland North , Central , and South American colonies . With the advent of the lively Bourbon Dynasty in Spain in the 1700s , the island of Puerto Rico began a gradual shift to more imperial attention . More roads began connecting previously isolated inland settlements to coastal cities , and coastal settlements like Arecibo , Mayaguez , and Ponce began acquiring importance of their own , separate from San Juan . By the end of the 18th century , merchant ships from an array of nationalities threatened the tight regulations of the Mercantilist system , which turned each colony solely toward the European metropole and limited contact with other nations . U.S. ships came to surpass Spanish trade and with this also came the exploitation of the island 's natural resources . Slavers , which had made but few stops on the island before , began selling more enslaved Africans to growing sugar and coffee plantations . The increasing number of Atlantic wars in which the Caribbean islands played major roles , like the War of Jenkins ' Ear , the Seven Years ' War and the Atlantic Revolutions , ensured Puerto Rico 's growing esteem in Madrid 's eyes . By the time independence movements in the larger Spanish colonies gained success , new waves of loyal creole immigrants began to arrive in Puerto Rico , helping to tilt the island 's political balance toward the Crown . In 1809 , to secure its political bond with the island and in the midst of the European Peninsular War , the Supreme Central Junta based in Cádiz recognized Puerto Rico as an overseas province of Spain . This gave the island residents the right to elect representatives to the recently convened Spanish parliament ( Cádiz Cortes ) , with equal representation to mainland Iberian , Mediterranean ( Balearic Islands ) and Atlantic maritime Spanish provinces ( Canary Islands ) . Ramón Power y Giralt , the first Spanish parliamentary representative from the island of Puerto Rico , died after serving a three-year term in the Cortes . These parliamentary and constitutional reforms were in force from 1810 to 1814 , and again from 1820 to 1823 . They were twice reversed during the restoration of the traditional monarchy by Ferdinand VII . Immigration and commercial trade reforms in the 19th century increased the island 's ethnic European population and economy and expanded the Spanish cultural and social imprint on the local character of the island . Minor slave revolts had occurred on the island throughout the years , with the revolt planned and organized by Marcos Xiorro in 1821 being the most important . Even though the conspiracy was unsuccessful , Xiorro achieved legendary status and is part of Puerto Rico 's folklore . Politics of liberalism In the early 19th century , Puerto Rico spawned an independence movement that , due to harsh persecution by the Spanish authorities , convened in the island of St. Thomas . The movement was largely inspired by the ideals of Simón Bolívar in establishing a United Provinces of New Granada , that included Puerto Rico and Cuba . Among the influential members of this movement were Brigadier General Antonio Valero de Bernabé and María de las Mercedes Barbudo . The movement was discovered , and Governor Miguel de la Torre had its members imprisoned or exiled . With the increasingly rapid growth of independent former Spanish colonies in the South and Central American states in the first part of the 19th century , the Spanish Crown considered Puerto Rico and Cuba of strategic importance . To increase its hold on its last two New World colonies , the Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 as a result of which 450,000 immigrants , mainly Spaniards , settled on the island in the period up until the American conquest . Printed in three languages—Spanish , English , and French—it was intended to also attract non-Spanish Europeans , with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity if new settlers had stronger ties to the Crown . Hundreds of non Spanish families , mainly from Corsica , France , Germany , Ireland , Italy and Scotland , also immigrated to the island . Free land was offered as an incentive to those who wanted to populate the two islands , on the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church . The offer was very successful , and European immigration continued even after 1898 . Puerto Rico today still receives Spanish and European immigration . Poverty and political estrangement with Spain led to a small but significant uprising in 1868 known as Grito de Lares . It began in the rural town of Lares , but was subdued when rebels moved to the neighboring town of San Sebastián . Leaders of this independence movement included Ramón Emeterio Betances , considered the `` father '' of the Puerto Rican independence movement , and other political figures such as Segundo Ruiz Belvis . Slavery was abolished in Puerto Rico in 1873 , `` with provisions for periods of apprenticeship . '' Leaders of `` El Grito de Lares '' went into exile in New York City . Many joined the Puerto Rican Revolutionary Committee , founded on December 8 , 1895 , and continued their quest for Puerto Rican independence . In 1897 , Antonio Mattei Lluberas and the local leaders of the independence movement in Yauco organized another uprising , which became known as the Intentona de Yauco . They raised what they called the Puerto Rican flag , which was adopted as the national flag . The local conservative political factions opposed independence . Rumors of the planned event spread to the local Spanish authorities who acted swiftly and put an end to what would be the last major uprising in the island to Spanish colonial rule . In 1897 , Luis Muñoz Rivera and others persuaded the liberal Spanish government to agree to grant limited self-government to the island by royal decree in the Autonomic Charter , including a bicameral legislature . In 1898 , Puerto Rico 's first , but short-lived , quasi-autonomous government was organized as an `` overseas province '' of Spain . This bilaterally agreed-upon charter maintained a governor appointed by the King of Spain – who held the power to annul any legislative decision – and a partially elected parliamentary structure . In February , Governor-General Manuel Macías inaugurated the new government under the Autonomic Charter . General elections were held in March and the new government began to function on , 1898 . United States territory ( 1898–present ) Circa 1890 , Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan , a member of the Navy War Board and leading U.S. strategic thinker , wrote a book titled The Influence of Sea Power upon History in which he argued for the establishment of a large and powerful navy modeled after the British Royal Navy . Part of his strategy called for the acquisition of colonies in the Caribbean , which would serve as coaling and naval stations . They would serve as strategic points of defense with the construction of a canal through the Isthmus of Panama , to allow easier passage of ships between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans . William H. Seward , the former Secretary of State under presidents Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses Grant , had also stressed the importance of building a canal in Honduras , Nicaragua or Panama . He suggested that the United States annex the Dominican Republic and purchase Puerto Rico and Cuba . The U.S. Senate did not approve his annexation proposal , and Spain rejected the U.S. offer of dollars for Puerto Rico and Cuba . Since 1894 , the United States Naval War College had been developing contingency plans for a war with Spain . By 1896 , the U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence had prepared a plan that included military operations in Puerto Rican waters . Except for one 1895 plan , which recommended annexation of the island then named Isle of Pines ( later renamed as Isla de la Juventud ) , a recommendation dropped in later planning , plans developed for attacks on Spanish territories were intended as support operations against Spain 's forces in and around Cuba . Recent research suggests that the U.S. did consider Puerto Rico valuable as a naval station , and recognized that it and Cuba generated lucrative crops of sugar – a valuable commercial commodity which the United States lacked . On July 25 , 1898 , during the Spanish–American War , the U.S. invaded Puerto Rico with a landing at Guánica . As an outcome of the war , Spain ceded Puerto Rico , along with the Philippines and Guam , then under Spanish sovereignty , to the U.S. under the Treaty of Paris . Spain relinquished sovereignty over Cuba , but did not cede it to the U.S. Later , Cuba became independent . The United States and Puerto Rico began a long-standing metropolis-colony relationship . In the early 20th century , Puerto Rico was ruled by the military , with officials including the governor appointed by the President of the United States . The Foraker Act of 1900 gave Puerto Rico a certain amount of civilian popular government , including a popularly elected House of Representatives . The upper house and governor were appointed by the United States . At the time , the US did not have popular election of senators . Until passage of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913 , most US senators were elected by their respective state legislatures . Its judicial system was constructed to follow the American legal system ; a Puerto Rico Supreme Court and a United State District Court for the territory were established . It was authorized a non-voting member of Congress , by the title of `` Resident Commissioner , '' who was appointed . In addition , this Act extended all U.S. laws `` not locally inapplicable '' to Puerto Rico , specifying , in particular , exemption from U.S. Internal Revenue laws . The Act empowered the civil government to legislate on `` all matters of legislative character not locally inapplicable , '' including the power to modify and repeal any laws then in existence in Puerto Rico , though the U.S. Congress retained the power to annul acts of the Puerto Rico legislature . During an address to the Puerto Rican legislature in 1906 , President Theodore Roosevelt recommended that Puerto Ricans become U.S. citizens . In 1914 , the Puerto Rican House of Delegates voted unanimously in favor of independence from the United States , but this was rejected by the U.S. Congress as `` unconstitutional , '' and in violation of the 1900 Foraker Act . U.S. citizenship In 1917 , the U.S. Congress passed the Jones–Shafroth Act , popularly called the Jones Act , which granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship . Opponents , which included all of the Puerto Rican House of Delegates , who voted unanimously against it , said that the US imposed citizenship in order to draft Puerto Rican men into the army as American entry into World War I became likely . The same Act provided for a popularly elected Senate to complete a bicameral Legislative Assembly , as well as a bill of rights . It authorized the popular election of the Resident Commissioner to a four-year term . Natural disasters , including a major earthquake and tsunami in 1918 , and several hurricanes , and the Great Depression impoverished the island during the first few decades under U.S. rule . Some political leaders , such as Pedro Albizu Campos , who led the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party , demanded change in relations with the United States . He organized a protest at the University of Puerto Rico in 1935 , in which four were killed by police . In 1936 , US Senator Millard Tydings introduced a bill supporting independence for Puerto Rico , but it was opposed by Luis Muñoz Marín of the Liberal Party of Puerto Rico . ( Tydings had co-sponsored the Tydings–McDuffie Act , which provided independence to the Philippines after a 10-year transition under a limited autonomy . ) All the Puerto Rican parties supported the bill , but Muñoz Marín opposed it . Tydings did not gain passage of the bill . In 1937 , Albizu Campos ' party organized a protest in which numerous people were killed by police in Ponce . The Insular Police , resembling the National Guard , opened fire upon unarmed cadets and bystanders alike . The attack on unarmed protesters was reported by the U.S . Congressman Vito Marcantonio and confirmed by the report of the Hays Commission , which investigated the events . The commission was led by Arthur Garfield Hays , counsel to the American Civil Liberties Union . Nineteen persons were killed and over 200 were badly wounded , many in their backs while running away . [ http : //www.cheverote.com/reviews/marcantonio.html `` Five Years of Tyranny , '' Speech before the U.S. House of Representatives . ] The entire speech is contained in the Congressional Record of , 1939 . It is reported in the Cong . Rec. , and various other publications elsewhere , that among those shot in the back was a 7-year-old girl , Georgina Maldonado , who `` was killed through the back while running to a nearby church '' The Hays Commission declared it a massacre and police mob action , and it has since been known as the Ponce massacre . In the aftermath , on April 2 , 1943 , Tydings introduced a bill in Congress calling for independence for Puerto Rico . This bill ultimately was defeated . During the latter years of the Roosevelt–Truman administrations , the internal governance was changed in a compromise reached with Luis Muñoz Marín and other Puerto Rican leaders . In 1946 , President Truman appointed the first Puerto Rican-born governor , Jesús T. Piñero . Since 2007 , the Puerto Rico State Department has developed a protocol to issue certificates of Puerto Rican citizenship to Puerto Ricans . In order to be eligible , applicants must have been born in Puerto Rico ; born outside of Puerto Rico to a Puerto Rican–born parent ; or be an American citizen with at least one year residence in Puerto Rico . American Territory ( 1952–present ) In 1947 , the U.S. granted Puerto Ricans the right to democratically elect their own governor . In 1948 , Luis Muñoz Marín became the first popularly elected governor of Puerto Rico . A bill was introduced before the Puerto Rican Senate which would restrain the rights of the independence and nationalist movements in the island . The Senate at the time was controlled by the Popular Democratic Party ( PPD ) , and was presided over by Luis Muñoz Marín . The bill , also known as the Gag Law ( Ley de la Mordaza in Spanish ) , was approved by the legislature on May 21 , 1948 . It made it illegal to display a Puerto Rican flag , to sing a pro-independence tune , to talk of independence , or to campaign for independence . The bill , which resembled the Smith Act passed in the United States , was signed and made into law on June 10 , 1948 , by the U.S. appointed governor of Puerto Rico , Jesús T. Piñero , and became known as `` Law 53 '' ( Ley 53 in Spanish ) . In accordance with this law , it would be a crime to print , publish , sell , exhibit , organize or help anyone organize any society , group or assembly of people whose intentions are to paralyze or destroy the insular government . Anyone accused and found guilty of disobeying the law could be sentenced to ten years of prison , be fined $ 10,000 dollars ( US ) , or both . According to Dr. Leopoldo Figueroa , a member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives , the law was repressive and in violation of the First Amendment of the US Constitution , which guarantees Freedom of Speech . He asserted that the law as such was a violation of the civil rights of the people of Puerto Rico . The infamous law was repealed in 1957 . In 1950 , the U.S. Congress approved Public Law 600 ( P.L . 81-600 ) , which allowed for a democratic referendum in Puerto Rico to determine whether Puerto Ricans desired to draft their own local constitution . This Act was meant to be adopted in the `` nature of a compact . '' It required congressional approval of the Puerto Rico Constitution before it could go into effect , and repealed certain sections of the Organic Act of 1917 . The sections of this statute left in force were entitled the Puerto Rican Federal Relations Act . U.S. Secretary of the Interior Oscar L. Chapman , under whose Department resided responsibility of Puerto Rican affairs , clarified the new commonwealth status in this manner : The bill ( to permit Puerto Rico to write its own constitution ) merely authorizes the people of Puerto Rico to adopt their own

qg_2653--Puerto_Rico.txt

The official beverage of Puerto Rico since 1978, what drink consists of rum, coconut cream, and pineapple juice?

The Triassic is a geologic period and system that extends from to million years ago , an interval of 50.87 million years . It is the first period of the Mesozoic Era , and lies between the Permian and Jurassic periods . Both the start and end of the period are marked by major extinction events . The Triassic was named in 1834 by Friedrich von Alberti , after the three distinct rock layers ( tri meaning `` three '' ) that are found throughout Germany and northwestern Europe—red beds , capped by marine limestone , followed by a series of terrestrial mud- and sandstones—called the `` Trias '' .Friedrich von Alberti , Beitrag zu einer Monographie des bunten Sandsteins , Muschelkalks und Keupers , und die Verbindung dieser Gebilde zu einer Formation [ Contribution to a monograph on the colored sandstone , shell limestone and mudstone , and the joining of these structures into one formation ] ( Stuttgart and Tübingen , ( Germany ) : J. G. Cotta , 1834 ) . Alberti coined the term `` Trias '' on [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id1ClSAAAAcAAJ & pg PA324 # vonepage & q & f false page 324 ] : '' … bunter Sandstein , Muschelkalk und Keuper das Resultat einer Periode , ihre Versteinerungen , um mich der Worte E. de Beaumont ’ s zu bedeinen , die Thermometer einer geologischen Epoche seyen , … also die bis jezt beobachtete Trennung dieser Gebilde in 3 Formationen nicht angemessen , und es mehr dem Begriffe Formation entsprechend sey , sie zu einer Formation , welche ich vorläufig Trias nennen will , zu verbinden . `` ( … colored sandstone , shell limestone , and mudstone are the result of a period ; their fossils are , to avail myself of the words of E. de Beaumont , the thermometer of a geologic epoch ; … thus the separation of these structures into 3 formations , which has been maintained until now , is n't appropriate , and it is more consistent with the concept of `` formation '' to join them into one formation , which for now I will name `` trias '' . ) The Triassic began in the wake of the Permian–Triassic extinction event , which left the Earth 's biosphere impoverished ; it would take well into the middle of the period for life to recover its former diversity . Therapsids and archosaurs were the chief terrestrial vertebrates during this time . A specialized subgroup of archosaurs , dinosaurs , first appeared in the Late Triassic but did not become dominant until the succeeding Jurassic . The first true mammals , themselves a specialized subgroup of Therapsids also evolved during this period , as well as the first flying vertebrates , the pterosaurs , who like the dinosaurs were a specialized subgroup of archosaurs . The vast supercontinent of Pangaea existed until the mid-Triassic , after which it began to gradually rift into two separate landmasses , Laurasia to the north and Gondwana to the south . The global climate during the Triassic was mostly hot and dry , [ http : //news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/10/121018-triassic-extinctions-hot-global-warming-science-environment/ `` Lethally Hot '' Earth Was Devoid of Life—Could It Happen Again ? ] with deserts spanning much of Pangaea 's interior . However , the climate shifted and became more humid as Pangaea began to drift apart . The end of the period was marked by yet another major mass extinction , the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event , wiping out many groups and allowing dinosaurs to assume dominance in the Jurassic . Dating and subdivisions The Triassic is usually separated into Early , Middle , and Late Triassic Epochs , and the corresponding rocks are referred to as Lower , Middle , or Upper Triassic . The faunal stages from the youngest to oldest are : Paleogeography During the Triassic , almost all the Earth 's land mass was concentrated into a single supercontinent centered more or less on the equator , called Pangaea ( `` all the land '' ) . From the east a vast gulf entered Pangaea , the Tethys sea . It opened farther westward in the mid-Triassic , at the expense of the shrinking Paleo-Tethys Ocean , an ocean that existed during the Paleozoic . The remaining shores were surrounded by the world-ocean known as Panthalassa ( `` all the sea '' ) . All the deep-ocean sediments laid down during the Triassic have disappeared through subduction of oceanic plates ; thus , very little is known of the Triassic open ocean . The supercontinent Pangaea was rifting during the Triassic—especially late in the period—but had not yet separated . The first nonmarine sediments in the rift that marks the initial break-up of Pangaea—which separated New Jersey from Morocco—are of Late Triassic age ; in the U.S. , these thick sediments comprise the Newark Group . [ http : //rainbow.ldeo.columbia.edu/courses/v1001/10.html Lecture 10 - Triassic : Newark , Chinle ] Because of the limited shoreline of one super-continental mass , Triassic marine deposits are globally relatively rare , despite their prominence in Western Europe , where the Triassic was first studied . In North America , for example , marine deposits are limited to a few exposures in the west . Thus Triassic stratigraphy is mostly based on organisms living in lagoons and hypersaline environments , such as Estheria crustaceans . Africa At the beginning of the Mesozoic Era , Africa was joined with Earth 's other continents in Pangaea . Africa shared the supercontinent 's relatively uniform fauna which was dominated by theropods , prosauropods and primitive ornithischians by the close of the Triassic period . Late Triassic fossils are found throughout Africa , but are more common in the south than north . The boundary separating the Triassic and Jurassic marks the advent of an extinction event with global impact , although African strata from this time period have not been thoroughly studied . South America At Paleorrota geopark , located in Rio Grande do Sul , Brazil , the Santa Maria Formation and Caturrita Formations are exposed . In these formations , one of the earliest dinosaurs , Staurikosaurus , as well as the mammal ancestors Brasilitherium and Brasilodon have been discovered . Climate The Triassic climate was generally hot and dry , so that typical deposits are red bed sandstones and evaporites . There is no evidence of glaciation at or near either pole ; in fact , the polar regions were apparently moist and temperate , a climate suitable for forests and vertebrates , including reptiles . Pangaea 's large size limited the moderating effect of the global ocean ; its continental climate was highly seasonal , with very hot summers and cold winters . The strong contrast between the Pangea supercontinent and the global ocean triggered intense cross-equatorial monsoons . Although the Triassic may have mostly been a dry period , at least at tropical and subtropical latitudes in the Tethys and surrounding lands , evidence exists that it was punctuated by several episodes of increased rainfall . Sediments and fossils suggestive of a more humid climate are known from the Anisian to Ladinian of the Tethysian domain , and from the Carnian and Rhaetian of a larger area that includes also the Boreal domain ( e.g. , Svalbard Islands ) , the North American continent , the South China block and Argentina . The best studied of such episodes of humid climate , and probably the most intense and widespread , was the Carnian Pluvial Event . Life Three categories of organisms can be distinguished in the Triassic record : holdovers from the Permian-Triassic extinction , new groups which flourished briefly , and other new groups which went on to dominate the Mesozoic world . Flora On land , the surviving vascular plants included the lycophytes , the dominant cycadophytes , ginkgophyta ( represented in modern times by Ginkgo biloba ) , ferns , horsetails and glossopterids . The spermatophytes , or seed plants came to dominate the terrestrial flora : in the northern hemisphere , conifers , ferns and bennettitales flourished . Glossopteris ( a seed fern ) was the dominant southern hemisphere tree during the Early Triassic period . Marine fauna In marine environments , new modern types of corals appeared in the Early Triassic , forming small patches of reefs of modest extent compared to the great reef systems of Devonian times or modern reefs . Serpulids appeared in the Middle Triassic . Microconchids were abundant . The shelled cephalopods called ammonites recovered , diversifying from a single line that survived the Permian extinction . The fish fauna was remarkably uniform , reflecting the fact that very few families survived the Permian extinction . There were also many types of marine reptiles . These included the Sauropterygia , which featured pachypleurosaurus and nothosaurs ( both common during the Middle Triassic , especially in the Tethys region ) , placodonts , and the first plesiosaurs ; the first of the lizardlike Thalattosauria ( askeptosaurs ) ; and the highly successful ichthyosaurs , which appeared in Early Triassic seas and soon diversified , some eventually developing to huge size during the late Triassic . Terrestrial and limnic fauna Groups of terrestrial fauna , which appeared in the Triassic period or achieved a new level of evolutionary success during it include : * Temnospondyls : one of the largest groups of early amphibians , temnospondyls originated during the Carboniferous and were still significant . Once abundant in both terrestrial and aquatic environments , the terrestrial species had mostly been replaced by reptiles . The Triassic survivors were aquatic or semi-aquatic , and were represented by Tupilakosaurus , Thabanchuia , Branchiosauridae and Micropholis , all of which died out in early Triassic , and the successful Stereospondyli , with survivors into the Cretaceous era . The largest of these , such as the Mastodonsaurus were up to 13 ft in length . * Rhynchosaurs , barrel-gutted herbivores which thrived for only a short period of time , becoming extinct about 220 million years ago . They were exceptionally abundant in Triassic , the primary large herbivores in many ecosystems . They sheared plants with their beaks and several rows of teeth on the roof of the mouth . * Phytosaurs : archosaurs that prospered during the late Triassic . These long-snouted and semiaquatic predators resemble living crocodiles and probably had a similar lifestyle , hunting for fish and small reptiles around the water 's edge . However this resemblance is only superficial and is a prime-case of convergent evolution . * Aetosaurs : heavily armored archosaurs that were common during the last 30 million years of the late Triassic but died out at the Triassic-Jurassic extinction . Most aetosaurs were herbivorous , and fed on low-growing plants but some may have eaten meat . * Rauisuchians , another group of archosaurs , which were the keystone predators of most Triassic terrestrial ecosystems . Over 25 species have been found , and include giant quadrupedal hunters , sleek bipedal omnivores , and lumbering beasts with deep sails on their backs . They probably occupied the large-predator niche later filled by theropods . * Theropods : dinosaurs that first evolved in the Triassic period but did not evolve into large sizes until the Jurassic . Most Triassic theropods , such as the Coelophysis , were only around 1–2 meters long and hunted small prey in the shadow of the giant Rauisuchians . * Cynodonts , a large group that includes true mammals . The first cynodonts evolved in the Permian , but many groups prospered during the Triassic . Their characteristic mammalian features included hair , a large brain , and upright posture . Many were small but several forms were enormous and filled a large herbivore niche before the evolution of sauropodomorph dinosaurs , as well as large sized carnivorous niches . The Permian-Triassic extinction devastated terrestrial life . Biodiversity rebounded with the influx of pioneer organisms , but these were short lived . Diverse communities with complex trophic structures took 30 million years to reestablish . Temnospondyl amphibians were among those groups that survived the Permian-Triassic extinction , some lineages ( e.g . trematosaurs ) flourishing briefly in the Early Triassic , while others ( e.g . capitosaurs ) remained successful throughout the whole period , or only came to prominence in the Late Triassic ( e.g . plagiosaurs , metoposaurs ) . As for other amphibians , the first Lissamphibia , characterized by the first frogs , are known from the Early Triassic , but the group as a whole did not become common until the Jurassic , when the temnospondyls had become very rare . Other survivors were the Chroniosuchia and Embolomeri , more closely related to amniotes than temnospondyls , but became extinct after some million years . Reptiliomorpha , stem-amniotes that gave rise to the amniotes . Most of them were gone in Triassic , but two water dwelling groups still existed ; Embolomeri that only survived into the early part of the period , and the Chroniosuchia , which did n't disappear before the end of Triassic . Archosauromorph reptiles—especially archosaurs—progressively replaced the synapsids that had dominated the Permian , although Cynognathus was a characteristic top predator in earlier Triassic ( Olenekian and Anisian ) Gondwana , both kannemeyeriid dicynodonts and gomphodont cynodonts remained important herbivores during much of the period , and ecteniniids played a role as large sized , cursorial predators in the late Triassic . During the Carnian ( early part of the Late Triassic ) , some advanced cynodont gave rise to the first mammals . At the same time the Ornithodira , which until then had been small and insignificant , evolved into pterosaurs and a variety of dinosaurs . The Crurotarsi were the other important archosaur clade , and during the Late Triassic these also reached the height of their diversity , with various groups including the phytosaurs , aetosaurs , several distinct lineages of Rauisuchia , and the first crocodylians ( the Sphenosuchia ) . Meanwhile , the stocky herbivorous rhynchosaurs and the small to medium-sized insectivorous or piscivorous Prolacertiformes were important basal archosauromorph groups throughout most of the Triassic . Among other reptiles , the earliest turtles , like Proganochelys and Proterochersis , appeared during the Norian ( middle of the Late Triassic ) . The Lepidosauromorpha—specifically the Sphenodontia—are first known in the fossil record a little earlier ( during the Carnian ) . The Procolophonidae were an important group of small lizard-like herbivores . In the Triassic , archosaurs displaced therapsids as the dominant amniotes . This `` Triassic Takeover '' may have contributed to the evolution of mammals by forcing the surviving therapsids and their mammaliaform successors to live as small , mainly nocturnal insectivores ; nocturnal life may have forced the mammaliaforms to develop fur and higher metabolic rates . File : Staurikosaurus BW.jpg|Staurikosaurus feeding on a dicynodont , in geopark Paleorrota . File : Lystrosaurus BW.jpg|Lystrosaurus was the most common land vertebrate during the Early Triassic , when animal life had been greatly diminished . File : Proterosuchus BW.jpg|Reconstruction of Proterosuchus , a genus of crocodile-like carnivorous reptile that existed in the Early Triassic . File : Cynognathus BW.jpg|Cynognathus was a mammal-like cynodont from the early Triassic . The first true mammals evolved during this period . File : Coelophysis Animatronics model NHM2.jpg|Coelophysis , one of the first dinosaurs , appeared in the Late Triassic . File : Sellosaurus.jpg|Plateosaurus was an early sauropodomorph , or `` prosauropod '' , of the late Triassic . Coal No coal deposits date from the start of the Triassic period . This is known as the `` coal gap '' and can be seen as part of the Permian–Triassic extinction event . Sharp drops in sea level at the time of the Permo Triassic boundary may be the proper explanation for the coal gap . However , theories are still speculative as to why it is missing . During the preceding Permian period the arid desert conditions contributed to the evaporation of many inland seas and the subsequent inundation of these area , perhaps by a number of tsunami events that may have been responsible for the drop in sea level . This is suggested by the finding of large salt basins in the southwest United States and a very large basin in central Canada . Immediately above the boundary the glossopteris flora was suddenly largely displaced by an Australia-wide coniferous flora containing few species and containing a lycopod herbaceous under story . Conifers also became common in Eurasia . These groups of conifers arose from endemic species because of the ocean barriers that prevented seed crossing for over one hundred million years . For instance , Podocarpis was located south and Pines , Junipers , and Sequoias were located north . The dividing line ran through the Amazon Valley , across the Sahara , and north of Arabia , India , Thailand , and Australia . It has been suggested that there was a climate barrier for the conifers . although water barriers are more plausible . If so , something that can cross at least short water barriers must have been involved in producing the coal hiatus . Hot climate could have been an important auxiliary factor across Antarctica or the Bering Strait , however . There was a spike of fern and lycopod spores immediately after the close of the Permian . In addition there was also a spike of fungal spores immediately after the Permian-Triassic boundary . This spike may have lasted 50,000 years in Italy and 200,000 years in China and must have contributed to the climate warmth . An event excluding a catastrophe must have been involved to cause the coal hiatus because fungi would have removed all dead vegetation and coal forming detritus in a few decades in most tropical places . In addition , fungal spores rose gradually and declined similarly along with a prevalence of woody debris . Each phenomenon would hint at widespread vegetative death . Whatever the cause of the coal hiatus must have started in North America approximately 25 million years sooner . Lagerstätten The Monte San Giorgio lagerstätte , now in the Lake Lugano region of northern Italy and Switzerland , was in Triassic times a lagoon behind reefs with an anoxic bottom layer , so there were no scavengers and little turbulence to disturb fossilization , a situation that can be compared to the better-known Jurassic Solnhofen limestone lagerstätte . The remains of fish and various marine reptiles ( including the common pachypleurosaur Neusticosaurus , and the bizarre long-necked archosauromorph Tanystropheus ) , along with some terrestrial forms like Ticinosuchus and Macrocnemus , have been recovered from this locality . All these fossils date from the Anisian/Ladinian transition ( about 237 million years ago ) . Triassic-Jurassic extinction event The Triassic period ended with a mass extinction , which was particularly severe in the oceans ; the conodonts disappeared , as did all the marine reptiles except ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs . Invertebrates like brachiopods , gastropods , and molluscs were severely affected . In the oceans , 22 % of marine families and possibly about half of marine genera went missing according to University of Chicago paleontologist Jack Sepkoski . Though the end-Triassic extinction event was not equally devastating everywhere in terrestrial ecosystems , several important clades of crurotarsans ( large archosaurian reptiles previously grouped together as the thecodonts ) disappeared , as did most of the large labyrinthodont amphibians , groups of small reptiles , and some synapsids ( except for the proto-mammals ) . Some of the early , primitive dinosaurs also became extinct , but other more adaptive dinosaurs survived to evolve in the Jurassic . Surviving plants that went on to dominate the Mesozoic world included modern conifers and cycadeoids . What caused this Late Triassic extinction is not known with certainty . It was accompanied by huge volcanic eruptions that occurred as the supercontinent Pangaea began to break apart about 202 to 191 million years ago ( 40Ar/39Ar dates ) , forming the CAMP , one of the largest known inland volcanic events since the planet cooled and stabilized . Other possible but less likely causes for the extinction events include global cooling or even a bolide impact , for which an impact crater containing Manicouagan Reservoir in Quebec , Canada , has been singled out . At the Manicouagan impact crater , however , recent research has shown that the impact melt within the crater has an age of 214±1 Mya . The date of the Triassic-Jurassic boundary has also been more accurately fixed recently , at Mya . Both dates are gaining accuracy by using more accurate forms of radiometric dating , in particular the decay of uranium to lead in zircons formed at the impact . So the evidence suggests the Manicouagan impact preceded the end of the Triassic by approximately 10±2 Ma . Therefore , it could not be the immediate cause of the observed mass extinction . The number of Late Triassic extinctions is disputed . Some studies suggest that there are at least two periods of extinction towards the end of the Triassic , between 12 and 17 million years apart . But arguing against this is a recent study of North American faunas . In the Petrified Forest of northeast Arizona there is a unique sequence of latest Carnian-early Norian terrestrial sediments . An [ http : //gsa.confex.com/gsa/2002AM/finalprogram/abstract_42936.htm analysis in 2002 ] found no significant change in the paleoenvironment . [ http : //gsa.confex.com/gsa/2002AM/finalprogram/abstract_42936.htm No Significant Nonmarine Carnian-Norian ( Late Triassic ) Extinction Event : Evidence From Petrified Forest National Park ] Phytosaurs , the most common fossils there , experienced a change-over only at the genus level , and the number of species remained the same . Some aetosaurs , the next most common tetrapods , and early dinosaurs , passed through unchanged . However , both phytosaurs and aetosaurs were among the groups of archosaur reptiles completely wiped out by the end-Triassic extinction event . It seems likely then that there was some sort of end-Carnian extinction , when several herbivorous archosauromorph groups died out , while the large herbivorous therapsids— the kannemeyeriid dicynodonts and the traversodont cynodonts—were much reduced in the northern half of Pangaea ( Laurasia ) . These extinctions within the Triassic and at its end allowed the dinosaurs to expand into many niches that had become unoccupied . Dinosaurs became increasingly dominant , abundant and diverse , and remained that way for the next 150 million years . The true `` Age of Dinosaurs '' is the Jurassic and Cretaceous , rather than the Triassic .

qw_516--Triassic.txt

What is the next in the series: Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic ?

Spider is a type of Patience game . It is one of the more popular two-deck solitaire games . The game The main purpose of the game is to remove all cards from the table , assembling them in the tableau before removing them . Initially , 54 cards are dealt to the tableau in ten piles , face down except for the top cards . The tableau piles build down by rank , and in-suit sequences can be moved together . The 50 remaining cards can be dealt to the tableau ten at a time when none of the piles are empty . Variants * Gigantic Spider : Four decks * Relaxed Spider : Does not require all spaces to be filled before redealing * Spiderette : Only one pack , Klondike layout ; see below * Spiderwort : Three decks * Will o ' the Wisp is another solitaire card game which was invented by Geoffrey Mott-Smith and is played the same way as Spiderette . The exception is that on the onset , twenty-one cards are dealt into seven columns of three with only the top card of each column face-up . Software implementations Common software versions of Spider are included with versions of Microsoft Windows Windows 7 , Vista , ME and XP as Spider Solitaire . Spider Solitaire was introduced in the Microsoft Plus ! 98 addition pack for Windows 98 . There are 104 cards , enough to make 8 decks . The game comes in three versions : Easy ( with 8 Spade packs ) , Medium ( with four packs each of Spades and Hearts ) , and Hard ( with two each of all four packs ) . An earlier version was written for Windows 3.x in 1991 by John A. Junod , the original developer of WS_FTP . The final version was Windows Spider Solitaire version 92.01.04 . He also wrote a DOS version called EGA-Spider with version up to 93.07.05 . A similar game called Arachnid , was also written for Windows 3.x in 1991 by Ian Heath , a computer science professor at the University of Southampton in the UK . The latest known version is 1.2 and is quite well polished . This game was also re-written for 32-bit operating systems and is referred to as Arachnid 32 . On Unix operating systems , an early version was developed around 1989 at Sun Microsystems . A version of Spider Solitaire typically comes bundled with both the KDE and GNOME desktop environments on other Unix-like operating systems such as Linux and BSD , under the names KPatience and AisleRiot Solitaire , respectively . Versions for Macintosh and most other operating systems are also available . The newer Windows versions offer three levels of difficulty , with one , two , or four suits . These play modes are equivalent to disregarding suit difference , either within the colors or altogether , and thus can be simulated in the physical card game , though the computer version aids visibility by representing all cards as spades and/or hearts . Scoring Different software implementations of spider offer alternative scoring rules . The version from Sun Microsystems from 1989 defines the following rules in the manual : 10 points for each initially face down card that gets turned over ; 15 additional points for each column where all the face-down cards have been turned over ( even if you do n't manage to get a space ) ; 2 points for each card that is sitting atop the next higher card of the same suit ; 50 points for each completed suit removed from the tableau ( in which case you do not also score for the 12 cards sitting atop next higher cards ) . This yields a maximum score of 990 . If you win the game with 4 or more completed suits still in the tableau , add 2 points for each suit after the first three . Thus winning with all eight suits still in the tableau yields a score of 1000 . In the Windows versions of Spider Solitaire , the scoring is calculated with a starting score of 500 . One point is subtracted for each move ; 100 points are added for each set removed . This gives a theoretical maximum of 1254 points ( assuming all 50 cards from the decks are dealt exactly into place ) . A bonus of 100 points is gained for completing 4 sets of the same colour .

dpql_6283--Spider_(solitaire).txt

Spider, Idiot’s Delight, Canfield, Pyramid and Clock are all forms of what card game?

The date of the start of the history of the United States is a subject of debate among historians . Older textbooks start with the arrival of Christopher Columbus on October 12 , 1492 and emphasize the European background , or they start around 1600 and emphasize the American frontier . In recent decades American schools and universities typically have shifted back in time to include more on the colonial period and much more on the prehistory of the Native peoples . Indigenous people lived in what is now the United States for thousands of years before European colonists began to arrive , mostly from England , after 1600 . The Spanish had small settlements in Florida and the Southwest , and the French along the Mississippi River and the Gulf Coast . By the 1770s , thirteen British colonies contained two and a half million people along the Atlantic coast east of the Appalachian Mountains . In the 1760s , the British government imposed a series of new taxes while rejecting the American argument that any new taxes had to be approved by the people ( see Stamp Act 1765 ) . Tax resistance , especially the Boston Tea Party ( 1774 ) , led to punitive laws ( the Intolerable Acts ) by Parliament designed to end self-government in Massachusetts . American Patriots ( as they called themselves ) adhered to a political ideology called republicanism that emphasized civic duty , virtue , and opposition to corruption , fancy luxuries and aristocracy . All thirteen colonies united in a Congress that called on them to write new state constitutions . After armed conflict began in Massachusetts , Patriots drove the royal officials out of every colony and assembled in mass meetings and conventions . Those Patriot governments in the colonies unanimously empowered their delegates to Congress to declare independence . In 1776 , Congress declared that there was a new , independent nation , the United States of America , not just a collection of disparate colonies . With large-scale military and financial support from France and military leadership by General George Washington , the American Patriots rebelled against British rule and succeeded in the Revolutionary War . The peace treaty of 1783 gave the new nation the land east of the Mississippi River ( except Florida and Canada , and Spain disputed the Mississippi Territory until 1795 ) and confirmed Great Britain 's recognition of the United States as a nation . The central government established by the Articles of Confederation proved ineffectual at providing stability , as it had no authority to collect taxes and had no executive officer . Congress called a convention to meet secretly in Philadelphia in 1787 to revise the Articles of Confederation . It wrote a new Constitution , which was adopted in 1789 . In 1791 , a Bill of Rights was added to guarantee inalienable rights . With Washington as the Union 's first president and Alexander Hamilton his chief political and financial adviser , a strong central government was created . When Thomas Jefferson became president he purchased the Louisiana Territory from France , doubling the size of the United States . A second and final war with Britain was fought in 1812 . Encouraged by the notion of Manifest Destiny , federal territory expanded all the way to the Pacific . The U.S. always was large in terms of area , but its population was small , only 4 million in 1790 . Population growth was rapid , reaching 7.2 million in 1810 , 32 million in 1860 , 76 million in 1900 , 132 million in 1940 , and 321 million in 2015 . Economic growth in terms of overall GDP was even faster . However the nation 's military strength was quite limited in peacetime before 1940 . The expansion was driven by a quest for inexpensive land for yeoman farmers and slave owners . The expansion of slavery was increasingly controversial and fueled political and constitutional battles , which were resolved by compromises . Slavery was abolished in all states north of the Mason–Dixon line by 1804 , but the South continued to profit off the institution , producing high-value cotton exports to feed increasing high demand in Europe . The 1860 presidential election of Republican Abraham Lincoln was on a platform of ending the expansion of slavery and putting it on a path to extinction . Seven cotton-based deep South slave states seceded and later founded the Confederacy months before Lincoln 's inauguration . No nation ever recognized the Confederacy , but it opened the war by attacking Fort Sumter in 1861 . A surge of nationalist outrage in the North fueled a long , intense American Civil War ( 1861-1865 ) . It was fought largely in the South as the overwhelming material and manpower advantages of the North proved decisive in a long war . The war 's result was restoration of the Union , the impoverishment of the South , and the abolition of slavery . In the Reconstruction era ( 1863–1877 ) , legal and voting rights were extended to the freed slave . The national government emerged much stronger , and because of the Fourteenth Amendment , it gained the explicit duty to protect individual rights . However , when white Democrats regained their power in the South during the 1870s , often by paramilitary suppression of voting , they passed Jim Crow laws to maintain white supremacy , and new disfranchising constitutions that prevented most African Americans and many poor whites from voting , a situation that continued for decades until gains of the civil rights movement in the 1960s and passage of federal legislation to enforce constitutional rights . The United States became the world 's leading industrial power at the turn of the 20th century due to an outburst of entrepreneurship in the Northeast and Midwest and the arrival of millions of immigrant workers and farmers from Europe . The national railroad network was completed with the work of Chinese immigrants and large-scale mining and factories industrialized the Northeast and Midwest . Mass dissatisfaction with corruption , inefficiency and traditional politics stimulated the Progressive movement , from the 1890s to 1920s , which led to many social and political reforms . In 1920 , the 19th Amendment to the Constitution guaranteed women 's suffrage ( right to vote ) . This followed the 16th and 17th amendments in 1913 , which established the first national income tax and direct election of US senators to Congress . Initially neutral during World War I , the US declared war on Germany in 1917 and later funded the Allied victory the following year . After a prosperous decade in the 1920s , the Wall Street Crash of 1929 marked the onset of the decade-long world-wide Great Depression . Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt ended the Republican dominance of the White House and implemented his New Deal programs for relief , recovery , and reform . The New Deal , which defined modern American liberalism , included relief for the unemployed , support for farmers , Social Security and a minimum wage . After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 , the United States later entered World War II along with Britain , the Soviet Union , China , and the smaller number of Allied nations . The U.S. financed the Allied war effort and helped defeat Nazi Germany in the European theater and culminated in using the newly invented nuclear weapons on Japanese strategic cities that helped defeat Imperial Japan in the Pacific theater at the cost of 407,000 Americans throughout both theaters of World War II . The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as rival superpowers after World War II . During the Cold War , the US and the USSR confronted each other indirectly in the arms race , the Space Race , proxy wars , and propaganda campaigns . US foreign policy during the Cold War was built around the support of Western Europe and Japan along with the policy of `` containment '' or stopping the spread of communism . The US joined the wars in Korea and Vietnam to try to stop its spread . In the 1960s , in large part due to the strength of the civil rights movement , another wave of social reforms were enacted by enforcing the constitutional rights of voting and freedom of movement to African-Americans and other racial minorities . Native American activism also rose . The Cold War ended when the Soviet Union officially dissolved in 1991 , leaving the United States as the world 's only superpower . As the 21st century began , international conflict centered around the Middle East following the September 11 attacks by Al-Qaeda on the United States in 2001 . In 2008 , the United States had its worst economic crisis since the Great Depression , which has been followed by slower than usual rates of economic growth during the 2010s . Pre-Columbian era It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and the present-day United States . The prevailing theory proposes that people migrated from Eurasia across Beringia , a land bridge that connected Siberia to present-day Alaska during the Ice Age , and then spread southward throughout the Americas and possibly going as far south as the Antarctic peninsula . This migration may have begun as early as 30,000 years ago and continued through to about 10,000+ years ago , when the land bridge became submerged by the rising sea level caused by the ending of the last glacial period . These early inhabitants , called Paleoamericans , soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes . The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents , spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic period to European colonization during the Early Modern period . While technically referring to the era before Christopher Columbus ' voyages of 1492 to 1504 , in practice the term usually includes the history of American indigenous cultures until they were conquered or significantly influenced by Europeans , even if this happened decades or even centuries after Columbus ' initial landing . Native development prior to European contact Native American cultures are not normally included in characterizations of advanced stone age cultures as `` Neolithic , '' which is a category that more often includes only the cultures in Eurasia , Africa , and other regions . The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips ' 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology . They divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases ; see Archaeology of the Americas . The Clovis culture , a megafauna hunting culture , is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points . Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis , New Mexico . The Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America . The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point , a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute , by which it was inserted into a shaft . Dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods . Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B.P . ( roughly 9100 to 8850 BCE ) . Numerous Paleoindian cultures occupied North America , with some arrayed around the Great Plains and Great Lakes of the modern United States of America and Canada , as well as adjacent areas to the West and Southwest . According to the oral histories of many of the indigenous peoples of the Americas , they have been living on this continent since their genesis , described by a wide range of traditional creation stories . Other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river , believed to be the Mississippi River . Genetic and linguistic data connect the indigenous people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians . Archeological and linguistic data has enabled scholars to discover some of the migrations within the Americas . The Folsom Tradition was characterized by use of Folsom points as projectile tips , and activities known from kill sites , where slaughter and butchering of bison took place . Folsom tools were left behind between 9000 BCE and 8000 BCE . Na-Dené-speaking peoples entered North America starting around 8000 BCE , reaching the Pacific Northwest by 5000 BCE , and from there migrating along the Pacific Coast and into the interior . Linguists , anthropologists and archeologists believe their ancestors comprised a separate migration into North America , later than the first Paleo-Indians . They migrated into Alaska and northern Canada , south along the Pacific Coast , into the interior of Canada , and south to the Great Plains and the American Southwest . They were the earliest ancestors of the Athabascan- speaking peoples , including the present-day and historical Navajo and Apache . They constructed large multi-family dwellings in their villages , which were used seasonally . People did not live there year round , but for the summer to hunt and fish , and to gather food supplies for the winter . The Oshara Tradition people lived from 5500 BCE to 600 CE . They were part of the Southwestern Archaic Tradition centered in north-central New Mexico , the San Juan Basin , the Rio Grande Valley , southern Colorado , and southeastern Utah . Since the 1990s , archeologists have explored and dated eleven Middle Archaic sites in present-day Louisiana and Florida at which early cultures built complexes with multiple earthwork mounds ; they were societies of hunter-gatherers rather than the settled agriculturalists believed necessary according to the theory of Neolithic Revolution to sustain such large villages over long periods . The prime example is Watson Brake in northern Louisiana , whose 11-mound complex is dated to 3500 BCE , making it the oldest , dated site in the Americas for such complex construction . It is nearly 2,000 years older than the Poverty Point site . Construction of the mounds went on for 500 years until was abandoned about 2800 BCE , probably due to changing environmental conditions . Poverty Point culture is a Late Archaic archaeological culture that inhabited the area of the lower Mississippi Valley and surrounding Gulf Coast . The culture thrived from 2200 BCE to 700 BCE , during the Late Archaic period . Evidence of this culture has been found at more than 100 sites , from the major complex at Poverty Point , Louisiana ( a UNESCO World Heritage Site ) across a 100 mi range to the Jaketown Site near Belzoni , Mississippi . Poverty Point is a 1 mi2 complex of six major earthwork concentric rings , with additional platform mounds at the site . Artifacts show the people traded with other Native Americans located from Georgia to the Great Lakes region . This is one among numerous mound sites of complex indigenous cultures throughout the Mississippi and Ohio valleys . They were one of several succeeding cultures often referred to as mound builders . The Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures refers to the time period from roughly 1000 BCE to 1,000 CE in the eastern part of North America . The term `` Woodland '' was coined in the 1930s and refers to prehistoric sites dated between the Archaic period and the Mississippian cultures . The Hopewell tradition is the term for the common aspects of the Native American culture that flourished along rivers in the northeastern and midwestern United States from 200 BCE to 500 CE . The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast were of many nations and tribal affiliations , each with distinctive cultural and political identities , but they shared certain beliefs , traditions and practices , such as the centrality of salmon as a resource and spiritual symbol . Their gift-giving feast , potlatch , is a highly complex event where people gather in order to commemorate a special events . These events , such as , the raising of a Totem pole or the appointment or election of a new chief . The most famous artistic feature of the culture is the Totem pole , with carvings of animals and other characters to commemorate cultural beliefs , legends , and notable events . The Hopewell tradition was not a single culture or society , but a widely dispersed set of related populations , who were connected by a common network of trade routes , known as the Hopewell Exchange System . At its greatest extent , the Hopewell exchange system ran from the Southeastern United States into the southeastern Canadian shores of Lake Ontario . Within this area , societies participated in a high degree of exchange ; most activity was conducted along the waterways that served as their major transportation routes . The Hopewell exchange system traded materials from all over the United States . Major cultures * Adena culture : The Adena culture was a Native American culture that existed from 1000 BC to 200 BC , in a time known as the Early Woodland period . The Adena culture refers to what were probably a number of related Native American societies sharing a burial complex and ceremonial system . * Coles Creek culture : The Coles Creek culture is an indigenous development of the Lower Mississippi Valley that took place between the terminal Woodland period and the later Plaquemine culture period . The period is marked by the increased use of flat-topped platform mounds arranged around central plazas , more complex political institutions , and a subsistence strategy still grounded in the Eastern Agricultural Complex and hunting rather than on the maize plant as would happen in the succeeding Plaquemine Mississippian period . The culture was originally defined by the unique decoration on grog-tempered ceramic ware by James A. Ford after his investigations at the Mazique Archeological Site . He had studied both the Mazique and Coles Creek Sites , and almost went with the Mazique culture , but decided on the less historically involved sites name . It is ancestral to the Plaquemine culture . * Hohokam culture : The Hohokam was a culture centered along American Southwest . The early Hohokam founded a series of small villages along the middle Gila River . They raised corn , squash and beans . The communities were located near good arable land , with dry farming common in the earlier years of this period . They were known for their pottery , using the paddle-and-anvil technique . The Classical period of the culture saw the rise in architecture and ceramics . Buildings were grouped into walled compounds , as well as earthen platform mounds . Platform mounds were built along river as well as irrigation canal systems , suggesting these sites were administrative centers allocating water and coordinating canal labor . Polychrome pottery appeared , and inhumation burial replaced cremation . Trade included that of shells and other exotics . Social and climatic factors led to a decline and abandonment of the area after 1400 A.D . * Ancestral Puebloan culture : The Ancestral Puebloan culture covered present-day Four Corners region of the United States , comprising southern Utah , northern Arizona , northwestern New Mexico , and southwestern Colorado . [ http : //www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/22804/Ancestral-Pueblo-culture `` Ancestral Pueblo culture . '' ] Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 4 June 2012 . It is believed that the Ancestral Puebloans developed , at least in part , from the Oshara Tradition , who developed from the Picosa culture . They lived in a range of structures that included small family pit houses , larger clan type structures , grand pueblos , and cliff sited dwellings . The Ancestral Puebloans possessed a complex network that stretched across the Colorado Plateau linking hundreds of communities and population centers . The culture is perhaps best known for the stone and earth dwellings built along cliff walls , particularly during the Pueblo II and Pueblo III eras . * * Three UNESCO World Heritage Sites located in the United States are credited to the Pueblos : Mesa Verde National Park , Chaco Culture National Historical Park and Taos Pueblo . * * The best-preserved examples of the stone dwellings are in National Parks ( USA ) , examples being , Navajo National Monument , Chaco Culture National Historical Park , Mesa Verde National Park , Canyons of the Ancients National Monument , Aztec Ruins National Monument , Bandelier National Monument , Hovenweep National Monument , and Canyon de Chelly National Monument . * Mississippian culture : The Mississippian culture which extended throughout the Ohio and Mississippi valleys and built sites throughout the Southeast , created the largest earthworks in North America north of Mexico , most notably at Cahokia , on a tributary of the Mississippi River in present-day Illinois . * * The ten-story Monks Mound at Cahokia has a larger circumference than the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan or the Great Pyramid of Egypt . The 6 mi2 city complex was based on the culture 's cosmology ; it included more than 100 mounds , positioned to support their sophisticated knowledge of astronomy , and built with knowledge of varying soil types . The society began building at this site about 950 CE , and reached its peak population in 1,250 CE of 20,000–30,000 people , which was not equalled by any city in the present-day United States until after 1800 . * * Cahokia was a major regional chiefdom , with trade and tributary chiefdoms located in a range of areas from bordering the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico . * * Kincaid c. 1050-1400 AD , is one of the largest settlements of the Mississippian culture , it was located at the southern tip of present-day U.S. state of Illinois . Kincaid Mounds has been notable for both its significant role in native North American prehistory and for the central role the site has played in the development of modern archaeological techniques . The site had at least 11 substructure platform mounds ( ranking fifth for mound-culture pyramids ) . Artifacts from the settlement link its major habitation and the construction of the mounds to the Mississippian period , but it was also occupied earlier during the Woodland period . * * The Mississippian culture developed the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex , the name which archeologists have given to the regional stylistic similarity of artifacts , iconography , ceremonies and mythology . The rise of the complex culture was based on the people 's adoption of maize agriculture , development of greater population densities , and chiefdom-level complex social organization from 1200 CE to 1650 CE . * * The Mississippian pottery are some of the finest and most widely spread ceramics north of Mexico . Cahokian pottery was espically fine , with smooth surfaces , very thin walls and distinctive tempering , slips and coloring . * Iroquois Culture : The Iroquois League of Nations or `` People of the Long House '' , based in present-day upstate and western New York , had a confederacy model from the mid-15th century . It has been suggested that their culture contributed to political thinking during the development of the later United States government . Their system of affiliation was a kind of federation , different from the strong , centralized European monarchies . * * Leadership was restricted to a group of 50 sachem chiefs , each representing one clan within a tribe . The Oneida and Mohawk people had nine seats each ; the Onondagas held fourteen ; the Cayuga had ten seats ; and the Seneca had eight . Representation was not based on population numbers , as the Seneca tribe greatly outnumbered the others . When a sachem chief died , his successor was chosen by the senior woman of his tribe in consultation with other female members of the clan ; property and hereditary leadership were passed matrilineally . Decisions were not made through voting but through consensus decision making , with each sachem chief holding theoretical veto power . The Onondaga were the `` firekeepers '' , responsible for raising topics to be discussed . They occupied one side of a three-sided fire ( the Mohawk and Seneca sat on one side of the fire , the Oneida and Cayuga sat on the third side . ) * * Elizabeth Tooker , an anthropologist , has said that it was unlikely the US founding fathers were inspired by the confederacy , as it bears little resemblance to the system of governance adopted in the United States . For example , it is based on inherited rather than elected leadership , selected by female members of the tribes , consensus decision-making regardless of population size of the tribes , and a single group capable of bringing matters before the legislative body . * * Long-distance trading did not prevent warfare and displacement among the indigenous peoples , and their oral histories tell of numerous migrations to the historic territories where Europeans encountered them . The Iroquois invaded and attacked tribes in the Ohio River area of present-day Kentucky and claimed the hunting grounds . Historians have placed these events as occurring as early as the 13th century , or in the 17th century Beaver Wars . * * Through warfare , the Iroquois drove several tribes to migrate west to what became known as their historically traditional lands west of the Mississippi River . Tribes originating in the Ohio Valley who moved west included the Osage , Kaw , Ponca and Omaha people . By the mid-17th century , they had resettled in their historical lands in present-day Kansas , Nebraska , Arkansas and Oklahoma . The Osage warred with Caddo-speaking Native Americans , displacing them in turn by the mid-18th century and dominating their new historical territories . Native development in Hawaii Native development in Hawaii begins with the settlement of Polynesians between 1st century to 10th century . Around 1200 AD Tahitian explorers found and began settling the area as well . This became the rise of the Hawaiian civilization and would be separated from the rest of the world for another 500 years until the arrival of the British . Europeans under the British explorer Captain James Cook arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778 . Within five years of contact , European military technology would help Kamehameha I conquer most of the people , and eventually unify the islands for the first time ; establishing the Kingdom of Hawaii . Colonial period After a period of exploration sponsored by major European nations , the first successful English settlement was established in 1607 . Europeans brought horses , cattle , and hogs to the Americas and , in turn , took back to Europe maize , turkeys , potatoes , tobacco , beans , and squash . Many explorers and early settlers died after being exposed to new diseases in the Americas . The effects of new Eurasian diseases carried by the colonists , especially smallpox and measles , were much worse for the Native Americans , as they had no immunity to them . They suffered epidemics and died in very large numbers , usually before large-scale European settlement began . Their societies were disrupted and hollowed out by the scale of deaths . Spanish , Dutch , and French colonization Spanish explorers were the first Europeans with Christopher Columbus ' second expedition , to reach Puerto Rico on November 19 , 1493 ; others reached Florida in 1513 . Spanish expeditions quickly reached the Appalachian Mountains , the Mississippi River , the Grand Canyon and the Great Plains . In 1540 , Hernando de Soto undertook an extensive exploration of the Southeast . In 1540 , Francisco Vásquez de Coronado explored from Arizona to central Kansas . Small Spanish settlements eventually grew to become important cities , such as San Antonio , Texas ; Albuquerque , New Mexico ; Tucson , Arizona ; Los Angeles , California ; and San Francisco , California . New Netherland was a 17th-century Dutch colony centered on present-day New York City and the Hudson River Valley ; the Dutch traded furs with the Native Americans to the north . The colony served as a barrier to expansion from New England . Despite being Calvinists and building the Reformed Church in America , the Dutch were tolerant of other religions and cultures . The colony , which was taken over by Britain in 1664 , left an enduring legacy on American cultural and political life . This includes secular broad-mindedness and mercantile pragmatism in the city as well as rural traditionalism in the countryside ( typified by the story of Rip Van Winkle ) . Notable

qb_8222--History_of_the_United_States.txt

Which is the only US state to begin with the letter ‘U’?

Italy ( ) , officially the Italian Republic ( ) , is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe.The Italian peninsula is geographically located in Southern Europe , while North Italy can be placed partly or totally in Central Europe . Due to cultural , political and historical reasons , Italy is a Western European country . Italy covers an area of 301338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate or Mediterranean climate ; due to its shape , it is often referred to in Italy as lo Stivale ( the Boot ) . With 61 million inhabitants , it is the third most populous EU member state . Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea , Italy shares open land borders with France , Switzerland , Austria , Slovenia , San Marino and Vatican City . Since classical times , ancient Phoenicians and Greeks , Etruscans , and Celts have inhabited the south , centre and north of the Italian Peninsula respectively , with various Italic peoples dispersed throughout Italy alongside other ancient Italian tribes and Greek , Carthaginian , and Phoenician colonies . The Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom , which eventually spread throughout Italy , assimilating and conquering other nearby civilizations and forming the Roman Republic . Rome ultimately emerged as the dominant power , conquering much of the ancient world and becoming the leading cultural , political , and religious centre of Western civilisation . The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the global distribution of civilian law , republican governments , Christianity and the Latin script . During the Middle Ages , Italy suffered sociopolitical collapse amid calamitous barbarian invasions , but by the 11th century , numerous rival city-states and maritime republics rose to great prosperity through shipping , commerce , and banking , and even laid the groundwork for capitalism . These independent city-states and regional republics , acting as Europe 's main port of entry for Asian and Near Eastern imported goods , often enjoyed a greater degree of democracy in comparison to the monarchies and feudal states found throughout Europe at the time , though much of central Italy remained under the control of the theocratic Papal States , while Southern Italy remained largely feudal , partially as a result of a succession of Byzantine , Arab , Norman , Spanish , and Bourbon conquests of the region . The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe , bringing a renewed interest in humanism , science , exploration , and art with the start of the modern era . Italian culture flourished at this time , producing famous scholars , artists , and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci , Galileo , Michelangelo , and Machiavelli . Explorers from Italy such as Marco Polo , Christopher Columbus , Amerigo Vespucci , and Giovanni da Verrazzano discovered new routes to the Far East and the New World , helping to usher in the European Age of Discovery . Nevertheless , Italy 's importance as a hub of commercial and political power significantly waned with the opening of trade routes from the New World , as New World imports and trade routes became more influential in Europe and bypassed the East Asian and Mediterranean trade routes that the Italian city-states had dominated . Furthermore , the Italian city-states constantly engaged one another in bloody warfare , with this tension and violent rivalry culminating in the Italian Wars of the 15th and 16th centuries , a series of wars and foreign invasions that left the Italian states vulnerable to annexation by neighboring European powers . Italy would remain politically fragmented and fall prey to conquest , occupation , and general foreign domination by European powers such as France , Spain , and Austria , subsequently entering a long period of decline . By the mid-19th century , a rising movement in support of Italian nationalism and Italian independence from foreign control lead to a period of revolutionary political upheaval known as the Risorgimento , which sought to bring about a rebirth of Italian cultural and economic prominence by liberating and consolidating the Italian peninsula and insular Italy into an independent and unified nation-state . After various unsuccessful attempts , the Italian Wars of Independence , the Expedition of the Thousand and the capture of Rome resulted in the eventual unification of the country , now a great power after centuries of foreign domination and political division . From the late 19th century to the early 20th century , the new Kingdom of Italy rapidly industrialized , especially in the so-called Industrial Triangle of Milan , Turin and Genoa in the north , and soon acquired a small colonial empire . However , the southern areas of the country remained largely impoverished and excluded from industrialization , fueling a large and influential diaspora . Despite being one of the main victors in World War I , Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil , leading the way to the rise of a Fascist dictatorship in 1922 . The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in military defeat , economic destruction , and a civil war following the rise of the Italian resistance movement . In the years that followed , Italy abolished the Italian monarchy , reinstated democracy , enjoyed a prolonged economic boom , and , despite periods of sociopolitical turmoil ( e.g . Anni di piombo , Mani pulite , Second Mafia War and Maxi Trial ) , became one of the world 's most developed nations . Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and eighth largest economy in the world . It has a very high level of human development and enjoys the highest life expectancy in the EU . Italy plays a prominent role in regional and global economic , military , cultural and diplomatic affairs , with a number of academics considering the country to be both a regional power and a great power . Italy is a founding and leading member of the European Union and the member of numerous international institutions , including the UN , NATO , the OECD , the OSCE , the WTO , the G7/G8 , G20 , the Union for the Mediterranean , the Council of Europe , Uniting for Consensus , and many more . As a reflection of its vast cultural wealth , Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites , the most in the world , and is one of the most visited countries . Etymology The assumptions on the etymology of the name `` Italia '' are very numerous and the corpus of the solutions proposed by historians and linguists is very wide.Alberto Manco , Italia . Disegno storico-linguistico , 2009 , Napoli , L'Orientale , ISBN 978-88-95044-62-0 According to one of the more common explanations , the term Italia , from , OLD , p. 974 : `` first syll . naturally short ( cf . Quint.Inst.1.5.18 ) , and so scanned in Lucil.825 , but in dactylic verse lengthened metri gratia . '' was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú , meaning `` land of young cattle '' ( cf . Lat vitulus `` calf '' , Umb vitlo `` calf '' ) . The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War . Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus , mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides . The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse , the southern portion of the Bruttium peninsula ( modern Calabria : province of Reggio , and part of the provinces of Catanzaro and Vibo Valentia ) . But by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous , and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well . The Greeks gradually came to apply the name `` Italia '' to a larger region , but it was during the reign of Emperor Augustus ( end of the 1st century BC ) that the term was expanded to cover the entire peninsula until the Alps . History Prehistory and antiquity Excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Paleolithic period , some 200,000 years ago , modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago . The Ancient peoples of pre-Roman Italy – such as the Umbrians , the Latins ( from which the Romans emerged ) , Volsci , Oscans , Samnites , Sabines , the Celts , the Ligures , and many others – were Indo-European peoples ; the main historic peoples of possible non-Indo-European heritage include the Etruscans , the Elymians and Sicani in Sicily and the prehistoric Sardinians , which includes the Nuragic civilization . Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible non-Indo-European origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni , known for their rock carvings . Between the 17th and the 11th centuries BC Mycenaean Greeks established contacts with Italy and in the 8th and 7th centuries BC Greek colonies were established all along the coast of Sicily and the southern part of the Italian Peninsula became known as Magna Graecia . Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily . Rome , a settlement around a ford on the river Tiber conventionally founded in 753 BC , grew over the course of centuries into a massive empire , stretching from Britain to the borders of Persia , and engulfing the whole Mediterranean basin , in which Greek and Roman and many other cultures merged into a unique civilisation . The Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation , shaping most of the modern world . In a slow decline since the third century AD , the Empire split in two in 395 AD . The Western Empire , under the pressure of the barbarian invasions , eventually dissolved in 476 AD , when its last Emperor was deposed by the Germanic chief Odoacer , while the Eastern half of the Empire survived for another thousand years . Middle Ages After the fall of the Western Roman Empire , Italy was seized by the Ostrogoths , followed in the 6th century by a brief reconquest under Byzantine Emperor Justinian . The invasion of another Germanic tribe , the Lombards , late in the same century , reduced the Byzantine presence to a rump realm ( the Exarchate of Ravenna ) and started the end of political unity of the peninsula for the next 1,300 years . The Lombard kingdom was subsequently absorbed into the Frankish Empire by Charlemagne in the late 8th century . The Franks also helped the formation of the Papal States in central Italy . Until the 13th century , Italian politics was dominated by the relations between the Holy Roman Emperors and the Papacy , with most of the Italian city-states siding for the former ( Ghibellines ) or for the latter ( Guelphs ) from momentary convenience . It was during this chaotic era that Italian towns saw the rise of a peculiar institution , the medieval commune . Given the power vacuum caused by extreme territorial fragmentation and the struggle between the Empire and the Holy See , local communities sought autonomous ways to maintain law and order . In 1176 a league of city-states , the Lombard League , defeated the German emperor Frederick Barbarossa at the Battle of Legnano , thus ensuring effective independence for most of northern and central Italian cities . In coastal and southern areas , the maritime republics , the most notable being Venice , Genoa , Pisa and Amalfi , heavily involved in the Crusades , grew to eventually dominate the Mediterranean and monopolise trade routes to the Orient . In the south , Sicily had become an Islamic emirate in the 9th century , thriving until the Italo-Normans conquered it in the late 11th century together with most of the Lombard and Byzantine principalities of southern Italy . Through a complex series of events , southern Italy developed as a unified kingdom , first under the House of Hohenstaufen , then under the Capetian House of Anjou and , from the 15th century , the House of Aragon . In Sardinia , the former Byzantine provinces became independent states known as Giudicati , although some parts of the island were under Genoese or Pisan control until the Aragonese conquered it in the 15th century . The Black Death pandemic of 1348 left its mark on Italy by killing perhaps one third of the population . However , the recovery from the plague led to a resurgence of cities , trade and economy which allowed the bloom of Humanism and Renaissance , that later spread in Europe . Early Modern In the 14th and 15th centuries , northern-central Italy was divided into a number of warring city-states , the rest of the peninsula being occupied by the larger Papal States and the Kingdom of Sicily , referred to here as Naples . Though many of these city-states were often formally subordinate to foreign rulers , as in the case of the Duchy of Milan , which was officially a constituent state of the mainly Germanic Holy Roman Empire , the city-states generally managed to maintain de facto independence from the foreign sovereigns that had seized Italian lands following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire . The strongest among these city-states gradually absorbed the surrounding territories giving birth to the Signorie , regional states often led by merchant families which founded local dynasties . War between the city-states was endemic , and primarily fought by armies of mercenaries known as condottieri , bands of soldiers drawn from around Europe , especially Germany and Switzerland , led largely by Italian captains . Decades of fighting eventually saw Florence , Milan and Venice emerged as the dominant players that agreed to the Peace of Lodi in 1454 , which saw relative calm brought to the region for the first time in centuries . This peace would hold for the next forty years . The Renaissance , a period of vigorous revival of the arts and culture , originated in Italy thanks to a number of factors , as the great wealth accumulated by merchant cities , the patronage of its dominant families like the Medici of Florence , and the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy following the Conquest of Constantinople at the hands of the Ottoman Turks.Encyclopædia Britannica , Renaissance , 2008 , O.Ed.Har , Michael H. History of Libraries in the Western World , Scarecrow Press Incorporate , 1999 , ISBN 0-8108-3724-2Norwich , John Julius , A Short History of Byzantium , 1997 , Knopf , ISBN 0-679-45088-2 The Italian Renaissance peaked in the mid-16th century as foreign invasions plunged the region into the turmoil of the Italian Wars . The ideas and ideals of the Renaissance soon spread into Northern Europe , France , England and much of Europe . In the meantime , the discovery of the Americas , the new routes to Asia discovered by the Portuguese and the rise of the Ottoman Empire , all factors which eroded the traditional Italian dominance in trade with the East , caused a long economic decline in the peninsula . Following the Italian Wars ( 1494 to 1559 ) , ignited by the rivalry between France and Spain , the city-states gradually lost their independence and came under foreign domination , first under Spain ( 1559 to 1713 ) and then Austria ( 1713 to 1796 ) . In 1629–1631 , a new outburst of plague claimed about 14 % of Italy 's population . In addition , as the Spanish Empire started to decline in the 17th century , so did its possessions in Naples , Sicily , Sardinia , and Milan . In particular , Southern Italy was impoverished and cut off from the mainstream of events in Europe . In the 18th century , as a result of the War of Spanish Succession , Austria replaced Spain as the dominant foreign power , while the House of Savoy emerged as a regional power expanding to Piedmont and Sardinia . In the same century , the two-century long decline was interrupted by the economic and state reforms pursued in several states by the ruling élites . During the Napoleonic Wars , northern-central Italy was invaded and reorganised as a new Kingdom of Italy , a client state of the French Empire , while the southern half of the peninsula was administered by Joachim Murat , Napoleon 's brother-in-law , who was crowned as King of Naples . The 1814 Congress of Vienna restored the situation of the late 18th century , but the ideals of the French Revolution could not be eradicated , and soon re-surfaced during the political upheavals that characterised the first part of the 19th century . Italian unification The birth of the Kingdom of Italy was the result of efforts by Italian nationalists and monarchists loyal to the House of Savoy to establish a united kingdom encompassing the entire Italian Peninsula . In the context of the 1848 liberal revolutions that swept through Europe , an unsuccessful war was declared on Austria . The Kingdom of Sardinia again attacked the Austrian Empire in the Second Italian War of Independence of 1859 , with the aid of France , resulting in liberating Lombardy . In 1860–61 , general Giuseppe Garibaldi led the drive for unification in Naples and Sicily , allowing the Sardinian government led by the Count of Cavour to declare a united Italian kingdom on 17 March 1861 . In 1866 , Victor Emmanuel II allied with Prussia during the Austro-Prussian War , waging the Third Italian War of Independence which allowed Italy to annex Venetia . Finally , as France during the disastrous Franco-Prussian War of 1870 abandoned its garrisons in Rome , the Italians rushed to fill the power gap by taking over the Papal States . The Piedmontese Albertine Statute of 1848 , extended to the whole Kingdom of Italy in 1861 , provided for basic freedoms , but electoral laws excluded the non-propertied and uneducated classes from voting . The government of the new kingdom took place in a framework of parliamentary constitutional monarchy dominated by liberal forces . In 1913 , male universal suffrage was adopted . As Northern Italy quickly industrialised , the South and rural areas of North remained underdeveloped and overpopulated , forcing millions of people to migrate abroad , while the Italian Socialist Party constantly increased in strength , challenging the traditional liberal and conservative establishment . Starting from the last two decades of the 19th century , Italy developed into a colonial power by forcing Somalia , Eritrea and later Libya and the Dodecanese under its rule . Italy , nominally allied with the German Empire and the Empire of Austria-Hungary in the Triple Alliance , in 1915 joined the Allies into the war with a promise of substantial territorial gains , that included western Inner Carniola , former Austrian Littoral , Dalmatia as well as parts of the Ottoman Empire . The war was initially inconclusive , as the Italian army get struck in a long attrition war in the Alps , making little progress and suffering very heavy losses . Eventually , in October 1918 , the Italians launched a massive offensive , culminating in the victory of Vittorio Veneto . The Italian victory marked the end of the war on the Italian Front , secured the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and was chiefly instrumental in ending the First World War less than two weeks later . During the war , more than 650,000 Italian soldiers and as many civilians died and the kingdom went to the brink of bankruptcy . Under the Peace Treaties of Saint-Germain , Rapallo and Rome , Italy obtained most of the promised territories , but not Dalmatia ( except Zara ) , allowing nationalists to define the victory as `` mutilated '' . Moreover , Italy annexed the Hungarian harbour of Fiume , that was not part of territories promised at London but had been occupied after the end of the war by Gabriele D'Annunzio . Fascist Regime The socialist agitations that followed the devastation of the Great War , inspired by the Russian Revolution , led to counter-revolution and repression throughout Italy . The liberal establishment , fearing a Soviet-style revolution , started to endorse the small National Fascist Party , led by Benito Mussolini . In October 1922 the Blackshirts of the National Fascist Party attempted a coup ( the `` March on Rome '' ) which failed but at the last minute , King Victor Emmanuel III refused to proclaim a state of siege and appointed Mussolini prime minister . Over the next few years , Mussolini banned all political parties and curtailed personal liberties , thus forming a dictatorship . These actions attracted international attention and eventually inspired similar dictatorships such as Nazi Germany and Francoist Spain . In 1935 , Mussolini invaded Ethiopia , resulting in an international alienation and leading to Italy 's withdrawal from the League of Nations ; Italy allied with Nazi Germany and the Empire of Japan and strongly supported Francisco Franco in the Spanish civil war . In 1939 , Italy annexed Albania , a de facto protectorate for decades . Italy entered World War II on 10 June 1940 . After initially advancing in British Somaliland and Egypt , the Italians were defeated in East Africa , Greece , Russia and North Africa . After the attack on Yugoslavia by Germany and Italy , suppression of the Yugoslav Partisans resistance and attempts to Italianization resulted in the Italian war crimes and deportation of about 25,000 people to the Italian concentration camps , such as Rab , Gonars , Monigo , Renicci di Anghiari and elsewhere . After the war , due to the Cold war , a long period of censorship , disinterest and denial occurred about the Italian war crimes and the Yugoslav 's foibe killings . Meanwhile , about 250,000 Italians and anti-communist Slavs fled to Italy in the Istrian exodus . An Allied invasion of Sicily began in July 1943 , leading to the collapse of the Fascist regime and the fall of Mussolini on 25 July . On 8 September , Italy surrendered . The Germans shortly succeeded in taking control of northern and central Italy . The country remained a battlefield for the rest of the war , as the Allies were slowly moving up from the south . In the north , the Germans set up the Italian Social Republic ( RSI ) , a Nazi puppet state with Mussolini installed as leader . The post-armistice period saw the rise of a large anti-fascist resistance movement , the Resistenza . Hostilities ended on 29 April 1945 , when the German forces in Italy surrendered . Nearly half a million Italians ( including civilians ) died in the conflict , and the Italian economy had been all but destroyed ; per capita income in 1944 was at its lowest point since the beginning of the 20th century . Republican Italy Italy became a republic after a referendum held on 2 June 1946 , a day celebrated since as Republic Day . This was also the first time that Italian women were entitled to vote . Victor Emmanuel III 's son , Umberto II , was forced to abdicate and exiled . The Republican Constitution was approved on 1 January 1948 . Under the Treaty of Peace with Italy of 1947 , most of Julian March was lost to Yugoslavia and , later , the Free Territory of Trieste was divided between the two states . Italy also lost all its colonial possessions , formally ending the Italian Empire . Fears in the Italian electorate of a possible Communist takeover proved crucial for the first universal suffrage electoral outcome on 18 April 1948 , when the Christian Democrats , under the leadership of Alcide De Gasperi , obtained a landslide victory . Consequently , in 1949 Italy became a member of NATO . The Marshall Plan helped to revive the Italian economy which , until the late 1960s , enjoyed a period of sustained economic growth commonly called the `` Economic Miracle '' . In 1957 , Italy was a founding member of the European Economic Community ( EEC ) , which became the European Union ( EU ) in 1993 . From the late 1960s until the early 1980s , the country experienced the Years of Lead , a period characterised by economic crisis ( especially after the 1973 oil crisis ) , widespread social conflicts and terrorist massacres carried out by opposing extremist groups , with the alleged involvement of US and Soviet intelligence . / / / The Years of Lead culminated in the assassination of the Christian Democrat leader Aldo Moro in 1978 and the Bologna railway station massacre in 1980 , where 85 people died . In the 1980s , for the first time since 1945 , two governments were led by non-Christian-Democrat premiers : one liberal ( Giovanni Spadolini ) and one socialist ( Bettino Craxi ) ; the Christian Democrats remained , however , the main government party . During Craxi 's government , the economy recovered and Italy became the world 's fifth largest industrial nation , gaining entry into the G7 Group . However , as a result of his spending policies , the Italian national debt skyrocketed during the Craxi era , soon passing 100 % of the GDP . In the early 1990s , Italy faced significant challenges , as voters – disenchanted with political paralysis , massive public debt and the extensive corruption system ( known as Tangentopoli ) uncovered by the 'Clean Hands ' investigation – demanded radical reforms . The scandals involved all major parties , but especially those in the government coalition : the Christian Democrats , who ruled for almost 50 years , underwent a severe crisis and eventually disbanded , splitting up into several factions . The Communists reorganised as a social-democratic force . During the 1990s and the 2000s ( decade ) , center-right ( dominated by media magnate Silvio Berlusconi ) and center-left coalitions ( led by university professor Romano Prodi ) alternatively governed the country . In the late 2000s , Italy was severely hit by the Great Recession . From 2008 to 2015 , the country suffered 42 months of GDP recession . The economic crisis was one of the main problems that forced Berlusconi to resign in 2011 . The government of the conservative Prime Minister was replaced by the technocratic cabinet of Mario Monti . Following the 2013 general election , the Vice-Secretary of the Democratic Party Enrico Letta formed a new government at the head of a right-left Grand coalition . In 2014 , challenged by the new Secretary of the PD Matteo Renzi , Letta resigned and was replaced by Renzi . The new government started important constitutional reforms such as the abolition of the Senate and a new electoral law . Geography Italy is located in Southern Europe , between latitudes 35° and 47° N , and longitudes 6° and 19° E. To the north , Italy borders France , Switzerland , Austria , and Slovenia , and is roughly delimited by the Alpine watershed , enclosing the Po Valley and the Venetian Plain . To the south , it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula and the two Mediterranean islands of Sicily and Sardinia , in addition to many smaller islands . The sovereign states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy , while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland . The country 's total area is 301230 km² , of which 294020 km² is land and 7210 km² is water . Including the islands , Italy has a coastline and border of 7600 km on the Adriatic , Ionian , Tyrrhenian seas ( 740 km ) , and borders shared with France ( 488 km ) , Austria ( 430 km ) , Slovenia ( 232 km ) and Switzerland ( 740 km ) . San Marino ( 39 km ) and Vatican City ( ) , both enclaves , account for the remainder . The Apennine Mountains form the peninsula 's backbone and the Alps form most of its northern boundary , where Italy 's highest point is located on Monte Bianco ( 4,810 m/15,782 ft ) .Official French maps show the border detouring south of the main summit , and claim the highest point in Italy is Mont Blanc de Courmayeur ( 4,748 m ) , but these are inconsistent with an 1861 convention and topographic watershed analysis . The Po , Italy 's longest river ( 652 km/405 mi ) , flows from the Alps

sfq_21961--Italy.txt

The Italian soccer club Sampdoria plays home games in which city?

Dame Jennifer Mary `` Jenny '' Shipley ( née Robson , born 4 February 1952 ) was the 36th Prime Minister of New Zealand from December 1997 to December 1999 , the first woman to hold this office and to date the only female leader of the New Zealand National Party . Early life Born in Gore , New Zealand , Shipley was one of four sisters . After attending Marlborough Girls ' College , she qualified in 1971 as a teacher and taught in New Zealand primary schools until 1976 . In 1973 she married Burton Shipley and settled in Ashburton . She assisted in a number of educational and child-care organisations , such as the Plunket Society . Member of Parliament Having joined the National Party in 1975 , Shipley successfully stood in Ashburton , a safe National seat in the country areas surrounding Christchurch , in the 1987 election . Entering parliament at age 35 , she was one of parliament 's youngest members . She represented this electorate until her retirement from politics in 2002 , though it was renamed Rakaia in 1990 . Cabinet Minister Shipley rose quickly in the National caucus . While still in her second term , party leader Jim Bolger named her the party 's spokeswoman on social welfare . When Bolger led the National Party to victory in the general election of 1990 , Shipley became Minister of Social Welfare , and also served as Minister for Women 's Affairs ( 1990–1996 ) . In her role as Minister of Social Welfare , Shipley presided over sharp cutbacks to state benefits . Later , when she became Minister of Health in 1993 , she caused further controversy by attempting to reform the public health service , introducing an internal market . When National gained re-election in 1996 , Shipley left the Women 's Affairs portfolio and took on several others , including responsibility for state-owned enterprises and transport . Prime Minister Shipley grew increasingly frustrated and disillusioned with the cautious pace of National 's leader , Jim Bolger , and with what she saw as the disproportionate influence of coalition partner New Zealand First . She began gathering support to replace Bolger in mid-1997 . Later that year , while Bolger attended the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting , Shipley convinced a majority of her National Party colleagues to back her bid for the leadership . Bolger , seeing that he no longer had the support of his party , resigned , and Shipley replaced him . As leader of the governing party , she became Prime Minister on 8 December 1997 . Despite continued economic growth , the Shipley government became increasingly politically unstable . In particular , the relationship between National and New Zealand First deteriorated . While Bolger had been able to maintain good relations with New Zealand First and with its leader , Deputy Prime Minister Winston Peters , the alliance became strained after Shipley rose to power . Finally , on 14 August 1998 , Shipley sacked Peters from Cabinet . Peters immediately withdrew support for Shipley 's government . However , several New Zealand First MPs wanted to continue the coalition , and led by NZF deputy leader Tau Henare they tried to oust Peters as leader . When they failed , they left their party , either becoming independents or trying to form their own parties . Shipley gained sufficient support from these MPs to keep National in power . On the same day Shipley unexpectedly backed Cultural Affairs Minister Marie Hasler 's call for a change in the New Zealand flag . Shipley , along with the New Zealand Tourism Board , backed the quasi-national emblem of the silver fern on a black background as a possible alternative flag , along the lines of the Canadian flag , but she took pains to publicly disassociate herself from Bolger 's support for republicanism . As the debate continued in 1999 , the Princess Royal visited New Zealand , and Shipley stated , `` I am an unashamed royal supporter , along with many New Zealanders . '' However , the debate was muted by the controversy surrounding Tourism Board contracts going to the public-relations firm Saatchi & Saatchi , whose World CEO Kevin Roberts , also an advocate of the silver fern flag , was a good friend of Shipley . She was the first Prime Minister to attend the gay and lesbian Hero Parade , being the first National Party leader to seek to make electoral overtures to the gay and lesbian voting public . She advocated lowering the alcohol purchase age from 20 to 18 and achieved this in 1999 . This was part of her expressed desire to expand the traditional National Party voting base . Shipley became a member of the Council of Women World Leaders , an international network of current and former women presidents and prime ministers with the mission of mobilising the highest-level women leaders globally for collective action on issues of critical importance to women and equitable development . Privy Council On 21 May 1998 Shipley was appointed to the Privy Council and became The Right Honourable Jenny Shipley . Defeat and resignation Shipley led the National Party into the 1999 election , hoping to become the first woman to be elected prime minister in her own right . However , she was defeated by the Labour Party , also led by a woman , Helen Clark . It was the first ( and to date , only ) New Zealand election in which the leaders of both major parties were women . Shipley led the National Party until October 2001 , when Bill English took over as Leader of the Opposition , and she retired from Parliament in 2002 . Health Jenny Shipley suffered a heart attack in 2000 . Life after politics She appeared on an episode of the television reality/travel show Intrepid Journeys where she visited Namibia ( Africa ) . She later started a charity to help a school she came across on that trip called the Namibian Educational Trust . In 2007 , Shipley joined the financial services firm [ http : //www.nbr.co.nz/home/column_article.asp ? id17441 & cid 4 & cname=Business+Today Source Sentinel ] . Shipley has business interests in China and is on the board of the China Construction Bank . According to Companies Office records , Jack Chen , Shipley and another investor founded a business in 2004 called New Zealand Pure & Natural . Chen quit as a director a year later and quit his shareholding in 2010 . Chen was instrumental in promoting the Chinese Business Roundtable Council in New Zealand , and set up a new political party in NZ , before being forced to resign due to fraud and corruption charges being laid in Hong Kong . In 2010 the China Construction Bank agreed to help finance a proposal by May Wang ( also known as Hao May ) and Chen [ also known as Chen Keen ] to invest in the New Zealand dairy industry by taking over the Crafar Farms . Shipley accepted a damehood on 14 August 2009 after the Fifth National Government reinstated knighthoods . Since 2009 , Shipley has chaired the Genesis Energy Limited board . In December 2012 Shipley resigned from the board of directors of Mainzeal Property & Construction ( MPCL ) , which went into receivership on 6 February 2013 . At mid-day on 5 February 2013 she was one of four independent directors who resigned from the board of Mainzeal Group Ltd. MPCL and Mainzeal Group Limited are part of the Richina group , controlled and majority owned by Yan Ci Lang ( also known as Richard Yan ) . In May 2015 , the receiver of Mainzeal , BDO , filed a civil lawsuit against the former Mainzeal directors , including Shipley , for an alleged breach of directors ' duties . Dame Jenny Shipley chairs Global Women NZ and gives her time to a number of causes . She is Patron of the Sir Edmund Hillary Outdoor Pursuits Centre and the New Zealand National Heart Foundation 's campaign `` Go Red for Women '' .

bb_297--Jenny_Shipley.txt

Jenny Shipley was the first female prime minister of which country?

Henry John Deutschendorf , Jr. ( December 31 , 1943 – October 12 , 1997 ) , known professionally as John Denver , was an American singer-songwriter , actor , activist and humanitarian , whose greatest commercial success was as a solo singer , starting in the 1970s . He was one of the most popular acoustic artists of the decade and one of its best-selling artists . By 1974 , he was firmly established as America 's best-selling performer , and AllMusic has described Denver as `` among the most beloved entertainers of his era '' . After traveling and living in numerous locations while growing up in his military family , Denver began his music career in folk music groups in the late 1960s . Throughout his life , Denver recorded and released approximately 300 songs , about 200 of which he composed , with total sales of over 33 million . He recorded and performed primarily with an acoustic guitar and sang about his joy in nature , his enthusiasm for music , and his relationship trials . Denver 's music appeared on a variety of charts , including country and western , the Billboard Hot 100 , and adult contemporary , in all earning him twelve gold and four platinum albums with his signature songs `` Take Me Home , Country Roads '' , `` Annie 's Song '' , `` Rocky Mountain High '' , `` Thank God I 'm a Country Boy '' , and `` Sunshine on My Shoulders '' . Denver further starred in films and several notable television specials in the 1970s and 1980s . In the following decade , he continued to record , but also focused on calling attention to environmental issues , lent his vocal support to space exploration , and testified in front of Congress to protest against censorship in music . He was known for his love of the state of Colorado , which he sang about numerous times . He lived in Aspen , Colorado , for much of his life . He was named Poet Laureate of the state in 1974 . The Colorado state legislature also adopted `` Rocky Mountain High '' as one of its state songs in 2007 . Denver was an avid pilot and died in a single-fatality crash of his personal experimental aircraft at the age of 53 . Biography Early years Henry John Deutschendorf , Jr. , was born in Roswell , New Mexico , to Lt. Col. Henry John Deutschendorf , Sr. , an Air Force officer ( who set three speed records in the B-58 Hustler bomber and earned a place in the Air Force Hall of Fame ) and Erma Louise Swope . Henry Sr. was of German ancestry , and met and married his `` Oklahoma Sweetheart '' . Denver 's Irish Catholic and German maternal grandmother was the one who imbued Denver with his love of music . In his autobiography , Take Me Home , Denver described his life as the eldest son of a family shaped by a stern father who could not show his love for his children . He is also the nephew of singer Dave Deutschendorf of The New Christy Minstrels . Because Denver 's father was in the military , the family moved often , making it difficult for Denver to make friends and fit in with other children of his own age . Constantly being the new kid was troubling for the introverted Denver , and he grew up always feeling like he should be somewhere else , but never knowing where that `` right '' place was . While living in Tucson , Arizona , Denver was a member of the Tucson Arizona Boys Chorus for two years . Denver was happy living in Tucson , but his father was transferred to Montgomery , Alabama , then in the midst of the Montgomery boycotts . The family later moved to Fort Worth , Texas , where Denver graduated from Arlington Heights High School . Attending high school in Fort Worth was a distressing experience for the disenfranchised Denver . In his third year of high school , he borrowed his father 's car and ran away to California to visit family friends and begin his music career . His father flew to California in a friend 's jet to retrieve him and Denver reluctantly returned to finish high school . At the age of 11 , Denver received an acoustic guitar from his grandmother . He learned to play well enough to perform at local clubs by the time he was in college . He adopted the surname `` Denver '' after the capital of his favorite state , Colorado . He decided to change his name when Randy Sparks , founder of The New Christy Minstrels , suggested that `` Deutschendorf '' would n't fit comfortably on a marquee . Denver studied Architecture at Texas Tech University in Lubbock and sang in a folk-music group called `` The Alpine Trio '' while pursuing architectural studies . He was also a member of Delta Tau Delta Fraternity . Denver dropped out of the Texas Tech School of Engineering in 1963 , and moved to Los Angeles , where he sang in folk clubs . In 1965 , Denver joined the The Mitchell Trio , replacing founder Chad Mitchell , which later became `` Denver , Boise , and Johnson '' ( John Denver , David Boise , and Michael Johnson ) . In 1969 , Denver abandoned the band life to pursue a solo career and released his first album for RCA Records : Rhymes & Reasons . Two years prior , Denver had made a self-produced demo recording of some of the songs he played at his concerts . He included in the demo a song he had written called `` Babe I Hate to Go '' , later renamed `` Leaving on a Jet Plane '' . Denver made several copies and gave them out as presents for Christmas . Producer Milt Okun , who produced records for the Mitchell Trio and the high-profile folk group Peter , Paul and Mary , had become Denver 's producer as well . Okun brought the unreleased `` Jet Plane '' song to Peter , Paul and Mary . Their version of the song hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 . Denver 's composition also made it to the U.K. No.2 spot in February 1970 , having also made No.1 on the U.S. Cash Box chart in December , 1969 . ( Ironically , this was the only single to hit number one for the group . ) Although RCA did not actively promote Rhymes & Reasons with a tour , Denver himself embarked on an impromptu supporting tour throughout the Midwest , stopping at towns and cities as the fashion took him , offering to play free concerts at local venues . When he was successful in persuading a school , college , American Legion hall , or local coffee-house to let him play , he would spend a day or so distributing posters in the town and could usually be counted upon to show up at the local radio station , guitar in hand , offering himself for an interview . With his foot in the door as author of `` Leaving on a Jet Plane '' , he was often successful in gaining some valuable promotional airtime , usually featuring one or two songs performed live . Some venues would let him play for the `` door '' ; others restricted him to selling copies of the album at intermission and after the show . After several months of this constant low-key touring schedule , however , he had sold enough albums to persuade RCA to take a chance on extending his recording contract . He had also built a sizable and solid fan base , many of whom remained loyal throughout his career . Denver recorded two more albums in 1970 , Take Me to Tomorrow and Whose Garden Was This , including a mix of songs he had written and cover versions of other artists ' compositions . Career peak His next album , Poems , Prayers , and Promises ( released in 1971 ) , was a breakthrough for him in the U.S. , thanks in part to the single `` Take Me Home , Country Roads '' , which went to number 2 on the Billboard charts despite the first pressings of the track being distorted . Its success was due in part to the efforts of his new manager , future Hollywood producer Jerry Weintraub , who signed Denver in 1970 . Weintraub insisted on a re-issue of the track and began a radio-airplay campaign that started in Denver , Colorado . Denver 's career flourished from then on , and he had a series of hits over the next four years . In 1972 , Denver scored his first Top Ten album with Rocky Mountain High , with its title track reaching the Top Ten in 1973 . Between 1974 and 1975 , Denver experienced an impressive chart dominance , with a string of four No.1 songs ( `` Sunshine on My Shoulders '' , `` Annie 's Song '' , `` Thank God I 'm a Country Boy '' , and `` I 'm Sorry '' ) and three No.1 albums ( John Denver 's Greatest Hits , Back Home Again , and Windsong ) . In the 1970s , Denver 's onstage appearance included long blond hair , embroidered shirts emblazoned with images commonly associated with the American West ( created by designer & appliqué artist Anna Zapp ) , and `` granny '' glasses . His manager , Jerry Weintraub , insisted on a significant number of television appearances , including a series of half-hour shows in United Kingdom , despite Denver 's protests at the time , `` I 've had no success in Britain ... I mean none . '' Weintraub explained to Maureen Orth of Newsweek in December 1976 , `` I knew the critics would never go for John . I had to get him to the people . '' After appearing as a guest on many shows , Denver went on to host his own variety/music specials , including several concerts from Red Rocks Amphitheatre near Denver . His seasonal special , Rocky Mountain Christmas , was watched by more than 60 million people and was the highest-rated show for the ABC network at that time . His live concert special , An Evening with John Denver , won the 1974–1975 Emmy for Outstanding Special , Comedy-Variety or Music . When Denver ended his business relationship because of Weintraub 's focus on other projects , Weintraub threw Denver out of his office and called him a Nazi . Denver would later tell Arthur Tobier , when the latter transcribed his autobiography , `` ... I 'd bend my principles to support something he wanted of me . And of course every time you bend your principles – whether because you do n't want to worry about it , or because you 're afraid to stand up for fear of what you might lose – you sell your soul to the devil . '' Denver was also a guest star on The Muppet Show , the beginning of the lifelong friendship between Denver and Jim Henson that spawned two television specials with The Muppets . He also tried acting , appearing in the The Colorado Cattle Caper episode of the McCloud television movie on February 24 , 1974 , and starring in the 1977 film Oh , God ! opposite George Burns . Denver hosted the Grammy Awards five times in the 1970s and 1980s and guest-hosted The Tonight Show on multiple occasions . In 1975 , Denver was awarded the Country Music Association 's Entertainer of the Year award . At the ceremony , the outgoing Entertainer of the Year Charlie Rich presented the award to his successor , but in protest of what he considered the inappropriateness of Denver 's selection , Rich set fire to the envelope containing the official notification of the award . However , Denver 's music was defended by country singer Kathy Mattea , who told Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly , `` A lot of people write him off as lightweight , but he articulated a kind of optimism , and he brought acoustic music to the forefront , bridging folk , pop , and country in a fresh way ... People forget how huge he was worldwide . '' In 1977 , Denver cofounded The Hunger Project with Werner Erhard and Robert W. Fuller . He served for many years and supported the organization until his death . Denver was also appointed by President Jimmy Carter to serve on the President 's Commission on World Hunger , writing the song `` I Want to Live '' as its theme song . In 1979 , Denver performed `` Rhymes & Reasons '' at the Music for UNICEF Concert . Royalties from the concert performances were donated to UNICEF . His father taught him to fly in the mid-1970s , which led to a reconciliation between father and son . In 1980 , Denver and his father , Lt. Col. `` Dutch '' Deutschendorf , co-hosted an award-winning television special , `` The Higher We Fly : the History of Flight '' . It won the Osborn Award from the Aviation/Space Writers ’ Association , and was honored by the Houston Film Festival . Political activism Denver became outspoken in politics in the mid-1970s . He expressed his ecologic interests in the epic 1975 song `` Calypso , '' which is an ode to the exploration ship and team of environmental activist Jacques Cousteau . In 1976 , he campaigned for Jimmy Carter , who became a close friend and ally . Denver was a supporter of the Democratic Party and of a number of charitable causes for the environmental movement , the homeless , the poor , the hungry , and the African AIDS crisis . He founded the charitable Windstar Foundation in 1976 , to promote sustainable living . His dismay at the Chernobyl disaster led to precedent-setting concerts in parts of communist Asia and Europe . During the 1980s , Denver was critical of the Reagan administration , but he remained active in his campaign against hunger , for which Reagan awarded Denver the Presidential World Without Hunger Award in 1985 . Denver 's criticism of the conservative politics of the 1980s was expressed in his autobiographical folk-rock ballad `` Let Us Begin ( What Are We Making Weapons For ) . '' Denver was also critical of the Republican-dominated Congress and American Conservatism of the 1990s . He denounced the National Rifle Association ( NRA ) as a corrupt political machine that could buy off politicians , and in an open letter to the media , he wrote that he opposed oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge . Denver had battled to expand the refuge in the 1980s , and he praised President Bill Clinton for his opposition to the proposed drilling . The letter , which he wrote in the midst of the 1996 presidential election , was one of the last he ever wrote . Denver was also on the Board of Governors of the National Space Society for many years . Later years and humanitarian work He had a few more U.S. Top 30 hits as the 1970s ended , but nothing to match his earlier success . He began to focus more on humanitarian and sustainability causes , focusing extensively on conservation projects . He made public expression of his acquaintances and friendships with ecological-design researchers such as Richard Buckminster Fuller ( about whom he wrote and composed `` What One Man Can Do '' ) and Amory Lovins , from whom he said he learned much . He also founded two environmental groups ; the Windstar Foundation and Plant-It 2020 ( originally Plant-It 2000 ) . Denver had a keen interest in solutions to world hunger . He visited Africa during the 1980s to witness first-hand the suffering caused by starvation and to work with African leaders toward solutions . In 1983 and 1984 , Denver hosted the annual Grammy Awards . In the 1983 finale , Denver was joined on stage by folk-music legend Joan Baez with whom he led an all-star version of `` Blowin ' in the Wind '' and `` Let The Sunshine In , '' joined by such diverse musical icons as Jennifer Warnes , Donna Summer , and Rick James . In 1984 , Roone Arledge , president of ABC Sports , asked Denver to compose and sing the theme song for the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo . Denver worked as both a performer and a skiing commentator . ( Skiing was another avocation of Denver 's . ) He had written and composed `` The Gold and Beyond , '' and he sang it for the Olympic Games athletes , as well as local venues including many schools . In 1985 , Denver asked to participate in the singing of `` We Are the World , '' but he was turned down . According to Ken Kragen ( who helped to produce the song ) , the reason Denver was turned down was that many people felt his image would hurt the credibility of the song as a pop-rock anthem . `` I did n't agree '' with this assessment , Kragen said , but reluctantly turned Denver down anyway . For Earth Day 1990 , Denver was the on-camera narrator of a well-received environmental TV program , In Partnership With Earth , with then–EPA Administrator William K. Reilly . Due to his love of flying , he was attracted to NASA and became dedicated to America 's work in outer space . He conscientiously worked to help bring into being the `` Citizens in Space '' program . Denver received the NASA Public Service Medal , in 1985 for `` helping to increase awareness of space exploration by the peoples of the world , '' an award usually restricted to spaceflight engineers and designers . Also in 1985 , Denver passed NASA 's rigorous physical exam and was in line for a space flight , a finalist for the first citizen 's trip on the Space Shuttle in 1986 , but he was not chosen . After the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster with teacher Christa McAuliffe aboard , Denver dedicated his song `` Flying for Me '' to all astronauts , and he continued to support NASA . Denver testified before the Senate Labor and Commerce Committee on the topic of censorship during a Parents Music Resource Center hearing in 1985 . Denver also toured Russia in 1985 . His 11 Soviet Union concerts were the first by any American artist in more than 10 years , and they marked a very important cultural exchange that culminated in an agreement to allow other western artists to perform there . He returned two years later to perform at a benefit concert for the victims of the Chernobyl disaster . In October 1992 , Denver undertook a multiple-city tour of the People 's Republic of China . He also released a greatest-hits CD , `` Homegrown , '' to raise money for homeless charities . In 1994 , he published his autobiography , Take Me Home , in which he candidly spoke of his cannabis , LSD , and cocaine use , his marital infidelities , and his history of domestic violence . In 1996 , he was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame . In early 1997 , Denver filmed an episode for the Nature series , centering on the natural wonders that inspired many of his best-loved songs . The episode contains his last song , `` Yellowstone , Coming Home , '' which he composed while rafting along the Colorado River with his son and young daughter . In the summer of 1997 , Denver recorded a children 's train album for Sony Wonder , titled All Aboard ! This was produced by long-time friend Roger Nichols . The album consisted of old-fashioned swing , big band , folk , bluegrass , and gospel styles of music woven into a theme of railroad songs . This album won a posthumous Best Musical Album For Children Grammy for Denver , which was his only Grammy . Personal life Denver 's first marriage was to Anne Martell of St. Peter , Minnesota . She was the subject of his hit Annie 's Song , which he composed in only ten minutes as he sat on a ski lift after the couple had an argument . They lived in Edina , Minnesota , from 1968 to 1971 . Following the success of `` Rocky Mountain High '' , inspired by a camping trip with Anne and some friends , Denver purchased a residence in Aspen , Colorado . He lived in Aspen continuously until his death . The Denvers adopted a boy , Zachary John , and girl , Anna Kate , whom Denver would say were `` meant to be '' theirs . Denver once said , `` I 'll tell you the best thing about me . I 'm some guy 's dad ; I 'm some little gal 's dad . When I die , Zachary John and Anna Kate 's father , boy , that 's enough for me to be remembered by . That 's more than enough . '' Zachary , who is African-American , was the subject of `` A Baby Just Like You '' , a song that included the line `` Merry Christmas , little Zachary '' and which he wrote for Frank Sinatra . Denver and Martell divorced in 1982 . In a 1983 interview shown in the documentary John Denver : Country Boy ( 2013 ) , Denver said that career demands drove them apart ; Anne said that they were too-young and immature to deal with John 's sudden mega-success . The ensuing property settlement caused Denver to become so enraged , he nearly choked Martell , then used a chainsaw to cut their marital bed in half . Martell continues to live in Aspen . Denver married Australian actress Cassandra Delaney in 1988 , after a two-year courtship . Settling at Denver 's home in Aspen , the couple had a daughter , Jesse Belle . Denver and Delaney separated in 1991 and divorced in 1993 . Of his second marriage , Denver would later recall that `` before our short-lived marriage ended in divorce , she managed to make a fool of me from one end of the valley to the other '' . In 1993 , Denver pleaded guilty to a drunken driving charge , and was placed on probation . In August 1994 , while still on probation , he was again charged with misdemeanor driving under the influence after crashing his Porsche into a tree in Aspen . Though a jury trial in July 1997 resulted in a hung jury on the second DUI charge , prosecutors later decided to reopen the case , which was closed only after Denver 's accidental death in October 1997 . In 1996 , the FAA decided that Denver could no longer fly a plane due to medical disqualification for failure to abstain from alcohol , a condition that the FAA had imposed in October 1995 after his prior drunk-driving conviction . Denver 's talent extended beyond music . Artistic interests included painting , but because of his limiting schedule he pursued photography , saying once `` photography is a way to communicate a feeling '' . Denver was also an avid skier and golfer , but his principal interest was in flying . His love of flying was second only to his love of music . In 1974 he bought a Learjet to fly himself to concerts . He was a collector of vintage biplanes , and in addition made the purchase of a Christen Eagle aerobatic plane , two Cessna 210 airplanes , and in 1997 , an experimental , amateur-built Rutan Long-EZ . Death On October 12 , 1997 , Denver was killed when his experimental Adrian Davis Long-EZ plane , aircraft registration number N555JD , crashed into Monterey Bay near Pacific Grove , California , while making a series of touch-and-go landings at the nearby Monterey Peninsula Airport . The National Transportation Safety Board 's ( NTSB ) accident ID is LAX98FA008 . Denver was the only occupant of the aircraft . The crash seriously disfigured Denver 's head and body , making identification impossible by dental records , so records of his fingerprints were used to confirm that the fallen pilot was indeed the singer . A pilot with over 2,700 hours of experience , Denver had pilot license ratings for single-engine land and sea , multi-engine land , glider , and instrument . He also held a type rating in his Learjet . He had recently purchased the Long-EZ aircraft and had taken a half-hour checkout flight with the aircraft the day before the accident . Denver was not legally permitted to fly at the time of the accident . In years prior Denver had a number of drunk driving arrests . In 1996 , nearly a year before the accident , the Federal Aviation Administration had learned that Denver had failed to maintain sobriety by failing to refrain entirely from alcohol , and thus the FAA was compelled to revoke his medical certification . The accident , however , was not influenced by alcohol use , as there was no sign of alcohol or other drugs in Denver 's body at autopsy.National Transportation Safety Board . [ http : //dms.ntsb.gov/aviation/GenPDF.aspx ? id LAX98FA008 & rptfa Long-EZ , N555JD , Flight History and Accident Report , ID LAX98FA008 ] , October 12 , 1997 . Post-accident investigation by the NTSB showed that the leading cause of the accident was Denver 's inability to switch fuel tanks during flight . The quantity of fuel had been depleted during the plane 's transfer to Monterey and in several brief practice takeoffs and landings performed by Denver at the airport immediately prior to the final flight . His newly purchased experimental Rutan had an unusual fuel selector valve handle configuration . Intended by the plane 's designer to be located between the pilot 's legs , the fuel selector had instead been placed by the plane 's builder behind the left shoulder of the pilot , with the fuel gauge also behind the pilot 's seat and thus not visible to the person at the controls . An NTSB interview with the aircraft mechanic servicing Denver 's plane revealed that he and Denver had discussed the inaccessibility of the cockpit fuel selector valve handle and its resistance to being turned . Before the flight , Denver and the mechanic had attempted to extend the reach of the handle , using a pair of Vise-Grip pliers . However , this did not solve the problem , as the pilot could still not reach the handle while strapped into his seat . NTSB investigators ' post-accident investigation showed that given the positioning of the fuel selector valves , switching the craft 's fuel tanks required a pilot to turn his body 90 degrees to reach the valve . This created a natural tendency to extend one 's right foot against the right rudder pedal to support oneself while turning in the seat , causing the aircraft to yaw ( move off course ) and pitch up . According to the mechanic , after he had noted to Denver that the fuel sight gauges were visible only to the rear cockpit occupant , Denver asked about the quantity of fuel shown . The mechanic told Denver that he had `` less than half in the right tank and less than a quarter in the left tank '' . The mechanic then provided Denver with an inspection mirror so that he could look over his shoulder at the fuel sight gauges ; the mirror was later recovered in the wreckage . Denver told the mechanic that he would use the autopilot inflight , if necessary , to hold the airplane level while he turned the fuel selector valve . Denver refused an offer to take on additional fuel , informing the mechanic that he would only be flying for about one hour . The NTSB interviewed 20 witnesses of Denver 's last flight ; six of them had observed the plane 's crash into the ocean near Point Pinos . Four of the witnesses indicated that the airplane was originally heading west ; five of them observed the airplane in a steep bank , with four of those five reporting the bank was to the right ( north ) . Twelve witnesses saw the airplane in a steep nose-down descent . Witnesses estimated the plane 's height at

bb_7154--John_Denver.txt

Born Henry John Deutschendorf Junior, which American singer died when his light aircraft crashed into the sea off California in 1997?

Mermaids is a 1990 American comedy-drama film directed by Richard Benjamin and starring Cher , Bob Hoskins , Winona Ryder ( who was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for best supporting actress for her role ) , and Christina Ricci in her first film role . It is based on the 1986 novel of the same title written by Patty Dann . It was shot in and around the town of Ipswich , Massachusetts and Pawtucket , Rhode Island . Plot The film is narrated by Charlotte Flax , a 15-year-old girl living in Oklahoma with her glamorous but eccentric mother , Rachel ( whom she calls `` Mrs. Flax '' ) , and 9-year-old sister , Kate , who calls her by her given name . The narration begins in early fall 1963 , just as Rachel 's latest fling with her married employer ends and she decides to relocate once again . This time , they move to a new home near a convent in the small town of Eastport , Massachusetts . Charlotte has an obsession with Catholicism and idolizes the nuns living in the convent . She is always reminded by Rachel that they are Jewish . Kate , on the other hand , loves oceans and swimming . She apparently learned to do so when she was a baby , allowing her to win many competitions . In Eastport , Charlotte becomes especially interested in Joe , the 26-year-old handsome caretaker of the convent and local school bus driver while Rachel falls in love with a local shop owner named Lou Landsky . After the assassination of John F. Kennedy , Charlotte comforts Joe in mourning and they end up kissing in the bell tower where he rings the church bell . After the encounter , she begins fasting in order to purge her sinful thoughts . Soon fearing that God may be punishing her by making her pregnant ( and unable to talk to her mother about it ) , she steals Rachel 's car and runs away . She stops at the house of a `` nuclear perfect family '' in Connecticut asking to spend the night , tells them her name is Sal Val , and other wild stories ( which they do n't seem to completely believe ) . Later on , she is picked up by Lou and taken home . Upon returning home , Charlotte receives a harsh scolding from Rachel who calms down after drinking Scotch liquor and tells Charlotte that she was worried sick about her safety and , thinking that it 's her fault that Charlotte ran away from home , admits that even though she 's not an expert in her parenting , she 's willing to compromise and try her best to take care of both Charlotte and Kate . The next day , Charlotte makes an appointment at the nearest hospital , where she goes to see an obstetrician and is told she is still a virgin . Relieved , she goes home , dispelled of her assumption that `` one kiss can get you pregnant '' . At a New Year 's costume party , Lou asks Rachel to move in with him but she declines , reminding him that they 're still married to different spouses and not willing to break up with him nor let their relationship progress , and they have a big fight . Rachel then asks Joe for a ride home after which she wishes him a happy new year and kisses him . Charlotte sees this and feels that her mother is trying to steal him away . The night after the incident , Charlotte dresses up in Rachel 's clothes and makeup and she and Kate get drunk on wine . She then takes her to the convent to see Joe . Kate decides to stay behind and collect rocks while Charlotte goes up to the bell tower to find Joe and ends up losing her virginity to him . Unbeknownst to them , Kate falls into a river and almost drowns , but is saved by the nuns . Rachel is very angry at the turn of events and she and Charlotte have a big fight , later deciding to move again to avoid embarrassment as the whole town is talking about Charlotte and Joe . However , Charlotte convinces her to stay there at least for another year . Rachel stays behind and her relationship with Lou progresses . Joe moves to California but keeps in touch with Charlotte via postcards , while she gains a reputation in high school and takes Greek myths as her new passion ( even though Rachel reminds her she 's not Greek ) . Kate recovers from nearly drowning although the accident left her hearing sounding fuzzy , and the film ends with all three of them setting the table for dinner ( something they never did before Lou came into their lives ) and dancing . Cast * Cher as Rachel Flax * Winona Ryder as Charlotte Flax * Christina Ricci as Kate Flax * Bob Hoskins as Lou Landsky * Michael Schoeffling as Joe Porretti * Caroline McWilliams as Carrie Production The role of Charlotte was initially cast with Emily Lloyd . She had begun shooting the film when Cher supposedly made a complaint that she couldn ’ t play her daughter because she was too fair haired and Winona Ryder replaced her . This statement would be rather ironic given that all of Cher 's real life children are blond/fair . Lloyd sued Orion Pictures Corporation and Mermaid Productions , reaching a settlement on the second day of the trial , 30 July 1991 . This was to have been the American film debut for director Lasse Hallström until he allegedly repeatedly clashed with Cher and was replaced first by Frank Oz and then by Richard Benjamin . Critical response The film currently holds a rating of 73 % on Rotten Tomatoes indicating largely positive reviews . Time Out New York wrote ; ‘ The film is burdened by curious details and observations , and its preoccupation with all things aquatic ( little sister is an ace swimmer , Mom dresses up as a mermaid for New Year 's Eve , etc . ) is overworked . Characterisation suffers , with Charlotte and Rachel too self-absorbed to engage our sympathies . Crucially , they just are n't funny ’ . Vincent Canby from The New York Times wrote ; `` Mermaids , adapted by the English writer June Roberts from the novel by Patty Dann , is a terribly gentle if wisecracking comedy about the serious business of growing up . ''

qz_3504--Mermaids_(1990_film).txt

Who played the role of Kate Flax in the 1990 film Mermaids?

Julia Eileen Gillard ( born 29 September 1961 ) is a former Australian politician who served as the 27th Prime Minister of Australia from 2010 to 2013 , as leader of the Australian Labor Party . She previously served as the 13th Deputy Prime Minister of Australia , and held the cabinet positions of Minister for Education , Minister for Employment and Workplace Relations and Minister for Social Inclusion from 2007 to 2010 . She was the first and to date only woman to hold the positions of deputy prime minister , prime minister and leader of a major party in Australia . Born in Barry , Wales , Gillard migrated with her family to Adelaide , South Australia , in 1966 . She attended Mitcham Demonstration School and Unley High School . Subsequently , Gillard studied at the University of Adelaide , but cut short her courses to move to Melbourne , Victoria , in 1982 , where she worked with the Australian Union of Students and served as the organisation 's president from 1983 to 1984 . Gillard later graduated from the University of Melbourne , with a Bachelor of Laws degree ( 1986 ) and a Bachelor of Arts degree ( 1989 ) . In 1987 , she joined the law firm Slater & Gordon and became a partner in 1990 , specialising in industrial law . A departure from the law firm in 1996 saw Gillard serve as chief of staff to the Leader of the Opposition in Victoria John Brumby , which preceded her own entry into federal politics . Gillard was first elected to the House of Representatives at the 1998 federal election for the seat of Lalor . Following the 2001 federal election , she was elected to the Shadow Cabinet and was given the portfolio of Population and Immigration . In 2003 , she took on the responsibility for both Reconciliation and Indigenous Affairs and Health . In December 2006 , when Kevin Rudd was elected as Labor Leader and became Leader of the Opposition , Gillard was elected unopposed as his deputy . Upon Labor 's victory in the 2007 federal election , Gillard became the first female Deputy Prime Minister of Australia , and held the cabinet portfolios of Minister for Education , Minister for Employment and Workplace Relations and Minister for Social Inclusion . On , after Rudd lost the support of his party and resigned , Gillard was elected unopposed as the Leader of the Labor Party , thus becoming the 27th Prime Minister of Australia . The subsequent 2010 federal election saw the first hung parliament since the 1940 federal election . Gillard was able to form a minority government with the support of a Green MP and three independent MPs . On 26 June 2013 , after a leadership spill , Gillard lost the leadership of the Labor Party to Rudd . Her resignation as Prime Minister took effect the following day . Gillard retired from politics on 5 August 2013 , before the impending federal election . Following her departure from politics , in August 2013 Gillard became an honorary visiting professor at the University of Adelaide , and a nonresident senior fellow at the Brookings Institution 's Center for Universal Education in October . Gillard released her political memoirs , My Story , in September 2014 . She has been on the board of mental health organisation beyondblue from December 2014 , and was made an honorary fellow of Aberystwyth University in June 2015 . In addition to her various appointments , Gillard has served as the chairwoman of the Global Partnership for Education since February 2014 . Early life and family Gillard was born on 29 September 1961 , in Barry , Wales . After she suffered from bronchopneumonia as a child , her parents were advised it would aid her recovery if they were to live in a warmer climate . This led the family to migrate to Australia in 1966 , settling in Adelaide . In 1974 , eight years after they arrived , Gillard and her family became Australian citizens . As a result , Gillard held dual Australian/British citizenship until she renounced her British citizenship prior to entering Parliament in 1998 . Her father , John Oliver Gillard ( 1929–2012 ) , was of English , Irish and Welsh descent , and worked as a psychiatric nurse . Gillard 's mother , Moira Gillard ( née Mackenzie ) , worked at the local Salvation Army nursing home and currently lives in Pasadena , South Australia . Moira 's ancestry is Scottish and Irish . Gillard also has a sister , Alison , who is three years older . Education , career and political aspirations Gillard and her sister attended Mitcham Demonstration School , and Julia went on to attend Unley High School . She later studied at the University of Adelaide , during which she served as the President of the Adelaide University Union from 1981 to 1982 . In her second year at the university , Gillard was introduced to politics by the daughter of a State Labor Minister . Accordingly , she joined the Labor Club and became involved in a campaign to fight federal education budget cuts . Gillard cut short her courses in 1982 , and moved to Melbourne to work with the Australian Union of Students . After moving to Melbourne , in 1983 Gillard became the second woman to lead the Australian Union of Students , until the organisation 's discontinuation in 1984 . She was also the secretary of the left-wing organisation Socialist Forum . Le Grand , Chip . ( 4 December 2012 ) . [ http : //www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/gillard-style-already-in-place-when-the-ratbag-lefties-met-in-1984/story-fn59niix-1226529262087 `` Gillard style already in place when the ratbag lefties met in 1984 '' ] . The Australian . Retrieved 20 May 2016 . From 1985 to 1989 , Gillard served as President of the Carlton branch of the Labor Party . Gillard commenced studying at the University of Melbourne , graduating with a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1986 , and a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1989 . In 1987 , Gillard joined the law firm Slater & Gordon in Werribee , Victoria , working in industrial law . In 1990 , she was admitted as a partner ; at the age of 29 , she was the youngest partner within the firm , and one of the first women to hold the position . Gillard saught Labor Party preselection twice for seats in the House of Representatives during the early 1990 's ; however , she did not succeed in either attempt . In 1995 , Gillard took a leave of absence from Slater & Gordon to contest the 1996 federal election . Gillard stood as a Senate candidate , having been preselected for the third position on Labor 's ticket , although she was not elected to the position . Some time later , in 1996 , Gillard resigned from her position with Slater & Gordon in order to serve as the Chief of Staff to John Brumby , at that time the Leader of the Opposition in Victoria . She was responsible for drafting the affirmative-action rules within the Labor Party in Victoria that set the target of pre-selecting women for 35 per cent of `` winnable seats '' . She also played a role in the foundation of EMILY 's List , the pro-choice fund-raising and support network for Labor women . The Welsh Labour politician Aneurin Bevan remains one of her political heroes . Member of Parliament , 1998–2007 Gillard was first elected to the House of Representatives at the 1998 federal election representing Lalor , a safe Labor seat near Melbourne , replacing Barry Jones who retired . She made her maiden speech to the House on 11 November 1998 . Following her election to Parliament in 1998 , Gillard served in various Australian House of Representatives committees . Gillard was a member of the Standing committee for Employment , Education and Workplace Relations from 8 December 1998 to 8 December 2001 , in addition to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs from 20 March 2003 to 18 August 2003 . Within the Joint committees , she was a member of the Public Accounts and Audit from 8 December 1998 to 11 February 2002 , in addition to the Native Title and the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Land Fund from 20 March 2003 to 11 August 2003 . Shadow minister ( 2001–07 ) After Labor 's defeat at the 2001 federal election , Gillard was elected to the Shadow Cabinet under then-Labor Leader Simon Crean , where she was given responsibility for Population and Immigration . In February 2003 , she was given additional responsibilities for Reconciliation and Indigenous Affairs . In these roles , in the wake of the Tampa and Children Overboard affairs , which were partly credited with Labor 's 2001 election loss , Gillard developed a new immigration policy for the Labor Party . Gillard was later promoted to the position of Shadow Minister for Health and Deputy Manager of Opposition Business in the House ( to Mark Latham ) on 2 July 2003 . During this time , she shadowed Tony Abbott , with the rivalry between the two often attracting attention from the media . She was later given additional responsibility for managing opposition business in the House of Representatives by Latham , who had succeeded Beazley as Labor Leader . In the aftermath of Labor 's fourth consecutive defeat in the 2004 federal election it was widely speculated that Gillard might challenge Jenny Macklin for the deputy leadership , but she did not do so . Gillard had been spoken of as a potential future leader of the party for some years , but never stood in a leadership contest . After Mark Latham resigned as Labor Leader in January 2005 , Gillard appeared on ABC 's Australian Story in March 2006 , after which an Ipsos Mackay poll conducted for Network Ten 's Meet the Press found that more respondents would prefer Gillard to be Labor Leader ; she polled 32 % compared with Beazley 's 25 % and Kevin Rudd 's 18 % . Although she had significant cross-factional support , she announced on 25 January 2005 that she would not contest the leadership , allowing Beazley to be elected unopposed . Deputy Opposition leader , 2006–07 On 1 December 2006 , as part of a cross-factional political partnership with Kevin Rudd , Gillard challenged Jenny Macklin for the deputy leadership . After Rudd successfully replaced Beazley as Labor Leader on 4 December 2006 , Macklin chose to resign , allowing Gillard to become Deputy Leader unopposed . In the subsequent reshuffle , Gillard was allocated responsibility for Employment , Workplace Relations and Social Inclusion , as well as being made Deputy Leader of the Opposition . Deputy Prime Minister ( 2007–10 ) After the Labor Party 's victory in the 2007 federal election , Gillard was sworn in as the first ever female Deputy Prime Minister of Australia on 3 December 2007 . In addition to being made Deputy Prime Minister , Gillard was given responsibility for a so-called `` super ministry '' , the Department of Education , Employment and Workplace Relations . She was a member of the Strategic Priorities Budget Committee ( SPBC ) – also referred to as `` Gang of Four '' – which comprised Rudd and his most senior ministers : Gillard , Treasurer Wayne Swan and Finance Minister Lindsay Tanner . Formed in late-2007 as a result of an internal review , the SPBC was responsible for the government 's handling of the 2007–08 global financial crisis . On 11 December 2007 , Gillard temporarily assumed the duties of the Prime Minister while Rudd attended the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Bali , becoming the first woman ever to do so . She assumed these duties for a total of 69 days throughout Rudd 's tenure , during his various overseas travel engagements . Gillard quickly became known as a highly regarded debater , with her performances during parliamentary question time prompting Peter van Onselen to call her `` the best parliamentary performer on the Labor side '' . Ministerial portfolios In her role as Minister for Education , Gillard travelled to Washington D.C. in 2009 , where she signed a deal with US Secretary of Education Arne Duncan to encourage improved policy collaboration in education reform between both countries . The establishment of the Australian Curriculum , Assessment and Reporting Authority ( ACARA ) , an independent authority responsible for the development of a national curriculum , was amongst her first policy pursuits in 2008 . She launched the government 's `` Digital Education Revolution '' ( DER ) program , which provided laptops to all public secondary school students and developed quality digital tools , resources and infrastructure for all schools . In conjunction with DER , Gillard oversaw the `` Building the Education Revolution '' ( BER ) program , which allocated $ 16 billion to build new school accommodation including classrooms , libraries and assembly halls . Gillard also ensured the implementation of the National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy ( NAPLAN ) in 2008 , whereby a series of standardised tests focused on basic skills are administered annually to Australian students . This was followed by the introduction of the My School website ; launched in January 2010 , the website reports on data from NAPLAN and displays information such as school missions , staffing , financial information , its resources and its students ' characteristics . As Minister for Employment and Workplace Relations , Gillard removed the WorkChoices industrial relations regime introduced by the Howard Government , and replaced it with the Fair Work Act . This established a single industrial relations bureaucracy called Fair Work Australia . Prime Minister ( 2010–13 ) 2010 leadership vote Prime Minister Kevin Rudd suffered a decline in his personal ratings , and a perceived loss of support among his own MPs , following the failure of the Government 's insulation program , controversy regarding the implementation of a tax on mining , the failure of the government to secure passage of its carbon trading scheme and some policy debate about immigration policy . Significant disaffection had arisen within the Labor Party as to the leadership style and direction of Rudd . On 23 June 2010 he announced that Gillard had asked him to hold a leadership ballot the following day to determine the leadership of the Labor Party , and hence the Prime Ministership of Australia . As late as May 2010 , prior to challenging Rudd , Gillard was quipping to the media that `` There 's more chance of me becoming the full-forward for the Dogs than there is of any change in the Labor Party '' . Consequently , Gillard 's move against Rudd on 23 June appeared to surprise many Labor backbenchers . Daryl Melham , when asked by a reporter on the night of the challenge if indeed a challenge was on , replied : `` Complete garbage . ABC have lost all credibility . '' As he was being deposed , Rudd suggested that his opponents wanted to move Labor to the right , saying on 23 June : `` This party and government will not be lurching to the right on the question of asylum seekers , as some have counselled us to do . '' Initially , The Sydney Morning Herald reported that the final catalyst for the move on Rudd was sparked by a report that Rudd had used his chief of staff to sound out back benchers on his level of support , thus implying that `` he did not trust the repeated assurances by Ms Gillard that she would not stand '' . Later , ABC 's 7:30 Report said the seeds for the challenge to Rudd came from `` factional heavyweights '' Bill Shorten and Senator David Feeney , who secured the support of `` New South Wales right power broker '' Mark Arbib and that Feeney and Arbib went to discuss a challenge with Gillard on the morning of 23 June and a final numbers count began for a challenge . Accounts have continued to differ as to the extent of Gillard 's foreknowledge and planning of the replacement of Rudd . Rudd initially said that he would challenge Gillard , but it soon became apparent that he did not have enough support within the party to survive in his position . Hours before the vote on 24 June , he resigned as Prime Minister and Leader of the Labor Party , leaving Gillard to assume the leadership unopposed . Treasurer Wayne Swan was at the same time elected unopposed to succeed Gillard as Deputy Leader . Shortly afterward , Gillard was sworn in as the 27th Prime Minister of Australia by Governor-General Quentin Bryce , with Swan being sworn in as Deputy Prime Minister . The members of the Rudd Ministry , with the exception of Rudd himself who returned to the backbenches , subsequently became the members of the First Gillard Ministry . Later that day , in her first press conference as Prime Minister , Gillard said that at times the Rudd Government `` went off the tracks '' , and `` [ I ] came to the view that a good Government was losing its way '' . Gillard offered wider explanation of her motivations for replacing Rudd during the 2012 Labor leadership spill in which Rudd challenged Gillard to regain the Labor leadership , telling the media that the Rudd Government had entered a `` period of paralysis '' and that Rudd 's work patterns were `` difficult and chaotic '' . Upon her election by the Labor Party , Gillard said that she would n't move into The Lodge until she was elected Prime Minister in her own right , instead choosing to divide her time between a flat in Canberra and her home in Altona , a western suburb of Melbourne . Gillard moved into The Lodge on 26 September 2010 . As well as being the first female Prime Minister , and the first never to have married , Gillard is the first Prime Minister since Billy Hughes to have been born overseas . The leadership question remained a feature of the Gillard Government 's terms in office , and amidst ongoing leadership speculation following an ABC TV Four Corners examination of the events leading up to Rudd 's replacement which cast doubt on Gillard 's insistence that she did not actively campaign for the Prime Ministership , Attorney-General Nicola Roxon spoke of Rudd 's record in the following terms : `` I do n't think we should whitewash history – while there are a lot of very good things our government did with Kevin as prime minister , there were also a lot of challenges , and it 's Julia who has seen through fixing a lot of those problems . '' 2010 election On 17 July 2010 , 23 days after becoming prime minister and after receiving the agreement of the Governor-General Quentin Bryce , Gillard announced the next federal election would be held on 21 August 2010 . Gillard began campaigning with a speech utilising the slogan `` moving forward '' . In the early stages of the campaign , a series of leaks were released by purported Labor Party sources , indicating apparent divisions within Cabinet over the replacement of Kevin Rudd by Gillard . Mid-way through the campaign , Gillard offered journalists a self-assessment of her campaign by saying that she had been paying too much attention to advisers in her strategy team , and she wanted to run a less `` stage-managed '' campaign : Gillard met Opposition leader Tony Abbott for one official debate during the campaign . Studio audience surveys by Channel Nine and the Seven Network suggested a win to Gillard . Unable to agree on further debates , the leaders went on to appear separately on stage for questioning at community forums in Sydney , New South Wales and Brisbane , Queensland . An audience exit poll of the Rooty Hill RSL audience indicated an Abbott victory . Gillard won the audience poll at the Broncos Leagues Club meeting in Brisbane on 18 August . Gillard also appeared on the ABC 's Q & A program on 9 August . On 7 August , Gillard was questioned by former Labor leader turned Channel Nine reporter Mark Latham . Gillard officially `` launched '' Labor 's campaign in Brisbane five days before polling day , outlining Labor policies and utilising the slogan : `` Yes we will move forward together '' . Labor and the Coalition each won 72 seats in the 150-seat House of Representatives , four short of the requirement for majority government , resulting in the first hung parliament since the 1940 election . Labor suffered an 11-seat swing , even though it won a bare majority of the two-party vote . Both major party leaders sought to form a minority government . Six crossbench MPs held the balance of power . Four crossbench MPs , Greens Adam Bandt and independents Andrew Wilkie , Rob Oakeshott and Tony Windsor declared their support for Labor on confidence and supply , Rodgers , Emma . ( 7 September 2010 ) . [ http : //www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2010/09/07/3005179.htm `` Labor day : Gillard retains grip on power '' ] . ABC News . Retrieved 8 September 2010. allowing Gillard and Labor to remain in power with a minority government . Governor-General Bryce swore in the Second Gillard Ministry on 14 September 2010 . Domestic policies Economy Gillard came to office in the aftermath of the global financial crisis of 2007–2008 . Government receipts fell during the international downturn and the Rudd Government had employed pump priming expenditure . Upon taking over as leader of the Labor Party on 24 June 2010 , Gillard said she could `` assure '' Australians that the Federal Budget would be in surplus in 2013 . The Government continued to promise this outcome until December 2012 . Gillard initially ruled out a `` carbon tax '' but said that she would build community consensus for a price on carbon and open negotiations with the mining industry for a re-vamped mining profits tax . Following the 2010 hung parliament election result , the Labor Party elected to adopt the Australian Greens preference for a carbon tax to transition to an emissions trading scheme , establishing a carbon price via the Clean Energy Act 2011 . The government also introduced a revised Minerals Resource Rent Tax and the Queensland Flood Levy . The Gillard Government stressed a need to return the Federal Budget to surplus for the 2012–13 financial year , and Gillard said that there would be `` no ifs no buts '' about this promise and that `` failure is not an option here and we wo n't fail '' . Bolt , Andrew . ( 30 October 2012 ) . In his 2012–13 Budget , Treasurer Swan announced that the government would deliver a $ 1.5 billion surplus . The government cut defence and foreign aid spending . In December 2012 , Swan announced that the government no longer expected to achieve a surplus , citing falling revenue and global economic conditions . Health Like her predecessor Rudd , Gillard had said that health is a priority in her agenda . She announced during the 2010 election , that there would be an increase of 270 placements for emergency doctors and nurses and 3,000 extra nursing scholarships over the following 10 years . She also said mental health would be a priority in her second term , with a $ 277 million suicide-prevention package which would target high-risk groups . As the election delivered a hung parliament , a $ 1.8 billion package was given to rural hospitals , which was agreed to by the independents to support her re-election . In October 2010 , her government introduced legislation to reform funding arrangements for the health system , with the intention of giving the Commonwealth responsibility for providing the majority of funding to public hospitals and 100 per cent of funding for primary care and GP services . In February 2011 , Gillard announced extensive revision of the original health funding reforms proposed by the Rudd Government , which had been unable to secure the support of all state governments . The revised Gillard government plan proposed that the federal government move towards providing 50 % of new health funding ( and not 60 per cent as originally agreed ) and removed the requirement of the states to cede a proportion of their GST revenue to the Federal Government in order to fund the new arrangement . The new agreement was supported by all state premiers and chief ministers and signed on 2 August . Asylum seekers In relation to population targets for Australia , Gillard told Fairfax Media in August 2010 that while skilled migration is important : `` I do n't support the idea of a big Australia '' . Gillard also altered the nomenclature of Tony Burke 's role as `` Minister for Population '' to that of `` Minister for Sustainable Population '' . After winning leadership of the Labor Party , Gillard identified addressing the issue of unauthorised arrivals of asylum seekers as a priority of her government . She announced that negotiations were underway for a return to `` offshore processing '' of asylum seeker claims . Gillard ruled out a return to processing at Nauru and named East Timor as a preferred location for new detention and processing facilities . The East Timorese Government rejected the plan . In October 2010 , her government announced that it would open two detention centres for 2000 immigrants , due to the pressures in allowing women and children to be released into the community . One was to be opened in Inverbrackie , South Australia , and one in Northam , Western Australia . She said it would be a short-term solution to the problem and that temporary detention centres would be closed . On 15 December 2010 , a ship containing 89 asylum seekers crashed on the shore of Christmas Island , killing up to fifty people . Refugee and migrant advocates condemned the government 's hardline policy as responsible for the tragedy , and Labor Party President Anna Bligh called for a complete review of the party 's asylum seeker policy . Gillard returned early from holidays in response to the crash , and to review asylum seeker policy . Some months later Gillard would announce `` The Malaysia Solution '' in response . In April 2011 , the Federal Government confirmed that a detention centre for single men would be built at the old army barracks at Pontville , 45 minutes north of Hobart , Tasmania . This immigration detention centre would house up to 400 refugees . Also in April 2011 , immigration detainees at the Villawood detention centre rioted in protest of their treatment , setting fire to several buildings . In May 2011 , Gillard announced that Australia and Malaysia were finalising an arrangement to exchange asylum seekers . Gillard and Immigration Minister Chris Bowen said they were close to signing a bilateral agreement which would result in 800 asylum seekers who arrive in Australia by boat being taken to Malaysia instead . Australia would take 4,000 people from Malaysia who have previously been assessed as being refugees . However , on 31 August , the High Court ruled that the agreement to transfer refugees from Australia to Malaysia was invalid , and ordered that it not proceed . Australia would still accept 4,000 people who have been assessed as refugees in Malaysia . The asylum seeker debate returned during August 2012 following the report of the Expert Panel on Asylum Seekers , led by retired Air Chief Marshall Angus Houston . Accepting the panel 's recommendation , Gillard on 12 August 2012 announced that a bill then before Parliament would be amended to allow the Government to choose sites for off-shore processing . At the same time she announced the Government would nominate Nauru and Manus Island , Papua New Guinea to be re-opened . The amended bill passed with the support of the Opposition on 16 August 2012 . Education Gillard held the responsibilities of the Education portfolio for four days after becoming Prime Minister , before appointing Simon Crean as Education Minister on 28 June 2010 . Following the 2010 election , Peter Garrett assumed the role of Minister for Education , where he remained until June 2013 . Gillard also altered the nomenclature of `` Minister for Innovation , Industry , Science and Research '' to comprise tertiary education ; Chris Evans , Chris Bowen , and

wh_1890--Julia_Gillard.txt

Who is the current Australian prime minister ?

The Lake District , also known as The Lakes or Lakeland , is a mountainous region in North-West England . A popular holiday destination , it is famous for its lakes , forests and mountains ( or fells ) and its associations with the early 19th century writings of William Wordsworth and the other Lake Poets . Historically split between Cumberland , Westmorland and Lancashire , the Lake District is now entirely in Cumbria . All the land in England higher than 3000 ft above sea level lies within the National Park , including Scafell Pike , the highest mountain in England . It also contains the deepest and longest bodies of water in England , respectively Wastwater and Windermere . Lake District National Park The Lake District National Park includes nearly all of the Lake District , though the town of Kendal and the Lakeland Peninsulas are currently outside the park boundary . The area , which was designated a national park on 9 May 1951 ( less than a month after the first UK national park designation — the Peak District ) , is the most visited national park in the United Kingdom with 15.8 million annual visitors and more than 23 million annual day visits , the largest of the thirteen national parks in England and Wales , and the second largest in the UK after the Cairngorms . Its aim is to protect the landscape by restricting unwelcome change by industry or commerce . Most of the land in the park is in private ownership , with about 55 % registered as agricultural land . Landowners include : * Individual farmers and other private landowners , with more than half of the agricultural land farmed by the owners . * The National Trust owns about a quarter of the total area ( including some lakes and land of significant landscape value ) . * The Forestry Commission and other investors in forests and woodland . * United Utilities owns 8 % * Lake District National Park Authority ( 3.9 % ) The National Park Authority is based at offices in Kendal . It runs a visitor centre on Windermere at a former country house called Brockhole , Coniston Boating Centre , and Information Centres . It is reducing its landholding . In common with all other national parks in England , there is no restriction on entry to , or movement within the park along public routes , but access to cultivated land is usually restricted to public footpaths , bridleways and byways . Much of the uncultivated land has statutory open access rights - which cover around 50 % of the park . The lakes and mountains combine to form impressive scenery . Farmland and settlement add aesthetic value to the natural scenery with an ecology modified by human influence for millennia and including important wildlife habitats . The Lake District failed in a previous attempt to gain World Heritage status as a natural World Heritage Site , because of human activities , such as commercial forestry , which have adversely impacted the park 's assessment . However , in 2016 the [ http : //www.lakesworldheritage.co.uk English Lake District bid ] for World Heritage Status was submitted to UNESCO in the category of cultural landscape . A decision is expected in 2017 . Extension to the National Park In December 2009 , Natural England proposed extending the National Park in the direction of the Yorkshire Dales National Park . This would include land of high landscape value in the Lune Valley . The proposal was opposed by Cumbria County Council who said it would lead to less democratic control and would make local housing less affordable . A public inquiry was held into the proposals , which required a decision by the Secretary of State . The decision to recommend approval was announced on October 23 , 2015 , and the size of the park increased by 3 % on 1 August 2016 . Human geography General The precise extent of the Lake District was not defined traditionally , but is slightly larger than that of the National Park , the total area of which is about 885 sqmi . The park extends just over 32 mi from east to west and nearly 40 mi from north to south , with areas such as the Lake District Peninsulas to the south lying outside the National Park . Settlement The Lake District is one of the most highly populated national parks . There are , however , only a handful of major settlements within this mountainous area , the towns of Keswick , Windermere , Ambleside , and Bowness-on-Windermere being the four largest . Significant towns immediately outside the boundary of the national park include Millom , Barrow-in-Furness , Kendal , Ulverston , Cockermouth , Penrith , and Grange-over-Sands ; each of these has important economic links with the area . Villages such as Coniston , Threlkeld , Glenridding , Pooley Bridge , Broughton-in-Furness , Grasmere , Newby Bridge , Staveley , Lindale , Gosforth and Hawkshead are more local centres . The economies of almost all are intimately linked with tourism . Beyond these are a scattering of hamlets and many isolated farmsteads , some of which are still tied to agriculture ; others now function as part of the tourist economy . Communications Roads The Lake District National Park is almost contained within a box of trunk routes . It is flanked to the east by the A6 road which runs from Kendal to Penrith ( though the extension approved in 2015 will be east of the A6 ) . The A590 which connects the M6 to Cumbria 's largest town , Barrow-in-Furness , and the A5092 trunk roads cut across its southern fringes and the A66 trunk road between Penrith and Workington cuts across its northern edge . Finally the A595 trunk road runs through the coastal plains to the west of the area linking the A66 with the A5092 . Besides these , a few A roads penetrate the area itself , notably the A591 which runs north westwards from Kendal to Windermere and then on to Keswick . It continues up the east side of Bassenthwaite Lake . `` The A591 , Grasmere , Lake District '' was short-listed in the 2011 Google Street View awards in the Most Romantic Street category . The A593 and A5084 link the Ambleside and Coniston areas with the A590 to the south whilst the A592 and A5074 similarly link Windermere with the A590 . The A592 also continues northwards from Windermere to Ullswater and Penrith by way of the Kirkstone Pass . Some valleys which are not penetrated by A roads are served by B roads . The B5289 serves Lorton Vale and Buttermere and links via the Honister Pass with Borrowdale . The B5292 ascends the Whinlatter Pass from Lorton Vale before dropping down to Braithwaite near Keswick . The B5322 serves the valley of St John 's in the Vale whilst Great Langdale is served by the B5343 . Other valleys such as Little Langdale , Eskdale and Dunnerdale are served by minor roads . The last of these is connected with the first two by the Wrynose and Hardknott passes respectively - both of these passes are known for their steep gradients and are together one of the most popular climbs in the United Kingdom for cycling enthusiasts . A minor road through the Newlands Valley connects via Newlands Hause with the B5289 at Buttermere . Wasdale is served by a cul-de-sac minor road , as are Longsleddale and the valleys at Haweswater and Kentmere . There are networks of minor roads in the lower-lying southern part of the area , connecting numerous communities between Kendal , Windermere and Coniston . Railways and ferries The West Coast Main Line skirts the eastern edge of the Lake District and the Cumbrian Coast Line passes through the southern and western fringes of the area . A single railway line , the Windermere Branch Line , penetrates from Kendal to Windermere via Staveley . Railways once served Broughton-in-Furness and Coniston ( closed to passengers in 1958 ) and another ran from Penrith to Cockermouth via Keswick ( closed west of Keswick in 1966 and completely in 1972 ) . Part of the track of the latter is used by the improved A66 trunk road . The narrow gauge Ravenglass and Eskdale Railway runs from Ravenglass on the west coast up Eskdale as far as Dalegarth Station near the hamlet of Boot , catering for tourists . Another heritage railway , the Lakeside and Haverthwaite Railway , runs between Lake Windermere and Haverthwaite , and tourists can connect at Lakeside with the boats up the lake to Bowness . A vehicle-carrying cable ferry , the Windermere Ferry , runs frequent services across Windermere . There are also seasonal passenger boats on Coniston Water , Derwent Water and Ullswater . Footpaths and bridleways There are many paths over which the public has a right of way , all of which should be signposted . Within the area of the National Park in 2012 there were 2159 km of public footpaths , 875 km of public bridleways , 15 km of restricted byways and 30 km of byways open to all traffic . There is also a general `` right to roam '' in open country . Many of these tracks arose centuries ago and were used either as ridge highways ( such as along High Street ) or as passes for travelling across the ridges between settlements in the valleys . Historically these paths were not planned for reaching summits , but more recently they are used by fell walkers for that purpose . Cycling and horse riding are allowed on bridleways , but cyclists must give way to all other users . Motor vehicles are only allowed on `` byways open to all traffic '' ( green lanes ) but in practice Traffic Regulation Orders have been brought in on several prohibiting motor traffic , although a system of permits operates on Gatesgarth Pass . Physical geography As the highest ground in England , Scafell Pike naturally has a very extensive view on a clear day , ranging from the Mourne Mountains in Northern Ireland to Snowdonia in Wales . The Lake District takes the form of a roughly circular upland massif deeply dissected by a broadly radial pattern of major valleys whose character is largely the product of repeated glaciations over the last 2 million years . Most of these valleys display the U-shape cross-section characteristic of glacial origin , and often contain elongate lakes occupying sizeable bedrock hollows , often with tracts of relatively flat ground at their heads . Smaller lakes known as tarns occupy glacial cirques at higher elevations . It is the abundance of both which has led to the area becoming known as the Lake District . The mountains of the Lake District are also known as the `` Cumbrian Mountains '' , although this name is less frequently used than terms like `` the Lake District '' or `` the Lakeland Fells '' . Many of the higher fells are rocky , while moorland predominates at lower altitudes . Vegetation cover across better drained areas includes bracken and heather , though much of the land is boggy , due to the high rainfall . Deciduous native woodland occurs on many steeper slopes below the tree line , but with native oak supplemented by extensive conifer plantations in many areas , particularly Grizedale Forest in the generally lower southern part of the area . Valleys The principal radial valleys are ( clockwise from the south ) Dunnerdale , Eskdale , Wasdale , Ennerdale , Lorton Vale and the Buttermere valley , the Derwent Valley and Borrowdale , the valleys containing Ullswater and Haweswater , Longsleddale , the Kentmere valley and those radiating from the head of Windermere including Great Langdale . The valleys break the mountains up into separate blocks , which have been described by various authors in different ways . The most frequently encountered approach is that made popular by Alfred Wainwright who published seven separate area guides to the Lakeland Fells . Woodlands Below the tree line are wooded areas , including British and European native oak woodlands and introduced softwood plantations . The woodlands provide habitats for native English wildlife . The native red squirrel is found in the Lake District and in a few other parts of England . In parts of the Lake District the rainfall is higher than in any other part of England . This gives Atlantic mosses , ferns , lichen , and liverworts the chance to grow . There is some ancient woodland in the National Park . Management of the woodlands varies : some are coppiced , some pollarded , some left to grow naturally , and some provide grazing and shelter . Fells ( hills ) The four highest mountains in the Lake District exceed 3000 ft . These are : * Scafell Pike , 978 m * Scafell , 965 m * Helvellyn , 951 m * Skiddaw , 931 m Northern Fells The Northern Fells are a clearly defined range of hills contained within a 13-km diameter circle between Keswick in the south west and Caldbeck in the north east . They culminate in the 931 m peak of Skiddaw . Other notable peaks are Blencathra ( also known as Saddleback ) ( 868 m ) and Carrock Fell . Bassenthwaite Lake occupies the valley between this massif and the North Western Fells . North Western Fells The North Western Fells lie between Borrowdale and Bassenthwaite Lake to the east and Buttermere and Lorton Vale to the west . Their southernmost point is at Honister Pass . This area includes the Derwent Fells above the Newlands Valley and hills to the north amongst which are Dale Head , Robinson . To the north stand Grasmoor - highest in the range at 852 m , Grisedale Pike and the hills around the valley of Coledale , and in the far north west is Thornthwaite Forest and Lord 's Seat . The fells in this area are rounded Skiddaw slate , with few tarns and relatively few rock faces . Western Fells The view from the cairn built by the Westmorland brothers in 1876 to the SW of the summit of Great Gable , which they considered the finest view in the district . The Western Fells lie between Buttermere and Wasdale , with Sty Head forming the apex of a large triangle . Ennerdale bisects the area , which consists of the High Stile ridge north of Ennerdale , the Loweswater Fells in the far north west , the Pillar group in the south west , and Great Gable ( 2949 ft ) near Sty Head . Other tops include Seatallan , Haystacks and Kirk Fell . This area is craggy and steep , with the impressive pinnacle of Pillar Rock its showpiece . Wastwater , located in this part , is England 's deepest lake . Central Fells The Central Fells are lower in elevation than surrounding areas of fell , peaking at 762 m at High Raise . They take the form of a ridge running between Derwent Water in the west and Thirlmere in the east , from Keswick in the north to Langdale Pikes in the south . A spur extends south east to Loughrigg Fell above Ambleside . The central ridge running north over High Seat is exceptionally boggy . Eastern Fells The Eastern Fells consist of a long north-to-south ridge , the Helvellyn range , running from Clough Head to Seat Sandal with the 3118 ft Helvellyn at its highest point . The western slopes of these summits tend to be grassy , with rocky corries and crags on the eastern side . The Fairfield group lies to the south of the range , and forms a similar pattern with towering rock faces and hidden valleys spilling into the Patterdale valley . It culminates in the height of Red Screes overlooking the Kirkstone Pass . Far Eastern Fells The Far Eastern Fells refer to all of the Lakeland fells to the east of Ullswater and the A592 road running south to Windermere . At 828 m , the peak known as High Street is the highest point on a complex ridge which runs broadly north-south and overlooks the hidden valley of Haweswater to its east . In the north of this region are the lower fells of Martindale Common and Bampton Common whilst in the south are the fells overlooking the Kentmere valley . Further to the east , beyond Mardale and Longsleddale is Shap Fell , an extensive area consisting of high moorland , more rolling and Pennine in nature than the mountains to the west . Southern Fells The Southern Fells occupy the south-western quarter of the Lake District . They can be regarded as comprising a northern grouping between Wasdale , Eskdale and the two Langdale valleys , a south-eastern group east of Dunnerdale and south of Little Langdale and a south-western group bounded by Eskdale to the north and Dunnerdale to the east . The first group includes England 's highest mountains ; Scafell Pike in the centre , at 3209 ft and Scafell one mile ( 1.6 km ) to the south west . Though it is slightly lower it has a 700 ft rockface , Scafell Crag , on its northern side . It also includes the Wastwater Screes overlooking Wasdale , the Glaramara ridge overlooking Borrowdale , the three tops of Crinkle Crags , Bowfell and Esk Pike . The core of the area is drained by the infant River Esk . Collectively these are some of the Lake District 's most rugged hillsides . The second group , otherwise known as the Furness Fells or Coniston Fells , have as their northern boundary the steep and narrow Hardknott and Wrynose passes . The highest are Old Man of Coniston and Swirl How which slightly exceed 800 m . The third group to the west of the Duddon includes Harter Fell and the long ridge leading over Whitfell to Black Combe and the sea . The south of this region consists of lower forests and knolls , with Kirkby Moor on the southern boundary . The south-western Lake District ends near the Furness peninsula and Barrow-in-Furness , a town which many Lake District residents rely on for basic amenities . South-eastern area The south-eastern area is the territory between Coniston Water and Windermere and east of Windermere towards Kendal and south to Lindale . There are no high summits in this area which is mainly low hills , knolls and limestone cuestas such as Gummer 's How and Whitbarrow . Indeed , it rises only as high as at Top o ' Selside east of Coniston Water ; the wide expanse of Grizedale Forest stands between the two lakes . Kendal and Morecambe Bay stand at the eastern and southern edges of the area . Lakes Only one of the lakes in the Lake District is called by that name , Bassenthwaite Lake . All the others such as Windermere , Coniston Water , Ullswater and Buttermere are meres , tarns and waters , with mere being the least common and water being the most common . The major lakes and reservoirs in the National Park are given below . * Bassenthwaite Lake * Brotherswater * Buttermere * Coniston Water * Crummock Water * Derwent Water * Devoke Water * Elter Water * Ennerdale Water * Esthwaite Water * Grasmere * Haweswater Reservoir * Hayeswater * Loweswater * Rydal Water * Thirlmere * Ullswater * Wast Water * Windermere Geology The Lake District 's geology is very complex but well-studied . A granite batholith beneath the area is responsible for this upland massif , its relatively low density causing the area to be `` buoyed up '' . The granite can be seen at the surface as the Ennerdale , Skiddaw , Carrock Fell , Eskdale and Shap granites . Broadly speaking the area can be divided into three bands , the divisions between which run south west to north east . Generally speaking the rocks become younger from north west to south east . The north western band is composed of early to mid-Ordovician sedimentary rocks , largely mudstones and siltstones of marine origin . Together they comprise the Skiddaw Group and include the rocks traditionally known as the Skiddaw Slates . Their friability generally leads to mountains with relatively smooth slopes such as Skiddaw itself . The central band is a mix of volcanic and sedimentary rocks of mid-to-late Ordovician age comprising the lavas and tuffs of the Borrowdale Volcanic Group , erupted as the former Iapetus Ocean was subducted beneath what is now the Scottish border during the Caledonian orogeny . The northern central peaks , such as Great Rigg , were produced by considerable lava flows . These lava eruptions were followed by a series of pyroclastic eruptions which produced a series of calderas , one of which includes present-day Scafell Pike . These pyroclastic rocks give rise to the craggy landscapes typical of the central fells . The south eastern band comprises the mudstones and wackes of the Windermere Supergroup and which includes ( successively ) the rocks of the Dent , Stockdale , Tranearth , Coniston and Kendal groups . These are generally a little less resistant to erosion than the rocks sequence to the north and underlie much of the lower landscapes around Coniston and Windermere . Later intrusions have formed individual outcrops of igneous rock in each of these groups . Around the edges of these Ordovician and Silurian rocks on the northern , eastern and southern fringes of the area is a semi-continuous outcrop of Carboniferous Limestone seen most spectacularly at places like Whitbarrow Scar and Scout Scar . Climate The Lake District 's location on the north-west coast of England , coupled with its mountainous geography , makes it the wettest part of England . The UK Met Office reports average annual precipitation of more than 2000 mm , but with very large local variation . Although the entire region receives above average rainfall , there is a wide disparity between the amount of rainfall in the western and eastern lakes , as the Lake District experiences relief rainfall . Seathwaite in Borrowdale is the wettest inhabited place in England with an average of 3300 mm of rain a year , while nearby Sprinkling Tarn is even wetter , recording over 5000 mm per year ; by contrast , Keswick , at the end of Borrowdale receives 1470 mm every year , and Penrith ( just outside the Lake District ) only 870 mm . March to June tend to be the driest months , with October to January the wettest , but at low levels there is relatively little difference between months . Although sheltered valleys experience gales on an average of only five days a year , the Lake District is generally very windy with the coastal areas having 20 days of gales , and the fell tops around 100 days of gales per year . The maritime climate means that the Lake District experiences relatively moderate temperature variations through the year . Mean temperature in the valleys ranges from about 3 °C in January to around 15 °C in July . ( By comparison , Moscow , at the same latitude , ranges from . ) The relatively low height of most of the fells means that , while snow is expected during the winter , they can be free of snow at any time of the year . Normally , significant snow fall only occurs between November and April . On average , snow falls on Helvellyn 67 days per year . During the year , valleys typically experience 20 days with snow falling , a further 200 wet days , and 145 dry days . Hill fog is common at any time of year , and the fells average only around 2.5 hours of sunshine per day , increasing to around 4.1 hours per day on the coastal plains . Wildlife The Lake District is home to a great variety of wildlife , due to its range of varied topography , lakes and forests . It provides a home for the red squirrel and colonies of sundew and butterwort , two of the few carnivorous plants native to Britain . The Lake District is a major sanctuary for the red squirrel and has the largest population in England ( out of the estimated 140,000 red squirrels in the United Kingdom , compared with about 2.5 million grey squirrels ) . The Lake District is home to a range of bird species , and the RSPB maintain a reserve in Haweswater . England 's only nesting pair of golden eagles can be found in the Lake District . The female golden eagle has not been seen since 2004 although the male still remains . Conservationists believe he is now the only resident golden eagle in England . Following recolonisation attempts , a pair of ospreys nested in the Lake District for the first time in over 150 years near Bassenthwaite Lake during 2001 . Ospreys now frequently migrate north from Africa in the spring to nest in the Lake District , and a total of 23 chicks have fledged in The Lakes since 2001 . Another bird species which has had recolonisation attempts is the red kite which , as of 2012 , have a population of approximately 90 in the dense forest areas near Grizedale . Conservationists hope the re-introduction will create a large red kite population in the Lake District and in North West England where the red kite population is low . Other bird species resident to the Lake District include the buzzard , dipper , peregrine and raven . Seasonal birds include the ring ouzel and the redstart . The lakes of the Lake District support three rare and endangered species of fish : the vendace , which can be found only in Derwent Water and until 2008 in Bassenthwaite Lake . Vendace have struggled in recent years with naturally-occurring algae becoming a threat and the lakes gradually getting warmer . Vendace have been moved to higher lakes on a number of occasions to preserve the species , notably in 2005 and 2011 . The Lakes are also home to two other rare species : the schelly , which lives in Brothers Water , Haweswater , Red Tarn and Ullswater , and the Arctic charr , which can be found in Buttermere , Coniston Water , Crummock Water , Ennerdale Water , Haweswater , Loweswater , Thirlmere , Wast Water , and Windermere . In recent years , some important changes have been made to fisheries byelaws covering the north west region of England , to help protect some of the rarest fish species . In 2002 , the Environment Agency introduced a new fisheries byelaw , banning the use of all freshwater fish as live or dead bait in 14 of the lakes in the Lake District . Anglers not complying with the new byelaw can face fines of up to £2,500 . There are 14 lakes in the Lake District which are affected . These are : Bassenthwaite Lake , Brothers Water , Buttermere , Coniston Water , Crummock Water , Derwent Water , Ennerdale Water , Haweswater , Loweswater , Red Tarn , Thirlmere , Ullswater , Wast Water and Windermere . The lakes and waters of the Lake District do not naturally support as many species of fish as other similar habitats in the south of the country and elsewhere in Europe . Some fish that do thrive there are particularly at risk from introduction of new species . The introduction of non-native fish can lead to the predation of the native fish fauna or competition for food . There is also the risk of disease being introduced , which can further threaten native populations . In some cases , the introduced species can disturb the environment so much that it becomes unsuitable for particular fish . For example , a major problem has been found with ruffe . This non-native fish has now been introduced into a number of lakes in recent years . It is known that ruffe eat the eggs of vendace , which are particularly vulnerable because of their long incubation period . This means that they are susceptible to predators for up to 120

sfq_5501--Lake_District.txt

In the Lake District which is the only body of water to actually be called lake?

The Philippines ( ; ) , officially the Republic of the Philippines ( ) , is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean . It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south : Luzon , Visayas , and Mindanao . The capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City , both part of Metro Manila . The Philippines ' location on the Pacific Ring of Fire and close to the equator makes the Philippines prone to earthquakes and typhoons , but also endows it with abundant natural resources and some of the world 's greatest biodiversity . The Philippines has an area of approximately 300000 km2 , and a population of more than 100 million with faster growth than any other east Asian country . It is the seventh-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world . An additional 12 million Filipinos live overseas , comprising one of the world 's largest diasporas . Multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands . In prehistoric times , Negritos were some of the archipelago 's earliest inhabitants . They were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples . Exchanges with Chinese , Malay , Indian , and Islamic states occurred . Then , various nations were established under the rule of Datus , Rajahs , Sultans or Lakans . The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon , Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization . In 1543 , Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain . With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City , in 1565 , the first Hispanic settlement in the archipelago was established . The Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years . This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion . During this time , Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons . As the 19th century gave way to the 20th , there followed in quick succession the Philippine Revolution , which spawned the short-lived First Philippine Republic , followed by the bloody Philippine–American War of conquest by US military force . Aside from the period of Japanese occupation , the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II , when the Philippines was recognized as an independent nation . Since then , the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy , which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution . The nation 's large population and economic potential have led it to be classified as a middle power . It is a founding member of the United Nations , World Trade Organization , Association of Southeast Asian Nations , the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum , and the East Asia Summit . It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank . The Philippines is considered to be an emerging market and a newly industrialized country , which has an economy transitioning from being one based on agriculture to one based more on services and manufacturing . [ https : //www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rp.html # Econ CIA World Factbook , Philippines ] , Retrieved May 15 , 2009 . Etymology The Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain . Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos during his expedition in 1542 named the islands of Leyte and Samar Felipinas after the then Prince of Asturias . Eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago . Before that became commonplace , other names such as Islas del Poniente ( Islands of the West ) and Magellan 's name for the islands San Lázaro were also used by the Spanish to refer to the islands . The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history . During the Philippine Revolution , the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic . From the period of the Spanish–American War ( 1898 ) and the Philippine–American War ( 1899–1902 ) until the Commonwealth period ( 1935–46 ) , American colonial authorities referred to the country as the Philippine Islands , a translation of the Spanish name . From the 1898 Treaty of Paris , the name Philippines began to appear and it has since become the country 's common name . Since the end of World War II , the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines.Quezon , Manuel , III . ( March 28 , 2005 ) . [ http : //www.quezon.ph/2005/03/28/323/ `` The Philippines are or is ? `` ] . Manuel L. Quezon III : The Daily Dose . Retrieved December 20 , 2009 . History Prehistory The metatarsal of the Callao Man , reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date . This distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan , carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago . Negritos were also among the archipelago 's earliest inhabitants , but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated . There are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos . F. Landa Jocano theorizes that the ancestors of the Filipinos evolved locally . Wilhelm Solheim 's Island Origin Theory postulates that the peopling of the archipelago transpired via trade networks originating in the Sundaland area around 48,000 to 5000 BC rather than by wide-scale migration . The Austronesian Expansion Theory postulates that Malayo-Polynesians coming from Taiwan began migrating to the Philippines around 4000 BC , displacing earlier arrivals.Mijares , Armand Salvador B . ( 2006 ) . [ http : //web.archive.org/web/20140707050814/http : //ejournal.anu.edu.au/index.php/bippa/article/viewFile/10/9 The Early Austronesian Migration To Luzon : Perspectives From The Peñablanca Cave Sites ] . Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association 26 : 72–78 . ( archived from [ http : //ejournal.anu.edu.au/index.php/bippa/article/viewFile/10/9 the original ] on 2014-07-07 ) The most widely accepted theory , based on linguistic and archeological evidence , is the `` Out-of-Taiwan '' model , which hypothesizes that Austronesians from Taiwan , who were themselves descended from the neolithic civilizations of the Yangtze river such as the Liangzhu culture , began migrating to the Philippines around 4000 BC , displacing earlier arrivals . During the neolithic period , a `` jade culture '' is said to have existed as evidenced by tens of thousands of exquisitely crafted jade artifacts found in the Philippines dated to 2000 BC . The jade is said to have originated nearby in Taiwan and is also found in many other areas in insular and mainland Southeast Asia . These artifacts are said to be evidence of long range communication between prehistoric Southeast Asian societies . By 1000 BC the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four kinds of social groups : hunter-gatherer tribes , warrior societies , highland plutocracies , and port principalities . Precolonial epoch Some of the societies scattered in the islands of what would later become the Philippines remained isolated but many evolved into states that developed substantial trade and contacts with the peoples of eastern , southern and southeastern Asia ; including those from Brunei , China , India , Indonesia , Malaysia and Japan as well as other Austronesian islands . The first millennium saw the rise of the port principalities and their growth into maritime states composed of autonomous barangays independent of or allied with larger nations which were either Malay thalassocracies led by Datus , tributary states to China ruled by Huangs or Indianized kingdoms governed by Rajahs . The Kedatuan of Madja-as was founded following a civil war in collapsing Srivijaya , wherein loyalists of the Malay datus of Srivijaya defied the invading Chola Dynasty and its puppet-Rajah , called Makatunao , and set up a guerrilla-state in the islands of the Visayas . Its founding datu , Puti , had purchased land for his new realms from the aboriginal Ati hero , Marikudo . Madja-as was founded on Panay island ( named after the destroyed state of Pannai allied under Srivijaya which was located in Sumatra ) . Afterwards , the people of Madja-as often raided the port cities of southern China and warred with the Chinese navy . The Rajahnate of Cebu was a neighbor of Madja-as in the Visayas led by Rajamuda Sri Lumay , a monarch with partial Tamil descent . This state grew wealthy by making use of the inter-island shipping routes within the archipelago . Meanwhile , the Rajahnate of Butuan in northeastern Mindanao attained prominence under the rule of Rajah Sri Bata Shaja , who was from a Buddhist ruling-class governing a Hindu nation . This state became powerful due to the local goldsmith industry and also maintained commercial ties and a diplomatic rivalry with the Champa civilization . Both the Rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu maintained contact and traded with Kutai , a Hindu country in south Borneo established by Indian traders . The Huangdom of Ma-i centered in Mindoro , ruled by Huang Gat-sa-Lihan , was noted for its trust-worthiness in trade . In northern Luzon , the Huangdom of Pangasinan under Huang Taymey , exported horses and silver to China , the Kingdom of Ryukyu and Japan . In central Luzon , the Kingdom of Tondo was ruled over by the Lakandula dynasty and the kingdom grew wealthy via the exclusive trading-rights of Chinese goods which they marketed in southeast Asia . This was granted to them by the Ming Dynasty . The 1300s saw the arrival and eventual spread of Islam in the Philippine archipelago . In 1380 , Karim ul ' Makdum and Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr , an Arab trader born in Johore , arrived in Sulu from Malacca and established the Sultanate of Sulu by converting Sulu 's rajah , Rajah Baguinda Ali and marrying his daughter . At the end of the 15th century , Shariff Mohammed Kabungsuwan of Johor introduced Islam in the island of Mindanao and established the Sultanate of Maguindanao . The sultanate form of government extended further into Lanao . Around this time , the people of Luzon were collectively called Lucoes and they rose to prominence by participating in trading ventures and military campaigns in Myanmar , Malacca and East Timor where they were employed as traders and mercenaries . Islam then started to spread out of Mindanao in the south and went into Luzon in the north . Manila in Luzon was Islamized during the reign of Sultan Bolkiah in 1485 to 1521 . This was accomplished because the Bruneian Empire subjugated the Kingdom of Tondo by defeating Datu Gambang and installing the Muslim Rajah , Rajah Sulaiman I to the throne and by establishing the Bruneian puppet-state of the Kingdom of Maynila . Sultan Bolkiah also married Laila Mecana , the daughter of Sulu Sultan Amir Ul-Ombra to expand Brunei 's influence in both Luzon and Mindanao . Nevertheless , states like the animist Igorot , Malay Madja-as , Sinified Ma-i , and Indianized Butuan still maintained their cultures . The rivalries between the datus , rajahs , huangs , sultans , and lakans eventually eased Spanish colonization . Furthermore , the islands were sparsely populated due to consistent natural disasters and inter-kingdom conflicts . Therefore , colonization was made easy and the small states of the archipelago quickly became incorporated into the Spanish Empire and were Hispanicized and Christianized . Colonial era In 1521 , Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan 's expedition arrived in the Philippines , claimed the islands for Spain and was then killed at the Battle of Mactan . Colonization began when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from Mexico in 1565 and formed the first Hispanic settlements in Cebu . After relocating to Panay island and consolidating a coalition of native Visayan allies and Hispanic soldiers , the Spaniards then captured Islamic Manila , therein they put down the Tondo Conspiracy and exiled the conspirators to Guam and Guerrero . Under Spanish rule , they established Manila as the capital of the Spanish East Indies ( 1571 ) . They also defeated the Chinese-warlord Limahong . In response to the Islamic invasion of the Philippines , the Castilian War was waged against the Sultanate of Brunei and war was also waged against the Sultanate of Ternate and Tidore ( in response to Ternatan slaving and piracy against the Butuan Rajahnate and Bohol ) . Fortifications were also set up in Taiwan and the Maluku islands . These were abandoned and the soldiers withdrew back to the Philippines in order to re-concentrate their military forces because of a threatened invasion by the Japan-born Ming-dynasty loyalist , Koxinga , ruler of the stronghold of Tungning . However , the invasion was aborted . Meanwhile , settlers were sent to the Pacific islands of Palau and the Marianas . Spanish rule eventually contributed significantly to bringing political unity to the fragmented states of the archipelago . From 1565 to 1821 , the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Viceroyalty of New Spain and then was administered directly from Madrid after the Mexican War of Independence . The Manila galleons , the largest wooden ships ever built , were constructed in Bicol and Cavite . The Manila galleons were accompanied with a large naval escort as it traveled to and fro Manila and Acapulco . The galleons sailed once or twice a year , between the 16th and 19th centuries . Trade introduced foodstuff such as maize , tomatoes , potatoes , chili peppers , chocolate and pineapples from Mexico and Peru . Within the Philippines , the Marquisate of Buglas was established and rule of it was awarded to Sebastian Elcano and his crew , the survivors of the first circumnavigation of the world , as well as his descendants . New towns were also created and Roman Catholic missionaries converted most of the lowland inhabitants to Christianity . They also founded schools , a university , hospitals and churches which were built along the Earthquake Baroque architectural style . The Spanish also decreed the introduction of free public schooling in 1863 . As a result of these policies the Philippine population increased exponentially . During its rule , the Spanish quelled various indigenous revolts . There were several external military challenges from Chinese and Japanese pirates , the Dutch , the English and the Portuguese . Those challengers were fought-off despite the hostile forces having encircled the Philippine archipelago in a crescent formed from Japan to Indonesia . British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 in an extension of the fighting of the Seven Years ' War . Spanish rule was restored following the 1763 Treaty of Paris . The Spanish–Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years . In the last quarter of the 19th century Spain conquered portions of Mindanao and Moro Muslims in the Sulu Sultanate on Sulu formally recognised Spanish sovereignty . In the 19th century , Philippine ports opened to world trade and shifts started occurring within Philippine society . Many Spaniards born in the Philippines ( criollos ) and those of mixed ancestry ( mestizos ) became wealthy and an influx of Latin American settlers opened up government positions traditionally held by Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula ( peninsulares ) . The ideals of revolution also began to spread through the islands . Criollo dissatisfaction resulted in the 1872 Cavite Mutiny that was a precursor to the Philippine Revolution . Revolutionary sentiments were stoked in 1872 after three priests—Mariano Gómez , José Burgos , and Jacinto Zamora ( collectively known as Gomburza ) —were accused of sedition by colonial authorities and executed . This would inspire a propaganda movement in Spain , organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar , José Rizal , and Mariano Ponce , lobbying for political reforms in the Philippines . Rizal was eventually executed on December 30 , 1896 , on charges of rebellion . As attempts at reform met with resistance , Andrés Bonifacio in 1892 established the secret society called the Katipunan , who sought independence from Spain through armed revolt . Bonifacio and the Katipunan started the Philippine Revolution in 1896 . A faction of the Katipunan , the Magdalo of Cavite province , eventually came to challenge Bonifacio 's position as the leader of the revolution and Emilio Aguinaldo took over . In 1898 , the Spanish–American War began in Cuba and reached the Philippines . Aguinaldo declared Philippine independence from Spain in Kawit , Cavite on June 12 , 1898 , and the First Philippine Republic was established in the Barasoain Church in the following year . The islands were ceded by Spain to the United States as a result of the latter 's victory in the Spanish–American War . A compensation of 20 million US dollars was paid to Spain according to the terms of the 1898 Treaty of Paris . As it became increasingly clear the United States would not recognize the nascent First Philippine Republic , the Philippine–American War broke out , the First Republic was defeated , and the archipelago was administered under an Insular Government . The war resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of combatants as well as a couple of hundred thousand civilians , mostly from a cholera epidemic . The Americans then suppressed other rebellious sub-states : mainly , the waning Sultanate of Sulu , as well as the insurgent Tagalog Republic , the Cantonal Republic of Negros in the Visayas , and the Republic of Zamboanga in Mindanao . During this era , a renaissance in Philippine culture occurred , with the expansion of Philippine cinema and literature . In 1935 , the Philippines was granted Commonwealth status with Manuel Quezon as president . He designated a national language and introduced women 's suffrage and land reform . Plans for independence over the next decade were interrupted by World War II when the Japanese Empire invaded and the Second Philippine Republic of José P. Laurel was established as a collaborator state . Many atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war such as the Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre that culminated during the Battle of Manila . In 1944 , Quezon died in exile in the United States and Sergio Osmeña succeeded him . The Allied Forces then employed a strategy of island hopping towards the Philippine Archipelago , in the process , retaking territory conquered by Imperial Japan . From mid-1942 through mid-1944 , the Filipino guerrilla resistance had been supplied and encouraged by U.S. Navy submarines and a few parachute drops , so that the guerrillas could harass the Japanese Army and take control of the rural jungle and mountainous areas – amounting to about half of the Philippine archipelago . While remaining loyal to the United States , many Filipinos hoped and believed that liberation from the Japanese would bring them freedom and their already-promised independence . Eventually , the largest naval battle in history , according to gross tonnage , the Battle of Leyte Gulf , occurred when the Allied Forces started the liberation of the Philippines from the Japanese Empire . Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1945 . By the end of the war it is estimated that over a million Filipinos had died . Postcolonial period On October 24 , 1945 , the Philippines became one of the founding members of the United Nations and the following year , on July 4 , 1946 , it became recognized by the United States as independent , during the presidency of Manuel Roxas . Disgruntled remnants of the communist Hukbalahap continued to roam the countryside but were put down by President Elpidio Quirino 's successor Ramon Magsaysay . Magsaysay 's successor , Carlos P. Garcia initiated the Filipino First Policy , which was continued by Diosdado Macapagal , with celebration of Independence Day moved from July 4 to June 12 , the date of Emilio Aguinaldo 's declaration , while furthering the claim on the eastern part of North Borneo . In 1965 , Macapagal lost the presidential election to Ferdinand Marcos . Early in his presidency he initiated numerous infrastructure projects but was accused of massive corruption and embezzling billions of dollars in public funds . Nearing the end of his term , Marcos declared Martial Law on September 21 , 1972 . This period of his rule was characterized by political repression , censorship , and human rights violations but the US were steadfast in their support . His wife Imelda continued to live a lavish lifestyle as the majority of Filipinos remained in poverty . On August 21 , 1983 , Marcos ' chief rival , opposition leader Benigno Aquino , Jr. , was assassinated on the tarmac at Manila International Airport . Marcos eventually called snap presidential elections in 1986 . Marcos was proclaimed the winner , but the results were widely regarded as fraudulent , leading to the People Power Revolution . Marcos and his allies fled to Hawaii and Aquino 's widow , Corazon Aquino was recognized as president . Contemporary history The return of democracy and government reforms beginning in 1986 were hampered by national debt , government corruption , coup attempts , disasters , a persistent communist insurgency , and a military conflict with Moro separatists . During Corazon Aquino 's administration , U.S. forces withdrew from the Philippines , due the rejection of the U.S . Bases Extension Treaty , and leading to the official transfer of Clark Air Base in November 1991 and Subic Bay to the government in December 1992 . The administration also faced a series of natural disasters , including the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 . After introducing a constitution that limited presidents to a single term , Aquino did not stand for re-election . Aquino was succeeded by Fidel V. Ramos , who won the Philippine presidential election held in May 1992 . During this period , the economy was known as the `` Tiger Economy in Asia '' , with an average of 6 % GDP growth rate . However , the political stability and economic improvements , such as the peace agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front in 1996 , were overshadowed by the onset of the 1997 Asian financial crisis . On his Presidency the death penalty was revived in the light of the Rape-slay case of Eileen Sarmienta and Allan Gomez in 1993 and the first person to be executed is Leo Echegaray in 1999 . Ramos ' successor , Joseph Estrada assumed office in June 1998 and managed to regain the economy from −0.6 % growth to 3.4 % by 1999 amidst the 1997 Asian financial crisis . The government had announced a war against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front in March 2000 and neutralized the camps including the headquarters of the insurgents . In the middle of ongoing conflict with the Abu Sayyaf , and and and accusations of alleged corruption , and a stalled impeachment process , Estrada 's administration was overthrown by the 2001 EDSA Revolution and succeeded by his Vice President , Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo on January 20 , 2001 . In Arroyo 's 9-year administration , The economy experienced GDP growth from 4 % in 2002 to 7 % growth in 2007 with the completion of infrastructure projects like the LRT Line 2 in 2004 and managed to avoid the Great Recession . Nevertheless , it was tied with graft and political scandals like the Hello Garci scandal pertaining to the alleged manipulation of votes in the 2004 presidential elections . On November 23 , 2009 , the Maguindanao massacre led to the murder of 34 journalists . Benigno Aquino III won the 2010 national elections and served as the 15th President of the Philippines . He was the third youngest person to be elected president and the first to be a bachelor , beginning with the 2010 Manila hostage crisis that caused deeply strained relations between Manila and Hong Kong for a time . During the previous years , The Framework Agreement on the Bangsamoro was signed on October 15 , 2012 , as the first step of the creation of an autonomous political entity named Bangsamoro . However , territorial disputes in eastern Sabah and the South China Sea have escalated . The economy performed well at 7.2 % GDP growth , the second fastest in Asia . Aquino signed the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 , commonly known as K–12 program in May 15 , 2013 aiming to enhance the educational system in the country . On November 8 , 2013 , Typhoon Yolanda ( Haiyan ) struck and heavily devastated the country , especially in the Visayas . On April 28 , 2014 , when United States President Barack Obama visited the Philippines , the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement , was signed . From January 15 to 19 , 2015 , January 15 to 19 , 2015 , Pope Francis stayed in the Philippines for a series of publicity tours and paid visits to the victims of Typhoon Haiyan ( Yolanda ) . On January 25 , 2015 , 44 members of the Philippine National Police-Special Action Force were killed after a clash took place in Mamasapano , Maguindanao putting efforts to pass the Bangsamoro Basic Law into law in an impasse . On December 20 , 2015 , Pia Wurtzbach won the Miss Universe 2015 , making her the third Filipino to win the Miss Universe title following Gloria Diaz in 1969 and Margarita Moran in 1973 . On January 12 , 2016 , the Philippine Supreme Court upheld the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement paving the way for the return of United States Armed Forces bases into the country . On March 23 , 2016 , Diwata-1 was launched to the International Space Station ( ISS ) , becoming the country 's first micro-satellite and the first satellite to be built and designed by Filipinos . Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte of PDP–Laban won the 2016 presidential election becoming the first president from Mindanao . Camarines Sur representative Leni Robredo won the vice presidency . On July 12 , 2016 , the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled in favor of the Philippines in its case against China 's claims in the South China Sea . Politics The Philippines has a democratic government in the form of a constitutional republic with a presidential system . It is governed as a unitary state with the exception of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao ( ARMM ) which is largely free from the national government . There have been attempts to change the government to a federal , unicameral , or parliamentary government since the Ramos administration . The President functions as both head of state and head of government and is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces . The president is elected by popular vote for a single six-year term , during which he or she appoints and presides over the cabinet . The bicameral Congress is composed of the Senate , serving as the upper house , with members elected to a six-year term , and the House of Representatives , serving as the lower house , with members elected to a three-year term . Senators are elected at large while the representatives are elected from both legislative districts and through sectoral representation . The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court , composed of a Chief Justice as its presiding officer and fourteen associate justices , all of whom are appointed by the President from nominations submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council . Foreign relations The Philippines ' international relations are based on trade with other nations and the well-being of the 11 million overseas Filipinos living outside the country . As a founding and active member of the United Nations , the Philippines has been elected several times into the Security Council . Carlos P. Romulo was a former President of the United Nations General Assembly . The country is an active participant in the Human Rights Council as well as in peacekeeping missions , particularly in East Timor . In addition to membership in the United Nations , the Philippines is also a founding and active member of ASEAN ( Association of Southeast Asian Nations ) , an organization designed to strengthen relations and promote economic and cultural growth among states in the Southeast Asian region . It has hosted several summits and is an active contributor to the direction and policies of the bloc .. ( 1999 ) . 3 ASEAN Informal Summit . Archived from [ http : //www.summit99.ops.gov.ph/asean_structure.htm the original ] on December 17 , 2007 . Retrieved December 13

sfq_22779--Philippines.txt

What was the name of the Super Typhoon that devastated the Philippines and Southeast Asia in November 2013?

Cheshire ( or ; archaically the County Palatine of Chester ; abbreviated Ches . ) is a county in North West England , bordering Merseyside and Greater Manchester to the north , Derbyshire to the east , Staffordshire and Shropshire to the south and Wales to the west ( bordering Wrexham and Flintshire ) . Cheshire 's county town is Chester ; the largest town is Warrington . Other major towns include Congleton , Crewe , Ellesmere Port , Macclesfield , Northwich , Runcorn , Widnes , Wilmslow , and Winsford . The county covers 2343 km2 and has a population of around 1 million . It is mostly rural , with a number of small towns and villages supporting the agricultural and other industries which produce Cheshire cheese , salt , chemicals and silk . History Toponymy Cheshire 's name was originally derived from an early name for Chester , and was first recorded as Legeceasterscir in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , Harris , B. E. and Thacker , A. T. ( 1987 ) . p. 237. meaning the shire of the city of legions.Crosby , A . ( 1996 ) . page 31 . Although the name first appears in 980 , it is thought that the county was created by Edward the Elder around 920 . In the Domesday Book , Chester was recorded as having the name Cestrescir ( Chestershire ) , derived from the name for Chester at the time . A series of changes that occurred as English itself changed , together with some simplifications and elision , resulted in the name Cheshire , as it occurs today . Because of the historically close links with the land bordering Cheshire to the west , which became modern Wales , there is a history of interaction between Cheshire and North Wales . The Domesday Book records Cheshire as having two complete Hundreds ( Atiscross and Exestan ) that later became the principal part of Flintshire . Additionally , another large portion of the Duddestan Hundred later became known as Maelor Saesneg when it was transferred to North Wales . For this and other reasons , the Welsh name for Cheshire ( Swydd Gaerlleon ) is sometimes used within Wales and by Welsh speakers . Administrative history After the Norman conquest of 1066 by William I , dissent and resistance continued for many years after the invasion . In 1069 local resistance in Cheshire was finally put down using draconian measures as part of the Harrying of the North . The ferocity of the campaign against the Saxon populace was enough to end all future resistance . Examples were made of major landowners such as Saxon Earl Edwin of Mercia , their properties confiscated and redistributed amongst Norman barons . William I made Cheshire a county palatine and gave Gerbod the Fleming the new title of Earl of Chester . When Gerbod returned to Normandy in about 1070 , the king used his absence to declare the earldom forfeit and gave the title to Hugh d'Avranches ( nicknamed Hugh Lupus , or `` wolf '' ) . Due to Cheshire 's strategic location on Welsh Marches , the Earl had complete autonomous powers to rule on behalf of the king in the county palatine . Palatine hundreds Cheshire in the Domesday Book ( 1086 ) is recorded as a much larger county than it is today . It included two hundreds , Atiscross and Exestan , that later became part of North Wales . At the time of the Domesday Book , it also included as part of Duddestan Hundred the area of land later known as English Maelor ( which used to be a detached part of Flintshire ) in Wales . The area between the Mersey and Ribble ( referred to in the Domesday Book as `` Inter Ripam et Mersam '' ) formed part of the returns for Cheshire . Sylvester ( 1980 ) . p. 14 . Although this has been interpreted to mean that at that time south Lancashire was part of Cheshire , more exhaustive research indicates that the boundary between Cheshire and what was to become Lancashire remained the River Mersey . With minor variations in spelling across sources , the complete list of hundreds of Cheshire at this time are : Atiscross , Bochelau , Chester , Dudestan , Exestan , Hamestan , Middlewich , Riseton , Roelau , Tunendune , Warmundestrou and Wilaveston . Palatine feudal baronies Feudal baronies or baronies by tenure were granted by the Earl as forms of feudal land tenure within the palatinate in a similar way to which the king granted English feudal baronies within England proper . An example is the barony of Halton . One of Hugh d'Avranche 's barons has been identified as Robert Nicholls , Baron of Halton and Montebourg . Lands devolved to Lancashire In 1182 the land north of the Mersey became administered as part of the new county of Lancashire , thus resolving any uncertainty about the county in which the land `` Inter Ripam et Mersam '' was . Over the years , the ten hundreds consolidated and changed names to leave just seven—Broxton , Bucklow , Eddisbury , Macclesfield , Nantwich , Northwich and Wirral . Acquires Welsh-March lands In 1397 the county had lands in the march of Wales added to its territory , and was promoted to the rank of principality . This was because of the support the men of the county had given to King Richard II , in particular by his standing armed force of about 500 men called the `` Cheshire Guard '' . As a result , the King 's title was changed to `` King of England and France , Lord of Ireland , and Prince of Chester '' . No other English county has been honoured in this way , although it lost the distinction on Richard 's fall in 1399 . Lands devolved to Greater Manchester and Merseyside metropolitan counties Through the Local Government Act 1972 , which came into effect on 1 April 1974 , some areas in the north-west became part of the metropolitan counties of Greater Manchester and Merseyside . Stockport ( previously a county borough ) , Altrincham , Hyde , Dukinfield and Stalybridge in the north-east became part of Greater Manchester . Much of the Wirral Peninsula in the north-west , including the county boroughs of Birkenhead and Wallasey , joined Merseyside as the Metropolitan Borough of Wirral . At the same time the Tintwistle Rural District was transferred to Derbyshire . The area of south Lancashire not included within either the Merseyside or Greater Manchester counties , including Widnes and the county borough of Warrington , was added to the new non-metropolitan county of Cheshire.Local Government Act 1972 Unitary Authorities created Halton and Warrington became unitary authorities independent of Cheshire County Council on 1 April 1998 , but remain part of Cheshire for ceremonial purposes and also for fire and policing . Regional Assemblies proposed A referendum for a further local government reform connected with an elected regional assembly was planned for 2004 , but was abandoned . Abolition of Cheshire County Council As part of the local government restructuring in April 2009 , Cheshire County Council and the Cheshire districts were abolished and replaced by two new unitary authorities , Cheshire East and Cheshire West and Chester . The existing unitary authorities of Halton and Warrington were not affected by the change . Buildings and structures File:46 & 48 High Street , Nantwich.JPG|Nantwich High Street File : Municipal Buildings , Crewe.jpg|Crewe Town Council File : The Wizard - geograph.org.uk - 270816.jpg|The Wizard Pub , Alderley Edge File : The Cross and Rows , Chester , Cheshire , England , ca . 1895.jpg|Chester Rows , Chester File : Capesthorne Hall.jpg|Capesthorne Hall File : LittleMoretonHall.jpg|Little Moreton Hall File : Beeston Castle Gate.jpg|Beeston Castle File : Eaton Hall c 1880 - Waterhouse 's version . Photo by Francis Bedford ( died 1894 ) .JPG|Eaton Hall File : Chester Cathedral ( 7251396712 ) .jpg|Chester Cathedral Prehistoric burial grounds have been discovered at The Bridestones , near Congleton ( Neolithic ) and Robin Hood 's Tump , near Alpraham ( Bronze Age ) . The remains of Iron Age hill forts are found on sandstone ridges at several locations in Cheshire . Examples include Maiden Castle on Bickerton Hill , Helsby Hillfort and Woodhouse Hillfort at Frodsham . The Roman fortress and walls of Chester , perhaps the earliest building works in Cheshire remaining above ground , are constructed from purple-grey sandstone . The distinctive local red sandstone has been used for many monumental and ecclesiastical buildings throughout the county : for example , the medieval Beeston Castle , Chester Cathedral and numerous parish churches . Occasional residential and industrial buildings , such as Helsby railway station ( 1849 ) , are also in this sandstone . Many surviving buildings from the 15th to 17th centuries are timbered , particularly in the southern part of the county . Notable examples include the moated manor house Little Moreton Hall , dating from around 1450 , and many commercial and residential buildings in Chester , Nantwich and surrounding villages . Early brick buildings include Peover Hall near Macclesfield ( 1585 ) , Tattenhall Hall ( pre-1622 ) , and the Pied Bull Hotel in Chester ( 17th century ) . From the 18th century , orange , red or brown brick became the predominant building material used in Cheshire , although earlier buildings are often faced or dressed with stone . Examples from the Victorian period onwards often employ distinctive brick detailing , such as brick patterning and ornate chimney stacks and gables . Notable examples include Arley Hall near Northwich , Willington Hall near Chester ( both by Nantwich architect George Latham ) and Overleigh Lodge , Chester . From the Victorian era , brick buildings often incorporate timberwork in a mock Tudor style , and this hybrid style has been used in some modern residential developments in the county . Industrial buildings , such as the Macclesfield silk mills ( for example , [ http : //www.imagesofengland.org.uk/details/default.aspx ? pid1 & id 390900 Waters Green New Mill ] ) , are also usually in brick . Physical geography Cheshire covers a boulder clay plain separating the hills of North Wales and the Peak District of Derbyshire ( the area is also known as the Cheshire Gap ) . This was formed following the retreat of ice age glaciers which left the area dotted with kettle holes , locally referred to as meres . The bedrock of this region is almost entirely Triassic sandstone , outcrops of which have long been quarried , notably at Runcorn , providing the distinctive red stone for Liverpool Cathedral and Chester Cathedral . The eastern half of the county is Upper Triassic Mercia Mudstone laid down with large salt deposits which were mined for hundreds of years around Northwich . Separating this area from Lower Triassic Sherwood Sandstone to the west is a prominent sandstone ridge known as the Mid Cheshire Ridge . A 55 km footpath , the Sandstone Trail , follows this ridge from Frodsham to Whitchurch passing Delamere Forest , Beeston Castle and earlier Iron Age forts . The highest point in Cheshire is Shining Tor on the Derbyshire/Cheshire border between Macclesfield and Buxton , at 559 m above sea level . Before county boundary alterations in 1974 , the county top was Black Hill ( 582 m ) near Crowden in the far east of the historic county on the border with the West Riding of Yorkshire . Black Hill is now the highest point in West Yorkshire . Demography Population Based on the Census of 2001 , the overall population of Cheshire is 673,781 , of which 51.3 % of the population were male and 48.7 % were female . Of those aged between 0–14 years , 51.5 % were male and 48.4 % were female ; and of those aged over 75 years , 62.9 % were female and 37.1 % were male . The population density of Cheshire is 32 people per km² , lower than the North West average of 42 people/km² and the England and Wales average of 38 people/km² . Ellesmere Port and Neston has a greater urban density than the rest of the county with 92 people/km² . The population for 2021 is forecast to be 708,000 . Ethnicity Ethnic white groups accounted for 98 % ( 662,794 ) of the population with 10,994 ( 2 % ) in ethnic groups other than white . Of the 2 % in non-white ethnic groups : * 3,717 ( 34 % ) belonged to mixed ethnic groups * 3,336 ( 30 % ) were Asian or Asian British * 1,076 ( 10 % ) were Black or Black British * 1,826 ( 17 % ) were of Chinese ethnic groups * 1,039 ( 9 % ) were of other ethnic groups . Population change Politics and administration Current File : Cheshire unitary labell.png|300px|thumb|The ceremonial county showing the four unitary authorities . Click on the map for more information poly 132 343 74 237 19 152 25 129 215 134 231 120 255 121 298 172 293 195 263 221 221 222 179 257 152 293 175 350 Cheshire West and Chester poly 168 293 241 241 285 239 325 225 382 264 383 272 316 308 312 348 225 368 Cheshire East poly 333 175 269 130 267 103 300 82 357 102 480 90 491 189 410 239 Cheshire East poly 313 228 334 183 419 219 354 293 Cheshire East poly 131 105 166 58 182 73 182 94 201 99 207 91 218 105 210 129 183 127 161 121 131 107 Halton poly 188 75 192 30 266 9 296 73 267 82 251 107 234 112 Warrington desc none Cheshire is a ceremonial county . This means that although there is no county-wide elected local council , Cheshire has a Lord Lieutenant and High Sheriff for ceremonial purposes under the Lieutenancies Act 1997 . Local government functions apart from the Police and Fire/Rescue services are carried out by four smaller unitary authorities : Cheshire East , Cheshire West and Chester , Halton , and Warrington . All four unitary authority areas have borough status . Policing and fire and rescue services are still provided across the County as a whole . The Cheshire Fire Authority consist of members of the four councils , while governance of Cheshire Constabulary is performer by the elected Cheshire Police and Crime Commissioner . Transition from the previous ( 1974 ) arrangement From 1 April 1974 the area under the control of the county council was divided into eight local government districts ; Chester , Congleton , Crewe and Nantwich , Ellesmere Port and Neston , Halton , Macclesfield , Vale Royal and Warrington . Halton ( which includes the towns of Runcorn and Widnes ) and Warrington became unitary authorities in 1998 . The remaining districts and the county were abolished as part of local government restructuring on 1 April 2009 . The Halton and Warrington boroughs were not affected by the 2009 restructuring . On 25 July 2007 , the Secretary of State Hazel Blears announced she was 'minded ' to split Cheshire into two new unitary authorities , Cheshire West and Chester , and Cheshire East . She confirmed she had not changed her mind on 19 December 2007 and therefore the proposal to split two-tier Cheshire into two would proceed . Cheshire County Council leader Paul Findlow , who attempted High Court legal action against the proposal , claimed that splitting Cheshire would only disrupt excellent services while increasing living costs for all . A widespread sentiment that this decision was taken by the European Union long ago has often been portrayed via angered letters from Cheshire residents to local papers . On 31 January 2008 The Standard , Cheshire and district 's newspaper , announced that the legal action had been dropped . Members against the proposal were advised that they may be unable to persuade the court that the decision of Hazel Blears was `` manifestly absurd '' . The Cheshire West and Chester unitary authority covers the area formerly occupied by the City of Chester and the boroughs of Ellesmere Port and Neston and Vale Royal ; Cheshire East now covers the area formerly occupied by the boroughs of Congleton , Crewe and Nantwich , and Macclesfield . The changes were implemented on 1 April 2009 . Congleton Borough Council pursued an appeal against the judicial review it lost in October 2007 . The appeal was dismissed on 4 March 2008 . Borders The ceremonial county borders Merseyside , Greater Manchester , Derbyshire , Staffordshire and Shropshire in England along with Flintshire and Wrexham in Wales , arranged by compass directions as shown in the table . below . Cheshire also forms part of the North West England region . Religion In the 2001 Census , 81 % of the population ( 542,413 ) identified themselves as Christian ; 124,677 ( 19 % ) did not identify with any religion or did not answer the question ; 5,665 ( 1 % ) identified themselves as belonging to other major world religions ; and 1,033 belonged to other religions . The boundary of the Church of England Diocese of Chester follows most closely the pre-1974 county boundary of Cheshire , so it includes all of Wirral , Stockport , and the Cheshire panhandle that included Tintwistle Rural District council area . In terms of Roman Catholic church administration , most of Cheshire falls into the Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury . Economy and industry Cheshire has a diverse economy with significant sectors including agriculture , automotive , bio-technology , chemical , financial services , food and drink , ICT , and tourism . The county is famous for the production of Cheshire cheese , salt and silk . The county has seen a number of inventions and firsts in its history . A mainly rural county , Cheshire has a high concentration of villages . Agriculture is generally based on the dairy trade , and cattle are the predominant livestock . Land use given to agriculture has fluctuated somewhat , and in 2005 totalled 1558 km² over 4,609 holdings . Based on holdings by EC farm type in 2005 , 8.51 km² was allocated to dairy farming , with another 11.78 km² allocated to cattle and sheep . The chemical industry in Cheshire was founded in Roman times , with the mining of salt in Middlewich and Northwich . Salt is still mined in the area by British Salt . The salt mining has led to a continued chemical industry around Northwich , with Brunner Mond based in the town . Other chemical companies , including Ineos ( formerly ICI ) , have plants at Runcorn . The Essar Refinery ( formerly Shell Stanlow Refinery ) is at Ellesmere Port . The oil refinery has operated since 1924 and has a capacity of 12 million tonnes per year . Crewe was once the centre of the British railway industry , and remains a major railway junction . The Crewe railway works , built in 1840 , employed 20,000 people at its peak , although the workforce is now less than 1,000 . Crewe is also the home of Bentley cars . Also within Cheshire are manufacturing plants for Jaguar and Vauxhall Motors in Ellesmere Port . The county also has an aircraft industry , with the BAE Systems facility at Woodford Aerodrome , part of BAE System 's Military Air Solutions division . The facility designed and constructed Avro Lancaster and Avro Vulcan bombers and the Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod . On the Cheshire border with Flintshire is the Broughton aircraft factory , more recently associated with Airbus . Tourism in Cheshire from within the UK and overseas continues to perform strongly . Over 8 million nights of accommodation ( both UK and overseas ) and over 2.8 million visits to Cheshire were recorded during 2003 . At the start of 2003 , there were 22,020 VAT-registered enterprises in Cheshire , an increase of 7 % since 1998 , many in the business services ( 31.9 % ) and wholesale/retail ( 21.7 % ) sectors . Between 2002 and 2003 the number of businesses grew in four sectors : public administration and other services ( 6.0 % ) , hotels and restaurants ( 5.1 % ) , construction ( 1.7 % ) , and business services ( 1.0 % ) . The county saw the largest proportional reduction between 2001 and 2002 in employment in the energy and water sector and there was also a significant reduction in the manufacturing sector . The largest growth during this period was in the other services and distribution , hotels and retail sectors . Cheshire is considered to be an affluent county . Due to its proximity to the cities of Manchester and Liverpool , counter urbanisation is common . Cheshire West has a fairly large proportion of residents who work in Liverpool and Manchester while the town of Northwich and area of Cheshire East falls more within Manchester 's sphere of influence . Education See also : List of schools in Cheshire East ; List of schools in Cheshire West and Chester ; List of schools in Halton ; List of schools in Warrington All four local education authorities in Cheshire operate only comprehensive state school systems . When Altrincham , Sale and Bebbington were moved from Cheshire to Trafford and Merseyside in 1974 , they took some former Cheshire selective schools . Today , there are three universities based in the county , the University of Chester , the Crewe campus of Manchester Metropolitan University and the Chester campus of The University of Law . Culture , media and sports Cheshire has one Football League team , Crewe Alexandra who play in League Two . Chester , phoenix club formed in 2010 after an ex-Football League club Chester City was dissolved competes in the National League along with other Cheshire side Macclesfield Town , who played in the Football League from 1997 till 2012 . Northwich Victoria are also an ex-Football League team who were founder members of the Football League Division Two in 1892/1893 now represent Cheshire in the Northern Premier League along with Witton Albion and Warrington Town . Warrington Wolves and the Widnes Vikings are the premier Rugby league teams in Cheshire and play in the Super League . There are also numerous junior clubs in the county , including Chester Gladiators . Cheshire County Cricket Club is one of the clubs that make up the Minor counties of English and Welsh cricket . Cheshire also is represented in the highest level basketball league in the UK , the BBL , by Cheshire Phoenix ( formerly Cheshire Jets ) . Each May , Europe 's largest motorcycle event , the Thundersprint , is held in Northwich . The county has also been home to many notable sportsmen and athletes . Due to its proximity to both Manchester and Liverpool , many Premier League footballers have lived in Cheshire , including Dean Ashton , Seth Johnson , Michael Owen and Wayne Rooney . Other local athletes have included cricketer Ian Botham , marathon runner Paula Radcliffe , oarsman Matthew Langridge , hurdler Shirley Strong , sailor Ben Ainslie , cyclist Sarah Storey and mountaineer George Mallory , who died in 1924 on Mount Everest . Cheshire has also produced a military hero in Norman Cyril Jones , a World War I flying ace who won the Distinguished Flying Cross . The county has produced several notable popular musicians , including Gary Barlow ( Take That , born and raised in Frodsham ) , Harry Styles ( singer with One Direction , raised in Holmes Chapel ) , John Mayall ( John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers ) , Ian Astbury ( The Cult ) , Tim Burgess ( Charlatans ) and Ian Curtis ( Joy Division ) . Matthew Healy , lead singer of The 1975 , met his three bandmates at Wilmslow High School in Wilmslow . Concert pianist Stephen Hough , singer Thea Gilmore and her producer husband Nigel Stonier also reside in Cheshire . The county has also been home to several writers , including Hall Caine ( 1853–1931 ) , popular romantic novelist and playwright ; Alan Garner ; Victorian novelist Elizabeth Gaskell , whose novel Cranford features her home town of Knutsford ; and most famously Lewis Carroll , born and raised in Daresbury , hence the Cheshire Cat ( a fictional cat popularised by Carroll in Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland and known for its distinctive mischievous grin ) . Artists from the county include ceramic artist Emma Bossons and sculptor and photographer Andy Goldsworthy . Actors from Cheshire include Tim Curry ; Daniel Craig , the 6th James Bond ; Dame Wendy Hiller ; and Lewis McGibbon , best known for his role in Millions . Local radio stations in the county include Dee 106.3 , Heart and Gold for Chester and West Cheshire , Silk FM for the east of the county , Signal 1 and The Cat for the south , Wire FM for Warrington and Wish FM , which covers Widnes . Cheshire is one of the only counties ( along with County Durham , Dorset and Rutland ) that does not have its own designated BBC Radio station . The majority of the county ( south and east ) are covered by BBC Radio Stoke , whilst BBC Radio Merseyside tends to cover the west . The BBC directs readers to Stoke and Staffordshire when Cheshire is selected on their website . The BBC covers the west with BBC Radio Merseyside , the north and east with BBC Radio Manchester and the south with BBC Radio Stoke . There were plans to launch BBC Radio Cheshire , but those were shelved in 2007 after a lower than expected BBC licence fee settlement . Modern county emblem As part of a 2002 marketing campaign , the plant conservation charity Plantlife chose the cuckooflower as the county flower . Previously , a sheaf of golden wheat was the county emblem , a reference to the Earl of Chester 's arms in use from the 12th century . Settlements The county is home to some of the most affluent areas of northern England , including Alderley Edge , Wilmslow , Prestbury , Tarporley and Knutsford , named in 2006 as the most expensive place to buy a house in the north of England . The former Cheshire town of Altrincham was in second place . The area is sometimes referred to as The Golden Triangle on account of the area in and around the aforementioned towns and villages . The cities and towns in Cheshire are : Some settlements which were historically part of the county now fall under the counties of Derbyshire , Merseyside and Greater Manchester : Transport Rail and road The main railway line through the county is the West Coast Main Line . Many trains call at Crewe ( in the south of the county ) and Warrington Bank Quay ( in the north of the county ) en route to London and Scotland , as well as Runcorn on the Liverpool branch of the WCML . The major interchanges are : * Crewe ( the biggest station in Cheshire ) for trains to London Euston and Scotland ( via the WCML ) , Wales , The Midlands ( Birmingham , Stoke and Derby ) as well as suburban services to Manchester , Chester and Liverpool . * Warrington stations ( Central and Bank Quay ) for suburban services to Manchester , Chester and Liverpool and regional express services to North Wales , London , Scotland , Yorkshire , the East Coast and the East Midlands * Chester for urban services ( via Merseyrail ) to Liverpool Central , suburban services to Manchester , Warrington , Wrexham and rural Cheshire and express services to Llandudno , Holyhead , Birmingham , the West Midlands , London and Cardiff and from December 2017 , to Leeds In the east of Cheshire , Macclesfield station is served by Virgin Trains and CrossCountry , on the Manchester-London line . Services from Manchester to the south coast frequently stop at Macclesfield . Cheshire has 3417 mi of roads , including 214 mi of the M6

wh_2395--Cheshire.txt

The 66 mile long Shropshire Union Canal links the city of Wolverhampton to which town situated in Cheshire?

The James Bond film series is a British series of spy films based on the fictional character of MI6 agent James Bond , `` 007 '' , who originally appeared in a series of books by Ian Fleming . It is one of the longest continually-running film series in history , having been in on-going production from 1962 to the present ( with a six-year hiatus between 1989 and 1995 ) . In that time Eon Productions has produced 24 films , most of them at Pinewood Studios . With a combined gross of over $ 7 billion to date , the films produced by Eon constitute the third-highest-grossing film series , behind the Harry Potter and Marvel Cinematic Universe films ( accounting for the effects of inflation the Bond films are the highest-grossing series amassing over $ 13 billion at 2011/2012 prices ) . Six actors have portrayed 007 in the Eon series , the latest being Daniel Craig . Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman co-produced most of the Eon films until 1975 , when Broccoli became the sole producer . The single exception during this period was Thunderball , on which Broccoli and Saltzman became executive producers while Kevin McClory produced . From 1984 to 1989 Broccoli was joined by his stepson Michael G. Wilson as producer until 1995 , when Albert Broccoli stepped aside from Eon and was replaced by his daughter Barbara , who has co-produced with Wilson since . Broccoli 's ( and until 1975 , Saltzman 's ) family company , Danjaq , has held ownership of the series through Eon , and maintained co-ownership with United Artists since the mid-1970s . The Eon series has seen continuity both in the main actors and in the production crews , with directors , writers , composers , production designers , and others employed through a number of films . From the release of Dr. No ( 1962 ) to For Your Eyes Only ( 1981 ) , the films were distributed solely by United Artists . When Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer absorbed United Artists in 1981 , MGM/UA Entertainment Co. was formed and distributed the films until 1995 . MGM solely distributed three films from 1997 to 2002 after United Artists was retired as a mainstream studio . From 2006 to present , MGM and Columbia Pictures have co-distributed the film series , following the 2005 acquisition of MGM by a consortium led by Columbia 's parent company , Sony Pictures Entertainment . In November 2010 ; MGM filed for bankruptcy ; following its emergence from insolvency , Columbia has been co-production partner of the series with Danjaq until Sony 's distribution rights to the franchise comes to the end with the release of Spectre . Independently of the Eon series , there have been three additional productions with the character of James Bond : a 1954 American television adaptation , Casino Royale , produced by CBS ; a 1967 spoof , Casino Royale , produced by Charles K. Feldman ; and a 1983 remake of Thunderball entitled Never Say Never Again , produced by Jack Schwartzman , who had obtained the rights to the film from McClory . Development First screen adaptation In 1954 the American CBS television network paid Ian Fleming $ 1,000 ( $ in dollars ) for the rights to turn his first novel , Casino Royale , into a one-hour television adventure as part of the dramatic anthology series Climax Mystery Theater , which ran between October 1954 and June 1958 . It was adapted for the screen by Anthony Ellis and Charles Bennett ; Bennett was well known for his collaborations with Alfred Hitchcock , including The 39 Steps and Sabotage . Due to the restriction of a one-hour play , the adapted version lost many of the details found in the book , although it retained its violence , particularly in Act III . The hour-long `` Casino Royale '' episode , which starred American actor Barry Nelson as Bond and Peter Lorre as the villain Le Chiffre , aired on 21 October 1954 as a live production . Eon Productions Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman ( 1962–64 ) In 1959 producer Albert R. `` Cubby '' Broccoli at Warwick Films expressed interest in adapting the Bond novels , but his colleague Irving Allen was unenthusiastic . In June 1961 Fleming sold a six-month option on the film rights to his published and future James Bond novels and short stories to Harry Saltzman , with the exception of Casino Royale , which he had previously sold . Towards the end of Saltzman 's option period , screenwriter Wolf Mankowitz introduced him to Broccoli , and Saltzman and Broccoli formed Eon Productions with the intention of making the first Bond film . A number of Hollywood studios did not want to fund the films , finding them `` too British '' or `` too blatantly sexual '' . Eventually the two signed a deal with United Artists for 100 per cent financial backing and distribution of seven films , with financing of $ 1 million for the first feature . Saltzman and Broccoli also created the company Danjaq , which was to hold the rights to the films which Eon Productions was to produce . Eon had originally intended to film Fleming 's novel Thunderball first , but Kevin McClory took Fleming to the High Court in London for breach of copyright over the book , and so Eon decided to film Dr. No first . Dr. No ( 1962 ) Eon asked several directors—Bryan Forbes , Guy Green , Val Guest and Guy Hamilton—to helm the film , but all declined , before Terence Young agreed . Eon had originally hired Wolf Mankowitz and Richard Maibaum to write Dr. Nos screenplay , partly because of Mankowitz 's help in brokering the deal between Broccoli and Saltzman . An initial draft of the screenplay was rejected because the scriptwriters had made the villain , Dr. No , a monkey , and Mankowitz left the film . Maibaum then undertook a second version , more closely in line with the novel ; Johanna Harwood and Berkely Mather then worked on Maibaum 's script , with Harwood in particular being described as a script doctor credited with improving the British characterisations . To play the lead role of Bond , Sean Connery was not Broccoli or Fleming 's first choice , but he was selected after Patrick McGoohan had turned down the role , and Eon had rejected Richard Johnson . After Connery was chosen , Terence Young took the actor to his tailor and hairdresser and introduced him to the high life , restaurants , casinos and women of London . In the words of Bond writer Raymond Benson , Young educated the actor `` in the ways of being dapper , witty , and above all , cool '' . Filming took place on location in Jamaica between 16 January and 21 February 1962 ; five days later filming began at Pinewood Studios in England with sets designed by Ken Adam , who had previously worked with Broccoli on the 1960 film The Trials of Oscar Wilde . Maurice Binder created the title sequence and introduced the gun barrel motif that appears in all the Eon Bond films . Monty Norman wrote the accompanying soundtrack , which included the `` James Bond Theme '' , heard in the gun barrel sequence and in a calypso medley over the title credits ; the theme was described by another Bond film composer , David Arnold , as `` bebop-swing vibe coupled with that vicious , dark , distorted electric guitar , definitely an instrument of rock 'n ' roll ... it represented everything about the character you would want : It was cocky , swaggering , confident , dark , dangerous , suggestive , sexy , unstoppable . And he did it in two minutes '' . The theme was arranged by John Barry , who was uncredited for the arrangement but credited for his performance . From Russia with Love ( 1963 ) After the financial success of Dr. No , United Artists doubled the budget offered to Eon Productions to $ 2 million for the company 's next film , From Russia with Love . The film was shot in locations in Europe , which had turned out to be the more profitable market for Dr. No . Most of the crew from the first film returned , with major exceptions being production designer Ken Adam—who went to work on Dr. Strangelove and was replaced by Dr. Nos art director Syd Cain—and title designer Maurice Binder , who was replaced by Robert Brownjohn . The original screenwriter for the film was Len Deighton , but he was replaced because of his slow progress . Two of the writers from Dr. No , Richard Maibaum and Johanna Harwood , were brought in , with Maibaum being given the sole writing credit and Harwood being credited for `` adaptation '' . From Russia with Love is the first Bond film in the series with John Barry as the primary soundtrack composer , although Lionel Bart wrote the title song `` From Russia with Love '' , sung by Matt Monro . Principal photography began on 1 April 1963 and concluded on 23 August . Filming took place in Turkey , Pinewood Studios and Venice , with Scotland and Switzerland doubling for the Orient Express journey through Eastern Europe . Goldfinger ( 1964 ) While the previous two films had concentrated on the Caribbean and Europe , Goldfinger was chosen by Eon for the third film , with the American cinema market in mind . Because Terence Young was refused a share of the profits , he declined to direct Goldfinger and worked on The Amorous Adventures of Moll Flanders instead , although he had done some pre-production work before he left . In his place , Eon turned to Guy Hamilton to direct ; he was keen to inject elements of humour into the series , have more gadgets and build bigger and more elegant sets . Eon again turned to Richard Maibaum for the script , although Paul Dehn was later introduced for rewrites . After missing From Russia with Love , Ken Adam returned as production designer . Adam 's imagination provided the idea of gold stacked upon gold behind iron bars for the scenes in the United States Bullion Depository . Saltzman disliked the design 's resemblance to a prison , but Hamilton liked it enough that it was built . Robert Brownjohn returned to develop the opening credit sequence , which featured clips of all three Bond films projected on actress Margaret Nolan 's body . Its design was inspired by seeing light projecting on people 's bodies as they got up and left a cinema . Principal photography on Goldfinger started on in Miami , at the Fontainebleau Hotel ; the crew was small , consisting only of Hamilton , Broccoli , Adam and cinematographer Ted Moore . After five days in Florida , production moved to England . The primary location was Pinewood Studios , home to sets including a recreation of the Fontainebleau , the South American city of the pre-title sequence , and both Goldfinger 's estate and factory . Ian Fleming visited the set of Goldfinger in he died in August , shortly before the film 's release . The second unit filmed in Kentucky , and these shots were edited into scenes filmed at Pinewood . Principal photography then moved to Switzerland for the car chase and additional footage for Goldfinger 's factory sequence . Filming wrapped on at Andermatt , after nineteen weeks of shooting . Kevin McClory ( 1965 ) When writing his novels , Ian Fleming had always considered that they could be adapted for the cinema , and he approached producer Sir Alexander Korda to make a film adaptation of either Live and Let Die or Moonraker . Although Korda was initially interested , he later withdrew . On 1 October 1959 , it was announced that Fleming would write an original film script featuring Bond for producer Kevin McClory . Jack Whittingham also worked on the script , culminating in a screenplay entitled James Bond , Secret Agent . However , Alfred Hitchcock and Richard Burton turned down roles as director and star , respectively . McClory was unable to secure the financing for the film , and the deal fell through . Fleming subsequently used the story for his novel Thunderball ( 1961 ) , and McClory failed to have its publication stopped . On 19 November 1963 he took the matter to the Chancery Division of the High Court in the case of McClory v Fleming , but settled on 9 December 1963 , after nine days in court . McClory gained the literary and film rights for the screenplay , while Fleming was given the rights to the novel , although it had to be recognised as being `` based on a screen treatment by Kevin McClory , Jack Whittingham and the Author '' . Thunderball ( 1965 ) After From Russia with Love , Eon had considered undertaking an adaptation of either On Her Majesty 's Secret Service or Casino Royale . They entered into negotiations with Charles K. Feldman , who held the rights to the latter , but a deal proved too difficult to achieve . Instead , Eon turned to the Thunderball novel . Although Eon had wanted to adapt the book in 1962 , it had not been possible until the legal obstacles had been cleared . As a result of the settlement of the copyright infringement lawsuit brought by Kevin McClory , Eon negotiated with McClory to make Thunderball . McClory received the sole producer credit on the film , while Broccoli and Saltzman took the title Executive Producer , although `` in reality all three men would essentially act as producers '' . Broccoli later said of the three-way partnership that `` We did n't want anyone else to make Thunderball ... We had the feeling that if anyone else came in and made their own Bond film , it would have been bad for our series '' . Guy Hamilton was asked to direct again , but declined feeling that he was `` drained of ideas ... I had nothing to contribute until I 'd recharged batteries '' ; Terence Young returned to direct after the hiatus of Goldfinger . Richard Maibaum 's original script from 1961 was used as the basis of the script , which he then re-drafted , with further revisions by John Hopkins . Principal filming began in Paris on 16 February 1965 , and moved to Nassau on 22 March , before concluding at Pinewood Studios in May . With worldwide box office earnings of $ 141.2 million Thunderball became the highest-grossing instalment and retained the record until it was surpassed by The Spy Who Loved Me twelve years later ; adjusted for inflation it remained the most successful entry until Skyfall was released in 2012 . As part of the contract with Eon , McClory received 20 % of the film 's profits and undertook not to produce any other films based on the Thunderball story for a period of ten years following the release of the Eon-produced version in 1965 . Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman ( 1967–75 ) You Only Live Twice ( 1967 ) After the interruption of McClory as producer , Albert Broccoli and Harry Saltzman returned to produce once again . The first four Bond films had been popular in Japan , and Eon decided to take advantage of the market by producing You Only Live Twice . The film included progressive elements of Japanese culture as part of the background . Lewis Gilbert was appointed director and Ken Adam returned as production designer ; Adam built a volcano hideaway set for the main antagonist , Ernst Stavro Blofeld , at Pinewood for $ 1 millon ( $ in dollars ) ; at the time it was the biggest film set in Europe . Gilbert , Broccoli , Saltzman , Ken Adam and director of photography Freddie Young then went to Japan , spending three weeks searching for locations . While in Tokyo , the crew crossed paths with Peter R. Hunt , who was on holiday . Hunt had edited the first four Bond films , and he was invited to direct the second unit . The total budget for the film was $ 10.3 million ( $ 59.9 million in 2005 dollars ) . Initially the screenwriter was to be Harold Jack Bloom , although he was later replaced by Roald Dahl , who had little previous screenwriting experience . You Only Live Twice was the first Bond film to jettison the plot premise of the Fleming source material , although the film retains the title , the Japanese setting , the use of Blofeld as the main villain and a Bond girl named Kissy Suzuki from the novel . Filming commenced at Pinewood on 4 July 1966 before moving out to Japan on 27 July for six weeks ' filming . Local Japanese interest in the filming was high , and the crew had to contend with large crowds throughout the process . Connery , however , was somewhat resigned to the project , lacking the enthusiasm he sported for Thunderball . A press conference on his arrival had been tense , `` soured by aggressive questioning of Connery 's crumpled , jet-lagged appearance '' . Primary and secondary photography finished in December ; the special effects filming for the space scenes were undertaken between January and March 1967 , prior to the film 's release on 12 June . The cinema posters for the film stated `` Sean Connery IS James Bond '' , to distance the Eon-produced picture from the independent Casino Royale , which had been released two months earlier . However , during the production , Connery announced that it would be his last film as Bond , leaving Broccoli to tell Alan Whicker , `` it wo n't be the last Bond under any circumstances—with all due respect to Sean , who I think has been certainly the best man to play this part . We will , in our own way , try to continue the Bond series for the audience because it 's too important '' . On Her Majesty 's Secret Service ( 1969 ) George Lazenby was signed on to play Bond for OHMSS . Between Sean Connery giving his notice at the beginning of filming You Only Live Twice and its release , Saltzman had planned to adapt The Man with the Golden Gun in Cambodia and use Roger Moore as the next Bond , but political instability meant the location was ruled out and Moore signed up for another series of the television programme The Saint . After You Only Live Twice was released in 1967 , the producers once again picked the often-delayed On Her Majesty 's Secret Service , which had previously been considered to follow both Goldfinger and then Thunderball . Peter Hunt , who had worked on the five preceding films had impressed Broccoli and Saltzman enough to earn his directorial debut as they believed his quick cutting had set the style for the series ; it was also the result of a long-standing promise from Broccoli and Saltzman for the opportunity to direct . Hunt also asked for the position during the production of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang , and he brought along with him many crew members , including cinematographer Michael Reed . Hunt was focused on putting his mark , saying , `` I wanted it to be different than any other Bond film would be . It was my film , not anyone else 's '' . On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was the last film on which Hunt worked in the series . Screenwriter Richard Maibaum , who worked on the first four Bond films , returned as script writer . Saltzman and Broccoli decided to drop the science fiction gadgets from the earlier films and focus more on plot as in From Russia With Love . Peter Hunt asked Simon Raven to write some of the dialogue between Contessa Teresa `` Tracy '' di Vicenzo and Blofeld in Piz Gloria , which was to be `` sharper , better and more intellectual '' ; Raven 's additions included rewriting the proposal scene and having Tracy quote James Elroy Flecker . Syd Cain took over from Ken Adam as production designer as Eon decided not to have Adam 's larger sets to reduce the film 's budget to $ 7 million , from the $ 10.3 million it took to make You Only Live Twice . Principal photography began in the Canton of Bern , Switzerland , on 21 October 1968 , with the first scene shot being an aerial view of Bond climbing the stairs of Blofeld 's mountain retreat . The scenes were shot atop the now-famous revolving restaurant Piz Gloria , located atop the Schilthorn near the village of Mürren . The location was found by production manager Hubert Fröhlich after three weeks of location scouting in France and Switzerland . The Swiss filming ended up running 56 days over schedule . In March 1969 production moved to England , with London 's Pinewood Studios being used for interior shooting , and M 's house being shot in Marlow , Buckinghamshire . In April the filmmakers went to Portugal , where principal photography wrapped in May . Filming finished on 23 June , two months later than planned , which was largely due to the warm Swiss winter , which had hampered shooting . Midway through production , acting on advice from his agent Ronan O'Rahilly , George Lazenby announced that he was not going to continue as Bond in future films , and he left the role before the December 1969 release of On Her Majesty 's Secret Service . Diamonds Are Forever ( 1971 ) Although Eon secured the services of John Gavin to play the role of Bond , United Artists ' chief David Picker was unhappy with this decision and instructed associate producer Stanley Sopel to broker a deal with Connery which saw the actor being paid $ 1.25 million ( $ million in dollars ) and 12.5 % of the gross . Connery 's salary took a significant part of the $ 7.2 million budget . The producers had originally intended to have Diamonds Are Forever re-create commercially successful aspects of Goldfinger , so they hired director Guy Hamilton as a result . Richard Maibaum also returned to write the script ; the first draft envisaged the return of Auric Goldfinger portrayer Gert Fröbe , this time in the role of Goldfinger 's twin brother . Maibaum also wrote a climax to the film that consisted of the new Goldfinger being chased across Lake Mead by the people of Las Vegas , all being co-ordinated by Bond . In the autumn of 1970 Tom Mankiewicz was hired to undertake re-writes , which included removing Goldfinger 's brother and the Lake Mead finale . Filming began on 5 April 1971 with the desert near Las Vegas doubling for the South African scenes , followed by filming in the Great Basin Desert , Nevada in May for scenes in which Bond drives a moon buggy . On 7 June production moved to Pinewood Studios for filming at sets of the returning Ken Adams ; his sets spread through four of Pinewood 's stages . Filming also took place in London , Dover , Southampton , Amsterdam and the south of France ; principal photography finished 13 August 1971 . Live and Let Die ( 1973 ) While filming Diamonds Are Forever , Live and Let Die was chosen as the next Ian Fleming novel to be adapted because screenwriter Tom Mankiewicz thought it would be daring to use black villains , as the Black Panthers and other racial movements were active at that time . The new Bond actor selected by Eon was Roger Moore , and he tried not to imitate either his predecessor Sean Connery or his own performance as Simon Templar in The Saint ; Mankiewicz adapted the screenplay to emphasise Moore 's persona by giving him more comedy scenes and creating a light-hearted feel to Bond . Guy Hamilton was again chosen to direct , and Mankiewicz suggested they film in New Orleans , as he knew Hamilton was a jazz fan . Hamilton did n't want to use Mardi Gras , as Thunderball featured Junkanoo , a similar festival , so after more discussions with the writer and further scouting , he decided to use two well-known features of the city , the jazz funerals and the canals . While searching for locations in Jamaica , the crew discovered a crocodile farm owned by Ross Kananga , after passing a sign warning that `` trespassers will be eaten '' . The farm was put into the script and also inspired Mankiewicz to name the film 's villain after Kananga . With the rise of the popularity of Blaxploitation films in the early 1970s , it was decided to borrow elements of the genre for Live and Let Die . Syd Cain returned as art director and was involved searching for locations with Guy Hamilton in March 1972 . Principal photography began on 13 October 1972 in the Irish Bayou in Louisiana for a boat chase scene . On 29 November production moved to Jamaica , which doubled for the fictional island San Monique , the home of antagonist Kananga . In December , production was divided between interiors in Pinewood Studios , while a separate unit also shot in Harlem . John Barry , who had worked on the previous five films , was unavailable during production . Broccoli and Saltzman instead asked Paul McCartney to write the theme song . Since McCartney 's salary of $ 15,000 ( plus royalties ) was high and another composer of Barry 's stature could not be hired with the remainder of the music budget , George Martin , who had little experience of film scoring , was hired . The Man with the Golden Gun ( 1974 ) The film of The Man with the Golden Gun saw a change in location from the novel of the same name to put Bond in the Far East for the second time . After considering Beirut , where part of the film is set ; Iran , where the location scouting was done but eventually discarded because of the Yom Kippur War ; and the Hạ Long Bay in Vietnam , the production team chose Thailand as a primary location , following a suggestion of production designer Peter Murton after he saw pictures of the Phuket bay in a magazine . Saltzman was happy with the choice of the Far East for the setting as he had always wanted to go on location in Thailand and Hong Kong . During the reconnaissance of locations in Hong Kong , Broccoli saw the partially submerged wreckage of the former and came up with the idea of using it as the base for MI6 's Far East operations . Tom Mankiewicz wrote a first draft for the script in 1973 , delivering a script that was a battle of wills between Bond and the primary villain Francisco Scaramanga , whom he saw as Bond 's alter ego , `` a super-villain of the stature of Bond himself '' . Tensions between Mankiewicz and Guy Hamilton led to Richard Maibaum taking over scripting duties . Maibaum , who had worked on six Bond films previously , delivered his own draft based on Mankiewicz 's work . Broccoli 's stepson Michael G. Wilson researched solar power to create the MacGuffin of the `` Solex Agitator '' . While Live and Let Die had borrowed heavily from the blaxploitation genre , The Man with the Golden Gun borrowed from the martial arts genre that was popular in the 1970s . On 6 November 1973 filming commenced at the RMS Queen Elizabeth , which acted as a top-secret MI6 base grounded in Victoria Harbour in Hong Kong . The major part of principal photography started in April 1974 in Thailand . Thai locations included Bangkok , Thonburi , Phuket and the nearby Phang Nga Province , on the islands of Ko Khao Phing Kan ( ) and Ko Tapu ( ) . In late April production returned to Hong Kong and also shot in Macau . Production had to move to studio work in Pinewood Studios—which included sets such as Scaramanga 's solar energy plant and island interior . John Barry returned to compose the score , but had only three weeks to complete the work , and the theme tune and score are generally considered by critics to be among the weakest

qf_1414--James_Bond_in_film.txt

How many James Bond films did Pierce Brosnan do?

Amanda de Cadenet ( born 19 May 1972 ) is a British photographer , actress and talk show host . Biography De Cadenet is the daughter of Anna and racing car driver Alain de Cadenet . She began her career as a co-presenter for The Word , a late-night Channel 4 magazine show in 1990-1995 . She also co-hosted the British television show The Big Breakfast . Her first marriage was in 1991 to Duran Duran bassist John Taylor with whom she has a daughter , Atlanta . The following year , de Cadenet moved from the U.K. to Los Angeles . The marriage lasted until 1997 . Upon arrival in L.A. , de Cadenet embarked upon a short film career , appearing in Four Rooms ( 1995 ) , a collaborative film by Allison Anders , Alexandre Rockwell , Robert Rodriguez , and Quentin Tarantino ; Fall ( 1997 ) , and Brokedown Palace ( 1999 ) . Her career then turned to photography . She worked for magazines such as Spin , Jane and Harper ’ s Bazaar , among others . In 2005 , she published a book entitled Rare Birds . Her other celebrity popular culture subjects have included Drew Barrymore , Sofia Coppola , Demi Moore , Olivia Wilde , Mary J. Blige , Keanu Reeves , Beck Hansen , and the members of The Strokes . In 2006 she married Strokes ' guitarist Nick Valensi , with whom she has twins . In 2011 , it was announced that de Cadenet would be the host of a new television interview series called The Conversation with Amanda de Cadenet , airing on the Lifetime Channel , with Demi Moore as a co-executive producer . On the show , de Cadenet has interviewed female guests such as Hillary Clinton , Lady Gaga , Portia de Rossi , Rita Wilson , Gwyneth Paltrow , Zoe Saldaña and Jane Fonda . On 24 July 2014 , Lifetime Channel launched a weekly late-night television talk show featuring de Cadenet entitled , Undone with @ AmandadeCadenet , which is taped in front of a live studio audience .

qz_1189--Amanda_de_Cadenet.txt

Which Channel 4 TV show's presenters included Mark Lamarr, Amanda De Cadenet and Terry Christian?

Young Guns is a 1988 American western film directed by Christopher Cain and written by John Fusco . The film was the first to be produced by Morgan Creek Productions . The film stars Emilio Estevez , Kiefer Sutherland , Lou Diamond Phillips , Charlie Sheen , Dermot Mulroney , Casey Siemaszko , Terence Stamp , Terry O'Quinn , Brian Keith , and Jack Palance . Young Guns is a retelling of the adventures of Billy the Kid during the Lincoln County War , which took place in New Mexico during 1877–78 . It was filmed in and around New Mexico . Historian Dr. Paul Hutton called Young Guns the most historically accurate of all prior Billy the Kid films . It opened no . 1 at the box office , eventually earning $ 45 million from a moderate $ 11 million budget . A sequel , Young Guns II , was released in 1990 . Plot John Tunstall ( Terence Stamp ) , an educated Englishman and cattle rancher in Lincoln County , New Mexico , hires wayward young gunmen to live and work on his ranch . Tunstall is in heavy competition with a well-connected Irishman named Lawrence Murphy ( Jack Palance ) , who owns a large ranch ; their men clash on a regular basis . Tunstall recruits Billy ( Emilio Estevez ) and advises him to renounce violence saying that `` He who sows the wind will reap the whirlwind . '' Tensions escalate between the two camps , resulting in the murder of Tunstall . Billy , Doc Scurlock ( Kiefer Sutherland ) , Jose Chavez y Chavez ( Lou Diamond Phillips ) , Richard M. `` Dick '' Brewer ( Charlie Sheen ) , `` Dirty '' Steve Stephens ( Dermot Mulroney ) , and Charlie Bowdre ( Casey Siemaszko ) , consult their lawyer friend Alexander McSween ( Terry O'Quinn ) , who manages to get them deputized and given warrants for the arrest of Murphy 's murderous henchmen . Billy quickly challenges Dick 's authority as leader , vowing revenge against Murphy and the men responsible for killing Tunstall . The men call themselves The Regulators and arrest some of the murderers , but hot-headed Billy is unable to wait for justice . He guns down unarmed men and goes on to kill one of his fellow Regulators ( later arrival J. McCloskey ) in the paranoid ( but correct ) belief that he was still in league with Murphy . The men are stripped of their badges , which they find out about by reading a newspaper . That same paper also confuses Dick for Billy , showing a picture of Dick labeled Billy the Kid , a nickname to which Billy takes an immediate liking . While the local authorities begin their hunt for Billy and the boys , the Regulators argue about continuing with their warrants or to go on the run . One of the men on their list of warrants , Buckshot Roberts ( Brian Keith ) , tracks them down , barricades himself in an outhouse , and Dick dies in an intense shootout . Billy appoints himself as the new leader , the gang becomes famous and the U.S. Army is charged with bringing them to justice under Murphy 's corrupt political influence . The gang eludes attention for some time , and Charlie gets married in Mexico . While attending the wedding , Billy meets Pat Garrett ( Patrick Wayne ) who is not yet a sheriff , but warns Billy of an attempt on Alex 's life by Murphy 's men that will happen the next day . Thus the gang packs up and heads off to save Alex . Back in Lincoln , Murphy 's men , led by George W. Peppin , surround Alex 's house , trapping the Regulators , and a shootout begins . A ceasefire is called for the night . In the morning , accompanied by Murphy , the army comes in and torches the house , but Chavez escapes out the back . While the house is burning , the men come up with an escape plan . They begin throwing Alex 's possessions out the windows of the second floor . Billy places himself inside of a large trunk , and when it lands in front of the house , he leaps out and begins to open fire . Meanwhile , Doc bursts out of the side stairway , followed by Charlie and Steve . Everyone makes it to the lawn , but Billy is shot twice in his arms . Charlie challenges the bounty hunter John Kinney ( Allen Keller ) ; Kinney shoots Charlie and Charlie fires back , killing each other . Chavez comes from behind the army on horseback , and jumps the barricade to get extra horses to the Regulators . Billy jumps on one horse , but Doc is shot trying to get on another . Doc still manages to pick up his girlfriend Yen Sun ( Alice Carter ) , Murphy 's Chinese sex-slave , and they ride off . Chavez tries to get Steve on a horse , but is wounded and falls to the ground . Steve helps Chavez on to a horse , but is left alone and unarmed . The Army and Murphy 's men shoot and kill Steve . Alex cheers on the boys as they ride away . The army opens fire on him with a Gatling gun and he is killed . As the remaining men ride away , Murphy hurls threats and curses after them , but is stunned when Billy turns back and shoots Murphy right between the eyes , killing him . The final scene is a voice-over of Doc explaining what happened afterwards : Alex 's widow caused a congressional investigation into the Lincoln County War . Chavez took work at a farm in California . Doc moved east to New York and married Yen Sun , whom he had saved from Murphy . Billy continued to ride until he was found and shot dead by Pat Garrett . Billy was buried next to Charlie Bowdre at Fort Sumner . A stranger went to the grave of Billy the Kid late one night and made a carving in the headstone . The epitaph read only one word : `` PALS '' . Cast * Emilio Estevez as William H. `` Billy the Kid '' Bonney * Kiefer Sutherland as Josiah Gordon `` Doc '' Scurlock * Lou Diamond Phillips as Jose Chavez y Chavez * Charlie Sheen as Richard `` Dick '' Brewer * Dermot Mulroney as `` Dirty Steve '' Stephens * Casey Siemaszko as Charlie Bowdre * Terence Stamp as John Tunstall * Jack Palance as Lawrence Murphy * Terry O'Quinn as Alexander McSween * Sharon Thomas as Susan McSween * Alice Carter as Yen Sun * Geoffrey Blake as J. McCloskey * Brian Keith as Buckshot Roberts * Patrick Wayne as Pat Garrett Reception The movie received mixed reviews from critics . It currently holds a 40 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 25 reviews . The movie was a box office hit . It grossed $ 45.6 million domestically .

qb_727--Young_Guns_(film).txt

Who does Emilio Estevez play in the 1988 film ‘Young Guns’?

Loretta Lynn ( née Webb ; born April 14 , 1932 ) is a multiple gold album American country music singer-songwriter whose work spans almost 60 years . She has received numerous awards and other accolades for her groundbreaking role in country music , including awards from both the Country Music Association and Academy of Country Music as a duet partner and individual artist . She remains the most awarded female country recording artist , including her being the only female ACM Artist of the Decade ( 1970s ) . Early years Lynn is the second of eight children born to homemaker Clara Marie `` Clary '' ( née Ramey ; May 5 , 1912November 24 , 1981 ) and coal miner Melvin Theodore `` Ted '' Webb ( October 24 , 1906February 23 , 1959 ) . The Webbs had seven children besides Lynn : * Melvin Webb ( December 4 , 1929 – July 1 , 1993 ) * Herman Webb ( September 3 , 1934 ) * Jay Lee ( born Willie Lee Webb ; February 12 , 1936July 31 , 1996 ) * Donald Ray Webb ( April 2 , 1941 ) * Peggy Sue Wright ( née Webb ; March 24 , 1943 ) * Betty Ruth Webb ( January 5 , 1946 ) * Crystal Gayle ( born Brenda Gail Webb ; January 9 , 1951 ) Lynn 's father would die at age 52 of Black lung disease a few years after relocating with wife Clary and Lynn 's younger siblings to Wabash , Indiana . Path to stardom In January 1948 , 15-year-old Loretta married Oliver `` Doolittle '' Lynn ( 1926–1996 ) . Their life together inspired the music she wrote . In 1953 Doolittle bought her a $ 17 Harmony guitar . She taught herself to play . Over the following three years she worked to improve her guitar playing and with Doolittle 's encouragement started her own band , `` Loretta and the Trailblazers '' , with her brother , Jay Lee , playing lead guitar . She often appeared at Bill 's Tavern in Blaine , Washington , and the Delta Grange Hall in Custer , Washington , with the Pen Brothers ' band and The Westerneers . She eventually cut her first record , `` I 'm a Honky Tonk Girl '' , in February 1960 . She became a part of the country music scene in Nashville in the 1960s , and in 1967 charted her first of 16 number-one hits ( out of 70 charted songs as a solo artist and a duet partner ) that include `` Do n't Come Home A ' Drinkin ' ( With Lovin ' on Your Mind ) '' , `` You Ai n't Woman Enough '' , `` Fist City '' , and `` Coal Miner 's Daughter '' . Lynn focused on blue-collar women 's issues with themes about philandering husbands and persistent mistresses , inspired by issues she faced in her marriage . She pushed boundaries in the conservative genre of country music by singing about birth control ( `` The Pill '' ) , repeated childbirth ( `` One 's on the Way '' ) , double standards for men and women ( `` Rated `` X '' '' ) , and being widowed by the draft during the Vietnam War ( `` Dear Uncle Sam '' ) . Country music radio stations often refused to play her music , banning nine of her songs , but Lynn pushed on to become one of country music 's legendary artists . Lynn and contemporaries like Tammy Wynette provided a template for female artists in country music to follow . In 1980 , her best-selling 1976 autobiography Coal Miner 's Daughter was made into an Academy Award-winning film , Coal Miner 's Daughter , starring Sissy Spacek and Tommy Lee Jones . Her most recent album , Van Lear Rose , released in 2004 , was produced by fellow musician Jack White ; Lynn and White were nominated for five Grammys and won two . Lynn has received numerous awards in country and American music . She was inducted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1983 , the Country Music Hall Of Fame in 1988 , and the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2008 , and she was honored in 2010 at the Country Music Awards . Her most recent honor is the 2013 Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Barack Obama ( awarded also to Bill Clinton , Oprah Winfrey , and Bob Dylan ) . Lynn has been a member of The Grand Ole Opry since joining on September 25 , 1962 ; her first appearance on the Grand Ole Opry was on October 15 , 1960 . Lynn has recorded 70 albums , including 54 studio albums , 15 compilation albums , and one tribute album , and has sold over 48 million albums worldwide in her career . Personal life Birth , parents and siblings , and famous relatives Loretta Lynn was born and raised in Butcher Hollow , Van Lear , Kentucky , a mining community near Paintsville . Her mother was of Scots-Irish and Cherokee ancestry . Loretta was the second of eight children . She was named after film star Loretta Young . [ http : //www.kennedy-center.org/calendar/index.cfm ? fuseaction showIndividual & entitY_id5729 & source_type A `` About the Artist : Biography of Loretta Lynn '' ] . The Kennedy Center ; accessed February 4 , 2007 . Ted Webb never got to see his daughter become famous , as he died in 1959 of Coalworker 's pneumoconiosis ( commonly known as Black lung or Black lung disease ) before Loretta 's first single , `` I 'm A Honky Tonk Girl '' , was released . Besides Lynn 's famous siblings and children that perform , Loretta is also related to country singer Patty Loveless . Loveless , born Patricia Ramey , is related to Lynn on her mother 's side , as is Venus Ramey , Miss America 1944 . Early adulthood At age 15 Lynn married 21-year-old Oliver Vanetta Lynn , known variously as `` Doolittle '' , `` Doo '' , or `` Mooney '' , on January 10 , 1948 . The couple had met one month earlier in December 1947 . A year later the couple left Kentucky and moved to the logging community of Custer , Washington , while Lynn was seven months pregnant with the first of their six children . Children and grandchildren The Lynns had three children by the time Loretta was 19 and she gave birth to their fourth child , Cissie , by age 20 . The Lynns had six children altogether : * Betty Sue Lynn , November 26 , 1948 – from emphysema * Jack Benny Lynn , – by drowning . * Ernest Ray Lynn , * Clara Marie Lynn ( Cissy ) , * Peggy Jean and Patsy Eileen Lynn ( twins ; latter named for Patsy Cline ) , Lynn has survived two of her six children . Her second child and eldest son , Jack Benny , died at age 34 on July 22 , 1984 , while trying to ford the Duck River at the family 's ranch in Hurricane Mills , Tennessee . Loretta 's eldest child , daughter Betty Sue , died at age 64 from emphysema on July 29 , 2013 , near Loretta 's ranch in Hurricane Mills . She became a grandmother at age 34 in 1966 , two years after her twins were born . She has 21 grandchildren as of April 2014 . Before her marriage , she regularly sang at churches and in local concerts in Butcher Hollow and sang continuously to her younger siblings . After marrying , she temporarily stopped singing in public , focusing on family life . She passed her love of music on to her children , often singing to them around the house , singing the hymns her mother taught her such as `` The Great Titanic '' and `` In The Pines '' . Marital issues Although the Lynns were married for almost fifty years ( Doolittle died on August 22 , 1996 ) and had six children , their marriage was reportedly rocky . In her 2002 autobiography , Still Woman Enough , and in an interview with CBS News the same year , Lynn recounts how her husband cheated on her regularly and once left her while she was giving birth . Lynn and her husband fought frequently ; but she has said that `` [ H ] e never hit me one time that I did n't hit him back twice '' . Loretta has said that her marriage with Mooney was `` One of the hardest love stories '' . Lynn recalls in one of her autobiographies : Homes Lynn owns a ranch in Hurricane Mills , Tennessee , billed as `` The 7th Largest Attraction in Tennessee '' , featuring a recording studio , museums , lodging , restaurants , western stores , and other attractions . She normally holds three holiday concerts annually at her ranch : Memorial Day Weekend , Fourth of July Weekend , and Labor Day Weekend . Lynn 's ranch , where she and her husband raised their children , is open for tourists to visit . For over 30 years the ranch hosted Lynn 's Amateur Motocross National Championship , the world 's largest amateur motocross race , in addition to GNCC Racing events . The centerpiece of the ranch is her large plantation home ; it also features a replica of her parents ' cabin in Butcher Hollow . She no longer lives in the plantation home . During the 1970s Lynn purchased a home in Mexico and spent her time off from touring there with her twin daughters , Patsy and Peggy , and her husband . Injury and recovery In 2006 Lynn underwent shoulder surgery after injuring herself in a fall . There were complications during the procedure and she had to be revived by doctors . The surgery was successfully completed later . Music career 1960–1966 : Early country success Lynn began singing in local clubs in the late 1950s with help , insistence , and support from her husband . She later formed her own band , the Trailblazers , which included her brother Jay Lee Webb . Lynn won a televised talent contest in Tacoma , Washington , hosted by Buck Owens , for which the prize was a wristwatch that broke 24 hours later ( Lynn later laughed about it with Owens ) . Lynn 's performance was seen by Canadian Norm Burley of Zero Records , who co-founded the record company after hearing Loretta sing . [ http : //www.lorettalynn.com/bio `` Van Lear Rose '' ] ; accessed February 4 , 2007 . Zero Records president , Canadian Don Grashey , arranged a recording session in Hollywood , where four of Lynn 's own compositions were recorded : `` I 'm A Honky Tonk Girl '' , `` Whispering Sea '' , `` Heartache Meet Mister Blues '' , and `` New Rainbow '' . Her first release featured `` Whispering Sea '' and `` I 'm a Honky Tonk Girl '' . She signed her first contract on February 2 , 1960 , with Zero ; the material was recorded at United Western Recorders in Hollywood , engineered by Don Blake and produced by Grashey . Musicians backing on the songs were `` the great '' steel guitar player Speedy West , Honky Tonk Girl : My Life in Lyrics ( 2012 ) . pp . 10-11 ; ISBN 978-0-307-59489-1 Harold Hensely on fiddle , Roy Lanham on guitar , Al Williams on bass , and Muddy Berry on drums . She commented on the different sound of her first record : `` Well , there is a West Coast sound that is definitely not the same as the Nashville sound ... It was a shuffle with a West Coast beat '' . The Lynns then toured the country to promote the release to country stations , while Grashey and Del Roy took the music to KFOX in Long Beach , California . When the Lynns reached Nashville , the song was a hit , climbing to No . 14 on Billboard 's C & W Chart , and Lynn began cutting demo records for the Wilburn Brothers Publishing Company . Through the Wilburns , she secured a contract with Decca Records . From the onset of her career fans took notice and rallied behind her all the way , with the first Loretta Lynn Fan Club formed in November 1960 . By the end of the year Billboard magazine listed Lynn as the No . 4 Most Promising Country Female Artist . Lynn 's relationship with the Wilburn Brothers and her appearances on the Grand Ole Opry , beginning in 1960 , helped Lynn become the number one female recording artist in country music . Her contract with the Wilburn Brothers gave them the publishing rights to her material . She was still fighting to regain these rights 30 years after ending her business relationship with them but was ultimately denied the publishing rights . Lynn stopped writing music in the 1970s because of these contracts . Although Kitty Wells had become the first major female country vocalist during the 1950s , by the time Lynn recorded her first record , only three other women - Patsy Cline , Skeeter Davis , and Jean Shepard - had become top stars . Lynn joined The Grand Ole Opry on September 25 , 1962 . By the end of 1962 it was clear that she was on her way to becoming the fourth . Lynn has credited Cline as her mentor and best friend during those early years . In 2010 , when interviewed for Jimmy Mcdonough 's biography of Tammy Wynette , Tammy Wynette : Tragic Country Queen , Loretta mentioned having best friends in Patsy and Tammy during different times : `` Best friends are like husbands . You only need one at a time . '' Lynn released her first Decca single , `` Success , '' in 1962 , and it went straight to # 6 , beginning a string of Top 10 singles that would run through the rest of the decade and throughout the next . She was a hard honky-tonk singer for the first half of the 1960s and rarely strayed from the genre . Between this time , Lynn soon began to regularly hit the Top 10 after 1964 with `` Before I 'm Over You '' , which peaked at No . 4 , followed by `` Wine , Women and Song , '' which peaked at No . 3 . In late 1964 , she recorded a duet album with Ernest Tubb . Their lead single , `` Mr. and Mrs. Used to Be '' , peaked within the Top 15 . Together , the pair recorded two more albums , `` Singin ' Again '' ( 1967 ) and `` If we Put Our Heads Together '' ( 1969 ) . In 1965 , her solo career continued with three major hits , `` Happy Birthday '' , `` Blue Kentucky Girl '' ( later recorded and made a Top 10 hit in the 1970s by Emmylou Harris ) , and `` The Home You 're Tearing Down '' . Lynn 's label issued two albums that year , `` Songs from My Heart '' and `` Blue Kentucky Girl '' . While most were Top 10 Country hits , none reached # 1 . Lynn 's first self-penned song to crack the Top Ten , 1966 's `` Dear Uncle Sam '' , was among the very first recordings to recount the human costs of the Vietnam War . In the latter half of the decade , although she still worked within the confines of honky tonk , her sound became more personal , varied , and ambitious , particularly lyrically . Beginning with 1966 's Number 1 hit in Cash Box , `` You Ai n't Woman Enough ( To Take My Man ) '' , Lynn began writing songs with a feminist viewpoint , which was unheard of in country music . This song made Lynn the first country female recording artist to pen a No . 1 hit . 1967–1980 : Breakthrough success In 1967 Lynn reached No . 1 with `` Do n't Come Home A-Drinkin ' ( With Lovin ' on Your Mind ) '' .Wolff , Kurt ( 2000 ) . In Country Music : The Rough Guide . Orla Duane ( ed . ) , London : Rough Guides Ltd. p. 311 . `` Do n't Come Home A-Drinkin '' went to No . 1 and became one of the first albums by a female country artist to reach sales of 500,000 copies . Lynn 's next album , Fist City , was released in 1968 . The title track became Lynn 's second No . 1 hit , as a single in earlier that year , and the other single from the album , `` What Kind of a Girl ( Do You Think I Am ) '' , peaked within the Top 10 . In 1968 , her next studio album , Your Squaw Is on the Warpath , spawned two Top 5 Country hits : the title track and `` You 've Just Stepped In ( From Stepping Out on Me ) '' . In 1969 , her next single , `` Woman of the World ( Leave My World Alone ) '' , was Lynn 's third chart-topper , followed by a subsequent Top 10 , `` To Make a Man ( Feel Like a Man ) '' . She was reportedly once inspired to write a song about a real woman she suspected was flirting with her husband . The song , `` You Ai n't Woman Enough ( To Take My Man ) '' , was an instant hit and became one of Lynn 's all-time most popular . Her career continued to be successful into the 1970s , especially following the success of her hit `` Coal Miner 's Daughter '' , which peaked at No . 1 on the Billboard Country Chart in 1970 , and the album has sold over 5 million copies worldwide . `` Coal Miner 's Daughter '' tells the story of Lynn 's life growing up in rural Butcher Hollow , Kentucky . The song became her first single to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at No . 83 . She had a series of singles that charted low on the Hot 100 between 1970 and 1975 . The song `` Coal Miner 's Daughter '' later served as the impetus for the best-selling autobiography ( 1976 ) and the Oscar-winning biopic , both of which share the song 's title.Will the Circle Be Unbroken : Country Music In America . Paul Kingsbury & Alanna Nash ( eds . ) London : Rough Guides Ltd. , 2006 , p. 251 In 1973 Rated `` X '' peaked at No . 1 on the Billboard Country Chart and was considered one of Lynn 's most controversial hits . The next year , her next single , `` Love Is the Foundation '' , also became a No . 1 country hit from her album of the same name . The second and last single from that album , `` Hey Loretta '' , became a Top 5 hit . Lynn continued to reach the Top 10 until the end of the decade , including with 1975 's `` The Pill '' , considered to be the first song to discuss birth control , other than the 1967 French-language song in French , Pilule d'Or , sung by Luc Dominique . As a songwriter , Lynn felt no topic was off limits , as long as it spoke to other women , and many of her songs were autobiographical . In 1976 , she released her autobiography , Coal Miner 's Daughter , with the help of writer George Vecsey . It became a # 1 bestseller , making Lynn the first country music artist to make the New York Times bestseller list . This opened a flood gate of country artists who followed with books . By the early 1980s Lynn became the first American female recording artist to chart over fifty top ten hits . Professional partnership with Conway Twitty In 1971 Lynn began a professional partnership with Conway Twitty . As a duo , Lynn and Twitty had five consecutive Number 1 hits between 1971 and 1975 : their first release `` After the Fire Is Gone '' ( 1971 ) , won them a Grammy award , `` Lead Me On '' ( 1971 ) , `` Louisiana Woman , Mississippi Man '' ( 1973 ) , `` As Soon as I Hang Up the Phone '' ( 1974 ) , and `` Feelins ' '' ( 1974 ) . The hit-streak kick-started what became one of the most successful duos of country history . For four consecutive years ( 1972–1975 ) , Lynn and Twitty were named the `` Vocal Duo of the Year '' by the Country Music Association . The Academy of Country Music named them the `` Best Vocal Duet '' in 1971 , 1974 , 1975 , and 1976 . The American Music awards selected them as the `` Favorite Country Duo '' in 1975 , 1976 and 1977 . The fan-voted Music City News readers voted them the No . 1 duet every year between 1971 and 1981 inclusive . In addition to their five Number 1 singles , they had seven other Top 10 hits between 1976 and 1981 . Loretta Lynn and Conway Twitty are the most successful and most awarded male/female duet teams in country music history . Conway and Loretta , their duo name , released an album in 1977 titled `` Dynamic Duo '' and were considered that by their many fans . As a solo artist , Lynn continued to be very successful into 1971 , achieving her fifth No . 1 solo hit , `` One 's on the Way '' , written by poet and songwriter Shel Silverstein . The songs that did n't reach the top spot peaked within the Top 10 during this time , `` I Wan na Be Free '' , `` You 're Lookin ' At Country '' and 1972 's `` Here I Am Again '' , all released on separate albums . The next year , she became the first country star on the cover of Newsweek . In 1972 , Lynn was the first woman nominated and the first woman to win the prestigious Entertainer Of The Year award at The CMA awards . She won the Female Vocalist Of The Year and Duo of the year with Conway Twitty , beating out George Jones and Tammy Wynette , and Porter Wagoner and Dolly Parton . Tribute album for Patsy Cline In 1977 Lynn recorded I Remember Patsy , an album dedicated to her friend and country pop singer Patsy Cline , who had died in a plane crash in 1963 . The album covered some of Cline 's biggest hits . The two singles Lynn released from the album , `` She 's Got You '' and `` Why Ca n't He Be You '' , became major hits . `` She 's Got You '' , which went to # 1 by Cline in 1962 , went to # 1 again that year by Lynn . `` Why Ca n't He Be You '' peaked at # 7 shortly afterward . Lynn enjoyed enormous success on country radio until the early 1980s , when a more pop-flavored type of country music began to dominate the market . She stayed within the country Top 10 until the mid-1980s ; however , most of her music by the late 1970s had a slick pop sound to it . Lynn had her last No . 1 hit in 1978 with `` Out of My Head and Back in My Bed '' . In 1979 she had two Top 5 hits , `` I Ca n't Feel You Anymore '' and `` I 've Got a Picture of Us on My Mind '' , from separate albums . Lynn would often sit for an hour or more onstage signing autographs to her fans after a performance . Once in Salisbury , Maryland , the town 's newspaper editor interviewed her while she was signing autographs . Editor Mel Toadvine asked her why she took so much time to sign autographs while more than 100 people stood in line all the way to the front of the Wicomico Youth and Civic Center . `` These people are my fans ... I 'll stay here until the very last one wants my autograph . Without these people , I am nobody . I love these people '' , she told Toadvine . In 1979 , she became the spokesperson for Procter & Gamble 's Crisco oil and did TV commercials and print ads for them for a decade , ending in 1989 . Because of her dominant hold on the 1970s , Lynn was named the `` Artist of the Decade '' by the Academy of Country Music . She is the only woman to win this honor . 1980–1989 : Continued success On March 5 , 1980 , the film Coal Miner 's Daughter debuted in Nashville , and soon became the No . 1 box office hit in the United States . Lynn crossed over from country music superstar to American legend . The film starred Sissy Spacek as Loretta and Tommy Lee Jones as Mooney Lynn . The film received seven Academy Award nominations , winning a Best Actress Oscar for Spacek and a slew of other top honors , including a gold album for the soundtrack album , a Grammy nomination for Spacek 's singing as Lynn , a Country Music Association and Academy of Country Music awards , plus several Golden Globe awards . The 1980s featured more hits ( `` Pregnant Again '' , `` Naked in the Rain '' , `` Somebody Led Me Away '' ) . Her 1980 and 1981 albums , Loretta and Lookin ' Good spawned these hits . Lynn was the first woman in country music to have 50 Top 10 hits . Her last Top 10 record as a soloist was `` I Lie '' in 1982 , but her releases continued to chart until the end of the decade . Lynn continued to have Top 20 hits throughout the 1980s . One of her last solo releases was `` Heart Do n't Do This to Me '' ( 1985 ) , which reached No . 19 ; her last Top 20 hit . In 1993 , Lynn stopped releasing singles and focused more on touring than promoting . As a concert artist , she remained a top draw throughout her career , but by the early 1990s she drastically cut down the number of personal appearances due to the fragile health of her husband , who died in 1996 . Her 1985 album Just a Woman spawned a Top 40 hit . In 1987 , Lynn lent her voice to a song on k.d . lang 's album , Shadowland with other country stars , Kitty Wells and Brenda Lee , `` Honky Tonk Angels Medley '' . They released a video for this medley , the album went gold and was Grammy nominated for the four women . Lynn 's 1988 album Who Was That Stranger would be her last solo album for a major record company as a solo artist . She was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1988 . 1990–2004 : Return to country : Honky Tonk Angels , Still Country and second autobiography Lynn returned to the public eye in 1993 with a hit CD , the trio album Honky Tonk Angels , recorded with Dolly Parton and Tammy Wynette . The CD peaked at # 6 on the Billboard Country charts and # 42 on the Billboard Pop charts and charted a single with `` Silver Threads and Golden Needles '' . They released a popular video of this song . The album sold over 800,000 copies and was certified gold in the United States and Canada . The trio was nominated for Grammy and Country Music Association awards . Lynn 's former singing partner , Conway Twitty , died in 1993 . Tammy Wynette died five years later on April 6 , 1998 . She released a three-CD boxed set chronicling her career on MCA Records . In

qw_11507--Loretta_Lynn.txt

"Which American country singer, the younger sister of singer Loretta Lynn, had 18 #1 country hits during the 1970s and 1980s, and is best known for a series of country-pop crossover hits including ""Don't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue""?"

A piano sonata is a sonata written for a solo piano . Piano sonatas are usually written in three or four movements , although some piano sonatas have been written with a single movement ( Scarlatti , Scriabin , Medtner ) , two movements ( Haydn ) , five ( Brahms ' Third Piano Sonata ) or even more movements . The first movement is generally composed in sonata form . The Baroque keyboard sonata In the Baroque era , the use of the term `` sonata '' generally referred to either the sonata da chiesa ( church sonata ) or sonata da camera ( chamber sonata ) , both of which were sonatas for various instruments ( usually one or more violins plus basso continuo ) . The keyboard sonata was relatively neglected by most composers . The sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti ( of which there are over 500 ) were the hallmark of the Baroque keyboard sonata , though they were for the most part unpublished during Scarlatti 's lifetime . The majority of these sonatas are in one-movement binary form , both sections being in the same tempo and utilizing the same thematic material . These sonatas are prized for both their technical difficulty and their musical and formal ingenuity . The influence of Spanish folk music is evident in Scarlatti 's sonatas . Other composers of keyboard sonatas ( which were primarily written in two or three movements ) include Marcello , Giustini , Durante and Platti . Piano sonatas in the Classical era Although various composers in the 17th century had written keyboard pieces which they entitled `` Sonata '' , it was only in the classical era , when the piano displaced the earlier harpsichord and sonata form rose to prominence as a principle of musical composition , that the term `` piano sonata '' acquired a definite meaning and a characteristic form . All the well-known Classical era composers , especially Joseph Haydn , Muzio Clementi , Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart , and Ludwig van Beethoven , wrote many piano sonatas . Muzio Clementi wrote more than 110 piano sonatas . He is well known as `` The Father of the Pianoforte '' . Clementi 's Opus 2 was the first real piano sonata composed . The much younger Franz Schubert also wrote many . The 32 sonatas of Ludwig van Beethoven , including the well-known Pathétique Sonata and the Moonlight Sonata , are often considered the pinnacle of piano sonata composition . Piano sonatas in the Romantic era As the Romantic era progressed after Beethoven and Schubert , piano sonatas continued to be composed , but in lesser numbers as the form took on a somewhat academic tinge and competed with shorter genres more compatible with Romantic compositional style . Franz Liszt 's comprehensive `` three-movements-in-one '' Sonata in B minor draws on the concept of thematic transformation first introduced by Schubert in his Wanderer Fantasie of 1822 . Piano sonatas have been written throughout the 19th and 20th centuries and up to the present day . Noted piano sonatas Classical * Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach * * Württemberg Sonata No . 1 in A minor , H. 30 , Wq . 49/1 * * 'Prussian ' Sonata No . 4 in C minor , Wq . 48/4 * Ludwig van Beethoven * * Piano Sonata No . 1 in F minor , Op . 2 No . 1 * * Piano Sonata No.4 in E-flat Major , Op.7 `` Grand Sonata '' * * Piano Sonata No . 8 in C minor , Op . 13 `` Pathétique '' * * Piano Sonata No.12 in A flat Major Op.26 `` Funeral March '' * * Piano Sonata No . 14 in C-sharp minor , Op . 27 No . 2 `` Moonlight '' * * Piano Sonata No . 15 in D major , Op . 28 `` Pastoral '' * * Piano Sonata No . 17 in D minor , Op . 31 No . 2 `` Tempest '' * * Piano Sonata No . 18 in E flat major , Op . 31 No . 3 `` The Hunt '' * * Piano Sonata No . 20 in G Major , Op.49 No . 2 * * Piano Sonata No . 21 in C Major , Op . 53 `` Waldstein '' * * Piano Sonata No . 23 in F minor , Op . 57 `` Appassionata '' * * Piano Sonata No.25 in G Major , Op.79 `` Cuckoo '' * * Piano Sonata No . 26 in E-flat Major , Op . 81a `` Les Adieux '' * * Piano Sonata No . 28 in A Major , Op . 101 * * Piano Sonata No . 29 in B Flat Major , Op.106 `` Hammerklavier '' * * Piano Sonata No . 30 in E Major , Op . 109 * * Piano Sonata No . 32 in C minor , Op . 111 * Haydn , Franz Joseph * * Piano Sonata in E flat major , Hob . XVI:52 * Mozart , Wolfgang Amadeus * * Piano Sonata No . 3 in B-flat major ( K. 281/189f ) * * Piano Sonata No.5 in G Major ( K.283 ) * * Piano Sonata No . 10 in C major ( K. 330 ) * * Piano Sonata No . 11 in A major ( K. 331/300i ) * * Piano Sonata No . 13 in B-flat major ( K. 333/315c ) * * Piano Sonata No . 14 in C minor ( K. 457 ) * * Piano Sonata No . 16 in C major ( K. 545 ) * * Piano Sonata No . 17 in B-flat major ( K. 570 ) Romantic * Alkan , Charles-Valentin * * Grande sonate 'Les quatre âges ' * Brahms , Johannes * * Piano Sonata No . 3 in F minor , Op . 5 * Chopin , Frédéric * * Piano Sonata No . 2 in B flat minor , Op . 35 , `` Funeral March '' * * Piano Sonata No . 3 in B minor , Op . 58 * Dukas , Paul * * Piano Sonata in E flat minor * Grieg , Edvard * * Piano Sonata in E minor , Op . 7 * Liszt , Franz * * Sonata after a Reading of Dante ( Fantasia Quasi Sonata ) * * Sonata in B minor * MacDowell , Edward * * Sonata Tragica , Op . 45 * * Sonata Eroica , Op . 50 * * Third Sonata , Op . 57 * * Fourth Sonata , Op . 59 * Mendelssohn , Felix * * Piano Sonata in E major , Op . 6 * * Piano Sonata in G minor , Op . 105 * * Piano Sonata in B-flat major , Op . 106 * Rachmaninoff , Sergei * * Piano Sonata No . 1 in D minor , Op . 28 * * Piano Sonata No . 2 in B flat minor , Op . 36 * Schubert , Franz , ( See List of Schubert 's works ) * * Piano Sonata No . 13 in A Major , D.664 * * Piano Sonata No . 14 in A Minor , D.784 * * Piano Sonata No . 18 in G Major , '' Fantaisie , '' D.894 * * Piano Sonata No . 19 in C Minor , D.958 * * Piano Sonata No . 20 in A Major , D.959 * * Piano Sonata No . 21 in B-flat major , D.960 * Schumann , Robert * * Piano Sonata No . 1 in F-sharp minor , Op . 11 `` Grosse Sonate '' * * Piano Sonata No . 2 in G minor , Op . 22 * * Piano Sonata No . 3 in F minor , Op . 14 `` Concerto without Orchestra '' * Sibelius , Jean * * Piano Sonata in F major , Op . 12 * Weber , Carl Maria von * * Piano Sonata No . 1 in C major , Op . 24 ( J . 138 ) * * Piano Sonata No . 2 in A flat major , Op . 39 ( J . 199 ) * * Piano Sonata No . 3 in D minor , Op . 49 ( J . 206 ) * * Piano Sonata No . 4 in E minor , Op . 70 ( J . 287 ) 20th century ( including modern ) * Barber , Samuel * * Sonata for Piano , Op . 26 * Barraqué , Jean * * Piano Sonata ( 1950–52 ) * Bartók , Béla * * Piano Sonata , Sz.80 * Berg , Alban * * Piano Sonata , Op . 1 * Boulez , Pierre * * Piano Sonata No . 1 * * Piano Sonata No . 2 * * Piano Sonata No . 3 ( Unfinished : only two of the five movements have been published . ) * Cochran , Julian * * Piano Sonata No . 1 * * Piano Sonata No . 2 * Copland , Aaron * * Piano Sonata * Dutilleux , Henri * * Piano Sonata , Op . 1 * Fairouz , Mohammed * * Piano Sonata No . 1 `` Reflections on Exile '' * * Piano Sonata No . 2 `` The Last Resistance '' * Ginastera , Alberto * * Piano Sonata No . 1 , Op . 22 * Gould , Glenn * * Piano Sonata * Hindemith , Paul * * Piano Sonata No . 1 in A Major `` Der Main '' * * Piano Sonata No . 2 in G Major * * Piano Sonata No . 3 in B flat Major * Ives , Charles * * Piano Sonata No.2 , Concord , Mass. , 1840-60 * Janáček , Leoš * * Piano Sonata `` 1.X.1905 '' * Liebermann , Lowell * * Piano Sonata No . 1 , Op . 1 * * Piano Sonata No.2 ( `` Sonata Notturna '' ) Op . 10 ( 1983 ) * * Piano Sonata No.3 Op . 82 ( 2002 ) * Lilburn , Douglas * * Piano Sonata No . 1 in C minor Op . 1 ( 1932 ) * * Piano Sonata No . 3 in F # minor ( 1939 ) * * Piano Sonata No . 4 in A minor ( 1939 ) * * Piano Sonata No . 5 ( 1949 ) * * Piano Sonata No . 6 ( 1956 ) * Medtner , Nikolai * * Piano Sonata No . 3 in D minor `` Sonate-Elegie '' , Op . 11 , No . 2 * * Piano Sonata No . 6 in C minor , `` Sonata-Skazka , '' ( `` Fairy Tale Sonata '' ) , Op . 25 , No . 1 * * Piano Sonata No . 10 in A minor `` Reminiscenza '' , Op . 38 , No . 1 * * Piano Sonata No . 11 in C minor `` Sonata Tragica '' , Op . 39 , No . 5 * * Piano Sonata No . 12 in B-flat minor `` Romantica '' , Op . 53 , No . 1 * Ornstein , Leo * * Piano Sonata No . 4 * * Piano Sonata No . 8 * Persichetti , Vincent * * Sonata No . 12 ( Mirror Sonata ) * Prokofiev , Sergei * * Piano Sonata No . 3 in A minor , Op . 28 ( `` From Old Notebooks '' ) * * Piano Sonata No . 6 in A major , Op . 82 ( `` War Sonata 1 '' ) * * Piano Sonata No . 7 in B-flat major , Op . 83 ( `` War Sonata 2/Stalingrad '' ) * * Piano Sonata No . 8 in B-flat major , Op . 84 ( `` War Sonata 3 '' ) * Rzewski , Frederic * * Sonata for Solo Piano * Schnittke , Alfred * * Piano Sonata No . 1 * * Piano Sonata No . 2 * * Piano Sonata No . 3 * Scriabin , Alexander * * Piano Sonata No . 2 `` Sonata-Fantasy '' * * Piano Sonata No . 4 * * Piano Sonata No . 5 * * Piano Sonata No . 7 `` White Mass '' * * Piano Sonata No . 9 `` Black Mass '' * Shostakovich , Dmitri * * Piano Sonata No . 2 in B minor , Op . 61 * Stravinsky , Igor * * Sonata for Piano * Wuorinen , Charles * * Piano Sonata ( 1969 ) * * Second Piano Sonata ( 1976 ) * * Third Piano Sonata ( 1986 ) * * Fourth Piano Sonata ( 2007 )

odql_10253--Piano_sonata.txt

Whose 23rd. piano sonata is known as the 'Apassionata'?

Charles John Huffam Dickens ( ; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870 ) was an English writer and social critic . He created some of the world 's best-known fictional characters and is regarded as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era .. His works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime , and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius . His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity . Born in Portsmouth , Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors ' prison . Despite his lack of formal education , he edited a weekly journal for 20 years , wrote 15 novels , five novellas , hundreds of short stories and non-fiction articles , lectured and performed extensively , was an indefatigable letter writer , and campaigned vigorously for children 's rights , education , and other social reforms . Dickens 's literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers . Within a few years he had become an international literary celebrity , famous for his humour , satire , and keen observation of character and society . His novels , most published in monthly or weekly instalments , pioneered the serial publication of narrative fiction , which became the dominant Victorian mode for novel publication . The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audience 's reaction , and he often modified his plot and character development based on such feedback . For example , when his wife 's chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield seemed to reflect her disabilities , Dickens improved the character with positive features . His plots were carefully constructed , and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives . Masses of the illiterate poor chipped in ha'pennies to have each new monthly episode read to them , opening up and inspiring a new class of readers . Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age . His 1843 novella , A Christmas Carol , remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre . Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also frequently adapted , and , like many of his novels , evoke images of early Victorian London . His 1859 novel , A Tale of Two Cities , set in London and Paris , is his best-known work of historical fiction . Dickens 's creative genius has been praised by fellow writers—from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G. K. Chesterton—for its realism , comedy , prose style , unique characterisations , and social criticism . On the other hand , Oscar Wilde , Henry James , and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of psychological depth , loose writing , and a vein of saccharine sentimentalism . The term Dickensian is used to describe something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings , such as poor social conditions or comically repulsive characters . Early years Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on 7 February 1812 , at 1 Mile End Terrace ( now 393 Commercial Road ) , Landport in Portsea Island ( Portsmouth ) , the second of eight children of John Dickens ( 1785–1851 ) and Elizabeth Dickens ( née Barrow ; 1789–1863 ) . His father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district . He asked Christopher Huffam , rigger to His Majesty 's Navy , gentleman , and head of an established firm , to act as godfather to Charles . Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey , the owner of a shipping company in Dickens 's eponymous Dombey and Son ( 1848 ) . In January 1815 John Dickens was called back to London , and the family moved to Norfolk Street , Fitzrovia . When Charles was four , they relocated to Sheerness , and thence to Chatham , Kent , where he spent his formative years until the age of 11 . His early life seems to have been idyllic , though he thought himself a `` very small and not-over-particularly-taken-care-of boy '' . Charles spent time outdoors but also read voraciously , including the picaresque novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding , as well as Robinson Crusoe and Gil Blas . He read and reread The Arabian Nights and the Collected Farces of Elizabeth Inchbald . He retained poignant memories of childhood , helped by an excellent memory of people and events , which he used in his writing . His father 's brief work as a clerk in the Navy Pay Office afforded him a few years of private education , first at a dame school , and then at a school run by William Giles , a dissenter , in Chatham . This period came to an end in June 1822 , when John Dickens was recalled to Navy Pay Office headquarters at Somerset House , and the family—minus Charles , who stayed behind to finish his final term of work—moved to Camden Town in London . The family had left Kent amidst rapidly mounting debts , and , living beyond his means , John Dickens was forced by his creditors into the Marshalsea debtors ' prison in Southwark , London in 1824 . His wife and youngest children joined him there , as was the practice at the time . Charles , then 12 years old , boarded with Elizabeth Roylance , a family friend , at 112 College Place , Camden Town . Roylance was `` a reduced [ impoverished ] old lady , long known to our family '' , whom Dickens later immortalised , `` with a few alterations and embellishments '' , as `` Mrs. Pipchin '' in Dombey and Son . Later , he lived in a back-attic in the house of an agent for the Insolvent Court , Archibald Russell , `` a fat , good-natured , kind old gentleman ... with a quiet old wife '' and lame son , in Lant Street in Southwark . They provided the inspiration for the Garlands in The Old Curiosity Shop . On Sundays—with his sister Frances , free from her studies at the Royal Academy of Music—he spent the day at the Marshalsea . Dickens later used the prison as a setting in Little Dorrit . To pay for his board and to help his family , Dickens was forced to leave school and work ten-hour days at Warren 's Blacking Warehouse , on Hungerford Stairs , near the present Charing Cross railway station , where he earned six shillings a week pasting labels on pots of boot blacking . The strenuous and often harsh working conditions made a lasting impression on Dickens and later influenced his fiction and essays , becoming the foundation of his interest in the reform of socio-economic and labour conditions , the rigours of which he believed were unfairly borne by the poor . He later wrote that he wondered `` how I could have been so easily cast away at such an age '' . As he recalled to John Forster ( from The Life of Charles Dickens ) : The blacking-warehouse was the last house on the left-hand side of the way , at old Hungerford Stairs . It was a crazy , tumble-down old house , abutting of course on the river , and literally overrun with rats . Its wainscoted rooms , and its rotten floors and staircase , and the old grey rats swarming down in the cellars , and the sound of their squeaking and scuffling coming up the stairs at all times , and the dirt and decay of the place , rise up visibly before me , as if I were there again . The counting-house was on the first floor , looking over the coal-barges and the river . There was a recess in it , in which I was to sit and work . My work was to cover the pots of paste-blacking ; first with a piece of oil-paper , and then with a piece of blue paper ; to tie them round with a string ; and then to clip the paper close and neat , all round , until it looked as smart as a pot of ointment from an apothecary 's shop . When a certain number of grosses of pots had attained this pitch of perfection , I was to paste on each a printed label , and then go on again with more pots . Two or three other boys were kept at similar duty down-stairs on similar wages . One of them came up , in a ragged apron and a paper cap , on the first Monday morning , to show me the trick of using the string and tying the knot . His name was Bob Fagin ; and I took the liberty of using his name , long afterwards , in Oliver Twist .. When the warehouse was moved to Chandos Street in the smart , busy district of Covent Garden the boys worked in a room in which the window gave onto the street and little audiences gathered and watched them at work—in Dickens biographer Simon Callow 's estimation , the public display was `` a new refinement added to his misery '' . A few months after his imprisonment , John Dickens 's paternal grandmother , Elizabeth Dickens , died and bequeathed him £450 . On the expectation of this legacy , Dickens was released from prison . Under the Insolvent Debtors Act , Dickens arranged for payment of his creditors , and he and his family left Marshalsea , for the home of Mrs Roylance . Charles 's mother , Elizabeth Dickens , did not immediately support his removal from the boot-blacking warehouse . This influenced Dickens 's view that a father should rule the family , and a mother find her proper sphere inside the home : `` I never afterwards forgot , I never shall forget , I never can forget , that my mother was warm for my being sent back '' . His mother 's failure to request his return was a factor in his dissatisfied attitude towards women . Righteous indignation stemming from his own situation and the conditions under which working-class people lived became major themes of his works , and it was this unhappy period in his youth to which he alluded in his favourite , and most autobiographical , novel , David Copperfield : `` I had no advice , no counsel , no encouragement , no consolation , no assistance , no support , of any kind , from anyone , that I can call to mind , as I hope to go to heaven ! '' Dickens was eventually sent to the Wellington House Academy in Camden Town , where he remained until March 1827 , having spent about two years there . He did not consider it to be a good school : `` Much of the haphazard , desultory teaching , poor discipline punctuated by the headmaster 's sadistic brutality , the seedy ushers and general run-down atmosphere , are embodied in Mr. Creakle 's Establishment in David Copperfield . `` . Dickens worked at the law office of Ellis and Blackmore , attorneys , of Holborn Court , Gray 's Inn , as a junior clerk from May 1827 to November 1828 . He was a gifted mimic and impersonated those around him : clients , lawyers , and clerks . He went to theatres obsessively—he claimed that for at least three years he went to the theatre every single day . His favourite actor was Charles Mathews , and Dickens learnt his monopolylogues , ( farces in which Mathews played every character ) , by heart . Then , having learned Gurney 's system of shorthand in his spare time , he left to become a freelance reporter . A distant relative , Thomas Charlton , was a freelance reporter at Doctors ' Commons , and Dickens was able to share his box there to report the legal proceedings for nearly four years . This education was to inform works such as Nicholas Nickleby , Dombey and Son , and especially Bleak House—whose vivid portrayal of the machinations and bureaucracy of the legal system did much to enlighten the general public and served as a vehicle for dissemination of Dickens 's own views regarding , particularly , the heavy burden on the poor who were forced by circumstances to `` go to law '' . In 1830 , Dickens met his first love , Maria Beadnell , thought to have been the model for the character Dora in David Copperfield . Maria 's parents disapproved of the courtship and ended the relationship by sending her to school in Paris . Journalism and early novels In 1832 , at age 20 , Dickens was energetic and increasingly self-confident . He enjoyed mimicry and popular entertainment , lacked a clear , specific sense of what he wanted to become , and yet knew he wanted fame . Drawn to the theatre—he became an early member of the Garrick —he landed an acting audition at Covent Garden , where the manager George Bartley and the actor Charles Kemble were to see him . Dickens prepared meticulously and decided to imitate the comedian Charles Mathews , but ultimately he missed the audition because of a cold . Before another opportunity arose , he had set out on his career as a writer . In 1833 he submitted his first story , `` A Dinner at Poplar Walk '' , to the London periodical Monthly Magazine .. William Barrow , a brother of his mother , offered him a job on The Mirror of Parliament and he worked in the House of Commons for the first time early in 1832 . He rented rooms at Furnival 's Inn and worked as a political journalist , reporting on Parliamentary debates , and he travelled across Britain to cover election campaigns for the Morning Chronicle . His journalism , in the form of sketches in periodicals , formed his first collection of pieces , published in 1836 : Sketches by Boz—Boz being a family nickname he employed as a pseudonym for some years . Dickens apparently adopted it from the nickname `` Moses '' , which he had given to his youngest brother Augustus Dickens , after a character in Oliver Goldsmith 's The Vicar of Wakefield . When pronounced by anyone with a head cold , `` Moses '' became `` Boses '' —later shortened to Boz . Dickens 's own name was considered `` queer '' by a contemporary critic , who wrote in 1849 : `` Mr Dickens , as if in revenge for his own queer name , does bestow still queerer ones upon his fictitious creations . '' He contributed to and edited journals throughout his literary career . In January 1835 the Morning Chronicle launched an evening edition , under the editorship of the Chronicles music critic , George Hogarth . Hogarth invited Dickens to contribute Street Sketches and Dickens became a regular visitor to his Fulham house , excited by Hogarth 's friendship with a hero of his , Walter Scott , and enjoying the company of Hogarth 's three daughters—Georgina , Mary , and nineteen-year-old Catherine . Dickens made rapid progress both professionally and socially . He began a friendship with William Harrison Ainsworth , the author of the highwayman novel Rookwood ( 1834 ) , whose bachelor salon in Harrow Road had become the meeting place for a set that included Daniel Maclise , Benjamin Disraeli , Edward Bulwer-Lytton , and George Cruikshank . All these became his friends and collaborators , with the exception of Disraeli , and he met his first publisher , John Macrone , at the house . The success of Sketches by Boz led to a proposal from publishers Chapman and Hall for Dickens to supply text to match Robert Seymour 's engraved illustrations in a monthly letterpress . Seymour committed suicide after the second instalment , and Dickens , who wanted to write a connected series of sketches , hired `` Phiz '' to provide the engravings ( which were reduced from four to two per instalment ) for the story . The resulting story became The Pickwick Papers , and though the first few episodes were not successful , the introduction of the Cockney character Sam Weller in the fourth episode ( the first to be illustrated by Phiz ) marked a sharp climb in its popularity . The final instalment sold 40,000 copies . In November 1836 Dickens accepted the position of editor of Bentley 's Miscellany , a position he held for three years , until he fell out with the owner . In 1836 as he finished the last instalments of The Pickwick Papers , he began writing the beginning instalments of Oliver Twist—writing as many as 90 pages a month—while continuing work on Bentley 's and also writing four plays , the production of which he oversaw . Oliver Twist , published in 1838 , became one of Dickens 's better known stories , and was the first Victorian novel with a child protagonist . On 2 April 1836 , after a one-year engagement , and between episodes two and three of The Pickwick Papers , Dickens married Catherine Thomson Hogarth ( 1816–1879 ) , the daughter of George Hogarth , editor of the Evening Chronicle . They were married in St. Luke 's Church , Chelsea , London . After a brief honeymoon in Chalk in Kent the couple returned to lodgings at Furnival 's Inn . The first of their ten children , Charley , was born in January 1837 , and a few months later the family set up home in Bloomsbury at 48 Doughty Street , London , ( on which Charles had a three-year lease at £80 a year ) from 25 March 1837 until December 1839 . Dickens 's younger brother Frederick and Catherine 's 17-year-old sister Mary , moved in with them . Dickens became very attached to Mary , and she died in his arms after a brief illness in 1837 . Unusually for Dickens , as a consequence of his shock , he stopped working , and he and Kate stayed at a little farm on Hampstead Heath for a fortnight . Dickens idealised Mary , - the character he fashioned after her , Rose Maylie , he found he could not now kill , as he had planned , in his fiction and according to Ackroyd he drew on memories of her for his later descriptions of Little Nell and Florence Dombey . His grief was so great that he was unable to meet the deadline for the June instalment of Pickwick Papers and had to cancel the Oliver Twist instalment that month as well . The time in Hampstead was the occasion for a growing bond between Dickens and John Forster to develop and Forster soon became his unofficial business manager , and the first to read his work . His success as a novelist continued . The young Queen Victoria read both Oliver Twist and Pickwick , staying up until midnight to discuss them . Nicholas Nickleby ( 1838–39 ) , The Old Curiosity Shop and , finally , his first historical novel , Barnaby Rudge : A Tale of the Riots of 'Eighty , as part of the Master Humphrey 's Clock series ( 1840–41 ) , were all published in monthly instalments before being made into books . In the midst of all his activity during this period there was discontent with his publishers and John Macrone was bought off , while Richard Bentley signed over all his rights in Oliver Twist . Other signs of a certain restlessness and discontent emerge—in Broadstairs he flirted with Eleanor Picken , the young fiancée of his solicitor 's best friend , and one night grabbed her and ran with her down to the sea . He declared they were both to drown there in the `` sad sea waves '' . She finally got free but afterwards kept her distance . In June 1841 he precipitately set out on a two-month tour of Scotland and then , in September 1841 , telegraphed Forster that he had decided to go to America . Master Humphrey 's Clock was shut down , though Dickens was still keen on the idea of the weekly magazine , a form he liked , a liking that had begun with his childhood reading of the eighteenth-century magazines Tatler and The Spectator . First visit to the United States In 1842 , Dickens and his wife made their first trip to the United States and Canada . At this time Georgina Hogarth , another sister of Catherine , joined the Dickens household , now living at Devonshire Terrace , Marylebone , to care for the young family they had left behind . She remained with them as housekeeper , organiser , adviser , and friend until Dickens 's death in 1870 . He described his impressions in a travelogue , American Notes for General Circulation . Dickens includes in Notes a powerful condemnation of slavery , which he had attacked as early as The Pickwick Papers , correlating the emancipation of the poor in England with the abolition of slavery abroad citing newspaper accounts of runaway slaves disfigured by their masters . In spite of the abolitionist sentiments gleaned from his trip to America , some modern commentators have pointed out inconsistencies in Dickens ' views on racial inequality , for instance , he has been criticized for his subsequent acquiescence in Governor Eyre 's harsh crackdown during the 1860s Morant Bay rebellion in Jamaica and his failure to join other British progressives in condemning it . From Richmond , Virginia , Dickens returned to Washington , D.C. , and started a trek westward to St. Louis , Missouri . While there , he expressed a desire to see an American prairie before returning east . A group of 13 men then set out with Dickens to visit Looking Glass Prairie , a trip 30 miles into Illinois . During his American visit , Dickens spent a month in New York City , giving lectures , raising the question of international copyright laws and the pirating of his work in America . He persuaded a group of twenty-five writers , headed by Washington Irving , to sign a petition for him to take to Congress , but the press were generally hostile to this , saying that he should be grateful for his popularity and that it was mercenary to complain about his work being pirated . The popularity he gained caused a shift in his self-perception according to critic Kate Flint , who writes the he `` found himself a cultural commodity , and its circulation had passed out his control '' , causing him to become interested in and delve into themes of public and personal personas in the next novels . She writes that he assumed a role of `` influential commentator '' , publicly and in his fiction , evident in his next few books . Soon after his return to England , Dickens began work on the first of his Christmas stories , A Christmas Carol , written in 1843 , which was followed by The Chimes in 1844 and The Cricket on the Hearth in 1845 . Of these , A Christmas Carol was most popular and , tapping into an old tradition , did much to promote a renewed enthusiasm for the joys of Christmas in Britain and America . The seeds for the story became planted in Dickens 's mind during a trip to Manchester to witness the conditions of the manufacturing workers there . This , along with scenes he had recently witnessed at the Field Lane Ragged School , caused Dickens to resolve to `` strike a sledge hammer blow '' for the poor . As the idea for the story took shape and the writing began in earnest , Dickens became engrossed in the book . He later wrote that as the tale unfolded he `` wept and laughed , and wept again '' as he `` walked about the black streets of London fifteen or twenty miles many a night when all sober folks had gone to bed . '' After living briefly in Italy ( 1844 ) , Dickens travelled to Switzerland ( 1846 ) , where he began work on Dombey and Son ( 1846–48 ) . This and David Copperfield ( 1849–50 ) mark a significant artistic break in Dickens 's career as his novels became more serious in theme and more carefully planned than his early works . At about this time he was made aware of a large embezzlement at the firm where his brother , Augustus , worked ( John Chapman & Co. ) . It had been carried out by Thomas Powell ( 1809-1887 ) , a clerk , who was on friendly terms with Dickens and who had acted as mentor to Augustus when he started work . Powell was also an author and poet and knew many of the famous writers of the day . After further fraudulent activities , Powell fled to New York and published a book called The Living Authors of England with a chapter on Charles Dickens , who was not amused by what Powell had written . One item that seemed to have annoyed him was the assertion that he had based the character of Paul Dombey ( Dombey and Son ) , on Thomas Chapman , one of the principal partners at John Chapman & Co. Dickens immediately fired off a letter to Lewis Gaylord Clark , editor of the New York literary magazine The Knickerbocker , saying that Powell was a forger and thief . Clark published the letter in the New-York Tribune and several other papers picked up on the story . Powell started proceedings to sue these publications and Clark was arrested . Dickens , realising that he had acted in haste , contacted John Chapman & Co. to seek written confirmation of Powell ’ s guilt . Dickens did receive a reply confirming Powell 's embezzlement , but once the directors realised this information may have to be produced in court they refused to make further disclosures . Due to the difficulties of providing evidence in America to support his accusations , Dickens eventually made a private settlement with Powell out of court . Philanthropy In May 1846 Angela Burdett Coutts , heir to the Coutts banking fortune , approached Dickens about setting up a home for the redemption of fallen women of the working class . Coutts envisioned a home that would replace the punitive regimes of existing institutions with a reformative environment conducive to education and proficiency in domestic household chores . After initially resisting , Dickens eventually founded the home , named `` Urania Cottage '' , in the Lime Grove section of Shepherds Bush , which he managed for ten years , setting the house rules , reviewing the accounts and interviewing prospective residents . Emigration and marriage were central to Dickens 's agenda for the women on leaving Urania Cottage , from which it is estimated that about 100 women graduated between 1847 and 1859 . Religious views As a young man Dickens expressed a distaste for certain aspects of organized religion . In 1836 , in a pamphlet titled Sunday Under Three Heads , he defended the people 's right to pleasure , opposing a plan to prohibit games on Sundays . `` Look into your churches- diminished congregations and scanty attendance . People have grown sullen and obstinate , and are becoming disgusted with the faith which condemns them to such a day as this , once in every seven . They display their feeling by staying away [ from church ] . Turn into the streets [ on a Sunday ] and mark the rigid gloom that reigns over everything around '' Dickens honoured the figure of though some claim he may have denied his divinity . Notwithstanding , Dickens has been characterized as a professing Christian . His son , Henry Fielding Dickens , described Dickens as someone who `` possessed deep religious convictions '' . Though in the early 1840s Dickens had showed an interest in Unitarian Christianity , the writer Gary Colledge has asserted that he `` never strayed from his attachment to popular lay Anglicanism '' . He also wrote a religious work called The Life of Our Lord ( 1849 ) , which was a short book about the life of Jesus Christ , written with the purpose of inculcating his faith to his children and family . Dickens disapproved of Roman Catholicism and 19th-century evangelicalism , and was critical of what he saw as the hypocrisy of religious institutions and philosophies like spiritualism , all of which he considered deviations from the true spirit of Christianity . Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoyevsky referred to Dickens as ``

qb_3791--Charles_Dickens.txt

Inspector Bucket is a character in which novel by Charles Dickens?

Fantasy films are films that belong to the fantasy genre with fantastic themes , usually involving magic , supernatural events , mythology , folklore , or exotic fantasy worlds . The genre is considered a form of speculative fiction alongside science fiction films and horror films , although the genres do overlap . Fantasy films often have an element of magic , myth , wonder , escapism , and the extraordinary . [ http : //www.filmsite.org/fantasyfilms.html Fantasy Films ] Subgenres Several sub-categories of fantasy films can be identified , although the delineations between these subgenres , much as in fantasy literature , are somewhat fluid . The most common fantasy subgenres depicted in movies are High Fantasy and Sword and Sorcery . Both categories typically employ quasi-medieval settings , wizards , magical creatures and other elements commonly associated with fantasy stories . High Fantasy films tend to feature a more richly developed fantasy world , and may also be more character-oriented or thematically complex . Often , they feature a hero of humble origins and a clear distinction between good and evil set against each other in an epic struggle . Many scholars cite J. R. R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings novel as the prototypical modern example of High Fantasy in literature , and the recent Peter Jackson film adaptation of the books is a good example of the High Fantasy subgenre on the silver screen . Sword and Sorcery movies tend to be more plot-driven than high fantasy and focus heavily on action sequences , often pitting a physically powerful but unsophisticated warrior against an evil wizard or other supernaturally endowed enemy . Although Sword and Sorcery films sometimes describe an epic battle between good and evil similar to those found in many High Fantasy movies , they may alternately present the hero as having more immediate motivations , such as the need to protect a vulnerable maiden or village , or even being driven by the desire for vengeance . The 1982 film adaptation of Robert E. Howard 's Conan the Barbarian , for example , is a personal ( non-epic ) story concerning the hero 's quest for revenge and his efforts to thwart a single megalomaniac—while saving a beautiful princess in the process . Some critics refer to such films by the term Sword and Sandal rather than Sword and Sorcery , although others would maintain that the Sword and Sandal label should be reserved only for the subset of fantasy films set in ancient times on the planet Earth , and still others would broaden the term to encompass films that have no fantastic elements whatsoever . To some , the term Sword and Sandal has pejorative connotations , designating a film with a low-quality script , bad acting and poor production values . Another important subgenre of fantasy films that has become more popular in recent years is contemporary fantasy . Such films feature magical effects or supernatural occurrences happening in the `` real '' world of today . Films with live action and animation such as Disney 's Mary Poppins , Pete 's Dragon , Enchanted and the Robert Zemeckis film Who Framed Roger Rabbit are also fantasy films although are more often referred to as Live action/animation hybrids ( 2 of those are also classified as musicals ) . Fantasy films set in the afterlife , called Bangsian Fantasy , are less common , although films such as the 1991 Albert Brooks comedy Defending Your Life would likely qualify . Other uncommon subgenres include Historical Fantasy and Romantic Fantasy , although 2003 's Pirates of the Caribbean : The Curse of the Black Pearl successfully incorporated elements of both . As noted above , superhero movies and fairy tale films might each be considered subgenres of fantasy films , although most would classify them as altogether separate movie genres . Fantasy movies and the film industry As a cinematic genre , fantasy has traditionally not been regarded as highly as the related genre of science fiction film . Undoubtedly , the fact that until recently fantasy films often suffered from the `` Sword and Sandal '' afflictions of inferior production values , over-the-top acting and decidedly poor special effects was a significant factor in fantasy film 's low regard . Since the late 1990s , however , the genre has gained new respectability in a way , driven principally by the successful adaptations of J.R.R . Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings and J.K. Rowling 's Harry Potter series . Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings trilogy is notable due to its ambitious scope , serious tone and thematic complexity . These pictures achieved phenomenal commercial and critical success , and the third installment of the trilogy became the first fantasy film ever to win the Academy Award for Best Picture . The Harry Potter series has been a tremendous financial success , has achieved critical acclaim , and boasts an enormous and loyal fanbase . Following the success of these ventures , Hollywood studios have greenlighted additional big-budget productions in the genre . These have included adaptations of the first , second , and third books in C. S. Lewis ' The Chronicles of Narnia series and the teen novel Eragon , as well as adaptations of Susan Cooper 's The Dark Is Rising , Cornelia Funke 's Inkheart , Philip Pullman 's The Golden Compass , Holly Black 's The Spiderwick Chronicles , Nickolodeon 's TV show Avatar : The Last Airbender and the Fantasia segment ( along with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 's original poem ) The Sorcerer 's Apprentice Fantasy movies in recent years , such as the Lord of the Rings films , the first and third Narnia adaptations , and the first second , fourth and seventh Harry Potter adaptations have most often been released in November and December . This is in contrast to science fiction films , which are often released during the northern hemisphere summer ( June - August ) . All 3 installments of the Pirates of the Caribbean fantasy films , however , were released in July 2003 , July 2006 and May 2007 respectively , and the latest releases in the Harry Potter series were released in July , 2007 and July 2009 . The huge commercial success of these pictures may indicate a change in Hollywood 's approach to big-budget fantasy film releases . History Fantasy films have a history almost as old as the medium itself . However , fantasy films were relatively few and far between until the 1980s , when high-tech filmmaking techniques and increased audience interest caused the genre to flourish . What follows are some notable Fantasy films . For a more complete list see : List of fantasy films 1900-1920s In the era of silent film the earliest fantasy films were those made by French film pioneer Georges Méliès from 1903 . The most famous of these was 1902 's A Trip to the Moon . In the Golden Age of Silent film ( 1918–1926 ) the most outstanding fantasy films were Douglas Fairbanks ' The Thief of Bagdad ( 1924 ) and Fritz Lang 's Die Nibelungen ( 1924 ) and Destiny ( 1921 ) . other notables in the genre were F.W . Murnau 's romantic ghost story Phantom , Tarzan of the Apes starring Elmo Lincoln , and D. W. Griffith 's The Sorrows of Satan . 1930s Following the advent of sound films , audiences of all ages were introduced to 1939 's The Wizard of Oz . Also notable of the era , the iconic 1933 film King Kong borrows heavily from the Lost World subgenre of fantasy fiction as does such films as the 1935 adaption of H. Rider Haggard 's novel She about an African expedition that discovers an immortal queen known as Ayesha `` She who must be obeyed '' . Frank Capra 's 1937 picture Lost Horizon transported audiences to the Himalayan fantasy kingdom of Shangri-La , where the residents magically never age . Other noteworthy fantasy film of the 30s include Tarzan the Ape Man in 1932 starring Johnny Weissmuller starting a successful series of talking pictures based on the fantasy-adventure novels by Edgar Rice Burroughs and the G. W. Pabst directed The Mistress of Atlantis from 1932 . 1932 saw the release of the Universal Studios monster movie The Mummy which combined horror with a romantic fantasy twist . more light-hearted and comedic affairs from the decade include films like 1934s romantic drama film Death Takes a Holiday where Fredric March plays Death who takes a human body to experience life for three days , and 1937s Topper where a man is haunted by two fun loving ghosts who try to make his life a little more exciting . 1940s The 1940s then saw several full color fantasy films produced by Alexander Korda , including The Thief of Bagdad ( 1940 ) , a film on par with The Wizard of Oz , and Jungle Book ( 1942 ) . In 1946 , Jean Cocteau 's classic adaptation of Beauty and the Beast won praise for its surreal elements and for transcending the boundaries of the fairy tale genre . Sinbad the Sailor ( 1947 ) , starring Douglas Fairbanks , Jr. , has the feel of a fantasy film though it does not actually have any fantastic elements . Conversely , It 's a Wonderful Life and A Matter of Life and Death , both from 1946 , do not feel like fantasy films yet both feature supernatural elements and the latter movie could reasonably be cited as an example of Bangsian fantasy . Several other pictures featuring supernatural encounters and aspects of Bangsian fantasy were produced in the 1940s during World War II . These include Beyond Tomorrow , The Devil and Daniel Webster , and Here Comes Mr. Jordan , all from 1941 , Heaven Can Wait the musical Cabin in the Sky ( 1943 ) , the comedy The Horn Blows at Midnight and romances such as The Ghost and Mrs. Muir ( 1947 ) , One Touch of Venus and Portrait of Jennie , both 1948 . Although it 's not classified as a fantasy film , Gene Kelly 's Anchors Aweigh had a fantasy sequence called `` The King who Could n't Dance '' in which Gene did a song and dance number with Jerry Mouse from Tom and Jerry . Because these movies do not feature elements common to high fantasy or sword and sorcery pictures , some modern critics do not consider them to be examples of the fantasy genre . 1950s In the 1950s there were a few major fantasy films , including Darby O'Gill and the Little People and The 5000 Fingers of Dr. T , the latter penned by Dr. Seuss . Jean Cocteau 's Orphic Trilogy , begun in 1930 and completed in 1959 , is based on Greek mythology and could be classified either as fantasy or surrealist film , depending on how the boundaries between these genres are drawn . Russian fantasy director Aleksandr Ptushko created three mythological epics from Russian fairytales , Sadko ( 1953 ) , Ilya Muromets ( 1956 ) , and Sampo ( 1959 ) . Japanese director Kenji Mizoguchi 's 1953 film Ugetsu Monogatari draws on Japanese classical ghost stories of love and betrayal . Other notable pictures from the 1950s that feature fantastic elements and are sometimes classified as fantasy are : Harvey ( 1950 ) , featuring a púca of Celtic mythology ; Scrooge , the 1951 adaptation of Charles Dickens ' A Christmas Carol ; and Ingmar Bergman 's 1957 masterpiece , The Seventh Seal . Disney 's 1951 animated film Alice in Wonderland is also a fantasy classic . There were also a number of lower budget fantasies produced in the 1950s , typically based on Greek or Arabian legend . The most notable of these may be 1958 's The 7th Voyage of Sinbad , featuring special effects by Ray Harryhausen and music by Bernard Herrmann . 1960s Harryhausen worked on a series of fantasy films in the 1960s , most importantly Jason and the Argonauts ( 1963 ) . Many critics have identified this film as Harryhausen 's masterwork for its stop-motion animated statues , skeletons , harpies , hydra , and other mythological creatures . Other Harryhausen fantasy and science fantasy collaborations from the decade include the 1961 adaptation of Jules Verne 's Mysterious Island , the critically panned One Million Years B.C . starring Raquel Welch , and The Valley of Gwangi ( 1969 ) . Capitalising on the success of the sword and sandal genre several Italian B-movies based on classical myth were made , including the Maciste series . Otherwise , the 1960s were almost entirely devoid of fantasy films . The fantasy picture 7 Faces of Dr. Lao , in which Tony Randall portrayed several characters from Greek mythology , was released in 1964 . But the 1967 adaptation of the Broadway musical Camelot removed most of the fantasy elements from T. H. White 's classic The Once and Future King , on which the musical had been based . The 1960s also saw a new adaption of Haggard 's She in 1965 starring Ursula Andress as the immortal `` She who must be obeyed '' and was followed by a sequel in 1968 The Vengeance of She based loosely on the novel Ayesha : The Return of She both produced by Hammer Film Productions , 1968 also saw the release of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang based on a story by Ian Fleming with a script from Roald Dahl . 1970s Fantasy elements of Arthurian legend were again featured , albeit absurdly , in 1975 's Monty Python and the Holy Grail . Harryhausen also returned to the silver screen in the 1970s with two additional Sinbad fantasies , The Golden Voyage of Sinbad ( 1974 ) and Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger ( 1977 ) . The animated movie Wizards ( 1977 ) had limited success at the box office but achieved status as a cult film . There was also The Noah ( 1975 ) which was never released theatrically but became a cult favorite when it was finally released on DVD in 2006 . Some would consider 1977 's Oh God ! , starring George Burns to be a fantasy film , and Heaven Can Wait ( 1978 ) was a successful Bangsian fantasy remake of 1941 's Here Comes Mr. Jordan ( not 1943 's Heaven Can Wait ) . A few low budget `` Lost World '' pictures were made in the 1970s , such as 1975 's The Land That Time Forgot . Otherwise , the fantasy genre was largely absent from mainstream movies in this decade , although 1971 's Bedknobs and Broomsticks and Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory were two fantasy pictures in the public eye the former being predominantly from the same team who did Mary Poppins the latter again being from Roald Dahl in both script and novel . 1980s \ Arthurian lore returned to the screen in John Boorman 's 1981 Excalibur , while films such as Ridley Scott 's 1985 Legend and Terry Gilliam 's 1981–1986 trilogy of fantasy epics ( Time Bandits , Brazil , and The Adventures of Baron Munchausen ) explored a new artist-driven style featuring surrealist imagery and thought-provoking plots . The modern sword and sorcery boom began around the same time with 1982 's Conan the Barbarian followed by Krull and Fire and Ice in 1983 , as well as a boom in fairy tale-like fantasy films such as Ladyhawke ( 1985 ) , The Princess Bride ( 1987 ) , and Willow ( 1988 ) . The 80s also started a trend in mixing modern settings and action movie effects with exotic fantasy-like concepts . Big Trouble in Little China ( 1986 ) , directed by John Carpenter and starring Kurt Russell , combined humor , martial arts and classic Chinese folklore in a modern Chinatown setting . Highlander , a film about immortal Scottish swordsmen , was released the same year . Jim Henson produced two iconic fantasy films in the 80s , the solemn The Dark Crystal and the more whimsical and lofty Labyrinth . Meanwhile , Robert Zemeckis helmed Who Framed Roger Rabbit , featuring various famous cartoon characters from animation 's `` Golden Age , '' including Mickey Mouse , Minnie Mouse , Donald Duck , Bugs Bunny , Daffy Duck , Droopy , Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner , Sylvester the Cat , Tweety Pie and Jiminy Cricket , among others . 1990s Bram Stoker 's Dracula Edward Scissorhands Ghost in the Machine The Green Mile Groundhog Day The Indian in the Cupboard Hook Dragonheart Jumanji Meet Joe Black Nightbreed Princess Mononoke ( Mononoke Hime ) The Wind in the Willows ( Mr Toad 's Wild Ride ) Kazaam Matilda Toy Story 2000s 17 Again ( 2009 ) 300 ( 2006 ) Alvin & the Chipmunks ( 2007/2009/2011 ) Big Fish ( 2003 ) Bridge to Terabithia ( 2007 ) The Brothers Grimm ( 2005 ) The Chronicles of Narnia ( 2005/2008/2010 ) Coraline ( 2009 ) Corpse Bride ( 2005 ) Crouching Tiger , Hidden Dragon ( 2000 ) The Curious Case of Benjamin Button ( 2008 ) D-War ( 2007 ) Elf ( 2003 ) Enchanted ( 2007 ) Eragon ( 2006 ) Fat Albert ( 2004 ) The Golden Compass ( 2007 ) Harry Potter ( 2001-11 ) The Hexer ( 2001 ) How the Grinch Stole Christmas ( 2000 ) Howl 's Moving Castle ( 2004 ) The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus ( 2009 ) Imagine That ( 2009 ) In the Name of the King : A Dungeon Siege Tale ( 2007 ) Inkheart ( 2008 ) The Invention of Lying ( 2009 ) King Kong ( 2005 ) Lady in the Water ( 2006 ) Lemony Snicket 's A Series of Unfortunate Events ( 2004 ) Looney Tunes : Back in Action ( 2003 ) The Lord of the Rings ( 2001-03 ) The Lovely Bones ( 2008 ) Monsters Inc. ( 2001/2013 ) Nanny McPhee ( 2005 ) Night Watch ( 2004 ) Pan 's Labyrinth ( 2006 ) Pirates of the Caribbean ( 2003/2006/2007/2011 ) Race to Witch Mountain ( 2009 ) The Science of Sleep ( 2006 ) The Seeker ( 2007 ) The Master of Disguise ( 2002 ) Shrek ( 2001/2004/2007/2010 ) The Spiderwick Chronicles ( 2008 ) Spike ( 2008 ) Spirited Away ( 2002 ) Stardust ( 2007 ) Twilight ( 2008-12 ) Underworld ( 2003/2006/2009/2012 ) Where the Wild Things Are ( 2009 ) Dorian Gray ( 2009 ) 2010s Abraham Lincoln : Vampire Hunter ( 2012 ) Alice in Wonderland ( 2010 ) Alice in Wonderland 2 : Through the Looking Glass ( 2016 ) The Muppets ( 2011 ) Cinderella ( 2015 ) Goosebumps ( 2015 ) Crimson Peak ( 2015 ) Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 1 ( 2010 ) Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 2 ( 2011 ) Brave ( 2012 ) Clash of the Titans ( 2010 ) and its 2012 sequel , Wrath of the Titans Conan the Barbarian ( 2011 ) Dark Shadows ( 2012 ) Frozen ( 2013 ) Gulliver 's Travels ( 2010 ) Hop ( 2011 ) How to Train Your Dragon ( 2010 ) How to Train Your Dragon 2 ( 2014 ) Immortals ( 2011 ) John Carter ( 2012 ) Jack the Giant Slayer ( 2010 ) The Last Airbender ( 2010 ) Life of Pi ( 2012 ) The Lorax ( 2012 ) Maleficent ( 2014 ) Maximum Shame ( 2010 ) Midnight in Paris ( 2011 ) Mirror Mirror ( 2012 ) Oz : The Great and Powerful ( 2013 ) Paddington ( 2014 ) Pan ( 2015 ) Percy Jackson & the Olympians : Sea of Monsters ( 2013 ) Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief ( 2010 ) Prince of Persia : The Sands of Time ( 2010 ) Scott Pilgrim vs. the World ( 2010 ) Snow White and the Huntsman ( 2012 ) Song of the Sea ( 2014 ) The Sorcerer 's Apprentice ( 2010 ) Sucker Punch ( 2011 ) The Hobbit : An Unexpected Journey ( 2012 ) The Hobbit : The Desolation of Smaug ( 2013 ) The Hobbit : The Battle of the Five Armies ( 2014 ) The Jungle Book ( 2016 ) Thor ( 2011 ) Your Highness ( 2011 ) Baahubali : The Beginning ( 2014 ) Sardaar Ji ( 2015 ) ( Punjabi )

qz_5918--Fantasy_film.txt

Name the fantasy movie directed by Terry Gilliam, where 6 dwarves have stolen a map.

The Saxons ( , , , , , ) were a group of Germanic tribes first mentioned as living near the North Sea coast of what is now Germany ( Old Saxony ) , in late Roman times . They were soon mentioned as raiding and settling in many North Sea areas , as well as pushing south inland towards the Franks . Significant numbers settled in large parts of Great Britain in the early Middle Ages and formed part of the merged group of Anglo-Saxons who eventually organised the first united Kingdom of England . Many Saxons however remained in Germania , where they resisted the expanding Frankish Empire through the leadership of the semi-legendary Saxon hero , Widukind . The Saxons ' earliest area of settlement is believed to have been Northern Albingia , an area approximately that of modern Holstein . This general area also included the probable homeland of the Angles . Saxons , along with the Angles and other continental Germanic tribes , participated in the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain during and after the 5th century . The British-Celtic inhabitants of the isles tended to refer to all these groups collectively as Saxons . It is unknown how many Saxons migrated from the continent to Britain , though estimates for the total number of Anglo-Saxon settlers are around 200,000 . During the Middle Ages , because of international Hanseatic trading routes and contingent migration , Saxons mixed with and had strong influences upon the languages and cultures of the Baltic peoples , Finnic peoples , and Polabian Slavs and Pomeranians , both West Slavic peoples , as well as influencing the North Germanic languages . Etymology The Saxons may have derived their name from seax , a kind of knife for which they were known . The seax has a lasting symbolic impact in the English counties of Essex and Middlesex , both of which feature three seaxes in their ceremonial emblem . Their names , along with those of Sussex and Wessex , contain a remnant of the word `` Saxon '' . The Elizabethan era play Edmund Ironside suggests the Saxon name derives from the Latin saxa ( stone ) : Saxon as a demonym Celtic languages In the Celtic languages , the words designating English nationality derive from the Latin word Saxones . The most prominent example , a loanword in English , is the Scottish Gaelic Sassenach ( Saxon ) , often used disparagingly in Scottish English/Scots . It derives from the Scottish Gaelic Sasunnach meaning , originally , `` Saxon '' , from the Latin `` Saxones '' . Scots- or Scottish English-speakers in the 21st century usually use it in jest , as a ( friendly ) term of abuse . The Oxford English Dictionary ( OED ) gives 1771 as the date of the earliest written use of the word in English . Sasanach , the Irish word for an Englishman , has the same derivation , as do the words used in Welsh to describe the English people ( Saeson , sing . Sais ) and the language and things English in general : Saesneg and Seisnig . Cornish terms the English Sawsnek , from the same derivation . In the 16th century Cornish-speakers used the phrase Meea navidna cowza sawzneck to feign ignorance of the English language . `` England '' in Scottish Gaelic , is Sasainn ( Saxony ) . Other examples include the Welsh Saesneg ( the English language ) , Irish Sasana ( England ) , Breton saoz ( on ) ( English , saozneg `` the English language '' , Bro-saoz `` England '' ) , and Cornish Sowson ( English people ) , Sowsnek ( English language ) , and Pow Sows for 'Land [ Pays ] of Saxons ' . Romance languages The label `` Saxons '' ( in Romanian Saşi ) was also applied to German settlers who migrated during the 13th century to southeastern Transylvania . From Transylvania , some Saxons migrated to the neighbouring Moldavia , as the name of the town , Sas-cut , shows . Sascut is located in the part of Moldavia that is today part of Romania . During Georg Friederich Händel 's visit to Italy , much was made of his being from Saxony ; in particular , the Venetians greeted the 1709 performance of his opera Agrippina with the cry Viva il caro Sassone , `` Cheers for the beloved Saxon ! '' Non-Indo-European languages The Finns and Estonians have changed their usage of the term Saxony over the centuries to denote now the whole country of Germany ( Saksa and Saksamaa respectively ) and the Germans ( saksalaiset and sakslased , respectively ) . The Finnish word sakset scissors reflects the name of the old Saxon single-edged sword Seax from which 'Saxon ' is supposedly derived . In Estonian , saks means a nobleman or , colloquially , a wealthy or powerful person . As a result of the Northern Crusades in the Middle Ages , Estonia 's upper class had been mostly of German origin until well into the 20th century . Related surnames The word also survives as the surnames of Saß/Sass , Sachse and Sachs . The Dutch female first name , Saskia , originally meant `` A Saxon woman '' ( alteration of `` Saxia '' ) . Saxony as a toponym Following the downfall of Henry the Lion ( 11291195 , Duke of Saxony 11421180 ) , and the subsequent splitting of the Saxon tribal duchy into several territories , the name of the Saxon duchy was transferred to the lands of the Ascanian family . This led to the differentiation between Lower Saxony , lands settled by the Saxon tribe and Upper Saxony , the lands belonging to the House of Wettin . Gradually , a different region became known as `` Saxony '' , ultimately usurping the name 's original meaning . The area formerly known as Upper Saxony now lies in Central Germany . History Early history Ptolemy 's Geographia , written in the 2nd century , is sometimes considered to contain the first mentioning of the Saxons . Some copies of this text mention a tribe called Saxones in the area to the north of the lower Elbe . However , other versions refer to the same tribe as Axones . This may be a misspelling of the tribe that Tacitus in his Germania called Aviones . According to this theory , `` Saxones '' was the result of later scribes trying to correct a name that meant nothing to them . On the other hand , Schütte , in his analysis of such problems in Ptolemy 's Maps of Northern Europe , believed that `` Saxones '' is correct . He notes that the loss of first letters occurs in numerous places in various copies of Ptolemy 's work , and also that the manuscripts without `` Saxones '' are generally inferior overall . Schütte also remarks that there was a medieval tradition of calling this area `` Old Saxony '' . In contrast , other scholars note that sources such as Bede who mention Old Saxony , might be interpreted as saying it was near the Rhine , somewhere to the north of the river Lippe , and were in any case not personally familiar with the area . In AD 441–42 , Saxons are mentioned for the first time as inhabitants of Britain , when an unknown Gaulish historian wrote : `` The British provinces ... have been reduced to Saxon rule '' . The first undisputed mention of the Saxon name in its modern form is from AD 356 , when Julian , later the Roman Emperor , mentioned them in a speech as allies of Magnentius , a rival emperor in Gaul . Zosimus also mentions a specific tribe of Saxons , called the Kouadoi , which have been interpreted as the Chauci . They entered the Rhineland and displaced the recently settled Salian Franks from Batavi , whereupon some of the Salians began to move into the Belgian territory of Toxandria , supported by Julian . In order to defend against Saxon raiders , the Romans created a military district called the Litus Saxonicum ( `` Saxon Coast '' ) on both sides of the English Channel . Saxons as inhabitants of present-day Northern Germany are first mentioned in 555 , when the Frankish king Theudebald died , and the Saxons used the opportunity for an uprising . The uprising was suppressed by Chlothar I , Theudebald 's successor . Some of their Frankish successors fought against the Saxons , others were allied with them ; Chlothar II won a decisive victory against the Saxons . The Thuringians frequently appeared as allies of the Saxons . Continental Saxons Saxony The Continental Saxons living in what was known as Old Saxony appear to have become consolidated by the end of the 8th century . After subjugation by the Emperor Charlemagne , a political entity called the Duchy of Saxony appeared . The Saxons long resisted becoming Christians and being incorporated into the orbit of the Frankish kingdom . In 776 the Saxons promised to convert to Christianity and vow loyalty to the king , but once Charlemagne went to Spain , they staged further attacks in 778 . This was an often repeated pattern when Charlemagne was distracted by other matters . During Charlemagne 's campaign in Hispania ( 778 ) , the Saxons advanced to Deutz on the Rhine and plundered along the river . They were decisively conquered by Charlemagne in a long series of annual campaigns , the Saxon Wars ( 772804 ) With defeat came enforced baptism and conversion as well as the union of the Saxons with the rest of the Germanic , Frankish empire . Their sacred tree or pillar , a symbol of Irminsul , was destroyed . Charlemagne also deported 10,000 of them to Neustria and gave their now vacant lands to the loyal king of the Abotrites . Einhard , Charlemagne 's biographer , says on the closing of this grand conflict : The war that had lasted so many years was at length ended by their acceding to the terms offered by the king ; which were renunciation of their national religious customs and the worship of devils , acceptance of the sacraments of the Christian faith and religion , and union with the Franks to form one people . Under Carolingian rule , the Saxons were reduced to tributary status . There is evidence that the Saxons , as well as Slavic tributaries such as the Abodrites and the Wends , often provided troops to their Carolingian overlords . The dukes of Saxony became kings ( Henry I , the Fowler , 919 ) and later the first emperors ( Henry 's son , Otto I , the Great ) of Germany during the 10th century , but they lost this position in 1024 . The duchy was divided up in 1180 when Duke Henry the Lion , Emperor Otto 's grandson , refused to follow his cousin , Emperor Frederick Barbarossa , into war in Lombardy . During the High Middle Ages , under the Salian emperors and , later , under the Teutonic Knights , German settlers moved east of the Saale into the area of a western Slavic tribe , the Sorbs . The Sorbs were gradually Germanised . This region subsequently acquired the name Saxony through political circumstances , though it was initially called the March of Meissen . The rulers of Meissen acquired control of the Duchy of Saxony ( only a remnant of the previous Duchy ) in 1423 ; they eventually applied the name Saxony to the whole of their kingdom . Since then , this part of eastern Germany has been referred to as Saxony ( German : Sachsen ) , a source of some misunderstanding about the original homeland of the Saxons , with a central part in the present-day German state of Lower Saxony ( German : Niedersachsen ) . Netherlands In the Netherlands , Saxons occupied the territory south of the Frisians and north of the Franks . In the west it reached as far as the Gooi region , in the south as far as the Lower Rhine . After the conquest of Charlemagne , this area formed the main part of the Bishopric of Utrecht . The Saxon duchy of Hamaland played an important role in the formation of the duchy of Guelders . The local language , although strongly influenced by standard Dutch , is still officially recognised as Dutch Low Saxon . Italy and Provence In 569 , some Saxons accompanied the Lombards into Italy under the leadership of Alboin and settled there . In 572 , they raided southeastern Gaul as far as Stablo , now Estoublon . Divided , they were easily defeated by the Gallo-Roman general Mummolus . When the Saxons regrouped , a peace treaty was negotiated whereby the Italian Saxons were allowed to settle with their families in Austrasia . Gathering their families and belongings in Italy , they returned to Provence in two groups in 573 . One group proceeded by way of Nice and another via Embrun , joining up at Avignon . They plundered the territory and were as a consequence stopped from crossing the Rhône by Mummolus . They were forced to pay compensation for what they had robbed before they could enter Austrasia . These people are known only by documents , and their settlement can not be compared to the archeological artifacts and remains that attest to Saxon settlements in northern and western Gaul . Gaul A Saxon king named Eadwacer conquered Angers in 463 only to be dislodged by Childeric I and the Salian Franks , allies of the Roman Empire . It is possible that Saxon settlement of Great Britain began only in response to expanding Frankish control of the Channel coast . Some Saxons already lived along the Saxon shore of Gaul . They can be traced in documents , but also in archeology and in toponymy . The Notitia Dignitatum mentions the Tribunus cohortis primae novae Armoricanae , Grannona in litore Saxonico . The location of Grannona is uncertain and was identified by the historians and toponymists at different places , mainly with the town known today as Granville ( in Normandy ) or nearby . The Notitia Dignitatum does not explain where these `` Roman '' soldiers came from . Some toponymists have proposed Graignes ( Grania 1109 - 1113 ) as the location for Grannona/Grannonum . It could be the same element * gran , that is recognised in Guernsey ( Greneroi 11th century ) . This location is closer to Bayeux , where Gregory of Tours evokes otherwise the Saxones Bajocassini ( Bessin Saxons ) , which were ineffective to defeat the Breton Waroch II in 579 . A Saxon unit of laeti settled at Bayeuxthe Saxones Baiocassenses . These Saxons became subjects of Clovis I late in the 5th century . The Saxons of Bayeux comprised a standing army and were often called upon to serve alongside the local levy of their region in Merovingian military campaigns . They were ineffective against the Breton Waroch in this capacity in 579 . In 589 , the Saxons wore their hair in the Breton fashion at the orders of Fredegund and fought with them as allies against Guntram . Beginning in 626 , the Saxons of the Bessin were used by Dagobert I for his campaigns against the Basques . One of their own , Aeghyna , was created a dux over the region of Vasconia . In 843 and 846 under king Charles the Bald , other official documents mention a pagus called Otlinga Saxonia in the Bessin region , but the meaning of Otlinga is unclear . Different Bessin toponyms were identified as typically Saxon , ex : Cottun ( Coltun 1035 - 1037 ; Cola 's `` town '' ) . It is the only place-name in Normandy that can be interpreted as a -tun one ( English -ton ; cf . Colton ) . In contrast to this one example in Normandy are numerous -thun villages in the north of France , in Boulonnais , ex : Alincthun , Verlincthun , Pelingthun , etc . showing with other toponyms , an important Saxon or Anglo-Saxon settlement . comparing the concentration of -ham / -hem ( Anglo-Saxon hām > home ) toponyms in the Bessin and in the Boulonnais gives more examples of Saxon settlement . In the area known today as Normandy , the -ham cases of Bessin are unique , they do not exist elsewhere . Other cases were considered , but there is no determining example , f.e . : Canehan ( Kenehan 1030 / Canaan 1030 - 1035 ) could be the biblical name Canaan or Airan ( Heidram 9th century ) , the Germanic masculine name Hairammus . The Bessin examples are clear . f. e. Ouistreham ( Oistreham 1086 ) , Étréham ( Oesterham 1350 ? ) , Huppain ( * Hubbehain ; Hubba 's `` home '' ) , Surrain ( Surrehain 11th century ) , etc . Another significant example can be found in the Norman onomastics : the widespread surname Lecesne , with variant spellings : Le Cesne , Lesène , Lecène and Cesne . It comes from Gallo-Romance * SAXINU `` the Saxon '' > saisne in Old French . These examples are not derived from more recent Anglo-Scandinavian toponyms , because in that case they would have been numerous in the Norman regions ( pays de Caux , Basse-Seine , North-Cotentin ) settled by the Nordic peoples . That is not the case , nor does Bessin belong to the pagii , which were affected by an important wave of Anglo-Scandinavian immigration . In addition , archeological finds add evidence to the documents and the results of toponymic research . All around the city of Caen and in the Bessin ( Vierville-sur-Mer , Bénouville , Giverville , Hérouvillette ) , excavations have shown numerous Anglo-Saxon jewellery , design elements , settings and weapons . All these things were discovered in cemeteries in a context of the 5th , 6th and 7th centuries AD . The oldest and most spectacular Saxon site found in France to date is Vron , in Picardy . There , archeologists excavated a large cemetery with tombs dating from the Roman Empire until the 6th century . Furniture and other gravegoods , as well as the human remains , revealed a group of people buried in the 4th and 5th centuries AD . Physically different from the usual local inhabitants found before this period , they instead resembled the Germanic populations of the north . At the beginning ( 4th century ) 92 % were buried , sometimes with typical Germanic weapons . Then , they were ranked to the east , when they were buried in the 5th and later to the beginning of the 6th century . A strong Anglo-Saxon influence became obvious in the middle of the period , but it disappeared later . Archeological material , neighbouring toponymy , and texts support the same conclusions : settlement of Saxon foederati with their families . Further anthropological research by Joël Blondiaux shows these people were from Low Saxony . Saxons in Britain Saxons , along with Angles , Frisians and Jutes , invaded or migrated to the island of Great Britain ( Britannia ) around the time of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire . Saxon raiders had been harassing the eastern and southern shores of Britannia for centuries before , prompting the construction of a string of coastal forts called the Litora Saxonica or Saxon Shore . Before the end of Roman rule in Britannia , many Saxons and other folk had been permitted to settle in these areas as farmers . According to tradition , the Saxons ( and other tribes ) first entered Britain en masse as part of an agreement to protect the Britons from the incursions of the Picts , Gaels and others . The story , as reported in such sources as the Historia Brittonum and Gildas , indicates that the British king Vortigern allowed the Germanic warlords , later named as Hengist and Horsa by Bede , to settle their people on the Isle of Thanet in exchange for their service as mercenaries . According to Bede , Hengist manipulated Vortigern into granting more land and allowing for more settlers to come in , paving the way for the Germanic settlement of Britain . Historians are divided about what followed : some argue that the takeover of southern Great Britain by the Anglo-Saxons was peaceful . The known account from a native Briton who lived in the mid-5th century AD , Gildas , described events as a forced takeover by armed attack : Gildas described how the Saxons were later slaughtered at the battle of Mons Badonicus 44 years before he wrote his history , and Britain reverted to Romano-British rule . The 8th century English historian Bede disagreed with Gildas , stating that the Saxon invasions continued after the battle of Mons Badonicus , including also Jutish and Anglic expeditions . He said these resulted in a swift overrunning of the entirety of South-Eastern Britain , and the foundation of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms . Four separate Saxon realms emerged : # East Saxons : created the Kingdom of Essex . # Middle Saxons : created the province of Middlesex # South Saxons : led by Aelle , created the Kingdom of Sussex # West Saxons : created the Kingdom of Wessex During the period of the reigns from Egbert to Alfred the Great , the kings of Wessex emerged as Bretwalda , unifying the country . They eventually organised it as the kingdom of England in the face of Viking invasions . Culture Social structure Bede , a Northumbrian writing around the year 730 , remarks that `` the old ( that is , the continental ) Saxons have no king , but they are governed by several ealdormen ( or satrapa ) who , during war , cast lots for leadership but who , in time of peace , are equal in power . '' The regnum Saxonum was divided into three provinces – Westphalia , Eastphalia and Angria – which comprised about one hundred pagi or Gaue . Each Gau had its own satrap with enough military power to level whole villages that opposed him . In the mid-9th century , Nithard first described the social structure of the Saxons beneath their leaders . The caste structure was rigid ; in the Saxon language the three castes , excluding slaves , were called the edhilingui ( related to the term aetheling ) , frilingi and lazzi . These terms were subsequently Latinised as nobiles or nobiliores ; ingenui , ingenuiles or liberi ; and liberti , liti or serviles . According to very early traditions that are presumed to contain a good deal of historical truth , the edhilingui were the descendants of the Saxons who led the tribe out of Holstein and during the migrations of the 6th century . They were a conquering warrior elite . The frilingi represented the descendants of the amicii , auxiliarii and manumissi of that caste . The lazzi represented the descendants of the original inhabitants of the conquered territories , who were forced to make oaths of submission and pay tribute to the edhilingui . The Lex Saxonum regulated the Saxons ' unusual society . Intermarriage between the castes was forbidden by the Lex , and wergilds were set based upon caste membership . The edhilingui were worth 1,440 solidi , or about 700 head of cattle , the highest wergild on the continent ; the price of a bride was also very high . This was six times as much as that of the frilingi and eight times as much as the lazzi . The gulf between noble and ignoble was very large , but the difference between a freeman and an indentured labourer was small . According to the Vita Lebuini antiqua , an important source for early Saxon history , the Saxons held an annual council at Marklo where they `` confirmed their laws , gave judgment on outstanding cases , and determined by common counsel whether they would go to war or be in peace that year . '' All three castes participated in the general council ; twelve representatives from each caste were sent from each Gau . In 782 , Charlemagne abolished the system of Gaue and replaced it with the Grafschaftsverfassung , the system of counties typical of Francia . By prohibiting the Marklo councils , Charlemagne pushed the frilingi and lazzi out of political power . The old Saxon system of Abgabengrundherrschaft , lordship based on dues and taxes , was replaced by a form of feudalism based on service and labour , personal relationships and oaths . Religion Paganism Saxon religious practices were closely related to their political practices . The annual councils of the entire tribe began with invocations of the gods . The procedure by which dukes were elected in wartime , by drawing lots , is presumed to have had religious significance , i. e. in giving trust to divine providence – it seems – to guide the random decision making . There were also sacred rituals and objects , such as the pillars called Irminsul ; these were believed to connect heaven and earth , as with other examples of trees or ladders to heaven in numerous religions . Charlemagne had one such pillar chopped down in 772 close to the Eresburg stronghold . Early Saxon religious practices in Britain can be gleaned from place names and the Germanic calendar in use at that time . The Germanic gods Woden , Frigg , Tiw and Thunor , who are attested to in every Germanic tradition , were worshipped in Wessex , Sussex and Essex . They are the only ones directly attested to , though the names of the third and fourth months ( March and April ) of the Old English calendar bear the names Hrethmonath and Eosturmonath , meaning `` month of Hretha '' and `` month of Ēostre . '' It is presumed that these are the names of two goddesses who were worshipped around that season . The Saxons offered cakes to their gods in February ( Solmonath ) . There was a religious festival associated with the harvest , Halegmonath ( `` holy month '' or `` month of offerings '' , September ) . The Saxon calendar began on 25 December , and the months of December and January were called Yule ( or Giuli ) . They contained a Modra niht or `` night of the mothers '' , another religious festival of unknown content . The Saxon freemen and servile class remained faithful to their original beliefs long after their nominal conversion to Christianity . Nursing a hatred of the upper class , which , with Frankish assistance , had marginalised them from political power , the lower classes ( the plebeium vulgus or cives ) were a problem for Christian authorities as late as 836 . The Translatio S. Liborii remarks on their obstinacy in pagan ritus et superstitio ( usage and superstition ) . Christianity The conversion of the Saxons in England from their original Germanic religion to Christianity occurred in the early to late 7th century under the influence of the already converted Jutes of Kent . In the 630s , Birinus became the `` apostle to the West Saxons '' and converted Wessex , whose first Christian king was Cynegils . The West Saxons begin to emerge from obscurity only with their conversion to Christianity and keeping written records . The Gewisse , a West Saxon people , were especially resistant to Christianity ; Birinus exercised more efforts against them and ultimately succeeded in conversion . In Wessex , a bishopric was founded at Dorchester . The South Saxons were first evangelised extensively under Anglian influence ; Aethelwalh of Sussex was converted by Wulfhere , King of Mercia and allowed Wilfrid , Archbishop of York , to evangelise his people beginning in 681 . The chief South Saxon bishopric was that of Selsey . The East Saxons were more pagan than the southern or western Saxons ; their territory had a superabundance of pagan sites . Their king , Saeberht , was converted early and a diocese was established at London . Its first bishop , Mellitus , was expelled by Saeberht 's heirs . The conversion of the East Saxons was completed under Cedd in the 650s and 660s . The continental Saxons were evangelised

dpql_1865--Saxons.txt

Of which Saxon kingdom was Offa a King?

Luigina `` Gina '' Lollobrigida ( ; born 4 July 1927 ) is an Italian actress , photojournalist and sculptor . She was one of the highest profile European actresses of the 1950s and early 1960s , a period in which she was an international sex symbol . As her film career slowed , she established second careers as a photojournalist and sculptor . In the 1970s , she achieved a scoop by gaining access to Fidel Castro for an exclusive interview . She has continued as an active supporter of Italian and Italian American causes , particularly the National Italian American Foundation ( NIAF ) . In 2008 , she received the NIAF Lifetime Achievement Award at the Foundation 's Anniversary Gala . In 2013 , she sold her jewelry collection , and donated the nearly $ 5 million from the sale to benefit stem cell therapy research . Youth Born Luigina Lollobrigida in Subiaco , Italy , she is one of four daughters of a furniture manufacturer and his wife . Her sisters are Giuliana ( b . 1924 ) , Maria ( b . 1929 ) and Fernanda ( 1930–2011 ) . In her youth , Lollobrigida did some modelling , and from that , she participated successfully in several beauty contests . At around this time , she began appearing in Italian films in minor roles . In 1945 , at age 18 , she played a part in the comedy Santarellina by Eduardo Scarpetta at the Teatro della Concordia of Monte Castello di Vibio . ( It is the smallest theatre all'italiana in the world . ) In 1947 , Lollobrigida entered the Miss Italia pageant and came in third place , giving her national exposure . Career Cinema In 1950 , Howard Hughes invited Lollobrigida to work in Hollywood , but she refused , preferring to remain in Europe ; this decision prevented her from working in American movies filmed in the USA until 1959 , though not from working in American productions shot in Europe . Her performance in Bread , Love and Dreams ( Pane , amore e fantasia , 1953 ) led to her receiving a BAFTA nomination and won a Nastro d'Argento award . Lollobrigida also appeared in The Wayward Wife ( 1953 ) and in Woman of Rome ( 1954 ) . These were three of her most renowned Italian films , but she worked also in the French industry on such films as Fearless Little Soldier ( Fanfan la Tulipe , 1952 ) , Beauties of the Night ( Les Belles de nuit , also 1952 ) and Le Grand Jeu ( 1954 ) . Her first widely seen English language film was Beat the Devil ( 1953 ) , a film which was shot in Italy . In this film , directed by John Huston , she played the wife of Humphrey Bogart , with Jennifer Jones as her rival . She then took part in the Italian-American production Crossed Swords ( 1954 ) , co-starring with Errol Flynn . Her appearance in The World 's Most Beautiful Woman ( also known as Beautiful But Dangerous , 1955 ) led to her receiving the first David di Donatello for Best Actress award ; in this film she interpreted the Italian soprano Lina Cavalieri , singing some arias from Tosca with her own voice . She had the principal female lead in the circus drama Trapeze ( 1956 ) directed by Carol Reed co-starring with Burt Lancaster and Tony Curtis and in The Hunchback of Notre Dame ( 1956 ) , appeared as Esmeralda with Anthony Quinn as Quasimodo . The film was directed by Jean Delannoy . In 1959 , she appeared in the French movie The Law , alongside Yves Montand and Marcello Mastroianni ; then , she co-starred with Frank Sinatra in Never So Few ( 1959 ) and with Yul Brynner in Solomon and Sheba ( also 1959 ) . The latter was the last film directed by King Vidor , and features an almost unique orgy scene in Hollywood motion pictures of that era ; furthermore , Brynner was chosen to substitute Tyrone Power , who died before the shots were completed . In the romantic comedy Come September ( 1961 ) , Lollobrigida had a leading role along with Rock Hudson , Sandra Dee and Bobby Darin . It was a film for which she won a Golden Globe Award . She appeared , also in 1961 , with Ernest Borgnine and Anthony Franciosa in the drama Go Naked in the World . Jean Delannoy then directed her again , this time in Venere Imperiale ( 1962 ) . She co-starred with Stephen Boyd and she received Nastro d'Argento and David di Donatello awards . She co-starred with Sean Connery in the thriller Woman of Straw ( 1964 ) , with Rock Hudson again in Strange Bedfellows ( 1965 ) and appeared with Alec Guinness in Hotel Paradiso ( 1966 ) . She starred in Buona Sera , Mrs. Campbell ( 1968 ) with Shelley Winters , Phil Silvers , Peter Lawford and Telly Savalas . For this role , she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award and won a third David di Donatello award . Lollobrigida co-starred with Bob Hope in the comedy The Private Navy of Sgt . O'Farrell and also accompanied Hope on his visits to military troops overseas . By the 1970s , her film career had slowed down . She appeared in King , Queen , Knave , co-starring with David Niven , and in a few other poorly received productions in the early part of the decade . In 1973 , she was a member of the jury at the 8th Moscow International Film Festival . In the mid-1980s , she starred in the television series Falcon Crest as Francesca Gioberti , a role originally written for Sophia Loren , who had turned it down . For that role she received a third Golden Globe nomination . She also had a supporting role in the 1985 television miniseries Deceptions , co-starring with Stefanie Powers . The following year she appeared as guest star in the TV series The Love Boat . In 1986 , she was invited to head the jury at the 36th Berlin International Film Festival , which awarded the Golden Bear to Reinhard Hauff 's film Stammheim . She said the decision was made for political reasons . In the 1990s , she made a few minor French film appearances and continued to participate and attend international film festivals . Photojournalism By the end of the 1970s , Lollobrigida had embarked on what she developed as a successful second career as a photographic journalist . She photographed , among others , Paul Newman , Salvador Dalí , Henry Kissinger , David Cassidy , Audrey Hepburn , Ella Fitzgerald and the German national football team . She even managed to obtain an exclusive interview with Fidel Castro , leader of Communist Cuba . In 1973 , a collection of her work was published under the title Italia Mia . Personal life In 1949 , she married a Slovenian physician , Milko Škofič . They had one child , Andrea Milko ( Milko Škofič , Jr. ) , born on 28 July 1957 . Škofič gave up the practice of medicine to become her manager . They divorced in 1971 . In 1969 , she was engaged for a short time to George Kaufman , a New York real estate heir . During the 1960s , she also had an affair with Christiaan Barnard , a South African doctor and pioneer in heart transplant surgery . In October 2006 , at age 79 , she announced to Spain 's ¡Hola ! magazine her engagement to a 45-year-old Spanish businessman , Javier Rigau y Rafols . They had met at a party in Monte Carlo in 1984 and had since become companions . The engagement was called off on 6 December 2006 , reportedly because of the strain of intense media interest . In January 2013 , she started legal action against Javier Rigau y Rafols , claiming that her ex-boyfriend had staged a secret ceremony in which he `` married '' an imposter pretending to be her at a registry office in Barcelona . She said he intended to lay claim to her estate after her death . Lollobrigida accused Rigau of fraud , saying that he had earlier obtained the legal right to act on her behalf with a power of attorney , and carried out the plot to get extra power . `` A while ago he convinced me to give him my power of attorney . He needed it for some legal affairs . But instead I fear that he took advantage of the fact that I do n't understand Spanish ... Who knows what he had me sign . '' Now retired , Lollobrigida has not made a film since 1997 . She told PARADE in April 2000 : `` I studied painting and sculpting at school and became an actress by mistake ... I 've had many lovers and still have romances . I am very spoiled . All my life , I 've had too many admirers . '' Lollobrigida has lived since 1949 at her home ranch and gardens in Sicily . The property contains her personal museum . In addition , she regularly stays at her house on Via Appia Antica in Rome and at a villa in Monte Carlo . Since 2009 Lollobrigida has not allowed visitors to her home . In 2013 , Lollobrigida sold her jewelry collection through Sotheby 's . She donated nearly $ 5 million to benefit stem cell therapy . Lollobrigida has a habit of referring to herself in the third person . Awards and nominations Lollobrigida has won six David di Donatello , two Nastro d'Argento , and six Bambi Awards ; she was nominated three times for the Golden Globe and won one in 1961 as World Film Favourite – Female ; she was nominated once for a Bafta . In 1985 , she was nominated as an officier of Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by Jack Lang because of her achievements in photography and sculpture . In 1992 , she was awarded the Légion d'honneur by François Mitterrand . On 16 October 1999 , Gina Lollobrigida was nominated Goodwill Ambassador of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( FAO ) . Books by Gina Lollobrigida * Italia mia , 1973 , a collection of photographs across Italy . * Wonder of Innocence , 1994 , a book of photographs . * Sculptures , 2003 . Filmography Cinema Television

qb_9599--Gina_Lollobrigida.txt

In which 1956 film did actress Gina Lollobrigida make her debut in American films?

A chemical element or element is a species of atoms having the same number of protons in their atomic nuclei ( i.e . the same atomic number , Z ) . There are 118 elements that have been identified , of which the first 94 occur naturally on Earth with the remaining 24 being synthetic elements . There are 80 elements that have at least one stable isotope and 38 that have exclusively radioactive isotopes , which decay over time into other elements . Iron is the most abundant element ( by mass ) making up Earth , while oxygen is the most common element in the crust of Earth . Chemical elements constitute all of the ordinary matter of the universe . However astronomical observations suggest that ordinary observable matter is only approximately 15 % of the matter in the universe : the remainder is dark matter , the composition of which is unknown , but it is not composed of chemical elements . The two lightest elements , hydrogen and helium were mostly formed in the Big Bang and are the most common elements in the universe . The next three elements ( lithium , beryllium and boron ) were formed mostly by cosmic ray spallation , and are thus more rare than those that follow . Formation of elements with from six to twenty six protons occurred and continues to occur in main sequence stars via stellar nucleosynthesis . The high abundance of oxygen , silicon , and iron on Earth reflects their common production in such stars . Elements with greater than twenty-six protons are formed by supernova nucleosynthesis in supernovae , which , when they explode , blast these elements far into space as supernova remnants , where they may become incorporated into planets when they are formed . The term `` element '' is used for a kind of atoms with a given number of protons ( regardless of whether they are or they are not ionized or chemically bonded , e.g . hydrogen in water ) as well as for a pure chemical substance consisting of a single element ( e.g . hydrogen gas ) . For the second meaning , the terms `` elementary substance '' and `` simple substance '' have been suggested , but they have not gained much acceptance in the English-language chemical literature , whereas in some other languages their equivalent is widely used ( e.g . French corps simple , Russian простое вещество ) . One element can form multiple substances different by their structure ; they are called allotropes of the element . When different elements are chemically combined , with the atoms held together by chemical bonds , they form chemical compounds . Only a minority of elements are found uncombined as relatively pure minerals . Among the more common of such `` native elements '' are copper , silver , gold , carbon ( as coal , graphite , or diamonds ) , and sulfur . All but a few of the most inert elements , such as noble gases and noble metals , are usually found on Earth in chemically combined form , as chemical compounds . While about 32 of the chemical elements occur on Earth in native uncombined forms , most of these occur as mixtures . For example , atmospheric air is primarily a mixture of nitrogen , oxygen , and argon , and native solid elements occur in alloys , such as that of iron and nickel . The history of the discovery and use of the elements began with primitive human societies that found native elements like carbon , sulfur , copper and gold . Later civilizations extracted elemental copper , tin , lead and iron from their ores by smelting , using charcoal . Alchemists and chemists subsequently identified many more , with almost all of the naturally-occurring elements becoming known by 1900 . The properties of the chemical elements are summarized on the periodic table , which organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows ( `` periods '' ) in which the columns ( `` groups '' ) share recurring ( `` periodic '' ) physical and chemical properties . Save for unstable radioactive elements with short half-lives , all of the elements are available industrially , most of them in high degrees of purity . Description The lightest chemical elements are hydrogen and helium , both created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis during the first 20 minutes of the universe in a ratio of around 3:1 by mass ( or 12:1 by number of atoms ) , along with tiny traces of the next two elements , lithium and beryllium . Almost all other elements found in nature were made by various natural methods of nucleosynthesis . On Earth , small amounts of new atoms are naturally produced in nucleogenic reactions , or in cosmogenic processes , such as cosmic ray spallation . New atoms are also naturally produced on Earth as radiogenic daughter isotopes of ongoing radioactive decay processes such as alpha decay , beta decay , spontaneous fission , cluster decay , and other rarer modes of decay . Of the 94 naturally occurring elements , those with atomic numbers 1 through 82 each have at least one stable isotope ( except for technetium , element 43 and promethium , element 61 , which have no stable isotopes ) . Isotopes considered stable are those for which no radioactive decay has yet been observed . Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that radioactive decay of all isotopes can be detected . Some of these elements , notably bismuth ( atomic number 83 ) , thorium ( atomic number 90 ) , uranium ( atomic number 92 ) and plutonium ( atomic number 94 ) , have one or more isotopes with half-lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy elements before the formation of our solar system . For example , at over 1.9 years , over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe , bismuth-209 ( atomic number 83 ) has the longest known alpha decay half-life of any naturally occurring element . The very heaviest elements ( those beyond plutonium , element 94 ) undergo radioactive decay with half-lives so short that they are not found in nature and must be synthesized . As of 2010 , there are 118 known elements ( in this context , `` known '' means observed well enough , even from just a few decay products , to have been differentiated from other elements ) . Of these 118 elements , 94 occur naturally on Earth . Six of these occur in extreme trace quantities : technetium , atomic number 43 ; promethium , number 61 ; astatine , number 85 ; francium , number 87 ; neptunium , number 93 ; and plutonium , number 94 . These 94 elements have been detected in the universe at large , in the spectra of stars and also supernovae , where short-lived radioactive elements are newly being made . The first 94 elements have been detected directly on Earth as primordial nuclides present from the formation of the solar system , or as naturally-occurring fission or transmutation products of uranium and thorium . The remaining 24 heavier elements , not found today either on Earth or in astronomical spectra , have been produced artificially : these are all radioactive , with very short half-lives ; if any atoms of these elements were present at the formation of Earth , they are extremely likely , to the point of certainty , to have already decayed , and if present in novae , have been in quantities too small to have been noted . Technetium was the first purportedly non-naturally occurring element synthesized , in 1937 , although trace amounts of technetium have since been found in nature ( and also the element may have been discovered naturally in 1925 ) . This pattern of artificial production and later natural discovery has been repeated with several other radioactive naturally-occurring rare elements . Lists of the elements are available by name , by symbol , by atomic number , by density , by melting point , and by boiling point as well as ionization energies of the elements . The nuclides of stable and radioactive elements are also available as a list of nuclides , sorted by length of half-life for those that are unstable . One of the most convenient , and certainly the most traditional presentation of the elements , is in the form of the periodic table , which groups together elements with similar chemical properties ( and usually also similar electronic structures ) . Atomic number The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in each atom , and defines the element . For example , all carbon atoms contain 6 protons in their atomic nucleus ; so the atomic number of carbon is 6 . Carbon atoms may have different numbers of neutrons ; atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes of the element . The number of protons in the atomic nucleus also determines its electric charge , which in turn determines the number of electrons of the atom in its non-ionized state . The electrons are placed into atomic orbitals that determine the atom 's various chemical properties . The number of neutrons in a nucleus usually has very little effect on an element 's chemical properties ( except in the case of hydrogen and deuterium ) . Thus , all carbon isotopes have nearly identical chemical properties because they all have six protons and six electrons , even though carbon atoms may , for example , have 6 or 8 neutrons . That is why the atomic number , rather than mass number or atomic weight , is considered the identifying characteristic of a chemical element . The symbol for atomic number is Z . Isotopes Isotopes are atoms of the same element ( that is , with the same number of protons in their atomic nucleus ) , but having different numbers of neutrons . Most ( 66 of 94 ) naturally occurring elements have more than one stable isotope . Thus , for example , there are three main isotopes of carbon . All carbon atoms have 6 protons in the nucleus , but they can have either 6 , 7 , or 8 neutrons . Since the mass numbers of these are 12 , 13 and 14 respectively , the three isotopes of carbon are known as carbon-12 , carbon-13 , and carbon-14 , often abbreviated to 12C , 13C , and 14C . Carbon in everyday life and in chemistry is a mixture of 12C ( about 98.9 % ) , 13C ( about 1.1 % ) and about 1 atom per trillion of 14C . Except in the case of the isotopes of hydrogen ( which differ greatly from each other in relative mass—enough to cause chemical effects ) , the isotopes of a given element are chemically nearly indistinguishable . All of the elements have some isotopes that are radioactive ( radioisotopes ) , although not all of these radioisotopes occur naturally . The radioisotopes typically decay into other elements upon radiating an alpha or beta particle . If an element has isotopes that are not radioactive , these are termed `` stable '' isotopes . All of the known stable isotopes occur naturally ( see primordial isotope ) . The many radioisotopes that are not found in nature have been characterized after being artificially made . Certain elements have no stable isotopes and are composed only of radioactive isotopes : specifically the elements without any stable isotopes are technetium ( atomic number 43 ) , promethium ( atomic number 61 ) , and all observed elements with atomic numbers greater than 82 . Of the 80 elements with at least one stable isotope , 26 have only one single stable isotope . The mean number of stable isotopes for the 80 stable elements is 3.1 stable isotopes per element . The largest number of stable isotopes that occur for a single element is 10 ( for tin , element 50 ) . Isotopic mass and atomic mass The mass number of an element , A , is the number of nucleons ( protons and neutrons ) in the atomic nucleus . Different isotopes of a given element are distinguished by their mass numbers , which are conventionally written as a superscript on the left hand side of the atomic symbol ( e.g. , 238U ) . The mass number is always a simple whole number and has units of `` nucleons . '' An example of a referral to a mass number is `` magnesium-24 , '' which is an atom with 24 nucleons ( 12 protons and 12 neutrons ) . Whereas the mass number simply counts the total number of neutrons and protons and is thus a natural ( or whole ) number , the atomic mass of a single atom is a real number for the mass of a particular isotope of the element , the unit being u . In general , when expressed in u it differs in value slightly from the mass number for a given nuclide ( or isotope ) since the mass of the protons and neutrons is not exactly 1 u , since the electrons contribute a lesser share to the atomic mass as neutron number exceeds proton number , and ( finally ) because of the nuclear binding energy . For example , the atomic mass of chlorine-35 to five significant digits is 34.969 u and that of chlorine-37 is 36.966 u . However , the atomic mass in u of each isotope is quite close to its simple mass number ( always within 1 % ) . The only isotope whose atomic mass is exactly a natural number is 12C , which by definition has a mass of exactly 12 , because u is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a free neutral carbon-12 atom in the ground state . The relative atomic mass ( historically and commonly also called `` atomic weight '' ) of an element is the average of the atomic masses of all the chemical element 's isotopes as found in a particular environment , weighted by isotopic abundance , relative to the atomic mass unit ( u ) . This number may be a fraction that is not close to a whole number , due to the averaging process . For example , the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.453 u , which differs greatly from a whole number due to being made of an average of 76 % chlorine-35 and 24 % chlorine-37 . Whenever a relative atomic mass value differs by more than 1 % from a whole number , it is due to this averaging effect resulting from significant amounts of more than one isotope being naturally present in the sample of the element in question . Chemically pure and isotopically pure Chemists and nuclear scientists have different definitions of a pure element . In chemistry , a pure element means a substance whose atoms all ( or in practice almost all ) have the same atomic number , or number of protons . Nuclear scientists , however , define a pure element as one that consists of only one stable isotope . For example , a copper wire is 99.99 % chemically pure if 99.99 % of its atoms are copper , with 29 protons each . However it is not isotopically pure since ordinary copper consists of two stable isotopes , 69 % 63Cu and 31 % 65Cu , with different numbers of neutrons . However , a pure gold ingot would be both chemically and isotopically pure , since ordinary gold consists only of one isotope , 197Au . Allotropes Atoms of chemically pure elements may bond to each other chemically in more than one way , allowing the pure element to exist in multiple structures ( spatial arrangements of atoms ) , known as allotropes , which differ in their properties . For example , carbon can be found as diamond , which has a tetrahedral structure around each carbon atom ; graphite , which has layers of carbon atoms with a hexagonal structure stacked on top of each other ; graphene , which is a single layer of graphite that is very strong ; fullerenes , which have nearly spherical shapes ; and carbon nanotubes , which are tubes with a hexagonal structure ( even these may differ from each other in electrical properties ) . The ability of an element to exist in one of many structural forms is known as 'allotropy ' . The standard state , also known as reference state , of an element is defined as its thermodynamically most stable state at 1 bar at a given temperature ( typically at 298.15 K ) . In thermochemistry , an element is defined to have an enthalpy of formation of zero in its standard state . For example , the reference state for carbon is graphite , because the structure of graphite is more stable than that of the other allotropes . Properties Several kinds of descriptive categorizations can be applied broadly to the elements , including consideration of their general physical and chemical properties , their states of matter under familiar conditions , their melting and boiling points , their densities , their crystal structures as solids , and their origins . General properties Several terms are commonly used to characterize the general physical and chemical properties of the chemical elements . A first distinction is between metals , which readily conduct electricity , nonmetals , which do not , and a small group , ( the metalloids ) , having intermediate properties and often behaving as semiconductors . A more refined classification is often shown in colored presentations of the periodic table . This system restricts the terms `` metal '' and `` nonmetal '' to only certain of the more broadly defined metals and nonmetals , adding additional terms for certain sets of the more broadly viewed metals and nonmetals . The version of this classification used in the periodic tables presented here includes : actinides , alkali metals , alkaline earth metals , halogens , lanthanides , transition metals , post-transition metals , metalloids , polyatomic nonmetals , diatomic nonmetals , and noble gases . In this system , the alkali metals , alkaline earth metals , and transition metals , as well as the lanthanides and the actinides , are special groups of the metals viewed in a broader sense . Similarly , the polyatomic nonmetals , diatomic nonmetals and the noble gases are nonmetals viewed in the broader sense . In some presentations , the halogens are not distinguished , with astatine identified as a metalloid and the others identified as nonmetals . States of matter Another commonly used basic distinction among the elements is their state of matter ( phase ) , whether solid , liquid , or gas , at a selected standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) . Most of the elements are solids at conventional temperatures and atmospheric pressure , while several are gases . Only bromine and mercury are liquids at 0 degrees Celsius ( 32 degrees Fahrenheit ) and normal atmospheric pressure ; caesium and gallium are solids at that temperature , but melt at 28.4 °C ( 83.2 °F ) and 29.8 °C ( 85.6 °F ) , respectively . Melting and boiling points Melting and boiling points , typically expressed in degrees Celsius at a pressure of one atmosphere , are commonly used in characterizing the various elements . While known for most elements , either or both of these measurements is still undetermined for some of the radioactive elements available in only tiny quantities . Since helium remains a liquid even at absolute zero at atmospheric pressure , it has only a boiling point , and not a melting point , in conventional presentations . Densities The density at a selected standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) is frequently used in characterizing the elements . Density is often expressed in grams per cubic centimeter ( g/cm3 ) . Since several elements are gases at commonly encountered temperatures , their densities are usually stated for their gaseous forms ; when liquefied or solidified , the gaseous elements have densities similar to those of the other elements . When an element has allotropes with different densities , one representative allotrope is typically selected in summary presentations , while densities for each allotrope can be stated where more detail is provided . For example , the three familiar allotropes of carbon ( amorphous carbon , graphite , and diamond ) have densities of 1.8–2.1 , 2.267 , and 3.515 g/cm3 , respectively . Crystal structures The elements studied to date as solid samples have eight kinds of crystal structures : cubic , body-centered cubic , face-centered cubic , hexagonal , monoclinic , orthorhombic , rhombohedral , and tetragonal . For some of the synthetically produced transuranic elements , available samples have been too small to determine crystal structures . Occurrence and origin on Earth Chemical elements may also be categorized by their origin on Earth , with the first 94 considered naturally occurring , while those with atomic numbers beyond 94 have only been produced artificially as the synthetic products of man-made nuclear reactions . Of the 94 naturally occurring elements , 84 are considered primordial and either stable or weakly radioactive . The remaining 10 naturally occurring elements possess half lives too short for them to have been present at the beginning of the Solar System , and are therefore considered transient elements . ( Plutonium is sometimes also considered a transient element because primordial plutonium has by now decayed to almost undetectable traces . ) Of these 10 transient elements , 5 ( polonium , radon , radium , actinium , and protactinium ) are relatively common decay products of thorium , uranium , and plutonium . The remaining 5 transient elements ( technetium , promethium , astatine , francium , and neptunium ) occur only rarely , as products of rare decay modes or nuclear reaction processes involving uranium or other heavy elements . Elements with atomic numbers 1 through 40 are all stable , while those with atomic numbers 41 through 82 ( except technetium and promethium ) are metastable . The half-lives of these metastable `` theoretical radionuclides '' are so long ( at least 100 million times longer than the estimated age of the universe ) that their radioactive decay has yet to be detected by experiment . Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that their radioactive decay can be detected . Four of these elements , bismuth ( element 83 ) , thorium ( element 90 ) , uranium ( element 92 ) , and plutonium ( element 94 ) , have one or more isotopes with half-lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy elements before the formation of our solar system . For example , at over 1.9 years , over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe , bismuth-209 has the longest known alpha decay half-life of any naturally occurring element . The very heaviest elements ( those beyond plutonium , element 94 ) undergo radioactive decay with short half-lives and do not occur in nature . The periodic table The properties of the chemical elements are often summarized using the periodic table , which powerfully and elegantly organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows ( `` periods '' ) in which the columns ( `` groups '' ) share recurring ( `` periodic '' ) physical and chemical properties . The current standard table contains 118 confirmed elements as of 10 April 2010 . Although earlier precursors to this presentation exist , its invention is generally credited to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869 , who intended the table to illustrate recurring trends in the properties of the elements . The layout of the table has been refined and extended over time as new elements have been discovered and new theoretical models have been developed to explain chemical behavior . Use of the periodic table is now ubiquitous within the academic discipline of chemistry , providing an extremely useful framework to classify , systematize and compare all the many different forms of chemical behavior . The table has also found wide application in physics , geology , biology , materials science , engineering , agriculture , medicine , nutrition , environmental health , and astronomy . Its principles are especially important in chemical engineering . Nomenclature and symbols The various chemical elements are formally identified by their unique atomic numbers , by their accepted names , and by their symbols . Atomic numbers The known elements have atomic numbers from 1 through 118 , conventionally presented as Arabic numerals . Since the elements can be uniquely sequenced by atomic number , conventionally from lowest to highest ( as in a periodic table ) , sets of elements are sometimes specified by such notation as `` through '' , `` beyond '' , or `` from ... through '' , as in `` through iron '' , `` beyond uranium '' , or `` from lanthanum through lutetium '' . The terms `` light '' and `` heavy '' are sometimes also used informally to indicate relative atomic numbers ( not densities ) , as in `` lighter than carbon '' or `` heavier than lead '' , although technically the weight or mass of atoms of an element ( their atomic weights or atomic masses ) do not always increase monotonically with their atomic numbers . Element names The naming of various substances now known as elements precedes the atomic theory of matter , as names were given locally by various cultures to various minerals , metals , compounds , alloys , mixtures , and other materials , although at the time it was not known which chemicals were elements and which compounds . As they were identified as elements , the existing names for anciently-known elements ( e.g. , gold , mercury , iron ) were kept in most countries . National differences emerged over the names of elements either for convenience , linguistic niceties , or nationalism . For a few illustrative examples : German speakers use `` Wasserstoff '' ( water substance ) for `` hydrogen '' , `` Sauerstoff '' ( acid substance ) for `` oxygen '' and `` Stickstoff '' ( smothering substance ) for `` nitrogen '' , while English and some romance languages use `` sodium '' for `` natrium '' and `` potassium '' for `` kalium '' , and the French , Italians , Greeks , Portuguese and Poles prefer `` azote/azot/azoto '' ( from roots meaning `` no life '' ) for `` nitrogen '' . For purposes of international communication and trade , the official names of the chemical elements both ancient and more recently recognized are decided by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) , which has decided on a sort of international English language , drawing on traditional English names even when an element 's chemical symbol is based on a Latin or other traditional word , for example adopting `` gold '' rather than `` aurum '' as the name for the 79th element ( Au ) . IUPAC prefers the British spellings `` aluminium '' and `` caesium '' over the U.S. spellings `` aluminum '' and `` cesium '' , and the U.S. `` sulfur '' over the British `` sulphur '' . However , elements that are practical to sell in bulk in many countries often still have locally used national names , and countries whose national language does not use the Latin alphabet are likely to use the IUPAC element names . According to IUPAC , chemical elements are not proper nouns in English ; consequently , the full name of an element is not routinely capitalized in English , even if derived from a proper noun , as in californium and einsteinium . Isotope names of chemical elements are also uncapitalized if written out , e.g. , carbon-12 or uranium-235 . Chemical element symbols ( such as Cf for californium and Es for einsteinium ) , are always capitalized ( see below ) . In the second half of the twentieth century , physics laboratories became able to produce nuclei of chemical elements with half-lives too short for an appreciable amount of them to exist at any

wh_2109--Chemical_element.txt

The name of which chemical element of the Periodic Table ends with the letters KEL ?

Sir Cliff Richard ( born Harry Rodger Webb , 14 October 1940 ) is a British pop singer , musician , performer , actor and philanthropist . Richard has sold more than 250 million records worldwide . He has total sales of over 21 million singles in the UK and is the third-top-selling artist in UK Singles Chart history , behind the Beatles and Elvis Presley . With his backing group , the Shadows , Richard , originally positioned as a rebellious rock and roll singer in the style of Little Richard and Elvis Presley , dominated the British popular music scene in the pre-Beatles period of the late 1950s and early 1960s . His 1958 hit single , `` Move It '' , is often described as Britain 's first authentic rock and roll song , and John Lennon once claimed that `` before Cliff and the Shadows , there had been nothing worth listening to in British music . '' Increased focus on his Christian faith and subsequent softening of his music later led to a more middle of the road pop image , and he sometimes ventured into contemporary Christian music . Over a career spanning more than 50 years Richard has amassed many gold and platinum discs and awards , including three Brit Awards—winning Best British Male twice and the Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music , and two Ivor Novello Awards . He has had more than 130 singles , albums and EPs make the UK Top 20 , more than any other artist and holds the record ( with Elvis Presley ) as the only act to make the UK singles charts in all of its first six decades ( 1950s–2000s ) . He has achieved 14 UK No . 1 singles , and is the only singer to have had a No . 1 single in the UK in five consecutive decades : the 1950s through to the 1990s . In 2008 , he celebrated his 50th anniversary in music by releasing a greatest hits album , featuring the new track `` Thank You for a Lifetime '' , which reached No . 3 in the UK singles chart . In November 2013 , Richard released The Fabulous Rock 'n ' Roll Songbook , which became the 100th album of his career . Richard has never achieved the same impact in the United States despite eight US Top 40 singles , including the million-selling `` Devil Woman '' and `` We Do n't Talk Anymore , '' the latter becoming the first to reach the Billboard Hot 100 's top 40 in the 1980s by a singer who had been in the Billboard top 40 in the 1950s , 1960s and 1970s . In Canada , Richard achieved comparatively more success , with a successful period in the early 1960s , and again in the late 1970s and early 1980s with some singles and albums reaching gold and platinum status . He has remained a popular music , film , and television personality in Australia , New Zealand , South Africa , Northern Europe and Asia , and he retains a following in other countries . Richard has been a resident in the United Kingdom for most of his life , but in 2010 , he confirmed that he had become a citizen of Barbados . He divides his time between living in Barbados and Portugal . Biography 1940–58 : Childhood and adolescence Harry Rodger Webb was born in India at King George 's Hospital , Victoria Street , in Lucknow , which was then part of British India ( or the British Raj ) . His parents were Rodger Oscar Webb , a manager for a catering contractor that serviced the Indian Railways , and the former Dorothy Marie Dazely . Richard is primarily of English heritage , but he has one great-grandmother who was of half Welsh and half Spanish descent , born of a Spanish great-great-grandmother named Emiline Joseph Rebeiro . The Webb family lived in a modest home in Maqbara , near the main shopping centre of Hazratganj . Dorothy 's mother served as the dormitory matron at the La Martiniere Girls ' School . Richard has three sisters . In 1948 , following Indian independence , the family embarked on a three-week sea voyage to Tilbury , Essex , England aboard the . The Webbs moved from comparative wealth in India , where they had servants and lived in a company-supplied flat at Howrah near Calcutta , to a semi-detached house in Carshalton . Harry Webb attended a local primary school , Stanley Park Juniors , in Carshalton . In 1949 his father obtained employment in the credit control office of Thorn Electrical Industries and the family moved in with other relatives in Waltham Cross , Hertfordshire , where he attended Kings Road Junior Mixed Infants School until a three-bedroom council house in Cheshunt was allocated to them in 1950 . He then attended Cheshunt Secondary Modern School from 1952 to 1957 . ( The school was later renamed Riversmead School before being rebuilt and renamed Bishopslea School ) . As a member of the top stream , he stayed on beyond the minimum leaving age to take GCE Ordinary Level examinations and gained a pass in English literature . He then started work as a filing clerk for Atlas Lamps . A development of retirement flats , Cliff Richard Court , has been named after him in Cheshunt . Harry Webb became interested in skiffle . His father bought him a guitar at 16 and he formed the Quintones vocal group in 1957 , before singing in the Dick Teague Skiffle Group . 1958–63 : Success and stardom Harry Webb became lead singer of a rock and roll group , the Drifters ( not to be confused with the US group of the same name ) . The 1950s entrepreneur Harry Greatorex wanted the up-and-coming Rock 'n ' Roll singer to change from his real name of Harry Webb . The name Cliff was adopted as it sounded like `` cliff face '' , which suggested `` Rock '' . It was `` Move It '' writer Ian Samwell who suggested that the former Harry Webb be surnamed `` Richard '' as a tribute to Webb 's musical hero Little Richard . Before their first large-scale appearance , at the Regal Ballroom in Ripley , Derbyshire in 1958 , they adopted the name `` Cliff Richard and the Drifters '' . The four members were Harry Webb ( now going under the stage name `` Cliff Richard '' ) , Ian `` Sammy '' Samwell on guitar , Terry Smart on drums and Norman Mitham on guitar . None of the other three played with the later and better known Shadows , although Samwell wrote songs for Richard 's later career . For his debut session , Norrie Paramor provided Richard with `` Schoolboy Crush '' , a cover of an American record by Bobby Helms . Richard was permitted to record one of his own songs for the B-side ; this was `` Move It '' , written and composed by the Drifters ' Samwell while he was on board a number 715 Green Line bus on the way to Richard 's house for a rehearsal . For the `` Move It '' session , Paramor used the session guitarist Ernie Shears on lead guitar and Frank Clark on bass . There are various stories about why the A-side was replaced by the intended B-side . One is that Norrie Paramor 's young daughter raved about the B-side ; another was that influential TV producer Jack Good , who used the act for his TV show Oh Boy ! , wanted the only song on his show to be `` Move It '' . Richard was quoted as saying : The single went to No . 2 on the UK Singles Chart . John Lennon credited `` Move It '' as being the first British rock record . In the early days , Richard was marketed as the British equivalent of Elvis Presley . Like previous British rockers such as Tommy Steele and Marty Wilde , Richard adopted Presley-like dress and hairstyle . In performance he struck a pose of rock attitude , rarely smiling or looking at the audience or camera . His late 1958 and early 1959 follow-up singles , `` High Class Baby '' and `` Livin ' Lovin ' Doll '' , were followed by `` Mean Streak '' , which carried a rocker 's sense of speed and passion , and Lionel Bart 's `` Living Doll '' . It was on `` Living Doll '' that the Drifters began to back Richard on record . It was his fifth record , and became his first No . 1 single . By that time , the group 's line-up had changed with the arrival of Jet Harris , Tony Meehan , Hank Marvin and Bruce Welch . The group was obliged to change its name to `` The Shadows '' after legal complications with the American group the Drifters as `` Living Doll '' entered the American top 40 , licensed by ABC-Paramount . `` Living Doll '' was used in Richard 's début film Serious Charge , but it was arranged as a country standard , rather than a rock and roll standard . The Shadows were not a typical backing group . They became contractually separate from Richard , and the group received no royalties for records backing Richard . In 1959 , the Shadows ( then still the Drifters ) landed an EMI recording contract of their own , for independent recordings . That year , they released three singles , two of which featured double-sided vocals and one of which had instrumental A and B sides . They thereafter had several major hits , including five UK No . 1s . The band also continued to appear and record with Richard and wrote many of his hits . On more than one occasion , a Shadows instrumental replaced a Richard song at the top of the British charts . Richard 's fifth single `` Living Doll '' triggered a softer , more relaxed , sound . Subsequent hits , the No . 1s `` Travellin ' Light '' and `` I Love You '' and also `` A Voice in the Wilderness '' , lifted from his film Expresso Bongo , and `` Theme for a Dream '' cemented Richard 's status as a mainstream pop entertainer along with contemporaries such as Adam Faith and Billy Fury . Throughout the early 1960s , his hits were consistently in the top five . In 1961 , EMI records organised Richard 's 21st birthday party at its London headquarters in Manchester Square led by his producer Norrie Paramor . Photographs of the celebrations were incorporated into Richard 's next album `` 21 Today '' in which Tony Meehan joined in despite , then , having very recently left the Shadows to be replaced by Brian Bennett . Typically , the Shadows closed the first half of the show with a 30-minute set of their own , then backed Richard on his show-closing 45-minute stint as exemplified by the retrospective CD album release of Live at the ABC Kingston 1962 . Tony Meehan and Jet Harris left the group in 1961 and 1962 respectively and later had their own chart successes for Decca . The Shadows added bass players Brian Locking ( 1962–63 ) and then John Rostill ( 1963–68 ) and took on Brian Bennett permanently on drums . In the early years , particularly on album and EP releases , Richard also recorded ballads backed by the Norrie Paramor Orchestra with Tony Meehan ( and later Brian Bennett ) as a session drummer . His first such single without the Shadows was When the Girl in Your Arms Is the Girl in Your Heart in 1961 , and he continued to release one or two per year , including covers of `` It 's All in the Game '' in 1963 and `` Constantly '' in 1964 , a revival of a popular Italian hit . In 1965 , sessions under the direction of Billy Sherrill in Nashville , Tennessee were particularly successful , yielding `` The Minute You 're Gone '' , which topped the UK singles chart and `` Wind Me Up ( Let Me Go ) '' which made No . 2 . But Richard , and in particular the Shadows , never achieved star status in the United States . In 1960 they toured the United States and were well-received , but lacklustre support and distribution from a revolving door of American record labels proved an obstacle to long-term success there despite several chart records by Richard including the aforementioned `` It 's All in the Game '' on Epic , via a renewed linking of the worldwide Columbia labels after Philips ended its distribution deal with CBS . To the Shadows ' chagrin , `` Apache '' reached No . 1 in the US through a cover version by Danish guitarist Jorgen Ingmann which was almost unchanged from their worldwide hit . Richard and the band appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show , which was crucial for the Beatles , but these performances did not help them gain sustained success in North America . Richard and the Shadows appeared in six feature films including a debut in the 1959 film Serious Charge but most notably in The Young Ones , Summer Holiday , Wonderful Life , and Finders Keepers . These films created their own genre , known as the `` Cliff Richard musical '' , and led to Richard being named the No . 1 cinema box office attraction in Britain for both 1962 and 1963 , beating that of even James Bond . The title song of The Young Ones became his biggest-selling single in the United Kingdom , selling over one million copies in the UK . The irreverent 1980s TV sitcom The Young Ones took its name from Richard 's 1962 film . In mid-1963 , Cliff and the Shadows appeared for a season in Blackpool , where Richard had his portrait modelled by Victor Heyfron . 1964–75 : Changing circumstances As with the other existing rock acts in Britain , Richard 's career was affected by the advent of the Beatles and the Mersey sound in 1963 and 1964 . He continued to have hits in the charts throughout the 1960s , though not at the level that he had enjoyed before . Nor did doors open to him in the US market ; he was not considered part of the British Invasion , and despite four Hot 100 hits ( including the top 25 `` It 's All in the Game '' ) between August 1963 and August 1964 , the American public had little awareness of him . Richard 's 1965 UK No . 12 hit `` On My Word '' ended a run of 23 consecutive top ten UK hits between `` A Voice in the Wilderness '' in 1960 to `` The Minute You 're Gone '' in 1965 , which , to date , is still a record number of consecutive top ten UK hits for a male artist . Richard continued having international hits , including 1967 's `` The Day I Met Marie '' , which reached No . 10 in the UK Singles Chart and No . 5 in the Australian charts . Although baptised as an Anglican , Richard did not practise the faith in his early years . In 1964 , he became an active Christian and his faith has become an important aspect of his life . Standing up publicly as a Christian affected his career in several ways . Initially , he believed that he should quit rock 'n ' roll , feeling he could no longer be the rocker who had been called a `` crude exhibitionist '' and `` too sexy for TV '' . Richard intended at first to `` reform his ways '' and become a teacher , but Christian friends advised him not to abandon his career just because he had become an active Christian . Soon after , Richard re-emerged , performing with Christian groups and recording some Christian material . He still recorded secular songs with the Shadows , but devoted a lot of his time to Christian work , including appearances with the Billy Graham crusades . As time progressed , Richard balanced his faith and work , enabling him to remain one of the most popular singers in Britain as well as one of its best-known Christians . Richard acted in the 1967 film Two a Penny , released by Billy Graham 's World Wide Pictures , [ http : //www.imdb.com/title/tt0140642/ Two a Penny ( 1967 ) IMDB.com ] in which he played Jamie Hopkins , a young man who gets involved in drug dealing while questioning his life after his girlfriend changes her attitude . He released the live album Cliff in Japan in 1967 . In 1968 , he sang the UK 's entry in the Eurovision Song Contest , `` Congratulations '' , written and composed by Bill Martin and Phil Coulter ; it lost , however , by one point to Spain 's `` La La La '' . According to John Kennedy O'Connor 's The Eurovision Song Contest—The Official History , this was the closest result yet in the contest and Richard locked himself in the toilet to avoid the nerves of the voting . In May 2008 , a Reuters news report claimed that voting in the competition had been fixed by the Spanish dictator leader , Francisco Franco , to ensure that the Spanish entry won , allowing them to host the contest the following year ( 1969 ) . It is claimed that Spanish TVE television executives offered to buy programmes in exchange for votes . The story was widely covered and featured on UK 's Channel 4 News as a main story on 7 May 2008 , with Jon Snow interviewing author and historian John Kennedy O'Connor about the matter . Eurovision later ended voting by national juries in a bid to eradicate such alleged scams . Nevertheless , `` Congratulations '' was a huge hit throughout Europe and Australia , and yet another No . 1 in April 1968 . After the Shadows split in 1968 , Richard continued to record . During the 1970s , Richard took part in several television shows and fronted his own show It 's Cliff Richard from 1970–1976 . It starred Olivia Newton-John , Hank Marvin and Una Stubbs , and included A Song for Europe . He began 1970 by appearing live on the BBC 's review of the sixties music scene , Pop Go The Sixties , which was broadcast across Britain and Europe on 31 December 1969 . He performed `` Bachelor Boy '' with the Shadows and `` Congratulations '' solo . In 1972 , he made a short BBC television comedy film called The Case with appearances from comedians and his first ever duets with a woman—Newton-John . He went on to release a double live album , Cliff Live in Japan 1972 , which featured Newton-John . His final acting role on the silver screen to date was in 1973 , when he starred in the film Take Me High . In 1973 , he sang the British Eurovision entry `` Power to All Our Friends ; '' the song finished third , close behind Luxembourg 's `` Tu Te Reconnaîtras '' and Spain 's `` Eres Tú . '' This time , Richard took Valium to overcome his nerves and his manager was almost unable to wake him for the performance . Richard also hosted the BBC 's qualifying heat for the Eurovision Song Contest , A Song for Europe , in 1970 , 1971 and 1972 as part of his BBCTV variety series . He presented the Eurovision Song Contest Previews for the BBC in 1971 and 1972 . In 1975 , he released the single `` Honky Tonk Angel , '' produced by Hank Marvin and John Farrar , oblivious to its connotations or hidden meanings . As soon as he was notified that a `` honky-tonk angel '' was southern US slang for a prostitute , the horrified Richard ordered EMI to withdraw it and refused to promote it despite making a video for it . EMI agreed to his demand despite positive sales . About 1,000 copies are known to exist on vinyl . 1976–94 : Renaissance In 1976 , the decision was made to repackage Richard as a `` rock '' artist . That year Bruce Welch relaunched Cliff 's career and produced the landmark album I 'm Nearly Famous , which included the successful but controversial guitar-driven track `` Devil Woman '' , which became Richard 's first true hit in the United States , and the ballad `` Miss You Nights '' . In reviewing the new album in Melody Maker , Geoff Brown heralded it the renaissance of Richard . Richard 's fans were excited about this revival of a performer who had been a part of British rock from its early days . Many music names such as Jimmy Page , Eric Clapton and Elton John were seen sporting I 'm Nearly Famous badges , pleased that their boyhood idol was getting back into the heavier rock in which he had begun his career . Notwithstanding this , Richard continued to release albums with contemporary Christian music content in parallel with his rock and pop albums , for example : Small Corners from 1978 contained the single `` Yes He Lives '' . On 31 December 1976 , he performed his latest single , `` Hey , Mr. Dream Maker '' , on BBC1 's A Jubilee of Music , celebrating British pop music for Queen Elizabeth II 's impending Silver Jubilee . In 1979 , Richard teamed up once again with producer Bruce Welch for the pop hit single `` We Do n't Talk Anymore '' , written and composed by Alan Tarney , which hit No . 1 in the UK and No . 7 in the US . Bryan Ferry added hummed backing vocals to the song . The record made Richard the first act to reach the Hot 100 's top 40 in the 1980s who had also been there in each of the three previous decades . The song was quickly added onto the end of his latest album Rock 'n ' Roll Juvenile , which was re-titled We Do n't Talk Anymore for its release in the United States . It was his first time at the top of the UK singles chart in over ten years and the song would become his biggest-selling single worldwide , selling almost five million copies throughout the world . Later in 1979 , Richard performed with Kate Bush at the London Symphony Orchestra 's 75th anniversary celebration at the Royal Albert Hall . With `` We Do n't Talk Anymore '' in 1979 , Richard finally began to receive some extended success in the United States to follow on from the success of `` Devil Woman '' in 1976 . In 1980 , `` Carrie '' broke into the US top 40 , followed by `` Dreamin ' '' , which reached No . 10 . His 1980 duet `` Suddenly '' with Olivia Newton-John , from the film Xanadu , peaked at No . 20 , followed by `` A Little In Love '' ( No . 17 ) and `` Daddy 's Home '' ( No . 23 ) in 1981 . It is ironic that at the end of 1980 , after many years of limited success in the US , he finally had success such that he had three singles on the Billboard Hot 100 chart simultaneously ( `` A Little In Love '' , `` Dreamin ' '' , and `` Suddenly '' ) . In the UK meanwhile , `` Carrie '' reached No . 4 and `` Dreamin ' '' peaked at No . 8 . In a retrospective review of `` Carrie , '' AllMusic journalist Dave Thompson praised `` Carrie '' as being `` an enthrallingly atmospheric number . One of the most electrifying of all Cliff Richard 's recordings . '' In 1980 , Richard officially changed his name , by deed poll , from Harry Rodger Webb to Cliff Richard . At the same time , he received the Officer of the Order of the British Empire from the Queen for services to music and charity . In 1981 , the single `` Wired for Sound '' hit No . 4 in the UK and also became Richard 's biggest hit in Australia since the early 1960s . To finish the year , `` Daddy 's Home '' hit No . 2 in the UK . On the singles chart , Richard was having his most consistent period of top twenty hits since the mid-1960s . He also was amassing a string of top ten albums , including I 'm No Hero , Wired for Sound , Now You See Me , Now You Do n't , a live album he recorded with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra titled Dressed for the Occasion , and Silver , marking his 25th year in show business in 1983 . In 1986 , Richard reached No . 1 by teaming up with The Young Ones to re-record his smash hit `` Living Doll '' for the charity Comic Relief . Along with the song , the recording contained comedy dialogue between Richard and the Young Ones . That same year Richard opened in the West End as a rock musician called upon to defend Earth in a trial set in the Andromeda Galaxy in the multi-media Dave Clark musical Time . Three Richard singles , `` She 's So Beautiful '' , which reached No . 17 in the UK , `` It 's In Every One of Us '' and `` Born To Rock 'n Roll '' , were released over 1985 and 1986 from the concept album recorded for Time . In August 1986 , Richard was involved in a five-car crash in torrential rain on the M4 motorway in West London . Richard 's car was a write-off as another car swerved and braked hard . Richard hurt his back in the accident , but was not seriously injured in the crash . Police called for a cab from the accident scene so that he was able to perform that night in the `` Time '' musical . Richard said : `` I 'm lucky to be here '' after the show . He said that his seatbelt prevented him from flying through the windscreen . In October 1986 , `` All I Ask of You '' , a duet that Richard recorded with Sarah Brightman from the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical version of The Phantom of the Opera reached No . 3 in the UK singles chart . 1987 saw Richard record his Always Guaranteed album , which became his best selling album of all new material . It contained the two top-10 hit singles `` My Pretty One '' and `` Some People '' . Richard concluded his thirtieth year in music by achieving a UK Christmas No . 1 single in 1988 with `` Mistletoe and Wine '' , while simultaneously holding the No . 1 positions on the album and video charts with the compilation Private Collection , which summed up his biggest hits from 1979 to 1988 . `` Mistletoe and Wine '' was Richard 's 99th UK single and spent four weeks at the top of the chart . It was the best-selling UK single of 1988 , shifting 750,000 copies . The album was certified quadruple platinum , becoming Richard 's first to be certified multi-platinum by the BPI since its inception in 1973 . In May 1989 , Richard released his 100th single , `` The Best of Me '' , becoming the first British artist to achieve the feat . The single peaked at No . 2 in the UK . It was also the lead single from the UK top ten album Stronger . Released along with the singles `` I Just Do n't Have the Heart '' ( UK No . 3 ) , `` Lean On You '' ( No . 17 ) and `` Stronger Than That '' ( No . 14 ) , the album become Richard 's first studio album to amass four UK top twenty hits . Also in 1989 , Richard received the Brits highest award : `` The Outstanding Contribution award '' . In June , he filled London 's Wembley Stadium for two nights with a spectacular titled `` The Event '' in front of a combined audience

odql_5535--Cliff_Richard.txt

Who wrote the Cliff Richard number one hit 'Living Doll'?

Carl Linnaeus ( ; 23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778 ) , also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné , was a Swedish botanist , physician , and zoologist , who formalised the modern system of naming organisms called binomial nomenclature . He is known by the epithet `` father of modern taxonomy '' . Many of his writings were in Latin , and his name is rendered in Latin as ( after 1761 Carolus a Linné ) . Linnaeus was born in the countryside of Småland , in southern Sweden . He received most of his higher education at Uppsala University , and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730 . He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738 , where he studied and also published a first edition of his ' in the Netherlands . He then returned to Sweden , where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala . In the 1740s , he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals . In the 1750s and 1760s , he continued to collect and classify animals , plants , and minerals , and published several volumes . At the time of his death , he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe . The Swiss philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message : `` Tell him I know no greater man on earth . '' The German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote : `` With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza , I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly . '' Swedish author August Strindberg wrote : `` Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist '' . Among other compliments , Linnaeus has been called ' ( Prince of Botanists ) , `` The Pliny of the North , '' and `` The Second Adam '' . He is also considered as one of the founders of modern ecology . In botany , the author abbreviation used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for species ' names is L. In older publications , sometimes the abbreviation `` Linn . '' is found ( for instance in : Cheeseman , T.F . ( 1906 ) – Manual of the New Zealand Flora ) . Linnaeus ' remains comprise the type specimen for the species Homo sapiens , following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , since the sole specimen he is known to have examined when writing the species description was himself . [ http : //www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted-sites/iczn/code/ ICZN Chapter 16 , Article 72.4.1.1 ] – `` For a nominal species or subspecies established before 2000 , any evidence , published or unpublished , may be taken into account to determine what specimens constitute the type series . '' and Article 73.1.2 – `` If the nominal species-group taxon is based on a single specimen , either so stated or implied in the original publication , that specimen is the holotype fixed by monotypy ( see Recommendation 73F ) . If the taxon was established before 2000 evidence derived from outside the work itself may be taken into account [ Art . 72.4.1.1 ] to help identify the specimen . '' Biography Childhood Linnæus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland , Sweden , on 23 May 1707 . He was the first child of Nicolaus ( Nils ) Ingemarsson ( who later adopted the family name Linnæus ) and Christina Brodersonia . His siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa , Sofia Juliana Linnæa , Samuel Linnæus , and Emerentia Linnæa . One of a long line of peasants and priests , Nils was an amateur botanist , a Lutheran minister , and the curate of the small village of Stenbrohult in Småland . Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult , Samuel Brodersonius . A year after Linnæus ' birth , his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died , and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult . The family moved into the rectory from the curate 's house . Carl had one brother , Samuel ( who would eventually succeed their father as rector of Stenbrohult and write a manual on beekeeping ) . and three sisters . Even in his early years , Linnæus seemed to have a liking for plants , flowers in particular . Whenever he was upset , he was given a flower , which immediately calmed him . Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus and told him their names . Soon Linnæus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants . Carl 's father was the first in his ancestry to adopt a permanent surname . Before that , ancestors had used the patronymic naming system of Scandinavian countries : his father was named Ingemarsson after his father Ingemar Bengtsson . When Nils was admitted to the University of Lund , he had to take on a family name . He adopted the Latinate name Linnæus after a giant linden tree ( or lime tree ) , ' in Swedish , that grew on the family homestead . This name was spelled with the æ ligature . When Carl was born , he was named Carl Linnæus , with his father 's family name . The son also always spelled it with the æ ligature , both in handwritten documents and in publications . Carl 's patronymic would have been Nilsson , as in Carl Nilsson Linnæus . Early education Linnaeus ' father began teaching him basic Latin , religion , and geography at an early age . When Linnaeus was seven , Nils decided to hire a tutor for him . The parents picked Johan Telander , a son of a local yeoman . Linnaeus did not like him , writing in his autobiography that Telander `` was better calculated to extinguish a child 's talents than develop them . '' Two years after his tutoring had begun , he was sent to the Lower Grammar School at Växjö in 1717 . Linnaeus rarely studied , often going to the countryside to look for plants . He reached the last year of the Lower School when he was fifteen , which was taught by the headmaster , Daniel Lannerus , who was interested in botany . Lannerus noticed Linnaeus ' interest in botany and gave him the run of his garden . He also introduced him to Johan Rothman , the state doctor of Småland and a teacher at Katedralskolan ( a gymnasium ) in Växjö . Also a botanist , Rothman broadened Linnaeus ' interest in botany and helped him develop an interest in medicine . By the age of 17 , Linnaeus had become well acquainted with the existing botanical literature . He remarks in his journal `` read day and night , knowing like the back of my hand , Arvidh Månsson 's Rydaholm Book of Herbs , Tillandz 's Flora Åboensis , Palmberg 's Serta Florea Suecana , Bromelii Chloros Gothica and Rudbeckii Hortus Upsaliensis .... '' Linnaeus entered the Växjö Katedralskola in 1724 , where he studied mainly Greek , Hebrew , theology and mathematics , a curriculum designed for boys preparing for the priesthood . In the last year at the gymnasium , Linnaeus ' father visited to ask the professors how his son 's studies were progressing ; to his dismay , most said that the boy would never become a scholar . Rothman believed otherwise , suggesting Linnaeus could have a future in medicine . The doctor offered to have Linnaeus live with his family in Växjö and to teach him physiology and botany . Nils accepted this offer . University studies Lund Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany was a serious subject . He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to Tournefort 's system . Linnaeus was also taught about the sexual reproduction of plants , according to Sébastien Vaillant . In 1727 , Linnaeus , age 21 , enrolled in Lund University in Skåne . He was registered as ' , the Latin form of his full name , which he also used later for his Latin publications . Professor Kilian Stobæus , natural scientist , physician and historian , offered Linnaeus tutoring and lodging , as well as the use of his library , which included many books about botany . He also gave the student free admission to his lectures . In his spare time , Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne , together with students sharing the same interests . Uppsala In August 1728 , Linnaeus decided to attend Uppsala University on the advice of Rothman , who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany . Rothman based this recommendation on the two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala : Olof Rudbeck the Younger and Lars Roberg . Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors , by then they were older and not so interested in teaching . Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures , and had others stand in for him . The botany , zoology , pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state . In Uppsala , Linnaeus met a new benefactor , Olof Celsius , who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist . He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library , which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden . In 1729 , Linnaeus wrote a thesis , ' on plant sexual reproduction . This attracted the attention of Rudbeck ; in May 1730 , he selected Linnaeus to give lectures at the University although the young man was only a second-year student . His lectures were popular , and Linnaeus often addressed an audience of 300 people . In June , Linnaeus moved from Celsius ' house to Rudbeck 's to become the tutor of the three youngest of his 24 children . His friendship with Celsius did not wane and they continued their botanical expeditions . Over that winter , Linnaeus began to doubt Tournefort 's system of classification and decided to create one of his own . His plan was to divide the plants by the number of stamens and pistils . He began writing several books , which would later result in , for example , ' and ' . He also produced a book on the plants grown in the Uppsala Botanical Garden , ' . Rudbeck 's former assistant , Nils Rosén , returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine . Rosén started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus ' botany lectures , but Rudbeck prevented that . Until December , Rosén gave Linnaeus private tutoring in medicine . In December , Linnaeus had a `` disagreement '' with Rudbeck 's wife and had to move out of his mentor 's house ; his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer . That Christmas , Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years . His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest , but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the University . Expedition to Lapland During a visit with his parents , Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to Lapland ; Rudbeck had made the journey in 1695 , but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards . Linnaeus ' hope was to find new plants , animals and possibly valuable minerals . He was also curious about the customs of the native Sami people , reindeer-herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia 's vast tundras . In April 1732 , Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey . Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on May 12 , 1732 , just before he turned 25 . He travelled on foot and horse , bringing with him his journal , botanical and ornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants . Near Gävle he found great quantities of Campanula serpyllifolia , later known as Linnaea borealis , the twinflower that would become his favourite . He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock and was particularly interested in mosses and lichens , the latter a main part of the diet of the reindeer , a common and economically important animal in Lapland . Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia , making major inland incursions from Umeå , Luleå and Tornio . He returned from his six-month-long , over 2000 km expedition in October , having gathered and observed many plants , birds and rocks . Although Lapland was a region with limited biodiversity , Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants . These became the basis of his book ' . However , on the expedition to Lapland , Linnaeus used Latin names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system . In ' Linnaeus ' ideas about nomenclature and classification were first used in a practical way , making this the first proto-modern Flora . The account covered 534 species , used the Linnaean classification system and included , for the described species , geographical distribution and taxonomic notes . It was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle who attributed Linnaeus with ' as the first example in the botanical genre of Flora writing . Botanical historian E. L. Greene described ' as `` the most classic and delightful '' of Linnaeus 's works . It was also during this expedition that Linnaeus had a flash of insight regarding the classification of mammals . Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was traveling , Linnaeus remarked : `` If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had , how many teats and where they were placed , I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds . '' In 1734 , Linnaeus led a small group of students to Dalarna . Funded by the Governor of Dalarna , the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones , but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at Røros . Doctorate Back in Uppsala , Linnaeus ' relations with Nils Rosén worsened , and thus he gladly accepted an invitation from the student Claes Sohlberg to spend the Christmas holiday in Falun with Sohlberg 's family . Sohlberg 's father was a mining inspector , and let Linnaeus visit the mines near Falun . Sohlberg 's father suggested to Linnaeus he should bring Sohlberg to the Dutch Republic and continue to tutor him there for an annual salary . At that time , the Dutch Republic was one of the most revered places to study natural history and a common place for Swedes to take their doctoral degree ; Linnaeus , who was interested in both of these , accepted . In April 1735 , Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the Netherlands , with Linnaeus to take a doctoral degree in medicine at the University of Harderwijk . On the way , they stopped in Hamburg , where they met the mayor , who proudly showed them a wonder of nature which he possessed : the taxidermied remains of a seven-headed hydra . Linnaeus quickly discovered it was a fake : jaws and clawed feet from weasels and skins from snakes had been glued together . The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus it had been manufactured by monks to represent the Beast of Revelation . As much as this may have upset the mayor , Linnaeus made his observations public and the mayor 's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum were ruined . Fearing his wrath , Linnaeus and Sohlberg had to leave Hamburg quickly . When Linnaeus reached Harderwijk , he began working toward a degree immediately ; at the time , Harderwijk was known for awarding `` instant '' degrees after as little as a week . First he handed in a thesis on the cause of malaria he had written in Sweden , which he then defended in a public debate . His dissertation , submitted on 23 June , was titled Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa ( `` Inaugural thesis in medicine , in which a new hypothesis on the cause of intermittent fevers is presented '' ) . He concluded that malaria arose only in places with clay-rich soil . He is now known to have been wrong about the cause , not having a microscope good enough to see malarial parasites , which were spread by mosquitoes breeding in the water that collected in ruts and puddles . But he was right in predicting that traditional Chinese medicine , including the use of wormwood ( Artemisia ) , is a potential source of antimalarial drug . ( Artemisinins , derived from wormwood , are now the principal antimalarial drugs . ) The next step was to take an oral examination and to diagnose a patient . After less than two weeks , he took his degree and became a doctor , at the age of 28 . During the summer , Linnaeus met a friend from Uppsala , Peter Artedi . Before their departure from Uppsala , Artedi and Linnaeus had decided should one of them die , the survivor would finish the other 's work . Ten weeks later , Artedi drowned in one of the canals of Amsterdam , and his unfinished manuscript on the classification of fish was left to Linnaeus to complete . Publishing of ' One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden . The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants . When Gronovius saw it , he was very impressed , and offered to help pay for the printing . With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson , the manuscript was published as ' ( 1735 ) . Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands , Herman Boerhaave , who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there . Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America , but Linnaeus declined , stating he would not stand the heat . Instead , Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanist Johannes Burman . After his visit , Burman , impressed with his guest 's knowledge , decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter . During his stay , Linnaeus helped Burman with his ' . Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working : ' and ' . George Clifford , Philip Miller , and Johann Jacob Dillenius In August , during Linnaeus ' stay with Burman , he met George Clifford III , a director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede . Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus ' ability to classify plants , and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden . Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter , and could thus not accept immediately . However , Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy of Sir Hans Sloane 's Natural History of Jamaica , a rare book , if he let Linnaeus stay with him , and Burman accepted . On 24 September 1735 , Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford , and curator of Clifford 's herbarium . He was paid 1,000 florins a year , with free board and lodging . Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year , Linnaeus practically stayed there till 1738 . It was here that he wrote a book Hortus Cliffortianus , in the preface of which he described his experience as `` the happiest time of my life . '' ( A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority , and was named `` Linnaeushof '' . It eventually became , as it is claimed , the biggest playground in Europe . ) In July 1736 , Linnaeus travelled to England , at Clifford 's expense . He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane , a collector of natural history , and to see his cabinet , as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper , Philip Miller . He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants , as described in ' . Miller was in fact reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature , preferring the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray at first . Linnaeus , nevertheless , applauded Miller 's Gardeners Dictionary , The conservative Scot actually retained in his dictionary a number of pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists . He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of The Gardeners Dictionary of 1768 . Miller ultimately was impressed , and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus ' system . Linnaeus also traveled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius . He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system , though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards . Linnaeus dedicated his Critica botanica to him , as opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non vidit . Linnaeus would later name a genus of tropical tree Dillenia in his honor . He then returned to Hartekamp , bringing with him many specimens of rare plants . The next year , he published ' , in which he described 935 genera of plants , and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with ' , with another sixty ( sexaginta ) genera . His work at Hartekamp led to another book , ' , a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp . He wrote it in nine months ( completed in July 1737 ) , but it was not published until 1738 . It contains the first use of the name Nepenthes , which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of pitcher plants . `` If this is not Helen 's Nepenthes , it certainly will be for all botanists . What botanist would not be filled with admiration if , after a long journey , he should find this wonderful plant . In his astonishment past ills would be forgotten when beholding this admirable work of the Creator ! '' ( translated from Latin by Harry Veitch ) Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 ( new style ) , when he left the house to return to Sweden . Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland . In May 1738 , he set out for Sweden again . On the way home , he stayed in Paris for about a month , visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu . After his return , Linnaeus never left Sweden again . Return to Sweden When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738 , he went to Falun , where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moræa . Three months later , he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician , and thus to make it possible to support a family . Once again , Linnaeus found a patron ; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin , who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty . During this time in Stockholm , Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science ; he became the first Praeses in the academy by drawing of lots . Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family , he received permission to marry his fiancée , Sara Elisabeth Moræa . Their wedding was held 26 June 1739 . Seven months later , Sara gave birth to their first son , Carl . Two years later , a daughter , Elisabeth Christina , was born , and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena , who died when 15 days old . Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children : Lovisa , Sara Christina , Johannes and Sophia . In May 1741 , Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University , first with responsibility for medicine-related matters . Soon , he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine , Nils Rosén , and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden ( which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand ) , botany and natural history , instead . In October that same year , his wife and nine-year-old son followed him to live in Uppsala . Öland and Gotland Ten days after he was appointed Professor , he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university , to look for plants useful in medicine . First , they travelled to Öland and stayed there until 21 June , when they sailed to Visby in Gotland . Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month , and then returned to Uppsala . During this expedition , they found 100 previously unrecorded plants . The observations from the expedition were later published in ' , written in Swedish . Like ' , it contained both zoological and botanical observations , as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland . During the summer of 1745 , Linnaeus published two more books : ' and ' . ' was a strictly botanical book , while ' was zoological . Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742 . Celsius ' scale was inverted compared to today , the boiling point at 0 °C and freezing point at 100 °C . In 1745 , Linnaeus inverted the scale to its present standard . Västergötland In the summer of 1746 , Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition , this time to the Swedish province of Västergötland . He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August . On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck , a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey . Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book ' , published the next year . After returning from the journey the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province Scania . This journey was postponed , as Linnaeus felt too busy . In 1747 , Linnaeus was given the title archiater , or chief physician , by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick—a mark of great respect . The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin . Scania In the spring of 1749 , Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania , again commissioned by the Government . With him he brought his student , Olof Söderberg . On the way to Scania , he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year . The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects , but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees ; these trees were used by the military to make rifles . The journey was successful , and Linnaeus ' observations were published the next year in ' . Rector of Uppsala University In 1750 , Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University , starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed . Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach ; many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples . Linnaeus called the best of these students his `` apostles '' . His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden . He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody , not even him . Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer , where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of

bb_3795--Carl_Linnaeus.txt

Swede Carl Linnaeus, 1707-78, considered the father of taxonomy of living things, is the lectotype (example specimen) for which species?

Cricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of eleven players on a cricket field , at the centre of which is a rectangular 22-yard-long pitch with a wicket , a set of three wooden stumps sited at each end . One team , designated the batting team , attempts to score as many runs as possible , whilst their opponents field . Each phase of play is called an innings . After either ten batsmen have been dismissed or a set number of overs have been completed , the innings ends and the two teams then swap roles . The winning team is the one that scores the most runs , including any extras gained , during their period batting . At the start of each game , two batsmen and eleven fielders enter the field of play . The play begins when a designated member of the fielding team , known as the bowler , delivers the ball from one end of the pitch to the other , towards a set of wooden stumps , in front of which stands one of the batsmen , known as the striker . The striker 's role is to prevent the ball from hitting the stumps through use of his bat , and simultaneously strike it sufficiently well to score runs . The other batsman , known as the non-striker , waits at the opposite end of the pitch by the bowler . The bowler 's intention is to both prevent the scoring of runs and to dismiss the batsman , at which point the dismissed batsman has to leave the field and another teammate replaces him at the crease . The most common forms of dismissal are bowled , when the bowler hits the stumps directly with the ball , leg before wicket , when the batsman prevents the ball from hitting the stumps with his body instead of his bat , and caught , when the batsman hits the ball into the air and it is intercepted by a fielder before touching the ground . Runs are scored through two main methods : either hitting the ball sufficiently powerfully that it crosses the boundary , or through the two batsmen swapping ends by each simultaneously running the length of the pitch in opposite directions whilst the fielders are retrieving the ball . If a fielder is able to retrieve the ball sufficiently quickly and put down the wicket with either batsman out of his ground , a run-out occurs . Adjudication is performed on-field by two umpires . The laws of cricket are maintained by the International Cricket Council ( ICC ) and Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) . There are various formats ranging from Twenty20 , played over a few hours with each team having a single innings of 20 overs , to Test cricket , played over five days with unlimited overs and the teams playing two innings apiece . Traditionally , cricketers play in all-white kit but in limited overs cricket they wear club or team colours . In addition to the basic kit , some players wear protective gear to prevent injury caused by the ball which is a hard , solid object made of compressed leather enclosing a cork core . Although cricket 's origins are uncertain , it is first recorded in south-east England in the 16th century . It spread globally with the expansion of the British Empire , leading to the first international matches in the mid-19th century . ICC , the game 's governing body , has over 100 members , ten of which are full members who play Test cricket . Women 's cricket , which is organised and played separately , has also achieved international standard . Cricket is the world 's second most popular spectator sport , after association football , and is followed primarily in Australasia , Great Britain and Ireland , the Indian subcontinent , southern Africa and the West Indies . Etymology A number of words have been suggested as sources for the term `` cricket '' . In the earliest definite reference to the sport in 1598 it is called creckett . One possible source for the name is the Old English cricc or cryce meaning a crutch or staff.Birley , p. 3 . In Samuel Johnson 's Dictionary , he derived cricket from `` cryce , Saxon , a stick '' . In Old French , the word criquet seems to have meant a kind of club or stick . Given the strong medieval trade connections between south-east England and the County of Flanders when the latter belonged to the Duchy of Burgundy , the name may have been derived from the Middle Dutch krick ( -e ) , meaning a stick ( crook ) . Another possible source is the Middle Dutch word krickstoel , meaning a long low stool used for kneeling in church and which resembled the long low wicket with two stumps used in early cricket . According to Heiner Gillmeister , a European language expert of Bonn University , `` cricket '' derives from the Middle Dutch phrase for hockey , met de ( krik ket ) sen ( i.e. , `` with the stick chase '' ) . Dr Gillmeister believes that not only the name but the sport itself is of Flemish origin . History Cricket can definitely be traced back to Tudor times in early 16th-century England though there have been a number of claims , many of them spurious and/or lacking evidence , supporting earlier dates from 1301 . The earliest definite reference to cricket being played comes from evidence given at a 1598 court case which mentions that `` creckett '' ( sic ) was played on common land in Guildford around 1550 . The court in Guildford heard on Monday , 17 January 1597 ( Julian date , equating to the year 1598 in the Gregorian calendar ) from a 59-year-old coroner , John Derrick , who gave witness that when he was a scholar at the `` Free School at Guildford '' , fifty years earlier , `` hee and diverse of his fellows did runne and play [ on the common land ] at creckett and other plaies . '' Altham , p. 21 . It is believed that cricket was originally a children 's game but references around 1610 indicate that adults had started playing it and the earliest reference to inter-parish or village cricket occurs soon afterwards . In 1624 , a player called Jasper Vinall died after he was struck on the head during a match between two parish teams in Sussex.McCann , pp . xxxiii–xxxiv . During the 17th century , numerous references indicate the growth of cricket in the south-east of England . By the end of the century , it had become an organised activity being played for high stakes and it is believed that the first professionals appeared in the years following the Restoration in 1660 . A newspaper report survives of `` a great cricket match '' with eleven players a side that was played for high stakes in Sussex in 1697 , and this is the earliest known reference to a cricket match of such importance . The game underwent major development in the 18th century . Betting played a key part in that development with rich patrons forming their own `` select XIs '' . Cricket was prominent in London as early as 1707 and , in the middle years of the century , large crowds flocked to matches on the Artillery Ground in Finsbury . The single wicket form of the sport attracted huge crowds and wagers to match , its popularity peaking in the 1748 season . Bowling underwent an evolution around 1760 when bowlers began to pitch the ball instead of rolling or skimming it towards the batsman . This caused a revolution in bat design because , to deal with the bouncing ball , it was necessary to introduce the modern straight bat in place of the old `` hockey stick '' shape . The Hambledon Club was founded in the 1760s and , for the next twenty years until the formation of Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) and the opening of Lord 's Old Ground in 1787 , Hambledon was both the game 's greatest club and its focal point . MCC quickly became the sport 's premier club and the custodian of the Laws of cricket . New Laws introduced in the latter part of the 18th century included the three stump wicket and leg before wicket ( lbw ) . The 19th century saw underarm bowling superseded by first roundarm and then overarm bowling . Both developments were controversial . Organisation of the game at county level led to the creation of the county clubs , starting with Sussex in 1839 , which ultimately formed the official County Championship in 1890 . Meanwhile , the British Empire had been instrumental in spreading the game overseas and by the middle of the 19th century it had become well established in India , North America , the Caribbean , South Africa , Australia and New Zealand . In 1844 , the first-ever international match took place between the United States and Canada . In 1859 , a team of English players went to North America on the first overseas tour . The first Australian team to tour overseas was a team of Aboriginal stockmen who travelled to England in 1868 to play matches against county teams . In 1862 , an English team made the first tour of Australia . The most famous player of the 19th century was W. G. Grace , who started his long and influential career in 1865 . In 1876–77 , an England team took part in what was retrospectively recognised as the first-ever Test match at the Melbourne Cricket Ground against Australia . The rivalry between England and Australia gave birth to The Ashes in 1882 and this has remained Test cricket 's most famous contest . Test cricket began to expand in 1888–89 when South Africa played England . The last two decades before the First World War have been called the `` Golden Age of cricket '' . It is a nostalgic name prompted by the collective sense of loss resulting from the war , but the period did produce some great players and memorable matches , especially as organised competition at county and Test level developed . The inter-war years were dominated by one player : Australia 's Don Bradman , statistically the greatest batsman of all time . Test cricket continued to expand during the 20th century with the addition of the West Indies , India and New Zealand before the Second World War and then Pakistan , Sri Lanka , and Bangladesh in the post-war period . South Africa was banned from international cricket from 1970 to 1992 because of its government 's apartheid policy . Cricket entered a new era in 1963 when English counties introduced the limited overs variant . As it was sure to produce a result , limited overs cricket was lucrative and the number of matches increased . The first Limited Overs International was played in 1971 . The governing International Cricket Council ( ICC ) saw its potential and staged the first limited overs Cricket World Cup in 1975 . In the 21st century , a new limited overs form , Twenty20 , has made an immediate impact . Rules and game-play Cricket is a bat and ball game , played between two teams of eleven players each . One team bats , attempting to score runs , while the other bowls and fields the ball , attempting to restrict the scoring and dismiss the batsmen . The objective of the game is for a team to score more runs than its opponent . In some forms of cricket , it may also be necessary to dismiss the opposition in order to win the match , which would otherwise be drawn . Format of the game A cricket match is divided into periods called innings ( which ends with `` s '' in both singular and plural form ) . It is decided before the match whether the teams will have one innings or two innings each . During an innings one team fields and the other bats . The two teams switch between fielding and batting after each innings . All eleven members of the fielding team take the field , but only two members of the batting team ( two batsmen ) are on the field at any given time . The order of batsmen is usually announced just before the match , but it can be varied . A coin toss is held by the team captains ( who are also players ) just before the match starts : the winner decides whether to bat or field first . The cricket field is usually circular or oval in shape , with a rectangular pitch at the center . The edge of the playing field is marked with a boundary , which could be a fence , part of the stands , a rope or a painted line . At each end of the pitch is a wooden target called a wicket , placed 22 yards apart . The pitch is marked with painted lines : a bowling crease in line with the wicket , and a batting or popping crease four feet in front of it . The wicket is made of three vertical stumps supporting two small horizontal bails . A wicket is put down if at least one bail is dislodged , or one stump is knocked down ( usually by the ball , but also if the batsman does it with his body , clothing or equipment ) . This is also described as breaking , knocking down , or hitting the wicket - though if the ball hits the wicket but does not dislodge a bail or stump then it is not considered to be down . At any instant each batsman owns a particular wicket ( usually the one closer to him ) and , except when actually batting , is safe when he is in his ground . This means that at least one part of his body or bat is touching the ground behind the popping crease . If his wicket is put down while the ball is live and he is out of his ground then he is dismissed , but the other batsman is safe . The two batsmen take positions at opposite ends of the pitch . One designated member of the fielding team , called the bowler , bowls the ball from one end of the pitch to the striking batsman at the other end . The batsman at the bowling end is called the non-striker , and stands to the side of his wicket , behind his crease . The batsman are allowed to step forward of their creases , though at some risk . Another member of the fielding team , the wicket keeper , is positioned behind the striker 's wicket . The fielding team 's other nine members stand outside the pitch , spread out across the field . The fielding captain often strategically changes their position between balls . There is always an umpire at each end of the pitch . The bowler usually retreats a few yards ( metres ) behind the wicket , runs towards it ( his run-up ) , and then releases the ball over-hand as he reaches the bowling crease . ( If he crosses the crease before he releases the ball , or if he flexes his elbow too much in a throw , then it is a no ball , and the batting team gets a penalty or extra run . If the ball passes the far wicket out of reach of the batsman then it is called a wide , also with an extra run . ) The ball can be bowled so that it bounces on the pitch , lands exactly on the crease ( a yorker ) , or crosses the crease without bouncing ( a full toss ) . The batsman tries to prevent the ball from hitting the wicket by striking the ball with his bat . ( This includes the handle of the bat , and his gloves . ) If the bowler succeeds in putting down the wicket the batsman is dismissed and is said to be bowled out . If the batsman misses the ball , but any part of his body prevents it from reaching the wicket , then he is out leg before wicket , or `` LBW '' . If the batsman hits the ball but it is caught by a fielder without bouncing then he is caught out . If it is caught by the bowler then he is caught and bowled ; by the wicket keeper , caught behind . If the batsman is successful in striking the ball and it is not caught without bouncing , then the two batsmen may try to score points ( runs ) for their team . Both batsmen run the length of the pitch , exchanging positions , and grounding their bats behind the opposite crease . Each crossing and grounding by both batsmen is worth one run . The batsmen may attempt one run , multiple runs , or elect not to run at all . By attempting runs , the batsmen risk dismissal . This happens if the fielding team retrieves the ball and hits either wicket with the ball ( either by throwing it , or while holding it ) before the batsman who owns that wicket reaches his ground behind the crease . The dismissed batsman is run out . Batsmen will sometimes start to run , change their mind , and return to their original positions . If the batsman hits the ball over the field boundary without the ball touching the field , the batting team scores six runs . If the ball touches the ground and then reaches the boundary , the batting team scores four runs . The batsmen might start running before the ball reaches the boundary , but those runs do n't count . If the batsman misses the ball they can still attempt extra runs : these are called byes . If the ball bounces off his body then it is called a leg bye . If the striking batsman leaves his ground and misses the ball , then the wicket keeper can catch it and put down the wicket – stumped . In case of a no ball or a wide the batsman can choose to strike the ball , earning runs in addition to the fixed penalty . If he does so he can only be dismissed by being run out . When the batsmen have finished attempting their runs the ball is dead , and is returned to the bowler to be bowled again . The ball becomes live when he starts his run up . The bowler continues to bowl toward the same wicket , regardless of any switch of the batsmen 's positions . A batsman may retire from an innings without being dismissed , usually after reaching a milestone like a hundred runs ( a century ) . A dismissed batsman leaves the field , to be replaced by another batsman from the batting team . However , even though the wicket may have been put down , or the ball caught , the batsman is not actually dismissed until the fielding team appeal to the umpires for a decision , traditionally using the expression `` How 's that '' ( or `` Howzat '' ) . In some matches , particularly test matches , either team may request a review by a third umpire who can use a decision review system ( DRS ) , which includes TV replays and other electronic equipment such as Hawk-Eye , Hot Spot and the Snickometer . After a bowler has bowled six times ( an over ) , another member of the fielding team is designated as the new bowler , the old bowler taking up a fielding position . The batsmen stay in place , and the new bowler bowls to the opposite wicket , so the role of striker and non-striker reverse . The wicket keeper and the two umpires always change positions , as do many of the fielders , and play continues . Fielding team members may bowl multiple times during an innings , but may not bowl two overs in succession . The innings is complete when 10 of the 11 members of the batting team have been dismissed ( all out - although one always remaining `` not out '' ) , when a set number of overs has been played , or when the batting team declares that they have enough runs . The number of innings and the number of overs per innings vary depending on the format of the match . In a match which is not a limited overs format the umpires will usually specify that the last session of the last innings will have a specified number of overs . The match always ends when all innings have been completed . The umpires can also call an end to the match in case of bad light or weather . But in many cases the match ends immediately when the first team to bat has played all of its innings , and the last team to bat has more runs . In four-innings games the last team may not even need to play its second innings : this team is said to win by an innings . If this winning team has not completed its last innings , and still has , for example , five batsmen who are not out or have not even batted , then they are said to `` win by five wickets '' . If the last team to bat is losing , is all out , and has 10 fewer runs than the other team , then the winning team `` wins by 10 runs '' . If the two teams both play all their innings and they have the same number of runs , then it is a tie . In four-innings matches there is also the possibility of a draw : the team with fewer runs still has batsmen on the field when the game ends . This has a major effect on strategy : a team will often declare an innings when they have accumulated enough runs , in the hope that they will have enough time left to dismiss the other team and thus avoid a draw , but risking a loss if the other team scores enough runs . Pitch , wickets and creases Playing surface Cricket is played on a grassy field . The Laws of Cricket do not specify the size or shape of the field , but it is often oval . In the centre of the field is a rectangular strip , known as the pitch . The pitch is a flat surface 10 ft wide , with very short grass that tends to be worn away as the game progresses . At either end of the pitch , 22 yd apart , are placed wooden targets , known as the wickets . These serve as a target for the bowling ( also known as the fielding ) side and are defended by the batting side , which seeks to accumulate runs . Stumps , bails and creases Each wicket on the pitch consists of three wooden stumps placed vertically , in line with one another . They are surmounted by two wooden crosspieces called bails ; the total height of the wicket including bails is and the combined width of the three stumps , including small gaps between them is 9 in . Four lines , known as creases , are painted onto the pitch around the wicket areas to define the batsman 's `` safe territory '' and to determine the limit of the bowler 's approach . These are called the `` popping '' ( or batting ) crease , the bowling crease and two `` return '' creases . The stumps are placed in line on the bowling creases and so these creases must be 22 yd apart . A bowling crease is 8 ft long , with the middle stump placed dead centre . The popping crease has the same length , is parallel to the bowling crease and is 4 ft in front of the wicket . The return creases are perpendicular to the other two ; they are adjoined to the ends of the popping crease and are drawn through the ends of the bowling crease to a length of at least 8 ft . When bowling the ball , the bowler 's back foot in his `` delivery stride '' must land within the two return creases while at least some part of his front foot must land on or behind the popping crease . If the bowler breaks this rule , the umpire calls `` No ball '' . The importance of the popping crease to the batsman is that it marks the limit of his safe territory . He can be dismissed stumped or run out ( see Dismissals below ) if the wicket is broken while he is `` out of his ground '' . Bat and ball The essence of the sport is that a bowler delivers the ball from his end of the pitch towards the batsman who , armed with a bat is `` on strike '' at the other end . The bat is made of wood ( usually White Willow ) and has the shape of a blade topped by a cylindrical handle . The blade must not be more than wide and the total length of the bat not more than 38 in . The ball is a hard leather-seamed spheroid , with a circumference of 9 in . The hardness of the ball , which can be delivered at speeds of more than 90 mph , is a matter for concern and batsmen wear protective clothing including pads ( designed to protect the knees and shins ) , batting gloves for the hands , a helmet for the head and a box inside the trousers ( to protect the crotch area ) . Some batsmen wear additional padding inside their shirts and trousers such as thigh pads , arm pads , rib protectors and shoulder pads . The ball has a `` seam '' : six rows of stitches attaching the leather shell of the ball to the string and cork interior . The seam on a new ball is prominent , and helps the bowler propel it in a less predictable manner . During cricket matches , the quality of the ball changes to a point where it is no longer usable , and during this decline its properties alter and thus influence the match . Players will therefore attempt to changes the properties of the ball in order to influence its flight . Polishing the ball and wetting it with sweat or saliva is legal , even when the polishing is deliberately done on one side only to increase the ball 's swing , while rubbing other substances into the ball , scratching the surface or picking at the seam is illegal ball tampering . Umpires and scorers The game on the field is regulated by two umpires , one of whom stands behind the wicket at the bowler 's end , the other in a position called `` square leg '' , a position 15–20 metres to the side of the `` on strike '' batsman . The main role of the umpires is to adjudicate on whether a ball is correctly bowled ( not a no ball or a wide ) , when a run is scored , and whether a batsman is out ( the fielding side must appeal to the umpire , usually with the phrase How 's That ? ) . Umpires also determine when intervals start and end , decide on the suitability of the playing conditions and can interrupt or even abandon the match due to circumstances likely to endanger the players , such as a damp pitch or deterioration of the light . Off the field and in televised matches , there is often a third umpire who can make decisions on certain incidents with the aid of video evidence . The third umpire is mandatory under the playing conditions for Test matches and limited overs internationals played between two ICC full members . These matches also have a match referee whose job is to ensure that play is within the Laws of cricket and the spirit of the game

dpql_3659--Cricket.txt

Which international cricket side had its best year ever in 2014 with five Test wins?

The Czech Republic ( ; ) , also known as Czechia ( ; ) , is a nation state in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west , Austria to the south , Slovakia to the east and Poland to the northeast . The Czech Republic covers an area of with mostly temperate continental climate . It is a unitary parliamentary republic , has 10.5 million inhabitants and the capital and largest city is Prague , with over 1.2 million residents . The Czech Republic includes its historical territories of Bohemia , Moravia , and Czech Silesia . The Czech state was formed in the late 9th century as the Duchy of Bohemia under the Great Moravian Empire . After the fall of the Empire in 907 , the centre of power transferred from Moravia to Bohemia under the Přemyslid dynasty . In 1004 , the duchy was formally recognized as part of the Holy Roman Empire , becoming the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1198 and reaching its greatest territorial extent in the 14th century . Besides Bohemia itself , the king of Bohemia ruled the lands of the Bohemian Crown , he had a vote in the election of the Holy Roman Emperor , and Prague was the imperial seat in periods between the 14th and 17th century . In the Hussite wars of the 15th century driven by the Bohemian Reformation , the kingdom faced economic embargoes and defeated five crusades proclaimed by the leaders of the Roman Catholic Church . Following the Battle of Mohács in 1526 , the whole Crown of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy alongside the Archduchy of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary . The Protestant Bohemian Revolt ( 1618–20 ) against the Catholic Habsburgs led to the Thirty Years ' War , after which the monarchy consolidated its rule , reimposed Catholicism , and adopted a policy of gradual Germanization . With the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 , the Bohemian Kingdom became part of the Austrian Empire and the Czech language experienced a revival as a consequence of widespread romantic nationalism . In the 19th century , the Czech lands became the industrial powerhouse of the monarchy and were subsequently the core of the Republic of Czechoslovakia , which was formed in 1918 following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after World War I . Czechoslovakia was occupied by Germany in World War II , and was liberated in 1945 by the Soviet and the United States armies . The country lost the majority of its German-speaking inhabitants after they were expelled following the war . The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia won the 1946 elections . Following the 1948 coup d'état , Czechoslovakia became a one-party communist state under Soviet influence . In 1968 , increasing dissatisfaction with the regime culminated in a reform movement known as the Prague Spring , which ended in a Soviet-led invasion . Czechoslovakia remained occupied until the 1989 Velvet Revolution , when the communist regime collapsed and a multiparty parliamentary republic was formed . On 1 January 1993 , Czechoslovakia peacefully dissolved , with its constituent states becoming the independent states of the Czech Republic and Slovakia . The Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004 ; it is a member of the United Nations , the OECD , the OSCE , and the Council of Europe . It is a developed country with an advanced , high income economy and high living standards . The UNDP ranks the country 14th in inequality-adjusted human development . The Czech Republic also ranks as the 6th most peaceful country , while achieving strong performance in democratic governance . It has the lowest unemployment rate in the European Union . Etymology The traditional English name `` Bohemia '' derives from Latin `` Boiohaemum '' , which means `` home of the Boii '' . The current name comes from the endonym Čech , spelled `` Cžech '' until the orthographic reform in 1842 . The name comes from the Slavic tribe ( Czechs , ) and , according to legend , their leader Čech , who brought them to Bohemia , to settle on Říp Mountain . The etymology of the word Čech can be traced back to the Proto-Slavic root * čel- , meaning `` member of the people ; kinsman '' , thus making it cognate to the Czech word člověk ( a person ) . The country has been traditionally divided into three lands , namely Bohemia ( Čechy ) in the west , Moravia ( Morava ) in the southeast , and Czech Silesia ( Slezsko ; the smaller , south-eastern part of historical Silesia , most of which is located within modern Poland ) in the northeast . Known as the lands of the Bohemian Crown since the 14th century , a number of other names for the country have been used , including Czech/Bohemian lands , Bohemian Crown , and the lands of the Crown of Saint Wenceslas . When the country regained its independence after the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian empire in 1918 , the new name of Czechoslovakia was coined to reflect the union of the Czech and Slovak nations within the one country . Following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia at the end of 1992 , the Czech part of the former nation found itself without a common single-word geographical name in English . The name Czechia was recommended by the Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs ( minister Josef Zieleniec ) . In a memorandum to all Czech embassies and diplomatic missions in 1993 , the full name `` Czech Republic '' was recommended for use only in official documents and titles of official institutions . The geographical name still has not reached general recognition , but its usage is increasing . Czech president Miloš Zeman uses the name Czechia in his official speeches and he announced in April 2016 the government would make a formal request to the UN to include the name in its geographical database . On 5 July 2016 the UNGEGN listed Czechia as the country 's short name in English in its Geographical Names Database . History Prehistory Archaeologists have found evidence of prehistoric human settlements in the area , dating back to the Paleolithic era . The figurine Venus of Dolní Věstonice , together with a few others from nearby locations , found here is the oldest known ceramic article in the world . In the classical era , from the 3rd century BC Celtic migrations , the Boii and later in the 1st century , Germanic tribes of Marcomanni and Quadi settled there . Their king Maroboduus is the first documented ruler of Bohemia . During the Migration Period around the 5th century , many Germanic tribes moved westwards and southwards out of Central Europe . Slavic people from the Black Sea–Carpathian region settled in the area ( a movement that was also stimulated by the onslaught of peoples from Siberia and Eastern Europe : Huns , Avars , Bulgars and Magyars ) . In the sixth century they moved westwards into Bohemia , Moravia and some of present-day Austria and Germany . During the 7th century , the Frankish merchant Samo , supporting the Slavs fighting against nearby settled Avars , became the ruler of the first known Slav state in Central Europe , the Samo 's Empire . The Moravian principality Great Moravia arose in the 8th century and reached its zenith in the 9th , when it held off the influence of the Franks and won the protection of the Pope . Bohemia The Duchy of Bohemia emerged in the late 9th century , when it was unified by the Přemyslid dynasty . In 10th century Boleslaus I , Duke of Bohemia conquered Moravia , Silesia and expanded farther to the east . The Kingdom of Bohemia was , as the only kingdom in the Holy Roman Empire , a significant regional power during the Middle Ages . It was part of the Empire from 1002 till 1806 , with the exception of the years 1440–1526 . In 1212 , King Přemysl Ottokar I ( bearing the title `` king '' since 1198 ) extracted the Golden Bull of Sicily ( a formal edict ) from the emperor , confirming Ottokar and his descendants ' royal status ; the Duchy of Bohemia was raised to a Kingdom . The bull declared that the King of Bohemia would be exempt from all future obligations to the Holy Roman Empire except for participation in imperial councils . German immigrants settled in the Bohemian periphery in the 13th century . Germans populated towns and mining districts and , in some cases , formed German colonies in the interior of Bohemia . In 1235 , the Mongols launched an invasion of Europe . After the Battle of Legnica in Poland , the Mongols carried their raids into Moravia , but were defensively defeated at the fortified town of Olomouc . The Mongols subsequently invaded and defeated Hungary . King Přemysl Otakar II earned the nickname Iron and Golden King because of his military power and wealth . He acquired Austria , Styria , Carinthia and Carniola , thus spreading the Bohemian territory to the Adriatic Sea . He met his death at the Battle on the Marchfeld in 1278 in a war with his rival , King Rudolph I of Germany . Ottokar 's son Wenceslaus II acquired the Polish crown in 1300 for himself and the Hungarian crown for his son . He built a great empire stretching from the Danube river to the Baltic Sea . In 1306 , the last king of Přemyslid line was murdered in mysterious circumstances in Olomouc while he was resting . After a series of dynastic wars , the House of Luxembourg gained the Bohemian throne . The 14th century , in particular , the reign of the Bohemian king Charles IV ( 1316–1378 ) , who in 1346 became King of the Romans and in 1354 both King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor , is considered the Golden Age of Czech history . Of particular significance was the founding of Charles University in Prague in 1348 , Charles Bridge , Charles Square . Much of Prague Castle and the cathedral of Saint Vitus in Gothic style were completed during his reign . He unified Brandenburg ( until 1415 ) , Lusatia ( until 1635 ) , and Silesia ( until 1742 ) under the Czech crown . The Black Death , which had raged in Europe from 1347 to 1352 , decimated the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1380 , killing about 10 % of the population . By the end of the 14th century started the process of the so-called Bohemian ( Czech ) Reformation . The religious and social reformer Jan Hus formed a reform movement later named after him . Although Hus was named a heretic and burnt in Constance in 1415 , his followers seceded from the Catholic Church and in the Hussite Wars ( 1419–1434 ) defeated five crusades organized against them by the Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund . Petr Chelčický continued with the Hussite Reformation movement . During the next two centuries , 90 % of the inhabitants became adherents of the Hussite movement . Hus 's thoughts were a major influence on the later emerging Lutheranism . Luther himself said “ we are all Hussites , without having been aware of it ” and considered himself as Hus ' direct successor . After 1526 Bohemia came increasingly under Habsburg control as the Habsburgs became first the elected and then in 1627 the hereditary rulers of Bohemia . The Austrian Habsburgs of the 16th century , the founders of the central European Habsburg Monarchy , were buried in Prague . Between 1583–1611 Prague was the official seat of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II and his court . The Defenestration of Prague and subsequent revolt against the Habsburgs in 1618 marked the start of the Thirty Years ' War , which quickly spread throughout Central Europe . In 1620 , the rebellion in Bohemia was crushed at the Battle of White Mountain , and the ties between Bohemia and the Habsburgs ' hereditary lands in Austria were strengthened . The leaders of the Bohemian Revolt were executed in 1621 . The nobility and the middle class Protestants had to either convert to Catholicism or leave the country . The following period , from 1620 to the late 18th century , has often been called colloquially the `` Dark Age '' . The population of the Czech lands declined by a third through the expulsion of Czech Protestants as well as due to the war , disease and famine . The Habsburgs prohibited all Christian confessions other than Catholicism . The flowering of Baroque culture shows the ambiguity of this historical period . Ottoman Turks and Tatars invaded Moravia in 1663 . In 1679–1680 the Czech lands faced a devastating plague and an uprising of serfs . The reigns of Maria Theresa of Austria and her son Joseph II , Holy Roman Emperor and co-regent from 1765 , were characterized by enlightened absolutism . In 1740 , most of Silesia ( except the southernmost area ) was seized by King Frederick II of Prussia in the Silesian Wars . In 1757 the Prussians invaded Bohemia and after the Battle of Prague ( 1757 ) occupied the city . More than one quarter of Prague was destroyed and St. Vitus Cathedral also suffered heavy damage . However , soon after , at the Battle of Kolín Frederick was defeated and had to leave Prague and retreat from Bohemia . In 1770 and 1771 Great Famine killed about one tenth of the Czech population , or 250,000 inhabitants , and radicalised the countryside leading to peasant uprisings . Serfdom was abolished ( in two steps ) between 1781 and 1848 . The end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 led to degradation of the political status of the Kingdom of Bohemia . Bohemia lost its position of an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire as well as its own political representation in the Imperial Diet . Bohemian lands became part of the Austrian Empire and later of Austria–Hungary . During the 18th and 19th century the Czech National Revival began its rise , with the purpose to revive Czech language , culture and national identity . The Revolution of 1848 in Prague , striving for liberal reforms and autonomy of the Bohemian Crown within the Austrian Empire , was suppressed . In 1866 Austria was defeated by Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War . The Austrian Empire needed to redefine itself to maintain unity in the face of nationalism . At first it seemed that some concessions would be made also to Bohemia , but in the end the Emperor Franz Joseph I effected a compromise with Hungary only . The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and the never realized coronation of Franz Joseph as King of Bohemia led to a huge disappointment of Czech politicians . The Bohemian Crown lands became part of the so-called Cisleithania ( officially `` The Kingdoms and Lands represented in the Imperial Council '' ) . The first elections under universal male suffrage were held in 1907 . The last King of Bohemia was Blessed Charles of Austria who ruled in 1916–1918 . Czechoslovakia An estimated 1.4 million Czech soldiers fought in World War I , of whom some 150,000 died . Although the majority of Czech soldiers fought for the Austro-Hungarian Empire , more than 90,000 Czech volunteers formed the Czechoslovak Legions in France , Italy and Russia , where they fought against the Central Powers and later against Bolshevik troops . In 1918 , during the collapse of the Habsburg Empire at the end of World War I , the independent republic of Czechoslovakia , which joined the winning Allied powers , was created . This new country incorporated the Bohemian Crown ( Bohemia , Moravia and Silesia ) and parts of the Kingdom of Hungary ( Slovakia and the Carpathian Ruthenia ) with significant German , Hungarian , Polish and Ruthenian speaking minorities . In 1929 compared to 1913 , the gross domestic product increased by 52 % and industrial production by 41 % . In 1938 Czechoslovakia held a 10th place in the world industrial production . Although Czechoslovakia was a unitary state , it provided what were at the time rather extensive rights to its minorities and remained the only democracy in this part of Europe in the interwar period . The effects of the Great Depression including high unemployment and massive propaganda from Nazi Germany , however , resulted in discontent and strong support among ethnic Germans for a break from Czechoslovakia . Adolf Hitler took advantage of this opportunity and , using Konrad Henlein 's separatist Sudeten German Party , gained the largely German speaking Sudetenland ( and its substantial Maginot Line-like border fortifications ) through the 1938 Munich Agreement ( signed by Nazi Germany , France , Britain , and Italy ) . Czechoslovakia was not invited to the conference , and Czechs and Slovaks call the Munich Agreement the Munich Betrayal because France ( which had an alliance with Czechoslovakia ) and Britain gave up Czechoslovakia instead of facing Hitler , which later proved inevitable . Despite the mobilization of 1.2 million-strong Czechoslovak army and the Franco-Czech military alliance , Poland annexed the Zaolzie area around Český Těšín ; Hungary gained parts of Slovakia and the Subcarpathian Rus as a result of the First Vienna Award in November 1938 . The remainders of Slovakia and the Subcarpathian Rus gained greater autonomy , with the state renamed to `` Czecho-Slovakia '' . After Nazi Germany threatened to annex part of Slovakia , allowing the remaining regions to be partitioned by Hungary and Poland , Slovakia chose to maintain its national and territorial integrity , seceding from Czecho-Slovakia in March 1939 , and allying itself , as demanded by Germany , with Hitler 's coalition . The remaining Czech territory was occupied by Germany , which transformed it into the so-called Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia . The protectorate was proclaimed part of the Third Reich , and the president and prime minister were subordinated to the Nazi Germany 's Reichsprotektor . Subcarpathian Rus declared independence as the Republic of Carpatho-Ukraine on 15 March 1939 but was invaded by Hungary the same day and formally annexed the next day . Approximately 345,000 Czechoslovak citizens , including 277,000 Jews , were killed or executed while hundreds of thousands of others were sent to prisons and Nazi concentration camps or used as forced labour . Up to two-thirds of the citizens were in groups targeted by the Nazis for deportation or death . One concentration camp was located within the Czech territory at Terezín , north of Prague . There was Czech resistance to Nazi occupation , both at home and abroad , most notably with the assassination of Nazi German leader Reinhard Heydrich by Czechoslovakian soldiers Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš in a Prague suburb on 27 May 1942 . On 9 June 1942 Hitler ordered bloody reprisals against the Czechs as a response to the Czech anti-Nazi resistance . The Czechoslovak government-in-exile and its army fought against the Germans and were acknowledged by the Allies ; Czech/Czechoslovak troops fought from the very beginning of the war in Poland , France , the UK , North Africa , the Middle East and the Soviet Union . The German occupation ended on 9 May 1945 , with the arrival of the Soviet and American armies and the Prague uprising . An estimated 140,000 Soviet soldiers died in liberating Czechoslovakia from German rule . In 1945–1946 , almost the entire German-speaking minority in Czechoslovakia , about 3 million people , were expelled to Germany and Austria . During this time , thousands of Germans were held in prisons and detention camps or used as forced labour . In the summer of 1945 , there were several massacres . The only Germans not expelled were some 250,000 who had been active in the resistance against the Nazi Germans or were considered economically important , though many of these emigrated later . Following a Soviet-organised referendum , the Subcarpathian Rus never returned under Czechoslovak rule but became part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic , as the Zakarpattia Oblast in 1946 . Czechoslovakia uneasily tried to play the role of a `` bridge '' between the West and East . However , the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia rapidly increased in popularity , with a general disillusionment with the West , because of the pre-war Munich Agreement , and a favourable popular attitude towards the Soviet Union , because of the Soviets ' role in liberating Czechoslovakia from German rule . In the 1946 elections , the Communists gained 38 % of the votes and became the largest party in the Czechoslovak parliament . They formed a coalition government with other parties of the National Front and moved quickly to consolidate power . A significant change came in 1948 with coup d'état by the Communist Party . The Communist People 's Militias secured control of key locations in Prague , and a single party government was formed . For the next 41 years , Czechoslovakia was a Communist state within the Eastern Bloc . This period is characterized by lagging behind the West in almost every aspect of social and economic development . The country 's GDP per capita fell from the level of neighboring Austria below that of Greece or Portugal in the 1980s . The Communist government completely nationalized the means of production and established a command economy . The economy grew rapidly during the 1950s but slowed down in the 1960s and 1970s and stagnated in the 1980s . The political climate was highly repressive during the 1950s , including numerous show trials and hundreds of thousands of political prisoners , but became more open and tolerant in the late 1960s , culminating in Alexander Dubček 's leadership in the 1968 Prague Spring , which tried to create `` socialism with a human face '' and perhaps even introduce political pluralism . This was forcibly ended by invasion by all Warsaw Pact member countries with the exception of Romania and Albania on 21 August 1968 . The invasion was followed by a harsh program of `` Normalization '' in the late 1960s and the 1970s . Until 1989 , the political establishment relied on censorship of the opposition . Dissidents published Charter 77 in 1977 , and the first of a new wave of protests were seen in 1988 . Between 1948 and 1989 more than 250,000 Czechs and Slovaks were sent to prison , and over 400,000 emigrated . Velvet Revolution and independence In November 1989 , Czechoslovakia returned to a liberal democracy through the peaceful `` Velvet Revolution '' . However , Slovak national aspirations strengthened and on 1 January 1993 , the country peacefully split into the independent Czech Republic and Slovakia . Both countries went through economic reforms and privatisations , with the intention of creating a market economy . This process was largely successful ; in 2006 the Czech Republic was recognised by the World Bank as a `` developed country '' , and in 2009 the Human Development Index ranked it as a nation of `` Very High Human Development '' . From 1991 , the Czech Republic , originally as part of Czechoslovakia and since 1993 in its own right , has been a member of the Visegrád Group and from 1995 , the OECD . The Czech Republic joined NATO on 12 March 1999 and the European Union on 1 May 2004 . On 21 December 2007 the Czech Republic joined the Schengen Area . Government and politics The Czech Republic is a pluralist multi-party parliamentary representative democracy , with the Prime Minister as the head of government . The Parliament ( Parlament České republiky ) is bicameral , with the Chamber of Deputies ( ) ( 200 members ) and the Senate ( ) ( 81 members ) . The president is a formal head of state with limited and specific powers , most importantly to return bills to the parliament , appoint members to the board of the Czech National Bank , nominate constitutional court judges for the Senate 's approval and dissolve the Chamber of Deputies under certain special and unusual circumstances . The president and vice president of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President of the Republic . He also appoints the prime minister , as well the other members of the cabinet on a proposal by the prime minister . From 1993 until 2012 , the President of the Czech Republic was selected by a joint session of the parliament for a five-year term , with no more than two consecutive terms . Since 2013 the presidential election is direct . Miloš Zeman was the first directly elected Czech President . The Government of the Czech Republic 's exercise of executive power derives from the Constitution . The members of the government are the Prime Minister , Deputy ministers and other ministers . The Government is responsible to the Chamber of Deputies . The Prime Minister is the head of government and wields considerable powers , such as the right to set the agenda for most foreign and domestic policy and choose government ministers . The current Prime Minister of the Czech Republic is Bohuslav Sobotka , serving since 17 January 2014 as 11th Prime Minister . The members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected for a four-year term by proportional representation , with a 5 % election threshold . There are 14 voting districts , identical to the country 's administrative regions . The Chamber of Deputies , the successor to the Czech National Council , has the powers and responsibilities of the now defunct federal parliament of the former Czechoslovakia . The members of the Senate are elected in single-seat constituencies by two-round runoff voting for a six-year term , with one-third elected every even year in the autumn . The first election was in 1996 , for differing terms . This arrangement is modeled on the U.S. Senate , but each constituency is roughly the same size and the voting system used is a two-round runoff . The Senate is unpopular among the public and suffers from low election turnout . |President |Miloš Zeman |SPOZ |8 March 2013 |- |Prime Minister |Bohuslav Sobotka |ČSSD |17 January 2014 |- |Chairman of the Chamber of Deputies |Jan Hamáček |ČSSD |27 November 2013 |- |President of the Senate |Milan Štěch |ČSSD |24 November 2010 | } Law Czech Republic has a civil law system based on the continental type , rooted in Germanic legal culture . Czech judiciary has triumvirate system of the main courts , the Constitutional Court which oversees violations of the Constitution by either the legislature or by the government consisting of 15 constitutional judges , the Supreme Court is the court of highest appeal for almost all legal cases heard in the Czech Republic formed of 67 judges and the Supreme Administrative Court decides on issues of procedural and administrative propriety . It also has jurisdiction over many political matters , such as the formation and closure of political parties , jurisdictional boundaries between government entities , and the eligibility of persons to stand for public office . Foreign relations The Czech Republic has an established structure of foreign relations . It is a member of the United Nations , the European Union , NATO , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , Council of Europe and is an observer to the Organization of American States . The embassies of most countries with diplomatic relations with the Czech Republic are located in Prague , while consulates are located across the country . According to a 2016 World Tourism Organization report , Czech citizens have visa-free entry to 156 countries ( ranking tied with New Zealand ) , which makes them one of the least restricted by visas to travel abroad . The US Visa Waiver Program applies to Czech nationals . The Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs have primary roles in setting foreign policy . Membership in the European Union is central to the Czech Republic 's foreign policy . The Czech Republic held the Presidency of the Council of the European Union for the first half of 2009 . The Czech Republic has strong ties with Slovakia , Poland and Hungary as member of Visegrad Group , as well as with Germany , Israel , United States and European Union and their members . Czech officials have supported dissenters in Burma , Belarus , Moldova and Cuba . Military The Czech armed forces consist

qw_8275--Czech_Republic.txt

What began when Bohemia revolted against the Habsburgs in 1618?

Lawrence Mark `` Larry '' Sanger ( ; born July 16 , 1968 ) is an American Internet project developer , co-founder of Wikipedia , and the founder of Citizendium . He grew up in Anchorage , Alaska . From an early age he has been interested in philosophy . Sanger received a Bachelor of Arts in philosophy from Reed College in 1991 and a Doctor of Philosophy in philosophy from Ohio State University in 2000 . Most of his philosophical work has focused on epistemology , the theory of knowledge . He has been involved with various online encyclopedia projects . He is the former editor-in-chief of Nupedia , chief organizer ( 2001–02 ) of its successor , Wikipedia , and founding editor-in-chief of Citizendium . From his position at Nupedia , he assembled the process for article development . Sanger proposed implementing a wiki , which led directly to the creation of Wikipedia . Initially Wikipedia was a complementary project for Nupedia . He was Wikipedia 's early community leader and established many of its original policies . Sanger left Wikipedia in 2002 , and has since been critical of the project . He states that , despite its merits , Wikipedia lacks credibility due to , among other things , a lack of respect for expertise . In October 2006 , Sanger started a somewhat similar encyclopedia to Wikipedia , Citizendium . Sanger has taught philosophy at Ohio State University and was an early strategist for the expert-authored Encyclopedia of Earth . He has worked on developing educational projects for individuals behind WatchKnowLearn . He has designed a web-based reading program named Reading Bear which aims to teach children how to read . In February 2013 , he attempted to start a news crowdsourcing project named Infobitt ; it ran out of money in mid-2015 without the code being ready to handle a fullscale launch . Early life and education Sanger was born in Bellevue , Washington . His father was a marine biologist and his mother cared for the children . When he was seven years old , the family moved to Anchorage , Alaska . At an early age , he was interested in philosophical topics . He graduated from high school in 1986 and went off to Reed College , majoring in philosophy . In college he became interested in the Internet and its publishing abilities . He set up a listserver as a medium for students and tutors to meet up for `` expert tutoring '' and `` to act as a forum for discussion of tutorials , tutorial methods , and the possibility and merits of a voluntary , free network of individual tutors and students finding each other via the Internet for education outside the traditional university setting . '' He started and moderated a philosophy discussion list , the Association for Systematic Philosophy . Sanger wrote in 1994 a manifesto for the discussion group : The history of philosophy is full of disagreement and confusion . One reaction by philosophers to this state of things is to doubt whether the truth about philosophy can ever be known , or whether there is any such thing as the truth about philosophy . But there is another reaction : one may set out to think more carefully and methodically than one 's intellectual forebears . Sanger received a Bachelor of Arts degree in philosophy from Reed College in 1991 , a Master of Arts from Ohio State University in 1995 , and a Doctor of Philosophy from Ohio State University in 2000 . Beginning in 1998 he ran a website called `` Sanger 's Review of Y2K News Reports '' , a resource for those concerned about the year 2000 problem , such as managers of computer systems . Philosophy In 2007 , Sanger examined the possibilities for education online . He explained , `` Imagine that education were not delivered but organized and managed in a way that were fully digitized , decentralized , self-directed , asynchronous , and at-a-distance . '' He further stated , `` There would be no bureaucracy to enforce anything beyond some very basic rules , and decision-making would be placed almost entirely in the hands of teachers and students . '' In 2007 , Sanger wrote an essay for the Edge stating in part : As it turns out , our many Web 2.0 revolutionaries have been so thoroughly seized with the successes of strong collaboration that they are resistant to recognizing some hard truths . As wonderful as it might be that the hegemony of professionals over knowledge is lessening , there is a downside : our grasp of and respect for reliable information suffers . With the rejection of professionalism has come a widespread rejection of expertise—of the proper role in society of people who make it their life 's work to know stuff . This , I maintain , is not a positive development ; but it is also not a necessary one . We can imagine a Web 2.0 with experts . We can imagine an Internet that is still egalitarian , but which is more open and welcoming to specialists . The new politics of knowledge that I advocate would place experts at the head of the table , but—unlike the old order—gives the general public a place at the table as well . In 2008 , Sanger was at Oxford University to debate the proposition that `` the internet is the future of knowledge . '' Sanger agreed that today 's wikis and blogs are fundamentally changing the way knowledge is created and distributed . In 2010 , Sanger wrote an article for Educause stating in part : In the last several years , many observers of education and learning have been stunned by the abundance of information online , the ever-faster findability of answers , and the productivity of online 'crowds , ' which have created information resources like Wikipedia and YouTube . The enormous scope of these developments has surprised me too , despite the fact that they are more or less what many of us had hoped for and deliberately tried to bring into being . These sudden , revolutionary developments demand analysis : How is this latest information explosion changing the way we live ? Is the relationship between society and individual changing ? More to the point for this article , how is the Internet revolution changing education ? Nupedia and Wikipedia Nupedia was a Web-based encyclopedia whose articles , written by volunteer contributors possessing relevant subject matter expertise and reviewed by editors prior to publication , would be licensed as free content . It was co-founded by Jimmy Wales and underwritten by Bomis , with Sanger hired as editor-in-chief . In February 2000 , Sanger began to oversee Nupedia . He developed a review process for articles and recruited editors . Articles were reviewed through Nupedia 's e-mail system before being posted on the site . With Wales and Sanger frustrated at the slow progress of Nupedia , in January 2001 , Sanger proposed a wiki be created to spur article development , and the result of this proposal was Wikipedia , officially launched on January 15 , 2001 . It was initially intended as a collaborative wiki for the public to write entries that would then be fed into the Nupedia review process of expertise , but the majority of Nupedia 's experts wanted little to do with this project . Originally , Bomis planned to make Wikipedia profitable . Shortly after a blank wiki was set up Sanger wrote the initial pages and promoted the site . To the surprise of Sanger and Wales , within a few days of launching , Wikipedia had outgrown Nupedia , and a small community of editors gathered . By virtue of his position with Nupedia , Sanger ran the project , and formulated much of the original policy , including `` Ignore all rules '' , `` Neutral point of view '' , and `` Verifiability '' . Wikipedia quickly took off , but just months after it was launched , things started to go off the rails , Sanger says , and by the summer of 2001 the new online community was being `` overrun '' by what he described as `` trolls '' and `` anarchist-types '' , who were `` opposed to the idea that anyone should have any kind of authority that others do not '' . Sanger responded by proposing a stronger emphasis for expert editors , individuals with the authority to resolve disputes and enforce the rules . Tired of endless content battles and feeling he had a lack of support from Wales , Sanger eventually left the project . Sanger was the only paid editor of Wikipedia , a status he held from January 15 , 2001 , until March 1 , 2002 . In early 2002 Bomis announced plans to sell advertising on Wikipedia in part to pay for Sanger 's job , but the project was against any commercialization . Sanger worked on and promoted both the Nupedia and Wikipedia projects until Bomis discontinued funding for his position in February 2002 after the collapse in Internet advertising spending ; Sanger resigned as editor-in-chief of Nupedia and as chief organizer of Wikipedia on March 1 . Sanger 's stated reason for ending his participation in Wikipedia and Nupedia as a volunteer was that he could not do justice to the task as a part-time volunteer . Nupedia shut down in 2003 , shortly after Wikipedia 's second anniversary . Origins of Wikipedia Wales started to play down Sanger 's role in the founding of the project in 2005 , a few years after Sanger left Wikipedia . In light of Wales ' view , Sanger posted on his personal webpage several links which supported his role as a co-founder . Sanger was identified as a co-founder of Wikipedia at least as early as September 2001 . Wales identified himself in August 2002 as `` co-founder '' of Wikipedia . Sanger said `` While I was organizing Wikipedia , Wales was in the background and focused on Bomis.com . '' Wales stated in 2005 that he had initially heard of the wiki concept in 2001 not from Sanger , but instead from Jeremy Rosenfeld . Wales stated in October 2001 that it was `` Larry ( who ) had the idea to use Wiki software for a separate project . '' The critical concept of marrying the three fundamental elements of Wikipedia , namely an encyclopedia , a wiki , and essentially unrestricted editorial access to the public , first took form when Sanger met up with an old friend , Ben Kovitz . This meeting occurred at a dinner on January 2 , 2001 , and it was here that Sanger was first introduced to the functionality of wiki software . Kovitz was a computer programmer and a regular on Ward Cunningham 's wiki . Sanger thought a wiki would be a good platform to use and decided to present the idea to Jimmy Wales , at that time the head of Bomis . Sanger initially proposed the wiki concept to Wales and suggested it be applied to Nupedia and , after some initial skepticism , Wales agreed to try it . It was Jimmy Wales , along with other people , who came up with the broader idea of an open-source , collaborative encyclopedia that would accept contributions from ordinary people and it was Wales who invested in it . Sanger came up with the name `` Wikipedia '' , which he later said was `` a silly name for what was at first a very silly project '' . Sanger first conceived of the wiki-based encyclopedia project only as a means to hopefully accelerate Nupedia 's slow growth . During Wikipedia 's critical first year of growth , Sanger spearheaded and guided the following that gathered around this nucleus . Through this early period , he served as Wikipedia 's `` chief organizer '' , a position which has not been filled since his departure from Wikipedia . • Sanger is also credited with creating and enforcing many of the policies and strategy that made Wikipedia possible during its first formative year . By the end of the year in 2001 , the site had about 15,000 articles and upwards of 350 Wikipedians . Post-Wikipedia Since Sanger parted ways with Wikipedia in 2002 , he has been critical of its accuracy , among other things . In December 2004 , Sanger wrote a critical article for the website Kuro5hin , in which he stated that Wikipedia is not perceived as credible among librarians , teachers , and academics when it does not have a formal review process and it is `` anti-elitist '' . In September 2009 , Sanger mentioned one reason for distancing himself from Wikipedia : `` I thought that the project would never have the amount of credibility it could have if it were not somehow more open and welcoming to experts . '' He pointed out `` The other problem was the community had essentially been taken over by trolls to a great extent . That was a real problem , and Jimmy Wales absolutely refused to do anything about it . '' Wales responded by stating , `` I think very highly of Larry Sanger , and think that it is unfortunate that this silly debate has tended to overshadow his work . '' Sanger , a philosophy instructor , began work as a lecturer at The Ohio State University , where he taught philosophy until June 2005 . His professional interests are epistemology ( in particular ) , early modern philosophy , and ethics . In December 2005 , Digital Universe Foundation announced that Sanger had been hired as Director of Distributed Content Programs . He would be a key organizer of the Digital Universe Encyclopedia web projects which was launched in early 2006 . The Digital Universe encyclopedia has recruited recognized experts to write articles , and to check user-submitted articles for accuracy . The first step in this effort was the expert-authored and edited Encyclopedia of Earth , an electronic reference about the Earth . The question of accuracy over Wikipedia article content spurred Sanger to unveil plans for a new encyclopedia called Citizendium , short for `` citizens ' compendium '' . At the Wizards of OS conference in September 2006 , Sanger announced Citizendium as a fork of Wikipedia . The objectives of the fork were to address various perceived flaws in the Wikipedia system . The main differences would be no anonymous editing : every author/editor would have to be identified by his/her real name , no `` top-down '' hierarchy of editors : it would aspire to be a `` real encyclopedia . '' In 2015 , Sanger was interviewed by Zach Schwartz in Vice . In the interview , he said , among other things , that `` I think Wikipedia never solved the problem of how to organize itself in a way that did n't lead to mob rule '' and that since he left the project , `` People that I would say are trolls sort of took over . The inmates started running the asylum . '' Citizendium On March 25 , 2007 , Citizendium officially launched . In early 2007 , Sanger announced he would not head Citizendium indefinitely . Two weeks after the launch of Citizendium , Sanger criticized Wikipedia , stating the latter was `` broken beyond repair , '' and had a range of problems `` from serious management problems , to an often dysfunctional community , to frequently unreliable content , and to a whole series of scandals . '' Citizendium has a form of peer-review , in which the site 's content is subject to `` gentle expert oversight . '' Citizendium offers more than 16,000 articles , of which 159 have been expert reviewed . Citizendium was criticized in 2009 as a failed effort because of its slow growth . Larry Sanger said in November 2011 that the project collected enough donations to keep the server running `` for several months '' and `` people are still writing articles for it . '' Ars Technica reporter Timothy B. Lee said in 2011 that Citizendium was unlikely to succeed on the scale of Wikipedia . Lee noted that Citizendium 's late start was a disadvantage , and that Citizendium 's growth was also hindered by an `` unwieldy editing model '' . The number of Citizendium contributors is fewer than 100 , and the number of edits per day is about `` a dozen or so '' , according to Winthrop University 's Dean of Library Services . Contrast to Wikipedia Building on Sanger 's experience from other collaborative encyclopedias , Citizendium represented an effort to establish a scholarly and credible online encyclopedia which aimed to bring more accountability and academic quality to articles . Citizendium is wiki-based , but several aspects set it apart from Wikipedia . Prospective contributors on Citizendium are required to sign in using real names in contrast to Wikipedia users who may remain anonymous . Wikipedia editors often debate over policy , but Citizendium editors agree to follow the rules that are on the site . Wikipedia invites anyone to contribute while Sanger set up a system in which experts work alongside other editors on the wiki . The size of Citizendium 's audience is much smaller than Wikipedia 's and the likelihood of Citizendium overtaking Wikipedia appears fairly remote . Post-Citizendium In early 2009 , Sanger effectively ceased to edit Citizendium , although an announcement confirming this was not made until July 30 , 2009 , on the Citizendium-l mailinglist . On September 22 , 2010 , Sanger stepped down as editor-in-chief of Citizendium but said , at the time , that he was still willing to offer advice and would continue to support the goals of the project . In April 2010 Sanger sent a letter to the FBI detailing his concern that Wikimedia Commons was hosting child pornography in its pedophilia and lolicon categories later clarified as `` obscene visual representations of the abuse of children '' . Sanger said that he felt it was his civic duty to report the images . Sanger told FoxNews.com that , in 2012 , he worked with NetSpark to get them to donate or heavily discount its pornographic image filtering technology for use by Wikipedia . NetSpark attempted to contact the Wikimedia Foundation in July/August 2012 , but received no response at that time . In December 2010 , commenting in regard to WikiLeaks , Sanger said : `` I consider you enemies of the U.S.—not just the government , but the people . '' He has worked at the WatchKnowLearn project , a non-profit organization which focuses on educating young children using educational videos and other media on the web . Sanger was the executive director of the system . It is a non-profit funded by grants , philanthropists , and the Community Foundation of Northwest Mississippi . Sanger headed the development of WatchKnowLearn from 2008 to 2010 . It consists of a repository of educational videos for kindergarten to the 12th grade . In February 2013 , it ranked as the No . 1 search result among educational videos on Google 's search engine , with page views surmounting 6 million each month . In 2010 and 2011 , he continued working on developing a web-based reading-tutorial application for beginning readers which was launched as Reading Bear in 2012 . It uses the principles of phonics , using multimedia presentations such as videos , PowerPoint presentations , and ebooks . In addition to aiming to teach children to pronounce words , it aims to teach the meaning and context of each word . In February 2013 , Sanger announced a project he named Infobitt - a crowdsourced news portal . On Twitter , he wrote : `` My new project will show the world how to crowdsource high-quality content—a problem I 've long wanted to solve . Not a wiki '' . The site , which aims to develop a crowdsourced news aggregator , went online in December 2014 . In July 2015 , Sanger announced that the Infobitt project had run out of money , he had let the programmers go , and he was himself looking for a job . He further noted that it was impossible to do a full launch of the project as the code behind it was still only capable of working `` at a small scale '' . Personal life Sanger moved to San Diego , California , in February 2000 when he was first hired by Wales to develop Nupedia . He was married in Las Vegas , Nevada , in December 2001 . In January 2002 he returned to Columbus , Ohio , where he currently resides with his wife and two children . Selected writings A partial list of academic work , essays , and presentations Sanger has written : ; Academic work * Epistemic Circularity : An Essay on the Problem of Meta-Justification – doctoral thesis . * Descartes ' methods and their theoretical background – bachelor thesis . ; Essays * [ https : //ballotpedia.org/Why_Neutrality % 3F Why Neutrality ? ] . Ballotpedia , December 2015 . * [ http : //larrysanger.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/How-and-Why-I-Taught-My-Toddler-to-Read.pdf How and Why I Taught My Toddler to Read ] ( PDF ) . LarrySanger.org , December 2010 . * [ http : //www.educause.edu/EDUCAUSE+Review/EDUCAUSEReviewMagazineVolume45/IndividualKnowledgeintheIntern/202336 Individual Knowledge in the Internet Age ] . Educause Review , April 2010 . * [ http : //www.eupjournals.com/doi/pdf/10.3366/E1742360008000543 The Fate of Expertise after Wikipedia ] ( PDF ) . Episteme – Edinburgh University Press , February 2009 . * [ http : //www.edge.org/3rd_culture/sanger07/sanger07_index.html Who Says We Know : On The New Politics of Knowledge ] . Edge Foundation – Edge Reality Club , April 2007 . * [ http : //larrysanger.org/2007/03/why-the-citizendium-will-succeed/ Why the Citizendium Will ( Probably ) Succeed ] . LarrySanger.org , March 2007 . * [ http : //edge.org/q2007/q07_14.html # sanger Humanity 's Coming Enlightenment ] . ( [ http : //www.edge.org/q2007/q07_14.html Archived ] ) Edge Foundation – World Question Center , 2007 . * [ http : //www.citizendium.org/essay.html Toward a New Compendium of Knowledge ] . Citizendium , September 2006 . ; Presentations * [ http : //larrysanger.org/scholar_pub.html What Strong Collaboration Means for Scholarly Publishing ] . Keynote at the Annual Meeting of Society for Scholarly Publishing , San Francisco , CA , June 7 , 2007 . * [ http : //www.citizendium.org/collab_prof.html How to Think about Strong Collaboration among Professionals ] . Keynote at the Handelsblatt IT Congress , Bonn , Germany , January 30 , 2007 . * [ http : //www.citizendium.org/roomforexperts.html Why Make Room for Experts in Web 2.0 ? ] . Opening keynote at the SVForum , The Business of New Media , Santa Clara , CA , October 25 , 2006 .

bb_8050--Larry_Sanger.txt

Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger founded which website in 2001?

Giovanni Antonio Canal ( 28 October 1697 – 19 April 1768 ) , better known as Canaletto , was an Italian painter of landscapes , or vedute , of Venice . He was also an important printmaker in etching . He was the son of the painter Bernardo Canal , he visited England between 1746–56 and he is famous for his urban landscapes of Venice . He is very famous for his scenes , usually associated with `` evocative views of the city '' . The Stonemason´s Yard , was his finest work around 1725 and was presented by Sir George Beaumont in 1823/8 . Canaletto , together with Giambattista Pittoni , Giovan Battista Tiepolo , Giovan Battista Piazzetta , Giuseppe Maria Crespi and Francesco Guardi forms the ultimate group of Venetian old master painters . Early career He was born in Venice as the son of the painter Bernardo Canal , hence his mononym Canaletto ( `` little Canal '' ) , and Artemisia Barbieri . Canaletto served his apprenticeship with his father and his brother . He began in his father 's occupation , that of a theatrical scene painter . Canaletto was inspired by the Roman vedutista Giovanni Paolo Pannini , and started painting the daily life of the city and its people . After returning from Rome in 1719 , he began painting in his topographical style . His first known signed and dated work is Architectural Capriccio ( 1723 , Milan , in a private collection ) . Studying with the older Luca Carlevarijs , a moderately-talented painter of urban cityscapes , he rapidly became his master 's equal . In 1725 , the painter Alessandro Marchesini , who was also the buyer for the Lucchese art collector Stefano Conti , had inquired about buying two more 'views of Venice ' , when the agent urged him to consider instead the work of `` Antonio Canale ... it is like Carlevaris , but you can see the sun shining in it . '' Outdoor painting Much of Canaletto 's early artwork was painted `` from nature '' , differing from the then customary practice of completing paintings in the studio . Some of his later works do revert to this custom , as suggested by the tendency for distant figures to be painted as blobs of colour – an effect produced by using a camera obscura , which blurs farther-away objects . However , his paintings are always notable for their accuracy : he recorded the seasonal submerging of Venice in water and ice . Early and late work Canaletto 's early works remain his most coveted and , according to many authorities , his best . One of his early pieces is The Stonemason 's Yard ( 1729 , London , the National Gallery ) which depicts a humble working area of the city . Later Canaletto painted grand scenes of the canals of Venice and the Doge 's Palace . His large-scale landscapes portrayed the city 's pageantry and waning traditions , making innovative use of atmospheric effects and strong local colors . For these qualities , his works may be said to have anticipated Impressionism . His graphic print S.A Giustina in Prà della Vale was found in the 2012 Nazi loot discovery . Work in England Many of his pictures were sold to Englishmen on their Grand Tour , often through the agency of the merchant Joseph Smith ( who was later appointed British Consul in Venice in 1744 ) . It was Smith who acted as an agent for Canaletto , first in requesting paintings of Venice from the painter in the early 1720s and helping him to sell his paintings to other Englishmen . In the 1740s Canaletto 's market was disrupted when the War of the Austrian Succession led to a reduction in the number of British visitors to Venice . Smith also arranged for the publication of a series of etchings of `` capricci '' ( or architectural phantasies ) ( capriccio Italian for fancy ) in his vedute ideale , but the returns were not high enough , and in 1746 Canaletto moved to London , to be closer to his market . He remained in England until 1755 , producing views of London ( including several of the new Westminster Bridge , which was completed during his stay ) and of his patrons ' castles and houses . His 1754 painting of Old Walton Bridge includes an image of Canaletto himself . He was often expected to paint England in the fashion with which he had painted his native city . Canaletto 's painting began to suffer from repetitiveness , losing its fluidity , and becoming mechanical to the point that the English art critic George Vertue suggested that the man painting under the name 'Canaletto ' was an impostor . The artist was compelled to give public painting demonstrations in order to refute this claim ; however , his reputation never fully recovered in his lifetime . After his return to Venice , Canaletto was elected to the Venetian Academy in 1763 and appointed prior of the Collegio dei Pittori . He continued to paint until his death in 1768 . In his later years he often worked from old sketches , but he sometimes produced surprising new compositions . He was willing to make subtle alternations to topography for artistic effect . Market His pupils included his nephew Bernardo Bellotto , Francesco Guardi , Michele Marieschi , Gabriele Bella , and Giuseppe Moretti . The painter , Giuseppe Bernardino Bison was a follower of his style . Joseph Smith sold much of his collection to George III , creating the bulk of the large collection of works by Canaletto owned by the Royal Collection . in 1762 , George III paid £20,000 for Consul Smith 's collection of 50 paintings and 142 drawings . There are many examples of his work in other British collections , including several ( 19 ) at the Wallace Collection and a set of 24 in the dining room at Woburn Abbey . A large set of Canaletto works was also part of the collection of the Earls of Carlisle , however many were lost at the 1940 fire of Castle Howard and others were sold over the last century . Among those formerly at the Carlisle collection are `` The Bacino di San Marco : looking East '' , now at the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston ( sold in 1939 ) and the pair `` Entrance to the Grand Canal from the Molo , Venice '' and `` The Square of Saint Mark 's , Venice '' , now at the National Gallery of Art , Washington DC ( sold in 1938 ) . The last important venetian veduta at Castle Howard was by Bernardo Bellotto , `` A View of the Grand Canal Looking South from the Palazzo Foscari '' , which was sold at Sotheby 's in July 2015 for £2.6 million . Canaletto 's views always fetched high prices , and as early as the 18th century Catherine the Great and other European monarchs vied for his grandest paintings . The record price paid at auction for a Canaletto is £18.6 million for View of the Grand Canal from Palazzo Balbi to the Rialto , set at Sotheby 's in London in July 2005 . Works

sfq_26249--Canaletto.txt

Canaletto is famous for his landscapes of Venice and which other city?

Chief Clarence `` Clancy '' Wiggum is a fictional character from the animated television series The Simpsons , voiced by Hank Azaria . He is the chief of police in the show 's setting of Springfield . He is the father of Ralph Wiggum and the husband of Sarah Wiggum . The character 's comedic value relies heavily on his incompetence and irresponsibility as a police officer , and his laziness and gluttony . Chief Wiggum 's more responsible fellow officers Eddie and Lou play the straight men to his shenanigans . Biography Chief Wiggum was born in Ireland and moved to Springfield at an early age . Per the episode Raging Abe Simpson and His Grumbling Grandson in `` The Curse of the Flying Hellfish '' , Wiggum 's father , Iggy , served in Abe Simpson 's infantry squad , implying the Wiggums emigrated to America by the early 1940s at the latest . In the episode `` Mother Simpson '' , a teenaged Wiggum was a trainee security guard at Springfield University when Homer 's mother Mona sabotaged the University 's laboratory , which Mr. Burns was using for biological weapons . Antibiotics used to kill the weapons cured Wiggum 's asthma , allowing him to join the police force . Many episodes have dealt with the back story of how Wiggum , despite his incompetences , occupies such a high role in the police force . As with those of most supporting characters on the show , they are jokes for one episode and contradict each other . Wiggum was temporarily promoted to Commissioner of Police for Springfield 's state in the 2005 episode `` Pranksta Rap '' . Chief Wiggum is the father of Ralph Wiggum , whom he loves and is patient of , but he sometimes does not understand his son 's eccentricities . Incompetence Wiggum 's descriptions of suspects , evidence and location is often very poor . He also has been known to arrest people impulsively , disregarding their involvement of a determined situation or crime , evident in `` Brother from Another Series '' where he arrested Sideshow Bob by the incidents of the episode , despite Bart and Lisa ( the main witnesses ) confirming his innocence , and in `` The Frying Game '' where he gleefully condemns Homer and Marge to death for murder without using a lie detector or making a DNA examination . He has also , on occasions had people arrested or put in a jail cell for an invalid reason . For example in `` Midnight Rx '' , he attempts to arrest Grandpa on a charge of startling a police officer rather than for the drug smuggling he had been involved in with Homer during the episode . in `` Much Apu About Nothing '' , he orders Barney to be booked on one count of being an accessory to being a bear , in `` Homer 's Barbershop Quartet '' , it is implied that he arrests Homer , Principal Skinner , Barney and Apu for rejecting him from their group The B-Sharps and in `` On a Clear Day I Ca n't See My Sister '' he puts Lou in a police cell because his coffee came back cold ( despite Lou insisting that Wiggum ordered `` an iced coffee ) . Furthermore in `` The Seven-Beer Snitch '' , he assists Mr Burns in filling up his newly opened prison with convicts by reinstating old and forgotten laws- which subsequently results in Homer being arrested for `` Illegally transporting litter '' ( five kicks of the same can ) . Wiggum also often fails to comply with his police duties in a real emergency , and sometimes does not take emergency calls seriously . Occasionally , he turns off his receiver when he is not in the mood to fight crime , or makes an excuse that he is too busy to help and it is then shown that the police are taking part in a trivial activity . He has demonstrated a lack of respect for firearms safety , having sold parts of his service pistol after losing his job ( `` Homer vs. the Eighteenth Amendment '' ) , used it to crack walnuts ( `` I Love Lisa '' ) and eaten donuts off its barrel , nearly killing himself as a result when it goes off ( The Simpsons Movie ) . It is also frequently implied that Chief Wiggum is corrupt . He has been seen asking both Homer and Troy McLure for bribes and on his badge , it states `` Cash Bribes only '' , something which causes Bart to be arrested for stealing and then trying to bribe Chief Wiggum with stolen wedding presents . In `` I Love Lisa '' , he deliberately smashes one of the headlights on Homer 's car after Lisa rejects Ralph Wiggum 's advantages and then expresses concern when Homer remarks that one day `` Honest citizens are going to stand up to you crooked cops '' . In the same episode , he also bribes Ralph 's teacher Mrs Hoover to give Ralph a leading part in the school play in exchange for her car being unclamped and uses his police car to take his son on a date .. In addition in `` The Wandering Juvie '' when Bart and Gina are caught by the Springfield Police Force after escaping from juvenile hall , Chief Wiggum orders `` Plant the evidence on them '' . When Lou points out that they do n't have to as these ones are actually guilty , Chief Wiggum remarks `` Super , it makes our job that much easier '' . Despite often not being bothered to do his work , Wiggum is emotionally attached to his occupation and his colleagues . On the few occasions where Wiggum loses his commission , he breaks down shockingly fast ( as seen in `` Poppa 's Got a Brand New Badge '' ) , even becoming a mugger ( as seen in `` Homer vs . The Eighteenth Amendment '' ) . Once in a while , Wiggum will have an argument with his fellow officers , which often end in dramatic , tearful moments of reconciliation . On one occasion , Lou had thought about leaving the force to pursue a career in home security , which leaves Wiggum nearly a tearful mess . Positive qualities Despite his general incompetence at his occupation , Wiggum on occasion has helped various other characters , such as helping Homer find his wife in `` Marge on the Lam '' . He rescued Maggie Simpson when she ran away from home to look for Marge in `` Homer Alone '' , by helping Lisa Simpson find Mr. Burns ' assailant in `` Who Shot Mr . Burns ? '' as well as helping backing her up in a school protest on one occasion in `` The President Wore Pearls '' . He also arrived just in time during crucial moments such as the various times Sideshow Bob had attempted to kill Bart Simpson . Perhaps the best example of this is the episode `` Mother Simpson '' , where it is implied that he leads the FBI astray in their search for Mona Simpson , allowing her to escape in gratitude for curing his asthma . Although Wiggum can often antagonize others as well , it is heavily implied that it is not out of malice but merely because he is doing his job or because he is ignorant of the situation . Creation His surname `` Wiggum '' is Matt Groening 's mother 's maiden name . As `` a conscious pun '' , Wiggum was designed to look like a pig . Hank Azaria first based his voice for Wiggum on David Brinkley , but it was too slow and he switched it to an Edward G. Robinson impression .

odql_4053--Chief_Wiggum.txt

What is the name of the Police Chief in 'The Simpsons'?

Melbourne City Centre ( sometimes referred to as `` Central City '' , and colloquially known as simply `` The City '' ) is an area of Melbourne , Victoria , Australia . It is the area in which Melbourne was established in 1835 , by John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner , and its boundaries are defined by the Government of Victoria 's Melbourne Planning Scheme . Today it comprises the two oldest areas of Melbourne ; the Hoddle Grid and Queen Victoria Market , as well as sections of the redeveloped areas of Docklands and Southbank/Wharf . It is not to be confused with the larger local government area of the City of Melbourne . It is the core central activities district ( CAD ) of Melbourne 's inner suburbs and the major central business district ( CBD ) of Greater Melbourne 's metropolitan area , and is a major financial centre in Australia and the Asia-Pacific region . The Hoddle Grid in the City Centre is home to Melbourne 's famed alleyways and arcades and is renowned for its distinct blend of contemporary and Victorian architecture as well as expansive parks and gardens which surround its edges . The City Centre is home to five of the six tallest buildings in Australia . In recent times , it has been placed alongside New York City and Berlin as one of the world 's great street art meccas , and designated a `` City of Literature '' by UNESCO in its Creative Cities Network . Foundation Batman 's Treaty In April 1835 , John Batman , a prominent grazier and a member of the Geelong and Dutigalla Association ( later Port Phillip Association ) , sailed from Launceston on the island of Van Diemen 's Land ( now the State of Tasmania ) , aboard the schooner Rebecca , in search of fresh grazing land in the south-east of the Colony of New South Wales ( the mainland Australian continent ) . He sailed across Bass Strait , into the bay of Port Phillip , and arrived at the mouth of the Yarra River in May . After exploring the surrounding area , he met with the elders of the indigenous Aboriginal group , the Wurundjeri of the Kulin nation alliance , and negotiated a transaction for 600,000 acres ( 2,400 km² ; 940 mi² ) which later became known as Batman 's Treaty . The transaction , which is believed to have taken place on the bank of Merri Creek ( near the modern day suburb of Northcote ) , consisted of an offering of : blankets , knives , mirrors , sugar , and other such items ; to be also tributed annually to the Wurundjeri . The last sentence of Batman 's journal entry on this day became famous as the founding charter of the settlement . Upon returning to Van Diemen 's Land , Batman 's treaty was deemed invalid by the Governor of New South Wales , Sir Richard Bourke , under the Proclamation of Governor Bourke in August 1835 . It was the belief of Governor Bourke , as well as the Governor of Van Diemen 's Land , Sir George Arthur , that the Aboriginal people did not have any official claims to the lands of the Australian continent . The proclamation formally declared , under the doctrine of terra nullius , that The Crown owned the whole of the Australian continent and that only it alone could sell and distribute land . It therefore voided any contracts or treaties made without the consent of the government , and declared any person attempting to rely on such a treaty to be trespassing . However , at the time the proclamation was being drawn up , a prominent businessman from Van Diemen 's Land , John Pascoe Fawkner , had also funded an expedition to the area ; which sailed from George Town aboard the schooner Enterprize . At the same time , the Port Phillip Association had also funded a second expedition ; which sailed from Launceston aboard the Rebecca . Fawkner 's fait accompli The settlement party aboard the Enterprize entered the Yarra River , and anchored close to the site chosen by Batman , on 29 August . The party went ashore the following day ( near what is today William Street ; and is now celebrated as Melbourne Day ) and landed their stores , livestock and began to construct the settlement . The Association party aboard the Rebecca arrived in September after spending time at a temporary camp at Indented Head , where they encountered William Buckley – an escaped convict , believed dead , who had been living for 32 years with the indigenous Aboriginal group , the Wathaurong of the Kulin nation alliance . Batman was dismayed to discover the settlers of the Enterprize had established a settlement in the area and informed the settlers that they were trespassing on the Association 's land . However , according to the Proclamation of Governor Bourke , both the parties were in fact trespassing on Crown land . When Fawkner ( who was noted for his democratic nature ) arrived in October , and following tense arguments between the two parties , negotiation were made for land to be shared equally . As Fawkner had arrived after the two parties , he was aware of the Proclamation of Governor Bourke , which had gained approval from the Colonial Office in October . He knew that cooperation would be vital if the settlement was to continue to exist fait accompli . Land was then divided , and the settlement existed peacefully , but without a formal system of governance . It was referred to by a number of names , including : `` Batmania '' and `` Bearbrass '' of which the latter was agreed upon by Batman and Fawkner . Fawkner assumed a leading role in the establishment of Bearbrass ; which , by early 1836 , consisted of 177 European settlers ( 142 male and 35 female settlers ) . The Secretary of State for the Colonies , Charles Grant , recognised the settlement 's fait accompli that same year , and authorised Governor Bourke to transfer Bearbrass to a Crown settlement . Batman and the Port Phillip Association were compensated £7,000 for the land . And , in March 1837 , it was officially renamed `` Melbourne '' by Governor Bourke in honour of the British Prime Minister of the day , William Lamb ( the Lord Melbourne ) . Boundaries and geography The City Centre is bordered by Spencer Street to the west and extends north as far as Grattan Street which borders Carlton . The border extends along La Trobe Street , William Street , Peel Street , Grattan Street , taking in the Queen Victoria Market , Berkeley Street , Victoria Street . To the east it is bordered by Spring Street , however the area extends east to take in parts of Wellington Parade , Brunton Avenue , Punt Road and the Yarra River . It borders South Yarra to the south east at Anderson Street , Domain Road , Domain Street , Arnold Street , Fawkner Park , Commercial Road , High Street . It also borders both St Kilda along St Kilda Road and Albert Park along Queens Road , Lakeside Drive and South Melbourne along Albert Road , Kings Way , Palmerston Crescent , Wells Place and finally Southbank along St Kilda Road and the south side of Flinders Street ( Northbank ) which includes Flinders Street Station and the Melbourne Aquarium . Although these are the borders on official maps , there are several adjoining areas that function as part of the Central Activities District . This includes Melbourne Docklands ( with Docklands Stadium ) , Southbank , South Wharf and East Melbourne/Jolimont ( with the Melbourne Cricket Ground ) . Despite the area being described as the centre , it is neither the geographic or demographic centre of Melbourne , due to an urban sprawl to the south east ; the geographic centre is currently located at Bourne Street , Glen Iris . Hoddle Grid The Hoddle Grid is the layout of the streets in the centre of the original Melbourne City Centre . The grid was laid out in 1837 by Robert Hoddle . All major streets are one and half chains ( 99 ft or 30 m ) in width , while all blocks are exactly 10 chains square ( 10 acres , 201 m × 201 m ) . It is one mile ( 1.6 km ) long by half a mile wide ( 0.80 km ) . The grid 's longest axis is oriented 70 degrees clockwise from true north , to align better with the course of the Yarra River . The majority of Melbourne is oriented at 8 degrees clockwise from true north–noting that magnetic north was 8° 3 ' E in 1900 , increasing to 11° 42 ' E in 2009 . It covers the area from Flinders Street to Queen Victoria Market , and from Spencer Street to Spring Street . From the 1870s to 1920s , the central part of Melbourne was home to mostly medical professionals who had established practices along Collins Street and Spring Street . Before the 1960s , only a handful of permanent residents lived in the Spring Street area and St Kilda Road . The area was largely unpopular for residents and Council policies did not permit development of apartment style housing in the area . St Kilda Road was annexed in the 1960s and given the postcode of Melbourne 3004 to stimulate office development along the strip and reduce pressure on overdevelopment of the Hoddle Grid . The result was the demolition of many of the street 's grand mansions . Demographics Central Melbourne has one of the fastest growing residential populations in Australia . Residents of the city centre are of mixed social status . [ http : //www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/info.cfm ? top91 & pg 866 # social City of Melbourne - Research - Who lives in the city ? ] On one hand , living in the centre of the city offers proximity to work and the best access to public transport . On the other hand , there are many strata titled studio apartments that have no carparks and limited space . As a result , there is a mix of students and young urban professionals living in the locality of Melbourne , with a relatively low car dependency . Economy The City Centre is the core central activities district ( CAD ) of Melbourne 's inner suburbs . It encompasses a number of places of significance , which include the Australian Centre for the Moving Image , Crown Casino , Federation Square , Flinders Street Station , Melbourne Aquarium , Melbourne Convention and Exhibition Centre , Melbourne Town Hall , National Gallery of Victoria , State Arts Centre of Victoria , State Library of Victoria , State Parliament of Victoria and Supreme Court of Victoria . Bordering its north-east perimeter is the World Heritage-listed Royal Exhibition Building and Carlton Gardens as well as the Melbourne Museum . It is also the main terminus for the Melbourne metropolitan and Victorian regional passenger rail networks - being Flinders Street and Southern Cross stations respectively , as well as the most dense section of the Melbourne tram network . The City Centre is the major central business district ( CBD ) of Greater Melbourne 's metropolitan area , and a major financial centre in Australia and the Asia-Pacific region . It is home to the corporate headquarters of the World 's two largest mining companies : BHP Billiton and Rio Tinto Group ; as well as two of Australia 's `` big four '' banks : ANZ and NAB , its two largest gaming companies : Crown and Tabcorp , largest telecommunications company Telstra , two largest transport management companies : Toll and Transurban and the iconic brewing company Foster 's Group . It also serves as the main administrative centre for the City of Melbourne as well as the State Government of Victoria – the latter with the suburb of East Melbourne . Three universities have major campuses in the area : Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology ( RMIT City campus ) , University of Melbourne ( Victorian College of the Arts ) and Victoria University ( Flinders campus ) . Melbourne City Centre , compared with other Australian cities , has comparatively unrestricted height limits and as a result of waves of post-war development contains five of the six tallest buildings in Australia , the tallest of which is the Eureka Tower , situated in Southbank . It has an observation deck near the top from where you can see above all of Melbourne 's structures . The Rialto tower , the city 's second tallest , remains the tallest building in the old CBD ; its observation deck for visitors closed in December 2009 . Culture and sport Arts Notable theatres and performance venues in the City Centre include the Victorian Arts Centre ( which includes the State Theatre , Hamer Hall , the Playhouse and the Fairfax Studio ) , Melbourne Recital Centre , Sidney Myer Music Bowl , Princess Theatre , Regent Theatre , Forum Theatre , Palace Theatre , Comedy Theatre , Athenaeum Theatre , Her Majesty 's Theatre , Capitol Theatre , Palais Theatre and the Australian Centre for Contemporary Art . It is also the literary centre of Australia , and has more bookshops and publishing companies per capita than any other city in Australia , and includes the headquarters of the World 's largest travel guidebook publisher Lonely Planet . In 2008 , it was designated a `` City of Literature '' by UNESCO in its Creative Cities Network . Melbourne has been placed alongside New York and Berlin as one of the world 's great street art meccas , and its extensive street art-laden laneways , alleys and arcades were voted by Lonely Planet readers as Australia 's top cultural attraction . Sports Most professional sporting clubs represent Greater Melbourne ( e.g . Melbourne Victory , Melbourne Storm ) . An exception is the Melbourne Cricket Club and Melbourne Football Club ( its offshoot ) , both based at the Melbourne Cricket Ground which was built in Jolimont , adjacent to the city but a locality of the suburb of East Melbourne . Both were the first clubs of their respective sports and established in a time when the city 's population was still very small and limited to a handful of inner suburbs . As a result , the Melbourne Cricket Club has a fairly exclusive membership , whilst the Melbourne Football Club , although bearing the name Melbourne , is associated by the supporters of other suburban clubs as representing the central suburb and perceive its supporters to represent the locality and not the entire city . As a result , despite its rich tradition and early success , it is one of the least supported clubs in the VFL/AFL . The lack of identity resulted in a push for the Melbourne Hawks , which was stopped by intervention from Joseph Gutnick and the majority of the Hawthorn Football Club members . It has had intense rivalries with younger clubs from the adjacent inner suburbs such as the Collingwood Football Club and early inter-town rival Geelong Football Club . The Melbourne Football Club has recently made efforts to shed its suburban tag and be embraced by the whole metropolitan area . In line with this , the club recently employed strategies such as establishing Team Melbourne , ( a group of sporting teams which bear the name `` Melbourne '' ) , and a strategy for promoting the brand as representing the city in China through club supporter and former Lord Mayor John So . Golf is played at the course of the Albert Park Golf Club on Queens Road . Events The City Centre has hosted a number of events of significance , which include : the 1901 inauguration of the Government of Australia , 1956 Summer Olympic Games , 1981 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting , 1995 World Police and Fire Games , 2000 World Economic Forum , 2006 Commonwealth Games , 2015 Cricket World Cup and G20 Ministerial Meeting - among others . It is also recognised for the substantial number of cultural and sports events and festivals it holds annually – many being the largest in Australia and the World . Transport The Melbourne City Centre is the transport hub of the city . The city is serviced by five railway stations as part of the Melbourne Underground Rail Loop : Flinders Street Station , which is the hub for Melbourne 's suburban train network and the busiest station , Southern Cross Station , which is the hub for regional and interstate transit located on Spencer Street , and three underground stations - Parliament , Melbourne Central and Flagstaff stations . Trams run down the main streets of Flinders , Collins , Bourke and Latrobe as well as Spencer Street , Market Street , Elizabeth Street , Swanston Street , Spring Street , Swan Street and St Kilda Road . There are several large accessibility tram `` superstops '' located in Flinders Street , Collins Street , Swanston Street and Bourke Street Mall . The city is also well connected by bus services , with majority of buses running down Lonsdale Street . Major bus stops include Melbourne Central and QV . Most bus routes service suburbs north and east of the city given the lack of train lines to these areas . Major bicycle trails lead to the CBD and a main bicycle path down Swanston Street . Ferries dock along the northbank of the Yarra at Federation Wharf and the turning basin at the Aquatic Centre . There is also a water taxi service to Melbourne and Olympic Parks .

qw_12852--Melbourne_City_Centre.txt

The Australian Tennis Open is played in what city?

Linus van Pelt is a character in Charles M. Schulz 's comic strip Peanuts . The best friend of Charlie Brown , Linus is also the younger brother of Lucy van Pelt and older brother of Rerun van Pelt . He first appeared on September 19 , 1952 , but was not mentioned by name until three days later . He was first referenced two months earlier , on July 14 . Linus spoke his first words in 1954 , the same year he was shown with his security blanket . The character 's creator , Charles M. Schulz , has said of the character , `` Linus , my serious side , is the house intellectual , bright , well-informed which , I suppose may contribute to his feelings of insecurity . '' Lee Mendelson , producer of the majority of the Peanuts television specials , has said that Linus is his favorite character : Personality Though young , Linus is very intelligent , and acts as the strip 's philosopher and theologian , often quoting the Gospels . Juvenile aspects of his character are also displayed ; for example , Linus is almost always depicted holding his blue security blanket—for which he is often mocked by other characters—and often sucks his thumb . He invented his own legendary being , the Great Pumpkin , who , Linus claims , appears every Halloween at the most `` sincere '' pumpkin patch , bearing gifts . Linus is the only person who believes in the Great Pumpkin , although he occasionally temporarily convinces other characters the Great Pumpkin is real , only to stubbornly maintain his faith when they lose theirs . On one occasion , Linus had a commanding lead in the polls for school president—until he brought up the subject of the Great Pumpkin , at which point he was nearly laughed out of the election . ( He ended up winning anyway by one vote , cast by his opponent , who decided that Linus would make a better school president . ) A similar occurrence was featured in a strip with the same storyline ; Charlie Brown asks him why he had to bring up the Great Pumpkin and Linus gives his reasons . After Linus says that Charlie Brown is looking at him as if he was crazy , Charlie Brown responds , `` I 'm looking at you like I could 've been vice president ! '' Security Blanket Linus is almost never seen without his blue security blanket , which debuted in the June 1 , 1954 , strip . He holds it over his shoulder while sucking his thumb . Ridicule of the habit is not a major concern for him . His friend Roy warned him at summer camp that he would be viciously teased for it ; in response , Linus used his blanket like a whip and sheared off a tree branch with intimidating power , saying , `` They never tease me more than once . '' The blanket , it turns out , is an autonomous ( although nonverbal ) entity . In a 1965 strip , it engaged in a campaign of clandestine attacks on Lucy , even routing her from the house , due to her constant , albeit failed , attempts to get rid of it by throwing it in the trash burner . In the special A Boy Named Charlie Brown , it performed a complex dance routine with Linus upon being reunited with its owner . Linus had lost the blanket , causing him depression , panic attacks , sweating and other withdrawal symptoms . In the earlier strips , Linus 's relationship to his blanket was one of intense emotional attachment to the point of manifesting physical symptoms if he was deprived of it even for a short while . He suffered weakness and dizziness , for example , when Lucy took it from him only long enough to have it laundered , spontaneously recovering when it was restored to him . In A Boy Named Charlie Brown , Linus manifested similar symptoms when he gave his blanket to Charlie Brown . On another occasion , Lucy snatched his blanket away and buried it in an effort to break Linus of his habit . Linus literally dug up the neighborhood for days trying to find it until Snoopy finally dug it up . Possession of the blanket is often sought by Snoopy , who has used many tricks and subterfuges to relieve Linus of it , even at one point having the blanket delivered to his doghouse . Snoopy commonly runs up , quickly grabs the blanket in his mouth , and drags Linus along with it , then swings him and the blanket around before letting go and sending them both soaring off . Once , Linus was so angry at Snoopy for snatching his blanket again and again that he retaliated by threatening Snoopy 's supper dish . Upon hearing that Linus had possession of his most prized possession , Snoopy gave Linus back the blanket fairly quickly , thinking , `` I never dreamed he would fight so dirty ! `` . When Lucy buried the blanket , Snoopy took the time to dig for it himself ; and when he found it , Linus thanked him , upon which Snoopy thought , `` Every now and then I feel that my existence is justified ! '' Linus always wins and gets the blanket back . In one strip , Lucy confiscates Linus 's blanket , locking it in a closet for two weeks as part of a bet . Linus thinks he can go without the blanket for two weeks and laughs off Lucy and Charlie Brown 's differing opinion . After one week Linus begins suffering , and freezing without it ; he tries to use Snoopy 's ears but Lucy notices and tells him `` no substitutes ! '' After eight days , Linus screams and cries for the blanket . Finally it appears that Linus has lost his mind ; Charlie Brown persuades Lucy to give Linus his blanket back when they see Linus lying on the closet door scratching at it in a vain attempt to open it . Furthermore , there are many stories where Lucy and Linus 's grandmother attempts to force him to give up the blanket , only to eventually concede in the face of his steadfast resistance . Two attempts were when the grandmother in question gave up smoking , and when she offered that if he gave up the blanket she would donate ten dollars to his favorite charity . The deal was n't made because Linus did n't consider it a fair proposition . In another strip , Lucy warns him that she has arrived . Linus reluctantly hands her the blanket and then goes into his room , and says , `` I decoyed her with a colored dish towel ! '' The April 11 , 1983 , strip shows Linus saying that he had given up his blanket , and later going from door to door telling people how he gave up his blanket . Once , this results in the girl at the door lashing him with her blanket , in her anger . Twice before Linus actually vows to give up his blanket . Once he threw it away but grabbed it back ; another time he was about to tell Charlie Brown about his new resolution when Charlie Brown ruined everything by tossing a blanket onto him . Trying again to give up the blanket , he left it on the side of the road and walked away , quickly running back to it because according to him , it was whimpering . In one particularly angry confrontation over the issue ( the aforementioned blanket-for-smoking episode ) Linus admitted that if his mother ordered him to stop , he would comply ; but no one else , especially Lucy or the `` blanket-hating '' grandmother , would have that authority . In fact , in that confrontation , when Lucy decided that he 'd gone without the blanket for two weeks and that he no longer needed it , she decided to throw it into the trash burner ; Linus , however , was able to intervene at the last second and retrieve his blanket , reminding her that if their mother wanted him to give up the blanket he 'd do it , but until then it was nobody else 's business . Never objecting , the mother was evidently content to let her unusually intelligent son grow out of the habit on his own . In later strips , Linus is shown with it less and less , and Schulz admitted in 1989 that Linus had finally outgrown the blanket , and it was only in the strip when required for the humor . In one comic , Linus suddenly stops sucking his thumb and says `` It 's a good thumb , but not a great thumb . '' The special Why , Charlie Brown , Why ? , released the following year , is the only one in which Linus is never seen with his blanket ; nor is it even mentioned , arguably to make Linus appear more mature given the special 's serious subject . Eventually , however , he is reunited with it . Appearance Linus has brown hair and normally wears a red shirt with stripes on it , black shorts , and tennis shoes . On February 5 , 1962 , Linus began wearing eyeglasses after being diagnosed with myopia , but after the Sunday strip of September 9 , 1962 , the glasses were not seen again . In an earlier strip of July 17 1962 , Linus had told Charlie Brown that his ophthalmologist said he may not have to wear his glasses all the time : thus explaining their eventual disappearance . Relationships Charlie Brown Linus is Charlie Brown 's best friend . Linus is sympathetic towards Charlie Brown , and often gives him advice after listening to Charlie Brown 's various insecurities . Similarly , Charlie Brown generally observes Linus 's faults , such as his undying faith in the Great Pumpkin , his dependence on his security blanket , or any of his other odd quirks . They are also together in an allegiance over a common enemy : Lucy , who harasses and bullies Charlie Brown as much as she does Linus . The two are often seen having discussions while sitting on a street curb or leaning up against the brick wall . At some point in the strip , Linus begins to appear sitting behind Charlie Brown in school , despite being a year younger . Linus generally plays second base on Charlie Brown 's baseball team , but has substituted as pitcher for Charlie Brown when the latter has been unable to pitch . On these occasions , Linus 's skill has served to propel the team onto an uncharacteristic winning streak . Crushes and admirers Upon the introduction of Charlie Brown 's little sister , Sally Brown , in 1959 , Linus had the desire to marry her . However , as the strip progressed , he outgrew this idea , while Sally on the other hand fell in love with Linus , calling him her `` Sweet Babboo '' , much to his displeasure . Linus in turn has an innocent crush on his school teacher , Miss Othmar ( later Mrs. Hagemeyer ) . In some of the later 1990s strips he developed an interest in Lydia , the girl who sits behind him , who keeps changing her name and , as Linus is two months older than she asks him , `` Are n't you kind of old for me ? '' ( This is a subtle reference to cartoonist Schulz and his own second wife , who was twenty years younger than him ) . It was also Linus who first introduced Frieda , as `` ... a sort of a friend of mine '' who sat behind him in school . He also fell for several different girls in various animated television specials , as well as a girl called Truffles , whom he and Snoopy met while looking for the fungi bearing her name . Lucy van Pelt Linus is often bullied by his older sister Lucy , to which he responds by either giving in or taking revenge . Linus often defuses and defeats Lucy 's bullying through passive resistance and clever use of his intellect , either logically talking Lucy out of hitting him or confusing her into submission . Later in the strip , the pair got a younger brother , Rerun , who looks nearly identical to Linus , though smaller . Coincidentally , this occurred at the same time Lucy kicked Linus out of the house , leading her to cry in dismay : `` A new baby brother ? But I just got rid of the old one ! '' Voiced by * Christopher Shea ( 1963–1968 ) * Glenn Gilger ( 1969 ) * Stephen Shea ( 1971–1975 ) * Liam Martin ( 1975–1977 ) * Daniel Anderson ( 1977–1980 ) * Rocky Reilly ( 1980–1983 ) * Jeremy Schoenberg ( 1983–1985 ) * David T. Wagner ( 1984–1985 ) * Jeremy Miller ( 1985–1988 ) * Brandon Stewart ( 1988–1990 ) * Josh Keaton ( 1991 ) * John Christian Graas ( 1992–1993 ) * Anthony Birch ( 1995–1997 ) * Corey Padnos ( 2000–2003 ) * Benjamin Bryan ( 2006 ) * Quinn Lord ( 2008–2009 ) * Austin Lux ( 2011 ) * Alexander Garfin ( 2015 ) * Jude Perry ( 2016 )

jp_2861--Linus_van_Pelt.txt

"In the ""Peanuts"" comic strip, who is Lucy's brother?"

Wales ( ; ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain . It is bordered by England to the east , the Irish Sea to the north and west , and the Bristol Channel to the south . It had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20779 km2 . Wales has over 1680 mi of coastline and is largely mountainous , with its higher peaks in the north and central areas , including Snowdon ( ) , its highest summit . The country lies within the north temperate zone and has a changeable , maritime climate . Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century , and Wales is regarded as one of the modern Celtic nations . Llywelyn ap Gruffudd 's death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of England 's conquest of Wales , though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century . The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 . Distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century . Welsh Liberalism , exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George , was displaced by the growth of socialism and the Labour Party . Welsh national feeling grew over the century ; Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962 . Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998 , the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters . At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution , development of the mining and metallurgical industries transformed the country from an agricultural society into an industrial nation ; the South Wales Coalfield 's exploitation caused a rapid expansion of Wales ' population . Two-thirds of the population live in south Wales , mainly in and around Cardiff ( the capital ) , Swansea and Newport , and in the nearby valleys . Now that the country 's traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline , Wales ' economy depends on the public sector , light and service industries and tourism . Wales ' 2010 gross value added ( GVA ) was £45.5 billion ( £15,145 per head , 74.0 % of the average for the UK , and the lowest GVA per head in Britain ) . Although Wales closely shares its political and social history with the rest of Great Britain , and the vast majority of the population speaks English , the country has retained a distinct cultural identity and is officially bilingual . Over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales , and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west . From the late 19th century onwards , Wales acquired its popular image as the `` land of song '' , in part due to the eisteddfod tradition . At many international sporting events , such as the FIFA World Cup , Rugby World Cup and the Commonwealth Games , Wales has its own national teams , though at the Olympic Games , Welsh athletes compete as part of a Great Britain team . Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness . Etymology The English words `` Wales '' and `` Welsh '' derive from the same Germanic root ( singular Walh , plural Walha ) , which was itself derived from the name of the Celtic tribe known to the Romans as Volcae and which came to refer indiscriminately to all Celts and , later , to all inhabitants of the Roman Empire . The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular , and Wēalas when referring to their lands . The modern names for some Continental European lands ( e.g . Wallonia and Wallachia ) and peoples ( e.g . the Vlachs via a borrowing into Old Church Slavonic ) have a similar etymology . Historically in Britain , the words were not restricted to modern Wales or to the Welsh but were used to refer to anything that the Anglo-Saxons associated with the Britons , including other non-Germanic territories in Britain ( e.g . Cornwall ) and Germanic territories particularly associated with Celtic Britons ( e.g . Walworth in County Durham and Walton in West Yorkshire ) , as well as items associated with non-Germanic Europeans , such as the walnut . The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry , and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales . These words ( both of which are pronounced ) are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi , meaning `` fellow-countrymen '' . The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the post-Roman Era relationship of the Welsh with the Brythonic-speaking peoples of northern England and southern Scotland , the peoples of `` Yr Hen Ogledd '' ( ) . It emphasised a perception that the Welsh and the `` Men of the North '' were one people , different from other peoples . In particular , the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples , who are of similar heritage , culture , and language to both the Welsh and the Men of the North . The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century . It is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan ( Moliant Cadwallon , by Afan Ferddig ) . In Welsh literature , the word Cymry was used throughout the Middle Ages to describe the Welsh , though the older , more generic term Brythoniaid continued to be used to describe any of the Britonnic peoples ( including the Welsh ) and was the more common literary term until c. 1100 . Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh . Until c. 1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry , regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland . The Latinised forms of these names , Cambrian , Cambric and Cambria , survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales , Welsh and the Welsh people . Examples include the Cambrian Mountains ( which cover much of Wales and gave their name to the Cambrian geological period ) , the newspaper Cambrian News , and the organisations Cambrian Airways , Cambrian Railways , Cambrian Archaeological Association and the Royal Cambrian Academy of Art . Outside Wales , a related form survives as the name Cumbria in North West England , which was once a part of Yr Hen Ogledd . The Cumbric language , which is thought to have been closely related to Welsh , was spoken in this area until becoming extinct around the 12th century . This form also appears at times in literary references , as in the pseudohistorical `` Historia Regum Britanniae '' of Geoffrey of Monmouth , where the character of Camber is described as the eponymous King of Cymru . History Prehistoric origins Wales has been inhabited by modern humans for at least 29,000 years . Continuous human habitation dates from the end of the last ice age , between 12,000 and 10,000 years before present ( BP ) , when Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from central Europe began to migrate to Great Britain . At that time sea levels were much lower than today , and the shallower parts of what is now the North Sea were dry land . The east coast of present day England and the coasts of present day Denmark , Germany and the Netherlands were connected by the former landmass known as Doggerland , forming the British Peninsula on the European mainland . Wales was free of glaciers by about 10,250 BP , the warmer climate allowing the area to become heavily wooded . The post-glacial rise in sea level separated Wales and Ireland , forming the Irish Sea . Doggerland was submerged by the North Sea and , by 8,000 BP , the British Peninsula had become an island . By the beginning of the Neolithic ( c. 6,000 BP ) sea levels in the Bristol Channel were still about 33 ft lower than today . John Davies has theorised that the story of Cantre ' r Gwaelod 's drowning and tales in the Mabinogion , of the waters between Wales and Ireland being narrower and shallower , may be distant folk memories of this time . Neolithic colonists integrated with the indigenous people , gradually changing their lifestyles from a nomadic life of hunting and gathering , to become settled farmers about 6,000 BP – the Neolithic Revolution . They cleared the forests to establish pasture and to cultivate the land , developed new technologies such as ceramics and textile production , and built cromlechs such as Pentre Ifan , Bryn Celli Ddu and Parc Cwm long cairn between about 5,800 BP and 5,500 BP . In common with people living all over Great Britain , over the following centuries the people living in what was to become known as Wales assimilated immigrants and exchanged ideas of the Bronze Age and Iron Age Celtic cultures . According to John T. Koch and others , Wales in the Late Bronze Age was part of a maritime trading-networked culture that also included the other Celtic nations , England , France , Spain and Portugal where Celtic languages developed . This view , sometimes called `` Atlantic-Celtic '' , stands against the view that the Celtic languages have their origins further east with the Hallstatt culture . By the time of the Roman invasion of Britain the area of modern Wales had been divided among the tribes of the Deceangli , Ordovices , Cornovii , Demetae and Silures for centuries . Roman era The Roman conquest of Wales began in AD 48 and took 30 years to complete . Roman rule lasted over 300 years . The campaigns of conquest are the most widely known feature of Wales during the Roman era , because of the spirited , but ultimately unsuccessful , defence of their homelands by two native tribes : the Silures and the Ordovices . Roman rule in Wales was a military occupation , save for the southern coastal region of south Wales , east of the Gower Peninsula , where there is a legacy of Romanisation . The only town in Wales founded by the Romans , Caerwent , is in south east Wales . Both Caerwent and Carmarthen , also in southern Wales , became Roman civitates . Wales had a rich mineral wealth . The Romans used their engineering technology to extract large amounts of gold , copper and lead , as well as modest amounts of some other metals such as zinc and silver . Roman economic development was concentrated in south-eastern Britain , and no significant industries located in Wales . This was largely a matter of circumstance , as Wales had none of the necessary materials in suitable combination , and the forested , mountainous countryside was not amenable to industrialisation . Although Latin became the official language of Wales , the people tended to continue to speak in Brythonic . While Romanisation was far from complete , the upper classes of Wales began to consider themselves Roman , particularly after the ruling of 212 that granted Roman citizenship to all free men throughout the Empire . Further Roman influence came through the spread of Christianity , which gained many followers when Christians were allowed to worship freely ; state persecution ceased in the 4th century , as a result of Constantine I issuing an edict of toleration in 313 . Early historians , including the 6th century cleric Gildas , have noted 383 as a significant point in Welsh history , as it is stated in literature as the foundation point of several medieval royal dynasties . In that year the Roman general Magnus Maximus , or Macsen Wledig , stripped all of western and northern Britain of troops and senior administrators , to launch a successful bid for imperial power ; continuing to rule Britain from Gaul as emperor . Gildas , writing in about 540 , says that Maximus departed Britain , taking with him all of its Roman troops , armed bands , governors and the flower of its youth , never to return . Having left with the troops and Roman administrators , and planning to continue as the ruler of Britain in the future , his practical course was to transfer local authority to local rulers . The earliest Welsh genealogies give Maximus the role of founding father for several royal dynasties , including those of Powys and Gwent . It was this transfer of power that has given rise to the belief that he was the father of the Welsh Nation . He is given as the ancestor of a Welsh king on the Pillar of Eliseg , erected nearly 500 years after he left Britain , and he figures in lists of the Fifteen Tribes of Wales . Post-Roman era The 400-year period following the collapse of Roman rule is the most difficult to interpret in the history of Wales . After the Roman departure from Britain in AD 410 , much of the lowlands of Britain to the east and south-east was overrun by various Germanic peoples . Before extensive studies of the distribution of R1b Y-DNA subclades , some previously maintained that native Britons were displaced by the invaders . This idea has been discarded in the face of evidence that the population has , mainly , at latest Hallstatt era origins , but probably late Neolithic , or at earliest Mesolithic origins with little contribution from Anglo-Saxon source areas . However , by AD 500 , the land that would become Wales had divided into a number of kingdoms free from Anglo-Saxon rule . The kingdoms of Gwynedd , Powys , Dyfed and Seisyllwg , Morgannwg and Gwent emerged as independent Welsh successor states . Archaeological evidence , in the Low Countries and what was to become England , shows early Anglo-Saxon migration to Great Britain reversed between 500 to 550 , which concurs with Frankish chronicles . John Davies notes this as consistent with the British victory at Badon Hill , attributed to Arthur by Nennius . This tenacious survival by the Romano-Britons and their descendants in the western kingdoms was to become the foundation of what we now know as Wales . With the loss of the lowlands , England 's kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria , and later Wessex , wrestled with Powys , Gwent and Gwynedd to define the frontier between the two peoples . Having lost much of what is now the West Midlands to Mercia in the 6th and early 7th centuries , a resurgent late-seventh-century Powys checked Mercian advancement . Aethelbald of Mercia , looking to defend recently acquired lands , had built Wat 's Dyke . According to John Davies , this endeavour may have been with Powys king Elisedd ap Gwylog 's own agreement , as this boundary , extending north from the valley of the River Severn to the Dee estuary , gave Oswestry to Powys . Another theory , after carbon dating placed the dyke 's existence 300 years earlier , is that it may have been built by the post-Roman rulers of Wroxeter . King Offa of Mercia seems to have continued this consultative initiative when he created a larger earthwork , now known as Offa 's Dyke ( ) . Davies wrote of Cyril Fox 's study of Offa 's Dyke : `` In the planning of it , there was a degree of consultation with the kings of Powys and Gwent . On the Long Mountain near Trelystan , the dyke veers to the east , leaving the fertile slopes in the hands of the Welsh ; near Rhiwabon , it was designed to ensure that Cadell ap Brochwel retained possession of the Fortress of Penygadden . '' And , for Gwent , Offa had the dyke built `` on the eastern crest of the gorge , clearly with the intention of recognizing that the River Wye and its traffic belonged to the kingdom of Gwent . '' However , Fox 's interpretations of both the length and purpose of the Dyke have been questioned by more recent research . Offa 's Dyke largely remained the frontier between the Welsh and English , though the Welsh would recover by the 12th century the area between the Dee ( ) and the Conwy , known then as Y Berfeddwlad . By the 8th century , the eastern borders with the Anglo-Saxons had broadly been set . In 853 the Vikings raided Anglesey , but in 856 Rhodri Mawr defeated and killed their leader , Gorm . The Britons of Wales later made their peace with the Vikings and Anarawd ap Rhodri allied with the Norsemen occupying Northumbria to conquer the north . This alliance later broke down and Anarawd came to an agreement with Alfred , king of Wessex , with whom he fought against the west Welsh . According to Annales Cambriae , in 894 , `` Anarawd came with the Angles and laid waste Ceredigion and Ystrad Tywi . '' Medieval Wales The southern and eastern parts of Great Britain lost to English settlement became known in Welsh as Lloegyr ( Modern Welsh Lloegr ) , which may have referred to the kingdom of Mercia originally and which came to refer to England as a whole.The earliest instance of Lloegyr occurs in the early 10th century prophetic poem Armes Prydein . It seems comparatively late as a place name , the nominative plural Lloegrwys , `` men of Lloegr '' , being earlier and more common . The English were sometimes referred to as an entity in early poetry ( Saeson , as today ) but just as often as Eingl ( Angles ) , Iwys ( Wessex-men ) , etc . Lloegr and Sacson became the norm later when England emerged as a kingdom . As for its origins , some scholars have suggested that it originally referred only to Mercia – at that time a powerful kingdom and for centuries the main foe of the Welsh . It was then applied to the new kingdom of England as a whole ( see for instance Rachel Bromwich ( ed . ) , Trioedd Ynys Prydein , University of Wales Press , 1987 ) . `` The lost land '' and other fanciful meanings , such as Geoffrey of Monmouth 's monarch Locrinus , have no etymological basis . ( See also Discussion in Reference 40 ) The Germanic tribes who now dominated these lands were invariably called Saeson , meaning `` Saxons '' . The Anglo-Saxons called the Romano-British 'Walha ' , meaning 'Romanised foreigner ' or 'stranger ' . The Welsh continued to call themselves Brythoniaid ( Brythons or Britons ) well into the Middle Ages , though the first written evidence of the use of Cymru and y Cymry is found in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan ( Moliant Cadwallon , by Afan Ferddig ) c. 633 . In Armes Prydain , believed to be written around 930–942 , the words Cymry and Cymro are used as often as 15 times . However , from the Anglo-Saxon settlement onwards , the people gradually begin to adopt the name Cymry over Brythoniad . From 800 onwards , a series of dynastic marriages led to Rhodri Mawr 's ( r. 844–77 ) inheritance of Gwynedd and Powys . His sons in turn would found three principal dynasties ( Aberffraw for Gwynedd , Dinefwr for Deheubarth and Mathrafal for Powys ) . Rhodri 's grandson Hywel Dda ( r. 900–50 ) founded Deheubarth out of his maternal and paternal inheritances of Dyfed and Seisyllwg in 930 , ousted the Aberffraw dynasty from Gwynedd and Powys and then codified Welsh law in the 940s . Maredudd ab Owain ( r. 986–99 ) of Deheubarth ( Hywel 's grandson ) would , ( again ) temporarily oust the Aberffraw line from control of Gwynedd and Powys . Maredudd 's great-grandson ( through his daughter Princess Angharad ) Gruffydd ap Llywelyn ( r. 1039–63 ) would conquer his cousins ' realms from his base in Powys , and even extend his authority into England . Historian John Davies states that Gruffydd was `` the only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory of Wales ... Thus , from about 1057 until his death in 1063 , the whole of Wales recognised the kingship of Gruffudd ap Llywelyn . For about seven brief years , Wales was one , under one ruler , a feat with neither precedent nor successor . '' Owain Gwynedd ( 1100–70 ) of the Aberffraw line was the first Welsh ruler to use the title princeps Wallensium ( prince of the Welsh ) , a title of substance given his victory on the Berwyn Mountains , according to John Davies . Within four years of the Battle of Hastings England had been completely subjugated by the Normans . William I of England established a series of lordships , allocated to his most powerful warriors along the Welsh border , the boundaries fixed only to the east . This frontier region , and any English-held lordships in Wales , became known as Marchia Wallie , the Welsh Marches , in which the Marcher Lords were subject to neither English nor Welsh law . The area of the March varied as the fortunes of the Marcher Lords and the Welsh princes ebbed and flowed . The March of Wales , which existed for over 450 years , was abolished under the Acts of Union in 1536 . Owain Gwynedd 's grandson Llywelyn Fawr ( the Great , 1173–1240 ) , wrested concessions through the Magna Carta in 1215 and receiving the fealty of other Welsh lords in 1216 at the council at Aberdyfi , became the first Prince of Wales . His grandson Llywelyn ap Gruffudd also secured the recognition of the title Prince of Wales from Henry III with the Treaty of Montgomery in 1267 . Later however , a succession of disputes , including the imprisonment of Llywelyn 's wife Eleanor , daughter of Simon de Montfort , culminated in the first invasion by King Edward I of England . As a result of military defeat , the Treaty of Aberconwy exacted Llywelyn 's fealty to England in 1277 . Peace was short lived and , with the 1282 Edwardian conquest , the rule of the Welsh princes permanently ended . With Llywelyn 's death and his brother prince Dafydd 's execution , the few remaining Welsh lords did homage for their lands to Edward I. Llywelyn 's head was carried through London on a spear ; his baby daughter Gwenllian was locked in the priory at Sempringham , where she remained until her death 54 years later . To help maintain his dominance , Edward constructed a series of great stone castles : Beaumaris , Caernarfon and Conwy . His son , the future King Edward II of England , was born at Edward 's new castle at Caernarfon in 1284 . He became the first English Prince of Wales , not as an infant , but in 1301 . The apocryphal story that Edward tricked the Welsh by offering them a Welsh-born Prince who could speak no English was first recorded in 1584 . The title also provided an income from the north-west part of Wales known as the Principality of Wales , until the Act of Union ( 1536 ) , after which the term principality , when used , was associated with the whole of Wales . After the failed revolt in 1294–95 of Madog ap Llywelyn – who styled himself Prince of Wales in the Penmachno Document – and the rising of Llywelyn Bren ( 1316 ) , the next major uprising was that led by Owain Glyndŵr , against Henry IV of England . In 1404 , Owain was reputedly crowned Prince of Wales in the presence of emissaries from France , Spain and Scotland . Glyndŵr went on to hold parliamentary assemblies at several Welsh towns , including Machynlleth . But the rebellion failed , and Owain went into hiding in 1412 ; peace was essentially restored in Wales by 1415 . Although the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 provided the constitutional basis for post-conquest government of the Principality of north Wales from 1284 until 1536 , there was no formal Union until 1536 . Shortly afterwards Welsh law , which had continued to be used in Wales after the Norman conquest , was fully replaced by English law , under what would become known as the Act of Union . Industrial Wales Prior to the British Industrial Revolution , which saw a rapid economic expansion between 1750 and 1850 , there were signs of small-scale industries scattered throughout Wales . These ranged from industries connected to agriculture , such as milling and the manufacture of woollen textiles , through to mining and quarrying . Until the Industrial Revolution , Wales had always been reliant on its agricultural output for its wealth and employment and the earliest industrial businesses were small scale and localised in manner . The emerging industrial period commenced around the development of copper smelting in the Swansea area . With access to local coal deposits and a harbour that could take advantage of Cornwall 's copper mines and the copper deposits being extracted from the then-largest copper mine in the world at Parys Mountain on Anglesey , Swansea developed into the world 's major centre for non-ferrous metal smelting in the 19th century . The second metal industry to expand in Wales was iron smelting , and iron manufacturing became prevalent in both the north and the south of the country . In the north of Wales , John Wilkinson 's Ironworks at Bersham was a significant industry , while in the south , a second world centre of metallurgy was founded in Merthyr Tydfil , where the four ironworks of Dowlais , Cyfarthfa , Plymouth and Penydarren became the most significant hub of iron manufacture in Wales . In the 1820s , south Wales alone accounted for 40 % of all pig iron manufactured in Britain . In the late 18th century , slate quarrying began to expand rapidly , most notably in north Wales . The Penrhyn Quarry , opened in 1770 by Richard Pennant , was employing 15,000 men by the late 19th century , and along with Dinorwic Quarry , it dominated the Welsh slate trade . Although slate quarrying has been described as 'the most Welsh of Welsh industries ' , it is coal mining which has become the single industry synonymous with Wales and its people . Initially , coal seams were exploited to provide energy for local metal industries but , with the opening of canal systems and later the railways , Welsh coal mining saw a boom in its demand . As the south Wales coalfield was exploited , mainly in the upland valleys around Aberdare and later the Rhondda , the ports of Swansea , Cardiff and later Penarth , grew into world exporters of coal and , with them , came a population boom . By its height in 1913 , Wales was producing almost 61 million tons of coal . As well as in south Wales , there was also a significant coalfield in the north-east of the country , particularly around Wrexham . As Wales was reliant on the production of capital goods rather than consumer goods , it possessed few of the skilled craftspeople and artisans found in the workshops of Birmingham or Sheffield in England and had few factories producing finished goods – a key feature of most regions associated with the Industrial Revolution . However , there is increasing support that the industrial revolution was reliant on harnessing the energy and materials provided by Wales and , in that sense , Wales was of central importance . Modern Wales Historian Kenneth Morgan described Wales on the eve of the First World War as a `` relatively placid , self-confident and successful nation '' . Output from the coalfields continued to increase , with the Rhondda Valley recording a peak of 9.6 million tons of coal extracted in 1913 . The outbreak of the First World War ( 1914–1918 ) saw Wales , as part of the United Kingdom , enter hostilities with Germany . A total of 272,924 Welshmen served in the war , representing 21.5 % of the male population . Of these , roughly 35,000 were killed . The two most notable battles of the War to include Welsh forces were those at Mametz Wood on the Somme and the Battle of Passchendaele . The first quarter of the 20th century also saw a shift in the political landscape of Wales . Since 1865 , the Liberal Party had held a parliamentary majority in Wales and , following the general election of 1906 , only

qw_2268--Wales.txt

The foxtrot, a dance introduced to Great Britain around 1914, originated in which country?

Ancient Rome was an Italic civilization that began on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC . Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome , it expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants ( roughly 20 % of the world 's populationMcEvedy and Jones ( 1978 ) . ) and covering 6.5 million square kilometers ( 2.5 million sq mi ) at its height between the first and second centuries AD . In its approximately 12 centuries of existence , Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire . Through conquest and assimilation , it came to dominate Southern and Western Europe , Asia Minor , North Africa , and parts of Northern and Eastern Europe . Rome was preponderant throughout the Mediterranean region and was one of the most powerful entities of the ancient world . It is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece , and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world . Ancient Roman society has contributed to modern government , law , politics , engineering , art , literature , architecture , technology , warfare , religion , language and society . A highly developed civilization , Rome professionalized and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica , the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France . It achieved impressive technological and architectural feats , such as the construction of an extensive system of aqueducts and roads , as well as the construction of large monuments , palaces , and public facilities . By the end of the Republic ( 27 BC ) , Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond : its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia and from the mouth of the Rhine to North Africa . The Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar . 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia . It would become the longest conflict in human history , and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires . Under Trajan , the Empire reached its territorial peak . Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period , with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor . Splinter states , such as the Palmyrene Empire , would temporarily divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century . Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples , the western part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century . This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of universal history from the pre-medieval `` Dark Ages '' of Europe . Founding myth According to the founding myth of Rome , the city was founded on 21 April 753 BC by twin brothers Romulus and Remus , who descended from the Trojan prince Aeneas and who were grandsons of the Latin King , Numitor of Alba Longa . King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother , Amulius , while Numitor 's daughter , Rhea Silvia , gave birth to the twins . Because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars , the Roman god of war , the twins were considered half-divine . The new king , Amulius , feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne , so he ordered them to be drowned . A she-wolf ( or a shepherd 's wife in some accounts ) saved and raised them , and when they were old enough , they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor . The twins then founded their own city , but Romulus killed Remus in a quarrel over the location of the Roman Kingdom , though some sources state the quarrel was about who was going to rule or give his name to the city . Romulus became the source of the city 's name . In order to attract people to the city , Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent , exiled , and unwanted . This caused a problem for Rome , which had a large workforce but was bereft of women . Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights , but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused . Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens , leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines . Another legend , recorded by Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus , says that Prince Aeneas led a group of Trojans on a sea voyage to found a new Troy , since the original was destroyed in the outcome of the Trojan War . After a long time in rough seas , they landed at the banks of the Tiber River . Not long after they landed , the men wanted to take to the sea again , but the women who were traveling with them did not want to leave . One woman , named Roma , suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving . At first , the men were angry with Roma , but they soon realized that they were in the ideal place to settle . They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships . The Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid . In the Aeneid , the Trojan prince Aeneas is destined by the gods in his enterprise of founding a new Troy . In the epic , the women also refused to go back to the sea , but they were not left on the Tiber . After reaching Italy , Aeneas , who wanted to marry Lavinia , was forced to wage war with her former suitor , Turnus . According to the poem , the Alban kings were descended from Aeneas , and thus Romulus , the founder of Rome , was his descendant . ImageSize = width:800 height:85 PlotArea = width:720 height:55 left:65 bottom:20 AlignBars = justify Colors = id : time value : rgb ( 0.7,0.7,1 ) # id : period value : rgb ( 1,0.7,0.5 ) # id : age value : rgb ( 0.95,0.85,0.5 ) # id : era value : rgb ( 1,0.85,0.5 ) # id : eon value : rgb ( 1,0.85,0.7 ) # id : filler value : gray ( 0.8 ) # background bar id : black value : black Period = from : -753 till:1455 TimeAxis = orientation : horizontal ScaleMajor = unit : year increment:100 start : -753 ScaleMinor = unit : year increment:10 start : -753 PlotData = align : center textcolor : black fontsize:8 mark : ( line , black ) width:11 shift : ( 0 , -5 ) bar : Roman color : era from : -753 till : -508 text : Kingdom from : -508 till : -27 text : Republic from : -27 till:1453 text : Empire bar : States color : era from:285 till:476 text : Western Empire bar : color : era from:324 till:1453 text : Eastern Empire Kingdom The city of Rome grew from settlements around a ford on the river Tiber , a crossroads of traffic and trade.a According to archaeological evidence , the village of Rome was probably founded some time in the 8th century BC , though it may go back as far as the 10th century BC , by members of the Latin tribe of Italy , on the top of the Palatine Hill . The Etruscans , who had previously settled to the north in Etruria , seem to have established political control in the region by the late 7th century BC , forming an aristocratic and monarchical elite . The Etruscans apparently lost power by the late 6th century BC , and at this point , the original Latin and Sabine tribes reinvented their government by creating a republic , with much greater restraints on the ability of rulers to exercise power . Roman tradition and archaeological evidence point to a complex within the Forum Romanum as the seat of power for the king and the beginnings of the religious center there as well . Numa Pompilius the second king of Rome , succeeding Romulus , began Rome 's building projects with his royal palace the Regia and the complex of the Vestal virgins . Republic According to tradition and later writers such as Livy , the Roman Republic was established around 509 BC , when the last of the seven kings of Rome , Tarquin the Proud , was deposed by Lucius Junius Brutus and a system based on annually elected magistrates and various representative assemblies was established . A constitution set a series of checks and balances , and a separation of powers . The most important magistrates were the two consuls , who together exercised executive authority such as imperium , or military command . The consuls had to work with the senate , which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility , or patricians , but grew in size and power . Other magistrates of the Republic include tribunes , quaestors , aediles , praetors and censors . The magistracies were originally restricted to patricians , but were later opened to common people , or plebeians.Livy II Republican voting assemblies included the comitia centuriata ( centuriate assembly ) , which voted on matters of war and peace and elected men to the most important offices , and the comitia tributa ( tribal assembly ) , which elected less important offices . In the 4th century BC , Rome had come under attack by the Gauls , who now extended their power in the Italian peninsula beyond the Po Valley and through Etruria . On 16 July 390 BC , a Gallic army under the leadership of a tribal chieftain named Brennus , met the Romans on the banks of the Allia River just ten miles north of Rome . Brennus defeated the Romans , and the Gauls marched directly to Rome . Most Romans had fled the city , but some barricaded themselves upon the Capitoline Hill for a last stand . The Gauls looted and burned the city , then laid siege to the Capitoline Hill . The siege lasted seven months , the Gauls then agreed to give the Romans peace in exchange for 1000 lb of gold . ( According to later legend , the Roman supervising the weighing noticed that the Gauls were using false scales . The Romans then took up arms and defeated the Gauls ; their victorious general Camillus remarked `` With iron , not with gold , Rome buys her freedom . '' ) The Romans gradually subdued the other peoples on the Italian peninsula , including the Etruscans . The last threat to Roman hegemony in Italy came when Tarentum , a major Greek colony , enlisted the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus in 281 BC , but this effort failed as well . The Romans secured their conquests by founding Roman colonies in strategic areas , thereby establishing stable control over the region of Italy they had conquered . Punic Wars In the 3rd century BC Rome faced a new and formidable opponent : Carthage . Carthage was a rich , flourishing Phoenician city-state that intended to dominate the Mediterranean area . The two cities were allies in the times of Pyrrhus , who was a menace to both , but with Rome 's hegemony in mainland Italy and the Carthaginian thalassocracy , these cities became the two major powers in the Western Mediterranean and their contention over the Mediterranean led to conflict . The First Punic War began in 264 BC , when the city of Messana asked for Carthage 's help in their conflicts with Hiero II of Syracuse . After the Carthaginian intercession , Messana asked Rome to expel the Carthaginians . Rome entered this war because Syracuse and Messana were too close to the newly conquered Greek cities of Southern Italy and Carthage was now able to make an offensive through Roman territory ; along with this , Rome could extend its domain over Sicily . Although the Romans had experience in land battles , to defeat this new enemy , naval battles were necessary . Carthage was a maritime power , and the Roman lack of ships and naval experience would make the path to the victory a long and difficult one for the Roman Republic . Despite this , after more than 20 years of war , Rome defeated Carthage and a peace treaty was signed . Among the reasons for the Second Punic War was the subsequent war reparations Carthage acquiesced to at the end of the First Punic War . The Second Punic War is famous for its brilliant generals : on the Punic side Hannibal and Hasdrubal ; on the Roman , Marcus Claudius Marcellus , Quintus Fabius Maximus and Publius Cornelius Scipio . Rome fought this war simultaneously with the First Macedonian War . The war began with the audacious invasion of Hispania by Hannibal , the Carthaginian general who had led operations on Sicily in the First Punic War . Hannibal , son of Hamilcar Barca , rapidly marched through Hispania to the Italian Alps , causing panic among Rome 's Italian allies . The best way found to defeat Hannibal 's purpose of causing the Italians to abandon Rome was to delay the Carthaginians with a guerrilla war of attrition , a strategy propounded by Quintus Fabius Maximus , who would be nicknamed Cunctator ( `` delayer '' in Latin ) , and whose strategy would be forever after known as Fabian . Due to this , Hannibal 's goal was unachieved : he could not bring enough Italian cities to revolt against Rome and replenish his diminishing army , and he thus lacked the machines and manpower to besiege Rome . Still , Hannibal 's invasion lasted over 16 years , ravaging Italy . Finally , when the Romans perceived that Hannibal 's supplies were running out , they sent Scipio , who had defeated Hannibal 's brother Hasdrubal in Spain , to invade the unprotected Carthaginian hinterland and force Hannibal to return to defend Carthage itself . The result was the ending of the Second Punic War by the famously decisive Battle of Zama in October 202 BC , which gave to Scipio his agnomen Africanus . At great cost , Rome had made significant gains : the conquest of Hispania by Scipio , and of Syracuse , the last Greek realm in Sicily , by Marcellus . More than a half century after these events , Carthage was humiliated and Rome was no more concerned about the African menace . The Republic 's focus now was only to the Hellenistic kingdoms of Greece and revolts in Hispania . However , Carthage , after having paid the war indemnity , felt that its commitments and submission to Rome had ceased , a vision not shared by the Roman Senate . When in 151 BC Numidia invaded Carthage , Carthage asked for Roman intercession . Ambassadors were sent to Carthage , among them was Marcus Porcius Cato , who after seeing that Carthage could make a comeback and regain its importance , ended all his speeches , no matter what the subject was , by saying : `` Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam '' ( `` Furthermore , I think that Carthage must be destroyed '' ) . As Carthage fought with Numidia without Roman consent , the Third Punic war began when Rome declared war against Carthage in 149 BC . Carthage resisted well at the first strike , with the participation of all the inhabitants of the city . However , Carthage could not withstand the attack of Scipio Aemilianus , who entirely destroyed the city and its walls , enslaved and sold all the citizens and gained control of that region , which became the province of Africa . Thus ended the Punic War period . All these wars resulted in Rome 's first overseas conquests , of Sicily , Hispania and Africa and the rise of Rome as a significant imperial power and began the end of democracy . Late Republic After defeating the Macedonian and Seleucid Empires in the 2nd century BC , the Romans became the dominant people of the Mediterranean Sea.Bagnall 1990 The conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms brought the Roman and Greek cultures in closer contact and the Roman elite , once rural , became a luxurious and cosmopolitan one . At this time Rome was a consolidated empire – in the military view – and had no major enemies . Foreign dominance led to internal strife . Senators became rich at the provinces ' expense ; soldiers , who were mostly small-scale farmers , were away from home longer and could not maintain their land ; and the increased reliance on foreign slaves and the growth of latifundia reduced the availability of paid work . Income from war booty , mercantilism in the new provinces , and tax farming created new economic opportunities for the wealthy , forming a new class of merchants , called the equestrians . The lex Claudia forbade members of the Senate from engaging in commerce , so while the equestrians could theoretically join the Senate , they were severely restricted in political power . The Senate squabbled perpetually , repeatedly blocked important land reforms and refused to give the equestrian class a larger say in the government . Violent gangs of the urban unemployed , controlled by rival Senators , intimidated the electorate through violence . The situation came to a head in the late 2nd century BC under the Gracchi brothers , a pair of tribunes who attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians . Both brothers were killed and the Senate passed reforms reversing the Gracchi brother 's actions . This led to the growing divide of the plebeian groups ( populares ) and equestrian classes ( optimates ) . Marius and Sulla Gaius Marius , a novus homo , who started his political career with the help of the powerful Metelli family soon become a leader of the Republic , holding the first of his seven consulships ( an unprecedented number ) in 107 BC by arguing that his former patron Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus was not able to defeat and capture the Numidian king Jugurtha . Marius then started his military reform : in his recruitment to fight Jugurtha , he levied very poor ( an innovation ) and many landless men entered the army ; this was the seed of securing loyalty of the army to the General in command . At this time , Marius began his quarrel with Lucius Cornelius Sulla : Marius , who wanted to capture Jugurtha , asked Bocchus , son-in-law of Jugurtha , to hand him over . As Marius failed , Sulla , a general of Marius at that time , in a dangerous enterprise , went himself to Bocchus and convinced Bocchus to hand Jugurtha over to him . This was very provocative to Marius , since many of his enemies were encouraging Sulla to oppose Marius . Despite this , Marius was elected for five consecutive consulships from 104 to 100 BC , as Rome needed a military leader to defeat the Cimbri and the Teutones , who were threatening Rome . After Marius 's retirement , Rome had a brief peace , during which the Italian socii ( `` allies '' in Latin ) requested Roman citizenship and voting rights . The reformist Marcus Livius Drusus supported their legal process but was assassinated , and the socii revolted against the Romans in the Social War . At one point both consuls were killed ; Marius was appointed to command the army together with Lucius Julius Caesar and Sulla . By the end of the Social War , Marius and Sulla were the premier military men in Rome and their partisans were in conflict , both sides jostling for power . In 88 BC , Sulla was elected for his first consulship and his first assignment was to defeat Mithridates VI of Pontus , whose intentions were to conquer the Eastern part of the Roman territories . However , Marius 's partisans managed his installation to the military command , defying Sulla and the Senate , and this caused Sulla 's wrath . To consolidate his own power , Sulla conducted a surprising and illegal action : he marched to Rome with his legions , killing all those who showed support to Marius 's cause and impaling their heads in the Roman Forum . In the following year , 87 BC , Marius , who had fled at Sulla 's march , returned to Rome while Sulla was campaigning in Greece . He seized power along with the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna and killed the other consul , Gnaeus Octavius , achieving his seventh consulship . In an attempt to raise Sulla 's anger , Marius and Cinna revenged their partisans by conducting a massacre . Marius died in 86 BC , due to age and poor health , just a few months after seizing power . Cinna exercised absolute power until his death in 84 BC . Sulla after returning from his Eastern campaigns , had a free path to reestablish his own power . In 83 BC he made his second march in Rome and began a time of terror : thousands of nobles , knights and senators were executed . Sulla also held two dictatorships and one more consulship , which began the crisis and decline of Roman Republic . Caesar and the First Triumvirate In the mid-1st century BC , Roman politics were restless . Political divisions in Rome became identified with two groupings , populares ( who hoped for the support of the people ) and optimates ( the `` best '' , who wanted to maintain exclusive aristocratic control ) . Sulla overthrew all populist leaders and his constitutional reforms removed powers ( such as those of the tribune of the plebs ) that had supported populist approaches . Meanwhile , social and economic stresses continued to build ; Rome had become a metropolis with a super-rich aristocracy , debt-ridden aspirants , and a large proletariat often of impoverished farmers . The latter groups supported the Catilinarian conspiracy – a resounding failure , since the consul Marcus Tullius Cicero quickly arrested and executed the main leaders of the conspiracy . Onto this turbulent scene emerged Gaius Julius Caesar , from an aristocratic family of limited wealth . His aunt Julia was Marius ' wife , [ http : //penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar * .html Plutarch Parallel Lives ] , Life of Caesar , I,2 and Caesar identified with the populares . To achieve power , Caesar reconciled the two most powerful men in Rome : Marcus Licinius Crassus , who had financed much of his earlier career , and Crassus ' rival , Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ( anglicized as Pompey ) , to whom he married his daughter . He formed them into a new informal alliance including himself , the First Triumvirate ( `` three men '' ) . This satisfied the interests of all three : Crassus , the richest man in Rome , became richer and ultimately achieved high military command ; Pompey exerted more influence in the Senate ; and Caesar obtained the consulship and military command in Gaul.Scullard 1982 , chapters VI-VII So long as they could agree , the three were in effect the rulers of Rome . In 54 BC , Caesar 's daughter , Pompey 's wife , died in childbirth , unraveling one link in the alliance . In 53 BC , Crassus invaded Parthia and was killed in the Battle of Carrhae . The Triumvirate disintegrated at Crassus ' death . Crassus had acted as mediator between Caesar and Pompey , and , without him , the two generals manoeuvred against each other for power . Caesar conquered Gaul , obtaining immense wealth , respect in Rome and the loyalty of battle-hardened legions . He also became a clear menace to Pompey and was loathed by many optimates . Confident that Caesar could be stopped by legal means , Pompey 's party tried to strip Caesar of his legions , a prelude to Caesar 's trial , impoverishment , and exile . To avoid this fate , Caesar crossed the Rubicon River and invaded Rome in 49 BC . Pompey and his party fled from Italy , pursued by Caesar . The Battle of Pharsalus was a brilliant victory for Caesar and in this and other campaigns he destroyed all of the optimates leaders : Metellus Scipio , Cato the Younger , and Pompey 's son , Gnaeus Pompeius . Pompey was murdered in Egypt in 48 BC . Caesar was now pre-eminent over Rome , attracting the bitter enmity of many aristocrats . He was granted many offices and honours . In just five years , he held four consulships , two ordinary dictatorships , and two special dictatorships : one for ten years and another for perpetuity . He was murdered in 44 BC , on the Ides of March by the Liberatores . Octavian and the Second Triumvirate Caesar 's assassination caused political and social turmoil in Rome ; without the dictator 's leadership , the city was ruled by his friend and colleague , Mark Antony . Soon afterward , Octavius , whom Caesar adopted through his will , arrived in Rome . Octavian ( historians regard Octavius as Octavian due to the Roman naming conventions ) tried to align himself with the Caesarian faction . In 43 BC , along with Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , Caesar 's best friend , he legally established the Second Triumvirate . This alliance would last for five years . Upon its formation , 130–300 senators were executed , and their property was confiscated , due to their supposed support for the Liberatores . In 42 BC , the Senate deified Caesar as Divus Iulius ; Octavian thus became Divi filius , the son of the deified . In the same year , Octavian and Antony defeated both Caesar 's assassins and the leaders of the Liberatores , Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus , in the Battle of Philippi . The Second Triumvirate was marked by the proscriptions of many senators and equites : after a revolt led by Antony 's brother Lucius Antonius , more than 300 senators and equites involved were executed on the anniversary of the Ides of March , although Lucius was spared . The Triumvirate proscribed several important men , including Cicero , whom Antony hated ; Quintus Tullius Cicero , the younger brother of the orator ; and Lucius Julius Caesar , cousin and friend of the acclaimed general , for his support of Cicero . However , Lucius was pardoned , perhaps because his sister Julia had intervened for him . The Triumvirate divided the Empire among the triumvirs : Lepidus was given charge of Africa , Antony , the eastern provinces , and Octavian remained in Italia and controlled Hispania and Gaul . The Second Triumvirate expired in 38 BC but was renewed for five more years . However , the relationship between Octavian and Antony had deteriorated , and Lepidus was forced to retire in 36 BC after betraying Octavian in Sicily . By the end of the Triumvirate , Antony was living in Egypt , an independent and rich kingdom ruled by Antony 's lover , Cleopatra VII . Antony 's affair with Cleopatra was seen as an act of treason , since she was queen of another country . Additionally , Antony adopted a lifestyle considered too extravagant and Hellenistic for a Roman statesman . Following Antony 's Donations of Alexandria , which gave to Cleopatra the title of `` Queen of Kings '' , and to Antony 's and Cleopatra 's children the regal titles to the newly conquered Eastern territories , war between Octavian and Antony broke out . Octavian annihilated Egyptian forces in the Battle of Actium in 31 BC . Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide . Now Egypt was conquered by the Roman Empire , and for the Romans , a new era had begun . Empire – the Principate In 27 BC and at the age of 36 , Octavian was the sole Roman

jp_3715--Ancient_Rome.txt

What type of bridge was used to bring water to Roman cities?

`` God Save the Queen '' ( alternatively `` God Save the King '' , depending on the gender of the reigning monarch ) is the national and/or royal anthem in a number of Commonwealth realms , their territories , and the British Crown Dependencies . The author of the tune is unknown and it may originate in plainchant , but a 1619 attribution to John Bull is sometimes made . It is the national anthem of the United Kingdom and one of two national anthems used by New Zealand since 1977 , as well as for several of the UK 's territories that have their own additional local anthem . It is also the royal anthem of all the aforementioned countries , as well as Australia ( since 1984 ) , Canada ( since 1980 ) , Barbados and Tuvalu . In countries not previously part of the British Empire , the tune of `` God Save the Queen '' has provided the basis for various patriotic songs , though still generally connected with royal ceremony . In the United States , the melody is used for the patriotic song `` My Country , 'T is of Thee '' . The melody is also used for the national anthem of Liechtenstein , Oben am jungen Rhein ( `` Up above the Young Rhine '' ) . Beyond its first verse , which is consistent , `` God Save the King/Queen '' has many historic and extant versions . Since its first publication , different verses have been added and taken away and , even today , different publications include various selections of verses in various orders . In general , only one verse is sung . Sometimes two verses are sung , and on rare occasions , three . The sovereign and his or her consort are saluted with the entire anthem , while other members of the Royal Family who are entitled to royal salute ( such as the Prince of Wales ) receive just the first six bars . The first six bars also form all or part of the Vice Regal Salute in some Commonwealth realms outside the UK ( e.g. , in Canada , governors general and lieutenant governors at official events are saluted with the first six bars of `` God Save the Queen '' followed by the first four and last four bars of `` O Canada '' ) , as well as the salute given to governors of British overseas territories . History In The Oxford Companion to Music , Percy Scholes points out the similarities to an early plainsong melody , although the rhythm is very distinctly that of a galliard , and he gives examples of several such dance tunes that bear a striking resemblance to `` God Save The King/Queen '' . Scholes quotes a keyboard piece by John Bull ( 1619 ) which has some similarities to the modern tune , depending on the placing of accidentals which at that time were unwritten in certain cases and left to the discretion of the player ( see musica ficta ) . He also points to several pieces by Henry Purcell , one of which includes the opening notes of the modern tune , set to the words `` God Save The King '' . Nineteenth-century scholars and commentators mention the widespread belief that an old Scots carol , `` Remember O Thou Man '' was the source of the tune . The first published version of what is almost the present tune appeared in 1744 in Thesaurus Musicus . The 1744 version of the song was popularised in Scotland and England the following year , with the landing of Charles Edward Stuart and was published in The Gentleman 's Magazine ( see illustration above ) . This manuscript has the tune depart from that which is used today at several points , one as early as the first bar , but is otherwise clearly a strong relative of the contemporary anthem . It was recorded as being sung in London theatres in 1745 , with , for example , Thomas Arne writing a setting of the tune for the Drury Lane Theatre . Scholes ' analysis includes mention of `` untenable '' and `` doubtful '' claims , as well as `` an American misattribution '' . Some of these are : * The French Marquise de Créquy wrote in her book `` Souvenirs '' , that the tune Grand Dieu Sauve Le Roi , was written by Jean-Baptiste Lully in gratitude for the survival by Louis XIV of an anal fistula operation . The surgical knife that was purpose-built for the occasion is on display in the Musée d'histoire de la médecine . Lully set words by Marie de Brinon to music , and Créquy claims the tune was later plagiarised by Handel . Translated in Latin under the name Domine , Salvum Fac Regem , it became the French anthem until 1792.see the sheet music available online : After the Battle of Culloden , the Hanover dynasty supposedly then adopted this melody as the British anthem . * James Oswald : He is a possible author of the Thesaurus Musicus , so may have played a part in the history of the song , but is not a strong enough candidate to be cited as the composer of the tune . * Dr Henry Carey : Scholes refutes this attribution , first on the grounds that Carey himself never made such a claim . Second , when the claim was made by Carey 's son ( as late as 1795 ) , it was accompanied by a request for a pension from the British Government on that score . Third , the younger Carey claimed that his father had written parts of it in 1745 , even though the older Carey had died in 1743 . It has also been claimed that the work was first publicly performed by Carey during a dinner in 1740 in honour of Admiral Edward `` Grog '' Vernon , who had captured the Spanish harbour of Porto Bello ( then in Colombia , now Panama ) during the War of Jenkins ' Ear . Scholes recommends the attribution `` traditional '' or `` traditional ; earliest known version by John Bull ( 1562–1628 ) '' . The English Hymnal ( musical editor Ralph Vaughan Williams ) gives no attribution , stating merely `` 17th or 18th cent . '' Use in the United Kingdom `` God Save The Queen '' is the national anthem of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland . Like many aspects of British constitutional life , its official status derives from custom and use , not from Royal Proclamation or Act of Parliament . In general only one or two verses are sung , but on rare occasions three . The variation in Britain of the lyrics to `` God Save The Queen '' is the oldest amongst those currently used , and forms the basis on which all other versions used throughout the Commonwealth are formed ; though , again , the words have varied throughout these years . England has no official national anthem of its own ; `` God Save The Queen '' is treated as the English national anthem when England is represented at sporting events ( though there are some exceptions to this rule , such as cricket where Jerusalem is used ) . There is a movement to establish an English national anthem , with Blake and Parry 's `` Jerusalem '' and Elgar 's `` Land of Hope and Glory '' among the top contenders . Scotland has its own national song and Wales has its own national anthem for political and national events and for use at international football , rugby union and other sports in which those nations compete independently . On all occasions Wales ' national anthem is `` Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau '' ( Land of my Fathers ) . Scotland has no single anthem ; `` Scotland the Brave '' was traditionally used until the 1990s , when `` Flower of Scotland '' was adopted . In Northern Ireland , `` God Save The Queen '' is still used as the official anthem . The phrase `` No surrender '' is occasionally sung in the bridge before `` Send her victorious '' by England football fans at matches . The phrase `` no surrender '' is also associated with Combat 18 , a white supremacist group . The phrase is also associated with Ulster Loyalism and can sometimes be heard at the same point before Northern Ireland football matches . Since 2003 , `` God Save The Queen '' , considered an all inclusive Anthem for Great Britain and Northern Ireland , as well as other countries within the Commonwealth , has been dropped from the Commonwealth Games . Northern Irish athletes receive their gold medals to the tune of the `` Londonderry Air '' , popularly known as `` Danny Boy '' . In 2006 , English winners heard Elgar 's Pomp and Circumstance March No . 1 , usually known as `` Land of Hope and Glory '' , but after a poll conducted by the Commonwealth Games Council for England prior to the 2010 Games , `` Jerusalem '' was adopted as England 's new Commonwealth Games anthem . In sports in which the UK competes as one nation , most notably as Great Britain at the Olympics , `` God Save The Queen '' is used to represent anyone or any team that comes from the United Kingdom . Lyrics in Britain The phrase `` God Save the King '' is much older than the song , appearing , for instance , several times in the King James Bible . A text based on the 1st Book of Kings Chapter 1 : verses 38–40 , `` ... And all the people rejoic 'd , and said : God save the King ! Long live the King ! May the King live for ever , Amen '' , has been sung at every coronation since that of King Edgar in 973 . Scholes says that as early as 1545 `` God Save the King '' was a watchword of the Royal Navy , with the response being `` Long to reign over us '' . He also notes that the prayer read in churches on anniversaries of the Gunpowder Plot includes words which might have formed part of the basis for the second verse `` Scatter our enemies ... assuage their malice and confound their devices '' . In 1745 , The Gentleman 's Magazine published `` God save our lord the king : A new song set for two voices '' , describing it `` As sung at both Playhouses '' ( the Theatres Royal at Drury Lane and Covent Garden ) . Traditionally , the first performance was thought to have been in 1745 , when it was sung in support of King George II , after his defeat at the Battle of Prestonpans by the army of Charles Edward Stuart , son of James Francis Edward Stuart , the Jacobite claimant to the British throne . It is sometimes claimed that , ironically , the song was originally sung in support of the Jacobite cause : the word `` send '' in the line `` Send him victorious '' could imply that the king was absent . However , the Oxford English Dictionary cites examples of ' [ God ] send ( a person ) safe , victorious , etc . ' meaning 'God grant that he may be safe , etc . ' . Also there are examples of early eighteenth century Jacobean drinking glasses which are inscribed with a version of the words and were apparently intended for drinking the health of King James II and VII . Scholes acknowledges these possibilities but argues that the same words were probably being used by both Jacobite and Hanoverian supporters and directed at their respective kings.Scholes p.412 In 1902 , the musician William Hayman Cummings , quoting mid-18th century correspondence between Charles Burney and Sir Joseph Banks , proposed that the words were based on a Latin verse composed for King James II at the Chapel Royal . Standard version in the United Kingdom There is no definitive version of the lyrics . However , the version consisting of the three verses reproduced in the box on the right hand side has the best claim to be regarded as the 'standard ' British version , appearing not only in the 1745 Gentleman 's Magazine , but also in publications such as The Book of English Songs : From the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century ( 1851 ) , National Hymns : How They Are Written and How They Are Not Written ( 1861 ) , Household Book of Poetry ( 1882 ) , and Hymns Ancient and Modern , Revised Version ( 1982 ) . The same version with verse two omitted appears in publications including Scouting for Boys ( 1908 ) , and on the British Monarchy website . At the Queen 's Golden Jubilee Party at the Palace concert , Prince Charles referred in his speech to the `` politically incorrect second verse '' of the National Anthem . According to Alan Michie 's Rule , Britannia , which was published in 1952 , after the death of King George VI but before the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II , when the first General Assembly of the United Nations was held in London in January 1946 the King , in honour of the occasion , `` ordered the belligerent imperious second stanza of 'God Save the King ' to be rewritten to bring it more into the spirit of the brotherhood of nations . '' In Britain , the first verse is the only verse typically sung , even at official occasions , although the third verse is sung in addition on rare occasions such as during the opening ceremonies of the 2012 Summer Olympics and 2012 Summer Paralympics , and usually at the Last Night of the Proms . At the Closing Ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Olympics , the fourth verse of the William Hickson alternative lyrics was sung instead of the third verse . Standard version of the music The standard version of the melody and its key of G major are still those of the originally published version , although the start of the anthem is often signalled by an introductory timpani roll of two bars length . The bass line of the standard version differs little from the second voice part shown in the original , and there is a standard version in four-part harmony for choirs . The first three lines ( six bars of music ) are soft , ending with a short crescendo into `` Send her victorious '' , and then is another crescendo at `` over us : '' into the final words `` God save The Queen '' . In the early part of the twentieth century there existed a Military Band version , usually played in march time , in the higher key of B , because it was easier for brass instruments to play in that key , though it had the disadvantage of being more difficult to sing : however now most Bands play it in the correct key of G . Since 1953 , the anthem is sometimes preceded by a fanfare composed by Gordon Jacob for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II . Alternative British versions There have been several attempts to improve the song by rewriting the words . In the nineteenth century there was some lively debate about the national anthem and , even then , verse two was considered to be slightly offensive . Notably , the question arose over the phrase `` scatter her enemies . '' Some thought it placed better emphasis on the respective power of Parliament and the Crown to change `` her '' to `` our '' ; others pointed out that the theology was somewhat dubious and substituted `` thine '' instead . Sydney G. R. Coles wrote a completely new version , as did Canon F. K. Harford . In 1836 , William Edward Hickson wrote four alternative verses . The first , third , and fourth of these verses are appended to the National Anthem in the English Hymnal ( which only includes verses one and three of the original lyrics ) . William Hickson 's alternative version William Hickson 's alternative ( 1836 ) version includes the following verses , of which the first , third , and fourth have some currency as they are appended to the National Anthem in the English Hymnal . The fourth verse was sung after the traditional first verse at the Queen 's Golden Jubilee National Service of Thanksgiving in 2002 and during the raising of the Union Flag during the closing ceremonies of the 2008 Summer Olympics . Official peace version A less militaristic version of the song , titled `` Official peace version , 1919 '' , was first published in the hymn book Songs of Praise in 1925 . This was `` official '' in the sense that it was approved by the British Privy Council in 1919 . However , despite being reproduced in some other hymn books , it is largely unknown today . Article in the Black Country Bugle describes it as an `` unusual and little known version of the national anthem ... taken from the order of service for the blessing of Halesowen ’ s borough charter ... on Sunday , 20 September 1936 . '' Historic alternative verses Around 1745 , anti-Jacobite sentiment was captured in a verse appended to the song , with a prayer for the success of Field Marshal George Wade 's army then assembling at Newcastle . These words attained some short-term use , although they did not appear in the published version in the October 1745 Gentleman 's Magazine . This verse was first documented as an occasional addition to the original anthem by Richard Clark in 1822 , and was also mentioned in a later article on the song , published by the Gentleman 's Magazine in October 1836 . Therein , it is presented as an `` additional verse ... though being of temporary application only ... stored in the memory of an old friend ... who was born in the very year 1745 , and was thus the associate of those who heard it first sung '' , the lyrics given being : The 1836 article and other sources make it clear that this verse was not used soon after 1745 , and certainly before the song became accepted as the British national anthem in the 1780s and 1790s . It was included as an integral part of the song in the Oxford Book of Eighteenth Century Verse of 1926 , although erroneously referencing the `` fourth verse '' to the Gentleman 's Magazine article of 1745 . On the opposing side , Jacobite beliefs were demonstrated in an alternative verse used during the same period : In May 1800 , following an attempt to assassinate King George III at London 's Drury Lane theatre , playwright Richard Sheridan immediately composed an additional verse , which was sung from the stage the same night : Various other attempts were made during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to add verses to commemorate particular royal or national events . For example , according to Fitzroy Maclean , when Jacobite forces bypassed Wade 's force and reached Derby , but then retreated and when their garrison at Carlisle Castle surrendered to a second government army led by King George 's son , the Duke of Cumberland , another verse was added . Other short-lived verses were notably anti-French , such as the following , quoted in the book Handel by Edward J. Dent : However , none of these additional verses survived into the twentieth century . Updated `` full '' versions including additional verses have been published more recently , including the standard three verses , Hickson 's fourth verse , Sheridan 's verse and the Marshal Wade verse . Performance in Britain The style most commonly heard in official performances was proposed as the `` proper interpretation '' by King George V , who considered himself something of an expert ( in view of the number of times he had heard it ) . An Army Order was duly issued in 1933 , which laid down regulations for tempo , dynamics and orchestration . This included instructions such as that the opening `` six bars will be played quietly by the reed band with horns and basses in a single phrase . Cornets and side-drum are to be added at the little scale-passage leading into the second half of the tune , and the full brass enters for the last eight bars '' . The official tempo for the opening section is a metronome setting of 60 , with the second part played in a broader manner , at a metronome setting of 52 . In recent years the prescribed sombre-paced introduction is often played at a faster and livelier tempo . Until the latter part of the 20th century , theatre and concert goers were expected to stand while the anthem was played after the conclusion of a show . In cinemas this brought a tendency for audiences to rush out while the end credits played to avoid this formality . ( This can be seen in the 1972 Dad 's Army episode A Soldier 's Farewell . ) The anthem continues to be played at some traditional events such as Wimbledon , Royal Variety Performance , the Edinburgh Tattoo , Royal Ascot , Henley Royal Regatta and The Proms . The anthem was traditionally played at closedown on the BBC , and with the introduction of commercial television to Britain this practice was adopted by some ITV companies ( with the notable exception of Granada ) . BBC Two never played the anthem at closedown , and ITV dropped the practice in the late 1980s , but it continued on BBC One until the final closedown on 8 November 1997 ( thereafter BBC1 began to simulcast with BBC News after end of programmes ) . The tradition is carried on , however , by BBC Radio 4 , which plays the anthem each night as a transition piece between the end of the Radio Four broadcasting and the move to BBC World Service . Radio 4 and Radio 2 also play the National Anthem at 0700 and 0800 on the actual and official birthdays of the Queen and the birthdays of senior members of the Royal Family . The anthem usually prefaces The Queen 's Christmas Message ( although in 2007 it appeared at the end , taken from a recording of the 1957 television broadcast ) , and important royal announcements , such as of royal deaths , when it is played in a slower , sombre arrangement . Other British anthems Frequently , when an anthem is needed for one of the constituent countries of the United Kingdom - at an international sporting event , for instance - an alternative song is used : * England generally uses `` God Save The Queen '' , but `` Jerusalem '' , `` Rule , Britannia ! '' and `` Land of Hope and Glory '' have also been used . * * At international test cricket matches , England has , since 2004 , used `` Jerusalem '' as the anthem . * * At international rugby league matches , England uses `` God Save The Queen '' and also `` Jerusalem '' . * * At international rugby union and football matches , England uses `` God Save the Queen '' . * * At the Commonwealth Games , Team England uses `` Jerusalem '' as their victory anthem . * Scotland uses `` Flower of Scotland '' as their anthem for most sporting occasions . * Wales uses Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau ( `` Land of My Fathers '' ) for governmental ceremonies and sporting occasions . At official occasions , especially those with royal connections , `` God Save The Queen '' is also played . * Northern Ireland uses `` God Save The Queen '' as its national anthem . Northern Ireland also uses `` Londonderry Air '' as its victory anthem at the Commonwealth Games . However , many Irish nationalists feel unrepresented by the unionist anthem and seek an alternative . * The British and Irish Lions rugby union tour used the song `` The Power of Four '' , but this anthem was especially designed for the 2005 tour and was used only then . In April 2007 there was an Early Day Motion , number 1319 , to the British Parliament to propose that there should be a separate England anthem : `` That this House ... believes that all English sporting associations should adopt an appropriate song that English sportsmen and women , and the English public , would favour when competing as England '' . An amendment ( EDM 1319A3 ) was proposed by Evan Harris that the song `` should have a bit more oomph than God Save The Queen and should also not involve God . '' For more information see also : * National anthem of Scotland * National anthem of England * Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau * Londonderry Air Use in other Commonwealth countries `` God Save the King/Queen '' was exported around the world via the expansion of the British Empire , serving as each country 's national anthem . Throughout the Empire 's evolution into the Commonwealth of Nations , the song declined in use in most states which became independent . In some countries it remains as one of the official national anthems , such as in New Zealand , – Royal assent that the two songs should have equal status or as an official royal anthem , as is the case in Australia , Canada , Jamaica , and Tuvalu , to be played during formal ceremonies involving national royalty or vice-royalty . Australia In Australia , the song has standing through a Royal Proclamation issued by Governor-General Sir Ninian Stephen on 19 April 1984 . It declared `` God Save the Queen '' to be the Royal Anthem and that it is to be played when the Australian monarch or a member of the Royal Family is present , though not exclusively in such circumstances . The same proclamation made `` Advance Australia Fair '' the national anthem and the basis for the `` Vice-Regal Salute '' ( the first four and last two bars of the anthem ) . Prior to 1974 , `` God Save the Queen '' was the national anthem of Australia . Canada By convention , `` God Save the Queen '' is the Royal Anthem of Canada . It is sometimes played and/or sung together with the national anthem , `` O Canada '' , at private and public events organised by groups such as the Government of Canada , the Royal Canadian Legion , police services , and loyal groups . The governor general and provincial lieutenant governors are accorded the `` Viceregal Salute '' , comprising the first three lines of `` God Save the Queen '' , followed by the first and last lines of `` O Canada '' . `` God Save the Queen '' has been sung in Canada since the late 1700s and by the mid 20th century was , along with `` O Canada '' , one of the country 's two de facto national anthems , the first and last verses of the standard British version being used . By-laws and practices governing the use of either song during public events in municipalities varied ; in Toronto , `` God Save the Queen '' was employed , while in Montreal it was `` O Canada '' . Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson in 1964 said one song would have to be chosen as the country 's national anthem and , three years later , he advised Governor General Georges Vanier to appoint the Special Joint Committee of the Senate and House of Commons on the National and Royal Anthems . Within two months , on 12 April 1967 , the committee presented its conclusion that `` God Save the Queen '' , whose music and lyrics were found to be in the public domain , should be designated as the Royal Anthem of Canada and `` O Canada '' as the national anthem , one verse from each , in both official languages , to be adopted by parliament . The group was then charged

qz_122--God_Save_the_Queen.txt

How many verses make up the national anthem God Save The Queen?

The Gulf War ( 2 August 1990 – 28 February 1991 ) , codenamed Operation Desert Shield ( 2 August 1990 – 17 January 1991 ) , for operations leading to the buildup of troops and defense of Saudi Arabia and Operation Desert Storm ( 17 January 1991 – 28 February 1991 ) in its combat phase , was a war waged by coalition forces from 34 nations led by the United States against Iraq in response to Iraq 's invasion and annexation of Kuwait . The war is also known under other names , such as the Persian Gulf War , First Gulf War , Gulf War I , Kuwait War , First Iraq War , or Iraq War before the term `` Iraq War '' became identified instead with the 2003 Iraq War ( also referred to in the U.S. as `` Operation Iraqi Freedom '' ) . The Iraqi Army 's occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation , and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the U.N. Security Council . U.S. President George H. W. Bush deployed U.S. forces into Saudi Arabia , and urged other countries to send their own forces to the scene . An array of nations joined the Coalition , the largest military alliance since World War II . The great majority of the Coalition 's military forces were from the U.S. , with Saudi Arabia , the United Kingdom and Egypt as leading contributors , in that order . Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US $ 32 billion of the US $ 60 billion cost . The war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle , principally by the U.S. network CNN . The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board U.S. bombers during Operation Desert Storm . The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 , continuing for five weeks . This was followed by a ground assault on 24 February . This was a decisive victory for the Coalition forces , who liberated Kuwait and advanced into Iraqi territory . The Coalition ceased its advance , and declared a cease-fire 100 hours after the ground campaign started . Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq , Kuwait , and areas on Saudi Arabia 's border . Iraq launched Scud missiles against Coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel . Terminology The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself : * Gulf War and Persian Gulf War have been the most common terms for the conflict used within western countries . A problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous , having now been applied to at least three conflicts : see Gulf War ( disambiguation ) . The use of the term Persian Gulf ( as opposed to Arabian Gulf ) is also disputed : see Persian Gulf naming dispute . With no consensus of naming , various publications have attempted to refine the name . Some variants include : * * Gulf War ( e.g . The Gulf War , BBC television series , 2005 ; Modern Conflicts : The Gulf War , Discovery Channel DVD set , 2010 ) * * Persian Gulf War ( e.g . Encyclopedia of the Persian Gulf War , Mark Grossman , 1995 ; An Operational Analysis of the Persian Gulf War , U.S. Army War College , 2016 ) * * Gulf War ( 1990–1991 ) ( e.g . The Gulf War 1991 ( Essential Histories ) , Alastair Finlan , 2003 ; Gulf War , 1990-91 , William Thomas Allison , 2012 ) * * First Gulf War ( to distinguish it from the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the subsequent Iraq War ) ( e.g . Gulf War One : Real Voices from the Front Line , Hugh McManners , 2010 ) * * Second Gulf War ( to distinguish it from the Iran–Iraq War ) ( e.g . Iraq and the Second Gulf War : State Building and Regime Security , Mohammad-Mahmoud Mohamedou , 1997 ) * Liberation of Kuwait ( ) ( taḥrīr al-kuwayt ) is the term used by Kuwait and most of the Coalition 's Arab states including Saudi Arabia , Bahrain , Egypt and the United Arab Emirates . * Other language terms include and ( Gulf War ) ; ( Second Gulf War ) ; ( War of Kuwait ) * The mother of all battles ( ) ( umm al-ma ‘ ārik ) is a term derived from Saddam Hussein ( e.g . The Mother of All Battles : Saddam Hussein 's Strategic Plan for the Persian Gulf War , Kevin M. Woods , 2008 ) . Operational names Most of the Coalition states used various names for their operations and the war 's operational phases . These are sometimes incorrectly used as the conflict 's overall name , especially the U.S. Desert Storm : * Operation Desert Shield was the U.S. operational name for the U.S. buildup of forces and Saudi Arabia 's defense from 2 August 1990 , to 16 January 1991 . * Operation Desert Storm was the U.S. name of the airland conflict from 17 January 1991 , through 11 April 1991 . * * Operation Desert Sabre ( early name Operation Desert Sword ) was the U.S. name for the airland offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations ( the `` 100-hour war '' ) from 24–28 February 1991 , in itself , part of Operation Desert Storm . * Operation Desert Farewell was the name given to the return of U.S. units and equipment to the U.S. in 1991 after Kuwait 's liberation , sometimes referred to as Operation Desert Calm . * Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations and conflict . * Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict . * Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations * Operazione Locusta ( Italian for Locust ) was the Italian name for the operations and conflict . In addition , various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name . Campaign names The U.S. divided the conflict into three major campaigns : * Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990 , through 16 January 1991 . * Liberation and Defense of Kuwait for the period 17 January 1991 , through 11 April 1991 . * Southwest Asia Cease-Fire for the period 12 April 1991 , through 30 November 1995 , including Operation Provide Comfort . Background Throughout the Cold War , Iraq had been an ally of the Soviet Union , and there was a history of friction between it and the United States . The U.S. was concerned with Iraq 's position on Israeli–Palestinian politics , and its disapproval of the nature of the peace between Israel and Egypt . The U.S. also disliked Iraqi support for many Arab and Palestinian militant groups such as Abu Nidal , which led to Iraq 's inclusion on the developing U.S. list of State Sponsors of Terrorism on 29 December 1979 . The U.S. remained officially neutral after Iraq 's invasion of Iran in 1980 , which became the Iran–Iraq War , although it provided resources , political support , and some `` non-military '' aircraft to Iraq . In March 1982 , Iran began a successful counteroffensive ( Operation Undeniable Victory ) , and the U.S. increased its support for Iraq to prevent Iran from forcing a surrender . In a U.S. bid to open full diplomatic relations with Iraq , the country was removed from the U.S. list of State Sponsors of Terrorism . Ostensibly this was because of improvement in the regime 's record , although former U.S. Assistant Defense Secretary Noel Koch later stated , `` No one had any doubts about [ the Iraqis ' ] continued involvement in terrorism ... The real reason was to help them succeed in the war against Iran . '' With Iraq 's newfound success in the war , and the Iranian rebuff of a peace offer in July , arms sales to Iraq reached a record spike in 1982 . When Iraqi President Saddam Hussein expelled Abu Nidal to Syria at the U.S. ' request in November 1983 , the Reagan administration sent Donald Rumsfeld to meet Saddam as a special envoy and to cultivate ties . By the time the ceasefire with Iran was signed in August 1988 , Iraq was heavily debt-ridden and tensions within society were rising . Most of its debt was owed to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait . Iraq pressured both nations to forgive the debts , but they refused . The Iraq–Kuwait dispute also involved Iraqi claims to Kuwait as Iraqi territory . Kuwait had been a part of the Ottoman Empire 's province of Basra , something that Iraq claimed made it rightful Iraq territory . Its ruling dynasty , the al-Sabah family , had concluded a protectorate agreement in 1899 that assigned responsibility for its foreign affairs to the United Kingdom . The UK drew the border between the two countries in 1922 , making Iraq virtually landlocked . Kuwait rejected Iraqi attempts to secure further provisions in the region . Iraq also accused Kuwait of exceeding its OPEC quotas for oil production . In order for the cartel to maintain its desired price of $ 18 a barrel , discipline was required . The United Arab Emirates and Kuwait were consistently overproducing ; the latter at least in part to repair losses caused by Iranian attacks in the Iran–Iraq War and to pay for the losses of an economic scandal . The result was a slump in the oil price – as low as $ 10 a barrel – with a resulting loss of $ 7 billion a year to Iraq , equal to its 1989 balance of payments deficit . Resulting revenues struggled to support the government 's basic costs , let alone repair Iraq 's damaged infrastructure . Jordan and Iraq both looked for more discipline , with little success . The Iraqi government described it as a form of economic warfare , which it claimed was aggravated by Kuwait slant-drilling across the border into Iraq 's Rumaila oil field . At the same time , Saddam looked for closer ties with those Arab states that had supported Iraq in the war . This was supported by the U.S. , who believed that Iraqi ties with pro-Western Gulf states would help bring and maintain Iraq inside the U.S. ' sphere of influence . In 1989 , it appeared that Saudi-Iraqi relations , strong during the war , would be maintained . A pact of non-interference and non-aggression was signed between the countries , followed by a Kuwaiti-Iraqi deal for Iraq to supply Kuwait with water for drinking and irrigation , although a request for Kuwait to lease Iraq Umm Qasr was rejected . Saudi-backed development projects were hampered by Iraq 's large debts , even with the demobilization of 200,000 soldiers . Iraq also looked to increase arms production so as to become an exporter , although the success of these projects was also restrained by Iraq 's obligations ; in Iraq , resentment to OPEC 's controls mounted . Iraq 's relations with its Arab neighbors – in particular Egypt – were degraded by mounting violence in Iraq against expatriate groups , well-employed during the war , by Iraqi unemployed , among them demobilized soldiers . These events drew little notice outside the Arab world because of fast-moving events in Eastern Europe . The U.S. did , however , begin to condemn Iraq 's human rights record , including the well-known use of torture . The UK also condemned the execution of Farzad Bazoft , a journalist working for the British newspaper The Observer . Following Saddam 's declaration that `` binary chemical weapons '' would be used on Israel if it used military force against Iraq , Washington halted part of its funding . A U.N. mission to the Israeli-occupied territories , where riots had resulted in Palestinian deaths , was vetoed by the U.S. , making Iraq deeply skeptical of U.S. foreign policy aims in the region , combined with the U.S. ' reliance on Middle Eastern energy reserves . In early July 1990 , Iraq complained about Kuwait 's behavior , such as not respecting their quota , and openly threatened to take military action . On the 23rd , the CIA reported that Iraq had moved 30,000 troops to the Iraq-Kuwait border , and the U.S. naval fleet in the Persian Gulf was placed on alert . Saddam believed an anti-Iraq conspiracy was developing – Kuwait had begun talks with Iran , and Iraq 's rival Syria had arranged a visit to Egypt . Upon review by the Secretary of Defense , it was found that Syria indeed planned a strike against Iraq in the coming days . Saddam immediately used funding to incorporate central intelligence into Syria and ultimate prevented the impending air strike . On 15 July 1990 , Saddam 's government laid out its combined objections to the Arab League , including that policy moves were costing Iraq $ 1 billion a year , that Kuwait was still using the Rumaila oil field , that loans made by the UAE and Kuwait could not be considered debts to its `` Arab brothers '' . He threatened force against Kuwait and the UAE saying `` The policies of some Arab rulers are American ... They are inspired by America to undermine Arab interests and security . '' The U.S. sent aerial refuelling planes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf in response to these threats . Discussions in Jeddah , Saudi Arabia , mediated on the Arab League 's behalf by Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak , were held on 31 July and led Mubarak to believe that a peaceful course could be established . On the 25th , Saddam met with April Glaspie , the U.S . Ambassador to Iraq , in Baghdad . The Iraqi leader attacked American policy with regards to Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates : Glaspie replied : Saddam stated that he would attempt last-ditch negotiations with the Kuwaitis but Iraq `` would not accept death '' . According to Glaspie 's own account , she stated in reference to the precise border between Kuwait and Iraq , `` ... that she had served in Kuwait 20 years before ; 'then , as now , we took no position on these Arab affairs ' . '' Glaspie similarly believed that war was not imminent . Invasion of Kuwait The result of the Jeddah talks was an Iraqi demand for $ 10 billion to cover the lost revenues from Rumaila ; the Kuwaiti response was to offer $ 9 billion . The Iraqi response was to immediately order the invasion . On 2 August 1990 , Iraq launched the invasion by bombing Kuwait 's capital , Kuwait City . At the time of the invasion , the Kuwaiti military was believed to have numbered 16,000 men , arranged into three armored , one mechanised infantry and one under-strength artillery brigade . The pre-war strength of the Kuwait Air Force was around 2,200 Kuwaiti personnel , with 80 aircraft and forty helicopters . In spite of Iraqi saber-rattling , Kuwait did n't have its forces on alert ; the army had been stood down on 19 July . By 1988 , at the Iran–Iraq War 's end , the Iraqi Army was the world 's fourth largest army ; it consisted of 955,000 standing soldiers and 650,000 paramilitary forces in the Popular Army . According to John Childs and André Corvisier , a low estimate shows the Iraqi Army capable of fielding 4,500 tanks , 484 combat aircraft and 232 combat helicopters . According to Michael Knights , a high estimate shows the Iraqi Army capable of fielding one million men and 850,000 reservists , 5,500 tanks , 3,000 artillery pieces , 700 combat aircraft and helicopters ; and held 53 divisions , 20 special-forces brigades , and several regional militias , and had a strong air defense . Iraqi commandos infiltrated the Kuwaiti border first to prepare for the major units which began the attack at midnight . The Iraqi attack had two prongs , with the primary attack force driving south straight for Kuwait City down the main highway , and a supporting attack force entering Kuwait farther west , but then turning and driving east , cutting off Kuwait City from the country 's southern half . The commander of a Kuwaiti armored battalion , 35th Armoured Brigade , deployed them against the Iraqi attack and was able to conduct a robust defense ( Battle of the Bridges ) , near Al Jahra , west of Kuwait City . Kuwaiti aircraft scrambled to meet the invading force , but approximately 20 % were lost or captured . A few combat sorties were flown against Iraqi ground forces . The main Iraqi thrust into Kuwait City was conducted by commandos deployed by helicopters and boats to attack the city from the sea , while other divisions seized the airports and two airbases . The Iraqis attacked the Dasman Palace , the Royal Residence of Kuwait 's Emir , Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah , which was defended by the Emiri Guard supported with M-84 tanks . In the process , the Iraqis killed Fahad Al-Ahmed Al-Jaber Al-Sabah , the Emir 's youngest brother . Within 12 hours , most resistance had ended within Kuwait and the royal family had fled , leaving Iraq in control of most of Kuwait . After two days of intense combat , most of the Kuwaiti military were either overrun by the Iraqi Republican Guard , or had escaped to Saudi Arabia . The Emir and key ministers were able to get out and head south along the highway for refuge in Saudi Arabia . Iraqi ground forces consolidated their control of Kuwait City , then headed south and redeployed along the Saudi border . After the decisive Iraqi victory , Saddam initially installed a puppet regime known as the `` Provisional Government of Free Kuwait '' before installing his cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid as Kuwait 's governor on 8 August . Kuwaiti resistance movement Kuwaitis founded a local armed resistance movement following the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait . The Kuwaiti resistance 's casualty rate far exceeded that of the coalition military forces and Western hostages . The resistance predominantly consisted of ordinary citizens who lacked any form of training and supervision . Run-up to the war Diplomatic means A key element of U.S. political-military and energy economic planning occurred in early 1984 . The Iran–Iraq war had been going on for five years and there were significant casualties on both sides , reaching hundreds of thousands . Within President Ronald Reagan 's National Security Council concern was growing that the war could spread beyond the boundaries of the two belligerents . A National Security Planning Group meeting was formed , chaired by then Vice President George H. W. Bush to review U.S. options . It was determined that there was a high likelihood that the conflict would spread into Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states , but that the United States had little capability to defend the region . Furthermore , it was determined that a prolonged war in the region would induce much higher oil prices and threaten the fragile recovery of the world economy which was just beginning to gain momentum . On 22 May 1984 , President Reagan was briefed on the project conclusions in the Oval Office by William Flynn Martin who had served as the head of the NSC staff that organized the study . The full declassified presentation can be seen here . The conclusions were threefold : first oil stocks needed to be increased among members of the International Energy Agency and , if necessary , released early in the event of oil market disruption ; second the United States needed to beef up the security of friendly Arab states in the region and thirdly an embargo should be placed on sales of military equipment to Iran and Iraq . The Plan was approved by the President Reagan and later affirmed by the G-7 leaders headed by Great Britain 's Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in the London Summit of 1984 . The plan was implemented and became the basis for U.S. preparedness to respond to the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait in 1991 . Within hours of the invasion , Kuwait and U.S. delegations requested a meeting of the United Nations Security Council , which passed Resolution 660 , condemning the invasion and demanding a withdrawal of Iraqi troops . On 3 August , the Arab League passed its own resolution , which called for a solution to the conflict from within the League , and warned against outside intervention ; Iraq and Libya were the only two Arab League states which opposed a resolution for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait . The PLO opposed it as well . The Arab states of Yemen and Jordan – a Western ally which bordered Iraq and relied on the country for economic support – opposed military intervention from non-Arab states . The Arab state of Sudan aligned itself with Saddam . On 6 August , Resolution 661 placed economic sanctions on Iraq . Resolution 665 followed soon after , which authorized a naval blockade to enforce the sanctions . It said the `` use of measures commensurate to the specific circumstances as may be necessary ... to halt all inward and outward maritime shipping in order to inspect and verify their cargoes and destinations and to ensure strict implementation of resolution 661 . '' From the beginning , U.S. officials insisted on a total Iraqi pullout from Kuwait , without any linkage to other Middle Eastern problems , fearing any concessions would strengthen Iraqi influence in the region for years to come . On 12 August 1990 , Saddam `` propose [ d ] that all cases of occupation , and those cases that have been portrayed as occupation , in the region , be resolved simultaneously '' . Specifically , he called for Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in Palestine , Syria , and Lebanon , Syria to withdraw from Lebanon , and `` mutual withdrawals by Iraq and Iran and arrangement for the situation in Kuwait . '' He also called for a replacement of U.S. troops that mobilized in Saudi Arabia in response to Kuwait 's invasion with `` an Arab force '' , as long as that force did not involve Egypt . Additionally , he requested an `` immediate freeze of all boycott and siege decisions '' and a general normalization of relations with Iraq . From the beginning of the crisis , President Bush was strongly opposed to any `` linkage '' between Iraq 's occupation of Kuwait and the Palestinian issue . On 23 August , Saddam appeared on state television with Western hostages to whom he had refused exit visas . In the video , he asks a young British boy , Stuart Lockwood , whether he is getting his milk , and goes on to say , through his interpreter , `` We hope your presence as guests here will not be for too long . Your presence here , and in other places , is meant to prevent the scourge of war . '' Another Iraqi proposal communicated in August 1990 was delivered to U.S. National Security Advisor Brent Scowcroft by an unidentified Iraqi official . The official communicated to the White House that Iraq would `` withdraw from Kuwait and allow foreigners to leave '' provided that the U.N. lifted sanctions , allowed `` guaranteed access to the Persian Gulf through the Kuwaiti islands of Bubiyan and Warbah '' , and allowed Iraq to `` gain full control of the Rumaila oil field that extends slightly into Kuwaiti territory '' . The proposal also `` include [ d ] offers to negotiate an oil agreement with the United States 'satisfactory to both nations ' national security interests , ' develop a joint plan 'to alleviate Iraq 's economical and financial problems ' and 'jointly work on the stability of the gulf . ' '' In December 1990 , Iraq made a proposal to withdraw from Kuwait provided that foreign troops left the region and that an agreement was reached regarding the Palestinian problem and the dismantlement of both Israel 's and Iraq 's weapons of mass destruction . The White House rejected the proposal . The PLO 's Yasser Arafat expressed that neither he nor Saddam insisted that solving the Israel–Palestine issues should be a precondition to solving the issues in Kuwait , though he did acknowledge a `` strong link '' between these problems . Ultimately , the U.S. stuck to its position that there would be no negotiations until Iraq withdrew from Kuwait and that they should not grant Iraq concessions , lest they give the impression that Iraq benefited from its military campaign . Also , when U.S. Secretary of State James Baker met with Tariq Aziz in Geneva , Switzerland , for last minute peace talks in early 1991 , Aziz reportedly made no concrete proposals and did not outline any hypothetical Iraqi moves . On 29 November 1990 , the Security Council passed Resolution 678 which gave Iraq until 15 January 1991 to withdraw from Kuwait and empowered states to use `` all necessary means '' to force Iraq out of Kuwait after the deadline . On 14 January 1991 , France proposed that the U.N. Security Council call for `` a rapid and massive withdrawal '' from Kuwait along with a statement to Iraq that Council members would bring their `` active contribution '' to a settlement of the region 's other problems , `` in particular , of the Arab–Israeli conflict and in particular to the Palestinian problem by convening , at an appropriate moment , an international conference '' to assure `` the security , stability and development of this region of the world . '' The French proposal was supported by Belgium ( at the moment one of the rotating Council members ) , Germany , Spain , Italy , Algeria , Morocco , Tunisia , and several non-aligned nations . The U.S. , the UK , and the Soviet Union rejected it ; U.S . Ambassador to the U.N. Thomas Pickering stated that the French proposal was unacceptable , because it went beyond previous Council resolutions on the Iraqi invasion . France dropped this proposal when it found `` no tangible sign of interest '' from Baghdad . Military means One of the West 's main concerns was the significant threat Iraq posed to Saudi Arabia . Following Kuwait 's conquest , the Iraqi Army was within easy striking distance of Saudi oil fields . Control of these fields , along with Kuwaiti and Iraqi reserves , would have given Saddam control over the majority of the world 's oil reserves . Iraq also had a number of grievances with Saudi Arabia . The Saudis had lent Iraq some 26 billion dollars during its war with Iran . The Saudis had backed Iraq in that war , as they feared the influence of Shia Iran 's Islamic revolution on its own Shia minority . After the war , Saddam felt he should n't have to repay the loans due to the help he had given the Saudis by fighting Iran . Soon after his conquest of Kuwait , Saddam began verbally attacking the Saudis . He argued that the U.S.-supported Saudi state was an illegitimate and unworthy guardian of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina . He combined the language of the Islamist groups that had recently fought in Afghanistan with the rhetoric Iran had long used to attack the Saudis . Acting on the Carter Doctrine 's policy , and out of fear the Iraqi Army could launch an invasion of Saudi Arabia , U.S. President George H. W. Bush quickly announced that the U.S. would launch a `` wholly defensive '' mission to prevent Iraq from invading Saudi Arabia under the codename Operation Desert Shield . Operation Desert Shield began on 7 August 1990 when U.S. troops were sent to Saudi Arabia due also to the request of its monarch , King Fahd , who had earlier called for U.S. military assistance . This `` wholly defensive '' doctrine was quickly abandoned when , on 8 August , Iraq declared Kuwait to be Iraq 's 19th province and Saddam named his cousin , Ali Hassan Al-Majid

qw_9705--Gulf_War.txt

"Who was known in the 1991 Gulf War as ""Stormin' Norman""?"

Ares ( ; ) is the Greek god of war . He is one of the Twelve Olympians , and the son of Zeus and Hera . In Greek literature , he often represents the physical or violent and untamed aspect of war , in contrast to his sister the armored Athena , whose functions as a goddess of intelligence include military strategy and generalship . The Greeks were ambivalent toward Ares : although he embodied the physical valor necessary for success in war , he was a dangerous force , `` overwhelming , insatiable in battle , destructive , and man-slaughtering . '' His sons Fear ( Phobos ) and Terror ( Deimos ) and his lover , or sister , Discord ( Enyo ) accompanied him on his war chariot . In the Iliad , his father Zeus tells him that he is the god most hateful to him . An association with Ares endows places and objects with a savage , dangerous , or militarized quality . His value as a war god is placed in doubt : during the Trojan War , Ares was on the losing side , while Athena , often depicted in Greek art as holding Nike ( Victory ) in her hand , favored the triumphant Greeks . Ares plays a relatively limited role in Greek mythology as represented in literary narratives , though his numerous love affairs and abundant offspring are often alluded to . When Ares does appear in myths , he typically faces humiliation . He is well known as the lover of Aphrodite , the goddess of love , who was married to Hephaestus , god of craftsmanship . The most famous story related to Ares and Aphrodite shows them exposed to ridicule through the wronged husband 's clever device . The counterpart of Ares among the Roman gods is Mars , Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia , The Book People , Haydock , 1995 , p. 215. who as a father of the Roman people was given a more important and dignified place in ancient Roman religion as a guardian deity . During the Hellenization of Latin literature , the myths of Ares were reinterpreted by Roman writers under the name of Mars . Greek writers under Roman rule also recorded cult practices and beliefs pertaining to Mars under the name of Ares . Thus in the classical tradition of later Western art and literature , the mythology of the two figures becomes virtually indistinguishable . Names and epithets The etymology of the name Ares is traditionally connected with the Greek word ( arē ) , the Ionic form of the Doric ( ara ) , `` bane , ruin , curse , imprecation '' . There may also be a connection with the Roman god of war Mars , via hypothetical Proto-Indo-European * M̥rēs ; compare Ancient Greek μάρναμαι ( marnamai ) , `` I fight , I battle '' . Walter Burkert notes that `` Ares is apparently an ancient abstract noun meaning throng of battle , war . '' R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the name . The earliest attested form of the name is the Mycenaean Greek , a-re , written in the Linear B syllabic script . The adjectival epithet , Areios , was frequently appended to the names of other gods when they took on a warrior aspect or became involved in warfare : Zeus Areios , Athena Areia , even Aphrodite Areia . In the Iliad , the word ares is used as a common noun synonymous with `` battle . '' Inscriptions as early as Mycenaean times , and continuing into the Classical period , attest to Enyalios as another name for the god of war . Character , origins , and worship Ares was one of the Twelve Olympians in the archaic tradition represented by the Iliad and Odyssey . Zeus expresses a recurring Greek revulsion toward the god when Ares returns wounded and complaining from the battlefield at Troy : Then looking at him darkly Zeus who gathers the clouds spoke to him : '' Do not sit beside me and whine , you double-faced liar.To me you are the most hateful of all gods who hold Olympus.Forever quarrelling is dear to your heart , wars and battles.…And yet I will not long endure to see you in pain , sinceyou are my child , and it was to me that your mother bore you.But were you born of some other god and proved so ruinouslong since you would have been dropped beneath the gods of the bright sky . '' This ambivalence is expressed also in the Greeks ' association of the god with the Thracians , whom they regarded as a barbarous and warlike people . Thrace was Ares 's birthplace , his true home , and his refuge after the affair with Aphrodite was exposed to the general mockery of the other gods . A late-6th-century BC funerary inscription from Attica emphasizes the consequences of coming under Ares 's sway : Stay and mourn at the tomb of dead KroisosWhom raging Ares destroyed one day , fighting in the foremost ranks . Ares in Sparta In Sparta , Ares was viewed as a model soldier : his resilience , physical strength , and military intelligence were unrivaled . Human sacrifices were offered to him . Also , an ancient statue , representing the god in chains , suggested that the martial spirit and victory were to be kept in the city of Sparta . Ares in the Arabian Peninsula Ares was also worshipped by the inhabitants of Tylos . It is not known if he was worshipped in the form of an Arabian god ( and which one ) or if he was worshipped in his Greek form . Attributes The birds of Ares ( Ornithes Areioi ) were a flock of feather-dart-dropping birds that guarded the Amazons ' shrine of the god on a coastal island in the Black Sea . Cult and ritual Although Ares received occasional sacrifice from armies going to war , the god had a formal temple and cult at only a few sites . At Sparta , however , each company of youths sacrificed a puppy to Enyalios before engaging in ritual fighting at the Phoebaeum . The chthonic night-time sacrifice of a dog to Enyalios became assimilated to the cult of Ares . Just east of Sparta stood an archaic statue of the god in chains , to show that the spirit of war and victory was to be kept in the city . The temple to Ares in the agora of Athens , which Pausanias saw in the second century AD , had been moved and rededicated there during the time of Augustus . Essentially it was a Roman temple to the Augustan Mars Ultor . From archaic times , the Areopagus , the `` mount of Ares '' at some distance from the Acropolis , was a site of trials . Paul the Apostle later preached about Christianity there . Its connection with Ares , perhaps based on a false etymology , is etiological myth . A second temple to Ares has been located at the archaeological site of Metropolis in what is now Western Turkey . Attendants Deimos , `` Terror '' or `` Dread '' , and Phobos , `` Fear '' or `` Horror '' , are his companions in war . According to Hesiod , they were also his children , borne by Aphrodite . Eris , the goddess of discord , or Enyo , the goddess of war , bloodshed , and violence , was considered the sister and companion of the violent Ares . In at least one tradition , Enyalius , rather than another name for Ares , was his son by Enyo . Ares may also be accompanied by Kydoimos , the demon of the din of battle ; the Makhai ( `` Battles '' ) ; the `` Hysminai '' ( `` Acts of manslaughter '' ) ; Polemos , a minor spirit of war , or only an epithet of Ares , since it has no specific dominion ; and Polemos 's daughter , Alala , the goddess or personification of the Greek war-cry , whose name Ares uses as his own war-cry . Ares 's sister Hebe ( `` Youth '' ) also draws baths for him . According to Pausanias , local inhabitants of Therapne , Sparta , recognized Thero , `` feral , savage , '' as a nurse of Ares . Founding of Thebes One of the roles of Ares was expressed in mainland Greece as the founding myth of Thebes : Ares was the progenitor of the water-dragon slain by Cadmus , for the dragon 's teeth were sown into the ground as if a crop and sprang up as the fully armored autochthonic Spartoi . To propitiate Ares , Cadmus took as a bride Harmonia , a daughter of Ares 's union with Aphrodite . In this way , Cadmus harmonized all strife and founded the city of Thebes . Consorts and children The union of Ares and Aphrodite created the gods Eros , Anteros , Phobos , Deimos , Harmonia , and Adrestia . While Eros 's and Anteros 's godly stations favored their mother , Adrestia preferred to emulate her father , often accompanying him to war . Other versions include Alcippe as one of his daughters . Upon one occasion , Ares incurred the anger of Poseidon by slaying his son Halirrhothius , who had raped Alcippe , a daughter of the war-god . For this deed , Poseidon summoned Ares to appear before the tribunal of the Olympic gods , which was held upon a hill in Athens . Ares was acquitted . This event is supposed to have given rise to the name Areopagus ( or Hill of Ares ) , which afterward became famous as the site of a court of justice . Accounts tell of Cycnus ( Κύκνος ) of Macedonia , a son of Ares who was so murderous that he tried to build a temple with the skulls and the bones of travellers . Heracles slaughtered this abominable monstrosity , engendering the wrath of Ares , whom the hero wounded in conflict . List of Ares 's consorts and children Hymns to Ares ; Homeric Hymn 8 to Ares ( trans . Evelyn-White ) ( Greek epic 7th to 4th centuries BC ) : `` Ares , exceeding in strength , chariot-rider , golden-helmed , doughty in heart , shield-bearer , Saviour of cities , harnessed in bronze , strong of arm , unwearying , mighty with the spear , O defence of Olympus , father of warlike Victory , ally of Themis , stern governor of the rebellious , leader of righteous men , sceptred King of manliness , who whirl your fiery sphere among the planets in their sevenfold courses through the aether wherein your blazing steeds ever bear you above the third firmament of heaven ; hear me , helper of men , giver of dauntless youth ! Shed down a kindly ray from above upon my life , and strength of war , that I may be able to drive away bitter cowardice from my head and crush down the deceitful impulses of my soul . Restrain also the keen fury of my heart which provokes me to tread the ways of blood-curdling strife . Rather , O blessed one , give you me boldness to abide within the harmless laws of peace , avoiding strife and hatred and the violent fiends of death . '' ; Orphic Hymn 65 to Ares ( trans . Taylor ) ( Greek hymns 3rd century BC to 2nd century AD ) : `` To Ares , Fumigation from Frankincense . Magnanimous , unconquered , boisterous Ares , in darts rejoicing , and in bloody wars ; fierce and untamed , whose mighty power can make the strongest walls from their foundations shake : mortal-destroying king , defiled with gore , pleased with war ’ s dreadful and tumultuous roar . Thee human blood , and swords , and spears delight , and the dire ruin of mad savage fight . Stay furious contests , and avenging strife , whose works with woe embitter human life ; to lovely Kyrpis [ Aphrodite ] and to Lyaios [ Dionysos ] yield , for arms exchange the labours of the field ; encourage peace , to gentle works inclined , and give abundance , with benignant mind . '' Other accounts In the tale sung by the bard in the hall of Alcinous , the Sun-god Helios once spied Ares and Aphrodite enjoying each other secretly in the hall of Hephaestus , her husband . He reported the incident to Hephaestus . Contriving to catch the illicit couple in the act , Hephaestus fashioned a finely-knitted and nearly invisible net with which to snare them . At the appropriate time , this net was sprung , and trapped Ares and Aphrodite locked in very private embrace . But Hephaestus was not satisfied with his revenge , so he invited the Olympian gods and goddesses to view the unfortunate pair . For the sake of modesty , the goddesses demurred , but the male gods went to witness the sight . Some commented on the beauty of Aphrodite , others remarked that they would eagerly trade places with Ares , but all who were present mocked the two . Once the couple were loosed , Ares , embarrassed , returned to his homeland , Thrace , and Aphrodite went to Paphos . In a much later interpolated detail , Ares put the youth Alectryon by his door to warn them of Helios 's arrival , as Helios would tell Hephaestus of Aphrodite 's infidelity if the two were discovered , but Alectryon fell asleep . Helios discovered the two and alerted Hephaestus . Furious Ares turned the sleepy Alectryon into a rooster , which now always announces the arrival of the sun in the morning . Ares and the giants In one archaic myth , related only in the Iliad by the goddess Dione to her daughter Aphrodite , two chthonic giants , the Aloadae , named Otus and Ephialtes , threw Ares into chains and put him in a bronze urn , where he remained for thirteen months , a lunar year . `` And that would have been the end of Ares and his appetite for war , if the beautiful Eriboea , the young giants ' stepmother , had not told Hermes what they had done , '' she related . `` In this one suspects a festival of licence which is unleashed in the thirteenth month . '' Ares was held screaming and howling in the urn until Hermes rescued him , and Artemis tricked the Aloadae into slaying each other . In Nonnus 's Dionysiaca Ares also killed Ekhidnades , the giant son of Echidna , and a great enemy of the gods . Scholars have not concluded whether the nameless Ekhidnades ( `` of Echidna 's lineage '' ) was entirely Nonnus 's invention or not . Iliad In the Iliad , Homer represented Ares as having no fixed allegiances , rewarding courage on both sides : he promised Athena and Hera that he would fight on the side of the Achaeans ( Iliad V.830–834 , XXI.410–414 ) , but Aphrodite persuaded Ares to side with the Trojans . During the war , Diomedes fought with Hector and saw Ares fighting on the Trojans ' side . Diomedes called for his soldiers to fall back slowly ( V.590–605 ) . Athene , or Athena , Ares 's sister , saw his interference and asked Zeus , his father , for permission to drive Ares away from the battlefield , which Zeus granted ( V.711–769 ) . Hera and Athena encouraged Diomedes to attack Ares ( V.780–834 ) . Diomedes thrust with his spear at Ares , with Athena driving it home , and Ares 's cries made Achaeans and Trojans alike tremble ( V.855–864 ) . Ares fled to Mt . Olympus , forcing the Trojans to fall back . When Hera mentioned to Zeus that Ares 's son , Ascalaphus , was killed , Ares overheard and wanted to join the fight on the side of the Achaeans , disregarding Zeus 's order that no Olympic god should enter the battle , but Athena stopped him ( XV.110–128 ) . Later , when Zeus allowed the gods to fight in the war again ( XX.20–29 ) , Ares was the first to act , attacking Athena to avenge himself for his previous injury . Athena overpowered him by striking Ares with a boulder ( XXI.391–408 ) . Renaissance In Renaissance and Neoclassical works of art , Ares 's symbols are a spear and helmet , his animal is a dog , and his bird is the vulture . In literary works of these eras , Ares is replaced by the Roman Mars , a romantic emblem of manly valor rather than the cruel and blood-thirsty god of Greek mythology . In popular culture Ares figures in war-themed video games and in popular fictions . NASA named their transport ship as Ares , which replaced the Space Shuttle . This was an extension of NASA 's practice of using Roman and Greek names for their rockets and programs : Saturn for manned rockets , Mercury for a satellite program , and the Apollo program , rather than any association with the nature of the war god . The name of the Greek multi-sports club Aris Thessaloniki is inspired by the God .

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Who is the Greek God of War?

EGBDF may refer to : * The notes on the lines of the treble clef and the mnemonic used by some music students to remember it , such as Every Good Boy Does Fine , Every Good Boy Deserves Favour or Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge . Another elementary-style rhyme `` EGBDF , these are the lines on the treble clef '' , is also a fairly simple chant . * A number of song and album names satirising the above mnemonics : * * Every Good Boy Deserves Favour ( play ) , a play by Tom Stoppard * * Every Good Boy Deserves Favour ( album ) , by the Moody Blues * * Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge , an album by Mudhoney

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'Every good boy deserves favour' is a mnemonic in?

The Emperor of Japan is the head of the Imperial Family and is the ceremonial head of state of Japan 's system of constitutional monarchy . According to the 1947 constitution , he is `` the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people . '' Historically , he is also the highest authority of the Shinto religion as he and his family are said to be the direct descendants of the sun-goddess Amaterasu , and his importance also lies in dealing with heavenly affairs , including Shinto ritual and rites throughout the nation . In Japanese , the Emperor is called Tennō ( 天皇 ) , which means `` heavenly sovereign '' . In English , the use of the term Mikado ( 帝 ) for the Emperor was once common , but is now considered obsolete . Currently , the Emperor of Japan is the only remaining monarch in the world reigning under the title of `` Emperor '' . The Imperial House of Japan is the oldest continuing hereditary monarchy in the world . In the Kojiki or Nihon Shoki , a book of Japanese history finished in the eighth century , it is said that Japan was founded in 660 BC by Emperor Jimmu . The current Emperor is Akihito . He acceded the Chrysanthemum Throne upon the death of his father , Emperor Shōwa ( Hirohito ) , in 1989 . The role of the Emperor of Japan has historically alternated between a largely ceremonial symbolic role and that of an actual imperial ruler . Since the establishment of the first shogunate in 1192 , the Emperors of Japan have rarely taken on a role as supreme battlefield commander , unlike many Western monarchs . Japanese Emperors have nearly always been controlled by external political forces , to varying degrees . In fact , between 1192 and 1867 , the shoguns , or their shikken regents in Kamakura ( 1203–1333 ) , were the de facto rulers of Japan , although they were nominally appointed by the Emperor . After the Meiji restoration in 1867 , the Emperor was the embodiment of all sovereign power in the realm , as enshrined in the Meiji Constitution of 1889 . His current status as a figurehead dates from the 1947 Constitution . Since the mid-nineteenth century , the Imperial Palace has been called Kyūjō ( 宮城 ) , later Kōkyo ( 皇居 ) , and is located on the former site of Edo Castle in the heart of Tokyo . Earlier , Emperors resided in Kyoto for nearly eleven centuries . The Emperor 's Birthday ( December 23 ) is a national holiday . Current role Unlike most constitutional monarchies , the Emperor is not the nominal Chief Executive . Article 65 of the Constitution explicitly vests executive power in the Cabinet , of which the Prime Minister is the leader . The Emperor is also not the ( ceremonial ) commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces . The Japan Self-Defense Forces Act of 1954 also explicitly vests this role with the Prime Minister . The Emperor 's powers are limited only to important ceremonial functions . Article 4 of the Constitution stipulates that the Emperor `` shall perform only such acts in matters of state as are provided for in the Constitution and he shall not have powers related to government . '' It also stipulates that `` the advice and approval of the Cabinet shall be required for all acts of the Emperor in matters of state '' ( Article 3 ) . Article 4 also states that these duties can be delegated by the Emperor as provided for by law . While the Emperor formally appoints the Prime Minister to office , Article 6 of the Constitution requires him to appoint the candidate `` as designated by the Diet '' , without specifically giving the Emperor the right to decline appointment . Article 6 of the Constitution delegates the Emperor the following ceremonial roles : # Appointment of the Prime Minister as designated by the Diet . # Appointment of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court as designated by the Cabinet . The Emperor 's other duties are laid down in article 7 of the Constitution , where it is stated that the `` Emperor with the advice and approval of the Cabinet , shall perform the following acts in matters of state on behalf of the people '' : # Promulgation of amendments of the constitution , laws , cabinet orders , and treaties . # Convocation of the Diet . # Dissolution of the House of Representatives . # Proclamation of general election of members of the Diet . # Attestation of the appointment and dismissal of Ministers of State and other officials as provided for by law , and of full powers and credentials of Ambassadors and Ministers . # Attestation of general and special amnesty , commutation of punishment , reprieve , and restoration of rights . # Awarding of honors . # Attestation of instruments of ratification and other diplomatic documents as provided for by law . # Receiving foreign ambassadors and ministers . # Performance of ceremonial functions . Regular ceremonies of the Emperor with a constitutional basis are the Imperial Investitures ( Shinninshiki ) in the Tokyo Imperial Palace and the Speech from the Throne ceremony in the House of Councillors in the National Diet Building . The latter ceremony opens ordinary and extra sessions of the Diet . Ordinary sessions are opened each January and also after new elections to the House of Representatives . Extra sessions usually convene in the autumn and are opened then . History Although the Emperor has been a symbol of continuity with the past , the degree of power exercised by the Emperor has varied considerably throughout Japanese history . In the early 7th century , the Emperor had began to be called the . Origin The earliest Emperor recorded in Kojiki and Nihon Shoki is Emperor Jimmu , who is said to be a descendant of Amaterasu 's grandson Ninigi who descended from Heaven ( Tenson kōrin ) . According to the Nihon Shoki , the Emperors have an unbroken male lineage that goes back more than 2,600 years . The key to the origin of the Japanese imperial line may lie within the ancient imperial tombs known as kofun . However , since the Meiji period , the Imperial Household Agency has refused to open the kofun to the public nor to archaeologists , citing their desire not to disturb the spirits of the past Emperors . In December 2006 , the Imperial Household Agency reversed its position and decided to allow researchers to enter some of the kofun with no restrictions . The title of Emperor was borrowed from China , being derived from Chinese characters and was retroactively applied to the legendary Japanese rulers who reigned prior to the 7th-8th centuries AD . Factional control There have been six non-imperial families who have controlled Japanese emperors : the Soga ( 530s–645 ) , the Fujiwara ( 850s–1070 ) , the Taira ( 1159-1180s ) , the Minamoto ( and Kamakura bakufu ) ( 1192–1333 ) , the Ashikaga ( 1336–1565 ) , and the Tokugawa ( 1603–1867 ) . However , every shogun from the Minamoto , Ashikaga , and Tokugawa families had to be officially recognized by the Emperors , who were still the source of sovereignty , although they could not exercise their powers independently from the Shogunate . Disputes The growth of the samurai class from the 10th century gradually weakened the power of the imperial family over the realm , leading to a time of instability . Emperors have been known to come into conflict with the reigning shogun from time to time . Some instances , such as Emperor Go-Toba 's 1221 rebellion against the Kamakura shogunate and the 1336 Kemmu Restoration under Emperor Go-Daigo , show the power struggle between the imperial court and the military governments of Japan . Territorial matters Until recent centuries , Japan 's territory did not include several remote regions of its modern-day territory . The name `` Nippon '' came into use only many centuries after the start of the current imperial line . Centralized government only began to appear shortly before and during the time of Prince Shōtoku ( 572-622 ) . The Emperor was more like a revered embodiment of divine harmony than the head of an actual governing administration . In Japan , it has always been easy for ambitious lords to hold actual power , as such positions have not been inherently contradictory to the Emperor 's position . The parliamentary government today continues a similar coexistence with the Emperor as have various shoguns , regents , warlords , guardians , etc . Historically the titles of Tennō in Japanese have never included territorial designations as is the case with many European monarchs . The position of Emperor is a territory-independent phenomenon—the Emperor is the Emperor , even if he has followers only in one province ( as was the case sometimes with the southern and northern courts ) . Shoguns From 1192 to 1867 , sovereignty of the state was exercised by the shoguns , or their shikken regents ( 1203–1333 ) , whose authority was conferred by Imperial warrant . When Portuguese explorers first came into contact with the Japanese ( see Nanban period ) , they described Japanese conditions in analogy , likening the Emperor with great symbolic authority but little political power , to the Pope , and the Shogun to secular European rulers ( e.g. , the Holy Roman Emperor ) . In keeping with the analogy , they even used the term `` Emperor '' in reference to the shogun and their regent , e.g . in the case of Toyotomi Hideyoshi , whom missionaries called `` Emperor Taico-sama '' ( from Taiko and the honorific sama ) . Meiji restoration After the United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry 's Black Ships forcibly opened Japan to foreign trade , and the shogunate proved incapable of hindering the `` barbarian '' interlopers , the Emperor Kōmei began to assert himself politically . By the early 1860s , the relationship between the imperial court and the Shogunate was changing radically . Disaffected domains and ronin began to rally to the call of sonnō jōi ( `` revere the Emperor , expel the barbarians '' ) . The domains of Satsuma and Chōshū , historic enemies of the Tokugawa , used this turmoil to unite their forces and won an important military victory outside of Kyoto against Tokugawa forces . In 1868 , imperial `` restoration '' was declared , and the Shogunate was dissolved . A new constitution described the Emperor as `` the head of the Empire , combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty '' , whose rights included to sanction and promulgate laws , to execute them and to exercise `` supreme command of the Army and the Navy '' . The liaison conference created in 1893 also made the Emperor the leader of the Imperial General Headquarters . World War II The role of the Emperor as head of the State Shinto religion was exploited during the war , creating an Imperial cult that led to kamikaze bombers and other fanaticism . This in turn led to the requirement in the Potsdam Declaration for the elimination `` for all time [ of ] the authority and influence of those who have deceived and misled the people of Japan into embarking on world conquest '' . Following Japan 's surrender , the Allies issued the Shinto Directive separating church and state within Japan , leading to the Humanity Declaration of the incumbent Emperor . Subsequently , a new constitution was drafted to define the role of the Emperor and the government . Current constitution The constitution provides for a parliamentary system of government and guarantees certain fundamental rights . Under its terms , the Emperor of Japan is `` the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people '' and exercises a purely ceremonial role without the possession of sovereignty . The constitution , also known as the , or the , was drawn up under the Allied occupation that followed World War II and was intended to replace Japan 's previous militaristic and quasi-absolute monarchy system with a form of liberal democracy . Currently , it is a rigid document and no subsequent amendment has been made to it since its adoption . Education The Emperors traditionally had an education officer . In recent times , Emperor Taishō had Count Nogi Maresuke , Emperor Shōwa had Marshal-Admiral Marquis Tōgō Heihachirō , and Emperor Akihito had Elizabeth Gray Vining as well as Shinzo Koizumi as their tutors . Addressing and naming There are two Japanese words equivalent to the English word `` Emperor '' : tennō ( 天皇 , lit . `` heavenly sovereign '' ) , which is used exclusively to refer to the Emperor of Japan , and kōtei ( 皇帝 , the title used for all other foreign Emperors ) , which is used primarily to describe non-Japanese Emperors . Sumeramikoto ( lit . `` the Imperial person '' ) was also used in Old Japanese . The term tennō was used by the Emperors up until the Middle Ages ; then , following a period of disuse , it was used again from the 19th century . In English , the term mikado ( 御門 or 帝 or みかど ) , literally meaning `` the honorable gate '' ( i.e . the gate of the imperial palace , which indicates the person who lives in and possesses the palace ) , was once used ( as in The Mikado , a 19th-century operetta ) , but this term is now obsolete . ( Compare Sublime Porte , an old term for the Ottoman government . ) Traditionally , the Japanese considered it disrespectful to call any person by his given name , and more so for a person of noble rank . This convention is only slightly relaxed in modern age and now it is still unadvisable among friends to use the given name , but use of the family name is still common . In the case of the imperial family , it is considered extremely inappropriate to use the given name . Since Emperor Meiji , it has been customary to have one era per Emperor and to rename each Emperor after his death using the name of the era over which he presided . Prior to Emperor Meiji , the names of the eras were changed more frequently , and the posthumous names of the Emperors were chosen in a different manner . Outside Japan , beginning with Emperor Shōwa , the Emperors are often referred to by their given names , both whilst alive and posthumously . For example , the previous Emperor is usually called Hirohito in English , although he was never referred to as Hirohito in Japan , and was renamed Shōwa Tennō after his death , which is the only name that Japanese speakers currently use when referring to him . The current Emperor on the throne is typically referred to by the title Tennō Heika ( 天皇陛下 , literally `` His Majesty the Emperor '' ) , Kinjō Heika ( 今上陛下 , literally `` His Current Majesty '' ) or simply Tennō , when speaking Japanese . The current Emperor will be renamed Heisei Tennō ( 平成天皇 ) after his death and will then be referred to exclusively by that name in Japanese . Non-Japanese speakers typically refer to him as Emperor Akihito , and will almost certainly continue to do so after his death . It is considered a major faux pas to refer to a living Emperor by his posthumous name . Origin of the title Originally , the ruler of Japan was known as either 大和大王/大君 ( Yamato-ōkimi , Grand King of Yamato ) , 倭王/倭国王 ( Wa-ō/Wakoku-ō , King of Wa , used externally ) or 治天下大王 ( Ame-no-shita shiroshimesu ōkimi or Sumera no mikoto , Grand King who rules all under heaven , used internally ) in Japanese and Chinese sources prior to the 7th century . The oldest documented use of the word `` Tennō '' is on a wooden slat , or mokkan , that was unearthed in Asuka-mura , Nara Prefecture in 1998 and dated back to the reign of Emperor Temmu and Empress Jitō . Marriage traditions Throughout history , Japanese Emperors and noblemen appointed the position of chief wife , rather than just keeping a harem or an assortment of female attendants . The Japanese imperial dynasty consistently practiced official polygamy , a practice that only ended in the Taishō period ( 1912–1926 ) . Besides the Empress , the Emperor could take , and nearly always took , several secondary consorts ( `` concubines '' ) of various hierarchical degrees . Concubines were allowed also to other dynasts ( Shinnōke , Ōke ) . After a decree by Emperor Ichijō , some Emperors even had two empresses simultaneously ( kōgō and chūgū are the two separate titles for that situation ) . With the help of all this polygamy , the imperial clan thus was capable of producing more offspring . ( Sons by secondary consorts were usually recognized as imperial princes , too , and could be recognized as heir to the throne if the empress did not give birth to an heir . ) Of the eight female Tennō ( reigning empresses ) of Japan , none married or gave birth after ascending the throne . Some of them , being widows , had produced children prior to their reigns . In the succession , children of the empress were preferred over sons of secondary consorts . Thus it was significant which quarters had preferential opportunities in providing chief wives to imperial princes , i.e . supplying future empresses . Apparently , the oldest tradition of official marriages within the imperial dynasty were marriages between dynasty members , even half-siblings or uncle and niece . Such marriages were deemed to preserve better the imperial blood or were aimed at producing children symbolic of a reconciliation between two branches of the imperial dynasty . Daughters of others remained concubines , until Emperor Shōmu ( 701-706 ) — in what was specifically reported as the first elevation of its kind — elevated his Fujiwara consort Empress Kōmyō to chief wife . Japanese monarchs have been , as much as others elsewhere , dependent on making alliances with powerful chiefs and other monarchs . Many such alliances were sealed by marriages . The specific feature in Japan has been the fact that these marriages have been soon incorporated as elements of tradition which controlled the marriages of later generations , though the original practical alliance had lost its real meaning . A repeated pattern has been an imperial son-in-law under the influence of his powerful non-imperial father-in-law . Beginning from the 7th and 8th centuries , Emperors primarily took women of the Fujiwara clan as their highest wives — the most probable mothers of future monarchs . This was cloaked as a tradition of marriage between heirs of two kami ( Shinto deities ) : descendants of Amaterasu with descendants of the family kami of the Fujiwara . ( Originally , the Fujiwara were descended from relatively minor nobility , thus their kami is an unremarkable one in the Japanese myth world . ) To produce imperial children , heirs of the nation , with two-side descent from the two kami , was regarded as desirable — or at least it suited powerful Fujiwara lords , who thus received preference in the imperial marriage market . The reality behind such marriages was an alliance between an imperial prince and a Fujiwara lord , his father-in-law or grandfather , the latter with his resources supporting the prince to the throne and most often controlling the government . These arrangements created the tradition of regents ( Sesshō and Kampaku ) , with these positions held only by a Fujiwara sekke lord . Earlier , the Emperors had married women from families of the government-holding Soga lords , and women of the imperial clan itself , i.e . various-degree cousins and often even their own sisters ( half-sisters ) . Several imperials of the 5th and 6th centuries such as Prince Shōtoku were children of half-sibling couples . These marriages often were alliance or succession devices : the Soga lord ensured his domination of a prince who would be put on the throne as a puppet ; or a prince ensured the combination of two imperial descents , to strengthen his own and his children 's claim to the throne . Marriages were also a means to seal a reconciliation between two imperial branches . After a couple of centuries , Emperors could no longer take anyone from outside such families as primary wife , no matter what the expediency of such a marriage and power or wealth brought by such might have been . Only very rarely did a prince ascend the throne whose mother was not descended from the approved families . The earlier necessity and expediency had mutated into a strict tradition that did not allow for current expediency or necessity , but only dictated that daughters of a restricted circle of families were eligible brides , because they had produced eligible brides for centuries . Tradition had become more forceful than law . Fujiwara women were often Empresses , and concubines came from less exalted noble families . In the last thousand years , sons of an imperial male and a Fujiwara woman have been preferred in the succession . The five Fujiwara families , Ichijō , Kujō , Nijō , Konoe , and Takatsukasa , were the primary source of imperial brides from the 8th century to the 19th century , even more often than daughters of the imperial clan itself . Fujiwara daughters were thus the usual empresses and mothers of Emperors . This restriction on brides for the Emperor and crown prince was made explicit in the Meiji-era Imperial House Law of 1889 . A clause stipulated that daughters of Sekke ( the five main branches of the higher Fujiwara ) and daughters of the imperial clan itself were primarily acceptable brides . The law was repealed in the aftermath of World War II . The present Emperor , Akihito , became the first crown prince for over a thousand years to marry a consort from outside the previously eligible circle . Burial traditions During the Kofun Period , so-called `` archaic funerals '' were held for the dead Emperors , but only the funerary rites from the end of the period , which the chronicles describe in more detail , are known . They were centered around the rite of the mogari , a provisional depository between death and permanent burial . Empress Jitō was the first Japanese imperial personage to be cremated ( in 703 ) . After that , with a few exceptions , all Emperors were cremated up to the Edo Period . For the next 350 years , in-ground burial became the favoured funeral custom . In 2013 , the Imperial Household Agency announced that Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko would be cremated after they die . Until 1912 , the Emperors of Japan were usually buried in Kyoto . From the Taishō Emperor onward , the Emperors have been buried at the Musashi Imperial Graveyard in Tokyo . Succession The Japanese imperial dynasty bases its position in the expression that it has `` reigned since time immemorial '' ( 万世一系 bansei ikkei ) . It is true that its origins are buried in the mists of time : there are no records of any Emperor who was not said to have been a descendant of other , yet earlier Emperors . There is suspicion that Emperor Keitai ( c. 500 AD ) may have been an unrelated outsider , though the sources state that he was a male-line descendant of Emperor Ōjin . However , his descendants , including his successors , were according to records descended from at least one and probably several imperial princesses of the older lineage . The tradition built by those legends has chosen to recognize just the putative male ancestry as valid for legitimizing his succession , not giving any weight to ties through the said princesses . Millennia ago , the Japanese imperial family developed its own peculiar system of hereditary succession . It has been non-primogenitural , more or less agnatic , based mostly on rotation . Today , Japan uses strict agnatic primogeniture , which was adopted from Prussia , by which Japan was greatly influenced in the 1870s . The controlling principles and their interaction were apparently very complex and sophisticated , leading to even idiosyncratic outcomes . Some chief principles apparent in the succession have been : * Women were allowed to succeed ( but there existed no known children of theirs whose father did not also happen to be an agnate of the imperial house , thus there is neither a precedent that a child of an imperial woman with a non-imperial man could inherit , nor a precedent forbidding it for children of empresses ) . However , female accession was clearly much more rare than male . * Adoption was possible and a much used way to increase the number of succession-entitled heirs ( however , the adopted child had to be a child of another member agnate of the imperial house ) . * Abdication was used very often , and in fact occurred more often than death on the throne . In those days , the Emperor 's chief task was priestly ( or godly ) , containing so many repetitive rituals that it was deemed that after a service of around ten years , the incumbent deserved pampered retirement as an honored former Emperor . * Primogeniture was not used — rather , in the early days , the imperial house practiced something resembling a system of rotation . Very often a brother ( or sister ) followed the elder sibling even in the case of the predecessor leaving children . The `` turn '' of the next generation came more often after several individuals of the senior generation . Rotation went often between two or more of the branches of the imperial house , thus more or less distant cousins succeeded each other . Emperor Go-Saga even decreed an official alternation between heirs of his two sons , which system continued for a couple of centuries ( leading finally to shogun-induced ( or utilized ) strife between these two branches , the `` southern '' and `` northern '' Emperors ) . Towards the end , the alternates were very distant cousins counted in degrees of male descent ( but all that time , intermarriages occurred within the imperial house , thus they were close cousins if female ties are counted ) . During the past five hundred years , however , probably due to Confucian influence , inheritance by sons — but not always , or even most often , the eldest son has been the norm . Historically , the succession to the Chrysanthemum Throne has always passed to descendants in male line from the imperial lineage . Generally , they have been males , though of the over one hundred monarchs there have been nine women ( one pre-historical and eight historical ) as Emperor on eleven occasions . Over a thousand years ago , a tradition started that an Emperor should ascend relatively young . A dynast who had passed his toddler years was regarded suitable and old enough . Reaching the age of legal majority was not a requirement . Thus , a multitude of Japanese Emperors have ascended as children , as young as 6 or 8 years old . The high-priestly duties were deemed possible for a walking child . A reign of around ten years was regarded a sufficient service . Being a child was apparently a fine property , to better endure tedious duties and to tolerate subjugation to political power-brokers , as well as sometimes to cloak the truly powerful members of the imperial dynasty . Almost all Japanese empresses and dozens of Emperors abdicated , and lived the rest of their lives in pampered retirement , wielding influence behind the scenes . Several Emperors abdicated to their entitled retirement while still in their teens . These traditions show in Japanese folklore , theater , literature , and other forms of culture , where

wh_2171--Emperor_of_Japan.txt

In Japan, the term Mikado is an alternative name for what ?

Earth ( otherwise known as the world , in Gaia , or in Latin : Terra ) is the third planet from the Sun , the densest planet in the Solar System , the largest of the Solar System 's four terrestrial planets , and the only astronomical object known to harbor life . According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence , Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago . Earth gravitationally interacts with other objects in space , especially the Sun and the Moon . During one orbit around the Sun , Earth rotates about its own axis 366.26 times , creating 365.26 solar days or one sidereal year . Earth 's axis of rotation is tilted 23.4° away from the perpendicular of its orbital plane , producing seasonal variations on the planet 's surface within a period of one tropical year ( 365.24 solar days ) . The Moon , Earth 's only permanent natural satellite , by its gravitational relationship with Earth , causes ocean tides , stabilizes the orientation of Earth 's rotational axis , and gradually slows Earth 's rotational rate . Earth 's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years . 71 % of Earth 's surface is covered with water . The remaining 29 % is land mass—consisting of continents and islands—that together has many lakes , rivers , and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere . The majority of Earth 's polar regions are covered in ice , including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack . Earth 's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core , a liquid outer core that generates the Earth 's magnetic field , and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics . Within its first billion years , life appeared in Earth 's oceans , and began to affect the atmosphere and surface , leading to the proliferation of aerobic and anaerobic organisms . Since then , the combination of Earth 's distance from the Sun , physical properties , and geological history have allowed life to evolve and today thrive . The earliest undisputed life on Earth arose at least 3.5 billion years ago . Earlier physical evidence of life includes biogenic graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in southwestern Greenland , as well as `` remains of biotic life '' found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia . Except when interrupted by mass extinction events , Earth 's biodiversity has continually expanded . Although scholars estimate that over 99 % of all species of life ( over five billion ) that ever lived on Earth are today extinct , there are an estimated 10–14 million species still in existence , of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 % have not yet been described . More recently , in May 2016 , scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described . In July 2016 , scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor ( LUCA ) of all organisms living on Earth . Over 7.3 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival . Earth 's human population is divided among about 200 sovereign states that interact through diplomacy , conflict , travel , trade , and communication media . Name and etymology The modern English word Earth developed from a wide variety of Middle English forms , which derived from an Old English noun most often spelled '.Oxford English Dictionary , `` earth , n.¹ '' Oxford University Press ( Oxford ) , 2010 . It has cognates in every Germanic language , and their proto-Germanic root has been reconstructed as * erþō . In its earliest appearances , eorðe was already being used to translate the many senses of Latin ' and Greek ( gē ) : the ground , its soil , dry land , the human world , the surface of the world ( including the sea ) , and the globe itself . As with Terra and Gaia , Earth was a personified goddess in Germanic paganism : the Angles were listed by Tacitus as among the devotees of Nerthus , and later Norse mythology included Jörð , a giantess often given as the mother of Thor . Originally , earth was written in lowercase , and from early Middle English , its definite sense as `` the globe '' was expressed as the earth . By early Modern English , many nouns were capitalized , and the earth became ( and often remained ) the Earth , particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies . More recently , the name is sometimes simply given as Earth , by analogy with the names of the other planets . House styles now vary : Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the most common , with the capitalized form an acceptable variant . Another convention capitalizes `` Earth '' when appearing as a name ( e.g . `` Earth 's atmosphere '' ) but writes it in lowercase when preceded by the ( e.g . `` the atmosphere of the earth '' ) . It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as `` what on earth are you doing ? '' Chronology Formation The earliest material found in the Solar System is dated to ( Gya ) . By the primordial Earth had formed . The formation and evolution of the Solar System bodies occurred along with those of the Sun . In theory , a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse , which begins to spin and flatten into a circumstellar disk , and then the planets grow out of that disk along with the Sun . A nebula contains gas , ice grains , and dust ( including primordial nuclides ) . In nebular theory , planetesimals form by accretion . The assembly of the primordial Earth proceeded for 10– . The process that led to the formation of the Moon approximately 4.53 billion years ago is the subject of ongoing research . The working hypothesis is that it formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a Mars-sized object , named Theia , impacted Earth . In this scenario , the mass of Theia was approximately 10 % of that of Earth , it impacted Earth with a glancing blow , and some of its mass merged with Earth . Between approximately 4.1 and , numerous asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon , and by inference , to that of Earth . Geological history Earth 's atmosphere and oceans formed by volcanic activity and outgassing that included water vapor . The origin of the world 's oceans was condensation augmented by water and ice delivered by asteroids , protoplanets , and comets . In this model , atmospheric `` greenhouse gases '' kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70 % of its current luminosity . By , Earth 's magnetic field was established , which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind . A crust formed when the molten outer layer of Earth cooled to form a solid as the accumulated water vapor began to act in the atmosphere . The two models that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms or , more likely , a rapid growth early in Earth history followed by a long-term steady continental area . Continents formed by plate tectonics , a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth 's interior . On time scales lasting hundreds of millions of years , the supercontinents have formed and broken up three times . Roughly ( million years ago ) , one of the earliest known supercontinents , Rodinia , began to break apart . The continents later recombined to form Pannotia , 600– , then finally Pangaea , which also broke apart . The present pattern of ice ages began about and then intensified during the Pleistocene about . High-latitude regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw , repeating every 40– . The last continental glaciation ended 10,000 years ago . Evolution of life Highly energetic chemical reactions are thought to have produced self–replicating molecules around four billion years ago . This was followed a half billion years later by the last common ancestor of all life . The development of photosynthesis allowed the Sun 's energy to be harvested directly by life forms ; the resultant molecular oxygen ( O2 ) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation , formed a protective ozone layer ( O3 ) in the upper atmosphere . The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of complex cells called eukaryotes . True multicellular organisms formed as cells within colonies became increasingly specialized . Aided by the absorption of harmful ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer , life colonized Earth 's surface . The earliest fossil evidence for life is microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia , biogenic graphite found in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks in Western Greenland , as well as , remains of biotic material found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia . Since the 1960s , it has been hypothesized that severe glacial action between 750 and , during the Neoproterozoic , covered much of Earth in ice . This hypothesis has been termed `` Snowball Earth '' , and it is of particular interest because it preceded the Cambrian explosion , when multicellular life forms began to proliferate . Following the Cambrian explosion , about , there have been five major mass extinctions . The most recent such event was , when an asteroid impact triggered the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles , but spared some small animals such as mammals , which then resembled shrews . Over the past , mammalian life has diversified , and several million years ago an African ape-like animal such as Orrorin tugenensis gained the ability to stand upright . This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain , which allowed the evolution of the human race . The development of agriculture , and then civilization , led to humans having an influence on Earth and the nature and quantity of other life forms as no other species ever has . Predicted future Estimates on how much longer Earth will be able to continue to support life range from , to as long as . Earth 's long-term future is closely tied to that of the Sun . As a result of the steady accumulation of helium at the Sun 's core , the Sun 's total luminosity will slowly increase . The luminosity of the Sun will grow by 10 % over the next and by 40 % over the next . Climate models indicate that the rise in radiation reaching Earth is likely to have dire consequences , including the loss of the oceans . Earth 's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the inorganic CO2 cycle , reducing its concentration to levels lethally low for plants ( for C4 photosynthesis ) in approximately 500– . The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere , so animal life will become extinct within several million more years . After another billion years all surface water will have disappeared and the mean global temperature will reach ( ) . Earth is expected to be effectively habitable for about another from that point , although this may be extended up to if the nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere . Even if the Sun were eternal and stable , 27 % of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the mantle in one billion years , due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges . The Sun will evolve to become a red giant in about . Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly 1 AU , which is about 250 times its present radius . Earth 's fate is less clear . As a red giant , the Sun will lose roughly 30 % of its mass , so , without tidal effects , Earth will move to an orbit from the Sun when it reaches its maximum radius . Earth was , therefore , once expected to escape envelopment by the expanded Sun 's outer atmosphere , though most , if not all , remaining life would have been destroyed by the Sun 's increased luminosity ( peaking at about 5,000 times its present level ) . A 2008 simulation indicates that Earth 's orbit will decay due to tidal effects and drag , causing it to enter the red giant Sun 's atmosphere and be vaporized . Physical characteristics Shape The shape of Earth approximates an oblate spheroid , a sphere flattened along the axis from pole to pole such that there is a bulge around the equator . This bulge results from the rotation of Earth , and causes the diameter at the equator to be 43 km larger than the pole-to-pole diameter . Thus the point on the surface farthest from Earth 's center of mass is the summit of the equatorial Chimborazo volcano in Ecuador . The average diameter of the reference spheroid is about 12742 km , which is approximately ( 40,000 km ) /pi| , because the meter was originally defined as 1/10,000,000 of the distance from the equator to the North Pole through Paris , France . Local topography deviates from this idealized spheroid , although on a global scale these deviations are small compared to Earth 's radius : The maximum deviation of only 0.17 % is at the Mariana Trench ( 10911 m below local sea level ) , whereas Mount Everest ( 8848 m above local sea level ) represents a deviation of 0.14 % . If Earth were shrunk to the size of a billiard ball , some areas of Earth such as large mountain ranges and oceanic trenches would feel like tiny imperfections , whereas much of the planet , including the Great Plains and the abyssal plains , would feel smoother . Chemical composition Earth 's mass is approximately ( 5,970 Yg ) . It is composed mostly of iron ( 32.1 % ) , oxygen ( 30.1 % ) , silicon ( 15.1 % ) , magnesium ( 13.9 % ) , sulfur ( 2.9 % ) , nickel ( 1.8 % ) , calcium ( 1.5 % ) , and aluminium ( 1.4 % ) , with the remaining 1.2 % consisting of trace amounts of other elements . Due to mass segregation , the core region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron ( 88.8 % ) , with smaller amounts of nickel ( 5.8 % ) , sulfur ( 4.5 % ) , and less than 1 % trace elements . The geochemist F. W. Clarke calculated that a little more than 47 % of Earth 's crust consists of oxygen . The more common rock constituents of the crust are nearly all oxides : chlorine , sulfur and fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is usually much less than 1 % . The principal oxides are silica , alumina , iron oxides , lime , magnesia , potash and soda . The silica functions principally as an acid , forming silicates , and all the most common minerals of igneous rocks are of this nature . From a computation based on 1,672 analyses of all kinds of rocks , Clarke deduced that 99.22 % was composed of 11 oxides ( see the table at right ) , with the other constituents occurring in minute quantities . Internal structure Earth 's interior , like that of the other terrestrial planets , is divided into layers by their chemical or physical ( rheological ) properties , but unlike the other terrestrial planets , it has a distinct outer and inner core . The outer layer is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust , which is underlain by a highly viscous solid mantle . The crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovičić discontinuity , and the thickness of the crust varies : averaging ( kilometers ) under the oceans and 30–50 km on the continents . The crust and the cold , rigid , top of the upper mantle are collectively known as the lithosphere , and it is of the lithosphere that the tectonic plates are composed . Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere , a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides . Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at 410 and below the surface , spanning a transition zone that separates the upper and lower mantle . Beneath the mantle , an extremely low viscosity liquid outer core lies above a solid inner core . The inner core may rotate at a slightly higher angular velocity than the remainder of the planet , advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year . The radius of the inner core is about one fifth of that of Earth . Heat Earth 's internal heat comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion ( about 20 % ) and heat produced through radioactive decay ( 80 % ) . The major heat-producing isotopes within Earth are potassium-40 , uranium-238 , uranium-235 , and thorium-232 . At the center , the temperature may be up to 6000 Celsius , and the pressure could reach 360 GPa . Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay , scientists postulate that early in Earth 's history , before isotopes with short half-lives had been depleted , Earth 's heat production would have been much higher . This extra heat production , twice present-day at approximately , would have increased temperature gradients with radius , increasing the rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics , and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as komatiites that are rarely formed today . The mean heat loss from Earth is , for a global heat loss of . A portion of the core 's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by mantle plumes ; a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock . These plumes can produce hotspots and flood basalts . More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics , by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges . The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere , the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents . Tectonic plates The mechanically rigid outer layer of Earth , the lithosphere , is broken into pieces called tectonic plates . These plates are rigid segments that move in relation to one another at one of three types of plate boundaries : convergent boundaries , at which two plates come together , divergent boundaries , at which two plates are pulled apart , and transform boundaries , in which two plates slide past one another laterally . Earthquakes , volcanic activity , mountain-building , and oceanic trench formation can occur along these plate boundaries . The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere , the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates . As the tectonic plates migrate , the ocean floor is subducted under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries . At the same time , the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges . The combination of these processes continually recycles the oceanic crust back into the mantle . Due to this recycling , most of the ocean floor is less than old in age . The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific , and has an estimated age of about . By comparison , the oldest dated continental crust is . The seven major plates are the Pacific , North American , Eurasian , African , Antarctic , Indo-Australian , and South American . Other notable plates include the Arabian Plate , the Caribbean Plate , the Nazca Plate off the west coast of South America and the Scotia Plate in the southern Atlantic Ocean . The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between 50 and . The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates , with the Cocos Plate advancing at a rate of 75 mm/year and the Pacific Plate moving 52–69 mm/year . At the other extreme , the slowest-moving plate is the Eurasian Plate , progressing at a typical rate of about 21 mm/year . Surface Earth has a total surface area of about ( 197 million sq mi ) . About 70.8 % of the surface is covered by water , with much of the continental shelf below sea level . This equates to ( 139.43 million sq mi ) . The submerged surface has mountainous features , including a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system , as well as undersea volcanoes , oceanic trenches , submarine canyons , oceanic plateaus and abyssal plains . The remaining 29.2 % ( , or 57.51 million sq mi ) not covered by water has terrain that varies greatly from place to place and consists of mountains , deserts , plains , plateaus , and other landforms . Earth 's surface undergoes reshaping over geological time periods due to tectonics and erosion . The surface features built up or deformed through plate tectonics are subject to steady weathering and erosion from precipitation , thermal cycles , and chemical effects . Glaciation , coastal erosion , the build-up of coral reefs , and large meteorite impacts also act to reshape the landscape . The continental crust consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks granite and andesite . Less common is basalt , a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors . Sedimentary rock is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and compacted together . Nearly 75 % of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks , although they form about 5 % of the crust . The third form of rock material found on Earth is metamorphic rock , which is created from the transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures , high temperatures , or both . The most abundant silicate minerals on Earth 's surface include quartz , feldspars , amphibole , mica , pyroxene and olivine . Common carbonate minerals include calcite ( found in limestone ) and dolomite . The pedosphere is the outermost layer of Earth 's continental surface and is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes . The total arable land is 10.9 % of the land surface , with 1.3 % being permanent cropland . Close to 40 % of Earth 's land surface is used for cropland and pasture , or an estimated 1.3 km2 of cropland and 3.4 km2 of pastureland . The elevation of the land surface varies from the low point of −418 m at the Dead Sea , to a 2005-estimated maximum altitude of 8,848 m at the top of Mount Everest . The mean height of land above sea level is 840 m . Besides being described in terms of Northern and Southern hemispheres centered on the poles , Earth is also often described in terms of Eastern and Western hemispheres . Earth 's surface is traditionally divided into seven continents and various seas . Hydrosphere The abundance of water on Earth 's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes the `` Blue Planet '' from other planets in the Solar System . Earth 's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans , but technically includes all water surfaces in the world , including inland seas , lakes , rivers , and underground waters down to a depth of 2,000 m. The deepest underwater location is Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean with a depth of 10,911.4 m . The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35 metric tons , or about 1/4400 of Earth 's total mass . The oceans cover an area of with a mean depth of , resulting in an estimated volume of . If all of Earth 's crustal surface was at the same elevation as a smooth sphere , the depth of the resulting world ocean would be 2.7 to 2.8 km . About 97.5 % of the water is saline ; the remaining 2.5 % is fresh water . Most fresh water , about 68.7 % , is present as ice in ice caps and glaciers . The average salinity of Earth 's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of sea water ( 3.5 % salt ) . Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks . The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases , which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms . Sea water has an important influence on the world 's climate , with the oceans acting as a large heat reservoir . Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts , such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Atmosphere The atmospheric pressure on Earth 's surface averages 101.325 kPa , with a scale height of about 8.5 km . It has a composition of 78 % nitrogen and 21 % oxygen , with trace amounts of water vapor , carbon dioxide and other gaseous molecules . The height of the troposphere varies with latitude , ranging between 8 km at the poles to 17 km at the equator , with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors . Earth 's biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere . Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved , forming the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today . This change enabled the proliferation of aerobic organisms and , indirectly , the formation of the ozone layer due to the subsequent conversion of atmospheric O2 into O3 . The ozone layer blocks ultraviolet solar radiation , permitting life on land . Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor , providing useful gases , causing small meteors to burn up before they strike the surface , and moderating temperature . This last phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect : trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the ground , thereby raising the average temperature . Water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . Without this heat-retention effect , the average surface temperature would be −18 °C , in contrast to the current +15 °C , and life would likely not exist . Weather and climate Earth 's atmosphere has no definite boundary , slowly becoming thinner and fading into outer space . Three-quarters of the atmosphere 's mass is contained within the first 11 km of the surface . This lowest layer is called the troposphere . Energy from the Sun heats this layer , and the surface below , causing expansion of the air . This lower-density air then rises , and is replaced by cooler , higher-density air . The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy . The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the trade winds in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60° . Ocean currents are also important factors in determining climate , particularly the thermohaline circulation that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions . Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere . When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm , humid air , this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation . Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes . This water cycle is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land , and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods . Precipitation patterns vary widely , ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter . Atmospheric circulation , topographic features and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region . The amount of solar energy reaching Earth 's surface decreases with increasing latitude

qg_1127--Earth.txt

Between 20 and 30 miles thick above water (3 to 6 miles thick beneath the ocean), what is the geologic term for the part of the earth that sits on top of the mantle?

Juan Valdez is a fictional character who has appeared in advertisements for the National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia since 1958 , representing a Colombian coffee farmer . The advertisements were designed by the Doyle Dane Bernbach ad agency , with the goal of distinguishing 100 % -Colombian coffee from coffee blended with beans from other countries . He typically appears with his mule Conchita , carrying sacks of harvested coffee beans . He has become an icon for Colombia as well as coffee in general , and Juan Valdez 's iconic appearance is frequently mimicked or parodied in television and other media . The Juan Valdez character is used as an ingredient brand , to specifically denote coffee beans that are only grown and harvested in Colombia . Part of the advertising campaign includes convincing consumers that there are specific benefits of Colombian-grown and harvested coffee beans , `` including how soil components , altitude , varieties and harvesting methods create good flavor . '' The National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia is entirely owned and controlled by Colombia 's coffee farmers , ( cafeteros ) which number over 500,000 people . History Juan Valdez was initially portrayed by José F. Duval in both print advertisements and on television until 1969 . José Duval died in 1993 at the age of 72 . Juan Valdez had been embodied by Carlos Sánchez since 1969 and voiced by Norman Rose . Sánchez played Valdez in a brief sequence in the 2003 comedy film Bruce Almighty . In 2006 , Sánchez announced his retirement , and Carlos Castañeda , a grower from the town of Andes , Antioquia , was selected by the National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia as the new face of Juan Valdez . Brand There were 238 Juan Valdez coffee shops in 2013 , 135 in Colombia and 35 shops in other countries . Juan Valdez brand coffee is available in Chile , Costa Rica , Aruba , Ecuador , El Salvador , Panama , Spain , Kuwait , and the United States at supermarkets and Juan Valdez coffee shops . Controversies The name `` Juan Valdez '' is by no means unique , as both Juan and Valdez are common Spanish-language names and there are possibly thousands of men with this name alive today ( although the Valdez name is hardly known in the coffee growing regions of Colombia ) ; this became relevant in a 2006 lawsuit over the phrase `` Juan Valdez drinks Costa Rican coffee '' . The National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia sued cartoonist Mike Peters , creator of Mother Goose & Grimm , for a cartoon talking about Juan Valdez and Colombian coffee in January 2009 . In a weeklong series making fun of various commercial products , he referenced violence in Colombia by having a character say : `` Y'know , there 's a big crime syndicate in Colombia . So when they say there 's a little bit of Juan Valdez in every can , maybe they 're not kidding . '' The lawsuit was dropped after Mr. Peters apologized publicly . Gallery Image : Jvaldez2.JPG|An actor plays Juan Valdez at the National Coffee Park in Montenegro , Colombia . Image : Juanvaldez.png|Carlos Sánchez , the `` old '' Juan Valdez .

jp_1846--Juan_Valdez.txt

Juan Valdez advertises the coffee of which country?

John Adams ( October 30 [ O.S . October 19 ] 1735 – July 4 , 1826 ) was an American lawyer , author , statesman , and diplomat . He served as the second President of the United States ( 1797–1801 ) , the first Vice President ( 1789–97 ) , and as a Founding Father was a leader of American independence from Great Britain . Adams was a political theorist in the Age of Enlightenment who promoted republicanism and a strong central government . His innovative ideas were frequently published . He was also a dedicated diarist and correspondent , particularly with his wife and key advisor Abigail . He collaborated with his cousin , revolutionary leader Samuel Adams , but he established his own prominence prior to the American Revolution . After the Boston Massacre , despite severe local anti-British sentiment , he provided a successful though unpopular legal defense of the accused British soldiers , driven by his devotion to the right to counsel and the Presumption of innocence| '' protect [ ion ] of innocence '' . As a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress , Adams played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence . He assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776 , and was its foremost advocate in the Congress . As a diplomat in Europe , he helped negotiate the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain , and acquired vital governmental loans from Amsterdam bankers . Adams was the primary author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780 which influenced American political theory , as did his earlier Thoughts on Government ( 1776 ) . Adams ' credentials as a revolutionary secured for him two terms as President George Washington 's vice president ( 1789 to 1797 ) and also his own election in 1796 as the second president . In his single term as president , he encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans , as well as the dominant faction in his own Federalist Party , led by his rival Alexander Hamilton . Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts , and built up the army and navy in the face of an undeclared naval `` Quasi-War '' with France . The major accomplishment of his presidency was a peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamilton 's opposition . Due to his strong posture on defense , Adams is `` often called the father of the American Navy '' . He was the first U.S. president to reside in the executive mansion , now known as the White House . In 1800 , Adams lost re-election to Thomas Jefferson , and retired to Massachusetts . He eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson upon the latter 's own retirement by initiating a correspondence which lasted fourteen years . He and his wife established a family of politicians , diplomats , and historians now referred to as the Adams political family . Adams was the father of John Quincy Adams , the sixth President of the United States . He died on the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence . Modern historians in the aggregate have ranked his administration favorably . Early life and education Childhood John Adams was born on October 30 , 1735 ( October 19 , 1735 Old Style , Julian calendar ) , to John Adams Sr. ( 1691–1761 ) and Susanna Boylston ( 1708–1797 ) . He had two younger brothers , Peter and Elihu . Adams ' birthplace was then in Braintree , Massachusetts ( now Quincy , Massachusetts ) , and is preserved at Adams National Historical Park . Adams ' mother was from a leading medical family of current Brookline , Massachusetts . His father was a Congregationalist deacon , a farmer , a cordwainer , and a lieutenant in the militia . He further served as a selectman ( town councilman ) and supervised the building of schools and roads . Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship . His paternal great-grandfather David Adams was born and bred at `` Fferm Penybanc '' , Llanboidy , Carmarthenshire , North Wales . He emigrated from Wales in 1675 and sixty years later his great-grandson , John Adams , was born . Though raised in modest surroundings , Adams felt an acute responsibility to live up to his family 's heritage of reverence . He was a direct descendent of Puritans , who came to the American wilderness in the 1630s , established a colonial presence in America , and profoundly affected the culture , laws , and traditions of their region . Journalist Richard Brookhiser wrote that Adams ' Puritan ancestors `` believed they lived in the Bible . England under the Stuarts was Egypt ; they were Israel fleeing ... to establish a refuge for godliness , a city upon a hill . `` Brookhiser , Richard . ( 2002 ) . America 's First Dynasty . The Adamses , 1735–1918 . The Free Press . p. 13 . ISBN 0736685545 By the time of John Adams ' birth in 1735 , Puritan tenets such as predestination were no longer as widely accepted , and many of their stricter practices had moderated with time , but Adams `` considered them bearers of freedom , a cause that still had a holy urgency . '' It was a value system he believed in and wished to live up to . Adams emphatically recalled that his parents , `` held every Species of Libertinage in ... Contempt and horror , '' and portrayed `` pictures of disgrace , or baseness and of Ruin '' from any debauchery . Adams , as the eldest child , was under a mandate from his parents to obtain a formal education . This began at age six at a Dame school for boys and girls , which was conducted at a teacher 's home , and centered upon The New England Primer . Shortly thereafter , Adams attended Braintree Latin School under Joseph Cleverly , where studies included Latin , rhetoric , logic and arithmetic . Adams ' reflections on early education were in the negative mostly , including incidents of truancy , a dislike for his master and a desire to become a farmer . All questions on the matter ended when his father commanded that he remain in school saying , `` You shall comply with my desires . '' Deacon Adams also retained a new school master , Joseph Marsh , and his son responded positively . College education and adulthood At age sixteen , Adams entered Harvard College in 1751 . He took all his courses under the tutorship of Joseph Mayhew who administered his entrance exam . He did not share his father 's expectation that he become a minister . After graduating in 1755 with an A.B . degree , he taught school for a few years in Worcester , Massachusetts while pondering his permanent vocation . In the next four years he discerned a passion for prestige , saying that he craved `` Honour or Reputation '' and `` more defference from [ his ] fellows '' ; and at age twenty-one he was determined to become `` a great Man '' . He decided to become a lawyer to further those ends , writing his father that he found among lawyers `` noble and gallant achievements '' but among the clergy , the `` pretended sanctity of some absolute dunces . '' Doctrinally , he later became a Unitarian , and dropped belief in predestination , eternal damnation , the divinity of Christ and most other Calvinist beliefs of his Puritan ancestors . Nevertheless , his remnant Puritanism frequently prompted reservations about his hunger for fame , which he once referred to as mere `` trumpery '' , and he questioned his not properly attending to the `` happiness of [ his ] fellow men . '' The French and Indian War began in 1754 and Adams began to struggle with the issue of a young man 's responsibility in the conflict ; contemporaries of his social position were largely spectators , while those who were less solvent joined the battle as a means to make some money . Adams later said , `` I longed more ardently to be a Soldier than I ever did to be a Lawyer . '' He was acutely aware that he was the first in his family that `` degenerated from the virtues of the house so far as not to have been an officer in the militia . '' Law practice and marriage Adams followed the usual course of reading the law in order obtain his license to practice . In 1756 he became an apprentice in the office of John Putnam , a leading lawyer in Worcester . In 1758 , he earned an A.M. from Harvard , and was also that year admitted to the bar , having completed his studies under Putnam . From an early age , he developed the habit of writing descriptions of events and impressions of men which are scattered through his diary , which included his report of the 1761 argument of James Otis , Jr. in the Massachusetts Superior Court as to the legality of Writs of Assistance . Otis 's argument inspired Adams to the cause of the American colonies . In 1763 he had published seven essays in Boston newspapers–treatises that represented his forging into the convoluted realm of political theory . The essays were offered anonymously , with Adams using the nom de plume `` Humphrey Ploughjogger '' ; this author reappeared in the Boston Gazette in 1765 to oppose the Stamp Act . While Adams was initially not as popular as his cousin Samuel , his influence emerged through his work as a constitutional lawyer and his in-depth analysis of historical examples , together with his dedication to the principles of republicanism . Even so , Adams often found his inborn contentiousness to be a constraint in his political career . Adams married his third cousin Abigail Smith ( 1744–1818 ) on October 25 , 1764 . Her parents were Elizabeth Quincy and Rev . William Smith , a Congregational minister at Weymouth , Massachusetts . They had six children ; Abigail `` Nabby '' in 1765 , future president John Quincy Adams in 1767 , Susanna in 1768 , Charles in 1770 , Thomas in 1772 , and Elizabeth ( who was stillborn ) in 1777 . Career before the Revolution Opponent of Stamp Act 1765 Adams first rose to prominence leading widespread opposition to the Stamp Act of 1765 , imposed by the British Parliament without consulting the American legislatures , and requiring payment of a direct tax by the colonies for various stamped documents . Adams in 1765 authored the `` Braintree Instructions '' , a letter sent to the representatives of Braintree in the Massachusetts legislature , which served as a model for other towns ' instructions . In the piece he explained that the Stamp Act should be opposed since it denied two fundamental rights guaranteed to all Englishmen , and which all free men deserved : rights to be taxed only by consent and to be tried only by a jury of one 's peers . The instructions were a succinct and forthright defense of colonial rights and liberties . In August 1765 , reprising his pen name `` Humphrey Ploughjogger '' , he contributed four articles to the Boston Gazette ( republished in The London Chronicle in 1768 as True Sentiments of America , also known as A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law ) . He delivered a speech in December before the governor and council in which he pronounced the Stamp Act invalid on the ground that Massachusetts , being without representation in Parliament , had not given its assent to it . He later observed that many protests were sparked by an oft-reprinted sermon of the Boston minister , Jonathan Mayhew , invoking Romans 13 to justify insurrection . In 1766 , a town meeting of Braintree elected John Adams as a selectman . He moved the family to Boston in April of 1768 , renting a clapboard house on Brattle Street , a place known locally as the `` White House . '' He and Abigail and the children lived there for a year , then moved to Cold Lane ; still later they moved again , to a larger house in Brattle Square in the center of the city . Counsel for the British – Boston Massacre On March 5 , 1770 , a street confrontation , known as the Boston Massacre , resulted in British soldiers killing five civilians . The accused soldiers were arrested on criminal charges and expectedly had trouble finding legal representation . Adams ultimately agreed to defend them , though he feared it would hurt his reputation . In arguing their case , Adams made his legendary statement regarding jury decisions : `` Facts are stubborn things ; and whatever may be our wishes , our inclinations , or the dictates of our passion , they can not alter the state of facts and evidence . '' He also expounded upon Blackstone 's Ratio : `` It is more important that innocence be protected than it is that guilt be punished , for guilt and crimes are so frequent in this world that they can not all be punished . But if innocence itself is brought to the bar and condemned , perhaps to die , then the citizen will say , 'whether I do good or whether I do evil is immaterial , for innocence itself is no protection , ' and if such an idea as that were to take hold in the mind of the citizen that would be the end of security whatsoever . '' Adams won an acquittal for six of the soldiers . Two of them who had fired directly into the crowd were charged with murder but were convicted only of manslaughter . Adams was paid a small sum by his clients . Biographer John Ferling opines that Adams made the most of juror selection during the Voir dire stage of the trial , saying that Adams , `` ... expertly exercised his right to challenge individual jurors and contrived what amounted to a packed jury . Not only were several jurors closely tied through business arrangements to the British army , but five ultimately became Loyalist exiles . '' Indeed , Hiller B. Zobel , a scholar who has most closely studied the trial , concluded , `` we can be fairly sure that before a single witness had been sworn , the outcome of the trial was certain . '' Ferling also surmises that Adams was likely encouraged to take the case in exchange for political office – when one of Boston 's seats in the Massachusetts legislature opened three months later , Adams was the town 's first choice to fill the vacancy . His law practice increased greatly from this exposure , as did the demands on his time . In 1771 he moved Abigail and the children to Braintree , but he kept his office in Boston , saying , `` I shall spend more Time in my Office than ever I did . '' He also noted on the day of the family 's move , `` Now my family is away , I feel no Inclination at all , no Temptation , to be any where but at my Office . I am in it by 6 in the Morning – I am in it at 9 at night . . . . In the Evening , I can be alone at my Office , and no where else . I never could in my family . '' Nevertheless , after some time in the capital , he became disenchanted with the rural and `` vulgar '' Braintree as a home for his family . In August 1772 , therefore , Adams moved his family back to Boston . He purchased a large brick house on Queen Street , not far from his office . In 1774 , due to the increasingly unstable situation in Boston , Adams and Abigail returned the family to the farm , and Braintree remained their permanent Massachusetts home . Objections to British Parliament 's authority Governor Thomas Hutchinson and his judges until 1772 received their salaries from the Massachusetts legislature . The Coercive Acts and the Tea Act were then passed by Parliament , and the British Crown assumed payment of those wages , drawn from customs revenues imposed upon that colony . According to biographer Ferling , the British government thus singled out Massachusetts for reprisals of previous rebellion and hoped in the process to force the other colonies into line . Boston radicals protested and asked John Adams to proclaim their objections . In `` Two Replies of the Massachusetts House of Representatives to Governor Hutchinson '' Adams argued that the colonists had never been under the sovereignty of Parliament . Their original charter , as well as their allegiance , was exclusively with the king . If a workable line could not be drawn between parliamentary sovereignty and the total independence of the colonies , he continued , the colonies would have no other choice but independence from England . Adams authored Novanglus ; or , A History of the Dispute with America , From Its Origin , in 1754 , to the Present Time ; he repudiated the essays by Daniel Leonard which in turn defended Hutchinson 's arguments for the absolute authority of Parliament over the colonies . In Novanglus ( `` New Englander '' ) Adams gave a point-by-point refutation of Leonard 's essays , and then provided one of the most extensive and learned arguments made by the colonists against British imperial policy . It was a systematic attempt by Adams to describe the origins , nature , and jurisdiction of ( unwritten ) British concepts of constitutionality . Adams used his wide knowledge of English and colonial legal history to argue that the provincial legislatures were fully sovereign over their own internal affairs , and that the colonies were connected to Great Britain only through the king . The Boston Tea Party – a historic demonstration against the British enactments – took place in December 1773 . The British schooner Dartmouth , loaded with tea to be traded subject to the new tea tax , had previously dropped anchor . By 9:00 PM on the night of the 16th , the work of the protesters was done – they had demolished 342 chests of tea worth about ten thousand pounds – today 's equivalent of about $ 1 million . Adams was briefly retained by the Dartmouth owners regarding the question of their liability for the destroyed shipment . Adams applauded the destruction of the tea . There had been no choice , he thought , and he called the defiant boarding of the vessels and the quick obliteration of the dutied beverage the `` grandest Event '' in the history of the colonial protest movement . He wrote the following day that the destruction of the dutied tea by the protesters had been an `` absolutely and indispensably '' necessary action . John Adams vehemently supported the right of all Americans to jury trials . Adams protested the 1765 passage of the Stamp Act , which gave jurisdiction to British Vice Admiralty Courts , rather than common law courts . Many colonists , including Adams , believed these courts , which operated without a jury , were corrupt and unfair . Member of Continental Congress Massachusetts sent Adams to the first and second Continental Congresses in 1774 and from 1775 to 1777 respectively . The Massachusetts delegation resolved to assume a largely passive role in the first Congress . But Adams felt strongly that the conservatives of 1774 , men like Joseph Galloway and James Duane , were no different than Hutchinson and Peter Oliver , and he denigrated such men , telling Abigail that `` Spiders , Toads , Snakes , are their only proper Emblems . '' Yet at that point his views were similar to those of conservative John Dickinson . He sought repeal of objectionable policies , but at the early stage he continued to see positive benefits for America remaining part of the British empire . In 1774 , as a delegate to the First Constitutional Congress , John Adams renewed his push for the right to a jury trial , stating `` Representative government and trial by jury are the heart and lungs of liberty . Without them , we have no other fortification against being ridden like horses , fleeced like sheep , worked like cattle , and fed and clothed like swines and hounds . ” By early 1775 , Adams became convinced that Congress was moving in the proper direction – away from its relationship with Great Britain . `` Reconciliation if practicable , '' he said publicly , yet he agreed with Benjamin Franklin 's confidential observation that independence was inevitable . In the fall of 1775 no one in Congress labored more ardently than Adams to hasten America 's separation from Great Britain . In June 1775 , with a view of promoting union among the colonies , he nominated George Washington of Virginia as commander-in-chief of the army then assembled around Boston . His influence in Congress was great , and he then argued in favor of permanent severance from Britain . In October 1775 , he was also appointed the chief judge of the Massachusetts Superior Court , but he never served , and resigned in February 1777 . Over the next decade , Americans from every state gathered and deliberated on new governing documents , employing many of Adams ' innovative positions . Prior tradition suggested that a society 's form of government need not be codified in a single document . As radical as it was to write constitutions , what was equally profound was the revolutionary nature of American political thought as the summer of 1776 dawned.Wood , Gordon S. ( 1992 ) . The Radicalism of the American Revolution . Vintage Books . ISBN 0679736883 . Thoughts on Government A number of delegates sought Adams ' advice about forming new governments , and found his views so convincing they urged him to commit them to paper . He did so in separate letters to these colleagues , each missive a bit longer and more thoughtful . So impressed was Richard Henry Lee that , with Adams 's consent , he had the most comprehensive letter printed . Published anonymously just after mid-April 1776 , it was titled simply Thoughts on Government and styled as `` a Letter from a Gentleman to his Friend . '' Many historians agree that none of Adams ' other compositions rivaled the enduring influence of this pamphlet . Adams advised that the form of government should be chosen to attain the desired ends–the happiness and virtue of the greatest number of people . He wrote that , `` There is no good government but what is republican . That the only valuable part of the British constitution is so because the very definition of a republic is an empire of laws , and not of men . '' The treatise also defended bicameralism , for `` a single assembly is liable to all the vices , follies and frailties of an individual '' . He also suggested that there should be a separation of powers between the executive , the judicial and the legislative branches , and further recommended that if a continental government were to be formed then it `` should sacredly be confined '' to certain enumerated powers . Thoughts on Government was referenced as an authority in every state-constitution writing hall . Declaration of Independence Adams in the 1776 session of Congress drafted the preamble to the Lee resolution of colleague Richard Henry Lee ( Virginia ) , which called on the colonies to adopt new independent governments . On June 7 , 1776 he seconded the resolution , which stated , `` These colonies are , and of right ought to be , free and independent states . '' Adams also championed the measure until it was adopted by Congress on July 2 . Once the resolution passed , independence became inevitable , though it still had to be declared formally . The commitment was , as Adams put it , `` independence itself '' . A Committee of Five was charged with drafting the Declaration , and included Adams , along with Thomas Jefferson , Benjamin Franklin , Robert R. Livingston and Roger Sherman . The Committee , after discussing the general outline that the document should follow , decided that Jefferson would write the first draft . Jefferson particularly thought Adams should write the document ; but Adams persuaded the Committee to choose Jefferson while agreeing to consult with Jefferson personally . Adams recorded his exchange with Jefferson on the question : Jefferson asked , `` Why will you not ? You ought to do it . '' To which Adams responded , `` I will not – reasons enough . '' Jefferson replied , `` What can be your reasons ? '' And Adams responded , `` Reason first , you are a Virginian , and a Virginian ought to appear at the head of this business . Reason second , I am obnoxious , suspected , and unpopular . You are very much otherwise . Reason third , you can write ten times better than I can . '' `` Well , '' said Jefferson , `` if you are decided , I will do as well as I can . '' Adams concluded , `` Very well . When you have drawn it up , we will have a meeting . '' The Committee left no minutes , and the drafting process itself is uncertain – accounts written many years later by Jefferson and Adams , although frequently cited , are otherwise contradictory . Although the first draft was written primarily by Jefferson , Adams assumed a primary role in its completion . After editing the document further , Congress approved it on July 4 . Many years later Jefferson hailed Adams as `` the pillar of [ the Declaration 's ] support on the floor of Congress , [ its ] ablest advocate and defender against the multifarious assaults it encountered . '' Government during revolution After defeating the Continental Army at the Battle of Long Island on August 27 , 1776 , British Admiral Richard Howe mistakenly assumed a strategic advantage to be at hand , and requested the Second Continental Congress send representatives in an attempt to negotiate peace . A delegation , including Adams and Benjamin Franklin , met with Howe at the Staten Island Peace Conference on September 11 . Howe 's authority was premised on the Colonists ' submission , so no common ground was to be found . When Lord Howe unhappily stated he could view the American delegates only as British subjects , Adams replied , `` Your lordship may consider me in what light you please , ... except that of a British subject . '' Adams learned many years later that his name was on a list of people specifically excluded from Howe 's pardon-granting authority . Being quite unimpressed with General Howe , and also after payments to colonial volunteers were increased , Adams in September of 1776 said about the war , `` We shall do well enough . '' Indeed , if Washington got his men , the British would be `` ruined '' . In 1777 , Adams began serving as the head of the Board of War and Ordnance ; in fact , he sat on no less than ninety committees , chairing twenty-five . No other congressman approached the assumption of such a work load . As Benjamin Rush reported , he was acknowledged `` to be the first man in the House . '' He was also referred to as a `` one man war department '' , working eighteen-hour days and mastering the details of raising , equipping and fielding an army under civilian control . He also authored the `` Plan of Treaties , '' laying out the Congress 's requirements for the crucial treaty with France . Diplomat in Europe Commissioner to France and Minister Plenipotentiary In the spring of 1776 Adams advocated in Congress that independence was necessary in order to establish trade , and conversely trade was essential for the attainment of independence ; he specifically urged negotiation of a commercial treaty with France . He was then appointed , along with Franklin , Dickinson , Benjamin Harrison V of Virginia and Robert Morris of Pennsylvania , `` to prepare a plan of treaties to be proposed to foreign powers '' . Indeed , while Jefferson was laboring over the

qz_5674--John_Adams.txt

Who was the third President of the USA, following on from George Washington and John Adams was also famed for his numerous inventions?

William Simpson `` Bill '' Fraser ( 5 June 1908 – 9 September 1987 ) was a Scottish actor who appeared on stage , screen and television for many years . In 1986 he won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Comedy Performance for his stage role in the play When We Are Married . Early life Fraser was born in Perth , Scotland and educated at Strathallan School . He began his career as a clerk in a bank before moving on to acting . In the early days when acting work was scarce , Fraser was often penniless , frequently sleeping rough on the Embankment in London . Before World War II he ran the Connaught Theatre in Worthing ; when called up he served in a Royal Air Force Special Liaison Unit , reaching the rank of flight lieutenant , where he met and became friends with Eric Sykes . Just after the war a chance meeting in a London street led to Fraser 's giving Sykes his first work as a writer for radio comedy and the two friends worked together many times over the following years . Fraser is also credited with giving Peter Cushing his first acting job Career Fraser often played irascible or belligerent characters on screen and had many roles as a policeman , soldier or judge . His first television appearance was on The Tony Hancock Show in 1956 , after which he became a regular actor on Hancock 's Half Hour . He then joined The Army Game as Sgt Claude Snudge , which led to a sequel called Bootsie and Snudge . He also played Snudge in the 1964 series Foreign Affairs . Later comedic roles included parts in the TV dramatisation of The Secret Diary of Adrian Mole , Aged 13¾ as well as Ripping Yarns , The Train Now Standing , The Corn is Green and Father , Dear Father . He also appeared in the comedy films The Amorous Milkman and Doctor at Large ; the big-screen version of Love Thy Neighbour ; and the Frankie Howerd trilogy Up Pompeii ! , Up the Front and Up the Chastity Belt . He had a recurring role on Rumpole of the Bailey as Judge Roger Bullingham , an unsympathetic judge privately nicknamed `` the Mad Bull '' by defence barrister Horace Rumpole . Fraser 's straight parts included Boanerges in The Apple Cart and Eddie Waters in Comedians , both for the BBC , and appearances on The Professionals and The Avengers . He also starred in the Doctor Who story Meglos in 1980 , and appeared in the spin-off show K-9 and Company the following year . In the early 80s he was in two series of a straight drama on BBC1 , Flesh and Blood ; his performance in its first episode of an industrialist sitting at the bedside of his dying wife was regarded by many as a tour de force . He appeared as Mr Micawber in the TV dramatisation of David Copperfield in 1966 . He played Serjeant Buzzfuzz in the TV musical Pickwick for the BBC in 1969 ; and his last role was as Mr Casby in the 1988 screened production of Little Dorrit . Fraser also appeared in an early advertisement for the Austin Metro . In 1985 he was cast as Bert Baxter in The Secret Diary of Adrian Mole . During those periods when Fraser was not acting , he ran a small sweetshop and tobacconists at Ilford Lane in Ilford , Essex . Bill Fraser played husband to Googie Withers in the Chichester Theatre production of Maugham 's The Circle . It transferred to the West End and played at the Haymarket , and then toured England . The cast included Susan Hampshire and John McCallum ( Googie Withers ' husband ) . Awards In 1986 he won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Comedy Performance for his stage role in the play When We Are Married . Death He died from emphysema in Hertfordshire , aged 79 , leaving a widow , the actress Pamela Cundell , whom he had married in 1981 . Selected filmography

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What character was played by Bill Fraser in 'The Army Game'?

Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter ( the others being solid , liquid , and plasma ) . A pure gas may be made up of individual atoms ( e.g . a noble gas like neon ) , elemental molecules made from one type of atom ( e.g . oxygen ) , or compound molecules made from a variety of atoms ( e.g . carbon dioxide ) . A gas mixture would contain a variety of pure gases much like the air . What distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles . This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer . The interaction of gas particles in the presence of electric and gravitational fields are considered negligible as indicated by the constant velocity vectors in the image . One type of commonly known gas is steam . The gaseous state of matter is found between the liquid and plasma states , the latter of which provides the upper temperature boundary for gases . Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases which are gaining increasing attention . High-density atomic gases super cooled to incredibly low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either a Bose gas or a Fermi gas . For a comprehensive listing of these exotic states of matter see list of states of matter . Elemental gases The only chemical elements which are stable multi atom homonuclear molecules at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , are hydrogen ( H2 ) , nitrogen ( N2 ) and oxygen ( O2 ) ; plus two halogens , fluorine ( F2 ) and chlorine ( Cl2 ) . These gases , when grouped together with the monatomic noble gases ; which are helium ( He ) , neon ( Ne ) , argon ( Ar ) , krypton ( Kr ) , xenon ( Xe ) and radon ( Rn ) ; are called `` elemental gases '' . Alternatively they are sometimes known as `` molecular gases '' to distinguish them from molecules that are also chemical compounds . Etymology The word gas is a neologism first used by the early 17th-century Flemish chemist J.B. van Helmont . Van Helmont 's word appears to have been simply a phonetic transcription of the Greek word χάος Chaos – the g in Dutch being pronounced like ch in `` loch '' – in which case Van Helmont was simply following the established alchemical usage first attested in the works of Paracelsus . According to Paracelsus 's terminology , chaos meant something like `` ultra-rarefied water '' . An alternative story is that Van Helmont 's word is corrupted from gahst ( or geist ) , signifying a ghost or spirit . This was because certain gases suggested a supernatural origin , such as from their ability to cause death , extinguish flames , and to occur in `` mines , bottom of wells , churchyards and other lonely places '' . Physical characteristics Because most gases are difficult to observe directly , they are described through the use of four physical properties or macroscopic characteristics : pressure , volume , number of particles ( chemists group them by moles ) and temperature . These four characteristics were repeatedly observed by scientists such as Robert Boyle , Jacques Charles , John Dalton , Joseph Gay-Lussac and Amedeo Avogadro for a variety of gases in various settings . Their detailed studies ultimately led to a mathematical relationship among these properties expressed by the ideal gas law ( see simplified models section below ) . Gas particles are widely separated from one another , and consequently have weaker intermolecular bonds than liquids or solids . These intermolecular forces result from electrostatic interactions between gas particles . Like-charged areas of different gas particles repel , while oppositely charged regions of different gas particles attract one another ; gases that contain permanently charged ions are known as plasmas . Gaseous compounds with polar covalent bonds contain permanent charge imbalances and so experience relatively strong intermolecular forces , although the molecule while the compound 's net charge remains neutral . Transient , randomly induced charges exist across non-polar covalent bonds of molecules and electrostatic interactions caused by them are referred to as Van der Waals forces . The interaction of these intermolecular forces varies within a substance which determines many of the physical properties unique to each gas . A comparison of boiling points for compounds formed by ionic and covalent bonds leads us to this conclusion . The drifting smoke particles in the image provides some insight into low pressure gas behavior . Compared to the other states of matter , gases have low density and viscosity . Pressure and temperature influence the particles within a certain volume . This variation in particle separation and speed is referred to as compressibility . This particle separation and size influences optical properties of gases as can be found in the following list of refractive indices . Finally , gas particles spread apart or diffuse in order to homogeneously distribute themselves throughout any container . Macroscopic When observing a gas , it is typical to specify a frame of reference or length scale . A larger length scale corresponds to a macroscopic or global point of view of the gas . This region ( referred to as a volume ) must be sufficient in size to contain a large sampling of gas particles . The resulting statistical analysis of this sample size produces the `` average '' behavior ( i.e . velocity , temperature or pressure ) of all the gas particles within the region . In contrast , a smaller length scale corresponds to a microscopic or particle point of view . Macroscopically , the gas characteristics measured are either in terms of the gas particles themselves ( velocity , pressure , or temperature ) or their surroundings ( volume ) . For example , Robert Boyle studied pneumatic chemistry for a small portion of his career . One of his experiments related the macroscopic properties of pressure and volume of a gas . His experiment used a J-tube manometer which looks like a test tube in the shape of the letter J. Boyle trapped an inert gas in the closed end of the test tube with a column of mercury , thereby making the number of particles and the temperature constant . He observed that when the pressure was increased in the gas , by adding more mercury to the column , the trapped gas ' volume decreased ( this is known as an inverse relationship ) . Furthermore , when Boyle multiplied the pressure and volume of each observation , the product was constant . This relationship held for every gas that Boyle observed leading to the law , ( PV=k ) , named to honor his work in this field . There are many mathematical tools available for analyzing gas properties . As gases are subjected to extreme conditions , these tools become a bit more complex , from the Euler equations for inviscid flow to the Navier–Stokes equations that fully account for viscous effects . These equations are adapted to the conditions of the gas system in question . Boyle 's lab equipment allowed the use of algebra to obtain his analytical results . His results were possible because he was studying gases in relatively low pressure situations where they behaved in an `` ideal '' manner . These ideal relationships apply to safety calculations for a variety of flight conditions on the materials in use . The high technology equipment in use today was designed to help us safely explore the more exotic operating environments where the gases no longer behave in an `` ideal '' manner . This advanced math , including statistics and multivariable calculus , makes possible the solution to such complex dynamic situations as space vehicle reentry . An example is the analysis of the space shuttle reentry pictured to ensure the material properties under this loading condition are appropriate . In this flight regime , the gas is no longer behaving ideally . Pressure The symbol used to represent pressure in equations is `` p '' or `` P '' with SI units of pascals . When describing a container of gas , the term pressure ( or absolute pressure ) refers to the average force per unit area that the gas exerts on the surface of the container . Within this volume , it is sometimes easier to visualize the gas particles moving in straight lines until they collide with the container ( see diagram at top of the article ) . The force imparted by a gas particle into the container during this collision is the change in momentum of the particle . During a collision only the normal component of velocity changes . A particle traveling parallel to the wall does not change its momentum . Therefore , the average force on a surface must be the average change in linear momentum from all of these gas particle collisions . Pressure is the sum of all the normal components of force exerted by the particles impacting the walls of the container divided by the surface area of the wall . Temperature The symbol used to represent temperature in equations is T with SI units of kelvins . The speed of a gas particle is proportional to its absolute temperature . The volume of the balloon in the video shrinks when the trapped gas particles slow down with the addition of extremely cold nitrogen . The temperature of any physical system is related to the motions of the particles ( molecules and atoms ) which make up the [ gas ] system . In statistical mechanics , temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy stored in a particle . The methods of storing this energy are dictated by the degrees of freedom of the particle itself ( energy modes ) . Kinetic energy added ( endothermic process ) to gas particles by way of collisions produces linear , rotational , and vibrational motion . In contrast , a molecule in a solid can only increase its vibrational modes with the addition of heat as the lattice crystal structure prevents both linear and rotational motions . These heated gas molecules have a greater speed range which constantly varies due to constant collisions with other particles . The speed range can be described by the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution . Use of this distribution implies ideal gases near thermodynamic equilibrium for the system of particles being considered . Specific volume The symbol used to represent specific volume in equations is `` v '' with SI units of cubic meters per kilogram . The symbol used to represent volume in equations is `` V '' with SI units of cubic meters . When performing a thermodynamic analysis , it is typical to speak of intensive and extensive properties . Properties which depend on the amount of gas ( either by mass or volume ) are called extensive properties , while properties that do not depend on the amount of gas are called intensive properties . Specific volume is an example of an intensive property because it is the ratio of volume occupied by a unit of mass of a gas that is identical throughout a system at equilibrium . 1000 atoms a gas occupy the same space as any other 1000 atoms for any given temperature and pressure . This concept is easier to visualize for solids such as iron which are incompressible compared to gases . Since a gas fills any container in which it is placed , volume is an extensive property . Density The symbol used to represent density in equations is ρ ( rho ) with SI units of kilograms per cubic meter . This term is the reciprocal of specific volume . Since gas molecules can move freely within a container , their mass is normally characterized by density . Density is the amount of mass per unit volume of a substance , or the inverse of specific volume . For gases , the density can vary over a wide range because the particles are free to move closer together when constrained by pressure or volume . This variation of density is referred to as compressibility . Like pressure and temperature , density is a state variable of a gas and the change in density during any process is governed by the laws of thermodynamics . For a static gas , the density is the same throughout the entire container . Density is therefore a scalar quantity . It can be shown by kinetic theory that the density is inversely proportional to the size of the container in which a fixed mass of gas is confined . In this case of a fixed mass , the density decreases as the volume increases . Microscopic If one could observe a gas under a powerful microscope , one would see a collection of particles ( molecules , atoms , ions , electrons , etc . ) without any definite shape or volume that are in more or less random motion . These neutral gas particles only change direction when they collide with another particle or with the sides of the container . In an ideal gas , these collisions are perfectly elastic . This particle or microscopic view of a gas is described by the Kinetic-molecular theory . The assumptions behind this theory can be found in the postulates section of Kinetic Theory . Kinetic theory Kinetic theory provides insight into the macroscopic properties of gases by considering their molecular composition and motion . Starting with the definitions of momentum and kinetic energy , one can use the conservation of momentum and geometric relationships of a cube to relate macroscopic system properties of temperature and pressure to the microscopic property of kinetic energy per molecule . The theory provides averaged values for these two properties . The theory also explains how the gas system responds to change . For example , as a gas is heated from absolute zero , when it is ( in theory ) perfectly still , its internal energy ( temperature ) is increased . As a gas is heated , the particles speed up and its temperature rises . This results in greater numbers of collisions with the container per unit time due to the higher particle speeds associated with elevated temperatures . The pressure increases in proportion to the number of collisions per unit time . Brownian motion Brownian motion is the mathematical model used to describe the random movement of particles suspended in a fluid . The gas particle animation , using pink and green particles , illustrates how this behavior results in the spreading out of gases ( entropy ) . These events are also described by particle theory . Since it is at the limit of ( or beyond ) current technology to observe individual gas particles ( atoms or molecules ) , only theoretical calculations give suggestions about how they move , but their motion is different from Brownian motion because Brownian motion involves a smooth drag due to the frictional force of many gas molecules , punctuated by violent collisions of an individual ( or several ) gas molecule ( s ) with the particle . The particle ( generally consisting of millions or billions of atoms ) thus moves in a jagged course , yet not so jagged as would be expected if an individual gas molecule were examined . Intermolecular forces As discussed earlier , momentary attractions ( or repulsions ) between particles have an effect on gas dynamics . In physical chemistry , the name given to these intermolecular forces is van der Waals force . These forces play a key role in determining physical properties of a gas such as viscosity and flow rate ( see physical characteristics section ) . Ignoring these forces in certain conditions ( see Kinetic-molecular theory ) allows a real gas to be treated like an ideal gas . This assumption allows the use of ideal gas laws which greatly simplifies calculations . Proper use of these gas relationships requires the Kinetic-molecular theory ( KMT ) . When gas particles possess a magnetic charge or Intermolecular force they gradually influence one another as the spacing between them is reduced ( the hydrogen bond model illustrates one example ) . In the absence of any charge , at some point when the spacing between gas particles is greatly reduced they can no longer avoid collisions between themselves at normal gas temperatures . Another case for increased collisions among gas particles would include a fixed volume of gas , which upon heating would contain very fast particles . This means that these ideal equations provide reasonable results except for extremely high pressure ( compressible ) or high temperature ( ionized ) conditions . Notice that all of these excepted conditions allow energy transfer to take place within the gas system . The absence of these internal transfers is what is referred to as ideal conditions in which the energy exchange occurs only at the boundaries of the system . Real gases experience some of these collisions and intermolecular forces . When these collisions are statistically negligible ( incompressible ) , results from these ideal equations are still meaningful . If the gas particles are compressed into close proximity they behave more like a liquid ( see fluid dynamics ) . Simplified models An equation of state ( for gases ) is a mathematical model used to roughly describe or predict the state properties of a gas . At present , there is no single equation of state that accurately predicts the properties of all gases under all conditions . Therefore , a number of much more accurate equations of state have been developed for gases in specific temperature and pressure ranges . The `` gas models '' that are most widely discussed are `` perfect gas '' , `` ideal gas '' and `` real gas '' . Each of these models has its own set of assumptions to facilitate the analysis of a given thermodynamic system . Each successive model expands the temperature range of coverage to which it applies . Ideal and perfect gas models The equation of state for an ideal or perfect gas is the ideal gas law and reads PV=nRT , where P is the pressure , V is the volume , n is amount of gas ( in mol units ) , R is the universal gas constant , 8.314 J/ ( mol K ) , and T is the temperature . Written this way , it is sometimes called the `` chemist 's version '' , since it emphasizes the number of molecules n. It can also be written as P=\rho R_s T , where R_s is the specific gas constant for a particular gas , in units J/ ( kg K ) , and ρ = m/V is density . This notation is the `` gas dynamicist 's '' version , which is more practical in modeling of gas flows involving acceleration without chemical reactions . The ideal gas law does not make an assumption about the specific heat of a gas . In the most general case , the specific heat is a function of both temperature and pressure . If the pressure-dependence is neglected ( and possibly the temperature-dependence as well ) in a particular application , sometimes the gas is said to be a perfect gas , although the exact assumptions may vary depending on the author and/or field of science . For an ideal gas , the ideal gas law applies without restrictions on the specific heat . An ideal gas is a simplified `` real gas '' with the assumption that the compressibility factor Z is set to 1 meaning that this pneumatic ratio remains constant . A compressibility factor of one also requires the four state variables to follow the ideal gas law . This approximation is more suitable for applications in engineering although simpler models can be used to produce a `` ball-park '' range as to where the real solution should lie . An example where the `` ideal gas approximation '' would be suitable would be inside a combustion chamber of a jet engine . It may also be useful to keep the elementary reactions and chemical dissociations for calculating emissions . Real gas Each one of the assumptions listed below adds to the complexity of the problem 's solution . As the density of a gas increases with rising pressure , the intermolecular forces play a more substantial role in gas behavior which results in the ideal gas law no longer providing `` reasonable '' results . At the upper end of the engine temperature ranges ( e.g . combustor sections – 1300 K ) , the complex fuel particles absorb internal energy by means of rotations and vibrations that cause their specific heats to vary from those of diatomic molecules and noble gases . At more than double that temperature , electronic excitation and dissociation of the gas particles begins to occur causing the pressure to adjust to a greater number of particles ( transition from gas to plasma ) . Finally , all of the thermodynamic processes were presumed to describe uniform gases whose velocities varied according to a fixed distribution . Using a non-equilibrium situation implies the flow field must be characterized in some manner to enable a solution . One of the first attempts to expand the boundaries of the ideal gas law was to include coverage for different thermodynamic processes by adjusting the equation to read pVn = constant and then varying the n through different values such as the specific heat ratio , γ . Real gas effects include those adjustments made to account for a greater range of gas behavior : * Compressibility effects ( Z allowed to vary from 1.0 ) * Variable heat capacity ( specific heats vary with temperature ) * Van der Waals forces ( related to compressibility , can substitute other equations of state ) * Non-equilibrium thermodynamic effects * Issues with molecular dissociation and elementary reactions with variable composition . For most applications , such a detailed analysis is excessive . Examples where `` Real Gas effects '' would have a significant impact would be on the Space Shuttle re-entry where extremely high temperatures and pressures are present or the gases produced during geological events as in the image of the 1990 eruption of Mount Redoubt . Historical synthesis Boyle 's law Boyle 's Law was perhaps the first expression of an equation of state . In 1662 Robert Boyle performed a series of experiments employing a J-shaped glass tube , which was sealed on one end . Mercury was added to the tube , trapping a fixed quantity of air in the short , sealed end of the tube . Then the volume of gas was carefully measured as additional mercury was added to the tube . The pressure of the gas could be determined by the difference between the mercury level in the short end of the tube and that in the long , open end . The image of Boyle 's Equipment shows some of the exotic tools used by Boyle during his study of gases . Through these experiments , Boyle noted that the pressure exerted by a gas held at a constant temperature varies inversely with the volume of the gas . For example , if the volume is halved , the pressure is doubled ; and if the volume is doubled , the pressure is halved . Given the inverse relationship between pressure and volume , the product of pressure ( P ) and volume ( V ) is a constant ( k ) for a given mass of confined gas as long as the temperature is constant . Stated as a formula , thus is : PV = k Because the before and after volumes and pressures of the fixed amount of gas , where the before and after temperatures are the same both equal the constant k , they can be related by the equation : \qquad P_1 V_1 = P_2 V_2 . Charles 's Law In 1787 , the French physicist and balloon pioneer , Jacques Charles , found that oxygen , nitrogen , hydrogen , carbon dioxide , and air expand to the same extent over the same 80 kelvin interval . He noted that , for an ideal gas at constant pressure , the volume is directly proportional to its temperature : \frac { V_1 } { T_1 } = \frac { V_2 } { T_2 } Gay-Lussac 's Law In 1802 , Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac published results of similar , though more extensive experiments . Gay-Lussac credited Charle 's earlier work by naming the law in his honor . Gay-Lussac himself is credited with the law describing pressure , which he found in 1809 . It states that the pressure exerted on a container 's sides by an ideal gas is proportional to its temperature . \frac { P_1 } { T_1 } =\frac { P_2 } { T_2 } \ , Avogadro 's law In 1811 , Amedeo Avogadro verified that equal volumes of pure gases contain the same number of particles . His theory was not generally accepted until 1858 when another Italian chemist Stanislao Cannizzaro was able to explain non-ideal exceptions . For his work with gases a century prior , the number that bears his name Avogadro 's constant represents the number of atoms found in 12 grams of elemental carbon-12 ( 6.022×1023 mol−1 ) . This specific number of gas particles , at standard temperature and pressure ( ideal gas law ) occupies 22.40 liters , which is referred to as the molar volume . Avogadro 's law states that the volume occupied by an ideal gas is proportional to the number of moles ( or molecules ) present in the container . This gives rise to the molar volume of a gas , which at STP is 22.4 dm3 ( or litres ) . The relation is given by \frac { V_1 } { n_1 } =\frac { V_2 } { n_2 } \ , where n is equal to the number of moles of gas ( the number of molecules divided by Avogadro 's Number ) . Dalton 's law In 1801 , John Dalton published the Law of Partial Pressures from his work with ideal gas law relationship : The pressure of a mixture of non reactive gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all of the constituent gases alone . Mathematically , this can be represented for n species as : Pressuretotal = Pressure1 + Pressure2 + ... + Pressuren The image of Dalton 's journal depicts symbology he used as shorthand to record the path he followed . Among his key journal observations upon mixing unreactive `` elastic fluids '' ( gases ) were the following : * Unlike liquids , heavier gases did not drift to the bottom upon mixing . * Gas particle identity played no role in determining final pressure ( they behaved as if their size was negligible ) . Special topics Compressibility Thermodynamicists use this factor ( Z ) to alter the ideal gas equation to account for compressibility effects of real gases . This factor represents the ratio of actual to ideal specific volumes . It is sometimes referred to as a `` fudge-factor '' or correction to expand the useful range of the ideal gas law for design purposes . Usually this Z value is very close to unity . The compressibility factor image illustrates how Z varies over a range of very cold temperatures . Reynolds number In fluid mechanics , the Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces ( vsρ ) to viscous forces ( μ/L ) . It is one of the most important dimensionless numbers in fluid dynamics and is used , usually along with other dimensionless numbers , to provide a criterion for determining dynamic similitude . As such , the Reynolds number provides the link between modeling results ( design ) and the full-scale actual conditions . It can also be used to characterize the flow . Viscosity Viscosity , a physical property , is a measure of how well adjacent molecules stick to one another . A solid can withstand a shearing force due to the strength of these sticky intermolecular forces . A fluid will continuously deform when subjected

sfq_12415--Gas.txt

What is the most common gas in the Earth's atmosphere?

The Prime Minister of Italy , officially the President of the Council of Ministers of the Italian Republic ( Italian : Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri della Repubblica Italiana ) , is the head of government of the Italian Republic . Prior to the establishment of the Italian Republic , the title was historically literally called `` President of the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom of Italy '' ( Presidente del Consiglio dei ministri del Regno d'Italia ) . From 1925 to 1943 during the Fascist regime , the position was transformed into the dictatorial position of `` Head of the Government , Prime Minister Secretary of State '' held by Benito Mussolini , Duce of Fascism , who officially governed on the behalf of the King of Italy . King Victor Emmanuel III removed Mussolini from office in 1943 and the position was restored with Marshal Pietro Badoglio becoming Prime Minister in 1943 . Alcide De Gasperi became the first Prime Minister of the Italian Republic in 1946 . The prime minister is the President of the Council of Ministers—which holds effective executive power— and he must receive a vote of approval from it to execute most political activities . The office is similar to those in most other parliamentary systems , but the leader of the Italian government is not authorized to request the dissolution of the Parliament of Italy . Another difference with similar offices is that the overall political responsibility for intelligence is vested in the President of the Council of Ministers . By virtue of that , the Prime Minister has exclusive power to : Coordinate intelligence policies , determining the financial resources and strengthening national cyber security ; Apply and protect State secrets ; Authorize agents to carry out operations , in Italy or abroad , in violation of the law . The office was established by Articles 92 through to 96 of the current Constitution of Italy . The prime minister is appointed by the President of the Republic after each general election . Commonly referred to in Italy as premier , the right title of the office holder is Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri , or just Presidente del Consiglio . The formal Italian order of precedence lists the office as being ceremonially the fourth most important Italian state office . Functions In addition to powers inherent in being a member of the cabinet , the prime minister holds specific powers , most notably being able to nominate a list of cabinet ministers to be appointed by the President of the Republic and the countersigning of all legislative instruments having the force of law that are signed by the President of the Republic . Article 95 of the Italian constitution provides that `` the prime minister directs and coordinates the activity of the ministers '' . This power has been used to a quite variable extent in the history of the Italian state , as it is strongly influenced by the political strength of individual ministers and thus by the parties they represent . Often the Prime Minister 's activity consists more in mediating between the various parties in the majority coalition , rather than directing the activity of the Council of Ministers . The Prime Minister 's supervisory power is further limited by the lack of any formal authority to fire ministers , although a cabinet reshuffle ( rimpasto ) , or sometimes even an 'individual vote of no confidence ' on the part of Parliament , may in practice provide a surrogate measure . As the `` President of the Council of Ministers '' the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet ( the Council of Minister ) . In addition the Prime Minister leads a major political party and generally commands the majority in the Parliament . History The office was first established in 1848 in Italy 's predecessor state , the Kingdom of Sardinia—although it was not mentioned in the constitution , the Albertine Statute . From 1848 to 1861 ten Prime Ministers governed the kingdom , most of them being right-wing politicians . Historical Right and Historical Left After the Unification of Italy and the establishment of the kingdom , the procedure did not change . In fact the candidate for office was appointed by the king , and presided over a very unstable political system . The first President of the Council was Camillo Benso di Cavour , who was appointed on 23 March 1861 , but he died on the 6th of June the same year . From 1861 to 1911 Historical Right and Left Prime Ministers alternatively governed the country . One of the most famous and influential Prime Ministers of this period was Francesco Crispi , a left-wing patriot and statesman , the first head of the government from Southern Italy . He led the country for six years , from 1887 until 1891 and again from 1893 until 1896 . Crispi was internationally famous and often mentioned along with world statesmen such as Bismarck , Gladstone and Salisbury . Originally an enlightened Italian patriot and democrat liberal , he went on to become a bellicose authoritarian prime minister , ally , and admirer of Bismarck . His career ended amid controversy and failure due to becoming involved in a major banking scandal and subsequently fell from power in 1896 after a devastating colonial defeat in Ethiopia . He is often seen as a precursor of the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini . Giolittian Era In 1892 Giovanni Giolitti , a young leftist politician , was elected Prime Minister by king Umberto I ; but after less than a year he was forced to resign and Crispi returned to power . In 1903 after a period of instability he was appointed again head of the government . Giolitti was the Prime Minister five times between 1892 and 1921 and the second-longest serving Prime Minister in Italian history , after Mussolini . Giolitti was a master in the political art of Trasformismo , the method of making a flexible , centrist coalition of government which isolated the extremes of the left and the right in Italian politics after the unification . Under his influence , the Italian Liberals did not develop as a structured party . They were instead a series of informal personal groupings with no formal links to political constituencies . The period between the start of the 20th century and the start of World War I , when he was Prime Minister and Minister of the Interior from 1901 to 1914 with only brief interruptions , is often called the Giolittian Era.Barański & West , [ https : //books.google.com/books ? hl nl & id1hVfHLOGAxwC & q Giolitti The Cambridge companion to modern Italian culture ] , p. 44Killinger , [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id stSxECsf0F4C The history of Italy ] , p. 127–28 A left-wing liberal , with strong ethical concerns , Giolitti 's periods in office were notable for the passage of a wide range of progressive social reforms which improved the living standards of ordinary Italians , together with the enactment of several policies of government intervention.Sarti , [ https : //books.google.com/books ? id xhoLorFC1iwC & pg=PA46 Italy : a reference guide from the Renaissance to the present ] , pp . 46–48 Besides putting in place several tariffs , subsidies , and government projects , Giolitti also nationalized the private telephone and railroad operators . Liberal proponents of free trade criticized the `` Giolittian System '' , although Giolitti himself saw the development of the national economy as essential in the production of wealth . Fascist regime The Italian Prime Minister presided over a very unstable political system , in fact in its first sixty years of existence ( 1861-1921 ) , Italy changed its head of the government 37 times . Regarding this situation , the first goal of Benito Mussolini , appointed in 1922 , was to abolish the Parliament 's ability to put him to a vote of no confidence , thus basing his power on the will of the king and the National Fascist Party alone . After destroying all political opposition through his secret police and outlawing labor strikes , Haugen , pp . 9 , 71 Mussolini and his fascist followers consolidated their power through a series of laws that transformed the nation into a one-party dictatorship . Within five years he had established dictatorial authority by both legal and extraordinary means , aspiring to create a totalitarian state . Mussolini remained in power until he was deposed by King Victor Emmanuel III in 1943 . A few months later , he became the leader of the Italian Social Republic , a German client regime in northern Italy ; he held this post until his death in 1945 . First Republic With the proclamation of the Italian Republic in 1946 , the office received constitutional recognition . The First Republic was dominated by the Christian Democracy ( Democrazia Cristiana , DC ) political party which was the senior party in each government coalitions from 1946 to 1994 , while the opposition was led by the Italian Communist Party ( PCI ) , the largest one in Western Europe . In the first years of the republic the governments were led by Alcide De Gasperi , a Christian Democratic politician who had been Prime Minister for seven years . De Gasperi is also considered a founding father of the European Union . After the death of the De Gasperi , Italy returned in a period of political instability and lot of cabinets were formed in few decades . The second part of the 20th century was dominated by De Gasperi 's protegé , Giulio Andreotti , who was appointed Prime Minister seven times from 1972 to 1992 . From the late 1960s until the early 1980s , the country experienced the Years of Lead , a period characterised by economic crisis ( especially after the 1973 oil crisis ) , widespread social conflicts and terrorist massacres carried out by opposing extremist groups , with the alleged involvement of US and Soviet intelligence . / / / The Years of Lead culminated in the assassination of the Christian Democrat leader Aldo Moro in 1978 and the Bologna railway station massacre in 1980 , where 85 people died . In the 1980s , for the first time since 1945 , two governments were led by non-Christian-Democrat premiers : one republican ( Giovanni Spadolini ) and one socialist ( Bettino Craxi ) ; the Christian Democrats remained , however , the main government party . During Craxi 's government , the economy recovered and Italy became the world 's fifth largest industrial nation , gaining entry into the G7 Group . However , as a result of his spending policies , the Italian national debt skyrocketed during the Craxi era , soon passing 100 % of the GDP . In the early 1990s , Italy faced significant challenges , as voters – disenchanted with political paralysis , massive public debt and the extensive corruption system ( known as Tangentopoli ) uncovered by the `` Clean Hands '' ( Mani Pulite ) investigation – demanded radical reforms . The scandals involved all major parties , but especially those in the government coalition : the Christian Democrats , who ruled for almost 50 years , underwent a severe crisis and eventually disbanded , splitting up into several factions . Moreover , the The Communist Party was reorganised as a social-democratic force , the Democratic Party of the Left . Second Republic In 1994 , in the midst of the Mani Pulite operation which shook political parties , media magnate Silvio Berlusconi , owner of three private TV channels , founded Forza Italia ( Forward Italy ) party and won the elections , becoming one of Italy 's most important political and economic figures for the next decade ; Berlusconi is also the longest serving Prime Minister in the history of the Italian Republic and third-longest serving in the whole history after Mussolini and Giolitti . Ousted after a few months of government , he returned to power in 2001 , lost the 2006 general election five years later to Romano Prodi and his Union coalition but won the 2008 general election and was elected Prime Minister again for the third time in May 2008 . In November 2011 , Berlusconi lost his majority in the Chamber of Deputies , and resigned . His successor , Mario Monti formed a new government , composed by `` technicians '' and supported by both the center-left and the center-right . In April 2013 after the general election in February the Vice-Secretary of the Democratic Party Enrico Letta led a government composed by both center-left and the center-right . On 22 February 2014 , after tensions in the Democratic Party , the PD 's Secretary Matteo Renzi sworn as new Prime Minister , at 39 years he is the youngest in Italian history . Renzi proposed several reforms , including a radical overhaul of the Senate , a new electoral law , and the reduction of the costs of politics . A lot of analysts , journalists and politicians think that these steps mean the end of the Second Republic and the beginning of the Third . [ http : //www.europaquotidiano.it/2014/01/30/una-buona-riforma-in-attesa-della-riforma/ Una buona riforma , in attesa della Riforma | Europa Quotidiano ] Living former Prime Ministers There are ten living former Italian Prime Ministers : File : Forlani.jpg|Arnaldo Forlani served 1980–1981 File : Ciriaco De Mita 2010.jpg|Ciriaco De Mitaserved 1988–1989 File : Giuliano Amato - Festival Economia 2013.JPG|Giuliano Amatoserved 1992–1993 ; 2000–2001 File : Ciampi ritratto.jpg|Carlo Azeglio Ciampi served 1993–1994 File : Berlusconi-2010-1.jpg|Silvio Berlusconiserved 1994–1995 ; 2001–2006 ; 2008–2011 File : Lamberto dini.jpg|Lamberto Diniserved 1995–1996 File : Romano Prodi in Nova Gorica ( 2c ) .jpg|Romano Prodi served 1996–1998 ; 2006–2008 File : Massimo D Alema - Prato 1 - resize , head.jpg|Massimo D'Alemaserved 1998–2000 File : Mario Monti - Terre alte 2013.JPG|Mario Montiserved 2011–2013 File : Enrico Letta daticamera.jpg|Enrico Lettaserved 2013–2014

qb_5778--Prime_Minister_of_Italy.txt

Which former Italian Prime Minister was kidnapped by The Red Brigade in 1978, and killed after 55 days in captivity?

Gremlins is a 1984 American comedy horror film directed by Joe Dante and released by Warner Bros . The film is about a young man who receives a strange creature called a mogwai as a pet , which then spawns other creatures who transform into small , destructive , evil monsters . This story was continued with a sequel , Gremlins 2 : The New Batch , released in 1990 . Unlike the lighter sequel , Gremlins opts for more black comedy , balanced against a Christmastime setting . Both films were the center of large merchandising campaigns . Steven Spielberg was the film 's executive producer and the screenplay was written by Chris Columbus . The film stars Zach Galligan and Phoebe Cates , with Howie Mandel providing the voice of Gizmo , the main mogwai character . Gremlins was a commercial success and received positive reviews from critics . However , the film was also heavily criticized for some of its more violent sequences . In response to this and to similar complaints about Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom , Spielberg suggested that the Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) alter its rating system , which it did within two months of the film 's release . Plot Randall Peltzer , a struggling inventor , visits a Chinatown antique store in the hope to find a Christmas present for his son Billy . In the store , Randall encounters a small , furry creature called a mogwai ( Cantonese : 魔怪 , `` monster '' ) . The owner Mr. Wing refuses to sell the creature to Randall , though his grandson secretly sells the mogwai to Randall but tells him to remember three important rules that must never be broken – do not expose the mogwai to bright lights or sunlight which will kill it , do not let it get wet , and never feed it after midnight . Randall returns home to Kingston Falls where he gives the mogwai to Billy as a pet . Billy works in the local bank , and fears his dog Barney will be put down by Mrs. Deagle . Randall names the mogwai “ Gizmo ” and Billy makes sure to treat him well . But when Billy ’ s friend Pete spills a glass of water over Gizmo , five more mogwai spawn from his back , a more troublemaking sort led by the aggressive Stripe . Billy shows one of the mogwai to his former science teacher Mr. Hanson , spawning another mogwai , who Hanson experiments on . Stripe ’ s gang trick Billy into feeding them after midnight by chewing out the power cord to his bedside clock and transform into cocoons , as does Hanson ’ s mogwai . Shortly after , their cocoons hatch and they emerge as mischievous , reptilian Gremlins that torture Gizmo and try to murder Billy ’ s mother , while Hanson is killed by his Gremlin . All of the Gremlins are killed except Stripe , who escapes to a local YMCA and jumps into a swimming pool , spawning an army of Gremlins who wreak massive chaos around Kingston Falls . Billy tries to warn the police but they don ’ t believe him . Many people are injured or outright killed by the Gremlins ’ rampage , including Mrs. Deagle , who is launched out of her house on a stair lift that has been sabotaged by the gremlins . At the local bar , the Gremlins have fun until the barmaid Kate Beringer , Billy ’ s girlfriend , flashes them with a camera and escapes into the bank with Billy and Gizmo . While hiding , she reveals her father died in a chimney while dressed as Santa Claus . Billy and Kate discover the town has fallen silent and the Gremlins are watching Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs in a theater . They set off an explosion , killing all the Gremlins except Stripe . Billy chases Stripe into a Montgomery Ward store , where Stripe climbs into a water fountain and tries to spawn more Gremlins . Gizmo arrives in a toy car and opens a skylight , exposing Stripe to extreme sunlight and melting him . In the aftermath of the Gremlins ’ rampage , Mr. Wing appears to collect Gizmo , scolding the Peltzers for their carelessness , thinking the Western world is not ready but comments that Billy might some day be ready to care for Gizmo properly . Gizmo likewise believes so , having become attached to Billy . Mr. Wing departs with Gizmo in tow , while Randall narrates to the audience to check their house if things go wrong , because `` there just might be a Gremlin in your house '' . Cast * Zach Galligan as William `` Billy '' Peltzer * Phoebe Cates as Kate Beringer * Hoyt Axton as Randall `` Rand '' Peltzer * Frances Lee McCain as Lynn Peltzer * Corey Feldman as Pete Fountaine * Keye Luke as Mr. Wing ( credited as `` Grandfather '' , Mr. Wing 's name is revealed in the 2nd film ) * John Louie as Mr. Wing 's grandson * Dick Miller as Murray Futterman * Jackie Joseph as Sheila Futterman * Polly Holliday as Mrs. Ruby Deagle * Judge Reinhold as Gerald Hopkins * Edward Andrews as Mr. Roland Corben * Glynn Turman as Mr. Roy Hanson * Belinda Balaski as Mrs. Joe Harris * Scott Brady as Sheriff Frank * Jonathan Banks as Deputy Brent * Harry Carey , Jr. as Mr. Anderson * Kenny Davis as Dorry * Nicky Katt and Tracy Wells as Schoolchildren * Mushroom as Barney Voices * Frank Welker as Stripe , Mogwai and Gremlins * Howie Mandel as Gizmo * Don Steele as Rockin ' Ricky Rialto * Marvin Miller as Robby the Robot ( uncredited ) Mogwai and Gremlin vocal effects provided by Michael Winslow , Bob Bergen , Fred Newman , Peter Cullen , Mark Dodson , Bob Holt , and Michael Sheehan . Cameos * Steven Spielberg as Man riding Recumbent bicycle * Jim McKrell as TV News Reporter * Jerry Goldsmith as Man in Phone Booth * William Schallert as Father Bartlett * Chuck Jones as Mr. Jones , Billy 's drawing mentor * Kenneth Tobey as Smoking Gas Station Attendant Production Background Gremlins was produced at a time when combining horror and comedy was becoming increasingly popular . According to Professor Noël Carroll , Ghostbusters , released the same weekend as Gremlins , and the comic strip The Far Side also followed this trend . Carroll argued that there was now a new genre emphasizing sudden shifts between humorous and horrific scenes , drawing laughs with plot elements that have been traditionally used to scare . Older popular fiction also blended humor with horror , such as the films Bride of Frankenstein and Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein , as well as the 1960s TV series The Addams Family and The Munsters . The notion of gremlins was first conceived during World War II , when mechanical failures in aircraft were jokingly blamed on the small monsters . The term `` gremlins '' also entered popular culture as children 's author Roald Dahl published a book called The Gremlins in 1943 , based on the mischievous creatures . Walt Disney considered making a film of it . A Bugs Bunny cartoon of the era , Falling Hare , has him battling a gremlin on an airplane . ( Footage from this cartoon was later used in a trailer for Gremlins 2 : The New Batch . ) Joe Dante had read The Gremlins , and said that the book was of some influence on his film . In 1983 , Dante publicly distanced his work from earlier films , explaining , `` Our gremlins are somewhat different—they 're sort of green and they have big mouths and they smile a lot and they do incredibly , really nasty things to people and enjoy it all the while '' . Initial stages The story of Gremlins was conceived by Chris Columbus . As Columbus explained , his inspiration came from his loft , when at night `` what sounded like a platoon of mice would come out and to hear them skittering around in the blackness was really creepy '' . He then wrote the original screenplay as a spec script to show potential employers that he had writing abilities . The story was not actually intended to be filmed until Steven Spielberg took an interest in turning it into a film . As Spielberg explained , `` It 's one of the most original things I 've come across in many years , which is why I bought it . '' After deciding to executive produce the film , Spielberg chose Dante as his director because of his experience with horror-comedy ; Dante had previously directed The Howling ( 1981 ) ; however , in the time between The Howling and the offer to film Gremlins , he had experienced a lull in his career . The film 's producer was Michael Finnell , who had also worked on The Howling with Dante . Spielberg took the project to Warner Bros. and co-produced it through his own company , Amblin Entertainment . The film 's script went through a few drafts before a shooting script was finalized . The first version was much darker than the final film . Various scenes were cut , including one which portrayed Billy 's mother dying in her struggle with the gremlins , with her head thrown down the stairs when Billy arrives . Dante later explained the scene made the film darker than the filmmakers wanted . There was also a scene where the gremlins ate Billy 's dog , and a scene where the gremlins attacked a McDonald 's , eating customers instead of burgers . Also , instead of Stripe being a mogwai who becomes a gremlin , there was originally no mogwai named Stripe ; rather , Gizmo was supposed to transform into Stripe the gremlin . Spielberg overruled this plot element as he felt Gizmo was cute and that audiences would want him to be present throughout the film . A famous urban legend is referenced in the film , in which Kate reveals in a speech that her father died at Christmas when he dressed as Santa Claus and broke his neck while climbing down the family 's chimney . After the film was completed , the speech proved to be controversial , and studio executives insisted upon its removal , because they felt it was too ambiguous as to whether it was supposed to be funny or sad . Dante stubbornly refused to take the scene out , saying it represented the film as a whole , which had a combination of horrific and comedic elements . Spielberg did not like the scene but , despite his creative control , he viewed Gremlins as Dante 's project and allowed him to leave it in . A parody of this scene is featured in Gremlins 2 : The New Batch . Casting Phoebe Cates was cast as Kate , Billy 's girlfriend , despite concerns that she was known for playing more risqué parts , such as Linda Barrett in Fast Times at Ridgemont High ( 1982 ) . Spielberg urged the casting of the relatively unknown Zach Galligan as Billy because he saw chemistry between Galligan and Cates during auditions . Galligan later compared himself to Billy , saying he was a `` geeky kid '' , and that being in the film `` was really kind of a dream '' given `` what I get to do , what my character gets to do , blow up movie theatres '' , adding that he `` got to work with great people '' . In contrast to Galligan , many of the supporting actors and actresses were better known . Veteran actor Glynn Turman portrayed the high school science teacher whose study of a newborn Mogwai leads to his death after it forms a cocoon and emerges as a vicious gremlin . Dick Miller , who was a regular in Dante 's films , was another experienced actor on the set , playing a World War II veteran who first refers to the creatures as gremlins . Rand was played by Hoyt Axton , who was always the filmmakers ' preferred choice for the role even though it was widely contested by other actors . Axton 's experience included acting as the father in The Black Stallion ( 1979 ) , and he was also a country music singer-songwriter . After an introductory scene to Gremlins was cut , Axton 's voice earned him the added role of the narrator to establish some context . Mr. Wing was played by Keye Luke , a renowned film actor , whose film career spanned half a century . Although in reality he was around 80 at the time of filming , and his character was very elderly , Luke 's youthful appearance had to be covered by make-up . Corey Feldman , who up to that time had primarily been in commercials , played Pete Fountaine , establishing his early credentials as a child actor . Polly Holliday , an actress best known for her role in Alice , played Mrs. Deagle . Dante considered the casting fortunate , as she was well-known and he considered her to be talented . Two other well-known actors , Fast Times Judge Reinhold and character actor Edward Andrews , received roles that were significantly reduced after the film was edited ; they played Billy 's superiors at the bank . Special effects Some of the performances were shot on the backlot of Universal Studios in California ( Mrs Deagle 's house was one such set as well as the opening street scenes in Chinatown , which were filmed on the Warner Bros. Studios backlot ) . This required fake snow ; Dante also felt it was an atmosphere that would make the special effects more convincing . As the special effects relied mainly on puppetry ( an earlier attempt to use monkeys was abandoned because the test monkey panicked when made to wear a gremlin head ) , [ http : //www.empireonline.com/news/story.asp ? NID 41383 Gremlins Reunion : First Look At The Empire Photoshoot ] , by Nick de Semlyen , at Empire ; published 25 June 2014 ; retrieved 26 June 2014 the actors worked alongside some of the puppets . Nevertheless , after the actors finished their work for good , a great deal of effort was spent finishing the effects . Numerous small rubber puppets , some of which were mechanical , were used to portray Gizmo and the gremlins . They were designed by Chris Walas . There was more than one Gizmo puppet , and occasionally Galligan , when carrying one , would set him down off camera , and when Gizmo appeared again sitting on a surface it was actually a different puppet wired to the surface . These puppets had many limitations . The Gizmo puppets were particularly frustrating because they were smaller and thus broke down more . Consequently , to satisfy the crew , a scene was included in which the gremlins hang Gizmo on a wall and throw darts at him . This was included on a list that the crew created known to them as the `` Horrible Things to do to Gizmo '' list . A few marionettes were also used . Other effects required large mogwai faces and ears to be produced for close-ups , as the puppets were less capable of conveying emotion . Consequently , large props simulating food were needed for the close-ups in the scene in which the mogwai feast after midnight . An enlarged Gizmo puppet was also needed for the scene in which he multiplies . The new mogwai , who popped out of Gizmo 's body as small , furry balls which then started to grow , were balloons and expanded as such . Walas had also created the exploding gremlin in the microwave by means of a balloon that was allowed to burst . Howie Mandel provided the voice for Gizmo , and prolific voice actor Frank Welker provided the voice for Stripe . It was Welker who suggested Mandel perform in Gremlins . The puppets ' lines were mostly invented by the voice actors , based on cues from the physical actions of the puppets , which were filmed before the voice work . When developing the voice for Gizmo , Mandel explained , `` [ Gizmo was ] cute and naive , so , you know , I got in touch with that ... I could n't envision going any other way or do something different with it '' . The majority of the other gremlins ' voices were performed by Michael Winslow and Peter Cullen , while the remaining voices were done by Bob Bergen , Fred Newman , Mark Dodson , Bob Holt , and Michael Sheehan . Music The film 's score was composed by Jerry Goldsmith , who won a Saturn Award for Best Music for his efforts . The main score was composed with the objective of conveying `` the mischievous humor and mounting suspense of Gremlins '' . Goldsmith also wrote Gizmo 's song , which was hummed by a child actress and acquaintance of Goldsmith 's , rather than Mandel himself . Goldsmith also appears in the film ( as does Steven Spielberg ) , in the scene where Rand calls home from the salesman 's convention . The soundtrack album was released by Geffen Records as a specially priced mini-album on LP and cassette ( Goldsmith 's music comprised all of side two ) , and reissued on compact disc in 1993 only in Germany . # Gremlins ... Mega Madness – Michael Sembello ( 3:50 ) # Make It Shine – Quarterflash ( 4:10 ) # Out/Out – Peter Gabriel ( 7:00 ) # The Gift ( 4:51 ) # Gizmo ( 4:09 ) # Mrs. Deagle ( 2:50 ) # The Gremlin Rag ( 4:03 ) `` Gremlins ... Mega Madness '' was also released as a single , with `` The Gremlin Rag '' as its B-side . In 2011 , Film Score Monthly issued a two-disc release of the soundtrack , with the complete score on disc one and the original soundtrack album on disc two ( representing the latter 's first North American CD issue ) ; this was the label 's final Jerry Goldsmith album . DISC ONE : The Film Score # Fanfare in C ( Max Steiner ) / The Shop / The Little One 4:30 # Late for Work 1:46 # Mrs. Deagle / That Dog 2:22 # The Gift 1:45 # First Aid 2:17 # Spilt Water 3:02 # A New One 1:10 # The Lab / Old Times 2:35 # The Injection 2:56 # Snack Time / The Wrong Time 1:49 # The Box 1:24 # First Aid 1:39 # Disconnected / Hurry Home 1:03 # Kitchen Fight 4:06 # Dirty Linen 0:43 # The Pool 1:07 # The Plow / Special Delivery 1:16 # High Flyer 2:22 # Too Many Gremlins 2:06 # No Santa Claus 3:27 # After Theatre 1:39 # Theatre Escape / Stripe Is Loose / Toy Dept . / No Gizmo 4:36 # The Fountain / Stripe 's Death 5:42 # Goodbye , Billy 2:56 # End Title / The Gremlin Rag 4:10 # Blues 2:17 # Mrs. Deagle [ film version ] 1:27 # God Rest You Merry , Gentlemen [ traditional , arr . Alexander Courage ] 1:12 # After Theatre [ with `` Silent Night '' ] 1:36 # After Theatre [ without `` Silent Night '' ] 1:36 # Rabbit Rampage [ Milt Franklyn ] 0:47 # The Gremlin Rag [ full version ] 3:35 # Gizmo 's New Song 0:35 # Gizmo 's Trumpet 0:30 Tracks 26–34 are listed as bonus tracks . DISC TWO : 1984 Soundtrack Album # Gremlins ... Mega Madness – Michael Sembello 3:52 # Make It Shine – Quarterflash 4:11 # Out/Out – Peter Gabriel 7:02 # The Gift 4:58 # Gizmo 4:14 # Mrs. Deagle 2:54 # The Gremlin Rag 4:13 Rating Along with Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom , also rated PG , Gremlins was one of two films in 1984 to influence the MPAA to create the PG-13 rating , with Red Dawn being the first film released in theaters that was given the new rating in August 1984 . The scene in which a gremlin explodes in the microwave was particularly influential to the idea that some films too light to be rated R are still too mature to be rated PG . The change to the rating system was not insignificant ; the rating PG-13 turned out to be appealing to many film patrons , as it implied some excitement without being too explicit . Reception Critical reception Film critics ' reviews of Gremlins were mostly positive . Roger Ebert approved of the film , declaring it to not only be `` fun '' , but also a `` sly series of send-ups '' , effectively parodying many elemental film storylines . In his opinion , Gremlins did this partly through depictions of mysterious worlds ( the shop in Chinatown ) and tyrannical elderly women ( Mrs. Deagle ) . Ebert also believed the rule in which a mogwai can not eat after midnight was inspired by fairy tales , and that the final scenes parody classic horror films . He connected Kate 's speech about her father with `` the great tradition of 1950s sick jokes '' . Conversely , Leonard Maltin disapproved of the film , and his view was made clear in remarks he made on the television show Entertainment Tonight . He called the film `` icky '' and `` gross '' . He later wrote that despite being set in a `` picture-postcard town '' and blending the feel of It 's a Wonderful Life ( a clip of which appears in Gremlins ) with that of The Blob , the film is `` negated by too-vivid violence and mayhem '' ; giving the film two out of four stars . Maltin later made a cameo appearance in Gremlins 2 , repeating his criticisms of the original on film , as an in-joke , before being throttled by the creatures ; he later gave the second film a more positive rating , three out of four stars . While some critics criticized the film 's depictions of violence and greed—such as death scenes , Kate 's speech , and the gremlins ' gluttony—for lacking comic value , scholar Charlotte Miller instead interpreted these as a satire of `` some characteristics of Western civilization '' , suggesting that Westerners may take too much satisfaction from violence . Gremlins can also be interpreted as a statement against technology , in that some characters , such as Billy 's father , are overly dependent on it . In contrast , Mr. Wing is shown to have a strong distaste for television . Kirkpatrick Sale also interpreted Gremlins as an anti-technology film in his book Rebels Against the Future . Another scholar suggested that the film is meant to express a number of observations of society by having the gremlin characters shift in what they are meant to represent . At different times , they are depicted as teenagers , the wealthy establishment , or fans of Disney films . Another scholar drew a connection between the microwave scene and urban legends about pets dying in microwave ovens . He described the portrayal of this urban legend in the film as successful , but that meant it seemed terrible . This is indeed a scene that is thought of as being one of the film 's most violent depictions ; with even Roger Ebert expressing some fear in his review that the film might encourage children to try similar things with their pets . Gremlins has been criticized for more than its depictions of violence . One BBC critic wrote in 2000 that `` The plot is thin and the pacing is askew '' . However , that critic also complimented the dark humour contrasted against the ideal Christmas setting . In 2002 , another critic wrote that in hindsight , Gremlins has `` corny special effects '' and that the film will tend to appeal to children more so than to adults ; he also said the acting was dull . Despite the initial mixed criticism , Gremlins has continued to receive critical praise over the years . It currently holds an 85 % `` Certified Fresh '' rating on the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes , and is considered by many as one of the best films of 1984 . Allegations of racism Since its release , some people have criticized Gremlins as being culturally insensitive . Some observers have argued that the film presents gremlins as African Americans . In Ceramic Uncles & Celluloid Mammies , Patricia Turner writes that the gremlins `` reflect negative African-American stereotypes '' in their dress and behavior . They are shown `` devouring fried chicken with their hands '' , listening to black music , breakdancing , and wearing sunglasses after dark and newsboy caps , a style common among African American males in the 1980s . Box office Financially , Gremlins was a success . Produced on an $ 11 million budget , it was more expensive than Spielberg had originally intended , but still relatively cheap for its time . The trailer introduced the film to audiences by briefly explaining that Billy receives a strange creature as a Christmas present , by going over the three rules , and then coming out with the fact that the creatures transform into terrible monsters . This trailer showed little of either the mogwai or the gremlins . In contrast to this , other advertisements concentrated on Gizmo , overlooked the gremlins and made the film look similar to Spielberg 's earlier family film E.T . the Extra-Terrestrial ( 1982 ) . Gremlins was released into North American theaters on June 8 , 1984 , the same day as Ivan Reitman 's Ghostbusters . Gremlins ranked second , with $ 12.5 million in its first weekend , $ 1.1 million less than Ghostbusters . By the end of its American screenings on November 29 , it had grossed $ 148,168,459 domestically . This made it the fourth highest-grossing film of the year , behind Beverly Hills Cop , Ghostbusters , and Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom . In August 1984 , it opened in Argentina and Spain , and in October it premiered in West Germany . Screenings began in Mexico , Australia , and much of the rest of Europe in December . Since Gremlins had an international audience , different versions of the film were made to overcome cultural barriers . Mandel learned to speak his few intelligible lines , such as `` Bright light ! `` , in various languages , including German . Regional music and humor were also incorporated into foreign-language versions . Dante credited this work as being one of the factors which helped to make Gremlins a worldwide success . However , many critics questioned the summer release date of the film in America , as the film takes place during the Christmas holiday season , causing them to comment that it should have had a Christmas release date instead . In addition to this , there were also complaints from audiences about the violence depicted in the film . These complaints were particularly present in people who had brought their children to see the film , many of whom walked out of the theatre before the film had ended . Dante admitted to reporters later that `` the idea of taking a 4-year-old to see Gremlins , thinking it 's going to be a cuddly , funny animal movie and then seeing that it turns into a horror picture , I think people were upset ... They felt like they had been sold something family friendly and it was n't entirely family friendly '' . The film became available to audiences again when it was brought back to theatres on August 30 , 1985 .

jp_4058--Gremlins.txt

What movie featured a cute Mogwai that looked like a Furby?

Donald Malcolm Campbell ( 23 March 19214 January 1967 ) was a British speed record breaker who broke eight absolute world speed records on water and on land in the 1950s and 1960s . He remains the only person to set both world land and water speed records in the same year ( 1964 ) . Family and personal life Donald Campbell was born at Canbury House , Kingston upon Thames , Surrey , the son of Malcolm , later Sir Malcolm Campbell , holder of 13 world speed records in the 1920s and 30s in the Bluebird cars and boats , and his second wife , Dorothy Evelyn Whittall . Campbell attended St Peter 's School , Seaford and Uppingham School . At the outbreak of the Second World War he volunteered for the Royal Air Force , but was unable to serve because of a case of childhood rheumatic fever . He joined Briggs Motor Bodies Ltd in West Thurrock , where he became a maintenance engineer . Subsequently , he was a shareholder in a small engineering company called Kine engineering , producing machine tools . Following his father 's death on New Year 's Eve , 31 December 1948 and aided by Malcolm 's chief engineer , Leo Villa , the younger Campbell strove to set speed records first on water and then land . He married three times : to Daphne Harvey in 1945 , producing daughter Georgina ( Gina ) Campbell , born on 19 September 1949 ; to Dorothy McKegg in 1952 ; and to Tonia Bern in December 1958 , which lasted until his death in 1967 . Campbell was intensely superstitious , hating the colour green , the number thirteen and believing nothing good ever happened on a Friday . He also had some interest in the paranormal , which he nurtured as a member of the Ghost Club . Campbell was a restless man and seemed driven to emulate , if not surpass , his father 's achievements . He was generally light-hearted and was generally , at least until his 1960 crash at the Bonneville Salt Flats , optimistic in his outlook . Behind the public façade of speed king , he was a complex character – proud and vulnerable , increasingly anxious about his place in the world . Campbell was a great patriot and saw his achievements as being for the greater good of Britain . Water speed records Campbell began his speed record attempts in the summer of 1949 , using his father 's old boat , Blue Bird K4 , which he renamed Bluebird K4 . His initial attempts that summer were unsuccessful , although he did come close to raising his father 's existing record . The team returned to Coniston Water , Lancashire in 1950 for further trials . While there , they heard that an American , Stanley Sayers , had raised the record from 141 to , beyond K4 's capabilities without substantial modification . Over the winter of 1950 to 1951 , Bluebird K4 was modified to make it a 'prop-rider ' as opposed to her original immersed propeller configuration . This greatly reduced hydrodynamic drag as the third planing point would now be the propeller hub , meaning one of the two propeller blades was always out of the water at high speed . She now sported two cockpits , the second one being for Leo Villa . Bluebird K4 now had a chance of exceeding Sayers ' record and also enjoyed success as a circuit racer , winning the Oltranza Cup in Italy in the spring of that year . Returning to Coniston in September , they finally got Bluebird up to 170 mph after further trials , only to suffer a structural failure at 170 mph which wrecked the boat . Sayers raised the record the following year to 178 mph in Slo-Mo-Shun IV . Along with Campbell , Britain had another potential contender for Water Speed Record honours - John Cobb . He had commissioned the world 's first purpose-built turbojet Hydroplane , Crusader , with a target speed of over 200 mph , and began trials on Loch Ness in autumn 1952 . Cobb was killed later that year , when Crusader broke up , during an attempt on the record . Campbell was devastated at Cobb 's loss , but he resolved to build a new Bluebird boat to bring the WSR back to Britain . In early 1953 , Campbell began development of his own advanced all-metal jet-powered Bluebird K7 hydroplane to challenge the record , by now held by the American prop rider hydroplane Slo-Mo-Shun IV . [ 1 ] Designed by Ken and Lew Norris , the K7 was a steel framed , aluminium bodied , three-point hydroplane with a Metropolitan-Vickers Beryl axial-flow turbojet engine , producing 3,500 pound-force ( 16 kN ) of thrust . Like Slo-Mo-Shun , but unlike Cobb 's tricycle Crusader , the three planing points were arranged with two forward , on outrigged sponsons and one aft , in a `` pickle-fork '' layout , prompting Bluebird 's early comparison to a blue lobster . K7 was of very advanced design and construction , and its load bearing steel space frame ultra rigid and stressed to 25g ( exceeding contemporary military jet aircraft ) . It had a design speed of 250 mph and remained the only successful jet-boat in the world until the late 1960s . The designation `` K7 '' was derived from its Lloyd 's unlimited rating registration . It was carried on a prominent white roundel on each sponson , underneath an infinity symbol . Bluebird K7 was the seventh boat registered at Lloyds in the 'Unlimited ' series . Campbell set seven world water speed records in K7 between July 1955 and December 1964 . The first of these marks was set at Ullswater on 23 July 1955 , where he achieved a speed of but only after many months of trials and a major redesign of Bluebird 's forward sponson attachments points . Campbell achieved a steady series of subsequent speed-record increases with the boat during the rest of the decade , beginning with a mark of 216 mph in 1955 on Lake Mead in Nevada . Subsequently , four new marks were registered on Coniston Water , where Campbell and Bluebird became an annual fixture in the latter half of the '50s , enjoying significant sponsorship from the Mobil oil company and then subsequently BP . Campbell also made an attempt in 1957 at Canandaigua in New York state in the summer of 1957 , which failed due to lack of suitable calm water conditions . Bluebird K7 became a well known and popular attraction , and as well as her annual Coniston appearances , K7 was displayed extensively in the UK , USA , Canada and Europe , and then subsequently in Australia during Campbell 's prolonged attempt on the land speed record ( LSR ) in 1963-64 . In order to extract more speed , and endow the boat with greater high speed stability , in both pitch and yaw , K7 was subtly modified in the second half of the 1950s to incorporate more effective streamlining with a blown Perspex cockpit canopy and fluting to the lower part of the main hull . In 1958 , a small wedge shaped tail fin , housing an arrester parachute , modified sponson fairings , that gave a significant reduction in forward aerodynamic lift , and a fixed hydrodynamic stabilising fin , attached to the transom to aid directional stability , and exert a marginal down-force on the nose were incorporated into the design to increase the safe operating envelope of the hydroplane . Thus she reached 225 mph in 1956 , where an unprecedented peak speed of was achieved on one run , 239 mph in 1957 , 248 mph in 1958 and 260 mph in 1959 . Campbell was awarded the CBE in January 1957 for his water speed record breaking , and in particular his record at Lake Mead in the USA which earned him and Britain very positive acclaim . Land speed record attempt It was after the Lake Mead WSR success in 1955 that the seeds of Campbell 's ambition to hold the Land Speed Record as well were planted . The following year , the serious planning was under way - to build a car to break the land speed record , which then stood at 394 mph set by John Cobb in 1947 . The Norris brothers designed Bluebird-Proteus CN7 with 500 mph in mind . The brothers were even more enthusiastic about the car than the boat and like all of his projects , Campbell wanted Bluebird CN7 , to be the best of its type , a showcase of British engineering skills . The British motor industry in the guise of Dunlop , BP , Smiths Industries and Lucas Automotive , as well as many others , became heavily involved in the project to build the most advanced car the world had yet seen . CN7 was powered by a specially modified Bristol-Siddeley Proteus free-turbine engine of 4450 shp driving all four wheels . Bluebird CN7 was designed to achieve 475–500 mph and was completed by the spring of 1960 . Following low-speed tests conducted at the Goodwood motor racing circuit in Sussex , in July , the CN7 was taken to the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah , USA , scene of his father 's last LSR triumph , some 25 years earlier in September 1935 . The trials initially went well , and various adjustments were made to the car . On the sixth run in CN7 , Campbell lost control at over 360 mph and crashed . It was the car 's tremendous structural integrity that saved his life . He was hospitalised with a fractured skull and a burst eardrum , as well as minor cuts and bruises but CN7 was a write off . Almost immediately , Campbell announced he was determined to have another go . Sir Alfred Owen , whose Rubery Owen industrial group had built CN7 , offered to rebuild it for him . That single decision was to have a profound influence on the rest of Campbell 's life . His original plan had been to break the LSR at over 400 mph in 1960 , return to Bonneville the following year to really bump up the speed to something near to 500 mph , get his seventh WSR with K7 and then retire , as undisputed champion of speed and perhaps just as important , secure in the knowledge that he was worthy of his father 's legacy . Campbell decided not to go back to Utah for the new trials . He felt the Bonneville course was too short at 11 mi and the salt surface was in poor condition . BP offered to find another venue and eventually after a long search , Lake Eyre , in South Australia , was chosen . It had n't rained there for nine years and the vast dry bed of the salt lake offered a course of up to 20 mi . By the summer of 1962 , Bluebird CN7 was rebuilt , some nine months later than Campbell had hoped . It was essentially the same car , but with the addition of a large stabilising tail fin and a reinforced fibreglass cockpit cover . At the end of 1962 , CN7 was shipped out to Australia ready for the new attempt . Low-speed runs had just started when the rains came . The course was compromised and further rain meant , that by May 1963 , Lake Eyre was flooded to a depth of 3 inches , causing the attempt to be abandoned . Campbell was heavily criticised in the press for alleged time wasting and mismanagement of the project , despite the fact that he could hardly be held responsible for the unprecedented weather . To make matters worse for Campbell , American Craig Breedlove drove his pure thrust jet car 'Spirit of America ' to a speed of at Bonneville in July 1963 . Although the 'car ' did not conform to FIA ( Federation Internationale de L'Automobile ) regulations , that stipulated it had to be wheel-driven and have a minimum of four wheels , in the eyes of the world , Breedlove was now the fastest man on earth . Campbell returned to Australia in March 1964 , but the Lake Eyre course failed to fulfil the early promise it had shown in 1962 and there were further spells of rain . BP pulled out as his main sponsor after a dispute , but he was able to secure backing from Australian oil company Ampol . The track never properly dried out and Campbell was forced to make the best of the conditions . Finally , in July 1964 , he was able to post some speeds that approached the record . On the 17th of that month , he took advantage of a break in the weather and made two courageous runs along the shortened and still damp track , posting a new LSR of . The surreal moment was captured in a number of well-known images by photographers , including Australia 's Jeff Carter . Campbell was bitterly disappointed with the record as the vehicle had been designed for much higher speeds . CN7 covered the final third of the measured mile at an average of 429 mph , peaking as it left the measured distance at over 440 mph . He resented the fact that it had all been so difficult . 'We 've made it – we got the bastard at last , ' was his reaction to the success . Campbell 's 403.1 mph represented the official Land Speed Record . In 1969 , after Campbell 's fatal accident , his widow , Tonia Bern-Campbell negotiated a deal with Lynn Garrison , President of Craig Breedlove and Associates , that would see Craig Breedlove run Bluebird on Bonneville 's Salt Flats . This concept was cancelled when the parallel Spirit of America supersonic car project failed to find support . The Double Campbell now planned to go after the Water Speed Record one more time with Bluebird K7 - to do what he had aimed for so many years ago , during the initial planning stages of CN7 – break both records in the same year . After more delays , he finally achieved his seventh WSR at Lake Dumbleyung near Perth , Western Australia , on the last day of 1964 , at a speed of . He had become the first , and so far only , person to set both land and water speed records in the same year . Campbell 's LSR was short-lived , because FIA rule changes meant that pure jet cars would be eligible to set records from October 1964 . Campbell 's 429 mph speed on his final Lake Eyre run remained the highest speed achieved by a wheel-driven car until 2001 ; Bluebird CN7 is now on display at the National Motor Museum at Beaulieu in Hampshire , England , her potential only partly realised . Rocket car plans and final water speed record attempt Bluebird Mach 1.1 Campbell decided a massive jump in speed was called for following his successful 1964 LSR attempt in Bluebird CN7 . His vision was of a supersonic rocket car with a potential maximum speed of 840 mph . Norris Brothers were requested to undertake a design study . Bluebird Mach 1.1 was a design for a rocket-powered supersonic land speed record car . Campbell chose a lucky date to hold a press conference at the Charing Cross Hotel on 7 July 1965 to announce his future record breaking plans : ... In terms of speed on the earth 's surface , my next logical step must be to construct a Bluebird car that can reach Mach 1.1 . The Americans are already making plans for such a vehicle and it would be tragic for the world image of British technology if we did not compete in this great contest and win . The nation whose technologies are first to seize the `` faster than sound '' record on land will be the nation whose industry will be seen to leapfrog into the '70s or '80s . We can have the car on the track within three years . Bluebird Mach 1.1 was to be rocket-powered . Ken Norris had calculated using rocket motors would result in a vehicle with very low frontal area , greater density , and lighter weight than if he went down the jet engine route . Bluebird Mach 1.1 would also be a relatively compact and simple design . Norris specified two off-the-shelf Bristol Siddeley BS.605 rocket engines . The 605 had been developed as a take-off assist rocket engine for military aircraft and was fuelled with kerosene , using hydrogen peroxide as the oxidizer . Each engine was rated at thrust . In Bluebird Mach 1.1 application , the combined thrust would be equivalent of 36,000 bhp ( 27,000 kW ; 36,000 PS ) at 840 mph . Final record attempt In order to increase publicity for his rocket car venture , in the spring of 1966 , Campbell decided to try once more for a water speed record . This time the target was 300 mph . Bluebird K7 was fitted with a lighter and more powerful Bristol Orpheus engine , taken from a Folland Gnat jet aircraft , which developed 4500 lb-f of thrust . The modified boat was taken back to Coniston in the first week of November 1966 . The trials did not go well . The weather was appalling , and K7 suffered an engine failure when her air intakes collapsed and debris was drawn into the engine . By the middle of December , some high-speed runs were made , in excess of 250 mph but still well below Campbell 's existing record . Problems with Bluebirds fuel system meant that the engine could not reach full rpm , and so would not develop maximum power . Eventually , by the end of December , after further modifications to her fuel system , and the replacement of a fuel pump , the fuel starvation problem was fixed , and Campbell awaited better weather to mount an attempt . Death On 4 January 1967 , weather conditions were finally suitable for an attempt . Campbell commenced the first run of his last record attempt at just after 8.45 am . Bluebird moved slowly out towards the middle of the lake , where she paused briefly as Campbell lined her up . With a deafening blast of power , Campbell now applied full throttle and Bluebird began to surge forward . Clouds of spray issued from the jet-pipe , water poured over the rear spar and after a few hundred yards , at 70 mph , Bluebird unstuck from the surface and rocketed off towards the southern end of the lake , producing her characteristic comet 's tail of spray . She entered the measured kilometre at 8:46 . Leo Villa witnessed her passing the first marker buoy at about 285 mph in perfect steady planing trim , her nose slightly down , still accelerating . 7.525 seconds later , Keith Harrison saw her leave the measured kilometre at a speed of over 310 mph . The average speed for the first run was . Campbell lifted his foot from the throttle about 3/10 of a second before passing the southern kilometre marker . As Bluebird left the measured kilometre , Keith Harrison and Eric Shaw in a course boat at the southern end of the measured kilo both noticed that she was very light around the bows , riding on her front stabilising fins . Her planing trim was no worse than she had exhibited when equipped with the Beryl engine , but it was markedly different from that observed by Leo Villa at the northern end of the kilometre , when she was under full acceleration . Campbell had made his usual commentary throughout the run . Campbell 's words on his first run were , via radio intercom : ... I 'm under way , all systems normal ; brake swept up , er . . . air pressure warning light on . . . I 'm coming onto track now and er . . . I 'll open up just as soon as I am heading down the lake , er does n't look too smooth from here , does n't matter , here we go . . . Here we go . . . [ pause 3 seconds ] . . . Passing through four . . . five coming up . . . a lot of water , nose beginning to lift , water all over the front of the engine again . . . and the nose is up . . . low pressure fuel warning light . . . going left . . . OK we 're up and away . . . and passing through er . . . tramping very hard at 150 . . . very hard indeed . . . FULL POWER . . . Passing through 2 . . . 25 out of the way . . . tramping like hell Leo , I do n't think I can get over the top , but I 'll try , FULL HOUSE . . . and I ca n't see where I am . . . FULL HOUSE – FULL HOUSE – FULL HOUSE . . . POWER OFF NOW ! . . . I 'M THROUGH ! . . .power . . . ( garbled ) er passing through 25 vector off Peel Island . . . passing through 2 . . . I 'm lighting like mad . . . brake gone down . . . er . . . engine lighting up now . . . relighting . . . passing Peel Island . . . relight made normal . . . and now . . . down at Brown Howe . . . passing through 100 . . . er . . . nose has n't dropped yet . . . nose down . Instead of refueling and waiting for the wash of this run to subside , Campbell decided to make the return run immediately . This was not an unprecedented diversion from normal practice , as Campbell had used the advantage presented i.e . no encroachment of water disturbances on the measured kilometre by the quick turn-a-round , in many previous runs . The second run was even faster once severe tramping subsided on the run-up from Peel Island ( caused by the water-brake disturbance ) . Once smooth water was reached some 700 metres or so from the start of the kilometre , K7 demonstrated cycles of ground effect hovering before accelerating hard at 0.63g to a peak speed of 328 mph some 200 metres or so from the southern marker buoy . Bluebird was now experiencing bouncing episodes of the starboard sponson with increasing ferocity . At the peak speed , the most intense and long-lasting bounce precipitated a severe decelerating episode ( 328 mph - 296 mph , -1.86g ) as K7 dropped back onto the water . Engine flame-out then occurred and , shorn of thrust nose-down momentum , K7 experienced a gliding episode in strong ground effect with increasing angle-of-attack , before completely leaving the water at her static stability pitch-up limit of 5.2° . Bluebird then executed an almost complete somersault ( ~ 320° and slightly off-axis ) before plunging into the water ( port sponson marginally in advance of the starboard ) , approximately 230 metres from the end of the measured kilometre . The boat then cartwheeled across the water before coming to rest . The impact broke K7 forward of the air intakes ( where Campbell was sitting ) and the main hull sank shortly afterwards . A piece of large plastic came off the windscreen of the boat and decapitated Campbell . Mr Whoppit , Campbell 's teddy bear mascot , was found among the floating debris and the pilot 's helmet was recovered . Royal Navy divers made efforts to find and recover the body but , although the wreck of K7 was found , they called off the search , after two weeks , without locating his body . Campbell 's last words , during a 31-second transmission , on his final run were , via radio intercom : . . . Full nose up . . . Pitching a bit down here . . . coming through our own wash . . . er getting straightened up now on track . . . rather closer to Peel Island . . . and we 're tramping like mad . . . and er . . . FULL POWER . . . er tramping like hell OVER . I ca n't see much and the water 's very bad indeed . . . I 'm galloping over ( I ca n't get over ) * the top . . . and she 's ( actually ) * * giving a hell of a bloody row in here ... I ca n't see anything ... I 've got the bows out ... I 'm going . . . U-hh . . . : * This phrase is disputed , but the former is more consistent with events timed to coincide with it , when K7 was accelerating very hard on an almost perfect water surface . : * * This word is disputed in some interpretations of Campbell 's commentary . The cause of the crash has been variously attributed to Campbell not waiting to refuel after doing a first run of and hence the boat being lighter , or to the wash caused by his first run and made much worse by the use of the water brake . These factors have since been found to be not particularly important : Sheppard , Neil ( 2011 ) . Donald Campbell Bluebird And The Final Record Attempt . Stroud , UK : The History Press . ISBN 978 0 7524 5973 8 The water brake was used well to the south of the measured distance , and only from approx . 200 mph . The area in the centre of the course where Bluebird was travelling at peak speed on her return run was flat calm , and not disturbed by the wash from the first run , which had not had time to be reflected back on the course . Campbell knew this and , as discussed previously , adopted his well-practiced , 'quick turn-around ' strategy . The cause of the crash has been attributed to Bluebird exceeding its aerodynamic static stability limit , complicated by the additional destabilising influences of loss of engine thrust , damage to the port spar fairing , and , the hitherto unappreciated contribution of ground effect lift enhancement . There is also evidence to point to the fact that K7 's dynamic stability limit had been exceeded . The cause ( s ) of the engine flame-out can not be established unequivocally . It could have been due to fuel starvation , damage to some ancillary structural element associated with engine function ( following the worst bouncing episode ) , disturbance of the airstream into the intakes during the pitching episodes , or indeed a combination of all three . Further evidence of lost engine thrust may be seen in both cinematographic and still film recordings of the latter part of the run - as Bluebird left the water , jet exhaust from a functioning engine would have severely disturbed the water surface ; no such disturbance or accompanying spray is evident . Also , close examination of such records show no evidence to the effect that the water brake was deployed . Despite extensive efforts by a team of Royal Navy divers , although Bluebird 's wreckage was located on 5 January , on the lake bed , Campbell 's body was not located until 2001 . On 28 January 1967 Campbell was posthumously awarded the Queen 's Commendation for Brave Conduct `` For courage and determination in attacking the world water speed record . '' Recovery of Bluebird K7 and the body of Donald Campbell The wreckage of Campbell 's craft was recovered by the Bluebird Project between October 2000 , when the first sections were raised , and May 2001 , when Campbell 's body was recovered . The largest section comprising approximately two thirds of the centre hull was raised on 8 March 2001 . The project began when diver Bill Smith was inspired to look for the wreck after hearing the Marillion song `` Out of this World '' ( from the album Afraid of Sunlight

sfq_21270--Donald_Campbell.txt

What was the name of the teddy bear mascot of speed record holder Donald Campbell?

A nymph ( , nymphē ) in Greek mythology and in Latin mythology is a minor female nature deity typically associated with a particular location or landform . Different from other goddesses , nymphs are generally regarded as divine spirits who animate nature , and are usually depicted as beautiful , young nubile maidens who love to dance and sing ; their amorous freedom sets them apart from the restricted and chaste wives and daughters of the Greek polis . They are beloved by many and dwell in mountainous regions and forests by lakes and streams . Although they would never die of old age nor illness , and could give birth to fully immortal children if mated to a god , they themselves were not necessarily immortal , and could be beholden to death in various forms . Charybdis and Scylla were once nymphs . Other nymphs , always in the shape of young maidens , were part of the retinue of a god , such as Dionysus , Hermes , or Pan , or a goddess , generally the huntress Artemis . Nymphs were the frequent target of satyrs . Etymology Nymphs are personifications of the creative and fostering activities of nature , most often identified with the life-giving outflow of springs : as Walter Burkert ( Burkert 1985 : III.3.3 ) remarks , `` The idea that rivers are gods and springs divine nymphs is deeply rooted not only in poetry but in belief and ritual ; the worship of these deities is limited only by the fact that they are inseparably identified with a specific locality . '' The Greek word has `` bride '' and `` veiled '' among its meanings : hence a marriageable young woman . Other readers refer the word ( and also Latin nubere and German Knospe ) to a root expressing the idea of `` swelling '' ( according to Hesychius , one of the meanings of is `` rose-bud '' ) . Adaptations The Greek nymphs were spirits invariably bound to places , not unlike the Latin genius loci , and the difficulty of transferring their cult may be seen in the complicated myth that brought Arethusa to Sicily . In the works of the Greek-educated Latin poets , the nymphs gradually absorbed into their ranks the indigenous Italian divinities of springs and streams ( Juturna , Egeria , Carmentis , Fontus ) , while the Lymphae ( originally Lumpae ) , Italian water-goddesses , owing to the accidental similarity of their names , could be identified with the Greek Nymphae . The mythologies of classicizing Roman poets were unlikely to have affected the rites and cult of individual nymphs venerated by country people in the springs and clefts of Latium . Among the Roman literate class , their sphere of influence was restricted , and they appear almost exclusively as divinities of the watery element . In modern Greek folklore The ancient Greek belief in nymphs survived in many parts of the country into the early years of the twentieth century , when they were usually known as `` nereids '' . At that time , John Cuthbert Lawson wrote : `` ... there is probably no nook or hamlet in all Greece where the womenfolk at least do not scrupulously take precautions against the thefts and malice of the nereids , while many a man may still be found to recount in all good faith stories of their beauty , passion and caprice . `` Nor is it a matter of faith only ; more than once I have been in villages where certain Nereids were known by sight to several persons ( so at least they averred ) ; and there was a wonderful agreement among the witnesses in the description of their appearance and dress . '' Nymphs tended to frequent areas distant from humans but could be encountered by lone travelers outside the village , where their music might be heard , and the traveler could spy on their dancing or bathing in a stream or pool , either during the noon heat or in the middle of the night . They might appear in a whirlwind . Such encounters could be dangerous , bringing dumbness , besotted infatuation , madness or stroke to the unfortunate human . When parents believed their child to be nereid-struck , they would pray to Saint Artemidos . Modern sexual connotations Due to the depiction of the mythological nymphs as females who mate with men or women at their own volition , and are completely outside of male control , the term is often used for women who are perceived as behaving similarly . ( For example , the title of the Perry Mason detective novel The Case of the Negligent Nymph ( 1956 ) by Erle Stanley Gardner is derived from this meaning of the word . ) The term nymphomania was created by modern psychology as referring to a `` desire to engage in human sexual behavior at a level high enough to be considered clinically significant '' , nymphomaniac being the person suffering from such a disorder . Due to widespread use of the term among lay persons ( often shortened to nympho ) and stereotypes attached , professionals nowadays prefer the term hypersexuality , which can refer to males and females alike . The word nymphet is used to identify a sexually precocious girl . The term was made famous in the novel Lolita by Vladimir Nabokov . The main character , Humbert Humbert , uses the term many times , usually in reference to the title character . Classification As H.J . Rose states , all the names for various classes of nymphs are plural feminine adjectives agreeing with the substantive nymphai , and there was no single classification that could be seen as canonical and exhaustive . Thus the classes of nymphs tend to overlap , which complicates the task of precise classification . Rose mentions dryads and hamadryads as nymphs of trees generally , meliai as nymphs of ash trees , and naiads as nymphs of water , but no others specifically . Classification by type of dwelling The following is not the authentic Greek classification , but is intended simply as a guide : * Celestial nymphs * * Aurae ( breezes ) , also called Aetae or Pnoae * * Asteriae ( stars ) , mainly comprising the Atlantides ( daughters of Atlas ) * * * Hesperides ( nymphs of the West , daughters of Atlas ; also had attributes of the Hamadryads ) * * * * Aegle ( `` dazzling light '' ) * * * * Arethusa * * * * Erytheia ( or Eratheis ) * * * * Hesperia ( or Hispereia ) * * * Hyades ( star cluster ; sent rain ) * * * Pleiades ( daughters of Atlas and Pleione ; constellation ; also were classed as Oreads ) * * * * Maia ( partner of Zeus and mother of Hermes ) * * * * Electra * * * * Taygete * * * * Alcyone * * * * Celaeno * * * * Asterope * * * * Merope * * Nephele ( clouds ) * Land nymphs * * Alseides ( glens , groves ) * * Auloniades ( pastures ) * * Leimakides or Leimonides ( meadows ) * * Napaeae ( mountain valleys , glens ) * * Oreads ( mountains , grottoes ) , also Orodemniades * Wood and plant nymphs * * Anthousai ( flowers ) * * Dryades ( trees ) * * Hamadryades or Hadryades * * * Daphnaeae ( laurel tree ) * * * Epimeliades or Epimelides ( apple tree ; also protected flocks ) , other name variants include Meliades , Maliades and Hamameliades ; same as these are also the Boucolai ( Pastoral Nymphs ) * * * Kissiae ( ivy ) * * * Meliae ( manna-ash tree ) * * Hyleoroi ( watchers of woods ) * Water nymphs ( Hydriades or Ephydriades ) * * Haliae ( sea and seashores ) * * * Nereids ( 50 daughters of Nereus , the Mediterranean Sea ) * * Naiads or Naides ( fresh water ) * * * Crinaeae ( fountains ) * * * Eleionomae ( wetlands ) * * * Limnades or Limnatides ( lakes ) * * * Pegaeae ( springs ) * * * Potameides ( rivers ) * * * * Tágides ( Tagus River ) * * Oceanids ( daughters of Oceanus and Tethys , any water , usually salty ) * * * see List of Oceanids * Underworld nymphs * * Cocytiae , daughters of the river god Cocytus * * Lampades – torch bearers in the retinue of Hecate * * Underworld nymphs : * * * Orphne is a representation of the darkness of the river Styx , the river of hatred , but is not to be confused with the goddess Styx-herself , but she is associated with both Styx and Nyx . She is the consort of Acheron , ( the god of the river in Hades ) , and the mother of Ascalaphus , ( the orchardist of Hades ) . * * * Leuce ( white poplar tree ) , lover of Hades * * * Minthe ( mint ) , lover of Hades , rival of Persephone * * * Melinoe ( μήλινος ) Orphic nymph , daughter of Persephone and `` Zeus disguised as Pluto '' . Her name is a possible epithet of Hecate . * Other nymphs * * Hecaterides ( rustic dance ) – sisters of the Dactyls , mothers of the Oreads and the Satyrs * * Kabeirides – sisters of the Kabeiroi * * Maenads or Bacchai or Bacchantes – frenzied nymphs in the retinue of Dionysus * * * Lenai ( wine-press ) * * * Mimallones ( music ) * * * Naides ( Naiads ) * * * Thyiai or Thyiades ( thyrsus bearers ) * * Melissae ( honey bees ) , likely a subgroup of Oreades or Epimelides * * The Muses ( memory , knowledge , art ) * * Themeides – daughters of Zeus and Themis , prophets and keepers of certain divine artifacts Location-specific groupings of nymphs The following is a list of groups of nymphs associated with this or that particular location . Nymphs in such groupings could belong to any of the classes mentioned above ( Naiades , Oreades , and so on ) . * Aeaean Nymphs ( Aeaea Island ) , handmaidens of Circe * Aegaeides ( Aegaeus River on the island of Scheria ) * Aesepides ( Aesepus River in Anatolia ) * * Abarbarea * Acheloides ( Achelous River ) * * Callirhoe , second wife of Alcmaeon * Acmenes ( Stadium in Olympia , Elis ) * Amnisiades ( Amnisos River on the island of Crete ) , who entered the retinue of Artemis * Anigrides ( Anigros River in Elis ) , who were believed to cure skin diseases * Asopides ( Asopus River in Sicyonia and Boeotia ) * * Aegina * * Asopis * * Chalcis * * Cleone * * Combe * * Corcyra * * Euboea * * Harpina * * Ismene * * Nemea * * Oeroe * * Ornea * * Peirene * * Plataia * * Salamis * * Sinope * * Tanagra * * Thebe * * Thespeia * Astakides ( Lake Astakos in Bithynia ) * * Nicaea * Asterionides ( Asterion River ) – nurses of Hera * * Acraea * * Euboea * * Prosymna * Carian Naiades ( Caria ) * * Salmacis * Nymphs of Ceos * Corycian Nymphs ( Corycian Cave ) * * Cleodora * * Corycia * * Daphnis * * Melaina * Cydnides ( River Cydnus in Cilicia ) * Cyrenaean Nymphs ( City of Cyrene , Libya ) * Cypriae Nymphs ( Island of Cyprus ) * Cyrtonian Nymphs ( Town of Cyrtone , Boeotia ) * Deliades ( Island of Delos ) – daughters of the river god Inopos * Dodonides ( Oracle at Dodona ) * Erasinides ( Erasinos River in Argos ) , followers of Britomartis * * Anchiroe * * Byze * * Maira * * Melite * Nymphs of the river Granicus * * Alexirhoe * * Pegasis * Heliades ( River Eridanos ) – daughters of Helios who were changed into trees * Himeriai Naiades ( Local springs at the town of Himera , Sicily ) * Hydaspides ( River Hydaspes in India ) , nurses of infant Zagreus * Idaean Nymphs ( Mount Ida ) , nurses of infant Zeus * * Ida * * Adrasteia * Inachides ( Inachus River ) * * Amymone * * Io * * Hyperia * * Messeis * * Philodice * Ionides ( Kytheros River in Elis ) * * Calliphaea * * Iasis * * Pegaea * * Synallaxis * Ithacian Nymphs ( Local springs and caves on the island of Ithaca ) * Ladonides ( Ladon River ) * Lamides or Lamusides ( Lamos River in Cilicia ) , possible nurses of infant Dionysus * Leibethrides ( Mounts Helicon and Leibethrios in Boeotia ; or Mount Leibethros in Thrace ) * * Libethrias * * Petra * Lelegeides ( Lycia , Anatolia ) * Lycaean Nymphs ( Mount Lycaeus ) , nurses of infant Zeus , perhaps a subgroup of the Oceanides * Melian Nymphs ( Island of Melos ) , transformed into frogs by Zeus ; not to be confused with the Meliae ( ash tree nymphs ) * Mycalessides ( Mount Mycale in Caria , Anatolia ) * Mysian Nymphs ( Spring of Pegai near Lake Askanios in Bithynia ) , who abducted Hylas * * Euneica * * Malis * * Nycheia * Naxian Nymphs ( Mount Drios on the island of Naxos ) , nurses of infant Dionysus ; were syncretized with the Hyades * * Cleide * * Coronis * * Philia * Neaerides ( Thrinacia Island ) – daughters of Helios and Neaera , watched over Helios ' cattle * Nymphaeides ( Nymphaeus River in Paphlagonia ) * Nysiads ( Mount Nysa ) – nurses of infant Dionysos , identified with Hyades * Ogygian Nymphs ( Island of Ogygia ) , four handmaidens of Calypso * Ortygian Nymphs ( Local springs of Syracuse , Sicily ) , named for the island of Ortygia * Othreides ( Mount Othrys ) , a local group of Hamadryads * Pactolides ( Pactolus River ) * * Euryanassa , wife of Tantalus * Pelionides ( Mount Pelion ) , nurses of the Centaurs * Phaethonides , a synonym for the Heliades * Phaseides ( Phasis River ) * Rhyndacides ( Rhyndacus River in Mysia ) * Sithnides ( Fountain at the town of Megara ) * Spercheides ( River Spercheios ) ; one of them , Diopatra , was loved by Poseidon and the others were changed by him into trees * Sphragitides , or Cithaeronides ( Mount Cithaeron ) * Tagids , Tajids , Thaejids or Thaegids ( River Tagus , in Portugal and Spain ) * Thessalides ( Peneus River in Thessaly ) * Thriae ( Mount Parnassos ) , prophets and nurses of Apollo * Trojan Nymphs ( Local springs of Troy ) Individual names of some of the nymphs The following is a selection of names of the nymphs whose class was not specified in the source texts . For lists of Naiads , Oceanids , Dryades etc . see respective articles . * Aba , mother of Ergiscus by Poseidon * Aora , eponym of the town Aoros in Crete * Axioche or Danais , mother of Chrysippus by Pelops * Brettia , eponym of Abrettene , Mysia * Chania , a lover of Heracles * Cirrha , eponym of Cirrha in Phocis * Clonia , consort of Hyrieus * Cnossia , mother of Xenodamus by Menelaus * Cretheis , briefly mentioned in Suda * Crimisa , eponym of a city in Italy * Dercetis , known for seducing the young Lapithaon * Echemeia ( spelled `` Ethemea '' by Hyginus ) , consort of Merops * Eunoe , possible mother of Hecuba by Dymas * Eunoste , nurse of Eunostus * Hegetoria of Rhodes , consort of Ochimus * Hyllis of Argos , possible eponym of the tribe Hylleis and the city Hylle * Mendeis , consort of Sithon * Menodice , mother of Hylas by Theiodamas * Mideia , mother of Aspledon by Poseidon * Nacole , eponym of Nacoleia in Phrygia * Nomia of Arcadia , a friend of Callisto * Oinoie , mother of Sicinus by Thoas * Paphia , possibly the mother of Cinyras by Eurymedon * Pareia , mother of four sons by Minos * Psalacantha , changed into a plant by Dionysus * Rhene of Mount Cyllene , who consorted with both Hermes and Oileus * Semestra , nurse of Keroessa * Syllis , mother of Zeuxippus by Apollo * Teledice , a consort of Phoroneus In non-Greek tales influenced by Greek mythology * Sabrina ( the river Severn )

sfq_21930--Nymph.txt

In Greek mythology, what was the name of the nymphs who tended the garden from where Heracles stole golden apples?

The European Union ( EU ) is a politico-economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe . It has an area of , and an estimated population of over 510 million . The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states . EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people , goods , services , and capital within the internal market , enact legislation in justice and home affairs , and maintain common policies on trade , agriculture , fisheries , and regional development . Within the Schengen Area , passport controls have been abolished . A monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002 , and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency . The EU operates through a hybrid system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making . The seven principal decision-making bodies—known as the institutions of the European Union—are the European Council , the Council of the European Union , the European Parliament , the European Commission , the Court of Justice of the European Union , the European Central Bank , and the European Court of Auditors . The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community ( ECSC ) and the European Economic Community ( EEC ) , formed by the Inner Six countries in 1951 and 1958 , respectively . The community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit . While no member state has , as yet , ever left the EU , a non-binding referendum in the United Kingdom in June 2016 supported leaving . The Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship . The latest major amendment to the constitutional basis of the EU , the Treaty of Lisbon , came into force in 2009 . Covering 7.3 % of the world population , the EU in 2014 generated a nominal gross domestic product ( GDP ) of 18.495 trillion US dollars , constituting approximately 24 % of global nominal GDP and 17 % when measured in terms of purchasing power parity . Additionally , 26 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index , according to the United Nations Development Program . In 2012 , the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy , the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence . The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations , the World Trade Organization , the G8 , and the G-20 . Because of its global influence , the European Union has been described as a current or as a potential superpower . History Preliminary ( 194557 ) After World War II , European integration was seen as an antidote to the extreme nationalism which had devastated the continent . The 1948 Hague Congress was a pivotal moment in European federal history , as it led to the creation of the European Movement International and of the College of Europe , where Europe 's future leaders would live and study together . 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community , which was declared to be `` a first step in the federation of Europe . '' The supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi , Jean Monnet , Robert Schuman , and Paul-Henri Spaak . Treaty of Rome ( 195792 ) In 1957 , Belgium , France , Italy , Luxembourg , the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome , which created the European Economic Community ( EEC ) and established a customs union . They also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community ( Euratom ) for co-operation in developing nuclear energy . Both treaties came into force in 1958 . The EEC and Euratom were created separately from ECSC , although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly . The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein ( Hallstein Commission ) and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand ( Armand Commission ) and then Étienne Hirsch . Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members . Through the 1960s , tensions began to show , with France seeking to limit supranational power . Nevertheless , in 1965 an agreement was reached and on 1 July 1967 the Merger Treaty created a single set of institutions for the three communities , which were collectively referred to as the European Communities . Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission ( Rey Commission ) . In 1973 , the Communities enlarged to include Denmark ( including Greenland , which later left the Community in 1985 , following a dispute over fishing rights ) , Ireland , and the United Kingdom . Norway had negotiated to join at the same time , but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum . In 1979 , the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held . Greece joined in 1981 , Portugal and Spain following in 1986 . In 1985 , the Schengen Agreement paved the way for the creation of open borders without passport controls between most member states and some non-member states . In 1986 , the European flag began to be used by the Community and the Single European Act was signed . In 1990 , after the fall of the Eastern Bloc , the former East Germany became part of the Community as part of a reunified Germany . With further enlargement planned to include the former communist states , as well as Cyprus and Malta , the Copenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the EU were agreed upon in June 1993 . Maastricht Treaty ( 1992–present ) The European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty—whose main architects were Helmut Kohl and François Mitterrand—came into force on 1 November 1993 . The treaty also gave the name European Community to the EEC , even if it was referred as such before the treaty . In 1995 , Austria , Finland , and Sweden joined the EU . In 2002 , euro banknotes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states . Since then , the eurozone has increased to encompass 19 countries . In 2004 , the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date when Cyprus , the Czech Republic , Estonia , Hungary , Latvia , Lithuania , Malta , Poland , Slovakia and Slovenia joined the Union . In 2007 , Romania and Bulgaria became EU members . The same year , Slovenia adopted the euro , followed in 2008 by Cyprus and Malta , by Slovakia in 2009 , by Estonia in 2011 , by Latvia in 2014 and by Lithuania in 2015 . On 1 December 2009 , the Lisbon Treaty entered into force and reformed many aspects of the EU . In particular , it changed the legal structure of the European Union , merging the EU three pillars system into a single legal entity provisioned with a legal personality , created a permanent President of the European Council , the first of which was Herman Van Rompuy , and strengthened the position of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy . In 2012 , the EU received the Nobel Peace Prize for having `` contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation , democracy , and human rights in Europe . '' In 2013 , Croatia became the 28th EU member . From the beginning of 2010s , the European Union is going through a series of tests , including a debt crisis in some Eurozone countries , increasing migration from Middle Eastern countries , Russian military intervention in Ukraine and the United Kingdom 's withdrawal from the EU . Structural evolution The following timeline illustrates the integration that has led to the formation of the present union , in terms of structural development driven by international treaties : British withdrawal A referendum on the UK 's membership of the European Union ( announced by British Prime Minister David Cameron on 20 February 2016 ) was held on 23 June 2016 , following years of campaigning by eurosceptics . The result gave a majority of with 51.9 % to leave , and 48.1 % to remain , on a turnout of 72.2 % of registered voters . , the UK has not yet initiated the formal withdrawal procedure , and will not leave the EU until either two years after they notify the European Council of their decision to withdraw , or on the coming into force of a withdrawal agreement . [ http : //www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-36618317 EU Brexit referendum : UK 'must not delay leaving ' ] , BBC News . Retrieved 24 June 2016 . Geography The EU 's member states cover an area of 4423147 km2.This figure includes the extra-European territories of member states which are part of the European Union and excludes the European territories of member states which are not part of the Union . For more information see Special member state territories and the European Union . The EU 's highest peak is Mont Blanc in the Graian Alps , above sea level . The lowest points in the EU are Lammefjorden , Denmark and Zuidplaspolder , Netherlands , at 7 m ( 23 ft ) below sea level . The landscape , climate , and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline , which is 65993 km long . Including the overseas territories of France which are located outside the continent of Europe , but which are members of the union , the EU experiences most types of climate from Arctic ( North-East Europe ) to tropical ( French Guyana ) , rendering meteorological averages for the EU as a whole meaningless . The majority of the population lives in areas with a temperate maritime climate ( North-Western Europe and Central Europe ) , a Mediterranean climate ( Southern Europe ) , or a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate ( Northern Balkans and Central Europe ) . The EU 's population is highly urbanised , with some 75 % of inhabitants ( and growing , projected to be 90 % in seven member states by 2020 ) living in urban areas . Cities are largely spread out across the EU , although with a large grouping in and around the Benelux . An increasing percentage of this is due to low density urban sprawl which is extending into natural areas . In some cases , this urban growth has been due to the influx of EU funds into a region . Member states Through successive enlargements , the European Union has grown from the six founding states—Belgium , France , West Germany , Italy , Luxembourg , and the Netherlands—to the current . Countries accede to the union by becoming party to the founding treaties , thereby subjecting themselves to the privileges and obligations of EU membership . This entails a partial delegation of sovereignty to the institutions in return for representation within those institutions , a practice often referred to as `` pooling of sovereignty '' . To become a member , a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria , defined at the 1993 meeting of the European Council in Copenhagen . These require a stable democracy that respects human rights and the rule of law ; a functioning market economy ; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership , including EU law . Evaluation of a country 's fulfilment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European Council . No member state has yet left the Union , although Greenland ( an autonomous province of Denmark ) withdrew in 1985 . The Lisbon Treaty now contains a clause under Article 50 , providing for a member to leave the EU . On 23 June 2016 , the United Kingdom voted by referendum to leave the EU . However , it remains a member until it officially exits , and has not yet begun formal withdrawal procedures . There are six countries that are recognized as candidates for membership : Albania , Iceland , Macedonia , Referred to by the EU as the `` former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia '' . Montenegro , Serbia , and Turkey , though Iceland suspended negotiations in 2013 . Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo are officially recognised as potential candidates , with Bosnia and Herzegovina having submitted a membership application . The four countries forming the European Free Trade Association ( EFTA ) are not EU members , but have partly committed to the EU 's economy and regulations : Iceland , Liechtenstein and Norway , which are a part of the single market through the European Economic Area , and Switzerland , which has similar ties through bilateral treaties . The relationships of the European microstates , Andorra , Monaco , San Marino , and the Vatican include the use of the euro and other areas of co-operation . The following sovereign states ( of which the map only shows territories situated in and around Europe ) constitute the European Union : File : Member States of the European Union ( polar stereographic projection ) EN.svg|390px|right|Map showing the member states of the European Union ( clickable ) poly 261 28 273 39 279 59 284 61 286 66 271 97 275 105 275 116 284 122 308 111 320 83 308 75 310 71 302 60 305 54 297 46 298 36 290 32 291 16 282 16 277 22 280 28 275 33 270 32 264 26 Finland poly 260 29 259 38 252 37 252 42 248 41 244 54 238 64 238 72 235 77 237 83 226 83 223 100 227 106 230 111 227 115 229 121 223 127 220 141 229 160 227 163 231 173 238 171 238 168 242 164 250 164 254 135 261 130 262 117 252 115 257 93 270 83 271 66 279 59 273 39 Sweden poly 312 142 307 131 311 123 294 123 279 132 280 142 290 137 295 138 304 141 Estonia poly 310 164 319 155 318 148 313 142 295 140 298 153 288 149 282 142 277 161 295 158 Latvia poly 288 180 295 184 301 184 309 178 307 170 312 168 308 162 294 157 279 161 279 174 289 174 Lithuania poly 300 198 294 182 290 180 270 183 265 184 264 179 250 182 248 186 238 190 238 197 234 199 239 203 241 223 249 225 251 229 255 226 261 230 265 232 268 235 270 237 273 235 276 240 281 237 283 237 289 236 296 242 297 239 297 234 301 223 305 222 304 217 301 214 296 201 Poland poly 254 250 257 245 261 244 269 236 272 235 276 240 279 238 289 235 297 243 274 250 269 253 269 257 259 254 Slovakia poly 299 251 291 245 270 252 269 257 258 252 249 268 254 271 260 279 268 278 275 274 290 272 294 258 Hungary poly 355 291 354 280 361 274 355 269 349 272 346 270 343 259 332 248 330 243 328 242 324 247 314 250 312 248 301 250 294 255 292 265 288 271 282 274 288 281 293 284 293 288 296 290 302 287 301 291 308 294 308 297 317 297 322 297 329 295 339 287 347 288 Romania poly 309 327 312 322 309 318 305 316 305 310 308 305 302 298 304 294 309 295 310 298 328 297 340 287 354 291 350 297 352 301 348 304 355 309 348 314 347 311 340 316 339 317 339 321 329 324 323 321 316 325 Bulgaria poly 308 383 305 376 306 374 293 368 294 359 289 351 289 344 294 339 295 333 301 332 304 328 310 326 317 326 322 322 329 325 340 321 340 316 342 319 340 328 328 329 320 331 325 335 339 340 336 342 348 344 350 348 347 358 344 353 348 352 349 348 343 347 345 344 334 341 335 338 328 335 317 341 313 337 311 342 320 350 332 359 339 365 358 359 340 377 331 380 335 376 337 378 342 373 340 370 345 372 353 362 337 366 328 363 327 367 320 367 326 372 319 374 320 382 334 393 355 393 372 372 372 378 368 383 368 377 364 384 365 390 361 387 355 396 340 400 339 395 329 397 329 393 332 392 320 380 314 384 311 378 Greece poly 419 384 415 381 421 378 421 373 428 371 435 365 430 374 434 376 424 383 Cyprus poly 236 248 224 238 221 231 225 227 236 221 240 220 249 225 254 226 260 231 266 230 267 236 261 243 249 245 244 243 Czech Republic poly 198 263 201 257 204 260 207 258 213 260 224 255 233 248 238 248 241 244 245 244 248 246 255 246 253 250 256 254 250 265 249 268 238 272 229 271 220 268 218 263 210 264 208 266 Austria poly 249 267 253 273 242 279 244 284 236 282 230 281 227 277 229 271 238 272 Slovenia poly 179 298 180 293 174 292 176 287 173 283 178 282 178 278 176 275 181 274 185 273 189 269 189 273 195 273 197 269 199 272 204 269 207 267 210 265 218 263 220 269 230 271 226 281 219 283 222 289 219 290 220 297 231 304 236 319 247 323 253 325 250 327 274 341 273 349 269 341 260 341 257 348 262 355 261 358 257 360 257 364 251 371 248 369 244 377 244 378 244 386 237 386 237 383 230 381 222 375 219 376 219 370 226 368 238 370 245 367 250 365 253 358 248 346 246 347 241 342 241 341 237 340 234 336 230 332 224 331 184 357 181 355 183 343 182 333 185 333 190 329 193 330 196 339 194 340 193 352 224 331 211 317 209 317 203 309 204 308 202 298 190 292 184 297 Italy rect 224 394 251 405 Malta poly 14 333 21 334 24 337 27 339 29 333 36 329 33 325 40 319 39 311 43 312 49 298 57 295 54 292 55 289 43 284 42 281 39 280 36 291 36 292 19 313 24 314 20 317 23 318 19 324 19 327 Portugal poly 41 358 38 355 35 355 37 345 32 338 28 338 29 333 37 329 33 326 39 319 39 311 42 312 49 300 56 295 55 292 54 290 43 283 39 280 42 270 39 269 45 266 50 268 51 264 58 266 69 274 71 272 80 279 89 280 95 283 99 287 102 287 114 299 119 301 120 298 124 301 124 304 127 305 135 308 140 309 140 314 145 339 140 337 133 343 126 339 116 349 113 342 120 345 128 337 132 335 136 338 143 335 139 312 136 316 131 317 128 317 114 320 116 322 104 331 100 338 106 345 98 346 92 353 92 356 85 354 76 361 73 357 71 361 66 357 53 354 53 357 46 355 Spain poly 100 286 111 297 118 300 119 298 126 302 128 302 128 305 139 307 140 301 144 298 152 296 155 300 157 298 165 304 169 305 189 328 195 318 195 306 192 312 188 311 187 327 170 305 178 298 180 294 173 292 176 288 174 284 179 281 176 276 179 272 175 266 170 267 175 262 180 258 178 255 182 256 186 244 190 240 178 234 173 232 169 227 169 225 165 225 162 220 157 216 155 212 151 212 147 218 142 222 137 221 137 224 133 223 125 220 121 218 124 225 121 230 113 227 111 223 107 224 101 223 97 223 97 232 109 241 111 251 115 258 107 284 France poly 202 178 209 178 211 181 218 182 216 185 218 187 231 181 235 184 231 187 238 189 238 197 235 201 238 203 240 222 236 220 234 224 223 228 221 230 224 238 232 247 224 255 217 258 211 259 207 257 203 261 199 256 189 255 183 256 185 244 190 241 181 235 178 224 181 214 180 207 185 201 190 195 192 187 197 187 199 189 202 186 Germany poly 177 225 174 229 172 235 180 237 180 229 Luxembourg poly 155 210 157 220 166 225 175 232 173 226 178 225 177 215 171 210 164 212 160 209 Belgium poly 191 188 178 189 162 209 167 209 171 207 170 210 179 215 180 207 188 204 184 200 188 198 Netherlands poly 201 177 209 177 222 181 228 176 227 159 219 170 221 177 216 175 214 163 218 158 215 143 202 157 Denmark poly 96 205 102 206 108 204 111 207 114 204 120 205 123 208 134 209 137 208 141 210 150 205 146 204 154 197 156 191 151 188 145 188 149 183 142 163 142 156 139 149 134 147 141 145 149 132 136 130 144 123 157 113 163 103 157 107 158 113 147 121 143 117 140 119 133 119 124 130 123 124 128 118 122 118 115 129 123 124 121 132 115 149 105 146 105 149 100 156 103 157 109 164 118 160 113 150 118 145 119 152 124 150 119 156 124 159 132 158 128 164 127 173 118 173 114 181 119 179 117 183 113 187 107 187 108 190 113 192 118 196 123 197 118 198 113 197 109 199 United Kingdom poly 102 181 92 179 82 181 79 179 75 173 78 168 89 162 84 159 89 151 98 154 100 153 97 150 104 146 109 147 100 156 108 166 106 174 103 177 Ireland desc bottom-left Environment In 1957 , when the EEC was founded , it had no environmental policy . Over the past 50 years , an increasingly dense network of legislation has been created , extending to all areas of environmental protection , including air pollution , water quality , waste management , nature conservation , and the control of chemicals , industrial hazards and biotechnology . According to the Institute for European Environmental Policy , environmental law comprises over 500 Directives , Regulations and Decisions , making environmental policy a core area of European politics . European policy-makers originally increased the EU 's capacity to act on environmental issues by defining it as a trade problem . Trade barriers and competitive distortions in the Common Market could emerge due to the different environmental standards in each member state . In subsequent years , the environment became a formal policy area , with its own policy actors , principles and procedures . The legal basis for EU environmental policy was established with the introduction of the Single European Act in 1987 . Initially , EU environmental policy focused on Europe . More recently , the EU has demonstrated leadership in global environmental governance , e.g . the role of the EU in securing the ratification and coming into force of the Kyoto Protocol despite opposition from the United States . This international dimension is reflected in the EU 's Sixth Environmental Action Programme , which recognises that its objectives can only be achieved if key international agreements are actively supported and properly implemented both at EU level and worldwide . The Lisbon Treaty further strengthened the leadership ambitions . EU law has played a significant role in improving habitat and species protection in Europe , as well as contributing to improvements in air and water quality and waste management . Mitigating climate change is one of the top priorities of EU environmental policy . In 2007 , member states agreed that , in future , 20 % of the energy used across the EU must be renewable , and carbon dioxide emissions have to be lower in 2020 by at least 20 % compared to 1990 levels . The EU has adopted an emissions trading system to incorporate carbon emissions into the economy . The European Green Capital is an annual award given to cities that focuses on the environment , energy efficiency and quality of life in urban areas to create smart city . Politics The European Union operates according to the principles of conferral ( which says that it should act only within the limits of the competences conferred on it by the treaties ) and of subsidiarity ( which says that it should act only where an objective can not be sufficiently achieved by the member states acting alone ) . Laws made by the EU institutions are passed in a variety of forms . Generally speaking , they can be classified into two groups : those which come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures ( regulations ) and those which specifically require national implementation measures ( directives ) . Constitutional nature The classification of the EU in terms of international or constitutional law has been much debated . It began life as an international organisation and gradually developed into a confederation of states . However , since the mid-1960s it has also added several of the key attributes of a federation , such as the direct effect of the law of the general level of government upon the individual and majority voting in the decision-making process of the general level of government , without becoming a federation per se . Scholars thus today see it as an intermediate form lying between a confederation and a federation , being an instance of neither political structure.For example , David Marquand says it is ‘ less than a federation but more than a confederation ’ ; Brigid Laffan and Kimmo Kiljunen both see it residing ‘ between a confederation and a federation ’ ; Thomas Hueglin and Alan Fenna locate it ‘ somewhere between federation and confederation ’ ; and Kalypso Nicolaidis argues ‘ it is more than a confederation of sovereign states ; ... ( however , it ) should not become a federal state ’ . Michael Burgess enlarges : the EU 'is not a federation but it is also more than a confederation understood in the classical sense . It exists , then , in a kind of conceptual limbo , a twilight zone ... which has no name ' . Paul Magnette illuminates the nature of the perceived 'in-betweenness ' : 'Since the seventeenth century , legal theorists have repeated that only two forms of union between states are possible : either the confederation , born of an international treaty concluded between sovereign states , where all decisions are unanimously adopted by state representatives ; or the federal state , established by a constitution , where the law voted on by a bicameral parliament applies directly to the citizens . Tertium non datur . There is no third way ... In these , classic , political terms , the European Union is , strictly speaking , inconceivable ' . Burgess , Michael ( 2000 ) Federalism and European Union : The Building of Europe 1950-2000 , Routledge , London , pp . 41-2 . Hueglin , Thomas and Fenna , Alan ( 2006 ) Comparative Federalism : A Systematic Inquiry , Broadview , Peterborough , p. 13 . Kiljunen , Kimmo ( 2004 ) The European Constitution in the Making , Centre for European Policy Studies , Brussels , p. 22 . Laffan , Brigid ( 2002 ) The Future of Europe Debate , Institute of European Affairs , Dublin , p. 10 . Magnette , Paul ( 2005 ) What Is the European Union ? Nature and Prospects , Palgrave Macmillan , Basingstoke , pp . 4-5 , 190 . Marquand , David ( 2006 ) ‘ Federalism and the British : Anatomy of a Neurosis ’ , in Political Quarterly , Vol . 77 , No . 2 , p. 175 . Nicolaidis , Kalypso ( 2004 ) ‘ We , the Peoples of Europe ... ’ , in Foreign Affairs , Vol . 83 , No . 6 , pp . 101-2 .

qw_13372--European_Union.txt

When the 1992 Maastricht Treaty established the European Union and led to a common currency in Europe, what was the currency called?

The White Ship ( ) was a vessel that sank in the English Channel near the Normandy coast off Barfleur , on 25 November 1120 . Only two of those aboard survived.William of Malmesbury stated one rustic survived while Orderic Vitalis identified two survivors , a butcher and a Geoffrey , the son of Gilbert de l'Aigle . Compare : J.A . Guiles , William of Malmesbury 's Chronicle of the Kings of England ( London : George Bell and Sons , 1904 ) , p. 456 , and Ordericus Vitalis , The Ecclesiastical History of England and Normandy , Trans . Thomas Forester , Vol IV ( London : Henry G. Bohn , 1856 ) , p. 35 . Those who drowned included William Adelin , the only surviving legitimate son and heir of King Henry I of England . William Adelin 's death led to a succession crisis and a period of civil war in England known as the Anarchy . Shipwreck The White Ship was a newly-refitted vessel captained by Thomas FitzStephen , whose father Stephen FitzAirard had been captain of the ship Mora for William the Conqueror when he invaded England in 1066 . Thomas offered his ship to Henry I of England to use it to return to England from Barfleur in Normandy . Henry had already made other arrangements , but allowed many in his retinue to take the White Ship , including his heir , William Adelin ; his illegitimate son Richard of Lincoln ; his illegitimate daughter Matilda FitzRoy , Countess of Perche ; and many other nobles . According to chronicler Orderic Vitalis , the crew asked William Adelin for wine and he supplied it to them in great abundance . By the time the ship was ready to leave there were about 300 people on board although some had disembarked before the ship sailed due to the excessive drinking . The ship 's captain , Thomas FitzStephen , was ordered by the revellers to overtake the king 's ship which had already sailed . The White Ship was fast , of the best construction and had recently been fitted with new materials which made the captain and crew confident they could reach England first . But when it set off in the dark , its port side struck a submerged rock called Quillebœuf and the ship quickly capsized . William Adelin got into a small boat and could have escaped but turned back to try to rescue his half-sister , Matilda , when he heard her cries for help . His boat was swamped by others trying to save themselves , and William drowned along with them . According to Orderic Vitalis only two survived by clinging to the rock all night ; one was a butcher from Rouen , the second was Geoffrey de l'Aigle . The chronicler further claimed that when Thomas FitzStephen came to the surface after the sinking and learned that William Adelin had not survived , he let himself drown rather than face the King . One legend holds that the ship was doomed because priests were not allowed to board it in the customary manner.William of Nangis wrote that the White Ship sank because all the men aboard were sodomites . See : ’ ’ Chron. ’ ’ in Rolls series , ed . W. Stubbs ( London , 1879 ) , vol . 2 , under A.D. 1120. which reflects the medieval belief that sin caused pestilence and disaster . See also : Codex Justinian , nov. 141 . Another theory is expounded by Victoria Chandler , `` The Wreck of the White Ship '' , in The final argument : the imprint of violence on society in medieval and early modern Europe , edited by Donald J. Kagay and L.J . Andrew Villalon ( 1998 ) . Her theory discusses the possibility of it being a mass murder . Repercussions A direct result of William Adelin 's death was the period known as the Anarchy . The White Ship disaster had left Henry I with only one legitimate child , a second daughter named Matilda . Although Henry I had forced his barons to swear an oath to support Matilda as his heir on several occasions , a woman had never ruled in England in her own right . Matilda was also unpopular because she was married to Geoffrey V , Count of Anjou , a traditional enemy of England 's Norman nobles . Upon Henry 's death in 1135 , the English barons were reluctant to accept Matilda as queen Regnant . One of Henry I 's male relatives , Stephen of Blois , the king 's nephew by his sister Adela , usurped Matilda as well as his older brothers William and Theobald to become king . Stephen had allegedly planned to travel on the White Ship but had disembarked just before it sailed ; Orderic Vitalis attributes this to a sudden bout of diarrhoea . After Henry I 's death , Matilda and her husband Geoffrey of Anjou , the founder of the Plantagenet dynasty , launched a long and devastating war against Stephen and his allies for control of the English throne . The Anarchy dragged from 1135 to 1153 with devastating effect , especially in southern England . Contemporary historian William of Malmesbury wrote : Historical fiction * The sinking of the White Ship is referenced in Ken Follett 's novel The Pillars of the Earth ( 1989 ) . The ship 's sinking sets the stage for the entire background of the story , which is based on the subsequent civil war between Matilda ( referred to as Maud in the novel ) and Stephen . In Follett 's novel , it is implied that the ship may have been sabotaged ; this implication is seen in the TV adaptation , even going so far as to show William Adelin assassinated whilst on a lifeboat . This is a literary interpretation that goes beyond the facts that are known . * It is also described in detail by Sharon Kay Penman in the historical novel When Christ and His Saints Slept ( 1994 ) . * The sinking of the White Ship is briefly referenced in Glenn Cooper 's novel The Tenth Chamber ( 2010 ) . * The White Ship also sets the stage for the 2009 novel ' ( The Brothers of Job ) by the German author Rebecca Gablé , which details the rise of Henry II of England , son of Empress Matilda . * The long conflict between Stephen and Matilda is important in the Brother Cadfael series . This 20-book set of mysteries , by Ellis Peters , has a 12th-century Benedictine monk as its protagonist . Depending on the book , the conflict is either very important or just serves as a backdrop to the plots . The sinking directly affects the outcome of the short story A Light on the Road to Woodstock . * In the GURPS role-playing game Infinite Worlds setting , the Infinity Patrol that travels between parallel universes is opposed by another world with parachronic travel , Centrum . The point of historical divergence on Centrum is the survival of the White Ship , where William Adelin survives and his descendents lead an Anglo-French Empire that conquers the world . That empire is later decimated by a nuclear attack on the palace in 1902 , leading to civil war and worldwide collapse , which brings about the rise there of the socialist technocratic meritocracy Centrum . Poetry * Felicia Hemans , `` He Never Smiled Again '' , c. 1830 * Dante Gabriel Rossetti , `` The White Ship : a ballad '' ; first published 1881 in his collected Ballads and Sonnets . * Edwin Arlington Robinson , `` Ballad of a Ship '' , 1891 * Geoffrey Hill , `` The White Ship '' . In his first book , For the Unfallen , 1959 . Notes

dpql_5360--White_Ship.txt

Which king’s beloved son William was drowned in the tragedy of the White Ship?

Apollo 11 was the first spaceflight that landed humans on the Moon . Americans Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed on July 20 , 1969 , at 20:18 UTC . Armstrong became the first to step onto the lunar surface six hours later on July 21 at 02:56:15 UTC ; Aldrin joined him about 20 minutes later . They spent about two and a quarter hours together outside the spacecraft , and collected of lunar material for return to Earth . The third crew member , Michael Collins , piloted the Command Module Columbia alone in lunar orbit while they were on the Moon 's surface . Armstrong and Aldrin spent just under a day on the lunar surface before rendezvousing with Columbia in lunar orbit . Launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center in Merritt Island , Florida , on July 16 , Apollo 11 was the fifth manned mission of NASA 's Apollo program . The Apollo spacecraft had three parts : a Command Module ( CM ) with a cabin for the three astronauts , and the only part that landed back on Earth ; a Service Module ( SM ) , which supported the Command Module with propulsion , electrical power , oxygen , and water ; and a Lunar Module ( LM ) that had two stages – a lower stage for landing on the Moon , and an upper stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit . After being sent toward the Moon by the Saturn V 's upper stage , the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered into lunar orbit . Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into the Lunar Module Eagle and landed in the Sea of Tranquility . They stayed a total of about 21.5 hours on the lunar surface . The astronauts used Eagles upper stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the Command Module . They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that blasted them out of lunar orbit on a trajectory back to Earth . They returned to Earth and landed in the Pacific Ocean on July 24 . Broadcast on live TV to a world-wide audience , Armstrong stepped onto the lunar surface and described the event as `` one small step for [ a ] man , one giant leap for mankind . '' Apollo 11 effectively ended the Space Race and fulfilled a national goal proposed in 1961 by the U.S. President John F. Kennedy in a speech before the U.S. Congress : `` before this decade is out , of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth . '' Framework Crew Apollo 11 was the second all-veteran multi-person crew ( the first being Apollo 10 ) in human spaceflight history . A previous solo veteran flight had been made on Soyuz 1 in 1967 by Soviet cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov . Collins was originally slated to be the Command Module Pilot ( CMP ) on Apollo 8 but was removed when he required surgery on his back and was replaced by Jim Lovell , his backup for that flight . After Collins was medically cleared , he took what would have been Lovell 's spot on Apollo 11 ; as a veteran of Apollo 8 , Lovell was transferred to Apollo 11 's backup crew and promoted to backup commander . Backup crew In early 1969 , Anders accepted a job with the National Space Council effective August 1969 and announced that he would retire as an astronaut on that date . At that point Ken Mattingly was moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup Command Module Pilot in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch ( at which point Anders would be unavailable if needed ) and would later join Lovell 's crew and ultimately be assigned as the original Apollo 13 CMP . Support crew * Charlie Duke , Capsule Communicator ( CAPCOM ) * Ronald Evans ( CAPCOM ) * Owen K. Garriott ( CAPCOM ) * Don L. Lind ( CAPCOM ) * Ken Mattingly ( CAPCOM ) * Bruce McCandless II ( CAPCOM ) * Harrison Schmitt ( CAPCOM ) * Bill Pogue * Jack Swigert Flight directors * Cliff Charlesworth ( Green Team ) , launch and EVA * Gene Kranz ( White Team ) , lunar landing * Glynn Lunney ( Black Team ) , lunar ascent Call signs After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraft Charlie Brown and Snoopy , assistant manager for public affairs Julian Scheer wrote to Manned Spacecraft Center director George M. Low to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft . During early mission planning , the names Snowcone and Haystack were used and put in the news release , but the crew later decided to change them . The Command Module was named Columbia after the Columbiad , the giant cannon shell `` spacecraft '' fired by a giant cannon ( also from Florida ) in Jules Verne 's 1865 novel From the Earth to the Moon . The Lunar Module was named Eagle for the national bird of the United States , the bald eagle , which is featured prominently on the mission insignia . Insignia The Apollo 11 mission insignia was designed by Collins , who wanted a symbol for `` peaceful lunar landing by the United States '' . He chose an eagle as the symbol , put an olive branch in its beak , and drew a lunar background with the Earth in the distance . NASA officials said the talons of the eagle looked too `` warlike '' and after some discussion , the olive branch was moved to the claws . The crew decided the Roman numeral XI would not be understood in some nations and went with `` Apollo 11 '' ; they decided not to put their names on the patch , so it would `` be representative of everyone who had worked toward a lunar landing '' . All colors are natural , with blue and gold borders around the patch . When the Eisenhower dollar coin was released in 1971 , the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side . The design was also used for the smaller Susan B. Anthony dollar unveiled in 1979 , ten years after the Apollo 11 mission . Mementos Neil Armstrong 's personal preference kit carried a piece of wood from the Wright brothers ' 1903 airplane 's left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing , along with a diamond-studded astronaut pin originally given to Deke Slayton by the widows of the Apollo 1 crew . This pin had been intended to be flown on Apollo 1 and given to Slayton after the mission but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals , the widows gave the pin to Slayton and Armstrong took it on Apollo 11 . Mission highlights Launch and flight to lunar orbit In addition to many people crowding highways and beaches near the launch site , millions watched the event on television , with NASA Chief of Public Information Jack King providing commentary . President Richard M. Nixon viewed the proceedings from the Oval Office of the White House . A Saturn V launched Apollo 11 from Launch Pad 39A , part of the Launch Complex 39 site at the Kennedy Space Center on July 16 , 1969 at 13:32:00 UTC ( 9:32:00 a.m. EDT local time ) . It entered Earth orbit , at an altitude of by , twelve minutes later . After one and a half orbits , the S-IVB third-stage engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon with the trans-lunar injection ( TLI ) burn at 16:22:13 UTC . About 30 minutes later the command/service module pair separated from this last remaining Saturn V stage and docked with the Lunar Module still nestled in the Lunar Module Adaptor . After the Lunar Module was extracted , the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon , while the third stage booster flew on a trajectory past the Moon and into orbit around the Sun . On July 19 at 17:21:50 UTC , Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enter lunar orbit . In the thirty orbits that followed , the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility ( Mare Tranquillitatis ) about 12 mi southwest of the crater Sabine D ( 0.67408N , 23.47297E ) . The landing site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automated Ranger 8 and Surveyor 5 landers along with the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft and unlikely to present major landing or extravehicular activity ( EVA ) challenges . Lunar descent On July 20 , 1969 , the Lunar Module Eagle separated from the Command Module Columbia . Collins , alone aboard Columbia , inspected Eagle as it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged . As the descent began , Armstrong and Aldrin found that they were passing landmarks on the surface four seconds early and reported that they were `` long '' ; they would land miles west of their target point . Five minutes into the descent burn , and 6000 ft above the surface of the Moon , the LM navigation and guidance computer distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected `` 1202 '' and `` 1201 '' program alarms . Inside Mission Control Center in Houston , Texas , computer engineer Jack Garman told guidance officer Steve Bales it was safe to continue the descent , and this was relayed to the crew . The program alarms indicated `` executive overflows '' , meaning the guidance computer could not complete all of its tasks in real time and had to postpone some of them . Landing When Armstrong again looked outside , he saw that the computer 's landing target was in a boulder-strewn area just north and east of a 300 m diameter crater ( later determined to be West crater , named for its location in the western part of the originally planned landing ellipse ) . Armstrong took semi-automatic control and , with Aldrin calling out altitude and velocity data , landed at 20:17:40 UTC on Sunday July 20 with about 25 seconds of fuel left . Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than other missions , and the astronauts encountered a premature low fuel warning . This was later found to be the result of greater propellant 'slosh ' than expected , uncovering a fuel sensor . On subsequent missions , extra anti-slosh baffles were added to the tanks to prevent this . Throughout the descent , Aldrin had called out navigation data to Armstrong , who was busy piloting the LM . A few moments before the landing , a light informed Aldrin that at least one of the 67 in probes hanging from Eagle footpads had touched the surface , and he said : `` Contact light ! '' Three seconds later , Eagle landed and Armstrong said `` Shutdown . '' Aldrin immediately said `` Okay , engine stop . ACA – out of detent . '' Armstrong acknowledged `` Out of detent . Auto '' and Aldrin continued `` Mode control – both auto . Descent engine command override off . Engine arm – off . 413 is in . '' Charles Duke , CAPCOM during the landing phase , acknowledged their landing by saying `` We copy you down , Eagle . '' Armstrong acknowledged Aldrin 's completion of the post landing checklist with `` Engine arm is off '' , before responding to Duke with the words , `` Houston , Tranquility Base here . The Eagle has landed . '' Armstrong 's unrehearsed change of call sign from `` Eagle '' to `` Tranquility Base '' emphasized to listeners that landing was complete and successful . Duke mispronounced his reply as he expressed the relief at Mission Control : `` Roger , Twan— Tranquility , we copy you on the ground . You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue . We 're breathing again . Thanks a lot . '' Two and a half hours after landing , before preparations began for the EVA , Aldrin radioed to Earth : He then took communion privately . At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheist Madalyn Murray O'Hair ( who had objected to the Apollo 8 crew reading from the Book of Genesis ) demanding that their astronauts refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space . As such , Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on the Moon . Aldrin was an elder at the Webster Presbyterian Church , and his communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church , the Rev . Dean Woodruff . Aldrin described communion on the Moon and the involvement of his church and pastor in the October 1970 edition of Guideposts magazine and in his book Return to Earth . Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and commemorates the event each year on the Sunday closest to July 20 . The schedule for the mission called for the astronauts to follow the landing with a five-hour sleep period as they had been awake since early morning . However , they elected to forgo the sleep period and begin the preparations for the EVA early , thinking that they would be unable to sleep . Lunar surface operations The astronauts planned placement of the Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package ( EASEP ) and the U.S. flag by studying their landing site through Eagle twin triangular windows , which gave them a 60° field of view . Preparation required longer than the two hours scheduled . Armstrong initially had some difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his Portable Life Support System ( PLSS ) . According to veteran Moon-walker John Young , a redesign of the LM to incorporate a smaller hatch had not been followed by a redesign of the PLSS backpack , so some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress . Several books indicate early mission timelines had Buzz Aldrin rather than Neil Armstrong as the first man on the Moon . At 02:39 UTC on Monday July 21 , 1969 , Armstrong opened the hatch , and at 02:51 UTC began his descent to the lunar surface . The Remote Control Unit controls on his chest kept him from seeing his feet . Climbing down the nine-rung ladder , Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the Modular Equipment Stowage Assembly ( MESA ) folded against Eagle side and activate the TV camera , and at 02:56:15 UTC he set his left foot on the surface . The first landing used slow-scan television incompatible with commercial TV , so it was displayed on a special monitor and a conventional TV camera viewed this monitor , significantly reducing the quality of the picture . The signal was received at Goldstone in the United States but with better fidelity by Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station in Australia . Minutes later the feed was switched to the more sensitive Parkes radio telescope in Australia . Despite some technical and weather difficulties , ghostly black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth . Although copies of this video in broadcast format were saved and are widely available , recordings of the original slow scan source transmission from the lunar surface were accidentally destroyed during routine magnetic tape re-use at NASA . While still on the ladder , Armstrong uncovered a plaque mounted on the LM Descent Stage bearing two drawings of Earth ( of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres ) , an inscription , and signatures of the astronauts and President Nixon . The inscription read : After describing the surface dust as `` very fine-grained '' and `` almost like a powder , '' six and a half hours after landing , Armstrong stepped off Eagle footpad and declared , `` That 's one small step for [ a ] man , one giant leap for mankind . '' Armstrong intended to say `` That 's one small step for a man '' , but the word `` a '' is not audible in the transmission , and thus was not initially reported by most observers of the live broadcast . When later asked about his quote , Armstrong said he believed he said `` for a man '' , and subsequent printed versions of the quote included the `` a '' in square brackets . One explanation for the absence may be that his accent caused him to slur the words `` for a '' together ; another is the intermittent nature of the audio and video links to Earth , partly because of storms near Parkes Observatory . More recent digital analysis of the tape claims to reveal the `` a '' may have been spoken but obscured by static . About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon 's surface , Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick . He then folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh . This was to guarantee there would be some lunar soil brought back in case an emergency required the astronauts to abandon the EVA and return to the LM . Twelve minutes after the contingency sample was collected , Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface , and described the view with the simple phrase , `` Magnificent desolation . '' In addition to fulfilling President Kennedy 's mandate to land a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s , Apollo 11 was an engineering test of the Apollo system ; therefore , Armstrong snapped photos of the LM so engineers would be able to judge its post-landing condition . He removed the TV camera from the MESA and made a panoramic sweep , then mounted it on a tripod 68 ft from the LM . The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA . Armstrong said that moving in the lunar gravity , one-sixth of Earth 's , was `` even perhaps easier than the simulations ... It 's absolutely no trouble to walk around . '' Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around , including two-footed kangaroo hops . The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backwards , but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance . Loping became the preferred method of movement . The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead . The fine soil was quite slippery . Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight into Eagle shadow produced no temperature change inside the suit , though the helmet was warmer in sunlight , so he felt cooler in shadow . The astronauts planted a specially designed U.S. flag on the lunar surface , in clear view of the TV camera . Some time later , President Richard Nixon spoke to them through a telephone-radio transmission which Nixon called `` the most historic phone call ever made from the White House . '' Nixon originally had a long speech prepared to read during the phone call , but Frank Borman , who was at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11 , convinced Nixon to keep his words brief , to respect the lunar landing as Kennedy 's legacy . Armstrong thanked the President , and gave a brief reflection on the significance of the moment : Nixon : Hello , Neil and Buzz . I 'm talking to you by telephone from the Oval Room at the White House . And this certainly has to be the most historic telephone call ever made . I just ca n't tell you how proud we all are of what you 've done . For every American , this has to be the proudest day of our lives . And for people all over the world , I am sure they too join with Americans in recognizing what an immense feat this is . Because of what you have done , the heavens have become a part of man 's world . And as you talk to us from the Sea of Tranquility , it inspires us to redouble our efforts to bring peace and tranquility to Earth . For one priceless moment in the whole history of man , all the people on this Earth are truly one : one in their pride in what you have done , and one in our prayers that you will return safely to Earth . Armstrong : Thank you , Mr. President . It 's a great honor and privilege for us to be here , representing not only the United States , but men of peace of all nations , and with interest and curiosity , and men with a vision for the future . It 's an honor for us to be able to participate here today . The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow , slowing work somewhat . As they worked , the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust which soiled the outer part of their suits , the integrated thermal meteoroid garment . They deployed the EASEP , which included a passive seismograph and a Lunar Ranging Retroreflector ( LRRR ) . Then Armstrong walked 196 ft from the LM to snap photos at the rim of Little West Crater while Aldrin collected two core tubes . He used the geological hammer to pound in the tubes – the only time the hammer was used on Apollo 11 . The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles . Many of the surface activities took longer than expected , so they had to stop documenting sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 minutes . Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples collected by the astronauts : armalcolite , tranquillityite , and pyroxferroite . Armalcolite was named after Armstrong , Aldrin , and Collins . During this period , Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong that his metabolic rates were high and that he should slow down . He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out . However , as metabolic rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk , Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension . In a 2010 interview , Armstrong , who had walked a maximum of 196 ft from the LM , explained that NASA limited the first moonwalk 's time and distance because there was no empirical proof of how much cooling water the astronauts ' PLSS backpacks would consume to handle their body heat generation while working on the Moon . Lunar ascent and return Aldrin entered Eagle first . With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor . Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his suit pocket sleeve , and Aldrin tossed the bag down ; Armstrong then jumped to the ladder 's third rung and climbed into the LM . After transferring to LM life support , the explorers lightened the ascent stage for return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks , lunar overshoes , one Hasselblad camera , and other equipment . They then pressurized the LM and settled down to sleep . President Nixon 's speech writer William Safire had prepared In Event of Moon Disaster for the President to read on television in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon . The contingency plan originated in a memo from Safire to Nixon 's White House Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman , in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration might follow in reaction to such a disaster . According to the plan , Mission Control would `` close down communications '' with the LM , and a clergyman would `` commend their souls to the deepest of the deep '' in a public ritual likened to burial at sea . The last line of the prepared text contained an allusion to Rupert Brooke 's First World War poem , `` The Soldier '' . The plan included presidential telephone calls to the astronauts ' wives . While moving within the cabin , Aldrin accidentally damaged the circuit breaker that would arm the main engine for lift off from the Moon . There was concern this would prevent firing the engine , stranding them on the Moon . Fortunately , a felt-tip pen was sufficient to activate the switch . Had this not worked , the Lunar Module circuitry could have been reconfigured to allow firing the ascent engine . After about seven hours of rest , the crew was awakened by Houston to prepare for the return flight . Two and a half hours later , at 17:54 UTC , they lifted off in Eagle ascent stage to rejoin Collins aboard Columbia in lunar orbit . After more than 21½ total hours on the lunar surface , they had left behind scientific instruments that included a retroreflector array used for the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment and a Passive Seismic Experiment Package used to measure moonquakes . They also left an Apollo 1 mission patch , and a memorial bag containing a gold replica of an olive branch as a traditional symbol of peace and a silicon message disk . The disk carries the goodwill statements by Presidents Eisenhower , Kennedy , Johnson , and Nixon and messages from leaders of 73 countries around the world . The disc also carries a listing of the leadership of the US Congress , a listing of members of the four committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation , and the names of NASA 's past and present top management . ( In his 1989 book , Men from Earth , Aldrin says that the items included Soviet medals commemorating Cosmonauts Vladimir Komarov and Yuri Gagarin . ) Also , according to Deke Slayton 's book Moonshot , Armstrong carried with him a special diamond-studded astronaut pin from Slayton . Film taken from the LM Ascent Stage upon liftoff from the Moon reveals the American flag , planted some from the descent stage , whipping violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine . Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple : `` The ascent stage of the LM separated ... I was concentrating on the computers , and Neil was studying the attitude indicator , but I looked up long enough to see the flag fall over . '' Subsequent Apollo missions usually planted the American flags at least from the LM to prevent them being blown over by the ascent engine exhaust . After rendezvous with Columbia , Eagles ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit on July 21 , 1969 , at 23:41 UTC . Just before the Apollo 12 flight , it was noted that Eagle was still likely to be orbiting the Moon . Later NASA reports mentioned that Eagle orbit had decayed , resulting in it impacting in an `` uncertain location '' on the lunar surface . The location is uncertain because the Eagle ascent stage was not tracked after it was jettisoned , and the lunar gravity field is sufficiently non-uniform to make the orbit of the spacecraft unpredictable after a short time . NASA estimated that the orbit had decayed within months and would have impacted on the Moon . On July 23 , the last night before splashdown , the three astronauts made a television broadcast in which Collins commented : ... The Saturn V rocket which put us in orbit is an incredibly complicated piece of machinery , every piece of which worked flawlessly ... We have always had confidence that this equipment will work properly . All this is possible only through the blood , sweat , and tears of a number of a people ... All you see is the three of us , but beneath the surface are thousands and thousands of others , and to all of those , I would like to say , `` Thank you very much . ''

qg_2312--Apollo_11.txt

Which Apollo mission, which was launched on July 16, 1969, was the first to put a human on the moon?

Beyond the Sea is a 2004 American biographical film based on the life of singer/actor Bobby Darin . Starring in the lead role and using his own singing voice for the musical numbers , Kevin Spacey co-wrote , directed , and co-produced the film , which takes its title from Darin 's hit version of the song of the same name . Beyond the Sea depicts Darin 's rise to success in both the music and film industry during the 1950s and 1960s , as well as his marriage to Sandra Dee , portrayed by Kate Bosworth . As early as 1986 , Barry Levinson intended to direct a film based on the life of Darin , and he began pre-production on the project in early 1997 . When he eventually vacated the director 's position , Spacey , along with Darin 's son Dodd , acquired the film rights . Beyond the Sea was released in December 2004 to mixed reviews from critics and bombed at the box office . Dodd Darin , Sandra Dee and former Darin manager Steve Blauner responded with enthusiastic feedback to Spacey 's work on the film . Despite a number of negative reviews , some critics praised Spacey 's performance , largely due to his decision to use his own singing voice . He received a Golden Globe nomination . Plot Rather than providing a straightforward biography , the film weaves fantasy sequences with scenes containing somewhat fictionalized accounts of events in Darin 's life , and throughout it , the adult singer interacts with his younger self . It chronicles his determination to rise from his working class roots as Walden Robert Cassotto , a frail Bronx boy plagued by multiple bouts of rheumatic fever , and become a singer more famous than Frank Sinatra . To achieve that goal , he forms a band and struggles to find gigs at any nightclub that will hire him . His agent gets Darin a recording contract with Atlantic Records , where the singer enjoys teen idol success with `` Splish Splash '' . Not wanting to limit his appeal to rock and roll audiences , he changes his niche to big band singing and records major hits , such as `` Mack the Knife . '' To capitalize on his popularity with teenage and young adult audiences , Darin is cast in Come September opposite Sandra Dee . He falls in love with the eighteen-year-old actress and , determined to marry her , he romantically seduces and enchants her with songs like `` Beyond the Sea '' and `` Dream Lover . '' The two elope , angering her mother . Darin finally realizes his own mother 's dream when he is signed to appear at the famed Copacabana nightclub in Manhattan . As success takes him on the road and away from home , Dee begins to drink heavily , and the couple fights frequently . Eventually they separate , then reconcile . She gives birth to a son , Dodd . To his actress wife 's chagrin , Darin is nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance as a shell shocked soldier in Captain Newman , M.D .. In the late 1960s , Darin becomes involved in the campaign to elect Robert F. Kennedy for President and contemplates a political career of his own . His sister Nina , knowing his past will be investigated closely if Bobby opts to enter the political arena , shocks him with the news his beloved mother actually was his grandmother and he is Nina 's illegitimate child , the son of a father she can not identify . Devastated , Darin becomes a recluse living in a trailer on the Big Sur coast in California . He finds himself out of step with changing music trends , and when he tries to adapt by incorporating folk music and protest songs into his repertoire , he finds himself rejected by the audience that once embraced him . Undaunted , he stages a show , complete with a gospel choir , at the Flamingo Hotel in Las Vegas , and against all odds it is a huge success . But his triumph is short-lived . Suffering from blood poisoning following surgery to repair his mechanical heart valve , Darin is rushed to the hospital , where he dies at the age of thirty-seven . Following his death , he meets the younger counterpart of himself once again , and the two duet with `` As Long As I 'm Singing . '' Cast * Kevin Spacey as Bobby Darin , who rises from his lower class roots to become one of the most popular rock and roll and big band performers of all time . * Kate Bosworth as Sandra Dee , the popular actress who marries Bobby . Although they divorced in 1967 , Sandra said she has always truly and deeply loved him , and that she always will , and thus never remarried . * Bob Hoskins as Charlie Maffia , who serves as a father figure and considers Bobby to be his son . * John Goodman as Stephen Blauner , Bobby 's dedicated talent manager . Blauner later becomes a successful film producer with movies such as The King of Marvin Gardens ( 1972 ) and Drive , He Said ( 1971 ) . * Brenda Blethyn as Polly Cassotto , Bobby 's biological maternal grandmother , who teaches him the art of music as a child . * Caroline Aaron as Nina Cassotto Maffia , Bobby 's biological mother , whom he believed to be his older sister . Nina tells him the shocking truth when he is thirty-three years old . * Greta Scacchi as Mary Douvan , Sandra 's overprotective mother . * Peter Cincotti as Dick Behrke , Bobby 's arranger and pianist . * Matt Rippy as David Gershenson , Bobby 's publicist . * William Ullrich as young Bobby . Cathy Moriarty-Gentile and Vanessa Redgrave were originally cast in Beyond the Sea , but both actresses dropped out for unspecified reasons . Development Barry Levinson Beginning in 1986 , Barry Levinson intended to produce and direct a biopic based on the life of Bobby Darin with funding from his own production company , Baltimore Pictures . With writer Lewis Colick , Levinson pitched the idea to Warner Bros. Pictures , who agreed to co-finance The Bobby Darin Story and cover distribution duties . Producer Arthur Friedman , a fan of Darin 's work , began to laboriously negotiate for crucial music licensing rights with Darin 's ex-wife , Sandra Dee ; his son , Dodd ; and former manager Steve Blauner . Colick wrote the first draft in 1987 before Warner Bros. and Levinson commissioned rewrites from Paul Attanasio and Paul Schrader . Their scripts , which kept The Bobby Darin Story title , concentrated on Sandra Dee 's alcoholism and childhood molestation by her stepfather . David Gershenson , Darin 's longtime friend , publicist and manager , joined the project as a historical consultant . Tom Cruise was reportedly under consideration to portray Darin . Meanwhile , in May 1994 , Warner Bros. optioned Dodd Darin 's book , Dream Lovers ( ISBN 0-446-51768-2 ) . James Toback and Lorenzo Carcaterra were hired to rewrite Attanasio 's The Bobby Darin Story , which they re-titled Dreamer , in an attempt to incorporate the information present in Dodd Darin 's Dream Lovers . Toback 's script heavily focused on Darin 's childhood rheumatic fever and lifelong struggle with heart disease . It also followed the previous Attanasio and Schrader scripts . Carcaterra 's detailed research included Darin 's music records , home videos , early television clips , authorized and unauthorized biographies , newspaper articles and magazine interviews . `` I decided to meet with a lot of real-life people associated with Bobby Darin until [ Levinson ] said it was taking the focus off of Bobby , '' Carcaterra explained . As a result , some of the writer 's favorite scenes , including a Las Vegas confrontation with Elvis Presley , were omitted from his third and final draft , which came in at a lengthy 164 pages . Beginning in 1994 , Kevin Spacey first offered his services to portray Bobby Darin , but the filmmakers believed the actor was too old . Around this time , Spacey coincidentally performed the cover version of Darin 's `` That Old Black Magic '' for the soundtrack of Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil . The actor explained that after 1994 , `` at least three times a year , my manager would call over to Warner Bros. and say , 'Hey , what 's happening with that Bobby Darin movie ? You guys ever going to make it ? ' '' With filming to originally begin in late-1997 , pre-production for Dreamer was commencing , and Levinson began to discuss the film with various actors . This included Johnny Depp as Bobby Darin , Drew Barrymore as Sandra Dee , Bette Midler as Darin 's birth mother Nina and Bruno Kirby as Nina 's husband/Darin 's right-hand man , Charlie Mafia . Levinson eventually vacated the director 's position in favor of Liberty Heights ( 1999 ) ; because he was unable to get Dreamer into production , Warner Bros. lost the music licensing rights , which reverted to the Darin estate . Kevin Spacey In March 1999 , Dick Clark Productions announced their teaming with Dodd Darin on a biopic , with collaboration from producer Arthur Friedman , who had been developing both The Bobby Darin Story and Dreamer with Levinson at Warner Bros. since 1986 . Shortly afterwards , Spacey was in discussions with Dodd Darin to star in the lead role . Spacey was able to acquire the film rights from Warner Bros. in early-2000 . With the help of Dodd Darin , the actor also received exclusive music rights for no charge . With his Academy Award-winning performance in American Beauty ( 1999 ) , Paramount Pictures became interested in distributing/financing Beyond the Sea . The deal fell apart when Paramount told Spacey was that he was too old for the role and instead wanted Leonardo DiCaprio . Beginning in October 2000 , Spacey took vocal training lessons from Darin collaborator Roger Kellaway to give an accurate portrayal of the singer . Spacey also kept close relations with the Darin family as a means to know he would treat the film `` with respect '' . He sent letters to that effect to Sandra Dee and son Dodd . Steve Blauner ( who is portrayed by John Goodman in the film ) also served as a historical consultant . Dodd originally considered Spacey 's plan to sing his father 's material a sacrilege , but eventually fell into sync with Spacey 's deeply empathetic approach to Darin 's life . Tom Epperson , who had struck up a friendship with Spacey while writing an early screenplay draft of The Shipping News , was hired to write a new draft for Beyond the Sea . Epperson 's script included Darin 's penchant for orgies after his divorce with Sandra Dee . Spacey , finding the Epperson script to be overtly dark and morbid , began to rewrite Beyond the Sea , incorporating info from the 1987 Lewis Colick script . Spacey acknowledged he portrayed Darin in an exaggeratedly sympathetic way , and decided not to centrally depict the darker side of Darin 's life . `` The other scripts made Bobby [ Darin ] a rather unlikable figure , '' he explained . `` I was not interested in making a conventional biopic , as you can see from the results . I was interested in making an exuberant celebration of an entertainer in a way that would be uplifting for an audience . '' By making the biopic , Dodd Darin and Spacey acknowledged the similar career experiences between Darin and Spacey . `` A lot of people doubted my dad 's abilities , and Kevin 's had doubters and naysayers , '' Dodd commented . `` But both [ men ] were willing to take risks , and both were very resilient . My dad would always try new things . You could never pin him down . Kevin 's career is similar . '' David Evanier , author of Roman Candle : The Life of Bobby Darin ( ISBN 978-1-59486-010-2 ) , said `` You can put Kevin 's obsessiveness about getting the film made right up there with Bobby 's obsessiveness . He 's also the ideal person to play Bobby . He has an uncanny physical resemblance to him , and he also has Bobby 's intensity and dark side . Also , there 's the connection with his mother . Bobby 's mother 's belief in him sent him soaring . Kevin 's mother wanted him to make this film . Kevin sees the film as an act of devotion to his mother . '' `` I think the movie is about mothers and sons , '' Spacey said , referring to Darin 's relationship with his mother Polly and sister Nina . Spacey 's mother , Kathleen Fowler , died of brain cancer just before production started . `` I made the movie for all mothers , but especially for my mother . She introduced me to Bobby Darin . When she got very ill in 2002 , I stopped everything and took care of her . We constantly played Bobby Darin records , and I 'd let her listen to the tracks I was recording . I 'm glad she passed knowing this was the movie I was going to make . '' After his award-winning performances in The Usual Suspects and American Beauty , Spacey `` chose to move away from dark , sarcastic characters , and instead play damaged but good-hearted men '' in films like Pay It Forward , K-PAX and The Shipping News . The actor was criticized for his career move ; Spacey acknowledged the similarities when Darin integrated into folk music and protest songs . Production In February 2003 , it was announced that production for Beyond the Sea was becoming fast tracked with Spacey as lead actor , co-writer , producer and director , and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer ( MGM ) agreed to cover distribution duties in North America . The following August , with principal photography to begin in just weeks , MGM dropped out as distributor and main financier over scheduling conflicts . To accumulate financing of the film 's $ 25 million budget , which came from foreign production companies , Spacey performed six songs at the November 2003 American Film Market . Lions Gate Entertainment quickly picked up the distribution duties and Spacey found enough investors from England and Germany to continue to move forward on production . In addition , Spacey declined to be paid for his work as actor , director , co-writer and producer on Beyond the Sea . A portion of the $ 25 million budget came from his own Trigger Street Productions . Producer Arthur Friedman , who had shepherded the biopic since 1987 , commented that he and Spacey experienced creative differences during pre-production . Friedman remarked that he was not involved with Beyond the Sea once production began in Germany . Filming was originally set to begin in June 2003 before it was pushed to November 7 , 2003 , lasting until late-January 2004 . 80 % of Beyond the Sea was shot using sound stages at Babelsberg Studios in Germany and Pinewood Studios in England . Lulworth Cove , Dorset , South West England doubled for Darin 's setting of reclusiveness in Big Sur , California . In an attempt to convincingly portray Darin , particularly during the early stages of the singer 's life depicted in the film , Spacey hired prosthetic makeup designer Peter King from The Lord of the Rings film trilogy . Release Marketing To promote Beyond the Sea , Spacey and Phil Ramone devised a 12-city United States concert tour titled An Evening Celebrating the Music of Bobby Darin , which consisted of Spacey performing with a 19-piece band . `` It 's me singing Bobby and talking about Bobby and talking a little bit about the movie , '' Spacey explained in June 2004 . Spacey dressed in costumes from the movie for the tour , which started in San Francisco and traveled through Los Angeles , New York City , Boston , Chicago , Miami and Atlantic City before ending in the Wayne Newton Theatre at the Stardust Hotel in Las Vegas . Spacey 's performance at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel on December 11 , 2004 received a standing ovation . Dodd Darin commented , `` It was said about my dad that he had some big brass ones . To do a film about my dad is one thing , but it 's another thing to go out and attempt to work a nightclub . Kevin 's got a lot of courage . I think he sounds good . '' The film was shown and promoted at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 11 , 2004 . WGA arbitration Beginning in October 2004 , the Writers Guild of America , west conducted arbitration through the scripts that had been written since Barry Levinson developed the film at Warner Bros. in 1987 . Lewis Colick , James Toback and Tom Epperson disassociated themselves for credit by the WGA . The Guild justified credit to Lewis Colick , who wrote the first draft of The Bobby Darin Story in 1987 , and Kevin Spacey . Actor-writer Jeffrey Meek believed he should have deserved credit ; he was paid $ 85,000 of a promised $ 125,000 to settle his claim to have performed writing services . Spacey said Meek was `` not a hired writer '' on Beyond the Sea . `` He turned in a draft , but it was a draft based on earlier material based on my own screenplays , '' Spacey commented . Meek said he was hired by producer Harvey Friedman , a friend who stood up at his wedding and helped connect him with Spacey , with whom he claims to have produced 12 drafts , including one that was reported by Variety to have received a greenlight from MGM in early 2003 . `` He bought my material and then acted like I did n't exist , '' Meek explained . `` I 'm not saying I 'm Rembrandt , but it 's like someone buying a painting and then scratching the name off of it and putting their own there . '' Reception Critical response Beyond the Sea received mixed reviews from critics . Based on 147 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 42 % of the critics gave the film a positive review , with an average score of 5.2/10 . Metacritic calculated a weighted average score of 46/100 , based on 35 reviews . Sandra Dee , Dodd Darin , Jimmy Scalia and Steve Blauner responded enthusiastically to Spacey 's work on the film . Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle felt Spacey looked too old to portray Darin convincingly and called the film `` one of the most embarrassing spectacles of 2004 '' and `` jaw-droppingly awful , a misbegotten and ill-conceived vanity project . '' Desson Thomson from The Washington Post praised the actor 's work , but also felt Spacey did not convincingly portray Darin in his early music career . Internet reviewer James Berardinelli found the storyline to be overtly clichéd , but added , `` Despite the choppy narrative and inappropriate casting of Spacey , Beyond the Sea managed to keep me entertained . '' Roger Ebert gave a largely positive review , stating that , `` Kevin Spacey believes he was born to play Bobby Darin . I believe he was born to play more interesting characters ... In his own best work , Spacey has achieved genius ; he is better as an actor than Darin ever was as a singer . '' Stephen Holden of The New York Times felt that `` with Beyond the Sea , Spacey crawls back from his doomed quest to be a Tom Hanks-like everyman to his niche on the underbelly of Hollywood 's pantheon . The movie 's a mess , and at 45 , Spacey is far too old to play Darin . Yet the star captures his desperation , his braggadocio , and yes , his magnetism . '' Peter Travers , writing in Rolling Stone magazine , believed Spacey could not prevent `` the movie from groaning under the weight of biopic clichés . But the actor forges a bond with his subject that rights all wrongs . Doing his own singing ( an uncanny imitation ) , Spacey is a marvel . '' Box office The film opened in limited release in the United States on December 17 , 2004 and went into wider release on December 29 . It grossed $ 6,318,709 in the US and $ 2,128,906 in international markets for a total worldwide box office of $ 8,447,615 . It was declared a box office bomb because it did not make back its $ 25 million budget . Accolades Spacey was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy but lost to Jamie Foxx for Ray . He and Phil Ramone were also nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media , but lost to the producers of Ray . Home media On June 7 , 2005 , the film was released on DVD in widescreen anamorphic format for Region 1 markets . It features two Dolby Digital English audio tracks ( one in 2.0 Stereo and the other in 5.1 Surround Sound ) , director 's commentary by Spacey , and a making-of featurette .

odql_10771--Beyond_the_Sea_(film).txt

"Who starred in and directed the 2004 movie ""Beyond the Sea""?"

Trivial Pursuit is a board game in which winning is determined by a player 's ability to answer general knowledge and popular culture questions . The game was created in December 1979 in Montreal , Quebec , by Canadian Chris Haney , a photo editor for Montreal 's The Gazette , and Scott Abbott , a sports editor for The Canadian Press . After finding pieces of their Scrabble game missing , they decided to create their own game . With the help of John Haney and Ed Werner , they completed development of the game , which was released in 1982 . In North America , the game 's popularity peaked in 1984 , a year in which over 20 million games were sold . The rights to the game were initially licensed to Selchow and Righter in 1982 , then to Parker Brothers ( now part of Hasbro ) in 1988 , after initially being turned down by the Virgin Group ; in 2008 Hasbro bought the full rights , for US $ 80 million . , nearly 88 million games had been sold in 26 countries and 17 languages . Northern Plastics of Elroy , Wisconsin produced 30,000,000 games between 1983 and 1985 . In December 1993 , Trivial Pursuit was named to the `` Games Hall of Fame '' by Games magazine . An online version of Trivial Pursuit was launched in September 2003 . Dozens of question sets have been released for the game . The question cards are organized into themes ; for instance , in the standard Genus question set , questions in green deal with science and nature . Some question sets have been designed for younger players , and others for a specific time period or as promotional tie-ins ( such as Star Wars , Saturday Night Live , and The Lord of the Rings movies ) . Gameplay The object of the game is to move around the board by correctly answering trivia questions . Questions are split into six categories , with each one having its own color to readily identify itself ; in the classic version of Trivial Pursuit , these are Geography ( blue ) , Entertainment ( pink ) , History ( yellow ) , Arts & Literature ( originally brown , later purple ) , Science & Nature ( green ) , and Sports & Leisure ( orange ) . The game includes a board , playing pieces , question cards , a box , small plastic wedges to fit into the playing pieces , and a die . Playing pieces used in Trivial Pursuit are round and divided into six sections , similar to a pie . A small plastic wedge , sometimes called cheese , can be placed into each of these sections to mark each player 's progress . During the game , players move their playing pieces around a track which is shaped like a wheel with six spokes . This track is divided into spaces of different colors , and the center of the board is a hexagonal `` hub '' space . At the end of each spoke is a `` category headquarters '' space . When a player 's counter lands on a square , the player answers a question according to the color of the square , which corresponds to one of the six categories . If the player answers the question correctly , their turn continues ; if the player 's piece was on one of the category headquarters spaces , he/she collect a wedge of the same color , which fits into the playing piece . Some spaces say `` roll again , '' giving an extra roll of the die to the player . The hub is a `` wild '' space ; a player landing here may answer a question in the category of his/her choice . Any number of playing pieces may occupy the same space at the same time . A variant rule ends a player 's turn on collecting a wedge , preventing a single knowledgeable player from running the board . Once a player has collected one wedge of each color and filled up his/her playing piece , he or she must return to the hub and answer a question in a category selected by the other players . If this question is answered correctly , that player wins the game . Otherwise , the player must leave the center of the board and try again on the next turn . Editions Over the years , numerous editions of Trivial Pursuit have been produced , usually specializing in various fields . The original version is known as the Genus edition ( or Genus I ) . Several other general knowledge editions ( such as Genus II ) have followed . Some include , Junior Edition ( 1985 ) , All-Star Sports , Baby Boomers , 1980s , All About the 80s , and 1990s . In the United Kingdom , Trivial Pursuit players complained that the 2012 version of the game was `` dumbed down '' in comparison to previous editions , with easier questions and more focus on celebrities and show business . Legal action Fred Worth lawsuit In October 1984 , Fred L. Worth , author of The Trivia Encyclopedia , Super Trivia , and Super Trivia II , filed a $ 300 million lawsuit against the distributors of Trivial Pursuit . He claimed that more than a quarter of the questions in the game 's Genus Edition had been taken from his books , even to the point of reproducing typographical errors and deliberately placed misinformation . One of the questions in Trivial Pursuit was `` What was Columbo 's first name ? '' with the answer `` Philip '' . That information had been fabricated to catch anyone who might try to violate his copyright . The inventors of Trivial Pursuit acknowledged that Worth 's books were among their sources , but argued that this was not improper and that facts are not protected by copyright . The district court judge agreed , ruling in favor of the Trivial Pursuit inventors . The decision was appealed , and in September 1987 the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit upheld the ruling . Worth asked the Supreme Court of the United States to review the case , but the Court declined , denying certiorari in March 1988 . ( cert . denied . ) David Wall lawsuit In 1994 , David Wall of Cape Breton , Nova Scotia , launched a lawsuit against the game 's creators . He claimed that in the fall of 1979 , he and a friend were hitchhiking near Sydney , Nova Scotia , when they were picked up by Chris Haney . Wall claimed that he told Haney about his idea for the game in detail , including the shape of the markers . Wall 's mother testified she found drawings of his that looked like plans for a Trivial Pursuit-like game , but the drawings had since been destroyed . Wall 's friend , who was allegedly hitchhiking with him that day , never testified . Haney said he never met Wall . Over the years , there was much legal wrangling , notably around whether the suit should be decided by a judge or jury . On June 25 , 2007 , the Nova Scotia Supreme Court ruled against Wall . Adaptations Television A version of Trivial Pursuit , hosted by Wink Martindale , aired on The Family Channel in the United States from 1993 to 1995 ( Jay Wolpert had attempted a pilot in 1987 was not picked up ) . A syndicated version entitled Trivial Pursuit : America Plays aired from 2008 to 2009 and hosted by Christopher Knight . In September 2004 , Roger Lodge hosted a sports trivia game show on ESPN entitled ESPN Trivial Pursuit , which aired five episodes . BBC Television produced a Trivial Pursuit game show based on the game in the UK hosted by Rory McGrath . Another British version ( with rules/format similar to the Wink Martindale version , and also using the same theme tune as the Wink Martindale version ) was hosted on The Family Channel ( now Challenge ) by Tony Slattery . Birgit Lechtermann hosted a version for VOX in Germany from 1993 to 1994 . In 1988 , a made-for-television movie entitled Breaking all the Rules : The Creation of Trivial Pursuit aired . Treated largely as a comedy , the movie featured the music of Jimmy Buffett and portrayed the creators of the game as three beer-loving Canadians . In Spain , a version of the show called Trivial Pursuit : Spain Plays premiered in September 2008 on Antena 3 . Arcade game In 1984 , Bally Sente released a Trivial Pursuit arcade game . Like the board game , several variants were also released . Home computer games British software company Domark released a home computer version ( billed as Trivial Pursuit : The Computer Game ) for multiple formats during the 1980s . This version included pictorial and musical questions but was otherwise mostly faithful to the mechanics of the original board game . Later , Domark released another version called Trivial Pursuit : A New Beginning , also across multiple formats . This version featured a plot about the dying earth and significantly altered gameplay mechanics . Hasbro Interactive released a `` Millenium Edition '' in 1999 with three different modes , and different categories : * Classic Pursuit : Played just like the board game . A `` QUICKPLAY '' option was also available , where , to speed the game up , every question would be a wedge question . Up to six can play . The winner is the first one to earn all six wedges , land back in the center hub by exact count , and then give a correct answer . * Party Pursuit : Up to three can play . The computer randomly spins categories until there are three to choose from . A correct answer by the first player to buzz in earns the wedge ; a wrong answer gives the opposition a chance , as well as take away any wedges earned in a category . The first player to earn all six wedges wins the game . After 20 questions , the computer begins selecting categories for the players . * Point Pursuit : Same as Party Pursuit , except point scores are kept , and questions range from 250 to 1,000 points . Players can also wager any or all of their scores on one final question . Bonus points are earned for a wedge and for how much or how little time it took to answer a question . There are also three different ways to answer the questions : * Multiple choice , where the players press the numbers 1 , 2 , 3 , or 4 on the keyboard . * Spelling accuracy : loose , where players must type in the answers but may be awarded the correct answers if the computer knows what 's being said . * Spelling accuracy : strict , where spelling must be exactly right to count . This game featured a total of seven voice-overs , one host , and one for each of the six categories : People & Places ( blue wedge ) , Arts & Entertainment ( pink wedge ) , History ( yellow wedge ) , Science & Nature ( brown wedge ) , Sports & Leisure ( green wedge ) , and Wild Card ( orange wedge ) . Video games Trivial Pursuit was released for a number of home video systems , including Sega CD , Wii , Xbox 360 , PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 . The board game was also adapted into a mobile game called `` Trivia Crack '' .

bt_3058--Trivial_Pursuit.txt

In game of Trivial Pursuit: what category is coloured green

Elmer J. Fudd is a fictional cartoon character and one of the most famous Looney Tunes characters , and the de facto archenemy of Bugs Bunny . He has one of the more disputed origins in the Warner Bros. cartoon pantheon ( second only to Bugs himself ) . His aim is to hunt Bugs , but he usually ends up seriously injuring himself and other antagonizing characters . He speaks in an unusual way , replacing his Rs and Ls with Ws , so he always refers to Bugs Bunny as a `` wabbit '' . Elmer 's signature catchphrase is , `` Shhh . Be vewy vewy quiet , I 'm hunting wabbits '' , as well as his trademark laughter . The best known Elmer Fudd cartoons include Chuck Jones ' masterpiece What 's Opera , Doc ? ( one of the few times Fudd bested Bugs , though he felt bad about it ) , the Rossini parody Rabbit of Seville , and the `` Hunting Trilogy '' of `` Rabbit Season/Duck Season '' shorts ( Rabbit Fire , Rabbit Seasoning , and Duck ! Rabbit , Duck ! ) with Fudd , Bugs Bunny , and Daffy Duck . An earlier character named Egghead set some of Elmer 's characteristics before the character 's most famous trademarks were set . Egghead Tex Avery introduced a new character in his cartoon short Egghead Rides Again , released July 17 , 1937 . [ http : //toonopedia.com/egghead.htm Egghead ] at Don Markstein 's Toonopedia . [ http : //www.webcitation.org/6iJt7bcDH Archived ] from the original on June 16 , 2016 . Egghead initially was depicted as having a bulbous nose , funny/eccentric clothing , a voice like Joe Penner ( provided either by radio mimic Danny Webb or actor Cliff Nazarro ) and an egg-shaped head . Many cartoon historians believe that Egghead evolved into Elmer over a period of a couple of years . However , animation historian Michael Barrier asserts , `` The Egghead-Elmer story is actually a little messy , my sense being that most of the people involved , whether they were making the films or publicizing them , not only had trouble telling the characters apart but had no idea why they should bother trying . '' Egghead made his second appearance in 1937 's Little Red Walking Hood and then in 1938 teamed with Warner Bros. ' newest cartoon star Daffy Duck in Daffy Duck and Egghead . Egghead continued to make appearances in the Warner cartoons in 1938 , such as in The Isle of Pingo Pongo and A-Lad-In Bagdad . In A Feud There Was ( 1938 ) , Egghead made his entrance riding a motor scooter with the words `` Elmer Fudd , Peacemaker '' displayed on the side , the first onscreen use of that name . Egghead shifts from having a Moe Howard haircut to being bald , and wears a brown derby , a baggy suit , and a high-collared shirt . Egghead returned decades later in the compilation film Daffy Duck 's Quackbusters . More recently , he also made a cameo appearance at the end of Looney Tunes : Back in Action and was also given in his own story , which starred him alongside Pete Puma , in the Looney Tunes comic book . One animation history suggests that the Egghead character was based on Ripley 's Believe It or Not ! cartoonist and entertainer Robert Ripley , while the name Elmer Fudd might have been a reference to the then-popular hunter Elmer Keith . Egghead has the distinction of being the first recurring character created for Leon Schlesinger 's Merrie Melodies series ( to be followed by such characters as Sniffles , Inki , and even Bugs Bunny ) , which had previously contained only one-shot characters , although during the Harman-Ising era , Foxy , Goopy Geer , and Piggy each appeared in a few Merrie Melodies . In the 1939 cartoon Dangerous Dan McFoo , a new voice actor , Arthur Q. Bryan , was hired to provide the voice of the hero dog character . It was in this cartoon that the popular `` milk-sop '' voice of Elmer Fudd was created . Elmer Fudd has since been the chief antagonistic force in the majority of the Bugs Bunny cartoons , initiating one of the most famous rivalries in the history of American cinema . Barrier notes , `` Elmer Fudd was not a modified version of his fellow Warner Bros. character Egghead '' and that `` the two characters were always distinct . That was evidenced ... by Elmer 's being identified in a Warner publicity sheet for Cinderella Meets Fella ( filed with the Library of Congress as a copyright description ) as 'Egghead 's brother . ' '' Elmer emerges In 1940 , Egghead–Elmer 's appearance was refined , giving him a chin and a less bulbous nose ( although still wearing Egghead 's clothing ) and Arthur Q. Bryan 's `` Dan McFoo '' voice in what most people consider Elmer Fudd 's first true appearance : a Chuck Jones short entitled Elmer 's Candid Camera . The rabbit drives Elmer insane . Later that year , he appeared in Friz Freleng 's Confederate Honey ( where he 's called Ned Cutler ) and The Hardship of Miles Standish where his voice and Egghead-like appearance were still the same . Jones would use this Elmer one more time , in 1941 's Elmer 's Pet Rabbit ; its other title character is labeled as Bugs Bunny , but is also identical to his counterpart in Camera . In the interim , the two starred in A Wild Hare . Bugs appears with a carrot , New York accent , and `` What 's Up , Doc ? '' catchphrase all in place for the first time , although the voice and physique are as yet somewhat off . Elmer has a better voice , a trimmer figure ( designed by Robert Givens , which would be reused soon later in Jones ' Good Night Elmer , this time without a red nose ) and his familiar hunting clothes . He is much more recognizable as the Elmer Fudd of later cartoons than Bugs is here . In his earliest appearances , Elmer actually `` wikes wabbits '' , either attempting to take photos of Bugs , or adopting Bugs as his pet . The rascally rabbit has the poor Fudd so perplexed that there is little wonder as to why Elmer would become a hunter and in some cases actually proclaim , `` I hate wittle gway wabbits ! '' after pumping buckshot down a rabbit hole . Elmer 's role in these two films , that of would-be hunter , dupe and foil for Bugs , would remain his main role forever after , and although Bugs Bunny was called upon to outwit many more worthy opponents , Elmer somehow remained Bugs ' classic nemesis , despite ( or because of ) his legendary gullibility , small size , short temper , and shorter attention span . In Rabbit Fire , he declares himself vegetarian , hunting for sport only . Elmer was usually cast as a hapless big-game hunter , armed with a double-barreled shotgun ( albeit one which could be fired much more than twice without being reloaded ) and creeping through the woods `` hunting wabbits '' . In a few cartoons , though , he assumed a completely different persona—a wealthy industrialist type , occupying a luxurious penthouse , or , in one episode involving a role reversal , a sanitarium—which Bugs would of course somehow find his way into . In Dog Gone People , he had an ordinary office job working for demanding boss `` Mister Cwabtwee '' . In another cartoon ( Mutt in a Rut ) he appeared to work in an office and had a dog he called `` Wover Boy '' , whom he took hunting , though Bugs did not appear . Several episodes featured Elmer differently . One ( What 's Up , Doc ? , 1950 ) has Bugs Bunny relating his life story to a biographer , and recalling a time which was a downturn for the movie business . Elmer Fudd is a well-known entertainer who , looking for a new partner for his act , sees Bugs Bunny ( after passing caricatures of many other famous 1940s actors ( Al Jolson , Jack Benny , Eddie Cantor , Bing Crosby ) who , like Bugs , are also out of work ) . Elmer and Bugs do a one-joke act cross-country , with Bugs dressed like a pinhead , and when he does not know the answer to a joke , Elmer gives it and hits him with a pie in the face . Bugs begins to tire of this gag and pulls a surprise on Fudd , answering the joke correctly and bopping Elmer with a mallet , which prompts the man to point his rifle at Bugs . The bunny asks nervously : `` Eh , what 's up doc ? `` , which results in a huge round of applause from the audience . Bugs tells Elmer they may be on to something , and Elmer , with the vaudevillian 's instinct of sticking with a gag that catches on , nods that they should re-use it . According to this account , the common Elmer-as-hunter episodes are entirely staged . One episode where Bugs `` lost '' in the hunting was Hare Brush ( 1956 ) . Here , Elmer has been committed to an insane asylum because he believes he is a rabbit ( though it is also revealed that he is a millionaire and owns a mansion and a yacht ) . Bugs Bunny enters Fudd 's room and Elmer bribes him with carrots , then leaves the way the real rabbit entered . Bugs acts surprisingly ( for him ) naïve , assuming Elmer just wanted to go outside for a while . Elmer 's psychiatrist arrives , and thinking Fudd 's delusion has affected his appearance , drugs Bugs and conditions him into believing that he is Elmer Fudd 'after which Bugs starts wearing hunting clothes and acting like Elmer , hunting the rabbit-costumed Fudd , who is in turn acting like Bugs . Their hunt is cut short when Bugs is arrested by a government agent as Elmer Fudd is wanted for tax evasion . After Bugs is hauled away trying to explain that the rabbit is Elmer Fudd , Fudd breaks the fourth wall and tells the audience `` I may be a scwewy wabbit , but I 'm not going to Alcatwaz '' as he hops away as if he had planned the whole thing . Elmer Fudd has occasionally appeared in other costumes , notably as Cupid . He tries to convince Bugs about love , but Bugs is reluctant , thinking to himself `` Do n't you look like some guy who 's always after me ? '' and pictures the Elmer in hunter 's clothes . The Cupid Elmer plots to get even with Bugs , using his love arrows to make Bugs fall in love with an artificial rabbit at a dog track . Elmer also appeared in this form opposite Daffy Duck in The Stupid Cupid ( 1944 ) . The Bugs–Elmer partnership was so familiar to audiences that in a late 1950s cartoon , Bugs ' Bonnets , a character study is made of what happens to the relationship between the two when they each accidentally don a different selection of hats ( Native American wig , pilgrim hat , military helmets , bridal veil and top hat , to name a few ) . The result is comic mayhem ; a steady game of one-upmanship that ultimately leads to matrimony . Fat Elmer For a short time in the 1941–1942 season , Elmer 's appearance was modified again , for five cartoons : Wabbit Twouble ; The Wacky Wabbit ; The Wabbit Who Came to Supper ; Any Bonds Today ? ; and Fresh Hare . He became a heavy-set , beer-bellied character , patterned after Arthur Q. Bryan 's real-life appearance , and still chasing Bugs ( or vice versa ) . However , audiences did not accept a fat Fudd , so ultimately the slimmer version returned for good . This time period also saw a temporary change in Elmer 's relationship with Bugs Bunny . Instead of being the hunter , Elmer was the victim of unprovoked pestering by Bugs . In Wabbit Twouble , Bugs plays a number of gags on Elmer , advising the audience , `` I do dis kind o ' stuff to him all t'wough da picture ! '' ( A line somewhat ironically would later be said by the Tortoise as he and his friends cheat Bugs out of winning a race ) . Another short , The Wacky Wabbit , finds Elmer focused on prospecting for gold which would be used to fund the World War II effort . Elmer sings a variation of the old prospector 's tune `` Oh ! Susanna '' made just for this cartoon ( complete with the phrase `` V for Victory '' ) , with Bugs joining in just before starting to hassle Elmer . He made a later appearance in an episode of The Sylvester and Tweety Mysteries as a Russian version with a simple name `` Boris '' who owns another comedy club in Russia . Elmer-speak He nearly always Rhotacism ( speech impediment ) |vocalised consonants [ r ] and [ l ] , pronouncing them as [ w ] instead ( a trait that also characterized Tweety Bird ) when he would talk in his slightly raspy voice . This trait was prevalent in the Elmer 's Candid Camera and Elmer 's Pet Rabbit cartoons , where the writers would give him exaggerated lines such as , `` My , that weawwy was a dewicious weg of wamb . '' to further exaggerate his qualities as a harmless nebbish . That characteristic seemed to fit his somewhat timid and childlike persona . And it worked . The writers often gave him lines filled with those letters , such as doing Shakespeare 's Romeo as `` What wight thwough yonduh window bweaks ! '' or Wagner 's Ride of the Valkyries as `` Kiww the wabbit , kiww the wabbit , kiww the wabbit ... ! '' or `` The Beautifuw Bwue Danube , by Johann Stwauss '' , Stage Door Cartoons line `` Oh , you dubbuh-cwossing wabbit ! You tweachewous miscweant ! '' or the name of actress `` Owivia deHaviwwand '' . Elmer 's speech impediment is so well known that Google allows the user to change the search engine language to `` Elmer Fudd . '' Comedian Robin Williams often referred to the impediment as `` Fudd syndrome '' whenever he accidentally slipped up and replaced an `` l '' or `` r '' with a `` w '' sound in a word . Part of the joke is that Elmer is presumably incapable of pronouncing his own first name correctly . Occasionally Elmer would properly pronounce an `` r '' or `` l '' sound , depending on whether or not it was vital for the audience to understand what the word was . ( For example , in 1944 's The Old Grey Hare , he clearly pronounces the `` r '' in the word `` picture '' . ) Usually , Elmer pronounces the `` r '' and `` l '' when one of those letters is in the last syllable of the word ( such as `` rascal '' , which he says as `` wascal '' ) . This does n't occur in one-syllable words like `` last '' ( `` wast '' ) or in common words like `` hello '' ( `` hewwo '' ) . Later appearances Elmer Fudd made appearances in several television specials in the 1970s and 1980s , and some cameo roles in two of the Looney Tunes feature-film compilations . Elmer would also appear frequently on the animated series Tiny Toon Adventures as a teacher at Acme Looniversity , where he was the idol and favorite teacher of Elmyra Duff , the slightly deranged animal lover who resembles Elmer in basic head design , name and lack of intellect . On the other hand , a younger version of him makes a single appearance in the episode Plucky 's Dastardly Deed , and is named `` Egghead Jr '' , the `` smartest kid in class '' . Elmer also made cameos on Animaniacs , one in Turkey Jerky , another in the Pinky and the Brain short , Do n't Tread on Us . Elmer also had a guest starring appearance on Histeria ! in the episode `` The Teddy Roosevelt Show '' , in a sketch where he portrayed Gutzon Borglum . This sketch depicts Elmer/Gutzon 's construction of Mount Rushmore , accompanied by Borglum 's son Lincoln , portrayed by Loud Kiddington . Elmer made another appearance on Histeria ! , this time in his traditional role , during a sketch where the bald eagle trades places with the turkey during Thanksgiving weekend , featured in the episode `` Americana '' . Fudd also appeared on The Sylvester and Tweety Mysteries in the first season episode A Ticket to Crime as detective Sam Fudd ; at the end he took off his clothes and turned into Elmer . Elmer appears as part of the TuneSquad team in Space Jam . In one part of the game he and Yosemite Sam shoot down the teeth of one of the Monstars dressed in black suites while Misirlou is heard in the background . Elmer took on a more villainous role in Looney Tunes : Back in Action , in which he is a secret agent for the Acme Corporation . In his scene , Elmer chases Bugs and Daffy through the paintings in the Louvre museum , taking on the different art styles as they do so . At the end , Elmer forgets to change back to his normal style after jumping out of the pointillism painting Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte by Georges Seurat , allowing Bugs to easily disintegrate Elmer by blowing a fan at him . A four-year-old version of Elmer was featured in the Baby Looney Tunes episode `` A Bully for Bugs '' , where he kept taking all of Bugs ' candy , and also bullied the rest of his friends . He was also shown with short blond hair . He appeared in most of the songs . An even more villainous Elmer appeared in two episodes of Duck Dodgers as The Mother Fudd , an alien who would spread a disease that caused all affected by it to stand around laughing like Elmer ( a parody of the Flood in Halo and the Borg in Star Trek ) . In Loonatics Unleashed , his descendant , Electro J. Fudd , tried to prove himself the universe 's greatest hunter by capturing Ace Bunny , but settled for Danger Duck instead . Elmer himself also makes an appearance in the form of a photo which shows he presumably died at the hands of a giant squirrel . In December 2009 , Elmer made an appearance in a Geico commercial where the director tells him to say rabbits instead of `` wabbits '' . He was again voiced by Billy West . Elmer Fudd appears in The Looney Tunes Show episode `` Best Friends '' voiced by Billy West , though only as part of the Merrie Melodies segment , and not part of the main plot . Portrayed as a wealthy businessman coming home after a hard day 's work , he sings about his love of `` gwiwwed cheese '' sandwiches . He later had a brief cameo appearance in `` Fish and Visitors '' as a weather forecaster briefly exclaiming about the rainy weather and doing his famous chuckle at the end . In `` Working Duck , '' Elmer Fudd appeared as a newsman where he reports that Daffy Duck was fired from his position as a security guard after falling asleep during a nighttime bank robbery where $ 10,000,000.00 were stolen . Later on , Elmer Fudd reports that EnormoCorp went out of business due to the worst business decision in the history of business caused by its CEO Daffy Duck ( who succeeded the previous CEO Foghorn Leghorn who retired ) where he went with the `` Proceed as Planned '' choice instead of the `` Delay the Merger '' choice when he mistook Pete Puma as the new muffin man . As a result of this , Elmer mentioned that 10,000 of its workers are now out of a job and states that experts fear that the world economy could collapse . Elmer also states that disgraced CEO Daffy Duck could not be reached for a comment . In `` A Christmas Carol , '' Elmer Fudd reports on Foghorn Leghorn 's plans to end the heat wave on Christmas . Elmer Fudd later joins the other characters in the Christmas song called `` Christmas Rules '' at the end of the episode . In `` Dear John , '' Elmer Fudd reports on Daffy Duck winning a spot on the city council . Elmer Fudd later reports on Daffy Duck 's apparent death where he supposedly lost control of his parade float and drove into the St. Bastian River . In `` The Black Widow , '' Elmer Fudd reports on the theft of the Hillhurst Diamond from the museum caused by someone called `` The Black Widow . '' On June 8 , 2011 , Elmer starred in the 3-D short `` Daffy 's Rhapsody '' with Daffy Duck , that short was going to precede the film Happy Feet Two , but was instead shown with Journey 2 : The Mysterious Island . Portrayal Fudd was originally voiced by radio actor Arthur Q. Bryan , but twice in Bryan 's lifetime the voice was provided by the versatile Mel Blanc : once , in The Scarlet Pumpernickel ( 1950 ) , only a single line was needed , and bringing in Bryan was not cost effective ; in What 's Opera , Doc ? , Elmer 's furious scream `` SMOG ! '' was dubbed by Mel Blanc , although Bryan had voiced the rest of the part . Later , during the musician 's union strike of 1958 , another artist did the voice for Elmer 's co-starring appearance in Pre-Hysterical Hare . There is no documented reason for Bryan 's absence , leaving some fans to speculate that he refused to cross the picket lines . In 1959 , Bryan died aged 60 , and Hal Smith was selected to replace him as Elmer , but after just two cartoons were recorded by the new actor , and another was made in which Fudd has no lines and therefore no voice , the character was soon retired . Although in more recent years other voice actors have alternated as Elmer 's voice , Bryan 's characterization remains the definitive one . He was never credited onscreen , because Blanc had a clause in his contract that required him to receive a screen credit and , perhaps inadvertently , denied the same to other voice performers . Blanc would take on the role regularly in the 1970s and 1980s , supplying Elmer 's voice for new footage in compilation feature films and similar TV specials , as well as some all-new specials . He admitted in his autobiography that he found the voice difficult to get `` right '' , never quite making it his own . In Speechless , the famous lithograph issued following Blanc 's death , Elmer is not shown among the characters bowing their heads in tribute to Blanc . Other voice actors Besides Arthur Q. Bryan , other actors have voiced Elmer : * Danny Webb or Cliff Nazarro ( as Egghead ; 1937-1939 ; sources differ ) * Roy Rogers ( 1938 ; singing voice in A Feud There Was ) * Mel Blanc ( Saying `` That one '' in the hand-shaking scene in To Duck or Not To Duck , [ 1943 ] , The Scarlet Pumpernickel [ 1948/1950 ] , screaming `` SMOG ! '' in What 's Opera , Doc ? [ 1957 ] ; regular appearances 1972–1989 ) * Dave Barry ( 1958 , Pre-Hysterical Hare ) * Hal Smith ( 1960–1961 ) * Roy Firestone ( as Egghead ; 1988 , Daffy Duck 's Quackbusters ) * Jeff Bergman ( 1989–1993 ) * Greg Burson ( 1990–2001 , Tiny Toon Adventures , Sheep , Dog 'n ' Wolf ) * Joe Alaskey ( 1992 , Tiny Toon Adventures : How I Spent My Vacation ) * Tom Kenny ( as Egghead ; 1995 , The Sylvester and Tweety Mysteries , as Fudd ; 2001 , Looney Tunes webtoons ) * Frank Welker ( 1995 , Animaniacs ) * Billy West ( 1996–present ) * Brian Drummond ( Baby Looney Tunes ) * Noel Blanc ( Family Guy ) * Quinton Flynn ( Robot Chicken ) * Chris Edgerly ( Drawn Together ) In popular culture The search engine Google has been translated into many languages , some of them for sheer comedic purposes . One of the novelty languages is `` Elmer Fudd . '' Comedian and actor Robin Williams also performed a famous sketch where he sang the Bruce Springsteen song `` Fire '' as Elmer Fudd . In the film Fletch Lives , the eponymous character ( while in disguise ) gives his name as `` Elmer Fudd Gantry '' .

qg_1585--Elmer_Fudd.txt

The voice of Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Porky Pig, Sylvester the Cat, Tweety Bird, Foghorn Leghorn, Yosemite Sam, Wile E. Coyote, Woody Woodpecker, Barney Rubble, Mr. Spacely, Speed Buggy, Captain Caveman, Heathcliff, Speedy Gonzales, Elmer Fudd and hundreds of others, which American voice actor was born on May 30, 1908?

Kristen Mary `` Kris '' Jenner ( née Houghton , formerly Kardashian ; born November 5 , 1955 ) is an American television personality who rose to fame for starring in the reality television series Keeping Up with the Kardashians together with her family . Jenner has been married twice ; first to lawyer Robert Kardashian and later to television personality and retired Olympic Games champion Bruce Jenner ( now known as Caitlyn ) . She has four children with Kardashian ( Kourtney , Kim , Khloé and Robert ) and two with Jenner ( Kendall and Kylie ) . Early life Jenner was born in San Diego , California . She is the daughter of Mary Jo Shannon ( née Campbell ) and Robert Houghton , an engineer . She is of Dutch , English , Irish , and Scottish descent . When Jenner was seven years old , her parents divorced and she and her younger sister Karen were raised by their mother , until a few years later , when her mother married businessman Harry Shannon . Three months after moving to Oxnard , California , Harry 's business partner allegedly left with all the company 's capital , so the family moved back to San Diego . Jenner attended Clairemont High School and graduated in 1973 . She worked as a flight attendant for a year in 1976 . Career Jenner runs her own production company , Jenner Communications , which is based in Los Angeles . Since the start of Keeping Up with the Kardashians , she has managed her daughter Kim 's career . She also is involved with the business management of her other daughters and son . She is portrayed by American actress Selma Blair in the FX limited series American Crime Story : The People v. O. J. Simpson , which premiered in February 2016 . Jenner opened a children 's boutique in 2004 with her daughter , Kourtney . The boutique was called `` Smooch '' and was open for almost six years before closing down in 2009 . Writing Jenner 's autobiography , Kris Jenner ... and All Things Kardashian , was released in November 2011 . She later wrote a cookbook entitled In the Kitchen with Kris : A Kollection of Kardashian-Jenner Family Favorites which was released in October 2014 . Television show Jenner hosted a pop culture-driven daytime talk show , Kris . The series began its six-week trial summer run on several Fox-owned stations on July 15 , 2013 . Kanye West , her son-in-law , revealed the first public picture of daughter North West on Kris Jenner 's daytime talk show . The show 's six-week trial run was not extended . Keeping Up with the Kardashians In 2007 , Jenner met with producer Ryan Seacrest to pursue a reality television show based on her family . The show would be aired on E ! Network and Kris would become the executive producer . The show was a success and is now on the 12th season . The show has had four spin-off shows : Kourtney & Khloé Take Miami ( 2009 ) , Kourtney and Kim Take New York ( 2011 ) , Khloé & Lamar ( 2011 ) , and Kourtney and Khloé Take The Hamptons ( 2014 ) . Personal life Marriages , relationships , and children Jenner 's first marriage was to lawyer Robert Kardashian ( who later became widely known for his early legal representation of O. J. Simpson ) , on July 8 , 1978 . They have four children : daughters Kourtney ( born 1979 ) , Kim ( born 1980 ) , Khloé ( born 1984 ) and son Rob ( born 1987 ) . They divorced in March 1991 , but remained close friends until his death from esophageal cancer in 2003 . In 2012 , Kris confessed she had an affair with former soccer player and animator Todd Waterman during her marriage to Kardashian . She referred to Waterman as `` Ryan '' in her autobiography , but he revealed his identity on his own . They had an encounter on Keeping up with the Kardashians while Kris was having a tennis lesson . In April 1991 , one month after her divorce from Kardashian , Jenner married her second spouse , retired Olympian Bruce Jenner ( now Caitlyn Jenner ) , who completed her transition to a woman , taking the name of Caitlyn in mid 2015 . They have two daughters together : Kendall ( born 1995 ) and Kylie ( born 1997 ) . In her autobiography , Jenner explained that she named her daughter Kendall Nicole after the late Nicole Brown Simpson . Through Caitlyn , Kris also had four stepchildren : Burt , Cassandra `` Casey '' , Brandon and Brody . The Jenners announced their separation in October 2013 , and on September 22 , 2014 , she filed for divorce , citing irreconcilable differences . The divorce became final on March 23 , 2015 , because of a six-month state legal requirement . Kris Jenner has talked about the breakup with Caitlyn as `` the most passive-aggressive thing '' saying that while she had known of her partner 's use of hormones in the 1980s , `` there was n't a gender issue . Nobody mentioned a gender issue . '' Since late 2014 , Jenner has been in a relationship with Corey Gamble . O. J. Simpson trial Jenner and her family suffered emotional turmoil during the O. J. Simpson trial ( 1994-1995 ) , later described as the `` Trial of the Century . '' Jenner was good friends with O.J . 's ex-wife , Nicole Brown . Jenner 's first husband , Robert Kardashian , was O. J. Simpson 's lawyer during the trial . In 2016 , the trial was portrayed in a television series called American Crime Story . Jenner 's character is played by actress Selma Blair . California Community Church In 2012 , Jenner and Pastor Brad Johnson founded the California Community Church , originally called the Life Change Community Church , located in Agoura Hills , California . Plastic surgery As recounted in her memoir , Jenner underwent plastic surgery to enhance her breasts twice ; she has had many applications of botox . In June 2011 , Jenner had a face lift months before her daughter Kim 's wedding to Kris Humphries . She allowed the preparations and recovery from the surgery to be recorded . The video footage can be seen on E ! Online and `` Kim 's Fairytale Wedding Part 1 '' episode of Keeping Up with the Kardashians . She explained : `` I needed a little freshening up for the wedding . Just doing what a girl 's got ta do ! ''

qw_4713--Kris_Jenner.txt

"Who won a gold medal at the 1976 Summer Olympics, married Kris Kardashian in 1991 and from 2007 starred in the E! reality series ""Keeping Up with the Kardashians""?"

Rob Davis ( born Robert Berkeley Davis , 1 October 1947 , Carshalton , London , England ) is an English guitarist and songwriter . He was a guitar playing member of the 1970s glam rock band Mud , who achieved the biggest selling Number One record of 1974 in the United Kingdom , with their song `` Tiger Feet '' . After the band 's eventual demise in 1977 , Davis worked with several other groups , including The Tremeloes and Darts , but his efforts met with little commercial return . Later , he achieved commercial success as a songwriter , most notably with the songs `` Groovejet ( If This Ai n't Love ) '' for Spiller , `` I Need a Miracle '' for artist Coco Star , a chart topper in 2000 as the Fragma remix `` Toca 's Miracle '' ; and `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' for Kylie Minogue in 2001 . For the latter song , Davis along with co-writer Cathy Dennis , received an Ivor Novello Award for composing the most performed song of the year . In the Grammy Awards of 2004 , Davis shared a Grammy with co-producer Philip Larsen ( Manhattan Clique ) , and performer Minogue , for another Minogue single `` Come into My World '' , in the category of Best Dance Recording . Davis and Dennis also co-wrote Brooke Hogan 's single , `` Everything to Me '' ( 2004 ) . His latest commercial works include the co-writing song `` One Foot Boy '' from Mika 's album , The Boy Who Knew Too Much ( 2009 ) . In December 2005 , Davis appeared in the Channel 4 programme , Bring Back ... The Christmas Number One . In January 2008 , Davis appeared in the BBC Four television documentary , Pop , What Is It Good For ? . In December 2009 , he appeared in the Channel 4 programme The Greatest Songs of the Noughties , which featured `` Ca n't Get You Out of My Head '' , ranked at No . 9 ( in a Top 20 ) .

sfq_3785--Rob_Davis_(musician).txt

Rob Davis, Les Gray, Dave Mount and Ray Stiles are members of which pop group?

Gotham City ( ) or Gotham is a fictional American city appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics , best known as the home of Batman . Batman 's place of residence was first identified as Gotham City in Batman # 4 ( Winter 1940 ) . New York Times journalist William Safire described Gotham City as `` New York City below 14th Street , from SoHo to Greenwich Village , the Bowery , Little Italy , Chinatown , and the sinister areas around the base of the Manhattan and Brooklyn Bridges . '' Batman artist Neal Adams sees the 1940s mobster history of Chicago as the basis for Gotham , while other comic creators have stated that Metropolis is New York in the daytime and Gotham City is New York at night . Locations used as inspiration or filming locations for the urban portion of Gotham City in the live-action Batman films have included Chicago , Detroit , Pittsburgh , Los Angeles , and New York City . English country house locations in Nottinghamshire , Hertfordshire , and Buckinghamshire , as well as Stevenson Taylor Hall in New York , have been used to depict the less urban setting of Wayne Manor in live-action films . Origin of name Writer Bill Finger , on the naming of the city and the reason for changing Batman 's locale from New York City to a fictional city , said , `` Originally I was going to call Gotham City 'Civic City . ' Then I tried 'Capital City , ' then 'Coast City . ' Then I flipped through the New York City phone book and spotted the name 'Gotham Jewelers ' and said , 'That 's it , ' Gotham City . We did n't call it New York because we wanted anybody in any city to identify with it . '' `` Gotham '' had long been a well-known nickname for New York City even prior to Batman 's 1939 introduction , which explains why `` Gotham Jewelers '' and many other businesses in New York City have the word `` Gotham '' in them . The nickname became popular in the nineteenth century ; Washington Irving had first attached it to New York in the November 11 , 1807 edition of his Salmagundi , Burrows , Edwin G. and Mike Wallace . Gotham : A History of New York City to 1898 . ( Oxford University Press , 1999 ) , 417. a periodical which lampooned New York culture and politics . Irving took the name from the village of Gotham , Nottinghamshire , England , a place inhabited , according to folklore , by fools . The village 's name derives from Old English gāt 'goat ' and hām 'home ' , literally `` homestead where goats are kept '' , and is pronounced , like the word goat ( cf . Chatham , , a similar name where the letters th represent a `` t '' sound followed by a silent `` h '' rather than a `` th '' sound ) . The Joker references this etymology in Detective Comics # 880 , in which he tells Batman that the word means `` a safe place for goats '' . In contrast , `` Gotham '' as used for New York has a different pronunciation by analogy to other words spelled with `` th '' and is pronounced as , like the word Goth . Fictional history In Swamp Thing # 53 , Alan Moore wrote a fictional history for Gotham City that other writers have generally followed . According to Moore 's tale , a Norwegian mercenary , Captain Jon Logerquist , founded Gotham City in 1635 and the British later took it over—a story that parallels the founding of New York by the Dutch ( as New Amsterdam ) and later takeover by the British . During the American Revolutionary War , Gotham City was the site of a major battle ( paralleling the Battle of Brooklyn in the American Revolution ) . This was detailed in Rick Veitch 's Swamp Thing # 85 featuring Tomahawk . Rumors held it to be the site of various occult rites . The occult origins of Gotham are further delved into by Peter Milligan 's 1990 story arc `` Dark Knight , Dark City '' , which reveals that some of the American Founding Fathers are involved in summoning a bat-demon which becomes trapped beneath old `` Gotham Town '' , its dark influence spreading as Gotham City evolves . A similar trend is followed in 2005 's Shadowpact # 5 by Bill Willingham , which expands upon Gotham 's occult heritage by revealing a being who has slept for 40,000 years beneath the land upon which Gotham City was built . Strega , the being 's servant , says that the `` dark and often cursed character '' of the city was influenced by the being who now uses the name `` Doctor Gotham . '' During the American Civil War , it was defended by an ancestor of the Penguin , fighting for the Union Army , Col. Nathan Cobblepot , in the Legendary Battle of Gotham Heights . In Gotham Underground # 2 by Frank Tieri , Tobias Whale claims that 19th century Gotham was run by five rival gangs , until the first `` masks '' appeared , eventually forming a gang of their own . It is not clear whether these were vigilantes or costumed criminals . Many storylines have added more events to Gotham 's history , at the same time greatly affecting the city and its people . Perhaps the greatest in effect was a long set of serial storylines , which started with Ra 's al Ghul releasing a debilitating virus called the `` Clench '' during the Contagion storyline . As that arc concluded , the city was beginning to recover , only to suffer an earthquake measuring 7.6 on the Richter Scale in the 1998 `` Cataclysm '' storyline . This resulted in the federal government cutting Gotham off from the rest of the United States in the 1999 storyline `` No Man 's Land '' . This trio of storylines allowed writers the freedom to redefine the nature and mood of the city . The result suggested a harder city with a more resilient , resourceful , and cynical populace ; a more dramatic and varied architecture ; and more writing possibilities by attributing new locales to the rebuilding of the city . The name `` Gotham City '' is generally associated with DC Comics , although it also appears in the first Mr. Scarlet story by France Herron and Jack Kirby from Wow Comics # 1 . Kirby historian Greg Theakston notes that this was published December 13 , 1940 , shortly before Batman # 4 was published . A city called `` Gotham City '' also appears in Captain America Comics # 10 ( January 1942 ) , in a story called `` Hotel of Horror '' . In the storyline 'Court of Owls ' , it was shown that the Court of Owls ' have been lording over Gotham for centuries . Atmosphere In terms of atmosphere , Batman writer and editor Dennis O'Neil has said that , figuratively , `` Batman 's Gotham City is Manhattan below Fourteenth Street at eleven minutes past midnight on the coldest night in November . '' Batman artist Neal Adams has long believed that Chicago , with its proliferation of mobsters in the 1940s , was the basis for Gotham , commenting , `` Chicago has had a reputation for a certain kind of criminality , '' says Adams , who lives in New York . `` Batman is in this kind of corrupt city and trying to turn it back into a better place . One of the things about Chicago is Chicago has alleys ( which are virtually nonexistent in New York ) . Back alleys , that 's where Batman fights all the bad guys . '' The statement `` Metropolis is New York in the daytime ; Gotham City is New York at night '' has been variously attributed to comics creators Frank Miller and John Byrne Gotham City 's atmosphere took on a lighter tone in the comics of the 1950s and part of the 1960s , similar to the tone of Batman stories of that era . However , by the early 1970s , particularly with Dennis O'Neil becoming a prominent Batman writer , the tone of the city , along with that of the stories , had become grittier . ( Significantly , by the 1970s , Gotham 's real-life counterpart , New York , had lost much of its 1960s `` Fun City '' luster and was beset by urban problems including public fear of rising crime , a declining economy , police corruption and municipal financial mismanagement ) . In most stories since the 70s , the portrayal of Gotham is that of a dark and foreboding metropolis rife with crime , grime , corruption , and a deep-seated sense of urban decay . This tone was particularly prominent in the parts of the city not rejuvenated post- '' No Man 's Land '' . During his run as a writer , Batman scribe Grant Morrison brought about a more optimistic interpretation of Gotham City . As Morrison stated : `` If Gotham was so bloody awful , no one normal would live there and there 'd be no one to protect from criminals . If Gotham really was an open sewer of crime and corruption , every story set there would serve to demonstrate the complete and utter failure of Batman 's mission , which is n't really the message we want to send , is it ? You 've got Batman and all his allies as well as Commissioner Gordon and the city still exudes a vile miasma of darkness and death ? I ca n't buy that . It 's simply not realistic and flies in the face of in-story logic ( and you know I like my comics realistic ! ) so my artists and I have taken a different tack and we want to show the cool , vibrant side of Gotham , the energy and excitement that would draw people to live and visit there . '' Architecture Different artists have depicted Gotham City in different ways . They often base their interpretations on various real architectural periods and styles with exaggerated characteristics , such as massively multi-tiered flying buttresses on Gothic cathedrals or the huge art deco and art nouveau statuary seen in Tim Burton 's movie version . Cyberpunk , Japanese , and Greek elements were presented in Joel Schumacher 's series of films . Christopher Nolan , who once lived in Chicago , effected a depiction of Gotham that featured distinct Chicago architecture and which is cartographically based on the canon DC map of Gotham . Batman Begins features a CGI augmented version of Chicago while The Dark Knight more directly features Chicago infrastructure and architecture such as Navy Pier : however , The Dark Knight Rises abandoned Chicago , instead shooting in Pittsburgh , Los Angeles , New York City , Newark , New Jersey , London and Glasgow . Within the Batman comics , the person cited as being influential in promoting the unique architecture of Gotham City during the pre-American Civil War era was Judge Solomon Wayne , Bruce Wayne 's ancestor . His campaign to reform Gotham came to a head when he met a young architect named Cyrus Pinkney . Wayne commissioned Pinkney to design and to build the first `` Gotham Style '' structures in what became the center of the city 's financial district . The `` Gotham Style '' idea of the writers matches parts of the Gothic Revival in style and timing . In the storyline Batman : Gothic the Gotham Cathedral plays a central role for the story as it is built by Mr . Whisper . Whisper is man who has sold his soul to the devil . Mr . Whisper is the antagonist in the story . In a 1992 storyline , a man obsessed with Pinkney 's architecture blew up several Gotham buildings in order to reveal the Pinkney structures they had hidden ; the editorial purpose behind this was to transform the city depicted in the comics to resemble the designs created by Anton Furst for the 1989 Batman film . Alan Wayne expanded upon his father 's ideas and built a bridge to expand the city . Edward Elliot and Theodore Cobblepot also each had a bridge named for them . Arkham Asylum : Living Hell mentions the `` Sprang Act '' , which forbids Gothamite businesses from advertising on rooftops . It was passed after minor villain Humpty Dumpty over-wound the mainspring of the city hall clock , causing the hour hand to jump off and knock one of the billboards down , causing a chain reaction . After the `` No Man 's Land '' and `` Cataclysm '' storylines , Lex Luthor took on the task of rebuilding Gotham City , replacing many of Gotham 's old art deco and Gothic structures with modern glass skyscrapers and buildings . Police and corruption A common theme in stories set in Gotham is the rampant and recurring corruption within the city 's civil authorities and infrastructure , most notably within the Gotham City Police Department . During stories set early in Batman 's career ( most notably Batman : Year One ) , Commissioner Gillian B. Loeb was depicted as having his hands in many pockets . However , Batman found evidence for conspiracy charges , forcing Loeb to resign his position . Later stories depicted subsequent commissioners as also being corruptible , or open to various forms of influence . In other stories , Batman has had to take on crooked cops , either acting in collusion with supervillains , working for the mob , or on their own . Later stories , featuring James Gordon as the new Commissioner , show the two characters often uniting to purge corruption from the force . Gordon was the commissioner for about 9 to 10 years of continuity , then retired , handing the police force over to his replacement , Commissioner Akins . Recent stories have returned Gordon to the position of Commissioner , unfortunately to find corruption taking a greater hold since his departure . Corruption escalates during Batman Eternal when Gordon is framed for causing a major train accident and a new commissioner is appointed with ties to the old gangs , but Batman and his allies are eventually able to replace him with their ally Jason Bard , only for Bard to resign when he is revealed to have been working with Hush to destroy Batman . During Bruce Wayne 's temporary 'retirement ' after he was left with amnesia following his last battle with the Joker , the police department even created their own Batman using various donated technology , with Gordon acting as the GCPD 's official Batman , but he returned to his old role in the department after the true Batman returned . In the 1966 television series , Batman , the Gotham City police force was not a focus of the stories . Gotham Underground * Unified Crime Family * * Black Mask - During the events of `` Batman : War Games '' , Roman `` Black Mask '' Sionis gains control over all gangs in Gotham City and works with The Society to kill Batman . After his criminal operations are systematically crippled by the Red Hood , he is eventually killed by Catwoman and a power vacuum leads to a series of gang wars . Jeremiah Arkham takeover the Black Mask persona after Sionis ' death and reunifies the Gotham gangs . * * Great White - Warren `` the Great White Shark '' White becomes the successor to Black Mask 's crime empire , successfully running all crime in Gotham from inside Arkham Asylum . During Intergang 's bid for power , Great White is beaten and hidden behind a door in Blackgate prison in order to keep him out of the way . After freeing Arkham 's inmates the new Black Mask takes control over Warren and his men . * Crime Families * * Falcone Crime Family ( Italian ) - Run by Carmine `` the Roman '' Falcone , who maintained a stranglehold over all of Gotham City 's crime before the rise of 'masks . ' After he is murdered by Two-Face , his daughter , Sofia Gigante , takes control . Upon her death and the murder of many other family members , the family loses its grasp on the city . After an extended absence , Falcone 's son , Mario , reclaimed some of the family 's former power . * * Sullivan Crime Family ( Irish ) - Run by Mickey `` the Mink '' Sullivan , the family was considered subordinate to the Falcone family . After a failed attempt to kill Two-Face , they were killed in a hotel by Holiday . * * Ibanescu Crime Family ( Romanian ) - Run by Dragos `` the Romanian '' Ibanescu , the family was involved in animal fights , human trafficking and prostitution . They operate in the East End . * * Maroni Crime Family ( Italian ) - Run by Luigi `` Big Lou '' Maroni until his death , from which the family was inherited by Lou 's son , Salvatore `` the Italian '' Maroni . The latter Maroni was responsible for scarring Harvey Dent , and murdered while in prison . * * Dimitrov Crime Family ( Russian ) - Run by Yuri `` the Russian '' Dimitrov , the family is continually at war with the Maroni Crime Family . * * Moxon Crime Family ( British ) - Run by a distant friend of the Wayne family , Lew Moxon , who held a vast empire until his tragic death . * * Odessa Crime Family ( Ukrainian ) - Run by Vasily and Alexandra Kosov , the family was taken over by Tobias Whale . * * Riley Crime Family ( Irish ) - Run by Peyton Riley 's father , Sean Riley until his death . It is implied that Johnny Sabatino killed him . * * Sabatino Crime Family ( Italian ) - Run by Johnny Sabatino , who married Peyton Riley to cement peace between the Irish and Italian mobs . Their loveless marriage erupted into violence when he tried to kill her . Peyton allied with Scarface to kill Johnny , but all were apparently killed during the struggle . * * Yakuza - Run by Akahara until his death in a shoot-out in War Games . * Gangs * * All-Americans - One of the first gangs in Gotham since the late 1800s . * * Free Men - One of the first gangs in Gotham since the late 1800s . * * Wound Ravens ( Irish ) - One of the first gangs in Gotham since the late 1800s . * * East-Siders ( Italian ) - One of the first gangs in Gotham since the late 1800s . * * Jewish Sons of David ( Israeli ) - One of the first gangs in Gotham since the late 1800s . * * Ghost Dragons ( Chinese ) - Run by Sir Edmumd `` the King Snake '' Dorrance until his death at the hands of Lynx , who was assigned as the gangs field commander , to gain control over the gang . Lynx was accidentally beheaded by one of her own gang members . * * Golden Dragons ( Chinese ) - Gotham branch of the Hong Kong-based gang . Their leader is the new Lynx . * * Hanoi Ten ( Vietnamese ) - Rivals of the Golden Dragons . * * League of Assassins ( Arabian ) - Run by Ra 's `` the Demon 's Head '' al Ghul , this eco-terrorist organization is made up of the most dangerous assassins in the world , orchestrating the method to give the world a perfect environmental balance through injustice , without hesitation or fear of death . * * Joker 's Gang - Run by the Joker , this gang enact in various schemes and heights made just for fun and to look like `` bad jokes '' . Although not known for their intelligence , they have a nihilistic outlook and borderline insanity , dressing up as clowns and circus people to associate themselves with the Joker . * * Scarecrow 's Gang - Run by Dr. Jonathan `` the Scarecrow '' Crane , this gang is augmented by the Scarecrow 's `` fear toxin '' to look ethereal and demonic , warping the perceptions of their victims and ranging from a common criminal to a vast gallery of monstrous and misleading hallucinations . * * Riddler 's Gang - Run by Edward `` the Riddler '' Nashton , this gang are known to leave riddles and puzzles leading to a deathtrap at their crime scenes . * * Penguin 's Gang - Run by Oswald `` the Penguin '' Cobblepot , this gang was once the premier power in Gotham until it was ousted by Intergang but was restored by Batman . The Penguin is currently fighting for dominance over Two-Face 's gang . * * Two-Face 's Gang - Run by Harvey `` Two-Face '' Dent , the dominance over this gang is currently being fought over by the Penguin . * * Bane 's Gang - Run by the King Snake 's son , Bane , this gang earn the right to obtain and be supplied with Bane 's Venom drug to make them look tougher . * * False Facers - Run by Roman `` the Black Mask '' Sionis , this gang wears a mask of their own choosing to conceal their features . Black Mask was never able to reform the gang after they were all seemingly killed during a bank robbery by Killer Croc , the gang itself has been ever since disbanded . * * Sprang Bridge Soldiers - Control Robbinsville , almost taken over by Jason Todd . * * Blackgaters - Briefly taken over by Jason Todd in an attempt to unite the gangs against the Underground . * * Intergang - Run by Darkseid through Bruno `` the Ugly '' Mannheim , the gang employs Johnny Stitches to take control over the Gotham City underworld . They successfully take down Penguin 's gang and buy out Tobias Whale to gain full control . * * The Burnley Town Massive - Run by Able Crown , this gang was made up of several other street gangs in the Burnley Town district that were later wiped out in a gang war . * * The Mutants - Run by the mysterious Mutant Leader , this gang surfaced sometime after Batman 's retirement brutal methods , advanced weaponry and vast numbers , making them too big of a threat for the GCPD to handle on their own . When Batman came out of retiremrent and defeated the Mutant Leader , the gang has ever since been disbanded and divided into splintered groups . * * Batboys * * Five Fingers * * Sirens * * Blue Flu Gang Geography Gotham City 's geography , like other fictional cities ' geographies in the DC Universe , has varied over the decades , because of changing writers , editors , and storylines . The majority of appearances place Gotham on the Northeastern coast of the United States , where New York City is located . Also , Manhattan is an island in the Northeastern United States , which corresponds to maps depicting Gotham City . However , the 1990 Atlas of the DC Universe states that Gotham is located in New Jersey , across the Delaware Bay from Metropolis , which would place it on the southern coast of New Jersey . Historically , `` Gotham '' has been a nickname for New York City originating on November 11 , 1807 by Washington Irving in his Salmagundi Papers . DC Comics publisher and former president Paul Levitz says that Gotham is `` New York from 14th Street down , the older buildings , more brick-and-mortar as opposed to steel-and-glass . '' New York Times journalist William Safire described Gotham City as `` New York below 14th Street , from SoHo to Greenwich Village , the Bowery , Little Italy , Chinatown , and the sinister areas around the base of the Manhattan and Brooklyn Bridges . '' 'Batman : Shadow of the Bat , ' Volume 1 , Annual # 1 ( 1993 ) establishes that Gotham City is in New Jersey . Sal E. Jordan 's driver 's license in the comic depicts his address is : 72 Faxcol Dr Gotham City , NJ 12345 . Relationship with Metropolis Gotham City is frequently depicted to be within driving distance of Metropolis , the home of Superman . Like Gotham , Metropolis ' location has also varied over the years . The distance between Gotham and Metropolis has varied greatly over the years , with depictions of the two ranging from being hundreds of miles apart to Gotham and Metropolis being shown as twin cities on opposite sides of Delaware Bay , with Gotham City in New Jersey and Metropolis in Delaware . In Bronze Age stories that depicted Metropolis and Gotham City as twin cities , the Metro-Narrows Bridge was said to be the main route connecting Metropolis to Gotham City . It has been described as being the longest suspension bridge in the world . A map appeared in The New Adventures of Superboy # 22 ( October 1981 ) , that showed Smallville within driving distance of both Metropolis and Gotham City . ( In post-Crisis comics , Smallville was officially relocated to Kansas . ) 1990 's The Atlas of the DC Universe also places Metropolis in Delaware and Gotham City in New Jersey . Notable residents The various comic book series of the Batman family of books are set in Gotham , and feature characters such as Nightwing , Huntress , Black Canary , Barbara Gordon and Batwoman . Other DC characters have also been depicted to be living in Gotham , such as mercenary Tommy Monaghan and renowned demonologist Jason Blood . Within modern DC Universe continuity , Batman is not the first hero in Gotham . Stories featuring Alan Scott , the Golden Age Green Lantern , set before and during World War II depict Scott living in Gotham , and later depictions show him running his Gotham Broadcasting Corporation . DC 's 2011 reboot of All Star Western takes place in an Old West-styled Gotham . Jonah Hex and Amadeus Arkham are among this version of Gotham 's inhabitants . Apart from Gotham 's superhero residents , the residents of the city feature in a back-up series in Detective Comics called Tales of Gotham City and in two limited series called Gotham Nights . Additionally , the Gotham City Police Department is the focus of the series Gotham Central , as well as the mini-series Gordon 's Law , Bullock 's Law , and GCPD . Mayors in the comic books Several mayors of Gotham have appeared in the comic book series that collectively form the Batman Family of titles : Officers of the law in the comics Features Gotham City is a major economic center within the United States of the DC Universe . Its important industries include manufacturing ; shipping ; finance ; fine arts , represented by its numerous museums , galleries , and jewelers ; and the production of giant novelty props . In addition to its commercial seaport , it also supports a naval shipyard . Districts and locations Otisburg Otisburg is the district in Gotham that runs straight through the northern segment of the island and connects to Gotham County on the mainland . * Stagg Enterprises is a multinational science company in Otisburg that specializes in various nation-wide industrial aspects and new , innovative methods in the fields of engineering , chemistry and genetics . * Monarch Playing Cards is a playing card company next door to Ace Chemicals that the Red Hood gang attempted to rob before being gunned down using the Ace building as a shortcut . * Knightsdome Sporting Complex is a sporting complex in the north-western section of Otisburg that hosts many of the city 's major sporting teams and events . * OMAC Base is the hideout of OMAC and his Brother Eye located

tc_2300--Gotham_City.txt

Which caped crusader operated in Gotham City?

Copenhagen ( , ; ( ) ) is the capital and most populated city of Denmark . It has a municipal population of 591,481 and a larger urban population of 1,280,371 ( ) . The Copenhagen metropolitan area has just over 2 million inhabitants . The city is situated on the eastern coast of the island of Zealand ; another small portion of the city is located on Amager , and is separated from Malmö , Sweden , by the strait of Øresund . Originally a Viking fishing village founded in the 10th century , Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century . Beginning in the 17th century it consolidated its position as a regional centre of power with its institutions , defences and armed forces . After suffering from the effects of plague and fire in the 18th century , the city underwent a period of redevelopment . This included construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and founding of such cultural institutions as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts . After further disasters in the early 19th century when Nelson attacked the Dano-Norwegian fleet and bombarded the city , rebuilding during the Danish Golden Age brought a Neoclassical look to Copenhagen 's architecture . Later , following the Second World War , the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing and businesses along the five urban railway routes stretching out from the city centre . Since the turn of the 21st century , Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development , facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure . The city is the cultural , economic and governmental centre of Denmark ; it is one of the major financial centres of Northern Europe with the Copenhagen Stock Exchange . Copenhagen 's economy has seen rapid developments in the service sector , especially through initiatives in information technology , pharmaceuticals and clean technology . Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge , Copenhagen has become increasingly integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city , Malmö , forming the Øresund Region . With a number of bridges connecting the various districts , the cityscape is characterized by parks , promenades and waterfronts . Copenhagen 's landmarks such as Tivoli Gardens , the Little Mermaid Statue , the Amalienborg and Christiansborg palaces , Rosenborg Castle Gardens , Frederik 's Church , and many museums , restaurants and nightclubs are significant tourist attractions . Copenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen , the Technical University of Denmark and Copenhagen Business School . The University of Copenhagen , founded in 1479 , is the oldest university in Denmark . Copenhagen is home to the FC København and Brøndby football clubs . The annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980 . Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world . The Copenhagen Metro serves central Copenhagen together with the S-train network connecting the outlying boroughs . Serving roughly 2 million passengers a month , Copenhagen Airport , Kastrup , is the largest airport in the Nordic countries . Etymology The name of the city reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce . The original designation , from which the contemporary Danish name derives , was Køpmannæhafn , meaning `` merchants ' harbour '' , often simply Hafn or Havn ( `` harbour '' ) . The literal English translation would be `` Chapman 's haven '' . The English name for the city was adapted from its Low German name , Kopenhagen . The abbreviations Kbh . or Kbhvn are often used in Danish for København , and kbh . for københavnsk ( of Copenhagen ) . The chemical element hafnium is named for Copenhagen ( Latin name Hafnia ) , where it was discovered . The bacterium Hafnia is also named after Copenhagen : Vagn Møller of the State Serum Institute in Copenhagen named it in 1954 . History Early history Although the earliest historical records of Copenhagen are from the end of the 12th century , recent archaeological finds in connection with work on the city 's metropolitan rail system revealed the remains of a large merchant 's mansion near today 's Kongens Nytorv from c. 1020 . Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century . The remains of an ancient church , with graves dating to the 11th century , have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen . These finds indicate that Copenhagen 's origins as a city go back at least to the 11th century . Substantial discoveries of flint tools in the area provide evidence of human settlements dating to the Stone Age . Many historians believe the town dates to the late Viking Age , and was possibly founded by Sweyn I Forkbeard . The natural harbour and good herring stocks seem to have attracted fishermen and merchants to the area on a seasonal basis from the 11th century and more permanently in the 13th century . The first habitations were probably centred on Gammel Strand ( literally `` old shore '' ) in the 11th century or even earlier . The earliest written mention of the town was in the 12th century when Saxo Grammaticus in Gesta Danorum referred to it as Portus Mercatorum , meaning Merchants ' Harbour or , in the Danish of the time , Købmannahavn.Skaarup ; Jensen ( 2002 ) , pp . 14–15 Traditionally , Copenhagen 's founding has been dated to Bishop Absalon 's construction of a modest fortress on the little island of Slotsholmen in 1167 where Christiansborg Palace stands today . The construction of the fortress was in response to attacks by Wendish pirates who plagued the coastline during the 12th century . Defensive ramparts and moats were completed and by 1177 St. Clemens Church had been built . Attacks by the Germans continued , and after the original fortress was eventually destroyed by the marauders , islanders replaced it with Copenhagen Castle . Middle Ages In 1186 , a letter from Pope Urban III states that the castle of Hafn ( Copenhagen ) and its surrounding lands , including the town of Hafn , were given to Absalon , Bishop of Roskilde 1158–1191 and Archbishop of Lund 1177–1201 , by King Valdemar I . On Absalon 's death , the property was to come into the ownership of the Bishopric of Roskilde . Around 1200 , the Church of Our Lady was constructed on higher ground to the northeast of the town , which began to develop around it . As the town became more prominent , it was repeatedly attacked by the Hanseatic League . As the fishing industry thrived in Copenhagen , particularly in the trade of herring , the city began expanding to the north of Slotsholmen . In 1254 , it received a charter as a city under Bishop Jakob Erlandsen who garnered support from the local fishing merchants against the king by granting them special privileges . In the mid 1330s , the first land assessment of the city was published . With the establishment of the Kalmar Union ( 1397–1523 ) between Denmark , Norway and Sweden , by about 1416 Copenhagen had emerged as the capital of Denmark when Eric of Pomerania moved his seat to Copenhagen Castle . The University of Copenhagen was inaugurated on 1 June 1479 by King Christian I , following approval from Pope Sixtus IV . This makes it the oldest university in Denmark and one of the oldest in Europe . Originally controlled by the Catholic Church , the university 's role in society was forced to change during the Reformation in Denmark in the late 1530s . 16th and 17th centuries In disputes prior to the Reformation of 1536 , the city which had been faithful to Christian II , who was Catholic , was successfully besieged in 1523 by the forces of Frederik I , who supported Lutheranism . Copenhagen 's defences were reinforced with a series of towers along the city wall . After an extended siege from July 1535 to July 1536 , during which the city supported Christian II 's alliance with Malmö and Lübeck , it was finally forced to capitulate to Christian III . During the second half of the century , the city prospered from increased trade across the Baltic supported by Dutch shipping . Christoffer Valkendorff , a high-ranking statesman , defended the city 's interests and contributed to its development . The Netherlands had also become primarily Protestant , as were northern German states . During the reign of Christian IV between 1588 and 1648 , Copenhagen had dramatic growth as a city . On his initiative at the beginning of the 17th century , two important buildings were completed on Slotsholmen : the Tøjhus Arsenal and Børsen , the stock exchange . To foster international trade , the East India Company was founded in 1616 . To the east of the city , inspired by Dutch planning , the king developed the district of Christianshavn with canals and ramparts . It was initially intended to be a fortified trading centre but ultimately became part of Copenhagen . Christian IV also sponsored an array of ambitious building projects including Rosenborg Slot and the Rundetårn . In 1658–59 , the city withstood a siege by the Swedes under Charles X and successfully repelled a major assault . By 1661 , Copenhagen had asserted its position as capital of Denmark and Norway . All the major institutions were located there , as was the fleet and most of the army . The defences were further enhanced with the completion of the Citadel in 1664 and the extension of Christianshavns Vold with its bastions in 1692 , leading to the creation of a new base for the fleet at Nyholm . 18th century Copenhagen lost around 22,000 of its population of 65,000 to the plague in 1711 . The city was also struck by two major fires which destroyed much of its infrastructure . The Copenhagen Fire of 1728 was the largest in the history of Copenhagen . It began on the evening of 20 October , and continued to burn until the morning of 23 October , destroying approximately 28 % of the city , leaving some 20 % of the population homeless . No less than 47 % of the medieval section of the city was completely lost . Along with the 1795 fire , it is the main reason that few traces of the old town can be found in the modern city . A substantial amount of rebuilding followed . In 1733 , work began on the royal residence of Christiansborg Palace which was completed in 1745 . In 1749 , development of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden was initiated . Designed by Nicolai Eigtved in the Rococo style , its centre contained the mansions which now form Amalienborg Palace . Major extensions to the naval base of Holmen were undertaken while the city 's cultural importance was enhanced with the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts . In the second half of the 18th century , Copenhagen benefitted from Denmark 's neutrality during the wars between Europe 's main powers , allowing it to play an important role in trade between the states around the Baltic Sea . After Christiansborg was destroyed by fire in 1794 and another fire caused serious damage to the city in 1795 , work began on the classical Copenhagen landmark of Højbro Plads while Nytorv and Gammel Torv were converged . 19th century On 2 April 1801 , a British fleet under the command of Admiral Sir Hyde Parker defeated a Danish-Norwegian fleet anchored near Copenhagen . Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson led the main attack . He famously disobeyed Parker 's order to withdraw , destroying many of the Dano-Norwegian ships before a truce was agreed . Copenhagen is often considered to be Nelson 's hardest-fought battle , surpassing even the heavy fighting at Trafalgar . It was during this battle that Lord Nelson was said to have `` put the telescope to the blind eye '' in order not to see Admiral Parker 's signal to cease fire . The Second Battle of Copenhagen ( or the Bombardment of Copenhagen ) ( 16 August – 5 September 1807 ) was from a British point of view a preemptive attack on Copenhagen , targeting the civilian population in order to seize the Dano-Norwegian fleet . But from a Danish point of view the battle was a terror bombardment on their capital . Particularly notable was the use of incendiary Congreve rockets ( containing phosphorus , which can not be extinguished with water ) that randomly hit the city . Few houses with straw roofs remained after the bombardment . The largest church , Vor frue kirke , was destroyed by the sea artillery . Several historians consider this battle the first terror attack against a major European city in modern times . The British landed 30,000 men , they surrounded Copenhagen and the attack continued for the next three days , killing some 2,000 civilians and destroying most of the city . The devastation was so great because Copenhagen relied on an old defence-line whose limited range could not reach the British ships and their longer-range artillery . Despite the disasters of the early 19th century , Copenhagen experienced a period of intense cultural creativity known as the Danish Golden Age . Painting prospered under C.W . Eckersberg and his students while C.F . Hansen and Gottlieb Bindesbøll brought a Neoclassical look to the city 's architecture . In the early 1850s , the ramparts of the city were opened to allow new housing to be built around The Lakes ( ) that bordered the old defences to the west . By the 1880s , the districts of Nørrebro and Vesterbro developed to accommodate those who came from the provinces to participate in the city 's industrialization . This dramatic increase of space was long overdue , as not only were the old ramparts out of date as a defence system but bad sanitation in the old city had to be overcome . From 1886 , the west rampart ( Vestvolden ) was flattened , allowing major extensions to the harbour leading to the establishment of the Freeport of Copenhagen 1892–94 . Electricity came in 1892 with electric trams in 1897 . The spread of housing to areas outside the old ramparts brought about a huge increase in the population . In 1840 , Copenhagen was inhabited by approximately 120,000 people . By 1901 , it had some 400,000 inhabitants . 20th century By the beginning of the 20th century , Copenhagen had become a thriving industrial and administrative city . With its new city hall and railway station , its centre was drawn towards the west . New housing developments grew up in Brønshøj and Valby while Frederiksberg became an enclave within the city of Copenhagen . The northern part of Amager and Valby were also incorporated into the City of Copenhagen in 1901–02 . As a result of Denmark 's neutrality in the First World War , Copenhagen prospered from trade with both Britain and Germany while the city 's defences were kept fully manned by some 40,000 soldiers for the duration of the war . In the 1920s there were serious shortages of goods and housing . Plans were drawn up to demolish the old part of Christianshavn and to get rid of the worst of the city 's slum areas . However , it was not until the 1930s that substantial housing developments ensued , with the demolishment of one side of Christianhavn 's Torvegade in order to build five large blocks of flats . World War II During World War II in Denmark , Copenhagen was occupied by German troops along with the rest of the country from 9 April 1940 until 4 May 1945 . German leader Adolf Hitler hoped that Denmark would be `` a model protectorate '' and initially the Nazi authorities sought to arrive at an understanding with the Danish government . The 1943 Danish parliamentary election was also allowed to take place , with only the Communist Party excluded . But in August 1943 , after the government 's collaboration with the occupation forces collapsed , several ships were sunk in Copenhagen Harbor by the Royal Danish Navy to prevent their use by the Germans . Around that time the Nazis started to arrest Jews , although most managed to escape to Sweden . In 1945 Ole Lippman , leader of the Danish section of the Special Operations Executive , invited the British Royal Air Force to assist their operations by attacking Nazi headquarters in Copenhagen . Accordingly , Air Vice-Marshal Sir Basil Embry drew up plans for a spectacular precision attack on the Sicherheitsdienst and Gestapo building , the former offices of the Shell Oil Company . Political prisoners were kept in the attic to prevent an air raid , so the RAF had to bomb the lower levels of the building . The attack , known as `` Operation Carthage '' , came on 22 March 1945 , in three small waves . In the first wave , all six planes ( carrying one bomb each ) hit their target , but one of the aircraft crashed near Frederiksberg Girls School . Because of this crash four of the planes in the two following waves assumed the school was the military target , and aimed their bombs at the school leading to the death of 123 civilians ( of which 87 were schoolchildren ) . However , 18 of the 26 political prisoners in the Shell Building managed to escape while the Gestapo archives were completely destroyed . On 8 May 1945 Copenhagen was officially liberated by British troops commanded by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery who supervised the surrender of 30,000 Germans situated around the capital . Post-war decades Shortly after the end of the war , an innovative urban development project known as the Finger Plan was introduced in 1947 , encouraging the creation of new housing and businesses interspersed with large green areas along five `` fingers '' stretching out from the city centre along the S-train routes . With the expansion of the welfare state and women entering the work force , schools , nurseries , sports facilities and hospitals were established across the city . As a result of student unrest in the late 1960s , the former Bådsmandsstræde Barracks in Christianshavn was occupied , leading to the establishment of Freetown Christiania in September 1971 . Motor traffic in the city grew significantly and in 1972 the trams were replaced by buses . From the 1960s , on the initiative of the young architect Jan Gehl , pedestrian streets and cycle tracks were created in the city centre . Activity in the port of Copenhagen declined with the closure of the Holmen naval base . Copenhagen Airport underwent considerable expansion , becoming a hub for the Nordic countries . In the 1990s , large-scale housing developments were realized in the harbour area and in the west of Amager . The national library 's Black Diamond building on the waterfront was completed in 1999 . 2000 to present Since the summer of 2000 , Copenhagen and the Swedish city of Malmö have been connected by the Øresund Bridge , which carries rail and road traffic . As a result , Copenhagen has become the centre of a larger metropolitan area spanning both nations . The bridge has brought about considerable changes in the public transport system and has led to the extensive redevelopment of Amager . The city 's service and trade sectors have developed while a number of banking and financial institutions have been established . Educational institutions have also gained importance , especially the University of Copenhagen with its 35,000 students . Another important development for the city has been the Copenhagen Metro , the underground railway system which opened in 2000 with additions until 2007 , transporting some 54 million passengers by 2011 . On the cultural front , the lavish Copenhagen Opera House , a gift to the city from the shipping magnate Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller on behalf of the A.P . Møller foundation , was completed in 2004 . In December 2009 Copenhagen gained international prominence when it hosted the worldwide climate meeting COP15 . Geography Copenhagen is part of the Øresund Region , which consists of Zealand , Lolland-Falster and Bornholm in Denmark and Scania in Sweden . It is located on the eastern shore of the island of Zealand , partly on the island of Amager and on a number of natural and artificial islets between the two . Copenhagen faces the Øresund to the east , the strait of water that separates Denmark from Sweden , and which connects the North Sea with the Baltic Sea . The Swedish towns of Malmö and Landskrona lie on the Swedish side of the sound directly across from Copenhagen . By road , Copenhagen is 42 km northwest of Malmö , Sweden , 85 km northeast of Næstved , 164 km northeast of Odense , 295 km east of Esbjerg and 188 km southeast of Aarhus by sea and road via Sjællands Odde . The city centre lies in the area originally defined by the old ramparts , which are still referred to as the Fortification Ring ( Fæstningsringen ) and kept as a partial green band around it . Then come the late 19th and early 20th century residential neighbourhoods of Østerbro , Nørrebro , Vesterbro and Amagerbro . The outlying areas of Kongens Enghave , Valby , Vigerslev , Vanløse , Brønshøj , Utterslev and Sundby followed from 1920 to 1960 . They consist mainly of residential housing and apartments often enhanced with parks and greenery . Topography The central area of the city consists of relatively low-lying flat ground formed by moraines from the last ice age while the hilly areas to the north and west frequently rise to 50 m above sea level . The slopes of Valby and Brønshøj reach heights of over 30 m , divided by valleys running from the northeast to the southwest . Close to the centre are the Copenhagen lakes of Sortedams Sø , Peblinge Sø and Sankt Jørgens Sø . Copenhagen rests on a subsoil of flint-layered limestone deposited in the Danian period some 60 to 66 million years ago . Some greensand from the Selandian is also present . There are a few faults in the area , the most important of which is the Carlsberg fault which runs northwest to southeast through the centre of the city . During the last ice age , glaciers eroded the surface leaving a layer of moraines up to 15 m thick . Beaches Amager Strandpark , which opened in 2005 , is a 2 km long artificial island , with a total of of beaches . It is located just 15 minutes by bicycle or a few minutes by metro from the city centre . In Klampenborg , about 10 kilometers from downtown Copenhagen , is Bellevue Beach . It is 700 m long and has both lifeguards and freshwater showers on the beach . The beaches are supplemented by a system of Harbour Baths along the Copenhagen waterfront . The first and most popular of these is located at Islands Brygge and has won international acclaim for its design . Climate Copenhagen is in the oceanic climate zone ( Köppen : Cfb ) . Its weather is subject to low-pressure systems from the Atlantic which result in unstable conditions throughout the year . Apart from slightly higher rainfall from July to September , precipitation is moderate . While there can be snow from late December to late April , there can also be rain with average temperatures around the freezing point . June is the sunniest month of the year with an average of about eight hours of sunshine a day . July is the warmest month with an average daytime high of 21 °C . By contrast , the average hours of sunshine are less than two per day in November and only one and a half per day from December to February . In the spring , it gets warmer again with from four to six hours of sunshine per day from March to May . February is the driest month of the year . Exceptional weather conditions can bring as much as 50 cm of snow to Copenhagen in a 24-hour period during the winter months while summer temperatures have been known to rise to heights of 33 °C . Because of Copenhagen 's northern latitude , the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter . On the summer solstice , the sun rises at 04:26 and sets at 21:58 , providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight . On the winter solstice , it rises at 08:37 and sets at 15:39 with 7 hours and 1 minute of daylight . There is therefore a difference of 10 hours and 31 minutes in the length of days and nights between the summer and winter solstices . Administration According to Statistics Denmark , the urban area of Copenhagen ( ) consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen , Frederiksberg , Albertslund , Brøndby , Gentofte , Gladsaxe , Glostrup , Herlev , Hvidovre , Lyngby-Taarbæk , Rødovre , Tårnby and Vallensbæk as well as parts of Ballerup , Rudersdal and Furesø municipalities , along with the cities of Ishøj and Greve Strand . They are located in the Capital Region ( ) . Municipalities are responsible for a wide variety of public services , which include land-use planning , environmental planning , public housing , management and maintenance of local roads , and social security . Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor , a council , and an executive . Copenhagen Municipality is by far the largest municipality , with the historic city at its core . The seat of Copenhagen 's municipal council is the Copenhagen City Hall ( ' ) , which is situated on City Hall Square . The second largest municipality is Frederiksberg , an enclave within Copenhagen Municipality . Copenhagen Municipality is divided into ten districts ( bydele ) : Indre By , Østerbro , Nørrebro , Vesterbro/Kongens Enghave , Valby , Vanløse , Brønshøj-Husum , Bispebjerg , Amager Øst , and Amager Vest . Neighbourhoods of Copenhagen include Slotsholmen , Frederiksstaden , Islands Brygge , Holmen , Christiania , Carlsberg , Sluseholmen , Amagerbro , Ørestad , Nordhavnen , Bellahøj , Brønshøj , Ryparken , and Vigerslev . Law and order Most of Denmark 's top legal courts and institutions are based in Copenhagen . A modern style court of justice , Hof- og Stadsretten , was introduced in Denmark , specifically for Copenhagen , by Johann Friedrich Struensee in 1771 . Now known as the City Court of Copenhagen ( Kobenhavns Byret ) , it is the largest of the 24 city courts in Denmark with jurisdiction over the municipalities of Copenhagen , Dragør and Tårnby . With its 42 judges , it has a Probate Division , an Enforcement Division and a Registration and Notorial Acts Division while bankruptcy is handled by the Maritime and Commercial Court of Copenhagen . Established in 1862 , the Maritime and Commercial Court ( Sø- og Handelsretten ) also hears commercial cases including those relating to trade marks , marketing practices and competition for the whole of Denmark . Denmark 's Supreme Court ( Højesteret ) , located in Christiansborg Palace on Prins Jørgens Gård in the centre of Copenhagen , is the country 's final court of appeal . Handling civil and criminal cases from the subordinate courts , it has two chambers which each hear all types of cases . The Danish National Police and Copenhagen Police headquarters is situated in the Neoclassical-inspired Politigården building built in 1918–24 under architects Hack Kampmann and Holger Alfred Jacobsen . The building also contains administration , management , emergency department and radio service offices . In their efforts to deal with drugs , the police have noted considerable success in the two special drug consumption rooms opened by the city where addicts can use sterile needles and receive help from nurses if necessary . Use of these rooms does not lead to prosecution ; the city treats drug use as a public health issue , not a criminal one . The Copenhagen Fire Department forms the largest municipal fire brigade in Denmark with some 500 fire and ambulance personnel , 150 administration and service workers , and 35 workers in prevention . The brigade began as the Copenhagen Royal Fire Brigade on 9 July 1687 under King Christian V. After the passing of

jp_3747--Copenhagen.txt

What Swedish city is connected to Copenhagen via a bridge?

A Tory holds a political philosophy ( Toryism ) based on a British version of traditionalism and conservatism . In politics , the Tory political faction originated with the Cavalier faction during the English Civil War . This political philosophy is prominent in the politics of the United Kingdom , and also appears in parts of the Commonwealth of Nations , particularly in Canada . It also had exponents in parts of the former British Empire , such as the Loyalists of British America who opposed American secession during the American Revolutionary War . The Tory ethos has been summed up with the phrase `` God , King and Country '' . Tories generally advocate monarchism , are usually of a high church Anglican religious heritage , and are opposed to the liberalism of the Whig faction . Under the Corn Laws ( 1815–1846 ) a majority of Tories supported protectionist agrarianism with tariffs being imposed at the time for sustainability , self-sufficiency and enhanced wages in rural employment . The Tory political faction originally emerged within the Parliament of England to uphold the legitimist rights of James II , Duke of York , to succeed his brother Charles II to the throne . James was a Catholic while the state institutions had broken from the Catholic Church—this was an issue for the Exclusion Crisis supporting Patricians , the political heirs to the nonconformist Roundheads and Covenanters . There were two Tory ministries under James II ; the first led by Laurence Hyde , 1st Earl of Rochester , the second by Lord Belasyse . A significant faction took part in the ousting of James II with the Whigs to defend the Anglican Church or definitive protestantism . A large but dwindling faction of Tories held sympathy for Catholic Stuart heirs to the throne from the 1714 accession of George I of Great Britain , the first Hanoverian monarch , many of which supported Jacobitism , the military campaigns of which saw them lost and castigated . Although only a minority of Tories gave their adhesion to the Jacobite risings , it was used by the Whigs to completely discredit the Tories and paint them as traitors . After the advent of the Prime Ministerial system under the Whig Robert Walpole , John Stuart , 3rd Earl of Bute 's premiership in the reign of George III marked a revival . Conservatism emerged by the end of the 18th century—it synthesised moderate Whig economic positions and many Tory social values to create a new political philosophy and faction , in opposition to the French Revolution . Edmund Burke and William Pitt the Younger led the way in this . Interventionism and a strong military were to prove a hallmark of Toryism under subsequent Prime Ministers . Due to these Tories leading the formation of the Conservative Party , members of the party are colloquially referred to as Tories , even if they are not traditionalists . Actual adherents to traditional Toryism in contemporary times may be referred to as `` High Tories '' as the traditionalist conservative values of Toryism differ from that of the more liberal and cosmopolitan parts of the Conservative Party . History of the term The word `` Tory '' derives from the Middle Irish word tóraidhe ; modern Irish tóraí : outlaw , robber or brigand , from the Irish word tóir , meaning `` pursuit '' , since outlaws were `` pursued men '' . It was originally used to refer to a Rapparee and later applied to Confederates or Cavaliers in arms . The term was thus originally a term of abuse , `` an Irish rebel '' , before being adopted as a political label in the same way as `` Whig '' . Towards the end of Charles II 's reign ( 1660–85 ) there was some debate about whether or not his brother , James , Duke of York , should be allowed to succeed to the throne . `` Whigs '' , originally a reference to Scottish cattle-drivers ( stereotypically radical anti-Catholic Covenanters ) , was the abusive term directed at those who wanted to exclude James on the grounds that he was a Roman Catholic . Those who were not prepared to exclude James were labelled `` Abhorrers '' and later `` Tories '' . Titus Oates applied the term `` Tory '' , which then signified an Irish robber , to those who would not believe in his Popish Plot , and the name gradually became extended to all who were supposed to have sympathy with the Catholic Duke of York . The suffix -ism was quickly added to both `` Whig '' and `` Tory '' to make Whiggism and Toryism , meaning the principles and methods of each faction . English and British politics Historically , the term Tory has been applied in various ways to loyalists of the British monarchy . The term was initially applied in Ireland to the isolated bands of guerrillas resisting Oliver Cromwell 's nine-month 1649–1650 campaign in Ireland , who were allied with Royalists through treaty with the Parliament of Confederate Ireland , signed at Kilkenny in January 1649 ; and later to dispossessed Catholics in Ulster following the Restoration . During the Exclusion Crisis , the word Tory was applied in Kingdom of England as a nickname to the opponents of the bill , called the Abhorrers . The word `` Tory '' had connotations of Papist and outlaw derived from its previous use in Ireland . English Tories from the time of the Glorious Revolution up until the Reform Act 1832 were characterised by strong monarchist tendencies , support for the Church of England , and hostility to radical reform , while the Tory party was an actual organisation which held power intermittently throughout the same period . Since 1832 , the term `` Tory '' is commonly used to refer to the Conservative Party and its members . United States The term Tory or `` Loyalist '' was used in the American Revolution for those who remained loyal to the British Crown . Since early in the 18th century , Tory had described those upholding the right of the King over Parliament . During the war of independence , particularly after the Declaration of Independence in 1776 this use was extended to cover anyone who remained loyal to the British Crown . About 80 % of the Loyalists remained in the United States after the war . The 60,000 or so Loyalists who settled in Quebec , the Bahamas , or returned to Great Britain after the American War of Independence are known as United Empire Loyalists . On February 12 , 1798 , Thomas Jefferson described the Federalist Party as `` A political Sect [ ... ] believing that the executive is the branch of our government which the most needs support , [ who ] are called federalists , sometimes aristocrats or monocrats , and sometimes Tories , after the corresponding sect in the English Government of exactly the same definition '' . That , however , was clearly a hostile description by the Federalists ' foes , of whom Jefferson was one , and not a name used by the Federalists themselves . Canada The term was used to designate the pre-Confederation British ruling classes of Upper Canada and Lower Canada , known as the Family Compact and the Château Clique , an elite within the governing classes , and often members within a section of society known as the United Empire Loyalists . In post-Confederation Canada the terms `` Red Tory '' and `` Blue Tory '' have long been used to describe the two wings of the Conservative and previously the Progressive Conservative ( PC ) parties . The dyadic tensions originally arose out of the 1854 political union of British-Canadian Tories , French-Canadian traditionalists , and the monarchist and loyalist leaning sections of the emerging commercial classes at the time—many of whom were uncomfortable with the pro-American and annexationist tendencies within the liberal Clear Grits . Tory strength and prominence in the political culture was a feature of life in Nova Scotia , New Brunswick , Prince Edward Island , Ontario , and Manitoba . By the 1930s , the factions within Canadian Toryism were associated with either the urban business elites , or with rural traditionalists from the country 's hinterland . A `` Red Tory '' is a member of the more moderate wing of the party ( in the manner of John Farthing and George Grant ) . They are generally unified by their adherence to British traditions in Canada . Throughout the course of Canadian history , the Conservative Party was generally controlled by MacDonaldian Tory elements , which in Canada meant an adherence to the English-Canadian traditions of Monarchy , Empire-Commonwealth , parliamentary government , nationalism , protectionism , social reform , and eventually , acceptance of the necessity of the welfare state . By the 1970s the Progressive Conservative Party was a Keynesian-consensus party . With the onset of stagflation in the 1970s , some Canadian Tories came under the influence of neo-liberal developments in Great Britain and the United States , which highlighted the policies for privatization and supply-side interventions . In Canada , these tories have been labeled neoconservatives—which has a somewhat different connotation in the US . By the early 1980s there was no clear neoconservative in the Tory leadership cadre , but Brian Mulroney , who became leader in 1983 , eventually came to adopt many policies from the Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan governments . As Mulroney took the Progressive Conservative Party further in this direction , with policy initiatives in the areas of deregulation , privatization , free-trade , and a consumption tax called the Goods and services tax ( GST ) , many traditionally-minded Tories became concerned that a political and cultural schism was occurring within the party . The 1986 creation of the Reform Party of Canada attracted some of the neo-liberals and social conservatives away from the Tory party , and as some of the neoconservative policies of the Mulroney government proved unpopular , some of the provincial-rights elements moved towards Reform as well . In 1993 , Mulroney resigned , rather than fight an election based on his record after almost nine years in power . This left the PCs in disarray and scrambling to understand how to make toryism relevant in provinces such as Quebec , Saskatchewan , Alberta , and British Columbia that had never had a strong tory tradition and political culture . Thereafter in the 1990s , the PCs were a small party in the House of Commons of Canada , and could only exert legislative pressure on the government through their power in the Senate of Canada . Eventually , through death and retirements , this power waned . Joe Clark returned as leader , but the schism with the Reformers effectively watered down the combined Blue and Red Tory vote in Canada . By the late 1990s , there was talk of the necessity of uniting the right in Canada , to deter further Liberal majorities . Many tories—both red and blue—opposed such moves , while others took the view that all would have to be pragmatic if there was any hope of reviving a strong party system . The Canadian Alliance party ( as the Reform Party had become ) , and some leading tories came together on an informal basis to see if they could find common ground . While Progressive Conservative Leader Joe Clark rebuffed the notion , the talks moved ahead and eventually in December 2003 , the Canadian Alliance and the Progressive Conservative parties voted to rejoin into a new party called the Conservative Party of Canada . After the merger of the PCs with the Canadian Alliance in 2003 , there was debate as to whether the `` Tory '' appellation should survive at the federal level . Although it was widely believed that some Alliance members would take offence to the term , it was officially accepted by the newly merged party during the 2004 leadership convention . Stephen Harper , former leader of the Conservative Party of Canada and Prime Minister from 2006 to 2015 , regularly refers to himself as a Tory and has suggested that the new party is a natural evolution of the conservative political movement in Canada . Dissident Red Tories who were against the merger went on to form the Progressive Canadian Party . Texas Revolution In Texas , in 1832–36 , support for the Texas Revolution was not unanimous . The `` Tories '' were men who supported the Mexican government . The Tories generally were long-term property holders whose roots were outside of the lower South . They typically had little interest in politics and sought conciliation rather than war or they withheld judgment from both sides . The Tories preferred to preserve the economic , political , and social gains that they enjoyed as citizens of Mexico , and the revolution threatened to jeopardize the security of their world . Current usage `` Tory '' has become shorthand for a member of the Conservative Party or for the party in general . Some Conservatives call themselves `` Tory '' and the term is common in the media , but deprecated by some media channels . In Canada , the term `` Tory '' may describe any member of the Conservative Party of Canada , its predecessor party the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada , or any similarly named provincial party ; the term is frequently used in contrast to `` Grit '' , a shorthand for the Liberal Party of Canada , `` Dipper '' , a shorthand for the New Democratic Party , and `` Seppies '' , or `` Péquistes '' , shorthand for the members of the Québec separatist party Bloc Québécois . In Australia , `` Tory '' is used as a pejorative term by members of the Labor Party to refer to members of the conservative and often coalition Liberal and National parties .

odql_10067--Tory.txt

Who was the first Tory Prime Minister of Great Britain (May, 1762 to July, 1765)?

The Archers is a long-running British radio soap opera broadcast on the BBC 's main spoken-word channel , Radio 4 . Originally billed as `` an everyday story of country folk '' , it is now described as `` contemporary drama in a rural setting '' . With over 18,000 episodes , it is the world 's longest-running radio soap opera production . The Archers , which debuted on 1 January 1951 ( with the pilot premiering in 1950 ) , is the most listened to Radio 4 non-news programme , with over five million listeners , and , with over one million listeners via the Internet , the programme holds the record for BBC Radio online listening figures . Programme synopsis The Archers is set in the fictional village of Ambridge in the fictional county of Borsetshire , in the English Midlands . Borsetshire is situated between , in reality , the contiguous counties of Worcestershire and Warwickshire , south of Birmingham in the West Midlands . Various villages claim to be the inspiration for Ambridge : Ambridge 's public house , The Bull , is modelled on The Old Bull in Inkberrow , whereas Hanbury 's St Mary the Virgin is often used as a stand-in for Ambridge 's parish church , St Stephen 's . Other fictional villages include Penny Hassett , Loxley Barrett , Darrington , Hollerton , Edgeley , Waterley Cross and Lakey Green . The county town of Borsetshire is Borchester , and the nearest big city is the cathedral city of Felpersham . Felpersham also has a university . Anywhere further from Ambridge may be referred to humorously with comments such as 'that 's on the other side of Felpersham ! ' , but characters do occasionally venture further : several attended the Countryside Alliance march in London , there have been references to the gay scene in Manchester 's Canal Street , and a number of scenes have taken place abroad or in other places around the country , with some characters resident overseas in South Africa and Hungary , and other characters have visited Norfolk . Birmingham is a favourite destination for shopping . Since Easter Sunday 1998 , there have been six episodes a week from Sunday to Friday , after the news summary at around 19:02 . All except the Friday evening episode are repeated the following day at 14:02 . The six episodes are re-run unabridged in the Sunday morning omnibus at 10:00 . On Remembrance Sunday , the Omnibus edition begins at the earlier time of 09:15 . This information is available in the press and the BBC on-line . Characters * the middle-class Archers , Brookfield Farm . The farm has been passed down the generations from the original owner Dan ( now deceased ) to his son Phil ( until his death on 13 February 2010 , the oldest surviving character ) , and is now co-owned by Phil 's four children : David ( who manages it with his wife Ruth ) , Elizabeth Pargeter , Shula Hebden-Lloyd ( married to vet Alistair , runs the local stables ) and her twin Kenton ( married to pub landlady Jolene ) ; * the prosperous Aldridges , portrayed as money-driven practitioners of agribusiness at Home Farm . Brian , the head of the family , has been a serial adulterer , his wife Jennifer Archer is a cousin of David Archer , between them they have Adam and Deborah ( Jennifer 's children ) Kate and Alice ( jointly ) , Ruairi ( Brian 's son ) ; * the Bridge Farm Archers who have struggled to make their decision to go organic successful . Their children are Tom and Helen and the ( deceased ) John . * the rich and elderly Woolleys . Jack , who was badly affected by Alzheimer 's disease , died on 2 January 2014. , his wife Peggy 's first husband was Jack Archer ( brother of Phil ) and her children are Lilian , Jennifer and Tony . * the Pargetters , Lower Loxley Hall . Nigel Pargetter 's widow , Elizabeth Archer , her son Freddie and his twin sister Lily . * the Grundys , formerly struggling tenant farmers who were brought to prominence in the late 1970s and early 1980s as comic characters , but are now seen as doggedly battling adversity ; * the urban , `` incomers '' : pretentious and domineering Lynda Snell is the butt of many jokes , although her sheer energy makes her a stalwart of village life . She is married to the long-suffering Robert ; * the perpetually struggling Carters , their son Chris is married to Alice Aldridge and daughter Emma has successively married Will and Ed Grundy ; * the milkman and casual farm labourer Mike Tucker , his kind-hearted and much younger wife Vicky who divides opinion like a knife , his son , Roy , daughter-in-law Hayley and two granddaughters . His daughter Brenda has left the village to work in London . He has a Down 's daughter , Bethany , with Vicky and they left the village for Birmingham in June 2015 because Vicky thought there would be better care for Bethany . The village These are the main sites in the village : * Arkwright Hall is a large Victorian mansion with a 17th-century atmosphere . The building served as a community centre for many years , containing a soundproofed room and field studies centre . Later it fell into disrepair , but was renovated when Jack Woolley leased the mansion to the Landmark Trust ; architect Lewis led the restoration of the building to its Victorian splendour . * Bridge Farm is a farm previously on Berrow Estate , but now owned by Pat and Tony Archer . The farm became a wholly organic dairy in 1984 , in a storyline inspired by a scriptwriter 's visit to Brynllys farm in Ceredigion , the home of Rachel 's Organic . In 2003 , Tom Archer began producing his own brand of sausage out of Bridge Farm . In early 2013 , the family decided to sell their dairy herd and buy in organic milk instead . Subsequently in 2014 Tony Archer decided to go into beef production . * Brookfield Farm is a farm that was run by Dan Archer , and then by his son Phil Archer for many years . After Phil 's retirement in 2001 , David Archer took over the farm , and began focusing production on his livestock . High-quality beef is now sold at the farm gate and elsewhere . * Grange Farm was a working farm run by the Grundys until their eviction in 2000 . The farmhouse , along with of land , was sold to Oliver Sterling , who then began `` hobby farming '' . He took young Ed Grundy on as cow man and later gave him full responsibility for running the farm . * Grey Gables , once a country club , is now a luxurious hotel in Ambridge , run by Caroline Sterling , Bone . The hotel boasts a pool , spa , health club , and golf course . Ian Craig serves as the executive chef in the hotel 's upscale restaurant . * Home Farm is a farm , by far the largest in Ambridge . In recent years , Home Farm became partners with Brookfield in producing high-quality lamb and expanded into soft fruit and deer farming . * Lower Loxley Hall is a large 300-year-old country house located just outside Ambridge . It serves primarily as a conference centre , but also features other attractions which bring in many hundreds of tourists a year . As well as an art gallery , falconry courses and a café , Lower Loxley also boasts a garden and a museum . * St. Stephen 's Church , established in 1281 , dates back to Saxon times . The church has undergone many changes over the years , including a number of different vicars . Its eight bells are rung by a group led by Neil Carter . * The Bull , the village 's only pub following the closure of `` The Cat and Fiddle '' which was later converted into apartments , is perhaps the most recognisable structure in Ambridge . It now opens at 10 a.m. and boasts a coffee cart and two computers . Having leapt into the 21st Century , The `` Bull Upstairs '' has become a hotspot for many Ambridge locals . * Ambridge still has a village shop and post office , originally thanks to Jack Woolley 's philanthropy . The business is now a community shop managed by Susan and run by a team of volunteers . * Willow Farm is the spacious residence of the Tucker family . After Betty 's death in 2005 the house was split into two to accommodate their son Roy . Its farmland is also home to Neil Carter 's pigs . Topicality Unlike some soap operas , episodes of The Archers portray events taking place on the date of broadcast , allowing many topical subjects to be included . Real-life events which can be readily predicted in advance are often written into the script , such as the annual Oxford Farming Conference and the FIFA World Cup . On some occasions , scenes recorded at these events are planned and edited into episodes shortly before transmission . More challengingly for the production team , some significant but unforeseen events require scenes to be rewritten and rerecorded at short notice , such as the death of Princess Margaret ( particularly poignant because she had appeared as herself on the programme ) , the World Trade Center attacks , and the 7 July 2005 London bombings . The events and implications of the 2001 foot-and-mouth crisis required many `` topical inserts '' and the rewriting of several storylines . In January 2012 , Oliver Sterling , owner of Grange Farm , together with his tenant , Ed Grundy , elected to vaccinate the badgers on their farm in an attempt to prevent the spread of bovine tuberculosis . The plotline came within weeks of the government confirming a badger cull trial in England in autumn 2011 . Actors Unlike television soaps , The Archers actors are not held on retainers , and work on the series for , at most , a few days a month . Most of the cast do acting work on other projects and can disappear for a period if they are working on long-term commitments such as films or television series . For example , Tamsin Greig , who plays Debbie Aldridge , has appeared on television comedy shows such as Green Wing , Love Soup , Black Books and , most recently , Episodes . As a result , Debbie manages a farm in Hungary in which her family has an interest while Greig is filming these shows , and then returns to Ambridge when Greig 's commitments allow . Because of this , and by the nature of the storylines concentrating on particular groups of characters , in any week the series comprises between 20 and 30 speaking characters out of a regular cast of about 60 . Greig 's situation was similar to that of Felicity Jones who played Emma Carter in the series ; Jones , after a period studying at Wadham College , Oxford has moved into large TV parts , such as a starring role in Northanger Abbey . Emma Carter is now played by Emerald O'Hanrahan . Some of the actors , when not playing their characters , earn their money through different jobs altogether : Charlotte Connor , when not playing Susan Carter ( credited as Charlotte Martin ) , works full-time as a senior research psychologist at the Birmingham and Solihull Mental Health Foundation ; her office is a short walk from BBC Birmingham , and thus she is able to fit her work around recordings . Other examples include Felicity Finch ( Ruth Archer ) , who also works as a BBC journalist having travelled on a number of occasions to Afghanistan ; and Ian Pepperell ( Roy Tucker ) , who manages a pub in the New Forest . History Starting on Whit Monday , 29 May 1950 , and continuing with five episodes through that week , a pilot series created by Godfrey Baseley and subsequently edited by him for 22 years was broadcast to the English Midlands in the Regional Home Service , as ' a farming Dick Barton ' . Recordings were sent to London , and after some discussion the BBC decided to commission the series for a longer national run . In the five pilot episodes the Archers owned Wimberton Farm , rather than Brookfield . Since 1 January 1951 , five 15-minute episodes ( since 1998 , six 12½-minute episodes ) have been transmitted each week , at first on the BBC Light Programme and subsequently on the BBC Home Service ( now Radio 4 ) . The original scriptwriters were Geoffrey Webb and Edward J. Mason , who were also working on the series Dick Barton whose popularity partly inspired The Archers and whose slot in the schedules it eventually took : the first episode aired on Monday , 2 April 1951 . An omnibus edition of the week 's episodes began on Saturday , 5 January 1952 . Originally produced with collaborative input from the Ministry of Agriculture , Fisheries and Food , The Archers was conceived as a means of disseminating information to farmers and smallholders to help increase productivity in the post-World War II years of rationing and food shortages . It was originally formulated around the lives of three farmers ; Dan Archer , farming efficiently with little cash , Walter Gabriel , farming inefficiently with little cash , and George Fairbrother , a wealthy businessman farming at a loss for tax purposes ( which one could do in those days ) . The programme was hugely successful , winning the National Radio Awards ' 'Most entertaining programme of the Year ' award jointly with Take It From Here in 1954 , and winning the award outright in 1955 , in which year the audience was reported to have peaked at 20 million . At the end of the Fifties , despite the growth of television and radio 's consequent decline , the programme was still claiming a healthy 11 million listeners and was also being transmitted in Canada , Australia , and New Zealand . By the mid-'70s , however , the audience for the two daily broadcasts and the weekend omnibus combined was less than 3 million and in 1976 the BBC Radio Four Review Board twice considered whether or not the programme should be axed . The serial 's woes at this time were seen to mirror the poor standing of radio drama in general , described as `` a failure to fully shake off the conventions of non-realism which had prevailed in the 1940s and 1950s . '' Programme chief Jock Gallagher , responsible for The Archers , described these as the serial 's `` dog days '' . Sweeping editorial reforms followed , included the introduction of women writers ( there had been none before 1975 ) , two of whom , Helen Leadbeater and Margaret Phelan , were credited with giving the programme a new definitive style of writing and content , although some listeners complained about their radical feminism . In 1980 Julie Burchill commented that the women of Ambridge were no longer stuck with `` the gallons of greengage jam old-guard male scriptwriters kept them occupied with for over twenty years '' ; but were 'into post-natal depression and alcoholism on the way to self-discovery ' . By the mid-'80s the Radio Four Review Board was noting that scripts , directing , and acting were `` very good '' and sometimes `` better than ever '' . In August 1985 The Listener said that the programme 's revival was `` sustained by some of the best acting , direction and writing on radio . '' Tony Shryane MBE was the programme 's producer from 1 January 1951 to 19 January 1979 . Vanessa Whitburn was the programme 's editor from 1992 till 2013 . Whitburn took service leave from March to July 2012 , when John Yorke , a former executive producer of EastEnders , was the acting editor . Yorke 's arrival prompted charges that the programme was importing the values of EastEnders to Borsetshire , with fans and commentators complaining that characters were behaving unrealistically simply to generate conflict . This was denied by Yorke , who wrote that he agreed to take over `` on one condition - that it stayed exactly as it was and that I did n't have to change anything . '' Vanessa Whitburn was succeeded as editor by Sean O'Connor in September 2013 Since 2007 , The Archers has been available as a podcast . Death of Grace Archer One of the most controversial Archers episodes was broadcast on 22 September 1955 , the evening of the launch of the UK 's first commercial television station , ITV . Phil and Grace Archer had been married just a few months earlier , and their blossoming relationship was the talk of the nation . However , searching for a story which would demonstrate some real tragedy among the increasingly unconvincing episode cliff-hangers , Godfrey Baseley had decided that Grace would have to die . It was explained to the cast as an `` exercise in topicality. `` The scripts for the week of 19 September 1955 were written , recorded , and broadcast on each day . On Thursday evening of that week , listeners heard Grace trying to rescue her horse , Midnight , from a fire at Brookfield stables , and the crash as a beam fell on her . Whether the timing of the episode was a deliberate attempt to overshadow the opening night of the BBC 's first commercial rival has been debated ever since . It was certainly planned some months in advance , but it may well be that the actual date of the death was changed during the scriptwriting stage to coincide with the start of ITV . Deliberate or not , the episode attracted widespread media attention , being reported by newspapers around the world . This controversy has been parodied twice : in The Bowmans , an episode of the television comedy programme Hancock , and in the play and film The Killing of Sister George . On the 50th anniversary of ITV 's launch , Ysanne Churchman , who played Grace , sent a congratulatory card to ITV , signed `` Grace Archer '' . In 1996 , William Smethurst recounted a conversation with Baseley in which he reveals his real motivation for killing off Grace Archer : Churchman was encouraging the other actors to join a trade union . Longevity The actor Norman Painting played Phil Archer continuously from the first trial series in 1950 until his death on 29 October 2009 . His last recording for an Archers episode was recorded just two days before his death and was broadcast on 22 November . He holds the title of longest-serving actor in a single soap opera in Guinness World Records . As a script writer , he also wrote around 1,200 complete episodes , credited as `` Bruno Milna '' , culminating in the 10,000th episode . June Spencer has played Peggy Archer/Woolley from the pilot episode onwards , though not for all of the period since . According to Who 's Who in The Archers 2008 , episode 15,360 was to be broadcast on 1 January 2008 . Episode 15,000 was broadcast on 7 November 2006 . Sixtieth anniversary The Archers reached its 60th anniversary on 1 January 2011 and to mark this achievement , a special half-hour episode was broadcast on Sunday , 2 January , on BBC Radio 4 from 7pm . The episode had been advertised as containing events that would `` shake Ambridge to the core '' . This phrase even gave rise to the initialism # SATTC trending on the website Twitter during that weekend as listeners speculated about what might happen , and then reported their views as the story unfolded . The main events in the episode were Helen Archer giving birth to her son Henry and Nigel Pargetter falling to his death from the roof of Lower Loxley Hall . This unlikely event provoked interest in the frequency and causes of death in the series . In fact , although the incidence of accidental death and suicide is seven times the national average , the overall mortality rate in Ambridge is almost exactly what would be expected . The writing out of the character of Nigel caused much controversy among listeners , with a large number of complaints variously expressing dismay at the death of a popular character , concerns over the manner of the dismissal of the actor , belief that the promise to `` shake Ambridge to the core '' had been over-hyped , criticism of the credibility of the script and acting for the anniversary episode , and a perceived unwillingness of the editorial team to engage with these listener complaints . Themes A recurring theme has been the resentment of the working-class Grundy family towards the middle-class Archers . Labour politician Neil Kinnock in the 1980s jokingly called for The Archers to be retitled `` The Grundys and their Oppressors '' . The series , however , now deals with a wide range of contemporary issues including illicit affairs , drug abuse , rape , and civil partnerships , inviting criticism from conservative commentators such as Peter Hitchens that the series has become a vehicle for liberal and left-wing values and agendas , with characters behaving out of character to achieve those goals . However , one of the show 's charms is to make much out of everyday , small concerns , such as the possible closure of the village shop , the loss and rediscovery of a pair of spectacles , competitive marmalade-making , or nonsense such as a 'spile troshing ' competition , rather than the large-scale and improbable events that form the plots of many soap operas . However , there are dramatic storylines , such as a rape and a family being threatened by a gang of farm thieves . Sometimes mocked as a comfortable middle-class series with stereotypical comic yokels , the programme has nonetheless tackled many serious social issues . There have been , for instance : rural drug addiction ; inter-racial relationships ; direct action against genetically modified crops and badger culling ; family break-ups ; and civil partnerships . According to some of the actors , and confirmed in the writings of Godfrey Baseley , in its early days the show was used as a conduit for educational announcements from the Ministry of Agriculture , one actor reading an announcement almost verbatim to another . Direct involvement of the government ended in 1972 . The show has reacted within a day to agricultural emergencies such as outbreaks of foot and mouth disease which affect farmers nationwide when livestock movements are restricted . Cameo appearances Many famous people have made cameo appearances on the programme : * Princess Margaret and the Duke of Westminster appeared in 1984 in connection with a fashion show to commemorate the centenary of the NSPCC . * Dame Judi Dench made an appearance as the ( hitherto usually silent ) Pru Forrest in 1989 for the 10,000th episode . Terry Wogan was featured and Esther Rantzen was responsible for the sound effects . * Radio presenter John Peel appeared as himself in 1991 . * Gardener Alan Titchmarsh judged Ambridge 's entries in the National Gardens Scheme open gardens competition in May 2003 . * Radio presenter Chris Moyles appeared in June 2004 as a random customer—and suspected National Pub of the Year judge—in The Bull . * Comedian Griff Rhys Jones appeared as himself in July 2004 , when he was drafted into Lynda 's campaign to restore the Cat and Fiddle pub . * Zandra Rhodes played herself in an episode in September 2006 in connection with a charity fashion show . * Robert Winston appeared as a fertility specialist consulted by Hayley and Roy Tucker in January and February 2007 . * Mike Gatting appeared as himself in September 2007 at the centre of a misunderstanding between Sid and Jolene Perks during the npower Village Cup final at Lord 's Cricket Ground . * Crime novelist Colin Dexter made a cameo in 2010.Andrew French , [ http : //www.oxfordmail.co.uk/news/8301866.Morse_author_meets_the_Archers/ `` Morse author meets the Archers '' ] , Oxford Mail , 30 July 2010 . * Camilla , Duchess of Cornwall appeared on 16 February 2011 in connection with the National Osteoporosis Society 's 25th anniversary as well as the show 's 60th anniversary . * Others who have made appearances include Britt Ekland , Humphrey Lyttelton ( 1956 ) , Dame Edna Everage and Antony Gormley ( 2009 ) . * Sir Bradley Wiggins appeared in an April 2014 episode , presenting prizes at the Ambridge Sport Relief Rough and Tumble event Challenge . * Kirstie Allsopp appeared in July 2014 to open the village fete . * In August , 2014 , the Pet Shop Boys were last-minute headliners at the music festival Loxfest . * Anneka Rice has appeared twice in Ambridge , first in March 1993 and then again in March 2016 . Theme tune The theme tune of The Archers is called `` Barwick Green '' and is a maypole dance from the suite My Native Heath , written in 1924 by the Yorkshire composer Arthur Wood . An alternative arrangement , played by The Yetties , is used to introduce the Sunday omnibus . The original orchestral recording was used for many years , but in 1992 the theme was re-recorded in stereo , retaining the earlier arrangement . The venue was Birmingham 's Symphony Hall , The conductor Ron Goodwin , Producer David Welsby , Sound Mixer Norman McLeod . The slightly different sound mixing and more leisurely tempo led many listeners to consider the new version inferior , specifically that it lacked `` brio '' , although the BBC publicized the fact that the orchestra contained some of the musicians who played in the original recording , including Harold Rich ( piano ) and Norman Parker ( percussion ) . Robert Robinson once compared the tune to `` the genteel abandon of a lifelong teetotaller who has suddenly taken to drink '' . On April Fool 's Day 2004 both The Independent and The Today Programme claimed that BBC executives had commissioned composer Brian Eno to record an electronic version of `` Barwick Green '' as a replacement for the current theme , while the ( Scottish ) comedian Billy Connolly included in his act the joke that the theme was so typically English that it should be the national anthem . [ http : //www.youtube.com/watch ? v=i9nnnM-__JQ Billy Connelly : National Anthem - YouTube ] In 2009 , British comedian Rainer Hersch conducted the Philharmonia Orchestra in a performance of the theme , live from the Royal Festival Hall to a listening BBC Radio 3 audience in an attempt to confuse them . He then went on to show how similar it is to `` Montagues and Capulets '' - `` Dance of the Knights '' - from Romeo and Juliet by Sergei Prokofiev , claiming that this was a result of Russian spies going through the BBC 's rubbish bins looking for the scripts . English doctors are taught that the tempo of the tune is the rate at which to apply cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( CPR ) . Alternative tunes used for this purpose include `` Nellie the Elephant '' , Queen 's `` Another One Bites The Dust '' and the Bee Gees ' hit `` Stayin ' Alive '' which have the same tempo . ; Serious occasions In the past , a cliffhanger involving a death of a major character or disaster was marked by the traditional closing theme being replaced by the final dramatic section of Barwick Green involving trombones , cymbals and the closing bars of the signature tune . However , this tradition has been dropped more recently notably after the death of Nigel Pargetter when the normal closing music was played despite the gravity of the incident , and after the death of John Archer when no music was played . There was a nod to The Archers in the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games in London on 27 July 2012 , where the theme tune was played

sfq_10342--The_Archers.txt

"Which character who featured in the first ever edition of the radio programme 'The Archers' ""died"" in February 2010?"

Saturday Night Live ( abbreviated as SNL ) is an American late-night live television sketch comedy and variety show created by Lorne Michaels and developed by Dick Ebersol . The show premiered on NBC on October 11 , 1975 , under the original title NBC 's Saturday Night . The show 's comedy sketches , which parody contemporary culture and politics , are performed by a large and varying cast of repertory and newer cast members . Each episode is hosted by a celebrity guest ( who usually delivers an opening monologue and performs in sketches with the cast ) and features performances by a musical guest . An episode normally begins with a cold open sketch that ends with someone breaking character and proclaiming , `` Live from New York , it 's Saturday Night ! `` , properly beginning the show . In 1980 Michaels left the series to explore other opportunities . He was replaced by Jean Doumanian , who was replaced by Ebersol after a season of bad reviews . Ebersol ran the show until 1985 , when Michaels returned ; Michaels has remained since then . Many of SNLs cast found national stardom while appearing on the show , and achieved success in film and television , both in front of and behind the camera . Others associated with the show , such as writers , have gone on to successful careers creating , writing , or starring in TV and film . Broadcast from Studio 8H at NBC 's headquarters in the Comcast Building , SNL has aired 808 episodes since its debut , and concluded its forty-first season on May 21 , 2016 , making it one of the longest-running network television programs in the United States . The show format has been developed and recreated in several countries , including Canada , Spain , Italy , South Korea , Japan , Brazil , and Finland , each meeting with different levels of success . Successful sketches have seen life outside of the show as feature films , although only two met with critical and financial success : The Blues Brothers ( 1980 ) and Wayne 's World ( 1992 ) . The show has been marketed in other ways , including home media releases of `` best of '' and whole seasons , and books and documentaries about behind-the-scenes activities of running and developing the show . Throughout four decades on air , Saturday Night Live has received a number of awards , including 42 Primetime Emmy Awards , two Peabody Awards , and three Writers Guild of America Awards . In 2000 , it was inducted into the National Association of Broadcasters Hall of Fame . It was ranked tenth in TV Guide `` 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time '' list , and in 2007 it was listed as one of Time magazine 's `` 100 Best TV Shows of All-TIME '' . As of 2012 , it has received 156 Emmy nominations , the most received by any TV show . The live aspect of the show has resulted in several controversies and acts of censorship , with mistakes and intentional acts of sabotage by performers as well as guests . Development From 1965 until September 1975 , NBC ran The Best of Carson reruns of The Tonight Show , airing them on either Saturday or Sunday night at local affiliates ' discretion ( originally known as The Saturday/Sunday Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson ) . In 1974 Johnny Carson announced that he wanted the weekend shows pulled and saved so that they could be aired during weeknights , allowing him to take time off . In 1974 NBC president Herbert Schlosser approached his vice president of late night programming , Dick Ebersol , and asked him to create a show to fill the Saturday night time slot . At the suggestion of Paramount Pictures executive Barry Diller , Schlosser and Ebersol then approached Lorne Michaels . Over the next three weeks , Ebersol and Michaels developed the latter 's idea for a variety show featuring high-concept comedy sketches , political satire , and music performances . By 1975 Michaels had assembled a talented cast , including Dan Aykroyd , John Belushi , Chevy Chase , Jane Curtin , Garrett Morris , Laraine Newman , Michael O'Donoghue , Gilda Radner , and George Coe . The show was originally called NBC 's Saturday Night , because Saturday Night Live was in use by Saturday Night Live with Howard Cosell on the rival network ABC . NBC purchased the rights to the name in 1976 and officially adopted the new title on March 26 , 1977 . Debuting on October 11 , 1975 , the show immediately developed a cult following , eventually becoming a mainstream hit and spawning ( in 1978 ) `` Best of Saturday Night Live '' compilations that reached viewers who could not stay awake for the live broadcasts . But during the first season in 1975 and 1976 , according to a book about the show authored by Doug Hill and Jeff Weingrad , some NBC executives were not satisfied with the show 's Nielsen ratings and shares . Lorne Michaels pointed out to them that Nielsen 's measurement of demographics indicated that baby boomers constituted a large majority of the viewers who did commit to watching the show , and many of them watched little else on television . In 1975 and 1976 , they were the most desirable demographic for television advertisers . NBC executives agreed with Michaels and decided to keep the show on the air despite many angry letters and phone calls that the network received from viewers who were offended by certain sketches . They included a Weekend Update segment on April 24 , 1976 , the 18th episode , that ridiculed Aspen , Colorado murder suspect Claudine Longet and warranted an on-air apology by announcer Don Pardo during the following episode . Herminio Traviesas , a censor who was vice president of the network 's Standards and Practices department , objected to cast member Laraine Newman 's use of the term `` pissed off '' in the March 13 , 1976 episode with host Anthony Perkins , according to the book by Hill and Weingrad , and was in the process of placing the show on a permanent delay of several seconds , instead of live , but he changed his mind after Newman personally apologized to him . Chevy Chase left the show in November of the second season and was replaced a few months later by the then-unknown comic actor Bill Murray . Aykroyd and Belushi left the show in 1979 after the end of season four . In May 1980 ( after season five ) , Michaels—emotionally and physically exhausted—requested to put the show on hiatus for a year to give him time and energy to pursue other projects . Concerned that the show would be cancelled without him , Michaels suggested writers Al Franken , Tom Davis , and Jim Downey as his replacements . NBC president Fred Silverman disliked Franken , however , and was infuriated by Franken 's Weekend Update routine called `` Limo for a Lame-O , '' a scathing critique of Silverman 's job performance at the network and his insistence on traveling by limousine at the network 's expense . Silverman blamed Michaels for approving this Weekend Update segment . Unable to get the deal he wanted , Michaels chose to leave NBC for Paramount Pictures , intending to take his associate producer , Jean Doumanian , with him . Michaels later learned that Doumanian had been given his position at SNL after being recommended by her friend , NBC vice president Barbara Gallagher . Michaels ' departure led to most of the cast and writing staff leaving the show . The reputation of the show as a springboard to fame meant that many aspiring stars were eager to join the new series . Doumanian was tasked with hiring a full cast and writing staff in less than three months , and NBC immediately cut the show 's budget from the previous $ 1 million per episode down to just $ 350,000 . Doumanian faced resentment and sabotage from the remaining Michaels staff , particularly males who did not appreciate a woman believing she could take Michaels ' place . The season was a disaster ; ratings plummeted , and audiences failed to connect to the original cast 's replacements , such as Charles Rocket and Ann Risley . Doumanian 's fate was sealed when , during a sketch , Rocket said `` fuck '' on live television . After only ten months , Doumanian was dismissed . Although executives suggested that SNL be left to die , network chief Brandon Tartikoff wanted to keep the show on the air , believing that the concept was more important to the network than money . Tartikoff turned to Ebersol as his choice for the new producer . Ebersol previously had been fired by Silverman . Ebersol gained Michaels ' approval in an attempt to avoid the same staff sabotage that had blighted Doumanian 's tenure . Ebersol 's tenure saw commercial success , but was considered lackluster compared to the Michaels era , except for the breakout of cast member Eddie Murphy . Murphy , the main draw of the cast , left in 1984 to pursue his already successful film career , and Ebersol decided to again rebuild the cast . He broke with history by hiring established comedians such as Billy Crystal and Martin Short who could bring their already successful material to the show . Ebersol 's final year with this new cast is considered one of the series ' funniest , but had strayed far from the precedent-shattering show that Michaels had created . After that season , Ebersol wanted a more significant revamp , including departing from the show 's established `` live '' format . Following unsuccessful forays into film and television , in need of money , and eager not to see Tartikoff cancel the show , Michaels finally returned in 1985 after Ebersol opted not to . The show was again recast , with Michaels borrowing Ebersol 's idea , and seeking out established actors such as Joan Cusack and Robert Downey , Jr . The cast and writers struggled creatively , and in April 1986 , Tartikoff made the decision to cancel the show , until he was convinced by producer Bernie Brillstein to give it one more year . The show was renewed but for the first time in its history , for only thirteen episodes instead of the usual twenty-two . Michaels again fired most of the cast and , learning his lesson from the previous seasons , sought out unknown talent such as Dana Carvey and Phil Hartman instead of known names . The show ran successfully again until it lost Carvey and Hartman , two of its biggest stars , between 1992 and 1994 . Wanting to increase SNLs ratings and profitability , then-NBC West Coast president Don Ohlmeyer and other executives began to actively interfere in the show , recommending that new stars such as Chris Farley and Adam Sandler be fired because Ohlmeyer did not `` get '' them , and critiquing the costly nature of performing the show live . The show faced increasing criticism from the press and cast , in part encouraged by the NBC executives hoping to weaken Michaels ' position . Michaels received a lucrative offer to develop a Saturday night project for CBS during this time , but remained loyal to SNL . By 1995 , Farley and Sandler were fired , and Mike Myers , another popular cast member , had left for a film career , but a new cast waited to replace them , featuring the likes of Will Ferrell , Jimmy Fallon , and Tina Fey . The show focused on performers , and writers were forced to supply material for the cast 's existing characters before they could write original sketches . By 1997 , Ohlmeyer renewed his focus on limiting Michaels ' independence , forcing the removal of writer Jim Downey and cast member Norm MacDonald . Cast and crew Cast The original 1975 cast of SNL , officially known on-air as `` The Not Ready For Prime-Time Players '' , a term coined by writer Herb Sargent , included Laraine Newman , John Belushi , Jane Curtin , Gilda Radner , Dan Aykroyd , Garrett Morris and Chevy Chase . Radner was the first person hired after Michaels himself . Although Chase became a performer , he was hired on a one-year writer contract , and refused to sign the performer contract that was repeatedly given to him , allowing him to leave the show after the first season in 1976 . Newman was brought aboard after having a prior working relationship with Michaels . Morris was initially brought in as a writer , but attempts to have him fired by another writer led Michaels to have Morris audition for the cast , where he turned in a successful performance . Curtin and Belushi were the last two cast members hired . Belushi had a disdain for television and had repeatedly turned down offers to appear on other shows , but decided to work with the show because of the involvement of Radner , and writers Anne Beatts and Michael O'Donoghue . Michaels was still reluctant to hire Belushi , believing he would be a source of trouble for the show , but Beatts , O'Donoghue and Ebersol successfully argued for his inclusion . After Chase left the show he was replaced by Bill Murray , whom Michaels had intended to hire for the first-season cast , but was unable to because of budget restrictions . When Chase returned to host in 1978 , he found the remaining cast resentful at his departure and his success , particularly Belushi . Murray , goaded by the rest of the cast , and Chase came to blows shortly before the show . Chase 's departure for film made Michaels possessive of his talent ; he threatened to fire Aykroyd if he took the role of D-Day in the 1978 comedy Animal House , and later refused to allow SNL musician Paul Shaffer to participate in The Blues Brothers ( 1980 ) with Aykroyd and Belushi after they left in 1979 to pursue film careers . Michaels began to struggle to hold the remaining cast together in the wake of Chase , Aykroyd , and Belushi 's independent successes . Radner had a one-woman Broadway show and Murray starred in the 1979 comedy Meatballs . In 1980 , when Michaels chose to leave the series to pursue other interests , he was followed by the remaining original cast , Curtin , Newman , and Morris , Murray , and additional cast members . The Doumanian-era cast faced immediate comparison to the beloved former cast and were not received favorably . Ebersol fired the majority of her hires , except for two unknown comedians : Eddie Murphy and Joe Piscopo . Talent coordinator Neil Levy claimed Murphy contacted and pleaded with him for a role on the show , and after seeing him audition , Levy fought with Doumanian to cast him instead of Robert Townsend . Doumanian wanted only one black cast member and favored Townsend , but Levy convinced her to choose Murphy . Doumanian , however , also claimed credit for discovering Murphy and fighting with NBC executives to bring him onto the show . Even so , Murphy would languish as a background character until Ebersol took charge , after which Murphy was credited with much of that era 's success . Murphy 's star exploded , and he quickly appeared in films such as 48 Hrs . and Trading Places , before leaving for his film career in early 1984 . Much of the Ebersol cast departed after the 1983–84 season and were replaced with established comedians who could supply their own material , but at an inflated cost ; Billy Crystal and Martin Short were paid $ 25,000 and $ 20,000 per episode respectively , a far cry from earlier salaries . Michaels ' return in 1985 saw a cast reset that featured established talent such as Robert Downey Jr. , Jon Lovitz and Dennis Miller . The season was poorly received , and another reset followed in 1986 . Learning his lesson from the previous season , Michaels avoided known talent in favor of actual ability . He kept Lovitz , Miller and Nora Dunn , and brought in new , untested talent such as Dana Carvey , Phil Hartman , and Jan Hooks , who together would define a new era on the show into the early 1990s . The cast continued on for the next decade with the addition of new talent such as Mike Myers , Adam Sandler , and Chris Farley . Afraid of cast members leaving for film careers , Michaels had overcrowded the cast , causing a divide between the veteran members and the new , younger talent , increasing competition for limited screen time . By 1995 , Carvey and Hartman had left , taking with them a virtual army of characters , Myers quit for his movie career , and increasing network pressure forced Michaels to fire Sandler and Farley . The show saw its next major overhaul , bringing in a new cast including Will Ferrell , Tina Fey , and Jimmy Fallon . While cast members would leave over the following two decades , the show saw its next biggest transition in 2013 , with the addition of 6 cast members to compensate for the departure of several longtime cast members like Bill Hader , Jason Sudeikis , and Fred Armisen . SNL has featured over 130 cast members including , besides the above-mentioned players , Rachel Dratch , Amy Poehler , Chris Rock , David Spade , Will Forte , Julia Louis-Dreyfus , Tracy Morgan , Chris Parnell , Maya Rudolph , Andy Samberg , Kristen Wiig , and many others . Darrell Hammond is the longest-serving cast member , having been a part of the cast for fourteen years between 1995 and 2009 , and returned in 2014 as the show 's announcer following the death of Don Pardo . Those selected to join the cast of SNL are normally already accomplished performers , recruited from improvisational comedy groups such as The Groundlings ( Ferrell , Hartman , Lovitz , Wiig ) and The Second City ( Aykroyd , Farley , Fey , Tim Meadows ) , or established stand-up comedians ( Carvey , Sandler , Rock , Norm Macdonald ) , who already possess the training or experience necessary for SNL . Of the many roles available in the show , one of the longest-running and most coveted is being the host of `` Weekend Update '' , a segment which has alternated between having one or two hosts , and which allows the cast members involved to perform as themselves and be on camera for an extended period of time . Many of the `` Weekend Update '' hosts have gone on to find greater success outside of the show , including : Chase , Curtin , Murray , Miller , Macdonald , Fey , Fallon , and Poehler . From 2008 , Seth Meyers was the solo host of `` Weekend Update '' , before being partnered with Cecily Strong in 2013 . After Meyers left for Late Night with Seth Meyers in February 2014 , Strong was paired with head writer Colin Jost . The cast is divided into two tiers : the more established group of repertory players ; and newer , unproven cast members known as featured players , who may eventually be promoted to the repertory stable . The cast were often contracted from anywhere between five and six years to the show , but starting with the 1999–2000 season , new hires were tied to a rewritten contract that allowed NBC to take a cast member in at least their second year and put them in an NBC sitcom . Cast are given the option of rejecting the first two sitcom offers but must accept the third offer , with the sitcom contract length dictated by NBC and potentially lasting up to six years . The move drew criticism from talent agents and managers who believed that a cast member could be locked into a contract with NBC for twelve years ; six on SNL and then six on a sitcom . The contract also optioned the cast member for three feature films produced by SNL Films , a company owned by NBC , Paramount Pictures , and Michaels . The new contracts were reportedly developed after many previously unknown cast , such as Myers and Sandler , gained fame on SNL only to leave and make money for other studios . In a 2010 interview , Wiig was reported to be contracted to SNL for a total of seven years . The contracts also contain a network option which allows NBC to remove a cast member at any time . In the first season of the show , cast were paid $ 750 per episode , rising to $ 2,000 by season two , and $ 4,000 by season four . By the late 1990s , new cast members received a salary between $ 5,000 and $ 5,500 per episode , increasing to $ 6,000 in the second year and up to $ 12,500 for a cast member in their fifth year . Performers could earn an additional $ 1,500 per episode for writing a sketch which made it to air . In 2001 , Ferrell became the highest paid cast member , being paid $ 350,000 per season ( approximately $ 17,500 per episode ) . In 2014 , Sasheer Zamata was added as a cast member in mid-season after criticism about the show 's lack of an African-American woman . Writers As of the 2013–14 season , Colin Jost and Rob Klein are the show 's co-head writers . Meyers had been co-head writer since 2005 and became the single head writer from 2008 to 2012 . The `` Weekend Update '' segment has its own dedicated team of writers led by head writer and producer Alex Baze as of the 2011–12 season . Scenes on `` Weekend Update '' that involve members of the cast acting in-character alongside the host are often written by staff writers outside of the dedicated `` Weekend Update '' team , who know those characters better . SNL writers are often also performers or experienced in writing and improvisational comedy . Many are hired from similar backgrounds such as The Groundlings , Second City , Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre , and ImprovOlympic . Comedian Jim Downey was head writer for nine years beginning in 1985 . Experienced writers with backgrounds in television shows are also sometimes brought into the SNL writing room . Like the SNL cast that step before the cameras , many of the writers have been able to find their own success outside the show such as Conan O'Brien , who was brought into SNL from The Groundlings , went on to writing for The Simpsons , and eventually began hosting his own show , and former head writer Adam McKay who , along with performer Ferrell , founded the successful comedy website Funny or Die . In 2000 , Tina Fey became the first female SNL head writer and successfully made the transition to starring on the show , as well as writing and starring in feature films , and ultimately creating and starring in her own show 30 Rock—partly based on her SNL experiences . In 2005 , Fey was being paid $ 1.5 million per season for her dual role as head writer and performer . Announcers Don Pardo served as the announcer for the series when it first began , and continued in the role for all but season seven between 1981 and 1982 , when Michaels had left and Mel Brandt and Bill Hanrahan filled the announcing role . In 2004 , Pardo announced that he would step down from his position , but then continued in the role until 2009 where he again announced his retirement , but then continued into the 2009–10 season . In 2010 , then 92-year-old Pardo was reported to be again considering his retirement , but continued to serve as announcer until his death at age 96 on August 18 , 2014 , following the 39th season . Apart from a brief period in 2006 in which Pardo pre-recorded his announcements at his home in Arizona , he flew to New York City to perform his announcing duties live . Cast members Joe Piscopo and Darrell Hammond also periodically impersonated Pardo and fulfilled his announcing duties when Pardo was unavailable . Hammond took over as full-time announcer starting with season 40 . Hosts and musical guests A typical episode of SNL will feature a single host chosen for their popularity , novelty , or because they have a film , album , or other work being released near the time of their appearance on the show . The host delivers the opening monologue and performs in sketches with the cast . Traditionally the host of the show ends the opening monologue by introducing the musical guest for the night . Comedian George Carlin was the first to host SNL in the debut October 1975 episode ; three episodes later , Candice Bergen became the first female host and subsequently the first to host more than once . Hosts have been drawn from a wide spectrum of backgrounds , from actors , such as Christopher Walken , Buck Henry , and John Goodman , to musicians like George Harrison and Dolly Parton , to political activist Ralph Nader . Guests who have hosted five or more times are sometimes referred to as belonging to the Five-Timers Club , a term that originated on a sketch performed on Tom Hanks ' fifth episode . As of September 24 , 2011 , actor Alec Baldwin holds the record for most times hosting , having performed the duty on sixteen different occasions since 1990 ; Baldwin took the record from actor Steve Martin who had hosted fifteen times since 1976 . Each episode also features a musical guest , a solo act or a band , who perform two to three musical numbers . Occasionally , the musical guest has also simultaneously served as the host . As of May 19 , 2012 , Dave Grohl is the most frequent musical guest , performing on eleven shows since 1992 . Michaels does not allow musical guests to perform using lip-synching tracks , believing it diminishes the live aspect of the show . Exceptions are only made when the musical act is focused on intense dance routines instead of vocals , where it is difficult to be both heavily physically active and sing simultaneously . A 1975 performance by pop group ABBA was the first and only act to feature lip-synching , until the controversial 2004 performance of Ashlee Simpson . The SNL Band The Saturday Night Live Band ( also known as `` The Live Band '' ) is the house band for SNL . Academy Award-winning composer Howard Shore served as the first musical director , from 1975 to 1980 , appearing in many musical sketches , including Howard Shore and His All-Nurse Band and ( backing a U.S. Coast Guard chorus ) Howard Shore and the Shore Patrol . Over the years , the band has featured several New York studio musicians including Paul Shaffer ( 1975–1980 ) , Lou Marini ( 1975–1983 ) , David Sanborn ( 1975 ) , Michael Brecker ( early 1980s ) , Ray Chew ( 1980–1983 ) , Alan Rubin ( 1975–1983 ) , Georg Wadenius ( 1979–1985 ) , Steve Ferrone ( 1985 ) , David Johansen ( performing as Buster Poindexter ) , Tom Malone ( who took over as musical director from 1981 to 1985 ) , and G.E . Smith ( musical director from 1985 to 1995 ) . The band is currently under the leadership of Tower of Power alumnus Lenny Pickett , keyboardist Leon Pendarvis and Eli Bruegemann , who does not play in the band on the live show . The number of musicians has varied over the years , but the basic instrumentation has been three saxophones ( alto , tenor and baritone ) , one trombone , one trumpet , and a rhythm section featuring two keyboards , a guitar , bass , drums , and an extra percussionist , not a permanent part of the band until Valerie Naranjo 's arrival in 1995 . The 1983–1984 and 1984–1985 seasons featured the smallest band , a six-piece combo . The band plays instrumentals leading in and out of station breaks ; affiliates who run no advertising during these interludes hear the band play complete songs behind a Saturday Night Live bumper graphic until the program resumes . Production The studio Since the show 's

qg_1555--Saturday_Night_Live.txt

May 28, 1998 saw the death of what Saturday Night Live alum, and voice of Lionel Hutz and Troy McClure on The Simpsons, who was shot while he slept by his wife Brynn Omdahl?

The Seven Year Itch is a 1955 American romantic comedy film based on a three-act play with the same name by George Axelrod . The film was co-written and directed by Billy Wilder , and stars Marilyn Monroe and Tom Ewell , reprising his Broadway role from the play . It contains one of the most iconic images of the 20th century – Monroe standing on a subway grate as her white dress is blown upwards by a passing train . The titular phrase , which refers to declining interest in a monogamous relationship after seven years of marriage , has been used by psychologists . Plot Richard Sherman ( Tom Ewell ) is a nerdy , faithful , middle-aged publishing executive with an overactive imagination and a mid-life crisis , whose wife , Helen ( Evelyn Keyes ) , and son , Ricky ( Butch Bernard ) , are spending the summer in Maine . When he returns home with the kayak paddle Ricky accidentally left behind , he meets a woman ( Marilyn Monroe ) , who is a commercial actress and former model who rents the apartment upstairs while in town to make television spots for a brand of toothpaste . That evening , he works on reading the manuscript of a book in which psychiatrist Dr. Brubaker ( Oskar Homolka ) claims that almost all men are driven to have extra-marital affairs in the seventh year of marriage . Sherman has an imaginary conversation with Helen , trying to convince her , in three fantasy sequences , that he is irresistible to women , including his secretary , a nurse , and Helen 's bridesmaid , but she laughs it off . A tomato plant then crashes into his lounge chair ; the woman upstairs apologizes for accidentally knocking it off the balcony , and Richard invites her down for a drink . He waits for her to get dressed , including in underwear she says she keeps cool in her icebox . When she arrives , a vision in pink , they have a drink and he lies about being married . When she sees his wedding ring , he backtracks but she is unconcerned , having no designs on him , only on his air-conditioning . He has a fantasy that she is a femme fatale overcome by his playing of Rachmaninoff 's Second Piano Concerto . In reality , she prefers Chopsticks , which they play together . Richard , overcome by his fantasies , awkwardly grabs at her , causing them to fall off the piano bench . He apologizes for his indiscretion but she says it happens to her all the time . Guilt-ridden , however , he asks her to leave . Over the next few days , they spend more time together and Richard imagines that they are growing closer , although she is immune to his imagined charms . Helen continually calls her husband , asking him to send the paddle so Ricky can use the kayak , but Richard is repeatedly distracted . His waning resolve to resist temptation fuels his fear that he is succumbing to the `` Seven Year Itch '' . He seeks help from Dr. Brubaker , but to no avail . His imagination then runs even wilder : the young woman tells a plumber ( Victor Moore ) how Richard is `` just like The Creature from the Black Lagoon '' ; the plumber repeats her story to neighbor McKenzie , whom Helen had asked to drop by to pick up Ricky 's paddle . Richard imagines his wife with McKenzie on a hayride which actually takes place but into which he injects his paranoia , guilt and jealousy . After seeing The Creature from the Black Lagoon , the young woman stands over the subway grate to experience the breeze – Monroe in the iconic scene in the pleated white halter dress , blowing her skirt in the wind . Eventually coming to his senses , and fearing his wife 's retribution , which he imagines in a fantasy scene , Richard , paddle in hand , tells the young woman she can stay in his apartment ; then he runs off to catch the next train to Maine to be with Helen and Ricky . Cast * Marilyn Monroe as The Girl ( credited as such , though Richard Sherman satirically remarks `` maybe she 's Marilyn Monroe '' ) * Tom Ewell as Richard Sherman ( billed as Tommy Ewell ) * Evelyn Keyes as Helen Sherman * Sonny Tufts as MacKenzie * Robert Strauss as Kruhulik * Oscar Homolka as Dr. Brubaker * Marguerite Chapman as Miss Morris * Victor Moore as Plumber * Roxanne as Elaine * Donald MacBride as Mr. Brady * Carolyn Jones as Miss Finch * Kathleen Freeman as Woman at Vegetarian Restaurant ( uncredited ) * Doro Merande as Waitress at Vegetarian Restaurant ( uncredited ) Soundtrack Production The Seven Year Itch was filmed between September 1 and November 4 , 1954 , and was the only Billy Wilder film released by 20th Century Fox . The characters of Elaine ( Dolores Rosedale ) , Marie , and the inner voices of Sherman and The Girl were dropped from the play ; the characters of the Plumber , Miss Finch ( Carolyn Jones ) , the Waitress ( Doro Merande ) , and Kruhulik the janitor ( Robert Strauss ) were added . Many lines and scenes from the play were cut or re-written because they were deemed indecent by the Hays office . Axelrod and Wilder complained that the film was being made under straitjacketed conditions . This led to a major plot change : in the play , Sherman and The Girl had sex ; in the movie , the romance is all in his head . ( At least for the most part . Romance between the two is still suggested . Sherman and the Girl kiss twice , once outside the movie theater , the other time before Sherman goes to take Ricky 's paddle to Ricky . ) The footage of Monroe 's dress billowing over a subway grate was shot twice : the first take was shot on location outside the Trans-Lux 52nd Street Theater , then located at 586 Lexington Avenue in Manhattan , while the second take was on a sound stage . Both eventually made their way into the finished film , despite the often-held belief that the original on-location footage 's sound had been rendered useless by the overexcited crowd present during filming in New York . Footage of Walter Matthau and Ewell 's screen tests for Sherman is featured in the DVD of the film . Nicolas Roeg 's film Insignificance features a character based on Monroe and a re-enactment of the subway/dress scene . The exterior shooting location of Richard 's apartment was 164 East 61st Street in Manhattan . Saul Bass created the opening animated title sequence for the film , his only title sequence for a Wilder movie . Release Critical response The original 1955 review in Variety was largely positive . Though Hollywood production codes prohibited writer-director Billy Wilder from filming a comedy where adultery takes place , the review expressed disappointment that Sherman remains chaste . In the 1970s Wilder called the movie `` a nothing picture because the picture should be done today without censorship ... Unless the husband , left alone in New York while the wife and kid are away for the summer , has an affair with that girl there ’ s nothing . But you couldn ’ t do that in those days , so I was just straitjacketed . It just didn ’ t come off one bit , and there ’ s nothing I can say about it except I wish I hadn ’ t made it . I wish I had the property now . '' Box office The film earned $ 6 million in rentals at the North American box office . Awards and honors Awards and nominations Later recognition and rankings American Film Institute 's 100 Years ... series * AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs * * The Seven Year Itch : # 51 In popular culture * In Sabrina , also directed by Wilder and released a year prior this film , the character of Humphrey Bogart tells his brother that he went with Audrey Hepburn 's titular character to see The Seven Year Itch , which was on Broadway at that time . * The fourteenth episode of the sixteenth season of The Simpsons , was named : `` The Seven-Beer Snitch '' , a obvious play on the title . Marilyn Monroe 's dress blowing up scene has become a pop culture phenomena , being referenced in various media : * In the film Pulp Fiction , Mia Wallace ( Uma Thurman ) and Vincent Vega ( John Travolta ) visits a 1950s-themed restaurant , where a waiter dressed as Monroe in her white dress can be seen . During one scene , the waiter can be seen having her dress blown up for the amusement of the customers . * In the 2000 animated film The Tigger Movie during the song Round my Family Tree a female Tigger has her dress blown by the wind that takes her up in the air . * In 'The House Bunny ' the character , Shelley Darlingson ( played by Anna Faris ) , attempts to recreate the dress blowing up scene . * In episode 15 of season 4 of Mad TV , the character Antonia ( played by Nicole Sullivan ) plugs her perfume in a commercial , wearing a similar white dress as The Girl , attempting to mimic the iconic dress blowing up scene . * In the Rosebud episode of the fifth season of The Simpsons , a photo is of Mr. Burns mimicking the scene , wearing a similar dress . * In the Gone Maggie Gone episode of the twentieth season of The Simpsons , a Nun under the name ; Sister Marilyn is shown as a bad example for Lisa Simpson , as she can be seen holding down her robe while wind blows from a vent underneath her . * In the Mom 's the Word episode of the twelfth season of Family Guy , a elderly woman named Evelyn tries to seduce Peter Griffin by letting her skirt be blown up by the street grate , as in the scene . * In the animated film Shrek 2 , the Fairy Godmother appears in a time of need to Princess Fiona . The Godmother makes her wear a golden dress which blows upward , forcing Fiona to hold it down . * The music video for Marina and the Diamonds ' song `` Hollywood '' , features many American cultural icons , including a Marilyn Monroe look-alike with a white dress , similar to the one she wears during this scene . * In the comic book issue Deadpool Vol 3 # 4 , Deadpool dresses up as Marylin Monroe in the iconic white dress , to fight a Zombie John F. Kennedy .

qz_2471--The_Seven_Year_Itch.txt

Marilyn Monroe starred in the Seven Year Itch. Who directed it?

Psapp ( or ) is an experimental electronica band . The band , a duo consisting of members Carim Clasmann and Galia Durant , are sometimes credited with inventing a musical style known as toytronica , a form of electronica made with toys and toy instruments ( the band uses toy guitars , flutes , and a chicken they named Brunhilda ) . They have released four albums ( Tiger , My Friend , The Only Thing I Ever Wanted , The Camel 's Back and What Makes Us Glow ) , a Japan Exclusive Mini-Album Northdown and five EPs ( Do Something Wrong , Rear Moth , Buttons and War , Hi and the iTunes-exclusive Early Cats and Tracks ) . They composed the song `` Cosy in the Rocket '' , the main theme on the medical-drama TV series Grey 's Anatomy . Some of their other songs have been used in other American TV shows such as The OC and Nip/Tuck as well as the UK Channel 4 TV show Sugar Rush . On Monday 16 September 2013 , announced that their fourth album What Makes Us Glow will be released on 11 November 2013 through The state51 Conspiracy . The first single to be released from this album was Wet Salt on 4 November 2013 Psapp are known for their humour on stage , throwing toy cats ( hand-made by the band ) into the audience . Discography Albums * Tiger , My Friend ( 2004 ) * The Only Thing I Ever Wanted ( 2006 ) * The Camel 's Back ( 2008 ) * What Makes Us Glow ( 2013 ) EPs * Do Something Wrong ( 2003 ) * Rear Moth ( 2004 ) * Buttons and War ( 2004 ) * Early Cats and Tracks ( 2006 ) * Hi ( 2006 ) * Early Cats and Tracks Volume 2 ( 2009 ) Singles * '' Tricycle '' ( 2006 ) * '' The Monster Song '' ( 2008 ) * '' I Want That '' ( 2009 ) * '' Wet Salt '' ( 2013 ) Other * Tracks for Horses ( 2003 ) - `` Difficult Key '' * Indoor Shed ( 2003 ) - `` Scissory '' * Northdown ( 2004 ) * Grey 's Anatomy Soundtrack ( 2005 ) - `` Cosy in the Rocket '' * Merry Mixmas ( 2005 ) - `` I 've Got My Love to Keep Me Warm '' * Take It Easy : 15 Soft Rock Anthems ( 2006 ) - `` Year of the Cat '' ( cover of Al Stewart song ) * David Shrigley 's Worried Noodles ( 2007 ) - `` Sad Song '' * Hallam Foe Soundtrack ( 2007 ) - `` Tricycle '' and `` Eating Spiders '' * Verve Remixed , Vol . 4 ( 2008 ) - `` Bim Bom ''

odql_8180--Psapp.txt

'Cosy In The Rocket', by the British electronic band 'Psapp' (pron. sap) is the theme tune to which American drama series?

Food coloring , or color additive , is any dye , pigment or substance that imparts color when it is added to food or drink . They come in many forms consisting of liquids , powders , gels , and pastes . Food coloring is used both in commercial food production and in domestic cooking . Due to its safety and general availability , food coloring is also used in a variety of non-food applications including cosmetics , pharmaceuticals , home craft projects , and medical devices . Purpose of food coloring People associate certain colors with certain flavors , and the color of food can influence the perceived flavor in anything from candy to wine . Sometimes the aim is to simulate a color that is perceived by the consumer as natural , such as adding red coloring to glacé cherries ( which would otherwise be beige ) , but sometimes it is for effect , like the green ketchup that Heinz launched in 1999 . Color additives are used in foods for many reasons including : * Offset color loss due to exposure to light , air , temperature extremes , moisture and storage conditions * Correct natural variations in color * Enhance colors that occur naturally * Provide color to colorless and `` fun '' foods * Make food more attractive and appetizing , and informative * Allow consumers to identify products on sight , like candy flavors or medicine dosages File : Indigo carmine.svg | Indigo carmine , which is blue . File : Allura Red AC Structural Formula V1.png | Allura Red AC , which is red . File : Quinoline Yellow WS.svg | Quinoline Yellow WS , which is yellow . File : Betanin.png | Betanin , a beet-derived dye . File : Anthocyanidine.svg | Anthocyanin , a blue dye . File : Beta-Carotin.svg| beta-carotene a yellow to orange colorant . Regulation Past use and regulation history The addition of colorants to foods is thought to have occurred in Egyptian cities as early as 1500 BC , when candy makers added natural extracts and wine to improve the products ' appearance . During the Middle Ages , the economy in the European countries was based on agriculture , and the peasants were accustomed to producing their own food locally or trading within the village communities . Under feudalism , aesthetic aspects were not considered , at least not by the vast majority of the generally very poor population . This situation changed with urbanization at the beginning of the Modern Age , when trade emerged—especially the import of precious spices and colors . One of the very first food laws , created in Augsburg , Germany , in 1531 , concerned spices or colorants and required saffron counterfeiters to be burned . With the onset of the industrial revolution , people became dependent on foods produced by others . These new urban dwellers demanded food at low cost . Analytical chemistry was still primitive and regulations few . The adulteration of foods flourished . Heavy metal and other inorganic element-containing compounds turned out to be cheap and suitable to `` restore '' the color of watered-down milk and other foodstuffs , some more lurid examples being : * Red lead ( Pb3O4 ) and vermillion ( HgS ) were routinely used to color cheese and confectionery . * Copper arsenite ( CuHAsO3 ) was used to recolor used tea leaves for resale . It also caused two deaths when used to color a dessert in 1860 . Sellers at the time offered more than 80 artificial coloring agents , some invented for dyeing textiles , not foods . Many color additives had never been tested for toxicity or other adverse effects . Historical records show that injuries , even deaths , resulted from tainted colorants . In 1851 , about 200 people were poisoned in England , 17 of them fatally , directly as a result of eating adulterated lozenges . In 1856 , mauveine , the first synthetic color , was developed by Sir William Henry Perkin and by the turn of the century , unmonitored color additives had spread through Europe and the United States in all sorts of popular foods , including ketchup , mustard , jellies , and wine . Concerns over food safety led to numerous regulations throughout the world , . German food regulations released in 1882 stipulated the exclusion of dangerous minerals such as arsenic , copper , chromium , lead , mercury and zinc , which were frequently used as ingredients in colorants . In contrast to today , these first laws followed the principle of a negative listing ( substances not allowed for use ) ; they were already driven by the main principles of today 's food regulations all over the world , since all of these regulations follow the same goal : the protection of consumers from toxic substances and from fraud . In the United States , the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 reduced the permitted list of synthetic colors from 700 down to seven . Even with updated food laws , adulteration continued for many years and this , together with more recent adverse press comments on food colors and health , has continued to contribute to consumer concern about color addition to foodstuffs . In the 20th century , the improvement of chemical analysis and the development of trials to identify the toxic features of substances added to foods led to the replacement of the negative lists by lists of substances allowed to be used for the production and the improvement of foods . This principle is called a positive listing , and almost all recent legislations are based on it . Positive listing implies that substances meant for human consumption have been tested for their safety , and that they have to meet specified purity criteria prior to their approval by the corresponding authorities . In 1962 , the first EU directive ( [ http : //eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do ? uri DD : I:1959-1962:31962L2645 : EN : PDF 62/2645/EEC ] ) approved 36 colorants , of which 20 were naturally derived and 16 were synthetic . This directive did not list which food products the colorants could or could not be used in . At that time , each member state could designate where certain colors could and could not be used . In Germany , for example , quinoline yellow was allowed in puddings and desserts , but tartrazine was not . The reverse was true in France . This was updated in 1989 with [ http : //eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do ? uri OJ : L:1989:040:0027:0033 : EN : PDF 89/107/EEC ] , which concerned food additives authorized for use in foodstuffs . Current regulation While naturally derived colors are not required to be certified by a number of regulatory bodies throughout the world ( including the U.S. FDA ) , they still need to be approved for use in that country . The FDA lists `` color additives exempt from certification '' for food in subpart A of the [ http : //www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_01/21cfr73_01.html Code of Federal Regulations - Title 21 Part 73 ] . However , this list contains substances which may have synthetic origins , such as nature identical beta-carotene . FDA 's permitted colors are classified as subject to certification or exempt from certification , both of which are subject to rigorous safety standards prior to their approval and listing for use in foods . * Certified colors are synthetically produced and are used widely because they impart an intense , uniform color , are less expensive , and blend more easily to create a variety of hues . There are nine certified color additives approved for use in the United States . Certified food colors generally do not add undesirable flavors to foods . * Colors that are exempt from certification include pigments derived from natural sources such as vegetables , minerals or animals . Nature derived color additives are typically more expensive than certified colors and may add unintended flavors to foods . Examples of exempt colors include annatto , beet extract , caramel , beta-carotene , turmeric and grape skin extract . Food colorings are tested for safety by various bodies around the world and sometimes different bodies have different views on food color safety . In the United States , FD & C numbers ( which indicate that the FDA has approved the colorant for use in foods , drugs and cosmetics ) are given to approved synthetic food dyes that do not exist in nature , while in the European Union , E numbers are used for all additives , both synthetic and natural , that are approved in food applications . The food colors are known by E numbers that begin with a 1 , such as E100 ( turmeric ) or E161b ( lutein ) . The safety of food colors and other food additives in the EU is evaluated by the European Food Safety Authority . [ http : //ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sfp/addit_flavor/flav08_en.pdf Color Directive 94/36/EC ] , enacted by the European Commission in 1994 , outlines permitted natural and artificial colors with their approved applications and limits in different foodstuffs . This is binding to all member countries of the EU . Any changes have to be implemented into their national laws within a given time frame . In non-EU member states , food additives are regulated by their national authorities , which usually , but not in all cases , try to harmonize with the laws adopted by the EU . Most other countries have their own regulations and list of food colors which can be used in various applications , including maximum daily intake limits . Global harmonization Global trade requires harmonization of food regulations on a world-wide basis in order to abolish barriers of trade and to ensure that the economic and nutritional demands of all nations are considered . Since the beginning of the 1960s , JECFA has played an important role in the development of international standards for food additives , not only by its toxicological assessments , which are continuously published by the WHO in a [ http : //whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_960_eng.pdf `` Technical Report Series '' ] , but furthermore by elaborating appropriate purity criteria , which are laid down in the two volumes of the [ http : //www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2358e/i2358e00.pdf `` Compendium of Food Additive Specifications '' ] and their supplements . These specifications are not legally binding but very often serve as a guiding principle , especially in countries where no scientific expert committees have been established . In order to further regulate the use of these evaluated additives , in 1962 the WHO and FAO created an international commission , the Codex Alimentarius , which is composed of authorities , food industry associations and consumer groups from all over the world . Within the Codex organization , the Codex Committee for Food Additives and Contaminants is responsible for working out recommendations for the application of food additives , the [ http : //www.codexalimentarius.net/gsfaonline/docs/CXS_192e.pdf General Standard for Food Additives ] . In the light of the World Trade Organizations General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) , the Codex Standard , although not legally binding , influences food color regulations all over the world . Artificial coloring As the 1900s began , a host of synthetic dyes and pigments became available . Originally , these were dubbed ` coal-tar ' colors because the starting materials were obtained from bituminous coal . Many synthesized dyes were easier and less costly to produce and were superior in coloring properties when compared to naturally derived alternatives of the time . Also known as `` azo-dyes '' , synthetic colors are generally produced via a two-step chemical synthesis . The first step forms a diazo compound from the reaction of aromatic amines generally formed from nitrosamine and a diazonium compound . The second step couples these diazo compounds with various reactive aromatic hydrocarbons . Due to the π-electrons across the two aromatic sections and the azo-groups , a conjugated system exists that is able to absorb light of specific wavelengths , leading to the color of the compounds ( this principle also applies to naturally derived pigments as well ) . The attractiveness of the synthetic dyes is that their color , lipophilicity , and other attributes can be engineered by the design of the specific molecule . The color of the dyes can be controlled selecting the number of azo-groups and various substituents . Yellow shades are achieved by using acetoacetanilide and heterocyclic compounds . Red colors result from the reaction between an aniline derivative ( diazo ) with a naphthol derivate . A blue results from replacing the aniline derivate with a benzidine derivate . The pair indigo and indigo carmine exhibit the same color , but the former is soluble in lipids , and the latter is water soluble because it has been fitted with sulfonate functional groups . In the United States Only seven dyes were initially approved under the U.S . Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 , but several have been delisted and replacements have been found . Some of the food colorings have the abbreviation `` FCF '' in their names . This stands for `` For Coloring Food '' ( US ) or `` For Colouring of Food '' ( UK ) . In the United States , manufacturers must get FDA approval for every batch of certified colors produced . FDA personnel evaluate the color 's physical appearance and chemically analyze it . Tests include purity ( total color content ) , moisture , residual salts , unreacted intermediates , colored impurities other than the main color ( called subsidiary colors ) , any other specified impurities , and heavy metals ( lead , arsenic , and mercury ) . The results are reviewed for compliance with the identity and specifications described in the listing regulation for the color additive . If the sample is found to meet these requirements , the FDA issues a certificate for the batch that identifies the color additive . For example , a batch of `` tartrazine '' becomes `` FD & C Yellow No . 5 . '' Current seven generally permitted In the US , the following seven artificial colorings are generally permitted in food ( the most common in bold ) . The lakes of these colorings are also permitted except the lake of Red No . 3 . * FD & C Blue No . 1 – Brilliant Blue FCF , E133 ( blue shade ) * FD & C Blue No . 2 – Indigotine , E132 ( indigo shade ) * FD & C Green No . 3 – Fast Green FCF , E143 ( turquoise shade ) * FD & C Red No . 3 – Erythrosine , E127 ( pink shade , commonly used in glacé cherries ) * FD & C Red No . 40 – Allura Red AC , E129 ( red shade ) * FD & C Yellow No . 5 – Tartrazine , E102 ( yellow shade ) * FD & C Yellow No . 6 – Sunset Yellow FCF , E110 ( orange shade ) Permitted for limited use in foods Two dyes are allowed by the FDA for limited applications : * Citrus Red 2 ( orange shade ) - allowed only to color orange peels . * Orange B ( red shade ) - allowed only for use in hot dog and sausage casings ( not produced after 1978 , but never delisted ) Delisted and banned in the US * FD & C Red No . 2 – Amaranth , E123 * FD & C Red No . 4 * FD & C Red No . 32 was used to color Florida oranges . * FD & C Orange Number 1 was one of the first water-soluble dyes to be commercialized , and one of seven original food dyes allowed under the Pure Food and Drug Act of June 30 , 1906 . * FD & C Orange No . 2 was used to color Florida oranges . * FD & C Yellow No . 1 , 2 , 3 , and 4 * FD & C Violet No . 1 Approved in EU E numbers 102-143 cover the range of artificial colors . For an overview of currently allowed additives see here [ http : //www.food.gov.uk/safereating/chemsafe/additivesbranch/enumberlist ] . Some artificial dyes approved for food use in the EU include : * E104 : Quinoline Yellow * E122 : Carmoisine * E124 : Ponceau 4R * E131 : Patent Blue V * E142 : Green S Natural food dyes Carotenoids ( E160 , E161 , E164 ) , chlorophyllin ( E140 , E141 ) , anthocyanins ( E163 ) , and betanin ( E162 ) comprise four main categories of plant pigments grown to color food products . Other colorants or specialized derivatives of these core groups include : * Annatto ( E160b ) , a reddish-orange dye made from the seed of the achiote * Caramel coloring ( E150a-d ) , made from caramelized sugar * Carmine ( E120 ) , a red dye derived from the cochineal insect , Dactylopius coccus * Elderberry juice * Lycopene ( E160d ) * Paprika ( E160c ) * Turmeric ( E100 ) Blue colors are especially rare . To ensure reproducibility , the colored components of these substances are often provided in highly purified form . For stability and convenience , they can be formulated in suitable carrier materials ( solid and liquids ) . Hexane , acetone , and other solvents break down cell walls in the fruit and vegetables and allow for maximum extraction of the coloring . Traces of these may still remain in the finished colorant , but they do not need to be declared on the product label . These solvents are known as carry-over ingredients . Dyes and lakes Color additives are available for use in food as either `` dyes '' or lake pigments ( commonly known as `` lakes '' ) . Dyes dissolve in water , but are not soluble in oil . Dyes are manufactured as powders , granules , liquids or other special purpose forms . They can be used in beverages , dry mixes , baked goods , confections , dairy products , pet foods , and a variety of other products . Dyes also have side effects that lakes lack . Consuming large amounts of dyes can color stools . Lakes are made by combining dyes with salts ( usually aluminum salts ) to make insoluble compounds . Lakes tint by dispersion . Lakes are not oil-soluble , but are oil-dispersible . Lakes are more stable than dyes and are ideal for coloring products containing fats and oils or items lacking sufficient moisture to dissolve dyes . Typical uses include coated tablets , cake and doughnut mixes , hard candies and chewing gums , lipsticks , soaps , shampoos , talc , etc . Other uses Because food dyes are generally safer to use than normal artists ' dyes and pigments , some artists have used food coloring as a means of making pictures , especially in forms such as body-painting . Red food dye is often used in theatrical blood . Most artificial food colorings are a type of acid dye , and can be used to dye protein fibers and nylon with the addition of an acid . They are all washfast and most are also lightfast . They will not permanently bond to plant fibers and other synthetics . Criticism and health implications There is no evidence to support broad claims that food coloring causes food intolerance and ADHD-like behavior in children . It is possible that certain food coloring may act as a trigger in those who are genetically predisposed , but the evidence is weak . After concerns were expressed that food colorings may cause ADHD-like behavior in children , FDA . [ http : //www.fda.gov/downloads/AdvisoryCommittees/CommitteesMeetingMaterials/FoodAdvisoryCommittee/UCM248549.pdf Background Document for the Food Advisory Committee : Certified Color Additives in Food and Possible Association with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children : March 30-31 , 2011 ] the collective evidence do not support this assertion . The US FDA and other food safety authorities to regularly review the scientific literature , and led the UK Food Standards Agency ( FSA ) to commission a study by researchers at Southampton University of the effect of a mixture of six food dyes ( Tartrazine , Allura Red , Ponceau 4R , Quinoline Yellow WS , Sunset Yellow and Carmoisine ( dubbed the `` Southampton 6 '' ) ) on children in the general population . These colorants are found in beverages.Sarah Chapman of Chapman Technologies on behalf of Food Standards Agency in Scotland . March 2011 [ Guidelines on approaches to the replacement of Tartrazine , Allura Red , Ponceau 4R , Quinoline Yellow , Sunset Yellow and Carmoisine in food and beverages ] The study found `` a possible link between the consumption of these artificial colours and a sodium benzoate preservative and increased hyperactivity '' in the children ; the advisory committee to the FSA that evaluated the study also determined that because of study limitations , the results could not be extrapolated to the general population , and further testing was recommended '' . The U.S. FDA did not make changes following the publication of the Southampton study , but following a citizen petition filed by the Center for Science in the Public Interest in 2008 , requesting the FDA ban several food additives , the FDA reviewed the available evidence , and still made no changes . The European regulatory community , with an emphasis on the precautionary principle , required labelling and temporarily reduced the acceptable daily intake ( ADI ) for the food colorings ; the UK FSA called for voluntary withdrawal of the colorings by food manufacturers . However , in 2009 the EFSA re-evaluated the data at hand and determined that `` the available scientific evidence does not substantiate a link between the color additives and behavioral effects '' for any of the dyes.EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to food ( ANS ) [ http : //www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1330.htm Scientific Opinion on the re-evaluation of Sunset Yellow FCF ( E 110 ) as a food additive ] . EFSA Journal 2009 ; 7 ( 11 ) :1330 doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2009.1330EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food ( ANS ) [ http : //www.efsa.europa.eu/en/scdocs/scdoc/1328.htm 091113 efsa.europa.eu Scientific Opinion on the re-evaluation of Ponceau 4R ( E 124 ) as a food additive ] EFSA Journal 2009 ; 7 ( 11 ) :1328EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to food ( ANS ) . [ http : //www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1329.htm Scientific Opinion on the re-evaluation of Quinoline Yellow ( E 104 ) as a food additive ] . EFSA Journal 2009 ; 7 ( 11 ) :1329 [ 40 pp . ] . doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2009.1329

bt_2823--Food_coloring.txt

What colour is the wax covering Gouda cheese

Elvis Aaron Presley ( January 8 , 1935 – August 16 , 1977 ) was an American musician and actor . Regarded as one of the most significant cultural icons of the 20th century , he is often referred to as `` the King of Rock and Roll '' , or simply , `` the King '' . Presley was born in Tupelo , Mississippi , as a twinless twin , and when he was 13 years old , he and his family relocated to Memphis , Tennessee . His music career began there in 1954 , when he recorded a song with producer Sam Phillips at Sun Records . Accompanied by guitarist Scotty Moore and bassist Bill Black , Presley was an early popularizer of rockabilly , an uptempo , backbeat-driven fusion of country music and rhythm and blues . RCA Victor acquired his contract in a deal arranged by Colonel Tom Parker , who managed the singer for more than two decades . Presley 's first RCA single , `` Heartbreak Hotel '' , was released in January 1956 and became a number-one hit in the United States . He was regarded as the leading figure of rock and roll after a series of successful network television appearances and chart-topping records . His energized interpretations of songs and sexually provocative performance style , combined with a singularly potent mix of influences across color lines that coincided with the dawn of the Civil Rights Movement , made him enormously popular—and controversial . In November 1956 , he made his film debut in Love Me Tender . In 1958 , he was drafted into military service . He resumed his recording career two years later , producing some of his most commercially successful work before devoting much of the 1960s to making Hollywood films and their accompanying soundtrack albums , most of which were critically derided . In 1968 , following a seven-year break from live performances , he returned to the stage in the acclaimed televised comeback special Elvis , which led to an extended Las Vegas concert residency and a string of highly profitable tours . In 1973 , Presley was featured in the first globally broadcast concert via satellite , Aloha from Hawaii . Several years of prescription drug abuse severely damaged his health , and he died in 1977 at the age of 42 . Presley is one of the most celebrated and influential musicians of the 20th century . Commercially successful in many genres , including pop , blues and gospel , he is the best-selling solo artist in the history of recorded music , with estimated record sales of around 600 million units worldwide . He won three Grammys , also receiving the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award at age 36 , and has been inducted into multiple music halls of fame . Life and career 1935–53 : Early years Childhood in Tupelo Presley was born on January 8 , 1935 , in Tupelo , Mississippi , the son of Gladys Love ( née Smith ; April 25 , 1912 – August 14 , 1958 ) and Vernon Elvis Presley ( April 10 , 1916 – June 26 , 1979 ) , in the two-room shotgun house built by Vernon 's father in preparation for the child 's birth . Jesse Garon Presley , his identical twin brother , was delivered stillborn 35 minutes before him . As an only child , Presley became close to both parents and formed an especially close bond with his mother . The family attended an Assembly of God , where he found his initial musical inspiration . Although he was in conflict with the Pentecostal church in his later years , he never officially left it . Rev . Rex Humbard officiated at his funeral , as Presley had been an admirer of Humbard 's ministry . Presley 's ancestry was primarily a Western European mix , including Scots-Irish , Scottish , German , and some French Norman . Gladys 's great-great-grandmother , Morning Dove White , was possibly a Cherokee Native American . Gladys was regarded by relatives and friends as the dominant member of the small family . Vernon moved from one odd job to the next , evincing little ambition . The family often relied on help from neighbors and government food assistance . The Presleys survived the F5 tornado in the 1936 Tupelo–Gainesville tornado outbreak . In 1938 , they lost their home after Vernon was found guilty of kiting a check written by the landowner , Orville S. Bean , the dairy farmer and cattle-and-hog broker for whom he then worked . He was jailed for eight months , and Gladys and Elvis moved in with relatives . In September 1941 , Presley entered first grade at East Tupelo Consolidated , where his instructors regarded him as `` average '' . He was encouraged to enter a singing contest after impressing his schoolteacher with a rendition of Red Foley 's country song `` Old Shep '' during morning prayers . The contest , held at the Mississippi-Alabama Fair and Dairy Show on October 3 , 1945 , was his first public performance : dressed as a cowboy , the ten-year-old Presley stood on a chair to reach the microphone and sang `` Old Shep '' . He recalled placing fifth . A few months later , Presley received his first guitar for his birthday ; he had hoped for something else—by different accounts , either a bicycle or a rifle . Over the following year , he received basic guitar lessons from two of his uncles and the new pastor at the family 's church . Presley recalled , `` I took the guitar , and I watched people , and I learned to play a little bit . But I would never sing in public . I was very shy about it . '' Entering a new school , Milam , for sixth grade in September 1946 , Presley was regarded as a loner . The following year , he began bringing his guitar in on a daily basis . He played and sang during lunchtime , and was often teased as a `` trashy '' kid who played hillbilly music . The family was by then living in a largely African-American neighborhood . A devotee of Mississippi Slim 's show on the Tupelo radio station WELO , Presley was described as `` crazy about music '' by Slim 's younger brother , a classmate of Presley 's , who often took him into the station . Slim supplemented Presley 's guitar tuition by demonstrating chord techniques . When his protégé was 12 years old , Slim scheduled him for two on-air performances . Presley was overcome by stage fright the first time , but succeeded in performing the following week . Teenage life in Memphis In November 1948 , the family moved to Memphis , Tennessee . After residing for nearly a year in rooming houses , they were granted a two-bedroom apartment in the public housing complex known as the Lauderdale Courts . Enrolled at L. C. Humes High School , Presley received only a C in music in eighth grade . When his music teacher told him he had no aptitude for singing , he brought in his guitar the next day and sang a recent hit , `` Keep Them Cold Icy Fingers Off Me '' , in an effort to prove otherwise . A classmate later recalled that the teacher `` agreed that Elvis was right when he said that she did n't appreciate his kind of singing . '' He was usually too shy to perform openly , and was occasionally bullied by classmates who viewed him as a `` mama 's boy '' . In 1950 , he began practicing guitar regularly under the tutelage of Jesse Lee Denson , a neighbor two-and-a-half years his senior . They and three other boys—including two future rockabilly pioneers , brothers Dorsey and Johnny Burnette—formed a loose musical collective that played frequently around the Courts . That September , he began ushering at Loew 's State Theater . Other jobs followed , including Precision Tool , Loew 's again , and MARL Metal Products . During his junior year , Presley began to stand out more among his classmates , largely because of his appearance : he grew out his sideburns and styled his hair with rose oil and Vaseline . In his free time , he would head down to Beale Street , the heart of Memphis 's thriving blues scene , and gaze longingly at the wild , flashy clothes in the windows of Lansky Brothers . By his senior year , he was wearing them . Overcoming his reticence about performing outside the Lauderdale Courts , he competed in Humes 's Annual `` Minstrel '' show in April 1953 . Singing and playing guitar , he opened with `` Till I Waltz Again with You '' , a recent hit for Teresa Brewer . Presley recalled that the performance did much for his reputation : `` I was n't popular in school ... I failed music—only thing I ever failed . And then they entered me in this talent show ... when I came onstage I heard people kind of rumbling and whispering and so forth , 'cause nobody knew I even sang . It was amazing how popular I became after that . '' Presley , who never received formal music training or learned to read music , studied and played by ear . He also frequented record stores with jukeboxes and listening booths . He knew all of Hank Snow 's songs , and he loved records by other country singers such as Roy Acuff , Ernest Tubb , Ted Daffan , Jimmie Rodgers , Jimmie Davis , and Bob Wills . The Southern gospel singer Jake Hess , one of his favorite performers , was a significant influence on his ballad-singing style . He was a regular audience member at the monthly All-Night Singings downtown , where many of the white gospel groups that performed reflected the influence of African-American spiritual music . He adored the music of black gospel singer Sister Rosetta Tharpe . Like some of his peers , he may have attended blues venues—of necessity , in the segregated South , on only the nights designated for exclusively white audiences . He certainly listened to the regional radio stations , such as WDIA-AM , that played `` race records '' : spirituals , blues , and the modern , backbeat-heavy sound of rhythm and blues . Many of his future recordings were inspired by local African-American musicians such as Arthur Crudup and Rufus Thomas . B.B . King recalled that he had known Presley before he was popular , when they both used to frequent Beale Street . By the time he graduated from high school in June 1953 , Presley had already singled out music as his future . 1953–55 : First recordings Sam Phillips and Sun Records In August 1953 , Presley walked into the offices of Sun Records . He aimed to pay for a few minutes of studio time to record a two-sided acetate disc : `` My Happiness '' and `` That 's When Your Heartaches Begin '' . He would later claim that he intended the record as a gift for his mother , or that he was merely interested in what he `` sounded like '' , although there was a much cheaper , amateur record-making service at a nearby general store . Biographer Peter Guralnick argues that he chose Sun in the hope of being discovered . Asked by receptionist Marion Keisker what kind of singer he was , Presley responded , `` I sing all kinds . '' When she pressed him on who he sounded like , he repeatedly answered , `` I do n't sound like nobody . '' After he recorded , Sun boss Sam Phillips asked Keisker to note down the young man 's name , which she did along with her own commentary : `` Good ballad singer . Hold . '' In January 1954 , Presley cut a second acetate at Sun Records— '' I 'll Never Stand In Your Way '' and `` It Would n't Be the Same Without You '' —but again nothing came of it . Not long after , he failed an audition for a local vocal quartet , the Songfellows . He explained to his father , `` They told me I could n't sing . '' Songfellow Jim Hamill later claimed that he was turned down because he did not demonstrate an ear for harmony at the time . In April , Presley began working for the Crown Electric company as a truck driver . His friend Ronnie Smith , after playing a few local gigs with him , suggested he contact Eddie Bond , leader of Smith 's professional band , which had an opening for a vocalist . Bond rejected him after a tryout , advising Presley to stick to truck driving `` because you 're never going to make it as a singer '' . Phillips , meanwhile , was always on the lookout for someone who could bring to a broader audience the sound of the black musicians on whom Sun focused . As Keisker reported , `` Over and over I remember Sam saying , 'If I could find a white man who had the Negro sound and the Negro feel , I could make a billion dollars . ' '' In June , he acquired a demo recording of a ballad , `` Without You '' , that he thought might suit the teenage singer . Presley came by the studio , but was unable to do it justice . Despite this , Phillips asked Presley to sing as many numbers as he knew . He was sufficiently affected by what he heard to invite two local musicians , guitarist Winfield `` Scotty '' Moore and upright bass player Bill Black , to work something up with Presley for a recording session . The session , held the evening of July 5 , 1954 , proved entirely unfruitful until late in the night . As they were about to give up and go home , Presley took his guitar and launched into a 1946 blues number , Arthur Crudup 's `` That 's All Right '' . Moore recalled , `` All of a sudden , Elvis just started singing this song , jumping around and acting the fool , and then Bill picked up his bass , and he started acting the fool , too , and I started playing with them . Sam , I think , had the door to the control booth open ... he stuck his head out and said , 'What are you doing ? ' And we said , 'We do n't know . ' 'Well , back up , ' he said , 'try to find a place to start , and do it again . ' '' Phillips quickly began taping ; this was the sound he had been looking for . Three days later , popular Memphis DJ Dewey Phillips played `` That 's All Right '' on his Red , Hot , and Blue show . Listeners began phoning in , eager to find out who the singer was . The interest was such that Phillips played the record repeatedly during the last two hours of his show . Interviewing Presley on-air , Phillips asked him what high school he attended in order to clarify his color for the many callers who had assumed he was black . During the next few days , the trio recorded a bluegrass number , Bill Monroe 's `` Blue Moon of Kentucky '' , again in a distinctive style and employing a jury-rigged echo effect that Sam Phillips dubbed `` slapback '' . A single was pressed with `` That 's All Right '' on the A side and `` Blue Moon of Kentucky '' on the reverse . Early live performances and signing with RCA The trio played publicly for the first time on July 17 at the Bon Air club—Presley still sporting his child-size guitar . At the end of the month , they appeared at the Overton Park Shell , with Slim Whitman headlining . A combination of his strong response to rhythm and nervousness at playing before a large crowd led Presley to shake his legs as he performed : his wide-cut pants emphasized his movements , causing young women in the audience to start screaming . Moore recalled , `` During the instrumental parts , he would back off from the mike and be playing and shaking , and the crowd would just go wild '' . Black , a natural showman , whooped and rode his bass , hitting double licks that Presley would later remember as `` really a wild sound , like a jungle drum or something '' . Soon after , Moore and Black quit their old band to play with Presley regularly , and DJ and promoter Bob Neal became the trio 's manager . From August through October , they played frequently at the Eagle 's Nest club and returned to Sun Studio for more recording sessions , and Presley quickly grew more confident on stage . According to Moore , `` His movement was a natural thing , but he was also very conscious of what got a reaction . He 'd do something one time and then he would expand on it real quick . '' Presley made what would be his only appearance on Nashville 's Grand Ole Opry on October 2 ; after a polite audience response , Opry manager Jim Denny told Phillips that his singer was `` not bad '' but did not suit the program . Two weeks later , Presley was booked on Louisiana Hayride , the Oprys chief , and more adventurous , rival . The Shreveport-based show was broadcast to 198 radio stations in 28 states . Presley had another attack of nerves during the first set , which drew a muted reaction . A more composed and energetic second set inspired an enthusiastic response . House drummer D. J. Fontana brought a new element , complementing Presley 's movements with accented beats that he had mastered playing in strip clubs . Soon after the show , the Hayride engaged Presley for a year 's worth of Saturday-night appearances . Trading in his old guitar for $ 8 ( and seeing it promptly dispatched to the garbage ) , he purchased a Martin instrument for $ 175 , and his trio began playing in new locales including Houston , Texas , and Texarkana , Arkansas . By early 1955 , Presley 's regular Hayride appearances , constant touring , and well-received record releases had made him a regional star , from Tennessee to West Texas . In January , Neal signed a formal management contract with Presley and brought the singer to the attention of Colonel Tom Parker , whom he considered the best promoter in the music business . Having successfully managed top country star Eddy Arnold , Parker was now working with the new number-one country singer , Hank Snow . Parker booked Presley on Snow 's February tour . When the tour reached Odessa , Texas , a 19-year-old Roy Orbison saw Presley for the first time : `` His energy was incredible , his instinct was just amazing . ... I just did n't know what to make of it . There was just no reference point in the culture to compare it . '' Presley made his television debut on March 3 on the KSLA-TV broadcast of Louisiana Hayride . Soon after , he failed an audition for Arthur Godfrey 's Talent Scouts on the CBS television network . By August , Sun had released ten sides credited to `` Elvis Presley , Scotty and Bill '' ; on the latest recordings , the trio were joined by a drummer . Some of the songs , like `` That 's All Right '' , were in what one Memphis journalist described as the `` R & B idiom of negro field jazz '' ; others , like `` Blue Moon of Kentucky '' , were `` more in the country field '' , `` but there was a curious blending of the two different musics in both '' . This blend of styles made it difficult for Presley 's music to find radio airplay . According to Neal , many country-music disc jockeys would not play it because he sounded too much like a black artist and none of the rhythm-and-blues stations would touch him because `` he sounded too much like a hillbilly . '' The blend came to be known as rockabilly . At the time , Presley was variously billed as `` The King of Western Bop '' , `` The Hillbilly Cat '' , and `` The Memphis Flash '' . Presley renewed Neal 's management contract in August 1955 , simultaneously appointing Parker as his special adviser . The group maintained an extensive touring schedule throughout the second half of the year . Neal recalled , `` It was almost frightening , the reaction that came to Elvis from the teenaged boys . So many of them , through some sort of jealousy , would practically hate him . There were occasions in some towns in Texas when we 'd have to be sure to have a police guard because somebody 'd always try to take a crack at him . They 'd get a gang and try to waylay him or something . '' The trio became a quartet when Hayride drummer Fontana joined as a full member . In mid-October , they played a few shows in support of Bill Haley , whose `` Rock Around the Clock '' had been a number-one hit the previous year . Haley observed that Presley had a natural feel for rhythm , and advised him to sing fewer ballads . At the Country Disc Jockey Convention in early November , Presley was voted the year 's most promising male artist . Several record companies had by now shown interest in signing him . After three major labels made offers of up to $ 25,000 , Parker and Phillips struck a deal with RCA Victor on November 21 to acquire Presley 's Sun contract for an unprecedented $ 40,000 . Presley , at 20 , was still a minor , so his father signed the contract . Parker arranged with the owners of Hill and Range Publishing , Jean and Julian Aberbach , to create two entities , Elvis Presley Music and Gladys Music , to handle all the new material recorded by Presley . Songwriters were obliged to forgo one third of their customary royalties in exchange for having him perform their compositions . By December , RCA had begun to heavily promote its new singer , and before month 's end had reissued many of his Sun recordings . 1956–58 : Commercial breakout and controversy First national TV appearances and debut album On January 10 , 1956 , Presley made his first recordings for RCA in Nashville . Extending the singer 's by now customary backup of Moore , Black , and Fontana , RCA enlisted pianist Floyd Cramer , guitarist Chet Atkins , and three background singers , including first tenor Gordon Stoker of the popular Jordanaires quartet , to fill out the sound . The session produced the moody , unusual `` Heartbreak Hotel '' , released as a single on January 27 . Parker finally brought Presley to national television , booking him on CBS 's Stage Show for six appearances over two months . The program , produced in New York , was hosted on alternate weeks by big band leaders and brothers Tommy and Jimmy Dorsey . After his first appearance , on January 28 , introduced by disc jockey Bill Randle , Presley stayed in town to record at RCA 's New York studio . The sessions yielded eight songs , including a cover of Carl Perkins ' rockabilly anthem `` Blue Suede Shoes '' . In February , Presley 's `` I Forgot to Remember to Forget '' , a Sun recording initially released the previous August , reached the top of the Billboard country chart . Neal 's contract was terminated and , on March 2 , Parker became Presley 's manager . RCA Victor released Presley 's eponymous debut album on March 23 . Joined by five previously unreleased Sun recordings , its seven recently recorded tracks were of a broad variety . There were two country songs and a bouncy pop tune . The others would centrally define the evolving sound of rock and roll : `` Blue Suede Shoes '' — '' an improvement over Perkins ' in almost every way '' , according to critic Robert Hilburn—and three R & B numbers that had been part of Presley 's stage repertoire for some time , covers of Little Richard , Ray Charles , and The Drifters . As described by Hilburn , these `` were the most revealing of all . Unlike many white artists ... who watered down the gritty edges of the original R & B versions of songs in the '50s , Presley reshaped them . He not only injected the tunes with his own vocal character but also made guitar , not piano , the lead instrument in all three cases . '' It became the first rock-and-roll album to top the Billboard chart , a position it held for 10 weeks . While Presley was not an innovative guitarist like Moore or contemporary African American rockers Bo Diddley and Chuck Berry , cultural historian Gilbert B. Rodman argues that the album 's cover image , `` of Elvis having the time of his life on stage with a guitar in his hands played a crucial role in positioning the guitar ... as the instrument that best captured the style and spirit of this new music . '' Milton Berle Show and `` Hound Dog '' Presley made the first of two appearances on NBC 's Milton Berle Show on April 3 . His performance , on the deck of the USS Hancock in San Diego , prompted cheers and screams from an audience of sailors and their dates . A few days later , a flight taking Presley and his band to Nashville for a recording session left all three badly shaken when an engine died and the plane almost went down over Arkansas . Twelve weeks after its original release , `` Heartbreak Hotel '' became Presley 's first number-one pop hit . In late April , Presley began a two-week residency at the New Frontier Hotel and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip . The shows were poorly received by the conservative , middle-aged hotel guests— '' like a jug of corn liquor at a champagne party , '' wrote a critic for Newsweek . Amid his Vegas tenure , Presley , who had serious acting ambitions , signed a seven-year contract with Paramount Pictures . He began a tour of the Midwest in mid-May , taking in 15 cities in as many days . He had attended several shows by Freddie Bell and the Bellboys in Vegas and was struck by their cover of `` Hound Dog '' , a hit in 1953 for blues singer Big Mama Thornton by songwriters Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller . It became the new closing number of his act . After a show in La Crosse , Wisconsin , an urgent message on the letterhead of the local Catholic diocese 's newspaper was sent to FBI director J. Edgar Hoover . It warned that `` Presley is a definite danger to the security of the United States . ... [ His ] actions and motions were such as to rouse the sexual passions of teenaged youth . ... After the show , more than 1,000 teenagers tried to gang into Presley 's room at the auditorium . ... Indications of the harm Presley did just in La Crosse were the two high school girls ... whose abdomen and thigh had Presley 's autograph . '' The second Milton Berle Show appearance came on June 5 at NBC 's Hollywood studio , amid another hectic tour . Berle persuaded the singer to leave his guitar backstage , advising , `` Let 'em see you , son . '' During the performance , Presley abruptly halted an uptempo rendition of `` Hound Dog '' with a wave of his arm and launched into a slow , grinding version accentuated with energetic , exaggerated body movements . Presley 's gyrations created a storm of controversy . Newspaper critics were outraged : Jack Gould of The New York Times wrote , `` Mr. Presley has no discernible singing ability . ... His phrasing , if it can be called that , consists of the stereotyped variations that go with a beginner 's aria in a bathtub . ... His one specialty is an accented

bb_5904--Elvis_Presley.txt

Tom Parker, who famously managed Elvis Presley, was known by the title of, and as 'the..'?

Events January–March * January 4 – A military alliance is established between the French Third Republic and the Russian Empire . * January 7 – William Kennedy Dickson receives a patent for motion picture film . * January 9 – New England Telephone and Telegraph installs the first battery-operated telephone switchboard in Lexington , Massachusetts . * February – In Korea , peasant unrest erupts in the Donghak Peasant Revolution , a massive revolt of followers of the Donghak movement . Both China and Japan send military forces , claiming to come to the ruling Joseon dynasty government 's aid . * February 12 * * French anarchist Émile Henry sets off a bomb in a Paris café , killing one person and wounding twenty . * * The barque Elisabeth Rickmers of Bremerhaven is wrecked at Haurvig , Denmark , but all crew and passengers are saved . * February 15 – At 04:51 GMT , French anarchist Martial Bourdin attempts to destroy the Royal Observatory , Greenwich , London , England , with a bomb , killing himself instead . * February 17 – American outlaw John Wesley Hardin is released from prison . * March 1 – The Local Government Act ( coming into effect December 1894–January 1895 ) reforms local government in Britain , creating a system of urban and rural districts with elected councils , with elected parish councils in rural areas , and gives women , irrespective of marital status , the right to vote and stand in local ( but not national ) elections . * March 12 – For the first time , Coca-Cola is sold in bottles . * March 21 – A syzygy of planets occurs as Mercury transits the Sun as seen from Venus , and Mercury and Venus both transit the Sun as seen from Saturn , but no two of the transits are simultaneous . * March 25 – Coxey 's Army ( of the unemployed ) , the first significant protest march in the United States , departs from Massillon , Ohio , for Washington , D.C . April–June * April 11 – Britain establishes a Protectorate over Uganda . * April 16 – Manchester City Football Club is formed in England . * April 21 A bituminous coal miners ' strike closes mines across the central United States . * April 23 – St. George 's Day – Howard Ruff founded the Royal Society of St George to foster the love of England and to strengthen England and the Commonwealth by spreading the knowledge of English History , Traditions and Ideals . * April 27 – Canada 's largest known landslide occurred in Saint-Alban , Quebec . Displeasing of rock and dirt , leaving a scar , that covered covered . * May – Bubonic plague breaks out in the Tai Ping Shan area of Hong Kong ( by the end of the year , the death toll is 2,552 people ) . * May 1 * * Coxey 's Army arrives in Washington ; Coxey is arrested . * * The May Day Riots ( against unemployment ) break out in Cleveland , Ohio . * May 11 – Pullman Strike : Three thousand Pullman Palace Car Company factory workers go on a `` wildcat '' ( without union approval ) strike in Illinois . * May 14 * * A meteor shower is seen in southern France . * * Blackpool Tower is opened in Blackpool , England . * May 21 – The Manchester Ship Canal and Docks are opened by Queen Victoria , linking the previously landlocked English industrial city of Manchester to the Irish Sea . * June 22 – Dahomey becomes a French colony . * June 23 – The International Olympic Committee is founded at the Sorbonne , Paris , at the initiative of Baron Pierre de Coubertin . * June 24 – Sadi Carnot , president of France , is assassinated . * June 30 – The Tower Bridge in London opens for traffic . July–September * July – A fire at the site of the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago destroys most of the remaining buildings . * July 4 * * The Republic of Hawaii is proclaimed by Sanford B. Dole . * * The football club FC La Chaux-de-Fonds is founded in Switzerland . * July 22 – Paris–Rouen Competition for Horseless Carriages , the first automobile competition . * August 1 – War is declared between the Qing Empire of China and the Empire of Japan , over their rival claims of influence on their common ally , the Joseon dynasty of Korea . The event marks the start of the First Sino-Japanese War . * August 15 – Sante Geronimo Caserio is executed for the assassination of Marie François Sadi Carnot . * September 1 – Great Hinckley Fire : A forest fire in Hinckley , Minnesota , kills more than 450 people . * September 4 – In New York City , 12,000 tailors strike against sweatshop working conditions . October–December * October 1 – The Owl Club of Cape Town , South Africa , a dining club , has its first formal meeting . * October 15 – Dreyfus affair : French Army officer Alfred Dreyfus is arrested for spying . * October 30 – Domenico Menegatti obtains a patent for a procedure to be applied in producing pandoro industrially . * November 1 – Russian emperor Alexander III is succeeded by his son Nicholas II . * November 6 – Major Republican landslide in the United States House of Representatives elections , which sets the stage for the decisive presidential election of 1896 . * November 7 – The Masonic Grand Lodge de France is founded , splitting from the larger and older Grand Orient de France . * December 18 – Women in South Australia are legislated to become the first in Australia to gain the right to vote and to be elected to Parliament , taking effect from 1895 . * December 21 – Mackenzie Bowell becomes Canada 's fifth prime minister . * December 22 – Dreyfus affair : French Army officer Alfred Dreyfus is convicted of treason . Date unknown * Petrópolis becomes the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro until 1902 . * Western countries give up their extraterritorial rights in Japan . * New Zealand enacts the world 's first minimum wage law . * Grace Kimmins founds the Guild of the Poor Brave Things in England for the education of crippled boys . * The National College of Music , London , is founded by the Moss family . * In the U.S. , the Society of Beaux-Arts Architects is founded . * Chatham Episcopal Institute ( now known as Chatham Hall ) is founded in Chatham , Virginia , U.S . * Sir William Ramsay and Lord Rayleigh discover the first noble gas , argon . * Oil is discovered on the Osage Indian reservation , making the Osage the `` richest group of people in the world '' . * Kate Chopin writes The Story of An Hour ( fiction ) . * Pomfret School is founded . * Edward B . Marks and Joe Stern publish The Little Lost Child , promoting its release with the earliest version of music video known as the illustrated song . * Frederick W. Tamblyn founded the Tamblyn School of Penmanship which later became Ziller of Kansas City , the oldest Calligraphy studio still operating in United States . Births January–February * January 1 – Satyendra Nath Bose , Indian physicist ( d. 1974 ) * January 3 – Benito Canónico , Venezuelan composer ( d. 1971 ) * January 8 – Vilmos Tkálecz , Hungarian politician ( d. 1950 ) * January 20 – Walter Piston , American composer ( d. 1976 ) * January 21 – Geoffrey Street , Australian politician ( d. 1940 ) * January 30 * * King Boris III of Bulgaria ( d. 1943 ) * * René Dorme , French World War I fighter ace ( d. 1917 ) * January 31 * * Isham Jones , American bandleader ( d. 1956 ) * * Percy Helton , American film and television actor ( d. 1971 ) * February 1 * * John Ford , American film director ( d. 1973 ) * * Dick Merrill , American aviation pioneer ( d. 1982 ) * February 3 – Norman Rockwell , American artist and illustrator ( d. 1978 ) * February 8 * * Billy Bishop , Canadian World War I fighter ace ( d. 1956 ) * * Ludwig Marcuse , German philosopher ( d. 1971 ) * February 10 – Harold Macmillan , British Prime Minister ( d. 1986 ) * February 11 – Alfonso Leng , Chilean composer ( d. 1974 ) * February 14 – Jack Benny , American actor and comedian ( d. 1974 ) * February 22 – Enid Markey , American actress ( d. 1981 ) * February 25 – Meher Baba , Indian Avatar of the Age ( d. 1969 ) * February 26 * * Wilhelm Bittrich , German Waffen SS general ( d. 1979 ) * * Ernest N. Harmon , American general ( d. 1979 ) * February 28 – Ben Hecht , American playwright , film writer ( d. 1964 ) March–April * March 14 – Osa Johnson , American adventurer and documentary filmmaker ( d. 1953 ) * March 16 – Stuart Buchanan , American actor ( d. 1974 ) * March 17 – Paul Green , novelist and Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright ( d. 1981 ) * March 19 – Moms Mabley , African American comedian ( d. 1975 ) * March 20 – Hans Langsdorff , German naval officer ( d. 1939 ) * March 27 – René Fonck , French World War I flying ace ( d. 1953 ) * March 30 – Nikolai P. Barabashov , Russian astronomer ( d. 1971 ) * April 6 – Gertrude Baines , American supercentenarian , ( d. 2009 ) * April 9 – Keiji Shibazaki , Japanese admiral ( d. 1943 ) * April 10 * * Shri Ghanshyam Das Birla , Indian industrialist , Gandhian and educationalist ( d. 1983 ) * * Ben Nicholson English abstract artist ( d. 1982 ) * April 13 – Arthur Fadden , Australian Prime Minister ( d. 1973 ) * April 15 – Bessie Smith , American blues singer ( d. 1937 ) * April 17 – Nikita Khrushchev , Soviet politician ( d. 1971 ) * April 26 – Rudolf Hess , German Nazi official ( d. 1987 ) * April 27 – Nicolas Slonimsky , Russian/American musicologist ( d. 1995 ) May–June * May 2 – Joseph Henry Woodger , British theoretical biologist ( d. 1981 ) * May 11 – Martha Graham , American dancer and choreographer ( d. 1991 ) * May 15 – Eddie Stumpf , American baseball player , manager and executive ( d. 1978 ) * May 16 – Walter Yust , American encyclopædia editor ( d. 1960 ) * May 19 – Heinz Ziegler , German general ( d. 1972 ) * May 20 – Chandrashekarendra Saraswati , Indian religious scholar and saint ( d. 1994 ) * May 27 * * Louis-Ferdinand Céline , French writer ( d. 1961 ) * * Dashiell Hammett , American detective fiction writer ( d. 1961 ) * May 29 – Josef von Sternberg , Austrian-American film director ( d. 1969 ) * May 30 – Hubertus van Mook , Acting Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies from 1942 to 1948 ( d. 1965 ) * May 31 – Fred Allen , American comedian ( d. 1956 ) * June 4 – Gabriel Pascal , Hungarian film producer ( d. 1954 ) * June 7 – Roy Thomson , Canadian publisher ( d. 1976 ) * June 9 – Nedo Nadi , Italian fencer ( d. 1940 ) * June 14 – Marie-Adélaïde , Grand Duchess of Luxembourg ( d. 1924 ) * June 23 * * King Edward VIII and afterwards The Duke of Windsor , member of the English royal family ( d. 1972 ) * * Harold Barrowclough , New Zealand general , lawyer and chief justice ( d. 1972 ) * * Alfred Kinsey , American sexologist ( d. 1956 ) * June 28 – Arthur D. Struble , American admiral ( d. 1983 ) July–August * July 9 – Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa , Russian physicist , Nobel Prize laureate ( d. 1984 ) * July 18 – Isaac Babel , Ukrainian writer ( d. 1940 ) * July 19 – Khawaja Nazimuddin , Pakistani Prime Minister ( d. 1965 ) * July 26 – Aldous Huxley , English novelist ( d. 1963 ) * August 1 – Kurt Wintgens , German fighter pilot and air ace in World War I ( d. 1916 ) * August 3 – Harry Heilmann , American baseball player ( d. 1951 ) * August 10 – V. V. Giri , Indian politician and 4th President of India ( d. 1980 ) * August 16 – George Meany , American labor leader ( d. 1980 ) * August 26 – Maksim Purkayev , Soviet general ( d. 1953 ) * August 28 * * Karl Böhm , Austrian conductor ( d. 1981 ) * * Elisha Scott , Irish footballer ( d. 1959 ) September–October * September 2 – Joseph Roth , Austrian writer ( d. 1939 ) * September 6 – Howard Pease , American adventure novelist ( d. 1974 ) * September 7 – George Waggner , American film director , producer and actor ( d. 1984 ) * September 12 – Billy Gilbert , American comedian and actor ( d. 1971 ) * September 13 * * J . B. Priestley , English novelist and playwright ( d. 1984 ) * * Julian Tuwim , Polish poet ( d. 1953 ) * September 15 – Jean Renoir , French film director ( d. 1979 ) * September 21 – Anton Piëch , Austrian lawyer , son-in-law of Ferdinand Porsche ( d. 1952 ) * September 24 * * Tommy Armour , Scottish golfer ( d. 1968 ) * * Harry B. Liversedge , American general ( d. 1951 ) * September 27 – Lothar von Richthofen , German World War I fighter ace ( d. 1922 ) * October 2 – Thomas L. Sprague , American admiral ( d. 1972 ) * October 5 – Bevil Rudd , South African athlete ( d. 1948 ) * October 7 – Del Lord , American film director ( d. 1970 ) * October 14 – E. E. Cummings , American poet ( d. 1962 ) * October 14 – Heinrich Lübke , German president ( d. 1972 ) * October 15 – Moshe Sharett , Israeli Prime Minister ( d. 1965 ) * October 18 – H. L. Davis , American fiction writer ( d. 1960 ) * October 25 * * Claude Cahun , French photographer and writer ( d. 1954 ) * * Âşık Veysel Şatıroğlu , Turkish poet , songwriter and saz player ( d. 1973 ) * October 27 – Fritz Sauckel , German Nazi politician and war criminal ( d. 1946 ) November–December * November 2 – Alexander Lippisch , German aerodynamics engineer ( d. 1976 ) * November 4 – Chafik Charobim , Egyptian impressionist painter ( d. 1975 ) * November 5 * * Harold Innis , Canadian communications scholar ( d. 1952 ) * * Beardsley Ruml , American economist and tax plan author ( d. 1960 ) * November 8 – Claude Beck , American cardiac surgeon ( 1971 ) * November 9 – Mae Marsh , American film actress ( d. 1968 ) * November 13 – Nita Naldi , American film actress ( d. 1961 ) * November 14 – Rino Corso Fougier , Italian air force general ( d. 1963 ) * November 19 – Américo Tomás , 13th President of Portugal ( d. 1987 ) * November 21 – Cecil M. Harden , American politician ( d. 1984 ) * November 24 – Herbert Sutcliffe , English cricketer ( d. 1978 ) * November 26 – Norbert Wiener , American mathematician ( d. 1964 ) * November 27 – Konosuke Matsushita , Japanese industrialist ( d. 1989 ) * November 29 – Lucille Hegamin , American singer and entertainer ( d. 1970 ) * December 3 – Deiva Zivarattinam , Indian politician ( d. 1975 ) * December 5 – Philip K. Wrigley , American business and sports executive ( d. 1977 ) * December 7 – Freddie Adkins , British cartoonist ( d. circa 1986 ) * December 8 * * E. C. Segar , American cartoonist , creator of Popeye ( d. 1938 ) * * James Thurber , American cartoonist and writer ( d. 1961 ) * December 10 * * William Sydney Marchant , British colonial official ( d. 1953 ) * * Edward Milford , Australian general ( d. 1972 ) * December 15 – Felix Stump , American admiral ( d. 1972 ) * December 17 – Arthur Fiedler , American conductor ( d. 1979 ) * December 20 – Robert Menzies , Australian Prime Minister ( d. 1978 ) * December 22 – Edwin Linkomies , Finnish Prime Minister ( d. 1963 ) * December 23 – Arthur Gilligan , English cricket captain ( d. 1976 ) * December 24 – Georges Guynemer , French World War I fighter ace ( d. 1917 ) * December 26 – Jean Toomer , American poet ( d. 1967 ) * December 31 – Pola Negri , Polish actress ( d. 1987 ) Undated * K. M. Panikkar , Indian scholar , diplomat and journalist ( d. 1963 ) Deaths January–June * January 1 – Heinrich Hertz , German physicist ( b . 1857 ) * January 13 – Nadezhda von Meck , patron of Tchaikovsky ( b . 1831 ) * February 3 – Auguste Vaillant , French anarchist ( b . 1861 ) ( executed ) * February 4 – Adolphe Sax , Belgian instrument maker , inventor of the saxophone ( b . 1814 ) * February 8 – Robert Michael Ballantyne , Scottish novelist ( b . 1825 ) * February 11 – Margaret Henley , inspiration for the name `` Wendy '' in Peter Pan ( b . 1888 ) * February 15 – May Brookyn , American actress ( b . ? 1854 ) * February 21 – Gustave Caillebotte , French painter ( b . 1848 ) * February 27 * * Hilarión Daza , President of Bolivia ( assassinated ) ( b . 1840 ) * * Carl Schmidt , Baltic German chemist ( b . 1822 ) * March 2 * * Jubal Early , Confederate general ( b . 1816 ) * * William H. Osborn , American railroad executive ( b . 1820 ) * March 3 – Ned Williamson , American baseball player ( b . 1857 ) * March 20 – Lajos Kossuth , Hungarian politician ( b . 1802 ) * April 8 – Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay , Bengali poet ( b . 1838 ) * June 3 – Karl Eduard Zachariae von Lingenthal , German jurist and expert on Byzantine law ( b . 1812 ) * June 7 – King Hassan I of Morocco ( b . 1836 ) * June 23 * * Marietta Alboni , Italian opera singer ( b . 1826 ) * * Władysław Czartoryski , Polish political activist and art collector ( b . 1828 ) * June 25 * * Marie François Sadi Carnot , French statesman ( assassinated ) ( b . 1837 ) * * Charles Romley Alder Wright , British chemist synthesized Heroin ( b . 1844 ) July–December * July 30 – Walter Pater , English essayist and critic ( b . 1839 ) * September 1 – Nathaniel P. Banks , American politician and general ( b . 1816 ) * September 8 – Hermann von Helmholtz , German physician and physicist ( b . 1821 ) * September 13 – Emmanuel Chabrier , French composer ( b . 1841 ) * October 7 – Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. , American author ( b . 1809 ) * October 20 – James Anthony Froude , English historian ( b . 1818 ) * October 30 – Juan Cortina , Mexican folk hero ( b . 1824 ) * November 1 – Emperor Alexander III of Russia ( b . 1845 ) * November 20 – Anton Rubinstein , Russian pianist and composer ( b . 1829 ) * November 25 – Solomon Caesar Malan , Swiss-born orientalist ( b . 1812 ) * December 3 – Robert Louis Stevenson , Scottish author ( b . 1850 ) * December 8 – Pafnuty Chebyshev , Russian mathematician ( b . 1821 ) * December 12 – John Sparrow David Thompson , 4th Prime Minister of Canada ( b . 1845 ) * December 28 – Chamarajendra Wadiyar X , Maharajah of Mysore ( b . 1863 ) Date unknown * Paul Lecreux , French sculptor ( b. ca . 1826 )

sfq_15515--1894.txt

Who was British Prime Minister at the time of the first Aldermaston ban the bomb march?

* See also : Kursk ( disambiguation ) K-141 Kursk ( full Russian name Атомная Подводная Лодка « Курск » ( АПЛ « Курск » ) , Atomnaya Podvodnaya Lodka `` Kursk '' ( APL `` Kursk '' ) , meaning `` Nuclear-powered submarine Kursk '' ) was an Oscar-II class nuclear-powered cruise-missile submarine of the Russian Navy which was lost with all hands when it sank in the Barents Sea on 12 August 2000 . It was a Project 949A Антей ( Antey , Antaeus ; NATO reporting name `` Oscar II '' ) submarine . It was named after the Russian city of Kursk , around which the largest tank battle in history , the Battle of Kursk , took place in 1943 . One of the first vessels completed after the end of the Soviet Union , it was commissioned into the Russian Navy 's Northern Fleet . Construction Work on building Kursk began in 1990 at Severodvinsk , near Arkhangelsk . Launched in 1994 , it was commissioned in December of that year . It was the penultimate Oscar II class submarine designed and approved in the Soviet era . Capabilities The Antey design represented the highest achievement of Soviet nuclear submarine technology . They were the largest attack submarines ever built . It was built to defeat an entire United States aircraft carrier group . A single Type 65 torpedo carried a 450 kg warhead powerful enough to sink an aircraft carrier . Both missiles and torpedoes could be equipped with nuclear warheads . She was 30 ft longer than any other Oscar I-class submarine . The senior officers had individual staterooms and the entire crew had access to a gymnasium . The outer hull , made of high-nickel , high-chrome content stainless steel thick , had exceptionally good resistance to corrosion and a weak magnetic signature which helped prevent detection by U.S. magnetic anomaly detector ( MAD ) systems . There was a 200 cm gap to the -thick steel pressure hull . She was designed to remain submerged for up to 120 days . The sail superstructure was reinforced to allow it to break through the Arctic ice . The submarine was armed with 24 SS-N-19/P-700 Granit cruise missiles , and eight torpedo tubes in the bow : four 533 mm and four 650 mm . The Granit missiles with a range of 550 km , were capable of supersonic flight at altitudes over 20 km . They were designed to swarm enemy vessels and intelligently choose individual targets which terminated with a dive onto the target . The torpedo tubes could be used to launch either torpedoes or anti-ship missiles with a range of 50 km . Her weapons included 18 SS-N-16 `` Stallion '' anti-ship missiles designed to defeat the best Western naval air defenses . Kursk was part of Russia 's Northern Fleet , which had suffered funding cutbacks throughout the 1990s . Many of its submarines were anchored and rusting in Zapadnaya Litsa Naval Base , 100 km from Murmansk . Little work to maintain all but the most essential front-line equipment , including search and rescue equipment , had occurred . Northern Fleet sailors had gone unpaid in the mid-1990s . Deployments During her five years of service , Kursk completed only one mission , a six-month deployment to the Mediterranean during the summer of 1999 to monitor the United States Sixth Fleet responding to the Kosovo crisis . This was due to a lack of funds for fuel . As a result , many of her crew had spent little time at sea and were inexperienced . Naval exercise and disaster Kursk joined the `` Summer-X '' exercise , the first large-scale naval exercise planned by the Russian Navy in more than a decade , on 10 August 2000 . It included 30 ships including the fleet 's flagship Pyotr Velikiy ( `` Peter the Great '' ) , four attack submarines , and a flotilla of smaller ships . The crew had recently won a citation for its excellent performance and been recognized as the best submarine crew in the Northern Fleet . While it was an exercise , Kursk loaded a full complement of combat weapons . It was one of the few ships authorized to carry a combat load at all times . Explosion On the first day of the exercise , Kursk successfully launched a Granit missile armed with a dummy warhead . Two days later , on the morning of 12 August , she prepared to fire dummy torpedoes at the Kirov-class battlecruiser Pyotr Velikiy . These practice torpedoes had no explosive warheads and were manufactured and tested at a much lower quality standard . On 12 August 2000 , at 11:28 local time ( 07:28 UTC ) , there was an explosion while preparing to fire . The Russian Navy 's final report on the disaster concluded the explosion was due to the failure of one of Kursks hydrogen peroxide-fueled Type 65 torpedoes . A subsequent investigation concluded that HTP , a form of highly concentrated hydrogen peroxide used as propellant for the torpedo , seeped through a faulty weld in the torpedo casing . When HTP comes in contact with a catalyst , it rapidly expands by a factor of 5000 , generating vast quantities of steam and oxygen . The pressure produced by the expanding HTP ruptured the kerosene fuel tank in the torpedo and set off an explosion equal to 100 – of TNT . The submarine sank in relatively shallow water , bottoming at 108 m about 135 km off Severomorsk , at . A second explosion 135 seconds after the initial event was equivalent to 3-7 tons of TNT . The explosions blew a large hole in the hull and collapsed the first three compartments of the sub , killing or incapacitating all but 23 of the 118 personnel on board . Rescue attempts Though the British and Norwegian navies offered assistance , Russia refused all help . All 118 sailors and officers aboard Kursk died . The Russian Admiralty initially told the public that the majority of the crew died within minutes of the explosion , but on 21 August Norwegian and Russian divers found 24 bodies in the ninth compartment , the turbine room at the stern of the boat . Captain-lieutenant Dmitri Kolesnikov wrote a note listing the names of 23 sailors who were alive in the compartment after the ship sank . Kursk carried a potassium superoxide cartridge of a chemical oxygen generator , used to absorb carbon dioxide and chemically release oxygen during an emergency . However , the cartridge became contaminated with sea water and the resulting chemical reaction caused a flash fire which consumed the available oxygen . The investigation showed that some men temporarily survived the fire by plunging under water , as fire marks on the bulkheads indicated the water was at waist level at the time . Ultimately , the remaining crew burned to death or suffocated . Russian President Vladimir Putin , though immediately informed of the tragedy , was told by the navy that they had the situation under control and rescue was imminent . He waited five days before he ended his holiday at a presidential resort in Sochi on the Black Sea . Only four months into his tenure as President , the public and media were extremely critical of Putin 's decision to remain at a seaside resort , and his highly favourable ratings dropped dramatically . The President 's response appeared callous and the government 's actions looked incompetent . A year later he said , `` I probably should have returned to Moscow , but nothing would have changed . I had the same level of communication both in Sochi and in Moscow , but from a PR point of view I could have demonstrated some special eagerness to return . '' Submarine recovery A consortium formed by the Dutch companies Mammoet and Smit International was awarded a contract by Russia to raise the vessel , excluding the bow . They modified the barge Giant 4 which raised Kursk and recovered the remains of the sailors . During salvage in 2001 , the team first cut the bow off the hull using a tungsten carbide-studded cable . As this tool had the potential to cause sparks which could ignite remaining pockets of volatile gases , such as hydrogen , the operation was carefully executed . Most of the bow was abandoned and the balance of the vessel was towed to Severomorsk and placed in a floating dry dock for forensic analysis . The remains of Kursks reactor compartment was towed to Sayda Bay on Russia 's northern Kola Peninsula – where more than 50 reactor compartments were afloat at pier points – after a shipyard had defuelled the boat in early 2003 . The rest of the boat was then dismantled for scrap . Some torpedo and torpedo tube fragments from the bow were recovered and the balance was destroyed by explosives in 2002 . Official inquiry results Finally pushing aside the navy 's long-standing blame on a collision with a foreign vessel , a report issued by the government attributed the disaster to a torpedo explosion caused when high-test peroxide ( HTP ) , a form of highly concentrated hydrogen peroxide , leaked from a faulty weld in the torpedo 's casing . The report found that the initial explosion destroyed the torpedo room compartment and killed everyone in the first compartment . The blast entered the second and perhaps the third and fourth compartments through an air conditioning vent . All of the 36 men in the command post located in the second compartment were immediately incapacitated by the blast wave and possibly killed . The first explosion caused a fire that raised the temperature of the compartment to more than 2700 C. The heat triggered the warheads of between five and seven additional torpedoes to detonate , creating an explosion equivalent to 2-3 tons of TNT that was measured 4.2 on the Richter scale on seismographs across Europe and was detected as far away as Alaska . Other explanation Vice-Admiral Valery Ryazantsev differed with the government 's official conclusion . He cited inadequate training , poor maintenance , and incomplete inspections that caused the crew to mishandle the weapon . During the examination of the wrecked sub , investigators recovered a partially burned copy of the safety instructions for loading HTP torpedoes , but the instructions were for a significantly different type of torpedo and failed to include essential steps for testing an air valve . The 7th Division , 1st Submarine Flotilla never inspected Kursks crew 's qualifications and readiness to fire HTP torpedoes . Kursks crew had no prior experience with and had n't been trained in handling or firing HTP powered torpedoes . Due to their inexperience and lack of training , compounded by incomplete inspections and oversight , and because the Kursks crew followed faulty instructions when loading the practice torpedo , Ryazantsev believes they set off a chain of events that led to the explosion .

wh_3880--Russian_submarine_Kursk_(K-141).txt

What was the name of the Russian Submarine that sank in the Barents Sea in the year 2000 ?

BBC Four is a British television channel operated by the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) and available to digital television viewers on Freeview , IPTV , satellite , and cable . BBC Four launched on 2 March 2002 , with a schedule running from 19:00 to 04:00 . The channel shows `` a wide variety of programmes including comedy , documentaries , music , international film , original programmes , drama and current affairs ... an alternative to programmes on the mainstream TV channels '' . It is required by its licence to broadcast at least 100 hours of new arts and music programmes , 110 hours of new factual programmes and to premiere twenty international films each year . History BBC Four launched on 2 March 2002 at 19.00 GMT , having been delayed from the original planned 2001 launch . BBC 4 began originally as a late schedule to BBC 2 , before it received its own channel , along with BBC 3 . Weirdly , BBC 4 had to launch before BBC Three as a result of the government delaying approval plans . The channel replaced BBC Knowledge , an educational and cultural channel which had undergone many changes throughout its lifetime ; in its final format it carried a schedule of documentaries and art programming , essentially a test of the new BBC Four schedule . BBC Four would rebrand this channel , and bring it into line with the well recognised BBC One and Two brands at the same time . Planning for the new channel , along with the new BBC Three , had been in progress since October 2000 ; however , the incumbent government delayed approving the new BBC digital plans . The BBC Four plans were approved earlier , and as a result launched before BBC Three . BBC Four was different from the old BBC Knowledge : the channel would be more heavily promoted with more new and original programming and the channel would not be broadcast 24 hours a day . This was because on the Freeview digital terrestrial platform , BBC Four is broadcast in a statistically multiplexed stream in Multiplex B that timeshares with the CBeebies channel ( which is on air from 6.00 until 19.00 ) . As a result , BBC Four broadcasts from 19.00 to around 4.00 each night , with an hour 's down-time and promotions for CBeebies before the start of that channel 's schedule . On 12 May 2011 , BBC Four was added to the Sky EPG in Ireland on channel 230 . Organisation BBC Four forms part of the BBC Vision group , and as a result , the channel controller is answerable to the head of this executive department : Emma Swain , as of 2012 . The channel direction is determined by the channel 's remit , set by royal charter and the corporation 's governing body ( the BBC Trust ) , and by the channel controller . In October 2013 , following the departure of Richard Klein from the controllership , the management of the channel changed , with the role of Controller of BBC Four scrapped : from this point the Controller of BBC Two would have ultimate oversight of BBC Four as part of their role , absorbing some of the former duties of the Controller of BBC Four , but a new 'Channel Editor ' post , reporting up to this controller , would be created to take day-to-day charge of Four . The controllers of BBC Four from 2002-2016 had been : * 2002–2004 : Roly Keating * 2004–2008 : Janice Hadlow * 2008–2013 : Richard Klein * 2013–2014 : Janice Hadlow ( as Controller of BBC Two and BBC Four ) `` on an interim basis '' - Hadlow had been Controller of BBC Two since departing BBC Four in 2008 * Early 2014 : Adam Barker ( interim Controller of BBC Two and BBC Four following Janice Hadlow 's departure to a new post ) * 2014–2016 : Kim Shillinglaw ( as Controller of BBC Two and BBC Four ) Channel Editors of BBC Four have been : * 2013–present : Cassian Harrison BBC Four has an annual budget of £54.3 million . On 20 January 2016 , Kim Shillinglaw announced that she has decided to leave the BBC as the Controller of BBC Two & BBC Four . As a result of the reorganisation , the post of Controller BBC Two and Four will close after her departure later in 2016 . BBC Four HD On 16 July 2013 , the BBC announced that a high-definition ( HD ) simulcast of BBC Four would be launched by early 2014 . The channel launched on 10 December 2013 , though will roll out nationwide up to June 2014 ( as will BBC News HD and CBeebies HD ) . The channel broadcasts on the BBC 's new HD multiplex on Freeview and shares its stream with CBeebies HD as they both air at different times . Prior to launch , the majority of BBC Four 's HD output was broadcast on the BBC HD channel before its closure on 26 March 2013 . Programming The first evening 's BBC Four programmes were simulcast on BBC Two . BBC Four is notable for first showing Larry David 's Seinfeld follow-up , Curb Your Enthusiasm , Armando Iannucci 's cutting political satire , The Thick of It , The Chaser 's War on Everything , Flight of the Conchords , Mad Men and Danish thriller The Killing . The channel broadcasts a mixture of art and science documentaries , vintage drama ( including many rare black-and-white programmes ) , and non-English language productions such as films from the Artificial Eye catalogue , the French thriller Spiral and the Swedish detective series Wallander . BBC Four further supports foreign language films with its annual World Cinema Award which has been running since 2004 . On weekdays at 19.00 and weekends at 21:00 , the channel shows a 30-minute global news programme called World News Today , simulcast with and produced by BBC World News . It screens a number of documentaries such as The Century of the Self and The Trials of Henry Kissinger . The channel is also home to many political travel shows such as Holidays in the Axis of Evil which features investigative journalism . Drama has given the channel some of its most popular programmes , with The Alan Clark Diaries ( 2003 ) and Kenneth Williams : Fantabulosa ! ( 2006 ) being among the highest rated , with over 800,000 viewers . The highly acclaimed Hattie , broadcast in 2011 , holds the record for BBC4 's best ever consolidated ratings of 2m / 8 % . Before that The Curse of Steptoe brought the channel its highest audience figures , estimated as 1.41 million viewers , a 7 % share of multichannel audiences between 21.00 and 22.05 , based on overnight returns . The official audience figures for the broadcast , including time-shifting , were later published as 1,625,000 . Another notable production was a live re-make of the 1953 science-fiction serial The Quatermass Experiment , adapted from the original scripts into a single , two-hour version ( though on the night it in fact underran considerably , lasting less than 1 hour 40 minutes ) , broadcast on the evening of Saturday 2 April 2005 . Discounting BBC Four 's previous live relays of theatrical Shakespeare productions , this was the first live made-for-television drama to be broadcast by the BBC for twenty years . Another notable programme broadcast on BBC Four is Charlie Brooker 's Screenwipe which contains reviews of current shows , as well as stories and commentary on how television is produced . The show is presented by broadcaster Charlie Brooker . The channel is also curator and leader of the BBC Archive project whose aim is that the BBC 's television archive is re-broadcast as much as appropriate so that the Archive can be enjoyed again and not isolated . Some output from BBC Four ( documentaries rather than foreign films ) was for a time repeated on BBC Two in a 'BBC Four on Two ' branded area , although this was often in a late night broadcast slot after Newsnight and has since been discontinued . According to BARB the comedy panel game QI has the highest ratings of any show on BBC Four . At the Edinburgh International Television Festival , BBC Four won the Non-Terrestrial Channel of the Year award in 2004 , 2006 and 2012 . In 2012 Dirk Gently became the first continuing drama series produced for the channel . BBC Four is occasionally used to show live sports coverage . The channel aired additional games from the UEFA Euro 2016 football tournament , and will temporarily extend its broadcast hours to show live action from the 2016 Summer Olympics . Programmes Original programming Imports * Arne Dahl * The Bridge * Borgen * Hostages * Inspector De Luca * Inspector Montalbano * The Killing * Minuscule * The Money * Salamander * Spiral * Trapped * Wallander Domestic repeats Films * Amadeus * The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas * The Brides of Dracula * Carry on Loving * Cloud 9 * The Curse of Frankenstein * Dracula * King Kong * The Lady Vanishes * The Man Who Knew Too Much * Monty Python 's Life of Brian * South Pacific * The Swarm * The Thirty-Nine Steps * To Kill a Mockingbird * When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth Music concerts * BBC Radio 1 's Big Weekend ( from 2016 ) * Coldplay Live * David Gilmour Live in Gdansk ( part of David Gilmour Night ) * Eurovision Song Contest semi-finals ( from 2016 ) * Madness Live ( part of Goodbye Television Centre ) * Queen 1975 Live Children Classics ( shown in 2007 and 2015 ) * The Avengers * Blue Peter * The Clangers * Grange Hill * The Magic Roundabout * Newsround * Play School Sport * UEFA Euro 2016 ( one match ) * Olympic Games ( from 2016 ) Presentation The channel 's initial series of idents were generated dynamically reflecting the frequencies of the continuity announcers ' voice or of backing music and were designed by Lambie-Nairn . As a result , no two idents were ever the same . The first continuity announcer was Zeb Soanes . When the channel first started airing , it used the slogan `` Everyone Needs A Place To Think '' , but the BBC stopped using this several months after the launch . However the BBC Four logo and above slogan can be found , engraved on benches along the South Bank in London , between the London Eye and Waterloo Bridge . On 10 September 2005 , the channel began showing new idents comprising a central BBC Four logo surrounded by four quadrants which show different stages of the same footage thus making for a sort of optical illusion ; for example , a swimming pool where a person on an inflatable ring appears in the bottom-left corner , though ripples do n't enter the remaining quarters . Although the image appears as one at the start of the ident , by the end it is clearly four separate images .

dpql_827--BBC_Four.txt

Sofia Helin returned on BBC4 in the third series of which Scandinavian drama?