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Batman is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics . The character was created by artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger , and first appeared in Detective Comics # 27 ( May 1939 ) . Originally named the `` Bat-Man '' , the character is also referred to by such epithets as the Caped Crusader , the Dark Knight , and the World 's Greatest Detective . Batman 's secret identity is Bruce Wayne , an American billionaire , playboy , philanthropist , and owner of Wayne Enterprises . After witnessing the murder of his parents Thomas Wayne and Martha Wayne as a child , he swore revenge on criminals , an oath tempered by a sense of justice . Wayne trains himself physically and intellectually and crafts a bat-inspired persona to fight crime . Batman operates in the fictional Gotham City , with assistance from various supporting characters , including his butler Alfred , police commissioner Jim Gordon , and vigilante allies such as Robin . Unlike most superheroes , Batman does not possess any superpowers ; rather , he relies on his genius intellect , physical prowess , martial arts abilities , detective skills , science and technology , vast wealth , intimidation , and indomitable will . A large assortment of villains make up Batman 's rogues gallery , including his archenemy , the Joker . Batman became popular soon after his introduction in 1939 and gained his own comic book title , Batman , the following year . As the decades went on , differing interpretations of the character emerged . The late 1960s Batman television series used a camp aesthetic , which continued to be associated with the character for years after the show ended . Various creators worked to return the character to his dark roots , culminating in 1986 with The Dark Knight Returns by Frank Miller . The success of Warner Bros. ' live-action Batman feature films have helped maintain public interest in the character . An American cultural icon , Batman has been licensed and adapted into a variety of media , from radio to television and film , and appears on a variety of merchandise sold all over the world , such as toys and video games . The character has also intrigued psychiatrists , with many trying to understand the character 's psyche . In May 2011 , Batman placed second on IGN 's Top 100 Comic Book Heroes of All Time , after Superman . Empire magazine listed him second in their 50 Greatest Comic Book Characters of All Time . Kevin Conroy , Bruce Greenwood , Peter Weller , and Jason O'Mara , among others , have provided the character 's voice for animated adaptations . Batman has been portrayed in both film and television by Lewis Wilson , Robert Lowery , Adam West , Michael Keaton , Val Kilmer , George Clooney , Christian Bale , and Ben Affleck . Publication history Creation In early 1939 , the success of Superman in Action Comics prompted editors at National Comics Publications ( the future DC Comics ) to request more superheroes for its titles . In response , Bob Kane created `` the Bat-Man '' . Collaborator Bill Finger recalled that `` Kane had an idea for a character called 'Batman , ' and he 'd like me to see the drawings . I went over to Kane 's , and he had drawn a character who looked very much like Superman with kind of ... reddish tights , I believe , with boots ... no gloves , no gauntlets ... with a small domino mask , swinging on a rope . He had two stiff wings that were sticking out , looking like bat wings . And under it was a big sign ... BATMAN '' . The bat-wing-like cape was suggested by Bob Kane , inspired by Leonardo Da Vinci 's sketch of an ornithopter flying device as a child . Finger suggested giving the character a cowl instead of a simple domino mask , a cape instead of wings , and gloves ; he also recommended removing the red sections from the original costume . Finger said he devised the name Bruce Wayne for the character 's secret identity : `` Bruce Wayne 's first name came from Robert Bruce , the Scottish patriot . Wayne , being a playboy , was a man of gentry . I searched for a name that would suggest colonialism . I tried Adams , Hancock ... then I thought of Mad Anthony Wayne . '' He later said his suggestions were influenced by Lee Falk 's popular The Phantom , a syndicated newspaper comic-strip character with which Kane was also familiar . Kane and Finger drew upon contemporary 1930s popular culture for inspiration regarding much of the Bat-Man 's look , personality , methods , and weaponry . Details find predecessors in pulp fiction , comic strips , newspaper headlines , and autobiographical details referring to Kane himself . As an aristocratic hero with a double identity , the Bat-Man had predecessors in the Scarlet Pimpernel ( created by Baroness Emmuska Orczy , 1903 ) and Zorro ( created by Johnston McCulley , 1919 ) . Like them , he performed his heroic deeds in secret , averted suspicion by playing the fool in public , and marked his work with a signature symbol . Kane noted the influence of the films The Mark of Zorro ( 1920 ) and The Bat Whispers ( 1930 ) in the creation of the character 's iconography . Finger , drawing inspiration from pulp heroes like Doc Savage , The Shadow , Dick Tracy , and Sherlock Holmes , made the character a master sleuth . In his 1989 autobiography , Kane detailed Finger 's contributions to Batman 's creation : Golden Age Subsequent creation credit Kane signed away ownership in the character in exchange for , among other compensation , a mandatory byline on all Batman comics . This byline did not originally say `` Batman created by Bob Kane '' ; his name was simply written on the title page of each story . The name disappeared from the comic book in the mid-1960s , replaced by credits for each story 's actual writer and artists . In the late 1970s , when Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster began receiving a `` created by '' credit on the Superman titles , along with William Moulton Marston being given the byline for creating Wonder Woman , Batman stories began saying `` Created by Bob Kane '' in addition to the other credits . Finger did not receive the same recognition . While he had received credit for other DC work since the 1940s , he began , in the 1960s , to receive limited acknowledgment for his Batman writing ; in the letters page of Batman # 169 ( February 1965 ) for example , editor Julius Schwartz names him as the creator of the Riddler , one of Batman 's recurring villains . However , Finger 's contract left him only with his writing page rate and no byline . Kane wrote , `` Bill was disheartened by the lack of major accomplishments in his career . He felt that he had not used his creative potential to its fullest and that success had passed him by . '' At the time of Finger 's death in 1974 , DC had not officially credited Finger as Batman co-creator . Jerry Robinson , who also worked with Finger and Kane on the strip at this time , has criticized Kane for failing to share the credit . He recalled Finger resenting his position , stating in a 2005 interview with The Comics Journal : Although Kane initially rebutted Finger 's claims at having created the character , writing in a 1965 open letter to fans that `` it seemed to me that Bill Finger has given out the impression that he and not myself created the Batman , t ' as well as Robin and all the other leading villains and characters . This statement is fraudulent and entirely untrue . '' Kane himself also commented on Finger 's lack of credit . `` The trouble with being a 'ghost ' writer or artist is that you must remain rather anonymously without 'credit ' . However , if one wants the 'credit ' , then one has to cease being a 'ghost ' or follower and become a leader or innovator . '' In 1989 , Kane revisited Finger 's situation , recalling in an interview : In September 2015 , DC Entertainment revealed that Finger would be receiving credit for his role in Batman 's creation on the 2016 superhero film Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice and the second season of Gotham after a deal was worked out between the Finger family and DC . Finger received credit as a creator of Batman for the first time in a comic in October 2015 with Batman and Robin Eternal # 3 and Batman : Arkham Knight Genesis # 3 . The updated acknowledgement for the character appeared as `` Batman created by Bob Kane with Bill Finger '' . Early years The first Batman story , `` The Case of the Chemical Syndicate '' , was published in Detective Comics # 27 ( May 1939 ) . Finger said , `` Batman was originally written in the style of the pulps '' , and this influence was evident with Batman showing little remorse over killing or maiming criminals . Batman proved a hit character , and he received his own solo title in 1940 , while continuing to star in Detective Comics . By that time , National was the top-selling and most influential publisher in the industry ; Batman and the company 's other major hero , Superman , were the cornerstones of the company 's success . The two characters were featured side-by-side as the stars of World 's Finest Comics , which was originally titled World 's Best Comics when it debuted in fall 1940 . Creators including Jerry Robinson and Dick Sprang also worked on the strips during this period . Over the course of the first few Batman strips elements were added to the character and the artistic depiction of Batman evolved . Kane noted that within six issues he drew the character 's jawline more pronounced , and lengthened the ears on the costume . `` About a year later he was almost the full figure , my mature Batman '' , Kane said . Batman 's characteristic utility belt was introduced in Detective Comics # 29 ( July 1939 ) , followed by the boomerang-like batarang and the first bat-themed vehicle , the Batplane , in # 31 ( Sept. 1939 ) . The character 's origin was revealed in # 33 ( Nov. 1939 ) , unfolding in a two-page story that establishes the brooding persona of Batman , a character driven by the death of his parents . Written by Finger , it depicts a young Bruce Wayne witnessing his parents ' murder at the hands of a mugger . Days later , at their grave , the child vows that `` by the spirits of my parents [ I will ] avenge their deaths by spending the rest of my life warring on all criminals '' . The early , pulp-inflected portrayal of Batman started to soften in Detective Comics # 38 ( April 1940 ) with the introduction of Robin , Batman 's junior counterpart.Wright , p. 17 . Robin was introduced , based on Finger 's suggestion , because Batman needed a `` Watson '' with whom Batman could talk . Sales nearly doubled , despite Kane 's preference for a solo Batman , and it sparked a proliferation of `` kid sidekicks '' . The first issue of the solo spin-off series Batman was notable not only for introducing two of his most persistent enemies , the Joker and Catwoman , but for a story in which Batman shoots some monstrous giants to death . That story prompted editor Whitney Ellsworth to decree that the character could no longer kill or use a gun . By 1942 , the writers and artists behind the Batman comics had established most of the basic elements of the Batman mythos.Boichel , p. 9 . In the years following World War II , DC Comics `` adopted a postwar editorial direction that increasingly de-emphasized social commentary in favor of lighthearted juvenile fantasy '' . The impact of this editorial approach was evident in Batman comics of the postwar period ; removed from the `` bleak and menacing world '' of the strips of the early 1940s , Batman was instead portrayed as a respectable citizen and paternal figure that inhabited a `` bright and colorful '' environment . Silver and Bronze Age 1950s and early 1960s Batman was one of the few superhero characters to be continuously published as interest in the genre waned during the 1950s . In the story `` The Mightiest Team in the World '' in Superman # 76 ( June 1952 ) , Batman teams up with Superman for the first time and the pair discovers each other 's secret identity . Following the success of this story , World 's Finest Comics was revamped so it featured stories starring both heroes together , instead of the separate Batman and Superman features that had been running before . The team-up of the characters was `` a financial success in an era when those were few and far between '' ; this series of stories ran until the book 's cancellation in 1986 . Batman comics were among those criticized when the comic book industry came under scrutiny with the publication of psychologist Fredric Wertham 's book Seduction of the Innocent in 1954 . Wertham 's thesis was that children imitated crimes committed in comic books , and that these works corrupted the morals of the youth . Wertham criticized Batman comics for their supposed homosexual overtones and argued that Batman and Robin were portrayed as lovers . Wertham 's criticisms raised a public outcry during the 1950s , eventually leading to the establishment of the Comics Code Authority , a code that is no longer in use by the comic book industry . The tendency towards a `` sunnier Batman '' in the postwar years intensified after the introduction of the Comics Code . Scholars have suggested that the characters of Batwoman ( in 1956 ) and the pre-Barbara Gordon Bat-Girl ( in 1961 ) were introduced in part to refute the allegation that Batman and Robin were gay , and the stories took on a campier , lighter feel . In the late 1950s , Batman stories gradually became more science fiction-oriented , an attempt at mimicking the success of other DC characters that had dabbled in the genre . New characters such as Batwoman , Ace the Bat-Hound , and Bat-Mite were introduced . Batman 's adventures often involved odd transformations or bizarre space aliens . In 1960 , Batman debuted as a member of the Justice League of America in The Brave and the Bold # 28 ( Feb. 1960 ) , and went on to appear in several Justice League comic series starting later that same year . `` New Look '' Batman and camp By 1964 , sales on Batman titles had fallen drastically . Bob Kane noted that , as a result , DC was `` planning to kill Batman off altogether '' . In response to this , editor Julius Schwartz was assigned to the Batman titles . He presided over drastic changes , beginning with 1964 's Detective Comics # 327 ( May 1964 ) , which was cover-billed as the `` New Look '' . Schwartz introduced changes designed to make Batman more contemporary , and to return him to more detective-oriented stories . He brought in artist Carmine Infantino to help overhaul the character . The Batmobile was redesigned , and Batman 's costume was modified to incorporate a yellow ellipse behind the bat-insignia . The space aliens , time travel , and characters of the 1950s such as Batwoman , Ace , and Bat-Mite were retired . Batman 's butler Alfred was killed off ( though his death was quickly reversed ) while a new female relative for the Wayne family , Aunt Harriet , came to live with Bruce Wayne and Dick Grayson . The debut of the Batman television series in 1966 had a profound influence on the character . The success of the series increased sales throughout the comic book industry , and Batman reached a circulation of close to 900,000 copies . Elements such as the character of Batgirl and the show 's campy nature were introduced into the comics ; the series also initiated the return of Alfred . Although both the comics and TV show were successful for a time , the camp approach eventually wore thin and the show was canceled in 1968 . In the aftermath , the Batman comics themselves lost popularity once again . As Julius Schwartz noted , `` When the television show was a success , I was asked to be campy , and of course when the show faded , so did the comic books . '' Starting in 1969 , writer Dennis O'Neil and artist Neal Adams made a deliberate effort to distance Batman from the campy portrayal of the 1960s TV series and to return the character to his roots as a `` grim avenger of the night '' . O'Neil said his idea was `` simply to take it back to where it started . I went to the DC library and read some of the early stories . I tried to get a sense of what Kane and Finger were after . '' O'Neil and Adams first collaborated on the story `` The Secret of the Waiting Graves '' ( Detective Comics # 395 , January 1970 ) . Few stories were true collaborations between O'Neil , Adams , Schwartz , and inker Dick Giordano , and in actuality these men were mixed and matched with various other creators during the 1970s ; nevertheless the influence of their work was `` tremendous '' . Giordano said : `` We went back to a grimmer , darker Batman , and I think that 's why these stories did so well ... '' While the work of O'Neil and Adams was popular with fans , the acclaim did little to improve declining sales ; the same held true with a similarly acclaimed run by writer Steve Englehart and penciler Marshall Rogers in Detective Comics # 471–476 ( August 1977 – April 1978 ) , which went on to influence the 1989 movie Batman and be adapted for Batman : The Animated Series , which debuted in 1992 . Regardless , circulation continued to drop through the 1970s and 1980s , hitting an all-time low in 1985 . Modern Age The Dark Knight Returns Frank Miller 's limited series The Dark Knight Returns ( February–June 1986 ) , which tells the story of a 55-year-old Batman coming out of retirement in a possible future , reinvigorated the character . The Dark Knight Returns was a financial success and has since become one of the medium 's most noted touchstones . The series also sparked a major resurgence in the character 's popularity . That year Dennis O'Neil took over as editor of the Batman titles and set the template for the portrayal of Batman following DC 's status quo-altering miniseries Crisis on Infinite Earths . O'Neil operated under the assumption that he was hired to revamp the character and as a result tried to instill a different tone in the books than had gone before . One outcome of this new approach was the `` Year One '' storyline in Batman # 404–407 ( February–May 1987 ) , in which Frank Miller and artist David Mazzucchelli redefined the character 's origins . Writer Alan Moore and artist Brian Bolland continued this dark trend with 1988 's 48-page one-shot Batman : The Killing Joke , in which the Joker , attempting to drive Commissioner Gordon insane , cripples Gordon 's daughter Barbara , and then kidnaps and tortures the commissioner , physically and psychologically . The Batman comics garnered major attention in 1988 when DC Comics created a 900 number for readers to call to vote on whether Jason Todd , the second Robin , lived or died . Voters decided in favor of Jason 's death by a narrow margin of 28 votes ( see Batman : A Death in the Family ) . The following year saw the release of Tim Burton 's Batman feature film , which firmly brought the character back to the public 's attention , grossing millions of dollars at the box office , and millions more in merchandising . However , the three sequels , Tim Burton 's Batman Returns and director Joel Schumacher 's Batman Forever and Batman & Robin , did not perform as well at the box office . The fourth film in the series , the Schumacher-directed Batman & Robin , meanwhile , was a critical and commercial failure . The Batman movie franchise was rebooted with director and co-writer Christopher Nolan 's Batman Begins in 2005 , The Dark Knight in 2008 and The Dark Knight Rises in 2012 . In 1989 , the first issue of Legends of the Dark Knight , the first new solo Batman title in nearly 50 years , sold close to a million copies . The 1993 `` Knightfall '' story arc introduced a new villain , Bane , who critically injures Batman after pushing him to the limits of his endurance . Jean-Paul Valley , known as Azrael , is called upon to wear the Batsuit during Bruce Wayne 's convalescence . Writers Doug Moench , Chuck Dixon , and Alan Grant worked on the Batman titles during `` Knightfall '' , and would also contribute to other Batman crossovers throughout the 1990s . 1998 's `` Cataclysm '' storyline served as the precursor to 1999 's `` No Man 's Land '' , a year-long storyline that ran through all the Batman-related titles dealing with the effects of an earthquake-ravaged Gotham City . At the conclusion of `` No Man 's Land '' , O'Neil stepped down as editor and was replaced by Bob Schreck . Another writer who rose to prominence on the Batman comic series , was Jeph Loeb . Along with longtime collaborator Tim Sale , they wrote two miniseries ( `` The Long Halloween '' and `` Dark Victory '' ) that pit an early in his career version of Batman against his entire rogues gallery ( most notably Two-Face , whose origin was re-envisioned by Loeb ) while dealing with various mysteries involving serial killers Holiday and the Hangman . In 2003 , Loeb teamed with artist Jim Lee to work on another mystery arc : `` Batman : Hush '' for the main Batman book . The twelve–issue storyline has Batman and Catwoman teaming up against Batman 's entire rogues gallery , including an apparently resurrected Jason Todd , while seeking to find the identity of the mysterious supervillain Hush . While the character of Hush failed to catch on with readers , the arc was a sales success for DC . As the storyline was Jim Lee 's first regular comic book work in nearly a decade , the series became # 1 on the Diamond Comic Distributors sales chart for the first time since Batman # 500 ( October 1993 ) and Jason Todd 's appearance laid the groundwork for writer Judd Winick 's subsequent run as writer on Batman , with another multi-issue epic , `` Under the Hood '' , which ran from Batman # 637–650 . In 2005 , DC launched All-Star Batman and Robin , a stand-alone comic series set outside the existing DC Universe . Written by Frank Miller and drawn by Jim Lee , the series was a commercial success for DC Comics though widely panned by critics for its writing and strong depictions of violence . Starting in 2006 , the regular writers on Batman and Detective Comics were Grant Morrison and Paul Dini , with Grant Morrison reincorporating controversial elements of Batman lore ( most notably , the science fiction themed storylines of the 1950s Batman comics , which Morrison revised as hallucinations Batman suffered under the influence of various mind-bending gases and extensive sensory deprivation training ) into the character . Morrison 's run climaxed with `` Batman R.I.P . `` , which brought Batman up against the villainous `` Black Glove '' organization , which sought to drive Batman into madness . `` Batman R.I.P . '' segued into Final Crisis ( also written by Morrison ) , which saw the apparent death of Batman at the hands of Darkseid . In the 2009 miniseries Batman : Battle for the Cowl , Wayne 's former protégé Dick Grayson becomes the new Batman , and Wayne 's son Damian becomes the new Robin . In June 2009 , Judd Winick returned to writing Batman , while Grant Morrison was given his own series , titled Batman and Robin . In 2010 , the storyline Batman : The Return of Bruce Wayne saw Bruce travel through history , eventually returning to the present day . Although he reclaimed the mantle of Batman , he also allowed Grayson to continue being Batman as well . Bruce decided to take his war on crime globally , which is the central focus of Batman Incorporated . DC Comics would later announce that Grayson would be the main character in Batman , Detective Comics and Batman and Robin , while Wayne would be the main character in Batman Incorporated . Also , Bruce appeared in another ongoing series , Batman : The Dark Knight . The New 52 In September 2011 , DC Comics ' entire line of superhero books , including its Batman franchise , was canceled and relaunched with new # 1 issues as part of The New 52 reboot . Bruce Wayne is the only character to be identified as Batman and is featured in Batman , Detective Comics , Batman and Robin , and Batman : The Dark Knight . Dick Grayson returns to the mantle of Nightwing and appears in his own ongoing series . While many characters have their histories significantly altered to attract new readers , Batman 's history remains mostly intact . Batman Incorporated was relaunched in 2012-2013 to complete the `` Leviathan '' storyline . Since the beginning of The New 52 , Scott Snyder has been the writer of the flagship Batman title . His first major story arc was `` Night of the Owls '' , where Batman confronts the Court of Owls , a secret society that has controlled Gotham for centuries . The second story arc was `` Death of the Family '' , where the Joker returns to Gotham and simultaneously attacks each member of the Batman family . The third story arc was `` Batman : Zero Year '' , which redefined Batman 's origin in The New 52 . It followed Batman # 0 , published in June 2012 , which explored the character 's early years . The final storyline before the Convergence ( 2015 ) event was Endgame , depicting the supposed final battle between Batman and the Joker when he unleashes the deadly Endgame virus onto Gotham City . The storyline ends with Batman and the Joker 's supposed deaths . Starting with # 41 , Commissioner James Gordon takes over Bruce 's mantle as a new , state-sanctioned , mecha Batman , debuting in the Free Comic Book Day special comic Divergence . However , Bruce Wayne is soon revealed to be alive , albeit now suffering almost total amnesia of his life as Batman and only remembering his life as Bruce Wayne through what he has learned from Alfred . Bruce Wayne finds happiness and proposes to his girlfriend , Julie , but Mr. Bloom heavily injures Jim Gordon and takes control of Gotham City and threatens to destroy the city by energizing a particle reactor to create a `` strange star '' to swallow the city . Bruce Wayne discovers the truth that he was Batman and after talking to a stranger who smiles a lot ( it is heavily implied that this is the amnesic Joker ) he forces Alfred to implant his memories as Batman , but at the cost of his memories as the reborn Bruce Wayne . He returns and helps Jim Gordon defeat Mr. Bloom and shut down the reactor . Gordon gets his job back as the commissioner , and the government Batman project is shuttered . In 2015 , DC Comics released The Dark Knight III : The Master Race , the sequel to Frank Miller 's The Dark Knight

qw_7195--Batman.txt

"In the films ""Batman Forever"" (1995) and ""Batman & Robin"" (1997) who was Bruce Wayne's ward?"

Egyptian mythology is the collection of myths from ancient Egypt , which describe the actions of the Egyptian gods as a means of understanding the world . The beliefs that these myths express are an important part of ancient Egyptian religion . Myths appear frequently in Egyptian writings and art , particularly in short stories and in religious material such as hymns , ritual texts , funerary texts , and temple decoration . These sources rarely contain a complete account of a myth and often describe only brief fragments . Inspired by the cycles of nature , the Egyptians saw time in the present as a series of recurring patterns , whereas the earliest periods of time were linear . Myths are set in these earliest times , and myth sets the pattern for the cycles of the present . Present events repeat the events of myth , and in doing so renew maat , the fundamental order of the universe . Amongst the most important episodes from the mythic past are the creation myths , in which the gods form the universe out of primordial chaos ; the stories of the reign of the sun god Ra upon the earth ; and the Osiris myth , concerning the struggles of the gods Osiris , Isis , and Horus against the disruptive god Set . Events from the present that might be regarded as myths include Ra 's daily journey through the world and its otherworldly counterpart , the Duat . Recurring themes in these mythic episodes include the conflict between the upholders of maat and the forces of disorder , the importance of the pharaoh in maintaining maat , and the continual death and regeneration of the gods . The details of these sacred events differ greatly from one text to another and often seem contradictory . Egyptian myths are primarily metaphorical , translating the essence and behavior of deities into terms that humans can understand . Each variant of a myth represents a different symbolic perspective , enriching the Egyptians ' understanding of the gods and the world . Mythology profoundly influenced Egyptian culture . It inspired or influenced many religious rituals and provided the ideological basis for kingship . Scenes and symbols from myth appeared in art in tombs , temples , and amulets . In literature , myths or elements of them were used in stories that range from humor to allegory , demonstrating that the Egyptians adapted mythology to serve a wide variety of purposes . Origins The development of Egyptian myth is difficult to trace . Egyptologists must make educated guesses about its earliest phases , based on written sources that appeared much later . One obvious influence on myth is the Egyptians ' natural surroundings . Each day the sun rose and set , bringing light to the land and regulating human activity ; each year the Nile flooded , renewing the fertility of the soil and allowing the highly productive farming that sustained Egyptian civilization . Thus the Egyptians saw water and the sun as symbols of life and thought of time as a series of natural cycles . This orderly pattern was at constant risk of disruption : unusually low floods resulted in famine , and high floods destroyed crops and buildings . The hospitable Nile valley was surrounded by harsh desert , populated by peoples the Egyptians regarded as uncivilized enemies of order . For these reasons , the Egyptians saw their land as an isolated place of stability , or maat , surrounded and endangered by chaos . These themes—order , chaos , and renewal—appear repeatedly in Egyptian religious thought . Another possible source for mythology is ritual . Many rituals make reference to myths and are sometimes based directly on them . But it is difficult to determine whether a culture 's myths developed before rituals or vice versa . Questions about this relationship between myth and ritual have spawned much discussion among Egyptologists and scholars of comparative religion in general . In ancient Egypt , the earliest evidence of religious practices predates written myths . Rituals early in Egyptian history included only a few motifs from myth . For these reasons , some scholars have argued that , in Egypt , rituals emerged before myths . But because the early evidence is so sparse , the question may never be resolved for certain . In private rituals , which are often called `` magical '' , the myth and the ritual are particularly closely tied . Many of the myth-like stories that appear in the rituals ' texts are not found in other sources . Even the widespread motif of the goddess Isis rescuing her poisoned son Horus appears only in this type of text . The Egyptologist David Frankfurter argues that these rituals adapt basic mythic traditions to fit the specific ritual , creating elaborate new stories ( called historiolas ) based on myth . In contrast , J. F. Borghouts says of magical texts that there is `` not a shred of evidence that a specific kind of 'unorthodox ' mythology was coined ... for this genre . '' Much of Egyptian mythology consists of origin myths , explaining the beginnings of various elements of the world , including human institutions and natural phenomena . Kingship arises among the gods at the beginning of time and later passed to the human pharaohs ; warfare originates when humans begin fighting each other after the sun god 's withdrawal into the sky . Myths also describe the supposed beginnings of less fundamental traditions . In a minor mythic episode , Horus becomes angry with his mother Isis and cuts off her head . Isis replaces her lost head with that of a cow . This event explains why Isis was sometimes depicted with the horns of a cow as part of her headdress . Some myths may have been inspired by historical events . The unification of Egypt under the pharaohs , at the end of the Predynastic Period around 3100 BC , made the king the focus of Egyptian religion , and thus the ideology of kingship became an important part of mythology . In the wake of unification , gods that were once local patron deities gained national importance , forming new relationships that linked the local deities into a unified national tradition . Geraldine Pinch suggests that early myths may have formed from these relationships . Egyptian sources link the mythical strife between the gods Horus and Set with a conflict between the regions of Upper and Lower Egypt , which may have happened in the late Predynastic era or in the Early Dynastic Period . After these early times , most changes to mythology developed and adapted preexisting concepts rather than creating new ones , although there were exceptions . Many scholars have suggested that the myth of the sun god withdrawing into the sky , leaving humans to fight among themselves , was inspired by the breakdown of royal authority and national unity at the end of the Old Kingdom ( c. 2686 BC – 2181 BC ) . In the New Kingdom ( c. 1550–1070 BC ) , minor myths developed around deities like Yam and Anat who had been adopted from Canaanite religion . In contrast , during the Greek and Roman eras ( 332 BC–641 AD ) , Greco-Roman culture had little influence on Egyptian mythology . Definition and scope Scholars have difficulty defining which ancient Egyptian beliefs are myths . The basic definition of myth suggested by the Egyptologist John Baines is `` a sacred or culturally central narrative '' . In Egypt , the narratives that are central to culture and religion are almost entirely about events among the gods . Actual narratives about the gods ' actions are rare in Egyptian texts , particularly from early periods , and most references to such events are mere mentions or allusions . Some Egyptologists , like Baines , argue that narratives complete enough to be called `` myths '' existed in all periods , but that Egyptian tradition did not favor writing them down . Others , like Jan Assmann , have said that true myths were rare in Egypt and may only have emerged partway through its history , developing out of the fragments of narration that appear in the earliest writings . Recently , however , Vincent Arieh Tobin and Susanne Bickel have suggested that lengthy narration was not needed in Egyptian mythology because of its complex and flexible nature . Tobin argues that narrative is even alien to myth , because narratives tend to form a simple and fixed perspective on the events they describe . If narration is not needed for myth , any statement that conveys an idea about the nature or actions of a god can be called `` mythic '' . Content and meaning Like myths in many other cultures , Egyptian myths serve to justify human traditions and to address fundamental questions about the world , such as the nature of disorder and the ultimate fate of the universe . The Egyptians explained these profound issues through statements about the gods . Egyptian deities represent natural phenomena , from physical objects like the earth or the sun to abstract forces like knowledge and creativity . The actions and interactions of the gods , the Egyptians believed , govern the behavior of all of these forces and elements . For the most part , the Egyptians did not describe these mysterious processes in explicit theological writings . Instead , the relationships and interactions of the gods illustrated such processes implicitly . Most of Egypt 's gods , including many of the major ones , do not have significant roles in mythic narratives , although their nature and relationships with other deities are often established in lists or bare statements without narration . For the gods who are deeply involved in narratives , mythic events are very important expressions of their roles in the cosmos . Therefore , if only narratives are myths , mythology is a major element in Egyptian religious understanding , but not as essential as it is in many other cultures . The true realm of the gods is mysterious and inaccessible to humans . Mythological stories use symbolism to make the events in this realm comprehensible . Not every detail of a mythic account has symbolic significance . Some images and incidents , even in religious texts , are meant simply as visual or dramatic embellishments of broader , more meaningful myths . Few complete stories appear in Egyptian mythological sources . These sources often contain nothing more than allusions to the events to which they relate , and texts that contain actual narratives tell only portions of a larger story . Thus , for any given myth the Egyptians may have had only the general outlines of a story , from which fragments describing particular incidents were drawn . Moreover , the gods are not well-defined characters , and the motivations for their sometimes inconsistent actions are rarely given . Egyptian myths are not , therefore , fully developed tales . Their importance lay in their underlying meaning , not their characteristics as stories . Instead of coalescing into lengthy , fixed narratives , they remained highly flexible and non-dogmatic . So flexible were Egyptian myths that they could seemingly conflict with each other . Many descriptions of the creation of the world and the movements of the sun occur in Egyptian texts , some very different from each other . The relationships between gods were fluid , so that , for instance , the goddess Hathor could be called the mother , wife , or daughter of the sun god Ra . Separate deities could even be syncretized , or linked , as a single being . Thus the creator god Atum was combined with Ra to form Ra-Atum . One commonly suggested reason for inconsistencies in myth is that religious ideas differed over time and in different regions . The local cults of various deities developed theologies centered on their own patron gods . As the influence of different cults shifted , some mythological systems attained national dominance . In the Old Kingdom ( c. 2686–2181 BC ) the most important of these systems was the cults of Ra and Atum , centered at Heliopolis . They formed a mythical family , the Ennead , that was said to have created the world . It included the most important deities of the time but gave primacy to Atum and Ra . The Egyptians also overlaid old religious ideas with new ones . For instance , the god Ptah , whose cult was centered at Memphis , was also said to be the creator of the world . Ptah 's creation myth incorporates older myths by saying that it is the Ennead who carry out Ptah 's creative commands . Thus , the myth makes Ptah older and greater than the Ennead . Many scholars have seen this myth as a political attempt to assert the superiority of Memphis ' god over those of Heliopolis . By combining concepts in this way , the Egyptians produced an immensely complicated set of deities and myths . Egyptologists in the early twentieth century thought that politically motivated changes like these were the principal reason for the contradictory imagery in Egyptian myth . However , in the 1940s , Henri Frankfort , realizing the symbolic nature of Egyptian mythology , argued that apparently contradictory ideas are part of the `` multiplicity of approaches '' that the Egyptians used to understand the divine realm . Frankfort 's arguments are the basis for much of the more recent analysis of Egyptian beliefs . Political changes affected Egyptian beliefs , but the ideas that emerged through those changes also have deeper meaning . Multiple versions of the same myth express different aspects of the same phenomenon ; different gods that behave in a similar way reflect the close connections between natural forces . The varying symbols of Egyptian mythology express ideas too complex to be seen through a single lens . Sources The sources that are available range from solemn hymns to entertaining stories . Without a single , canonical version of any myth , the Egyptians adapted the broad traditions of myth to fit the varied purposes of their writings . Most Egyptians were illiterate and may therefore have had an elaborate oral tradition that transmitted myths through spoken storytelling . Susanne Bickel suggests that the existence of this tradition helps explain why many texts related to myth give little detail : the myths were already known to every Egyptian . Very little evidence of this oral tradition has survived , and modern knowledge of Egyptian myths is drawn from written and pictorial sources . Only a small proportion of these sources has survived to the present , so much of the mythological information that was once written down has been lost . This information is not equally abundant in all periods , so the beliefs that Egyptians held in some eras of their history are more poorly understood than the beliefs in better documented times . Religious sources Many gods appear in artwork from the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt 's history ( c. 3100–2686 BC ) , but little about the gods ' actions can be gleaned from these sources because they include minimal writing . The Egyptians began using writing more extensively in the Old Kingdom , in which appeared the first major source of Egyptian mythology : the Pyramid Texts . These texts are a collection of several hundred incantations inscribed in the interiors of pyramids beginning in the 24th century BC . They were the first Egyptian funerary texts , intended to ensure that the kings buried in the pyramid would pass safely through the afterlife . Many of the incantations allude to myths related to the afterlife , including creation myths and the myth of Osiris . Many of the texts are likely much older than their first known written copies , and they therefore provide clues about the early stages of Egyptian religious belief . During the First Intermediate Period ( c. 2181–2055 BC ) , the Pyramid Texts developed into the Coffin Texts , which contain similar material and were available to non-royals . Succeeding funerary texts , like the Book of the Dead in the New Kingdom and the Books of Breathing from the Late Period ( 664–323 BC ) and after , developed out of these earlier collections . The New Kingdom also saw the development of another type of funerary text , containing detailed and cohesive descriptions of the nocturnal journey of the sun god . Texts of this type include the Amduat , the Book of Gates , and the Book of Caverns . Temples , whose surviving remains date mostly from the New Kingdom and later , are another important source of myth . Many temples had a per-ankh , or temple library , storing papyri for rituals and other uses . Some of these papyri contain hymns , which , in praising a god for its actions , often refer to the myths that define those actions . Other temple papyri describe rituals , many of which are based partly on myth . Scattered remnants of these papyrus collections have survived to the present . It is possible that the collections included more systematic records of myths , but no evidence of such texts has survived . Mythological texts and illustrations , similar to those on temple papyri , also appear in the decoration of the temple buildings . The elaborately decorated and well-preserved temples of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods ( 305 BC–AD 380 ) are an especially rich source of myth . The Egyptians also performed rituals for personal goals such as protection from or healing of illness . These rituals are often called `` magical '' rather than religious , but they were believed to work on the same principles as temple ceremonies , evoking mythical events as the basis for the ritual . Information from religious sources is limited by a system of traditional restrictions on what they could describe and depict . The murder of the god Osiris , for instance , is never explicitly described in Egyptian writings . The Egyptians believed that words and images could affect reality , so they avoided the risk of making such negative events real . The conventions of Egyptian art were also poorly suited for portraying whole narratives , so most myth-related artwork consists of sparse individual scenes . Other sources References to myth also appear in non-religious Egyptian literature , beginning in the Middle Kingdom . Many of these references are mere allusions to mythic motifs , but several stories are based entirely on mythic narratives . These more direct renderings of myth are particularly common in the Late and Greco-Roman periods when , according to scholars such as Heike Sternberg , Egyptian myths reached their most fully developed state . The attitudes toward myth in nonreligious Egyptian texts vary greatly . Some stories resemble the narratives from magical texts , while others are more clearly meant as entertainment and even contain humorous episodes . A final source of Egyptian myth is the writings of Greek and Roman writers like Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus , who described Egyptian religion in the last centuries of its existence . Prominent among these writers is Plutarch , whose work De Iside et Osiride contains , among other things , the longest ancient account of the myth of Osiris . These authors ' knowledge of Egyptian religion was limited because they were excluded from many religious practices , and their statements about Egyptian beliefs are affected by their biases about Egypt 's culture . Cosmology Maat The Egyptian word maat refers to the fundamental order of the universe in Egyptian belief . Established at the creation of the world , maat distinguishes the world from the chaos that preceded and surrounds it . Maat encompasses both the proper behavior of humans and the normal functioning of the forces of nature , both of which make life and happiness possible . Because the actions of the gods govern natural forces and myths express those actions , Egyptian mythology represents the proper functioning of the world and the sustenance of life itself . To the Egyptians , the most important human maintainer of maat is the pharaoh . In myth the pharaoh is the son of a variety of deities . As such , he is their designated representative , obligated to maintain order in human society just as they do in nature , and to continue the rituals that sustain them and their activities . Shape of the world In Egyptian belief , the disorder that predates the ordered world exists beyond the world as an infinite expanse of formless water , personified by the god Nun . The earth , personified by the god Geb , is a flat piece of land over which arches the sky , usually represented by the goddess Nut . The two are separated by the personification of air , Shu . The sun god Ra is said to travel through the sky , across the body of Nut , enlivening the world with his light . At night Ra passes beyond the western horizon into the Duat , a mysterious region that borders the formlessness of Nun . At dawn he emerges from the Duat in the eastern horizon . The nature of the sky and the location of the Duat are uncertain . Egyptian texts variously describe the nighttime sun as traveling beneath the earth and within the body of Nut . The Egyptologist James P. Allen believes that these explanations of the sun 's movements are dissimilar but coexisting ideas . In Allen 's view , Nut represents the visible surface of the waters of Nun , with the stars floating on this surface . The sun , therefore , sails across the water in a circle , each night passing beyond the horizon to reach the skies that arch beneath the inverted land of the Duat . Leonard H. Lesko , however , believes that the Egyptians saw the sky as a solid canopy and described the sun as traveling through the Duat above the surface of the sky , from west to east , during the night . Joanne Conman , modifying Lesko 's model , argues that this solid sky is a moving , concave dome overarching a deeply convex earth . The sun and the stars move along with this dome , and their passage below the horizon is simply their movement over areas of the earth that the Egyptians could not see . These regions would then be the Duat . The fertile lands of the Nile Valley ( Upper Egypt ) and Delta ( Lower Egypt ) lie at the center of the world in Egyptian cosmology . Outside them are the infertile deserts , which are associated with the chaos that lies beyond the world . Somewhere beyond them is the horizon , the akhet . There , two mountains , in the east and the west , mark the places where the sun enters and exits the Duat . Foreign nations are associated with the hostile deserts in Egyptian ideology . Foreign people , likewise , are generally lumped in with the `` nine bows '' , people who threaten pharaonic rule and the stability of maat , although peoples allied with or subject to Egypt may be viewed more positively . For these reasons , events in Egyptian mythology rarely take place in foreign lands . While some stories pertain to the sky or the Duat , Egypt itself is usually the scene for the actions of the gods . Often , even the myths set in Egypt seem to take place on a plane of existence separate from that inhabited by living humans , although in other stories , humans and gods interact . In either case , the Egyptian gods are deeply tied to their home land . Time The Egyptians ' vision of time was influenced by their environment . Each day the sun rose and set , bringing light to the land and regulating human activity ; each year the Nile flooded , renewing the fertility of the soil and allowing the highly productive agriculture that sustained Egyptian civilization . These periodic events inspired the Egyptians to see all of time as a series of recurring patterns regulated by maat , renewing the gods and the universe . Although the Egyptians recognized that different historical eras differ in their particulars , mythic patterns dominate the Egyptian perception of history . Many Egyptian stories about the gods are characterized as having taken place in a primeval time when the gods were manifest on the earth and ruled over it . After this time , the Egyptians believed , authority on earth passed to human pharaohs . This primeval era seems to predate the start of the sun 's journey and the recurring patterns of the present world . At the other end of time is the end of the cycles and the dissolution of the world . Because these distant periods lend themselves to linear narrative better than the cycles of the present , John Baines sees them as the only periods in which true myths take place . Yet , to some extent , the cyclical aspect of time was present in the mythic past as well . Egyptians saw even stories that were set in that time as being perpetually true . The myths were made real every time the events to which they were related occurred . These events were celebrated with rituals , which often evoked myths . Ritual allowed time to periodically return to the mythic past and renew life in the universe . Major myths Some of the most important categories of myths are described below . Because of the fragmentary nature of Egyptian myths , there is little indication in Egyptian sources of a chronological sequence of mythical events . Nevertheless , the categories are arranged in a very loose chronological order . Creation Among the most important myths were those describing the creation of the world . The Egyptian developed many accounts of the creation , which differ greatly in the events they describe . In particular , the deities credited with creating the world vary in each account . This difference partly reflects the desire of Egypt 's cities and priesthoods to exalt their own patron gods by attributing creation to them . Yet the differing accounts were not regarded as contradictory ; instead , the Egyptians saw the creation process as having many aspects and involving many divine forces . One common feature of the myths is the emergence of the world from the waters of chaos that surround it . This event represents the establishment of maat and the origin of life . One fragmentary tradition centers on the eight gods of the Ogdoad , who represent the characteristics of the primeval water itself . Their actions give rise to the sun ( represented in creation myths by various gods , especially Ra ) , whose birth forms a space of light and dryness within the dark water . The sun rises from the first mound of dry land , another common motif in the creation myths , which was likely inspired by the sight of mounds of earth emerging as the Nile flood receded . With the emergence of the sun god , the establisher of maat , the world has its first ruler . Accounts from the first millennium BC focus on the actions of the creator god in subduing the forces of chaos that threaten the newly ordered world . Atum , a god closely connected with the sun and the primeval mound , is the focus of a creation myth dating back at least to the Old Kingdom . Atum , who incorporates all the elements of the world , exists within the waters as a potential being . At the time of creation he emerges to produce other gods , resulting in a set of nine deities , the Ennead , which includes Geb , Nut , and other key elements of the world . The Ennead can by extension stand for all the gods , so its creation represents the differentiation of Atum 's unified potential being into the multiplicity of elements present within the world . Over time , the Egyptians developed more abstract perspectives on the creation process . By the time of the Coffin Texts , they described the formation of the world as the realization of a concept first developed within the mind of the creator god . The force of heka , or magic , which links things in the divine realm and things in the physical world , is the power that links the creator 's original concept with

sfq_20695--Egyptian_mythology.txt

In Egyptian mythology, of what is Nut the goddess?

The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period ( starting in 27 BC ) . The emperors used a variety of different titles throughout history . Often when a given Roman is described as becoming `` emperor '' in English , it reflects his taking of the title Augustus or Caesar . Another title often used was imperator , originally a military honorific . Early Emperors also used the title princeps ( first citizen ) . Emperors frequently amassed Republican titles , notably princeps Senatus , consul and Pontifex Maximus . The legitimacy of an emperor 's rule depended on his control of the army and recognition by the Senate ; an emperor would normally be proclaimed by his troops , or invested with imperial titles by the Senate , or both . The first emperors reigned alone ; later emperors would sometimes rule with co-Emperors and divide administration of the Empire between them . The Romans considered the office of emperor to be distinct to that of a king . The first emperor , Augustus , resolutely refused recognition as a monarch . Although Augustus could claim that his power was authentically Republican , his successor , Tiberius , could not convincingly make the same claim . Nonetheless , for the first three hundred years of Roman Emperors , from Augustus until Diocletian , a great effort was made to emphasize that the Emperors were the leaders of a Republic . From Diocletian onwards , emperors ruled in an openly monarchic style and did not preserve the nominal principle of a republic , but the contrast with `` kings '' was maintained : although the imperial succession was generally hereditary , it was only hereditary if there was a suitable candidate acceptable to the army and the bureaucracy , so the principle of automatic inheritance was not adopted . Elements of the Republican institutional framework ( senate , consuls , and magistrates ) were preserved until the very end of the Western Empire . The Eastern ( Byzantine ) emperors ultimately adopted the title of `` Basileus '' ( ) , which had meant king in Greek , but became a title reserved solely for the Roman emperor and the ruler of the Sasanian Empire . Other kings were then referred to as rēgas . In addition to their pontifical office , some emperors were given divine status after death . With the eventual hegemony of Christianity , the emperor came to be seen as God 's chosen ruler and as a special protector and leader of the Christian Church on Earth , although in practice an emperor 's authority on Church matters was subject to challenge . The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5th century . Romulus Augustulus is often considered to be the last emperor of the west after his forced abdication in 476 , although Julius Nepos maintained a claim to the title until his death in 480 . Meanwhile , in the east , emperors continued to rule from Constantinople ( `` New Rome '' ) ; these are referred to in modern scholarship as `` Byzantine emperor '' but they used no such title and called themselves `` Emperor ( or King ) of the Romans '' ( βασιλεύς Ῥωμαίων ) . Constantine XI was the last Byzantine Roman emperor in Constantinople , dying in the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 . Due to the cultural rupture of the Turkish conquest , most western historians treat Constantine XI as the last meaningful claimant to the title Roman Emperor , although from 1453 Ottoman rulers were titled `` Caesar of Rome '' ( Turkish : Kayser-i Rum ) until the Ottoman Empire ended in 1922 . A Byzantine group of claimant Roman Emperors existed in the Empire of Trebizond until its conquest by the Ottomans in 1461 . In western Europe the title of Roman Emperor was revived by Germanic rulers , the `` Holy Roman Emperors '' , in 800 , and was used until 1806 . Background and first Roman emperor Modern historians conventionally regard Augustus as the first Emperor whereas Julius Caesar is considered the last dictator of the Roman Republic , a view having its origins in the Roman writers Plutarch , Tacitus and Cassius Dio . However , the majority of Roman writers , including Josephus , Pliny the Younger , Suetonius and Appian , as well as most of the ordinary people of the Empire , thought of Julius Caesar as the first Emperor . At the end of the Roman Republic no new , and certainly no single , title indicated the individual who held supreme power . Insofar as emperor could be seen as the English translation of imperator , then Julius Caesar had been an emperor , like several Roman generals before him . Instead , by the end of the civil wars in which Julius Caesar had led his armies , it became clear that there was certainly no consensus to return to the old-style monarchy , but that the period when several officials , bestowed with equal power by the senate , would fight one another had come to an end . Julius Caesar , and then Augustus after him , accumulated offices and titles of the highest importance in the Republic , making the power attached to those offices permanent , and preventing anyone with similar aspirations from accumulating or maintaining power for themselves . However , Julius Caesar , unlike those after him , did so without the Senate 's vote and approval . Julius Caesar held the Republican offices of consul four times and dictator five times , was appointed dictator in perpetuity ( dictator perpetuo ) in 45 BC and had been `` pontifex maximus '' for a long period . He gained these positions by senatorial consent . By the time of his assassination , he was the most powerful man in the Roman world . In his will , Caesar appointed his adopted son Octavian as his heir . On Caesar 's death , Octavian inherited his adoptive father 's property and lineage , the loyalty of most of his allies and – again through a formal process of senatorial consent – an increasing number of the titles and offices that had accrued to Caesar . A decade after Caesar 's death , Octavian 's victory over his erstwhile ally Mark Antony at Actium put an end to any effective opposition and confirmed Octavian 's supremacy . In 27 BC , Octavian appeared before the Senate and offered to retire from active politics and government ; the Senate not only requested he remain , but increased his powers and made them lifelong , awarding him the title of Augustus ( the elevated or divine one , somewhat less than a god but approaching divinity ) . Augustus stayed in office until his death ; the sheer breadth of his superior powers as princeps and permanent imperator of Rome 's armies guaranteed the peaceful continuation of what nominally remained a republic . His `` restoration '' of powers to the Senate and the people of Rome was a demonstration of his auctoritas and pious respect for tradition . Some later historians such as Tacitus would say that even at Augustus ' death , the true restoration of the Republic might have been possible . Instead , Augustus actively prepared his adopted son Tiberius to be his successor and pleaded his case to the Senate for inheritance on merit . The Senate disputed the issue but eventually confirmed Tiberius as princeps . Once in power , Tiberius took considerable pains to observe the forms and day-to-day substance of republican government . Classical period Rome had no single constitutional office , title or rank exactly equivalent to the English title `` Roman emperor '' . Romans of the Imperial era used several titles to denote their emperors , and all were associated with the pre-Imperial , Republican era . The emperor 's legal authority derived from an extraordinary concentration of individual powers and offices that were extant in the Republic rather than from a new political office ; emperors were regularly elected to the offices of consul and censor . Among their permanent privileges were the traditional Republican title of princeps senatus ( leader of the Senate ) and the religious office of pontifex maximus ( chief priest of the Roman state ) . Every emperor held the latter office and title until Gratian surrendered it in AD 382 to Pope Siricius ; it eventually became an auxiliary honor of the Bishop of Rome . These titles and offices conferred great personal prestige ( dignitas ) but the basis of an emperor 's powers derived from his auctoritas : this assumed his greater powers of command ( imperium maius ) and tribunician power ( tribunicia potestas ) as personal qualities , separate from his public office . As a result , he formally outranked provincial governors and ordinary magistrates . He had the right to enact or revoke sentences of capital punishment , was owed the obedience of private citizens ( privati ) and by the terms of the ius auxiliandi could save any plebeian from any patrician magistrate 's decision . He could veto any act or proposal of any magistrate , including the tribunes of the people ( ius intercedendi or ius intercessionis ) . His person was held to be sacrosanct . Roman magistrates on official business were expected to wear the form of toga associated with their office ; different togas were worn by different ranks ; senior magistrates had the right to togas bordered with purple . A triumphal imperator of the Republic had the right to wear the toga picta ( of solid purple , richly embroidered ) for the duration of the triumphal rite . During the Late Republic , the most powerful had this right extended . Pompey and Caesar are both thought to have worn the triumphal toga and other triumphal dress at public functions . Later emperors were distinguished by wearing togae purpurae , purple togas ; hence the phrase `` to don the purple '' for the assumption of imperial dignity . The titles customarily associated with the imperial dignity are imperator ( `` commander '' ) , which emphasizes the emperor 's military supremacy and is the source of the English word emperor ; Caesar , which was originally a name but came to be used for the designated heir ( as Nobilissimus Caesar , `` Most Noble Caesar '' ) and was retained upon accession . The ruling emperor 's title was the descriptive Augustus ( `` majestic '' or `` venerable '' , which had tinges of the divine ) , which was adopted upon accession . In Greek , these three titles were rendered as autokratōr ( `` '' ) , kaisar ( `` '' ) , and augoustos ( `` '' ) or sebastos ( `` '' ) respectively . In Diocletian 's Tetrarchy , the traditional seniorities were maintained : `` Augustus '' was reserved for the two senior emperors and `` Caesar '' for the two junior emperors – each delegated a share of power and responsibility but each an emperor-in-waiting , should anything befall his senior . As princeps senatus ( lit. , `` first man of the senate '' ) , the emperor could receive foreign embassies to Rome ; some emperors ( such as Tiberius ) are known to have delegated this task to the Senate . In modern terms these early emperors would tend to be identified as chiefs of state . The office of princeps senatus , however , was not a magistracy and did not entail imperium . At some points in the Empire 's history , the emperor 's power was nominal ; powerful praetorian prefects , masters of the soldiers and on a few occasions , other members of the Imperial household including Imperial mothers and grandmothers were the true source of power . Imperator The title imperator dates back to the Roman Republic , when a victorious commander could be hailed as imperator in the field by his troops . The Senate could then award or withhold the extraordinary honour of a triumph ; the triumphal commander retained the title until the end of his magistracy . In Roman tradition , the first triumph was that of Romulus , but the first attested recipient of the title imperator in a triumphal context is Aemilius Paulus in 189 BC . It was a title held with great pride : Pompey was hailed imperator more than once , as was Sulla , but it was Julius Caesar who first used it permanently – according to Dio , this was a singular and excessive form of flattery granted by the Senate , passed to Caesar 's adopted heir along with his name and virtually synonymous with it . In 38 BC Agrippa refused a triumph for his victories under Octavian 's command , and this precedent established the rule that the princeps should assume both the salutation and title of imperator . It seems that from then on Octavian ( later the first emperor Augustus ) used imperator as a first name ( praenomen ) : Imperator Caesar not Caesar imperator . From this the title came to denote the supreme power and was commonly used in that sense . Otho was the first to imitate Augustus , but only with Vespasian did imperator ( emperor ) become the official title by which the ruler of the Roman Empire was known . Princeps The word princeps ( plural principes ) , meaning `` first '' , was a republican term used to denote the leading citizen ( s ) of the state . It was a purely honorific title with no attached duties or powers . It was the title most preferred by Caesar Augustus as its use implies only primacy , as opposed to another of his titles , imperator , which implies dominance . Princeps , because of its republican connotation , was most commonly used to refer to the emperor in Latin ( although the emperor 's actual constitutional position was essentially `` pontifex maximus with tribunician power and imperium superseding all others '' ) as it was in keeping with the façade of the restored Republic ; the Greek word basileus ( `` king '' ) was modified to be synonymous with emperor ( and primarily came into favour after the reign of Heraclius ) as the Greeks had no republican sensibility and openly viewed the emperor as a monarch . In the era of Diocletian and beyond , princeps fell into disuse and was replaced with dominus ( `` lord '' ) ; later emperors used the formula Imperator Caesar NN . Pius Felix ( Invictus ) Augustus : NN representing the individual 's personal name ; Pius Felix meaning `` Pious and Blest '' ; and Invictus meaning `` undefeated '' . The use of princeps and dominus broadly symbolise the differences in the empire 's government , giving rise to the era designations `` Principate '' and `` Dominate '' . Evolution in Late Antiquity In 293 , following the Crisis of the Third Century which had severely damaged Imperial administration , Emperor Diocletian enacted sweeping reforms that washed away many of the vestiges and façades of republicanism which had characterized the Augustan order in favor of a more frank autocracy . As a result , historians distinguish the Augustinian period as the principate and the period from Diocletian to the 7th century reforms of Emperor Heraclius as the dominate ( from the Latin for `` lord '' . ) Reaching back to the oldest traditions of job-sharing in the republic , however , Diocletian established at the top of this new structure the Tetrarchy ( `` rule of four '' ) in an attempt to provide for smoother succession and greater continuity of government . Under the Tetrarchy , Diocletian set in place a system of co-emperors , styled `` Augustus '' , and junior emperors , styled `` Caesar '' . When a co-emperor retired ( as Diocletian and his co-emperor Maximian did in 305 ) or died , a junior `` Caesar '' would succeed him and the co-emperors would appoint new Caesars as needed . The four members of the Imperial college ( as historians call the arrangement ) shared military and administrative challenges by each being assigned specific geographic areas of the empire . From this innovation , often but not consistently repeated over the next 187 years , comes the notion of an east-west partition of the empire that became popular with historians long after the practice had stopped . The two halves of empire , while often run as de facto separate entities day-to-day , were always considered and seen , legally and politically , as separate administrative divisions of a single , insoluble imperium by the Romans of the time . The final period of co-emperorship began in 395 , when Emperor Theodosius I 's sons Arcadius and Honorius succeeded as co-emperors . Eighty-five years later , following Germanic migrations which had reduced the empire 's effective control across Brittania , Gaul and Hispania and a series of military coup d'état which drove Emperor Nepos out of Italy , the idea of dividing the position of emperor was formally abolished by Emperor Zeno ( 480 ) . The Roman Empire survived in the east until 1453 , but the marginalization of the former heartland of Italy to the empire had a profound cultural impact on the empire and the position of emperor . In 620 , the official language was changed from Latin to Greek . The Greek-speaking inhabitants were Romaioi ( Ῥωμαῖοι ) , and were still considered Romans by themselves and the populations of Eastern Europe , the Near East , India , and China . But many in Western Europe began to refer to the political entity as the `` Greek Empire '' . The evolution of the church in the no-longer imperial city of Rome and the church in the now supreme Constantinople began to follow divergent paths , culminating in the schism between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox faiths . The position of emperor was increasingly influenced by Near Eastern concepts of kingship . Starting with Emperor Heraclius , Roman emperors styled themselves `` King of Kings '' ( from the imperial Persian Shahanshah ) from 627 and `` Basileus '' ( from the title used by Alexander the Great ) from 629 . The later period of the empire is today called the Byzantine Empire as a matter of scholarly convention . Titles and positions Although these are the most common offices , titles , and positions , not all Roman emperors used them , nor were all of them used at the same time in history . The consular and censorial offices especially were not an integral part of the Imperial dignity , and were usually held by persons other than the reigning emperor . * Augustus : ( also `` '' or `` '' ) , `` Majestic '' or `` Venerable '' ; an honorific cognomen exclusive to the emperor * Autokrator : ( , Autokratōr ) , ( lit . `` Self-ruler '' ) ; Greek title equivalent to imperator or commander-in-chief * Basileus : ( ) , Greek for king , popularly used in the east to refer to the emperor ; a formal title of the Roman emperor beginning with Heraclius * Caesar : ( also `` '' ) , `` Caesar '' ; initially the cognomen of Julius Caesar , it was transformed into a title ; an honorific name later used to identify an emperor-designate * Censor : a Republican office held jointly by two former consuls every five years for the purpose of conducting the lustrum that determined the role of citizens ; the censor could audit all other magistrates and all state finances * Consul : the highest magistracy of the Roman Republic with a one-year term and one coequal officeholder ; the consul was the head of state within Rome . The last emperor to be bestowed the title by the Senate was Constans II , who was also the last emperor to visit Rome . * Dominus ( `` Lord '' or `` Master '' ) : an honorific title mainly associated with the Dominate * Dominus Noster ( `` Our Lord '' ) : an honorific title ; the praenomen of later emperors . * Imperator ( `` Commander '' or `` Commander-in-Chief '' ) : a victory title taken on accession to the purple and after a major military victory * Imperator Destinatus ( `` Destined to be Emperor '' ) : heir apparent , used by Septimius Severus for Caracalla * Invictus ( `` Unconquered '' ) , an honorific title . * Nobilissimus : ( , Nōbelissimos ) , ( `` Most Noble '' ) , one of the highest imperial titles held by the emperor * Pater Patriae ( `` Father of the Fatherland '' ) : an honorific title * Perpetuus ( `` Universal '' ) : an honorific title of later emperors * Pius Felix ( `` Pious and Blessed '' ) : an honorific title * Pontifex Maximus ( `` Supreme Pontiff '' or `` Chief Priest '' ) : in the Republican era , the Pontifex Maximus was the head of the College of Pontiffs , the religious body that oversaw the ancestral public religion of the Romans ; Julius Caesar had become Pontifex Maximus before he was elected consul , and the precedent set by his heir Augustus in consolidating supreme authority through this religious office was in general followed by his successors until the empire came under Christian rule * Princeps ( `` First Citizen '' or `` Leading Citizen '' ) : an honorific title denoting the status of the emperor as first among equals , associated mainly with the Principate * Princeps Iuventutis : ( `` Prince of Youth '' ) , an honorific title awarded to a presumptive emperor-designate * Princeps Senatus : ( `` First Man of the Senate '' ) , a Republican office with a five-year term * Sebastos : ( ) , ( `` Venerable '' ) ; the Greek rendition of the imperial title Augustus * Sebastokrator : ( , Sebastokratōr ) , ( `` Venerable Ruler ) ; a senior court title from the compound words `` sebastos '' ( `` venerable '' , the Greek equivalent of the Latin Augustus ) and `` kratōr '' ( `` ruler '' , the same element as is found in `` autokratōr '' , `` emperor '' ) * Tribunicia Potestas : ( `` Tribunician Power '' ) ; the powers of a tribune of the people , including sacrosanctity and inviolability of his person , and the veto over any decision by any other magistrate , assembly , or the Senate ( the emperor could not be a `` tribune '' because a tribune was a plebeian by definition , therefore the emperor had all the powers of a tribune without actually being one ) Powers When Augustus established the Princeps , he turned down supreme authority in exchange for a collection of various powers and offices , which in itself was a demonstration of his auctoritas ( `` authority '' ) . As holding princeps senatus , the emperor declared the opening and closure of each Senate session , declared the Senate 's agenda , imposed rules and regulation for the Senate to follow , and met with foreign ambassadors in the name of the Senate . Being pontifex maximus made the emperor the chief administrator of religious affairs , granting him the power to conduct all religious ceremonies , consecrate temples , control the Roman calendar ( adding or removing days as needed ) , appoint the vestal virgins and some flamens , lead the Collegium Pontificum , and summarize the dogma of the Roman religion . While these powers granted the emperor a great deal of personal pride and influence , they did not include legal authority . In 23 BC , Augustus gave the emperorship its legal power . The first was Tribunicia Potestas , or the powers of the tribune of the plebs without actually holding the office ( which would have been impossible , since a tribune was by definition a plebeian , whereas Augustus , although born into a plebeian family , had become a patrician when he was adopted into the gens Julia ) . This endowed the emperor with inviolability ( sacrosanctity ) of his person , and the ability to pardon any civilian for any act , criminal or otherwise . By holding the powers of the tribune , the emperor could prosecute anyone who interfered with the performance of his duties . The emperor 's tribuneship granted him the right to convene the Senate at his will and lay proposals before it , as well as the ability to veto any act or proposal by any magistrate , including the actual tribune of the plebeians . Also , as holder of the tribune 's power , the emperor would convoke the Council of the People , lay legislation before it , and served as the council 's president . But his tribuneship only granted him power within Rome itself . He would need another power to veto the act of governors and that of the consuls while in the provinces . To solve this problem , Augustus managed to have the emperor be given the right to hold two types of imperium . The first being consular imperium while he was in Rome , and imperium maius outside of Rome . While inside the walls of Rome , the reigning consuls and the emperor held equal authority , each being able to veto each other 's proposals and acts , with the emperor holding all of the consul 's powers . But outside of Rome , the emperor outranked the consuls and could veto them without the same effects on himself . Imperium Maius also granted the emperor authority over all the provincial governors , making him the ultimate authority in provincial matters and gave him the supreme command of all of Rome 's legions . With Imperium Maius , the emperor was also granted the power to appoint governors of imperial provinces without the interference of the Senate . Also , Imperium Maius granted the emperor the right to veto the governors of the provinces and even the reigning consul while in the provinces . Lineages and epochs Principate The nature of the imperial office and the Principate was established under Julius Caesar 's heir and posthumously adopted son , Caesar Augustus , and his own heirs , the descendants of his wife Livia from her first marriage to a scion of the distinguished Claudian clan . This Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end when the Emperor Nero – a great-great-grandson of Augustus through his daughter and of Livia through her son – was deposed in 68 . Nero was followed by a succession of usurpers throughout 69 , commonly called the `` Year of the Four Emperors '' . The last of these , Vespasian , established his own Flavian dynasty . Nerva , who replaced the last Flavian emperor , Vespasian 's son Domitian , in 96 , was elderly and childless , and chose therefore to adopt an heir , Trajan , from outside his family . When Trajan acceded to the purple he chose to follow his predecessor 's example , adopting Hadrian as his own heir , and the practice then became the customary manner of imperial succession for the next century , producing the `` Five Good Emperors '' and the Empire 's period of greatest stability . The last of the Good Emperors , Marcus Aurelius , chose his natural son Commodus as his successor rather than adopting an heir . Commodus 's misrule led to his murder on 31 December 192 , following which a brief period of instability quickly gave way to Septimius Severus , who established the Severan dynasty which , except for an interruption in 217–218 , held the purple until 235 . Crisis of the Third Century The accession of Maximinus Thrax marks both the close and the opening of an era . It was one of the last attempts by the increasingly impotent Roman Senate to influence the succession . Yet it was the second time that a man had achieved the purple while owing his advancement purely to his military career ; both Vespasian and Septimius Severus had come from noble or middle-class families , while Thrax was born a commoner . He never visited the city of Rome during his reign , which marks the beginning of a series

qb_9527--Roman_emperor.txt

Who was the first person to bear the title of Holy Roman Emperor?

Dallas Love Field is a city-owned public airport 6 miles ( 10 km ) northwest of downtown Dallas , Texas. , effective April 10 , 2008 It was Dallas ' main airport until 1974 when Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport ( DFW ) opened . The corporate headquarters for Southwest Airlines is located at Love Field . The airport is also a focus city for Southwest as well as for Virgin America . Seven full-service fixed-base operators ( FBOs ) provide general aviation service : fuel , maintenance , hangar rentals , and charters . Some also provide meeting rooms , car rentals , limousine service and restaurants . History Dallas Love Field is named after Moss L. Love , who while assigned to the U.S. Army 11th Cavalry , died in an airplane crash near San Diego , California on September 4 , 1913 , becoming the 10th fatality in U.S. army aviation history . His Wright Model C biplane crashed during practice for his Military Aviator Test . Love Field was named by the United States Army on October 19 , 1917 . World War I Dallas Love Field has its origins beginning in 1917 when the Army announced its intention of establishing a series of camps to train prospective pilots after the United States entry into World War I . The airfield was one of thirty-two new Air Service fields . It was constructed just southeast of Bachman Lake , and it covered over 700 acres and could accommodate up to 1,000 personnel . Dozens of wooden buildings served as headquarters , maintenance , and officers ’ quarters . Enlisted men had to bivouac in tents . Love Field served as a base for flight training for the United States Army Air Service . In 1917 , flight training occurred in two phases : primary and advanced . Primary training took eight weeks and consisted of pilots learning basic flight skills under dual and solo instruction . After completion of their primary training at Love Field , flight cadets were then transferred to another base for advanced training . After officially opening on October 19 , 1917 , the first unit stationed at Love Field was the 136th Aero Squadron , which was transferred from Kelly Field , south of San Antonio , Texas . Only a few U.S. Army Air Service aircraft arrived with the 136th Aero Squadron , and most of the Curtiss JN-4 Jennys to be used for flight training were shipped in wooden crates by railcar . Training units assigned to Love Field during World War I were : * Post Headquarters , Love Field , October 1917-December 1919 * 71st Aero Squadron ( II ) , February 1918 Re-designated as Squadron `` A '' , July–November 1918 * 121st Aero Squadron ( II ) , April 1918 Re-designated as Squadron `` B '' , July–November 1918 * 136th Aero Squadron ( II ) , November 1917 Re-designated as Squadron `` C '' , July–November 1918 * 197th Aero Squadron , November 1917 Re-designated as Squadron `` D '' , July–November 1918 * Flying School Detachment ( Consolidation of Squadrons A-D ) , November 1918-November 1919 The 865th Aero Squadron ( Repair ) , was formed at Love Field in March 1918 as a support unit for JN-4 aircraft repair and maintenance . It was assigned to the Aviation Repair Depot , Dallas Texas ( at Love Field ) in April 1918 . It was demobilized in March 1919 . With the sudden end of World War I in November 1918 , the future operational status of Love Field was unknown . Many local officials speculated that the U.S. government would keep the field open because of the outstanding combat record established by Love-trained pilots in Europe . Locals also pointed to the optimal weather conditions in the Dallas area for flight training . Cadets in flight training on November 11 , 1918 were allowed to complete their training , however no new cadets were assigned to the base . Also the separate training squadrons were consolidated into a single Flying School detachment , as many of the personnel assigned were being demobilized . Inter-war years With the end of World War I , in December 1919 Love Field was deactivated as an active duty airfield , however , and a small caretaker unit was assigned to the facility for administrative reasons . The facility was converted into a storage facility for surplus De Havilland and JN-4 aircraft were stored at Love Field ( some JN-4s were bought back by the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company in the spring of 1919 . ) Post-war `` the largest recruiting mission in the spring and summer of 1919 '' was led by Lt. Col. Henry B. Clagett beginning with seven DH-4s departing Dallas and flying as far as Boston . A small caretaker unit was assigned to the facility for administrative reasons and it was used intermittently to support small military units . In January 1921 , 1st Lt William D. Coney attempted to fly from San Diego to Jacksonville with just one stop—at Love Field . In 1921 , the aviation repair depot next to Love Field moved to Kelly Field in San Antonio to consolidate with the supply depot at Kelly , forming the San Antonio Intermediate Air Depot . In 1923 , Dallas was a route point between Muskogee and Kelly Field on the southern division of the model airway . However , by 1923 , the decision had been made to phase down all activities at the new base in accordance with sharply reduced military budgets and it was closed . The War Department had ordered the small caretaker force at Love Field to dismantle all remaining structures and to sell them as surplus . The War Department leased out the vacant land to local farmers and ranchers In 1927 , Dallas purchased Love Field , which opened for civilian use ( 1st passenger service was by the National Air Transport company . ) On April 9 , 1932 , the first paved runways at the airfield were completed , and in March 1939 the airfield had 21 weekday airline departures : 9 American , 8 Braniff and 4 Delta . `` On 6 June 1939 , the War Department approved ... nine civil school detachments '' , including one at Dallas ( cf . a 1940 school approved for Ft Worth 's Hicks Field , a new 1942 Ft Worth airfield -- Tarrant Field at the government plant and that had a 4 engine pilots ' school , ) and a Ferrying Command control center at Dallas ' Hensley Field . ) World War II training and ferrying By October 1940 at the Texas World War II Army Airfield , classes had entered the Dallas Texas Aviation School , which provided basic ( level 1 ) flight training using Fairchild PT-19s as the primary trainer ( several PT-17 Stearmans and a few P-40 Warhawks were also assigned . The Gulf Coast ACTC school later moved to Brady , Texas ; and Love Field also had an Air Materiel Command modification center . In September 1942 , the Air Transport Command activity at Hensley Field moved to Love Field . ATC 's 5th Ferrying Group , consisting of Women 's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadrons ( WAFS ) ferried PT-17s , AT-6s and twin-engine Cessna AT-17s ; and Love Field was also used by the San Antonio Air Service Command for aircraft overhauls . The 2d Ferrying Squadron of the 5th Ferrying Group was moved by Air Transport Command from Love Field to Fairfax Field at Kansas City on April 15 , 1943 . In September 1943 a new north-south runway 18/36 and northwest-southeast runway 13/31 were completed . Air Force facilities closed at the end of WWII except for Love Field 's automatic tracking radar station ( call sign Dallas Bomb Plot ) for Radar Bomb Scoring that had been established by June 6 , 1945 ( transferred to Strategic Air Command on March 21 , 1946 , 10th RBSS Det 1 by 1957 . ) 1940 to 1957 On October 6 , 1940 , Love Field 's Lemmon Avenue Terminal Building opened on the east side of the airfield . On November 29 , 1949 American Airlines Flight 157 , a Douglas DC-6 en route from New York City to Dallas and Mexico City with 46 passengers and crew , slid off Runway 36 after the flight crew lost control on final approach . The airliner struck a parked airplane , a hangar , and a flight school before crashing into a business across from the airport , killing 28 . This was the deadliest air disaster in Texas history at the time and , according to modern reference sources , remains the deadliest crash to take place at the airfield itself . Pioneer Airlines moved its base from Houston to Love Field in 1950 . In 1953 , Fort Worth officially opened Amon Carter Field , which would later become Greater Southwest International Airport to compete directly with Love Field . Fort Worth had attempted to negotiate with Dallas to collaborate on the new airport , however Dallas repeatedly declined those attempts . Upon completion , all of the passenger airlines were transferred to Greater Southwest from Meacham , leaving Love Field and Greater Southwest as the only air transportation options for the Dallas-Fort Worth area . The February 1953 C & GS diagram shows runway 7 ( 4301 ft ) , runway 13 ( 6201 ft ) and runway 18 ( 5202 ft ) . On June 1 , 1954 Runway 7/25 was closed ; it was later removed to allow terminal expansion . Love Field then had two runways : Runway 13/31 , the main runway , and the shorter 18/36 . The April 1957 Official Airline Guide shows 52 weekday departures on Braniff , 45 on American , 25 Delta , 21 Trans-Texas , 12 Central and 9 Continental . Three nonstops a day to Washington DC , three to New York/Newark , six to Chicago , five to California and 12 a week to Mexico City . 1957 to 1974 Love Field 's new terminal ( the third terminal , designed by Donald S. Nelson ) opened to the airlines on January 20 , 1958 with three one-story concourses , 26 ramp-level gates and the world 's first airport moving walkways . Airlines serving the airport at the time included American , Braniff , Central ( which was based in Fort Worth ) , Continental , Delta and Trans Texas ( later Texas International ) . Turbine-power flights began on April 1 , 1959 when Continental Airlines introduced the Vickers Viscount turboprop . Jet airline flights began on July 12 , 1959 when American Airlines started Boeing 707 flights to New York . In 1961 Mr. and Mrs. Earle Wyatt gave a large bronze statue bearing the inscription `` One Riot , One Ranger '' for display in the airport 's new terminal . Famed Texas born sculptress Waldine Tauch created the piece . The inscription refers to an incident in which a single Texas Ranger was dispatched to quell a riot . Because of terminal renovation from 2010 to 2013 , the statue was moved temporarily for display to the nearby Frontiers of Flight Museum , but the statue has now been returned to a prominent location in the lobby of terminal one ( August 2013 ) . On November 22 , 1963 President John F. Kennedy arrived at Love Field on Air Force One , and was assassinated in Dealey Plaza less than one hour later while his motorcade was traveling from Love Field to the Dallas Trade Mart . One and hours after that , Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as president aboard Air Force One before its departure from Love Field . On April 2 , 1965 the 8,800 ft ( 2,682 m ) parallel Runway 13R/31L opened ( Runway 13/31 became Runway 13L/31R ) . The project had been vexed by legal wrangling ; safety concerns were raised regarding its proximity to schools and its minimal safety areas , while nearby residents attempted to stop the anticipated increase in jet noise and the removal of homes and businesses adjacent to the airport to accommodate the project . Several terminal expansion programs were fueled by the boom in air travel during the 1960s . American Airlines expanded their concourse in 1968 and Braniff opened its `` Terminal of the Future . '' The expansion , showcasing Alexander Girard , Herman Miller and Ray and Charles Eames designs , featured the first rotunda concourse , jet bridges and several airport innovations . Braniff connected their new terminal to new remote parking lots with the Jetrail monorail system in 1970 . Texas International expanded their concourse in 1969 , and Delta 's concourse was expanded in 1970 . By 1972 , American used 14 gates on the west end of the terminal , Delta used 13 gates , Braniff and Ozark together used 13 gates on the east end of the terminal , and Texas International used seven gates . In 1972 Love Field saw an hijacking incident . On January 12 , Billy Gene Hurst , Jr. , a resident of Houston , hijacked Braniff Flight 38 , a Boeing 727 airliner , as it departed William P. Hobby Airport in Houston bound for Dallas . After the plane landed at Love Field , Hurst allowed all 94 passengers to deplane , but continued to hold the 7 crewmembers hostage . Hurst insisted on flying to South America and made a variety of other demands , including food , cigarettes , parachutes , jungle survival gear , US $ 2 million , and a handgun . After a 6-hour standoff , police gave Hurst a package containing parachutes and some other items , and the hostages escaped while he was distracted examining the package 's contents . Police stormed the craft soon afterwards and arrested him without serious incident . He was later sentenced to 20 years in prison . In 1964 , the FAA , tired of having to fund separate airports in Dallas and Fort Worth , gave the two cities a six-month period to choose a site for and plan out a new regional airport . Ultimately , they agreed to build Dallas/Fort Worth Regional Airport ( now Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport ) . It was agreed that to promote the new airport , each city would restrict its own passenger-service airports from air-carrier operations . Soon after the new airport opened , Greater Southwest was immediately closed to passenger traffic and its runways painted with large X 's to avoid confusing pilots and due to the fact that Greater Southwest 's runways were directly in the flight path of the new airport . By 1974 , Greater Southwest International Airport was unceremoniously closed for good . The art-deco terminal was torn down in 1980 . Southwest Airlines , founded in 1971 and headquartered at Love Field , built its business on selling quick , no-frills trips between Dallas , Houston , and San Antonio . The company felt that the notion of a quick trip would be destroyed by a long drive to the new airport . Prior to the opening of DFW , Southwest Airlines sued for the right to remain at Love Field . In 1973 the courts ruled that the City of Dallas could not restrict Southwest Airlines from operating out of Love Field , so long as it remained open as an airport . This ruling effectively granted Southwest the right to continue to operate its existing intrastate service out of Love Field . The airlines operating from Love Field at the time DFW was conceived executed agreements with DFW stipulating that no airline could operate at the new airport if it continued to operate any flights out of Love Field . Southwest , created after the other carriers had signed on to the DFW operating agreements , was not a signatory and remained as the only airline operating at Love Field . 1973 saw Love Field , which had more than 70 gates and saw frequent Boeing 747 service , reach record enplanements at 6,668,398 as the eighth busiest airport in the United States . On January 13 , 1974 DFW Airport opened , ending most passenger service at Love Field . 1974 through 1999 With the drastic reduction in flights and only 467,212 enplanements in 1975 , Love Field decommissioned several of its concourses . The city of Dallas attempted to make use of these dormant facilities by leasing some of them to an entrepreneur who opened the `` Love Entertainment Complex '' in November 1975 . The main lobby at the front of a former terminal was transformed into movie theaters , ice rink , roller rink , huge video arcades , restaurants and bowling alley . Love seemed especially suited for the pre-teen and teen crowd , who could spend the day for a single admission charge of about $ 3.50 . Love closed in May 1978 . Several of the concourses were remodeled into support and training buildings for Southwest Airlines . After deregulation of the U.S. airline industry in 1978 , Southwest Airlines was able to enter the larger passenger markets and announced plans to start providing interstate service in 1979 . This angered the City of Fort Worth and DFW International Airport , which resented expanded air service at Love Field . Therefore , Fort Worth-based U.S. Representative ( later Speaker of the House ) Jim Wright helped get a `` compromise '' law through Congress that restricted air service at Love Field . Using the pretext of protecting DFW , the Wright Amendment restricted passenger air traffic out of Love Field in the following ways : Passenger service on regular mid-sized and large aircraft could only be provided from Love Field to locations within Texas and four neighboring states ( Louisiana , Arkansas , Oklahoma , and New Mexico ) . Long-haul service to other states was possible , but only on commuter aircraft with no more capacity than 56 passengers . While the Wright Amendment prevented any other major airlines from starting service out of Love Field , it did not deter Southwest . Based on short trips to begin with , Southwest continued to flourish as it used multiple shorthaul flights to build its Love Field operation . Some people managed to `` work the system '' and get around the Wright Amendment 's restrictions . For example , a person could fly from Dallas to Houston or Albuquerque , change planes , and then fly to any city Southwest served — although he had , at the time , to do so on two tickets in each direction , since the Wright Amendment specifically barred airlines from issuing tickets that violated the law 's provisions . This work around was also problematic due to the fact that between flights checked baggage had to be collected and checked onto the next flight . This had the effect of creating mini-hubs at Houston/Hobby Airport and the Albuquerque International Sunport . Southwest continued to grow and became one of the most successful and profitable airlines in the United States . Due to the success of Southwest Airlines , other airlines began considering the use of Love Field for short haul trips . Southwest co-founder Lamar Muse started Muse Air , a short haul competitor using DC-9s and MD-80s between Love Field and Houston in 1982 . Muse Air was unable to operate profitably against Southwest at Love Field , and was purchased by Southwest in 1985 and renamed TranStar Airlines . Southwest ceased Transtar operations in 1987 . Continental Airlines expressed its intent to fly out of Love Field in 1985 , which led to years of court battles over the interpretation of the Wright Amendment as Fort Worth and DFW International Airport continued to try to prevent expansion at Love Field . Seeing the benefit of increased air traffic at Love Field , the City of Dallas began to actively lobby for the repeal of the Wright Amendment restrictions in 1992 . In 1997 the Shelby Amendment passed through Congress , amending the Wright Amendment . A compromise of sorts , the Shelby Amendment allowed Love Field flights to three more states , Kansas , Mississippi , and Alabama . It amended the definition of 56-passenger jets that could fly to other states to include any aircraft weighing less than 300,000 pounds with 56 or fewer seats . The Shelby Amendment caused several airlines to consider flying 56-passenger jets out of Love Field , including Continental , Delta , and a new airline , Legend . The City of Fort Worth immediately sued the City of Dallas to try to prevent the Shelby Amendment from going into effect . American , headquartered at DFW , joined the lawsuits against Dallas , but also said that if other airlines were allowed to fly out of Love Field , it would have no choice but to offer competing service . In 1998 , after a year of legal decisions and appeals , Continental Express became the first major airline other than Southwest to fly out of Love Field since 1974 . American began service out of Love Field shortly thereafter , but continued to sue to stop the service . Fort Worth and American Airlines eventually sued the U.S. Department of Transportation to stop allowing more flights out of Love Field . 2000 to 2013 In 2000 , several federal appeals court decisions finally struck down all lawsuits against the Shelby Amendment . Fort Worth and American Airlines appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court , which refused to review the case . These legal decisions opened the door to increased long haul flights out of Love Field using 56-passenger jets , including new service by Delta and Legend . The majority of this 56-passenger jet market was composed of business travelers making day trips to other cities . In 2001 , the September 11 , 2001 , attacks and the subsequent recession greatly reduced the demand for air travel in the U.S. , especially within the business traveler market . As a result , most of the airlines providing long haul 56-passenger flights stopped service and pulled out of Love Field . By 2003 , Southwest and Continental Express were the only two major commercial airlines operating out of Love Field . However , due to Southwest 's success and the possibility of other airlines returning in the future , the airport has completed an expansion of its parking facilities and is redeveloping one of its terminals . New parking facilities in a 2,400-space garage opened in 2002 and 2003 , connected to the terminal with a climate controlled walkway . The East Concourse , formerly Braniff 's `` Terminal of the Future , '' was demolished as part of the Love Field Modernization Program . In 2002 , Love Field was designated as a Texas State Historical Site in 2003 . The Frontiers of Flight Museum , which had been located inside the airport terminal since 1988 , moved to the north side of the airport in a separate facility . In November 2004 , Southwest announced their active opposition to the Wright Amendment , claiming that the law is anti-competitive and outdated . On November 30 , 2005 , Missouri was added to the list of states exempted from the Wright Amendment by an amendment written by Sen . Kit Bond . Southwest began nonstop flights to Kansas City and St. Louis on December 13 . American Airlines and American Eagle began flights from Love to St. Louis , Kansas City , Austin , and San Antonio on March 2 , 2006 , although American Airlines subsequently pulled out of the market , leaving American Eagle to offer a reduced service to Austin and Kansas City alone . In 2008 , American decided to terminate the Austin and Kansas City service and replace it with service to O'Hare International Airport ( which Southwest does not serve ) using 50-passenger regional jets in compliance with the Wright provisions regarding aircraft size , although American Eagle later stopped service from Love field altogether . On June 15 , 2006 , it was announced that American Airlines , Southwest Airlines , Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport and the cities of Dallas and Fort Worth had all agreed to seek full repeal of the Wright Amendment , with several conditions . Among them : the ban on nonstop flights outside the Wright zone would stay in place until 2014 ; through-ticketing to domestic airports ( connecting flights to long-haul destinations ) would be allowed immediately ; Love Field 's maximum gate capacity would be lowered from 32 to 20 gates ; and Love Field would handle only domestic flights non-stop . Southwest will be able to operate from 16 gates , American 2 gates , and Continental 2 gates . JetBlue and Northwest Airlines claimed that the gate cap will effectively ban any airlines not named in the compromise to ever operate from Love Field , even though the agreement calls for Southwest , American and Continental to share gates with new airlines that desire to serve the airport . The cap of 20 gates would effectively restrict the purpose of the 2014 lifting of the ban on nonstop flights outside the Wright zone . After extensive negotiations with the House and Senate Judiciary Committees , the compromise bill passed both Houses of Congress on Friday , September 29 , just before the 109th Congress adjourned for the November elections . Kay Bailey Hutchison led the effort to pass the bill in the Senate while Rep. Kay Granger led a bipartisan Texas House coalition to see the bill through to a successful conclusion in the House . President George W. Bush signed the bill into law on October 13 , 2006 . Southwest and American Airlines then required approval from the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) to begin one-stop flights from Love Field to destinations outside the Wright limits . On October 17 , 2006 , Southwest Airlines announced that it would begin one-stop or connecting service between Love Field and 25 destinations outside the Wright zone on October 19 , 2006 . American Airlines made travel between Love Field and locations outside the Wright zone available by October 18 , 2006 . In 2008 the airport handled 8,060,792 passengers . In early 2009 a plan to modernize Love Field was announced . The $ 519 million master plan will replace the existing terminals with a new 20-gate concourse and expanded baggage facilities . The project also called for a $ 250 million people mover system to connect to Dallas Area Rapid Transit 's Burbank Station , but this was eliminated in favor of a cheaper bus connection to the Inwood Station . The airport became embroiled in a controversy over concessions contracts when Dallas mayor Tom Leppert , during a March 3 , 2010 , City Council meeting , abruptly withdrew support for no-bid contracts with current airport food vendor Star Concessions Ltd. and newspaper and book vendor Hudson Retail Dallas , insisting that the contracts should be opened to public bidding instead . At a February 22 , 2010 , meeting , the City Council recommended that the existing contracts , set to expire in June 2011 , be extended until 2026 with an additional three-year option and exclusive rights to 54 percent of vending space in a new terminal scheduled to open in 2014 . After several abortive attempts to resolve the issue , the City Council voted on August 18 , 2010 , to open all concessions space in the new terminal for public bidding ; city staff would attempt to reach a deal with Star and Hudson to operate existing concessions space from 2011 to 2014 , otherwise it would also be opened for public bidding . 2014 to present Southwest Airlines added Baltimore , Denver , Las Vegas , Orlando , Washington-Reagan and Chicago on October 13 , 2014 , the day the repeal went into effect . The first flight to operate outside of the Wright Amendment restricted area was Southwest Airlines flight 1013 to Denver ( the flight number of which was named after the date ) . On November 2 , 2014 , Southwest added new service to Atlanta , Nashville , Fort Lauderdale , Los Angeles , New York-LaGuardia , Phoenix , San Diego , Orange County ( CA ) and Tampa . In order to get its merger with US Airways approved by the Department of Justice , American Airlines was forced to give up its 2 gates at Love Field . Delta Air Lines , Southwest Airlines and Virgin America all expressed interest , while the DOJ indicated that a low cost carrier should receive the

qg_3574--Dallas_Love_Field.txt

What successful, no-frills airline is headquartered at Love Field in Dallas, and is one of the few that doesn't charge a baggage handling fee?

Italian cuisine ( ) has developed through centuries of social and political changes , with roots stretching to antiquity . Significant changes occurred with the discovery of the New World and the introduction of potatoes , tomatoes , bell peppers and maize , now central to the cuisine but not introduced in quantity until the 18th century . Italian cuisine is noted for its regional diversity , abundance of difference in taste , and it is probably the most popular in the world , with influences abroad . Italian cuisine is characterized by its simplicity , with many dishes having only four to eight ingredients . Italian cooks rely chiefly on the quality of the ingredients rather than on elaborate preparation . Ingredients and dishes vary by region . Many dishes that were once regional , however , have proliferated with variations throughout the country . Cheese and wine are a major part of the cuisine , with many variations and Denominazione di origine controllata ( DOC ) ( regulated appellation ) laws . Coffee , specifically espresso , has become important in Italian cuisine . History Italian cuisine has developed over the centuries . Although the country known as Italy did not unite until the 19th century , the cuisine can claim traceable roots as far back as the 4th century BCE . Through the centuries , neighbouring regions , conquerors , high-profile chefs , political upheaval and the discovery of the New World have influenced its development . Italian food started to form after the fall of the Roman Empire , when different cities began to separate and form their own traditions . Many different types of bread and pasta were made , and there was a variation in cooking techniques and preparation . The country was split . For example , the North of Italy ( Milan ) is known for its risottos , the central/middle of the country ( Bologna ) is known for its tortellini and the South ( Naples ) is famous for its pizzas . Antiquity The first known Italian food writer was a Greek Sicilian named Archestratus from Syracuse in the 4th century BCE . He wrote a poem that spoke of using `` top quality and seasonal '' ingredients . He said that flavors should not be masked by spices , herbs or other seasonings . He placed importance on simple preparation of fish . Simplicity was abandoned and replaced by a culture of gastronomy as the Roman Empire developed . By the time De re coquinaria was published in the 1st century CE , it contained 470 recipes calling for heavy use of spices and herbs . The Romans employed Greek bakers to produce breads and imported cheeses from Sicily as the Sicilians had a reputation as the best cheesemakers . The Romans reared goats for butchering , and grew artichokes and leeks . Middle Ages With culinary traditions from Rome and Athens , a cuisine developed in Sicily that some consider the first real Italian cuisine . Arabs invaded Sicily in the 9th century , introducing spinach , almonds , and rice . During the 12th century , a Norman king surveyed Sicily and saw people making long strings made from flour and water called atriya , which eventually became trii , a term still used for spaghetti in southern Italy . Normans also introduced casseroles , salt cod ( baccalà ) and stockfish , which remain popular . Food preservation was either chemical or physical , as refrigeration did not exist . Meats and fish would be smoked , dried or kept on ice . Brine and salt were used to pickle items such as herring , and to cure pork . Root vegetables were preserved in brine after they had been parboiled . Other means of preservation included oil , vinegar or immersing meat in congealed , rendered fat . For preserving fruits , liquor , honey and sugar were used . The northern Italian regions show a mix of Germanic and Roman culture while the south reflects Arab influence , as much Mediterranean cuisine was spread by Arab trade . The oldest Italian book on cuisine is the 13th century Liber de coquina written in Naples . Dishes include `` Roman-style '' cabbage ( ad usum romanorum ) , ad usum campanie which were `` small leaves '' prepared in the `` Campanian manner '' , a bean dish from the Marca di Trevisio , a torta , compositum londardicum which are similar to dishes prepared today . Two other books from the 14th century include recipes for Roman pastello , Lasagna pie , and call for the use of salt from Sardinia or Chioggia . In the 15th century , Maestro Martino was chef to the Patriarch of Aquileia at the Vatican . His Libro de arte coquinaria describes a more refined and elegant cuisine . His book contains a recipe for Maccaroni Siciliani , made by wrapping dough around a thin iron rod to dry in the sun . The macaroni was cooked in capon stock flavored with saffron , displaying Persian influences . Of particular note is Martino 's avoidance of excessive spices in favor of fresh herbs . The Roman recipes include coppiette ( air-dried salami ) and cabbage dishes . His Florentine dishes include eggs with Bolognese torta , Sienese torta and Genoese recipes such as piperata ( sweets ) , macaroni , squash , mushrooms , and spinach pie with onions . Martino 's text was included in a 1475 book by Bartolomeo Platina printed in Venice entitled De honesta voluptate et valetudine ( `` On Honest Pleasure and Good Health '' ) . Platina puts Martino 's `` Libro '' in regional context , writing about perch from Lake Maggiore , sardines from Lake Garda , grayling from Adda , hens from Padua , olives from Bologna and Piceno , turbot from Ravenna , rudd from Lake Trasimeno , carrots from Viterbo , bass from the Tiber , roviglioni and shad from Lake Albano , snails from Rieti , figs from Tuscolo , grapes from Narni , oil from Cassino , oranges from Naples and eels from Campania . Grains from Lombardy and Campania are mentioned as is honey from Sicily and Taranto . Wine from the Ligurian coast , Greco from Tuscany and San Severino and Trebbiano from Tuscany and Piceno are also in the book . Early modern era The courts of Florence , Rome , Venice and Ferrara were central to the cuisine . Cristoforo di Messisbugo , steward to Ippolito d'Este , published Banchetti Composizioni di Vivande in 1549 . Messisbugo gives recipes for pies and tarts ( containing 124 recipes with various fillings ) . The work emphasizes the use of Eastern spices and sugar . In 1570 , Bartolomeo Scappi , personal chef to Pope Pius V , wrote his Opera in five volumes , giving a comprehensive view of Italian cooking of that period . It contains over 1,000 recipes , with information on banquets including displays and menus as well as illustrations of kitchen and table utensils . This book differs from most books written for the royal courts in its preference for domestic animals and courtyard birds rather than game . Recipes include lesser cuts of meats such as tongue , head and shoulder . The third volume has recipes for fish in Lent . These fish recipes are simple , including poaching , broiling , grilling and frying after marination . Particular attention is given to seasons and places where fish should be caught . The final volume includes pies , tarts , fritters and a recipe for a sweet Neapolitan pizza ( not the current savory version , as tomatoes had not been introduced to Italy ) . However , such items from the New World as corn ( maize ) and turkey are included . In the first decade of the 17th century , Giangiacomo Castelvetro wrote Breve Racconto di Tutte le Radici di Tutte l'Herbe et di Tutti i Frutti ( A Brief Account of All Roots , Herbs and Fruit ) , translated into English by Gillian Riley . Originally from Modena , Castelvetro moved to England because he was a Protestant . The book has a list of Italian vegetables and fruits and their preparation . He featured vegetables as a central part of the meal , not just accompaniments . He favored simmering vegetables in salted water and serving them warm or cold with olive oil , salt , fresh ground pepper , lemon juice or verjus or orange juice . He also suggests roasting vegetables wrapped in damp paper over charcoal or embers with a drizzle of olive oil . Castelvetro 's book is separated into seasons with hop shoots in the spring and truffles in the winter , detailing the use of pigs in the search for truffles . In 1662 , Bartolomeo Stefani , chef to the Duchy of Mantua , published L'Arte di Ben Cucinare . He was the first to offer a section on vitto ordinario ( `` ordinary food '' ) . The book described a banquet given by Duke Charles for Queen Christina of Sweden , with details of the food and table settings for each guest , including a knife , fork , spoon , glass , a plate ( instead of the bowls more often used ) and a napkin . Other books from this time , such as Galatheo by Giovanni della Casa , tell how scalci ( `` waiters '' ) should manage themselves while serving their guests . Waiters should not scratch their heads or other parts of themselves , or spit , sniff , cough or sneeze while serving diners . The book also told diners not to use their fingers while eating and not to wipe sweat with their napkin . Modern era At the beginning of the 18th century , Italian culinary books began to emphasize the regionalism of Italian cuisine rather than French cuisine . Books written then were no longer addressed to professional chefs but to bourgeois housewives . Periodicals in booklet form such as La cuoca cremonese ( `` The Cook of Cremona '' ) in 1794 give a sequence of ingredients according to season along with chapters on meat , fish and vegetables . As the century progressed these books increased in size , popularity and frequency . In the 18th century , medical texts warned peasants against eating refined foods as it was believed that these were poor for their digestion and their bodies required heavy meals . It was believed by some that peasants ate poorly because they preferred eating poorly . However , many peasants had to eat rotten food and moldy bread because that was all they could afford . In 1779 , Antonio Nebbia from Macerata in the Marche region , wrote Il Cuoco Maceratese ( `` The Cook of Macerata '' ) . Nebbia addressed the importance of local vegetables and pasta , rice and gnocchi . For stock , he preferred vegetables and chicken over other meats . In 1773 , the Neapolitan Vincenzo Corrado 's Il Cuoco Galante ( `` The Courteous Cook '' ) gave particular emphasis to Vitto Pitagorico ( vegetarian food ) . `` Pythagorean food consists of fresh herbs , roots , flowers , fruits , seeds and all that is produced in the earth for our nourishment . It is so called because Pythagoras , as is well known , only used such produce . There is no doubt that this kind of food appears to be more natural to man , and the use of meat is noxious . '' This book was the first to give the tomato a central role with thirteen recipes . Zuppa alli Pomidoro in Corrado 's book is a dish similar to today 's Tuscan pappa al pomodoro . Corrado 's 1798 edition introduced a `` Treatise on the Potato '' after the French Antoine-Augustin Parmentier 's successful promotion of it . In 1790 , Francesco Leonardi in his book L'Apicio moderno ( `` Modern Apicius '' ) sketches a history of the Italian Cuisine from the Roman Age and gives as first a recipe of a tomato based sauce . In the 19th century , Giovanni Vialardi , chef to King Victor Emmanuel , wrote A Treatise of Modern Cookery and Patisserie with recipes `` suitable for a modest household '' . Many of his recipes are for regional dishes from Turin including twelve for potatoes such as Genoese Cappon Magro . In 1829 , Il Nuovo Cuoco Milanese Economico by Giovanni Felice Luraschi features Milanese dishes such as Kidney with Anchovies and Lemon and Gnocchi alla Romana . Gian Battista and Giovanni Ratto 's La Cucina Genovese in 1871 addressed the cuisine of Liguria . This book contained the first recipe for pesto . La Cucina Teorico-Pratica written by Ippolito Cavalcanti has the first recipe for pasta with tomatoes . La scienza in cucina e l'arte di mangiare bene ( `` The Science of Cooking and the Art of Eating Well '' ) , by Pellegrino Artusi , first published in 1891 , is widely regarded as the canon of classic modern Italian cuisine , and it is still in print . Its recipes come mainly from Romagna and Tuscany , where he lived . Ingredients Italian cuisine has a great variety of different ingredients which are commonly used , ranging from fruits , vegetables , sauces , meats , etc . In the North of Italy , fish ( such as cod , or baccalà ) , potatoes , rice , corn ( maize ) , sausages , pork , and different types of cheeses are the most common ingredients . Pasta dishes with use of tomato are spread in all Italy . In Northern Italy though there are many kinds of stuffed pasta , polenta and risotto are equally popular if not more so . Ligurian ingredients include several types of fish and seafood dishes ; basil ( found in pesto ) , nuts and olive oil are very common . In Emilia-Romagna , common ingredients include ham ( prosciutto ) , sausage ( cotechino ) , different sorts of salami , truffles , grana , Parmigiano-Reggiano , and tomatoes ( Bolognese sauce or ragù ) . Traditional Central Italian cuisine uses ingredients such as tomatoes , all kinds of meat , fish , and pecorino cheese . In Tuscany pasta ( especially pappardelle ) is traditionally served with meat sauce ( including game meat ) . Finally , in Southern Italy , tomatoes – fresh or cooked into tomato sauce – peppers , olives and olive oil , garlic , artichokes , oranges , ricotta cheese , eggplants , zucchini , certain types of fish ( anchovies , sardines and tuna ) , and capers are important components to the local cuisine . Italian cuisine is also well known ( and well regarded ) for its use of a diverse variety of pasta . Pasta include noodles in various lengths , widths and shapes . Distinguished on shapes they are named — penne , maccheroni , spaghetti , linguine , fusilli , lasagne and many more varieties that are filled with other ingredients like ravioli and tortellini . The word pasta is also used to refer to dishes in which pasta products are a primary ingredient . It is usually served with sauce . There are hundreds of different shapes of pasta with at least locally recognized names . Examples include spaghetti ( thin rods ) , rigatoni ( tubes or cylinders ) , fusilli ( swirls ) , and lasagne ( sheets ) . Dumplings , like gnocchi ( made with potatoes ) and noodles like spätzle , are sometimes considered pasta . They are both traditional in parts of Italy . Pasta is categorized in two basic styles : dried and fresh . Dried pasta made without eggs can be stored for up to two years under ideal conditions , while fresh pasta will keep for a couple of days in the refrigerator . Pasta is generally cooked by boiling . Under Italian law , dry pasta ( pasta secca ) can only be made from durum wheat flour or durum wheat semolina , and is more commonly used in Southern Italy compared to their Northern counterparts , who traditionally prefer the fresh egg variety . Durum flour and durum semolina have a yellow tinge in color . Italian pasta is traditionally cooked al dente ( Italian : firm to the bite , meaning not too soft ) . Outside Italy , dry pasta is frequently made from other types of flour , but this yields a softer product that can not be cooked al dente . There are many types of wheat flour with varying gluten and protein levels depending on variety of grain used . Particular varieties of pasta may also use other grains and milling methods to make the flour , as specified by law . Some pasta varieties , such as pizzoccheri , are made from buckwheat flour . Fresh pasta may include eggs ( pasta all'uovo 'egg pasta ' ) . Whole wheat pasta has become increasingly popular because of its supposed health benefits over pasta made from refined flour . Regional variation Each area has its own specialties , primarily at a regional level , but also at provincial level . The differences can come from a bordering country ( such as France or Austria ) , whether a region is close to the sea or the mountains , and economics . Italian cuisine is also seasonal with priority placed on the use of fresh produce . Friuli-Venezia Giulia Friuli-Venezia Giulia conserved , in its cuisine , the historical links with Austria-Hungary . Udine and Pordenone , in the western part of Friuli , are known for their traditional San Daniele del Friuli ham , Montasio cheese , and Frico cheese . Other typical dishes are pitina ( meatballs made of smoked meats ) , game , and various types of gnocchi and polenta . The majority of the eastern regional dishes are heavily influenced by Austrian , Hungarian , Slovene and Croatian cuisines : typical dishes include Istrian Stew ( soup of beans , sauerkraut , potatoes , bacon and spare ribs ) , Vienna sausages , goulash , ćevapi , apple strudel , gugelhupf . Pork can be spicy and is often prepared over an open hearth called a fogolar . Collio Goriziano , Friuli Isonzo , Colli Orientali del Friuli and Ramandolo are well-known DOC regional wines . Veneto Venice and many surrounding parts of Veneto are known for risotto , a dish whose ingredients can highly vary upon different areas , as fish and seafood being added closer to the coast and pumpkin , asparagus , radicchio and frogs ' legs appearing further away from the Adriatic . Made from finely ground maize meal , polenta is a traditional , rural food typical of Veneto and most of Northern Italy . It may find its way into stirred dishes and baked dishes and can be served with various cheese , stockfish or meat dishes . Some polenta dishes includes porcini , rapini , or other vegetables or meats , such as small song-birds in the case of the Venetian and Lombard dish polenta e osei , or sausages . In some areas of Veneto it can be also made of a particular variety of cornmeal , named biancoperla , so that the colour of polenta is white and not yellow ( the so-called polenta bianca ) . Beans , peas and other legumes are seen in these areas with pasta e fagioli ( beans and pasta ) and risi e bisi ( rice and peas ) . Veneto features heavy dishes using exotic spices and sauces . Ingredients such as stockfish or simple marinated anchovies are found here as well . Less fish and more meat is eaten away from the coast . Other typical products are sausages such as Soppressa Vicentina , garlic salami , Piave cheese and Asiago cheese . High quality vegetables are prized , such as red radicchio from Treviso and white asparagus from Bassano del Grappa . Perhaps the most popular dish of Venice is fegato alla veneziana , thinly-sliced veal liver sauteed with onions . Squid and cuttlefish are common ingredients , as is squid ink , called nero di seppia . Regional desserts include tiramisu ( made of biscuits dipped in coffee , layered with a whipped mixture of egg yolks and mascarpone , and flavored with liquor and cocoa ) , baicoli ( biscuits made with butter and vanilla ) and nougat . The most celebrated Veneto wines include Bardolino , Prosecco , Soave , Amarone and Valpolicella DOC wines . Trentino-Alto Adige Before the Council of Trent in the middle of the 16th century , the region was known for the simplicity of its peasant cuisine . When the prelates of the Catholic Church established there , they brought the art of fine cooking with them . Later , also influences from Venice and the Austrian Habsburg Empire came in . The Trentino subregion produces various types of sausages , polenta , yogurt , cheese , potato cake , funnel cake and freshwater fish . In the Südtirol ( Alto Adige ) subregion , due to the German-speaking majority population , strong Austrian and Slavic influences prevail . The most renowned local product is traditional speck juniper-flavored ham which , as Speck Alto Adige PGI , is regulated by the European Union under the protected geographical indication ( PGI ) status . Goulash , knödel , apple strudel , kaiserschmarrn , krapfen , rösti , spätzle and rye bread are regular dishes , along with potatoes , dumpling , homemade sauerkraut , and lard . The territory of Bolzano is also reputed for its Müller-Thurgau white wines . Lombardy The regional cuisine of Lombardy is heavily based upon ingredients like maize , rice , beef , pork , butter , and lard . Rice dishes are very popular in this region , often found in soups as well as risotto . The best-known version is risotto alla milanese , flavoured with saffron and typically served with many typical Milanese main courses , such as ossobuco alla milanese ( cross-cut veal shanks braised with vegetables , white wine and broth ) and cotoletta alla milanese ( a fried cutlet similar to Wiener schnitzel , but cooked `` bone-in '' ) . Other regional specialities include cassoeula ( a typical winter dish prepared with cabbage and pork ) , Cremona 's Mostarda ( rich condiment made with candied fruit and a mustard flavoured syrup ) , Valtellina 's Bresaola ( air-dried salted beef ) and Pizzoccheri ( a flat ribbon pasta , made with 80 % buckwheat flour and 20 % wheat flour cooked along with greens , cubed potatoes and layered with pieces of Valtellina Casera cheese ) and Mantua 's tortelli di zucca ( ravioli with pumpkin filling ) accompanied by melted butter and followed by turkey stuffed with chicken or other stewed meats . Regional cheeses include Robiola , Crescenza , Taleggio , Gorgonzola and Grana Padano ( the plains of central and southern Lombardy allow intensive cattle-raising ) . Polenta is generally common across the region . Regional desserts include the famous panettone Christmas cake ( sweet bread with candied orange , citron , and lemon zest , as well as raisins , which are added dry and not soaked ) . Valle d'Aosta In the Aosta Valley , bread-thickened soups are customary as well as cheese fondue , chestnuts , potatoes , rice . Polenta is a staple along with rye bread , smoked bacon , Motsetta ( cured chamois meat ) and game from the mountains and forests . Butter and cream are important in stewed , roasted and braised dishes . Typical regional products include Fontina cheese , Vallée d'Aoste Lard d'Arnad , red wines and Génépi Artemisia-based liqueur . Piedmont Between the Alps and the Po valley , with a large number of different ecosystems , this region offers the most refined and varied cuisine of the Italian peninsula . Point of union of traditional Italian and French cuisine , Piedmont is the Italian region with the largest number of cheeses Protected Geographical Status and wines Denominazione di origine controllata . It is also the region where both Slow Food association and the most prestigious school of Italian cooking , the University of Gastronomic Sciences , were founded . Piedmont is a region where gathering nuts , mushrooms , cardoons and hunting and fishing takes place . Truffles , garlic , seasonal vegetables , cheese and rice are all used . Wines from the Nebbiolo grape such as Barolo and Barbaresco are produced as well as wines from the Barbera grape , fine sparkling wines , and the sweet , lightly sparkling , Moscato d'Asti . The region is also famous for its Vermouth and Ratafia production . Castelmagno is a prized cheese of the region . Piedmont is also famous for the quality of its Carrù beef ( particularly famous for its fair of the `` Bue Grasso '' , Fat Ox ) , hence the tradition of eating raw meat seasoned with garlic oil , lemon and salt the famous Carpaccio , the famous Brasato al vino , wine stew made from marinated beef , and boiled beef served with various sauces . The food most typical of the Piedmont tradition are its traditional agnolotti ( pasta folded over with a roast beef meat and vegetable stuffing ) , Panissa ( a typical dish of Vercelli , a kind of risotto with Arborio rice or Maratelli rice , the typical kind of Saluggia beans , onion , Barbera wine , lard , salami , salt and pepper ) , taglierini ( thinner version of tagliatelle ) , bagna cauda ( sauce of garlic , anchovies , olive oil and butter ) and bicerin ( hot drink made of coffee , chocolate and whole milk ) . Finally Piedmont is one of the Italian capitals of pastry and chocolate in particular , with products like Nutella , gianduiotto and marron glacé that are famous worldwide . Liguria Liguria is known for herbs and vegetables ( as well as seafood ) in its cuisine . Savory pies are popular , mixing greens and artichokes along with cheeses , milk curds and eggs . Onions and olive oil are used . Because of a lack of land suitable for wheat , the Ligurians use chickpeas in farinata and polenta-like panissa . The former is served plain or topped with onions , artichokes , sausage , cheese or young anchovies . Hilly districts use chestnuts as a source of carbohydrates . Ligurian pastas include corzetti from the Polcevera valley , pansoti , a triangular shaped ravioli filled with vegetables , piccagge , pasta ribbons made with a small amount of egg and served with artichoke sauce or pesto sauce , trenette , made from whole wheat flour cut into long strips and served with pesto , boiled beans and potatoes , and trofie , a Ligurian gnocchi made from whole grain flour and boiled potatoes , made into a spiral shape and often tossed in pesto . Many Ligurians emigrated to Argentina in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , influencing the cuisine of this country ( which otherwise dominated by meat and dairy products which the narrow Ligurian hinterland would have not allowed ) . Emilia-Romagna Emilia-Romagna is known for its egg and filled pasta made with soft wheat flour . The Romagna subregion is known as well for pasta dishes like cappelletti , garganelli , strozzapreti , sfoglia lorda and tortelli alla lastra or very peculiar cheese like squacquerone , piada snacks are famous worldwide . In the Emilia subregion , except Piacenza which is heavily influenced by the cuisines of Lombardy , rice is eaten to a lesser extent . Polenta , a maize-based dish , is common both in Emilia and Romagna . Bologna is notable for pasta dishes like tortellini , lasagne , gramigna and tagliatelle which are found also in many other parts of the region in different declinations . The celebrated balsamic vinegar is made only in the Emilian cities of Modena and Reggio Emilia , following legally binding traditional procedures . Parmigiano Reggiano cheese is produced in Reggio Emilia , Parma , Modena and Bologna and is much used in cooking , while Grana Padano variety is produced in Piacenza . Although the Adriatic coast is a major fishing area ( well known for its eels and clams ) , the region is more

qw_16426--Italian_cuisine.txt

The Italian cheese called dolcelatte translates into English as what?

Leo is one of the constellations of the zodiac , lying between Cancer to the west and Virgo to the east . Its name is Latin for lion , and to the ancient Greeks represented the Nemean Lion killed by the mythical Greek hero Heracles ( known to the ancient Romans as Hercules ) as one of his twelve labors . Its symbol is ( Unicode ♌ ) . One of the 48 constellations described by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy , Leo remains one of the 88 modern constellations today , and one of the most easily recognizable due to its many bright stars and a distinctive shape that is reminiscent of the crouching lion it depicts . The lion 's mane and shoulders also form an asterism known as `` the Sickle , '' which to modern observers may resemble a backwards `` question mark . '' Notable features Stars Leo contains many bright stars , many of which were individually identified by the ancients . There are four stars of first or second magnitude , which render this constellation especially prominent : * Regulus , designated Alpha Leonis , is a blue-white main-sequence star of magnitude 1.34 , 77.5 light-years from Earth . It is a double star divisible in binoculars , with a secondary of magnitude 7.7 . Its traditional name ( Regulus ) means `` the little king '' . * Beta Leonis , called Denebola , is at the opposite end of the constellation to Regulus . It is a blue-white star of magnitude 2.23 , 36 light-years from Earth . The name Denebola means `` the lion 's tail '' . * Algieba , Gamma Leonis , is a binary star with a third optical component ; the primary and secondary are divisible in small telescopes and the tertiary is visible in binoculars . The primary is a gold-yellow giant star of magnitude 2.61 and the secondary is similar but at magnitude 3.6 ; they have a period of 600 years and are 126 light-years from Earth . The unrelated tertiary , 40 Leonis , is a yellow-tinged star of magnitude 4.8 . Its traditional name , Algieba , means `` the forehead '' . * Delta Leonis , called Zosma , is a blue-white star of magnitude 2.58 , 58 light-years from Earth . * Epsilon Leonis is a yellow giant of magnitude 3.0 , 251 light-years from Earth . * Zeta Leonis , called Adhafera , is an optical triple star . The brightest and only star designated Zeta Leonis , is a white giant star of magnitude 3.65 , 260 light-years from Earth . The second brightest , 39 Leonis , is widely spaced to the south and of magnitude 5.8 . 35 Leonis is to the north and of magnitude 6.0 . * Iota Leonis is a binary star divisible in medium amateur telescopes ; they are divisible in small amateur telescopes at their widest in the years 2053–2063 . To the unaided eye , Iota Leonis appears to be a yellow-tinged star of magnitude 4.0 . The system , 79 light-years from Earth , has components of magnitude 4.1 and 6.7 with a period of 183 years . * Tau Leonis is a double star visible in binoculars . The primary is a yellow giant of magnitude 5.0 , 621 light-years from Earth . The secondary is a star of magnitude 8 . 54 Leonis is a binary star 289 light-years from Earth , divisible in small telescopes . The primary is a blue-white star of magnitude 4.5 and the secondary is a blue-white star of magnitude 6.3 . The other named stars in Leo are Mu Leonis , Rasalas ( an abbreviation of `` Al Ras al Asad al Shamaliyy , '' meaning `` The Lion 's Head Toward the South '' ) ; and Theta Leonis , Chertan or Coxa ( `` hip '' ) . Leo is also home to one bright variable star , the red giant R Leonis . It is a Mira variable with a minimum magnitude of 10 and normal maximum magnitude of 6 ; it periodically brightens to magnitude 4.4 . R Leonis , 330 light-years from Earth , has a period of 310 days and a diameter of 450 solar diameters . The star Wolf 359 ( CN Leonis ) , one of the nearest stars to Earth at 7.8 light-years away , is in Leo . Wolf 359 is a red dwarf of magnitude 13.5 ; it periodically brightens by one magnitude or less because it is a flare star . Gliese 436 , a faint star in Leo about 33 light years away from the Sun , is orbited by a transiting Neptune-mass extrasolar planet . The carbon star CW Leo ( IRC +10216 ) is the brightest star in the night sky at the infrared N-band ( 10 μm wavelength ) . The star SDSS J102915+172927 ( Caffau 's star ) is a population II star in the galactic halo seen in Leo . It is about 13 billion years old , making it one of the oldest stars in the Galaxy . It has the lowest metallicity of any known star . Modern astronomers , including Tycho Brahe in 1602 , excised a group of stars that once made up the `` tuft '' of the lion 's tail and used them to form the new constellation Coma Berenices ( Berenice 's hair ) , although there was precedent for that designation among the ancient Greeks and Romans . Deep-sky objects Leo contains many bright galaxies ; Messier 65 , Messier 66 , Messier 95 , Messier 96 , Messier 105 , and NGC 3628 are the most famous , the first two being part of the Leo Triplet . The Leo Ring , a cloud of hydrogen and helium gas , is found in orbit of two galaxies found within this constellation . M66 is a spiral galaxy that is part of the Leo Triplet , whose other two members are M65 and NGC 3628 . It is at a distance of 37 million light-years and has a somewhat distorted shape due to gravitational interactions with the other members of the Triplet , which are pulling stars away from M66 . Eventually , the outermost stars may form a dwarf galaxy orbiting M66 . Both M65 and M66 are visible in large binoculars or small telescopes , but their concentrated nuclei and elongation are only visible in large amateur instruments . M95 and M96 are both spiral galaxies 20 million light-years from Earth . Though they are visible as fuzzy objects in small telescopes , their structure is only visible in larger instruments . M95 is a barred spiral galaxy . M105 is about a degree away from the M95/M96 pair ; it is an elliptical galaxy of the 9th magnitude , also about 20 million light-years from Earth . NGC 2903 is a barred spiral galaxy discovered by William Herschel in 1784 . It is very similar in size and shape to the Milky Way and is located 25 million light-years from Earth . In its core , NGC 2903 has many `` hotspots '' , which have been found to be near regions of star formation . The star formation in this region is thought to be due to the presence of the dusty bar , which sends shock waves through its rotation to an area with a diameter of 2,000 light-years . The outskirts of the galaxy have many young open clusters . Leo is also home to some of the largest structures in the observable universe . Some of the structures found in the constellation are the Clowes–Campusano LQG , U1.11 , U1.54 , and the Huge-LQG , which are all large quasar groups ; the latter being the second largest structure known ( see also NQ2-NQ4 GRB overdensity ) . Meteor showers The Leonids occur in November , peaking on November 14–15 , and have a radiant close to Gamma Leonis . Its parent body is Comet Tempel-Tuttle , which causes significant outbursts every 35 years . The normal peak rate is approximately 10 meteors per hour . The January Leonids are a minor shower that peaks between January 1 and 7 . History and mythology Leo was one of the earliest recognized constellations , with archaeological evidence that the Mesopotamians had a similar constellation as early as 4000 BCE . The Persians called Leo Ser or Shir ; the Turks , Artan ; the Syrians , Aryo ; the Jews , Arye ; the Indians , Simha , all meaning `` lion '' . Some mythologists believe that in Sumeria , Leo represented the monster Humbaba , who was killed by Gilgamesh . In Babylonian astronomy , the constellation was called UR.GU.LA , the `` Great Lion '' ; the bright star Regulus was known as `` the star that stands at the Lion 's breast . '' Regulus also had distinctly regal associations , as it was known as the King Star . In Greek mythology , Leo was identified as the Nemean Lion which was killed by Heracles ( Hercules to the Romans ) during the first of his twelve labours . The Nemean Lion would take women as hostages to its lair in a cave , luring warriors from nearby towns to save the damsel in distress , to their misfortune . The Lion was impervious to any weaponry ; thus , the warriors ' clubs , swords , and spears were rendered useless against it . Realizing that he must defeat the Lion with his bare hands , Hercules slipped into the Lion 's cave and engaged it at close quarters . When the Lion pounced , Hercules caught it in midair , one hand grasping the Lion 's forelegs and the other its hind legs , and bent it backwards , breaking its back and freeing the trapped maidens . Zeus commemorated this labor by placing the Lion in the sky . The Roman poet Ovid called it Herculeus Leo and Violentus Leo . Bacchi Sidus ( star of Bacchus ) was another of its titles , the god Bacchus always being identified with this animal . However , Manilius called it Jovis et Junonis Sidus ( Star of Jupiter and Juno ) . Astrology , the Sun appears in the constellation Leo from August 10 to Sept 10 . In tropical astrology , the Sun is considered to be in the sign Leo from July 23 to August 27 , and in sidereal astrology , from August 16 to September 17 . Visualizations Leo is commonly represented as if the sickle-shaped asterism of stars is the back of the Lion 's head . The sickle is marked by six stars : Epsilon Leonis , Mu Leonis , Zeta Leonis , Gamma Leonis , Eta Leonis , and Alpha Leonis . The lion 's tail is marked by Beta Leonis ( Denebola ) and the rest of his body is delineated by Delta Leonis and Theta Leonis . H.A . Rey has suggested an alternative way to connect the stars , which graphically shows a lion walking . The stars delta Leonis , gamma Leonis , eta Leonis , and theta Leonis form the body of the lion , with gamma Leonis being of the second magnitude and delta Leonis and theta Leonis being of the third magnitude . The stars gamma Leonis , zeta Leonis , mu Leonis , epsilon Leonis , and eta Leonis form the lion 's neck , with epsilon Leonis being of the third magnitude . The stars mu Leonis , kappa Leonis , lambda Leonis , and epsilon Leonis form the head of the lion . Delta Leonis and beta Leonis form the lion 's tail : beta Leonis , also known as Denebola , is the bright tip of the tail with a magnitude of two . The stars theta Leonis , iota Leonis , and sigma Leonis form the left hind leg of the lion , with sigma Leonis being the foot . The stars theta Leonis and rho Leonis form the right hind leg , with rho Leonis being the foot . The stars eta Leonis and Alpha Leonis mark the lion 's heart , with alpha Leonis , also known as Regulus , being the bright star of magnitude one . The stars eta Leonis and omicron Leonis form the right front foot of the Lion . Namesakes USS Leonis ( AK-128 ) was a United States Navy Crater class cargo ship named after the Latin version of this constellation name .

qz_4493--Leo_(constellation).txt

Which constellation contains many bright shining stars, such as Regulus?

The visual arts are art forms such as ceramics , drawing , painting , sculpture , printmaking , design , crafts , photography , video , filmmaking and architecture . Many artistic disciplines ( performing arts , conceptual art , textile arts ) involve aspects of the visual arts as well as arts of other types . Also included within the visual arts are the applied arts such as industrial design , graphic design , fashion design , interior design and decorative art . Current usage of the term `` visual arts '' includes fine art as well as the applied , decorative arts and crafts , but this was not always the case . Before the Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain and elsewhere at the turn of the 20th century , the term 'artist ' was often restricted to a person working in the fine arts ( such as painting , sculpture , or printmaking ) and not the handicraft , craft , or applied art media . The distinction was emphasized by artists of the Arts and Crafts Movement , who valued vernacular art forms as much as high forms . Art schools made a distinction between the fine arts and the crafts , maintaining that a craftsperson could not be considered a practitioner of the arts . The increasing tendency to privilege painting , and to a lesser degree sculpture , above other arts has been a feature of Western art as well as East Asian art . In both regions painting has been seen as relying to the highest degree on the imagination of the artist , and the furthest removed from manual labour - in Chinese painting the most highly valued styles were those of `` scholar-painting '' , at least in theory practiced by gentleman amateurs . The Western hierarchy of genres reflected similar attitudes . Education and training Training in the visual arts has generally been through variations of the apprentice and workshop systems . In Europe the Renaissance movement to increase the prestige of the artist led to the academy system for training artists , and today most of the people who are pursuing a career in arts train in art schools at tertiary levels . Visual arts have now become an elective subject in most education systems . ( See also art education . ) Drawing Drawing is a means of making an image , using any of a wide variety of tools and techniques . It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool , or moving a tool across a surface using dry media such as graphite pencils , pen and ink , inked brushes , wax color pencils , crayons , charcoals , pastels , and markers . Digital tools that simulate the effects of these are also used . The main techniques used in drawing are : line drawing , hatching , crosshatching , random hatching , scribbling , stippling , and blending . An artist who excels in drawing is referred to as a draftsman or draughtsman . Drawing goes back at least 16,000 years to Paleolithic cave representations of animals such as those at Lascaux in France and Altamira in Spain . In ancient Egypt , ink drawings on papyrus , often depicting people , were used as models for painting or sculpture . Drawings on Greek vases , initially geometric , later developed to the human form with black-figure pottery during the 7th century BC . With paper becoming common in Europe by the 15th century , drawing was adopted by masters such as Sandro Botticelli , Raphael , Michelangelo , and Leonardo da Vinci who sometimes treated drawing as an art in its own right rather than a preparatory stage for painting or sculpture . Painting Painting taken literally is the practice of applying pigment suspended in a carrier ( or medium ) and a binding agent ( a glue ) to a surface ( support ) such as paper , canvas or a wall . However , when used in an artistic sense it means the use of this activity in combination with drawing , composition and , or , other aesthetic considerations in order to manifest the expressive and conceptual intention of the practitioner . Painting is also used to express spiritual motifs and ideas ; sites of this kind of painting range from artwork depicting mythological figures on pottery to The Sistine Chapel to the human body itself . Origins and early history Like drawing , painting has its documented origins in caves and on rock faces . The finest examples , believed by some to be 32,000 years old , are in the Chauvet and Lascaux caves in southern France . In shades of red , brown , yellow and black , the paintings on the walls and ceilings are of bison , cattle , horses and deer . Paintings of human figures can be found in the tombs of ancient Egypt . In the great temple of Ramses II , Nefertari , his queen , is depicted being led by Isis . The Greeks contributed to painting but much of their work has been lost . One of the best remaining representations is the mosaic of the Battle of Issus at Pompeii , which was probably based on a Greek painting . Greek and Roman art contributed to Byzantine art in the 4th century BC , which initiated a tradition in icon painting . The Renaissance Apart from the illuminated manuscripts produced by monks during the Middle Ages , the next significant contribution to European art was from Italy 's renaissance painters . From Giotto in the 13th century to Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael at the beginning of the 16th century , this was the richest period in Italian art as the chiaroscuro techniques were used to create the illusion of 3-D space . Painters in northern Europe too were influenced by the Italian school . Jan van Eyck from Belgium , Pieter Bruegel the Elder from the Netherlands and Hans Holbein the Younger from Germany are among the most successful painters of the times . They used the glazing technique with oils to achieve depth and luminosity . Dutch masters The 17th century witnessed the emergence of the great Dutch masters such as the versatile Rembrandt who was especially remembered for his portraits and Bible scenes , and Vermeer who specialized in interior scenes of Dutch life . Baroque The Baroque started after the Renaissance , from the late 16th century to the late 17th century . Main artists of the Baroque included Caravaggio , who made heavy use of tenebrism . Peter Paul Rubens was a flemish painter who studied in Italy , worked for local churches in Antwerp and also painted a series for Marie de ' Medici . Annibale Carracci took influences from the Sistine Chapel and created the genre of illusionistic ceiling painting . Much of the development that happened in the Baroque was because of the Protestant Reformation and the resulting Counter Reformation . Much of what defines the Baroque is dramatic lighting and overall visuals . Impressionism Impressionism began in France in the 19th century with a loose association of artists including Claude Monet , Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Paul Cézanne who brought a new freely brushed style to painting , often choosing to paint realistic scenes of modern life outside rather than in the studio . This was achieved through a new expression of aesthetic features demonstrated by brush strokes and the impression of reality . They achieved intense colour vibration by using pure , unmixed colours and short brush strokes . The movement influenced art as a dynamic , moving through time and adjusting to new found techniques and perception of art . Attention to detail became less of a priority in achieving , whilst exploring a biased view of landscapes and nature to the artists eye . Post-impressionism Towards the end of the 19th century , several young painters took impressionism a stage further , using geometric forms and unnatural colour to depict emotions while striving for deeper symbolism . Of particular note are Paul Gauguin , who was strongly influenced by Asian , African and Japanese art , Vincent van Gogh , a Dutchman who moved to France where he drew on the strong sunlight of the south , and Toulouse-Lautrec , remembered for his vivid paintings of night life in the Paris district of Montmartre . Symbolism , expressionism and cubism Edvard Munch , a Norwegian artist , developed his symbolistic approach at the end of the 19th century , inspired by the French impressionist Manet . The Scream ( 1893 ) , his most famous work , is widely interpreted as representing the universal anxiety of modern man . Partly as a result of Munch 's influence , the German expressionist movement originated in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century as artists such as Ernst Kirschner and Erich Heckel began to distort reality for an emotional effect . In parallel , the style known as cubism developed in France as artists focused on the volume and space of sharp structures within a composition . Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque were the leading proponents of the movement . Objects are broken up , analyzed , and re-assembled in an abstracted form . By the 1920s , the style had developed into surrealism with Dali and Magritte . Printmaking Printmaking is creating , for artistic purposes , an image on a matrix that is then transferred to a two-dimensional ( flat ) surface by means of ink ( or another form of pigmentation ) . Except in the case of a monotype , the same matrix can be used to produce many examples of the print . Historically , the major techniques ( also called media ) involved are woodcut , line engraving , etching , lithography , and screenprinting ( serigraphy , silkscreening ) but there are many others , including modern digital techniques . Normally , the print is printed on paper , but other mediums range from cloth and vellum to more modern materials . Major printmaking traditions include that of Japan ( ukiyo-e ) . European history Prints in the Western tradition produced before about 1830 are known as old master prints . In Europe , from around 1400 AD woodcut , was used for master prints on paper by using printing techniques developed in the Byzantine and Islamic worlds . Michael Wolgemut improved German woodcut from about 1475 , and Erhard Reuwich , a Dutchman , was the first to use cross-hatching . At the end of the century Albrecht Dürer brought the Western woodcut to a stage that has never been surpassed , increasing the status of the single-leaf woodcut . Chinese origin and practice In China , the art of printmaking developed some 1,100 years ago as illustrations alongside text cut in woodblocks for printing on paper . Initially images were mainly religious but in the Song Dynasty , artists began to cut landscapes . During the Ming ( 1368–1644 ) and Qing ( 1616–1911 ) dynasties , the technique was perfected for both religious and artistic engravings . Development In Japan 1603-1867 Woodblock printing in Japan ( Japanese : 木版画 , moku hanga ) is a technique best known for its use in the ukiyo-e artistic genre ; however , it was also used very widely for printing books in the same period . Woodblock printing had been used in China for centuries to print books , long before the advent of movable type , but was only widely adopted in Japan surprisingly late , during the Edo period ( 1603-1867 ) . Although similar to woodcut in western printmaking in some regards , moku hanga differs greatly in that water-based inks are used ( as opposed to western woodcut , which uses oil-based inks ) , allowing for a wide range of vivid color , glazes and color transparency . Photography Photography is the process of making pictures by means of the action of light . Light patterns reflected or emitted from objects are recorded onto a sensitive medium or storage chip through a timed exposure . The process is done through mechanical shutters or electronically timed exposure of photons into chemical processing or digitizing devices known as cameras . The word comes from the Greek words φως phos ( `` light '' ) , and γραφις graphis ( `` stylus '' , `` paintbrush '' ) or γραφη graphê , together meaning `` drawing with light '' or `` representation by means of lines '' or `` drawing . '' Traditionally , the product of photography has been called a photograph . The term photo is an abbreviation ; many people also call them pictures . In digital photography , the term image has begun to replace photograph . ( The term image is traditional in geometric optics . ) Filmmaking Filmmaking is the process of making a motion-picture , from an initial conception and research , through scriptwriting , shooting and recording , animation or other special effects , editing , sound and music work and finally distribution to an audience ; it refers broadly to the creation of all types of films , embracing documentary , strains of theatre and literature in film , and poetic or experimental practices , and is often used to refer to video-based processes as well . Computer art Visual artists are no longer limited to traditional art media . Computers have been used as an ever more common tool in the visual arts since the 1960s . Uses include the capturing or creating of images and forms , the editing of those images and forms ( including exploring multiple compositions ) and the final rendering and/or printing ( including 3D printing ) . Computer art is any in which computers played a role in production or display . Such art can be an image , sound , animation , video , CD-ROM , DVD , video game , website , algorithm , performance or gallery installation . Many traditional disciplines are now integrating digital technologies and , as a result , the lines between traditional works of art and new media works created using computers have been blurred . For instance , an artist may combine traditional painting with algorithmic art and other digital techniques . As a result , defining computer art by its end product can be difficult . Nevertheless , this type of art is beginning to appear in art museum exhibits , though it has yet to prove its legitimacy as a form unto itself and this technology is widely seen in contemporary art more as a tool rather than a form as with painting . Computer usage has blurred the distinctions between illustrators , photographers , photo editors , 3-D modelers , and handicraft artists . Sophisticated rendering and editing software has led to multi-skilled image developers . Photographers may become digital artists . Illustrators may become animators . Handicraft may be computer-aided or use computer-generated imagery as a template . Computer clip art usage has also made the clear distinction between visual arts and page layout less obvious due to the easy access and editing of clip art in the process of paginating a document , especially to the unskilled observer . Glitch art Glitch art is the aestheticization of digital or analog errors , such as artifacts and other `` bugs '' , by either corrupting digital code/data or by physically manipulating electronic devices ( for example by circuit bending ) . Glitch art can apply to video , music , sound art , photography or digital art . Plastic arts Plastic arts is a term , now largely forgotten , encompassing art forms that involve physical manipulation of a plastic medium by moulding or modeling such as sculpture or ceramics . The term has also been applied to all the visual ( non-literary , non-musical ) arts . Materials that can be carved or shaped , such as stone or wood , concrete or steel , have also been included in the narrower definition , since , with appropriate tools , such materials are also capable of modulation . This use of the term `` plastic '' in the arts should not be confused with Piet Mondrian 's use , nor with the movement he termed , in French and English , `` Neoplasticism . '' Sculpture Sculpture is three-dimensional artwork created by shaping or combining hard and/or plastic material , sound , and/or text and or light , commonly stone ( either rock or marble ) , clay , metal , glass , or wood . Some sculptures are created directly by finding or carving ; others are assembled , built together and fired , welded , molded , or cast . Sculptures are often painted . A person who creates sculptures is called a sculptor . Because sculpture involves the use of materials that can be moulded or modulated , it is considered one of the plastic arts . The majority of public art is sculpture . Many sculptures together in a garden setting may be referred to as a sculpture garden . Sculptors do not always make sculptures by hand . With increasing technology in the 20th century and the popularity of conceptual art over technical mastery , more sculptors turned to art fabricators to produce their artworks . With fabrication , the artist creates a design and pays a fabricator to produce it . This allows sculptors to create larger and more complex sculptures out of material like cement , metal and plastic , that they would not be able to create by hand . Sculptures can also be made with 3-d printing technology . United States of America copyright definition of visual art In the United States , the law protecting the copyright over a piece of visual art gives a more restrictive definition of `` visual art '' . The following quote is from the Copyright Law of the United States of America- Chapter 1 : A “ work of visual art ” is — ( 1 ) a painting , drawing , print or sculpture , existing in a single copy , in a limited edition of 200 copies or fewer that are signed and consecutively numbered by the author , or , in the case of a sculpture , in multiple cast , carved , or fabricated sculptures of 200 or fewer that are consecutively numbered by the author and bear the signature or other identifying mark of the author ; or ( 2 ) a still photographic image produced for exhibition purposes only , existing in a single copy that is signed by the author , or in a limited edition of 200 copies or fewer that are signed and consecutively numbered by the author . A work of visual art does not include — ( A ) ( i ) any poster , map , globe , chart , technical drawing , diagram , model , applied art , motion picture or other audiovisual work , book , magazine , newspaper , periodical , data base , electronic information service , electronic publication , or similar publication ; ( ii ) any merchandising item or advertising , promotional , descriptive , covering , or packaging material or container ; ( iii ) any portion or part of any item described in clause ( i ) or ( ii ) ; ( B ) any work made for hire ; or ( C ) any work not subject to copyright protection under this title .

qw_8018--Visual_arts.txt

"What profession requires the artist to know about ""F stops""?"

Vincent Willem van Gogh ( ; 30 March 1853 - 29 July 1890 ) was a Dutch Post-Impressionist painter whose work had a far-reaching influence on 20th-century art . He was highly prolific and often completed more than one painting per day . In just over a decade he created approximately 2100 artworks , including around 860 oil paintings , most of them in the last two years of his life . They include landscapes , still lifes , portraits and self-portraits , and are characterised by symbolic colours and dramatic , impulsive , highly expressive paintwork . He sold only one painting during his lifetime and was largely unnoticed by critics until his suicide , aged 37 , which followed years of poverty and mental illness . Born into an upper-middle-class family , Van Gogh was thoughtful and intellectual as a child , but showed signs of mental instability . He worked as an art dealer as a young man , often travelling , but became depressed after he was transferred to London . He turned to religion , spending time as a missionary in southern Belgium , and later drifting in ill-health and solitude . He was keenly aware of modernist trends in art , and after moving back home with his parents , took up painting in 1881 with the financial support of his younger brother Theo , who kept up a long correspondence of letters with him . Many of his early works depict common and peasant labourers , and contain few signs of the vivid colour that distinguished his mature period when he broadened his subject matter to include olive trees , cypresses , wheat fields and sunflowers . In 1886 he moved to Paris and discovered the French Impressionists . From then his paintings grew brighter in colour as he developed a style that became fully realised during his stay in Arles in 1888 . There he lived in the `` Yellow House '' , and with the French artist Paul Gauguin developed a concept of colour that symbolised inner emotion . Van Gogh suffered from continued psychotic episodes and delusions , an though he worried about his mental stability he often neglected his physical health , not eating and drinking heavily . His friendship with Gauguin came to an end after a violent encounter when he threatened the Frenchman with a razor , and in a rage , cut off part of his own right ear . While in a psychiatric hospital in Saint-Rémy his condition stabilised , leading to one of the more productive periods of his life . He moved to the Auberge Ravoux in Auvers-sur-Oise under the care of the homeopathic doctor and artist , Paul Gachet . While there , Theo wrote that he could no longer support him financially . A few weeks later , on 27 July 1890 , Van Gogh walked into a wheat field and shot himself in the chest with a revolver . He died from his injuries two days later . Considered a madman and a failure in his lifetime , Van Gogh exists in the public imagination as the quintessential misunderstood genius , the artist `` where discourses on madness and creativity converge . '' His widespread critical , commercial and popular success began after his adoption by the early 20th-century Fauves and German Expressionists . His reputation continued to grow steadily and today he is remembered as an important but tragic painter , whose troubled personality typifies the romantic ideal of the tortured artist . Art historians typically view him as an exceptionally talented and influential artist whose mental instability inhibited and frustrated his artistic progression . Letters The most comprehensive primary source for understanding Van Gogh is the correspondence between him and his younger brother . Theo van Gogh was an art dealer and provided his brother with financial and emotional support , and access to influential people on the contemporary art scene . The first letter , from Vincent to Theo , was written in August 1872 while Theo was still at school , and they continued to correspond throughout their lives . Their lifelong friendship , and most of what is known of Vincent 's thoughts and theories of art , are recorded in the hundreds of letters they exchanged between 1872 and 1890 . Vincent 's letters are eloquent and expressive , have been described as having a `` diary-like intimacy '' , and in parts read like autobiography . The art historian and translator of the letters , Arnold Pomerans , wrote that `` the publication of these letters added a fresh dimension to the understanding of Van Gogh 's artistic achievement , an understanding granted us by virtually no other painter . '' Theo saved all of Vincent 's letters , and his widow Johanna van Gogh-Bonger had some of them published in 1906 and 1913 ; the majority were published in 1914 . There are more than 600 letters from Vincent to Theo , and 40 from Theo to Vincent . In addition there are 22 to his sister Wil , 58 to the painter Anthon van Rappard , 22 to Émile Bernard , and individual letters to Paul Signac , Paul Gauguin and the critic Albert Aurier . Some are annotated with sketches . Many are undated , but art historians have been able to place most in chronological order . Problems in transcription and dating remain , mainly with those from Arles . While there , Vincent wrote around 200 letters , in Dutch , French and English . The period when he lived in Paris is the most difficult to put together because the brothers lived together and had no need to correspond . Life Early years Vincent Willem van Gogh was born on 30 March 1853 in Groot-Zundert , in the predominantly Catholic province of North Brabant in the southern Netherlands . He was the oldest surviving child of Theodorus van Gogh , a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church , and Anna Cornelia Carbentus . Van Gogh was given the name of his grandfather , and of a brother stillborn exactly a year before his birth . Vincent was a common name in the Van Gogh family : his grandfather , Vincent ( 1789–1874 ) , received a degree in theology at the University of Leiden in 1811 , and had six sons , three of whom became art dealers . His grandfather may have been named after his own father 's uncle , a sculptor ( 1729–1802 ) . His mother came from a prosperous family in The Hague , and his father was the youngest son of a minister . The two met when Anna 's younger sister , Cornelia , married Theodorus 's older brother Vincent ( Cent ) . Van Gogh 's parents married in May 1851 and moved to Zundert . His brother Theo was born on 1 May 1857 . There was another brother , Cor , and three sisters : Elisabeth , Anna , and Willemina ( known as `` Wil '' ) . In later life Van Gogh remained in touch only with Willemina and Theo . Van Gogh 's mother was a rigid and religious woman who emphasised the importance of family to the point of claustrophobia for those around her , according to the Van Gogh biographers Naifeh and Smith . Although Theodorus 's salary was modest , the Church supplied the family with a house , a maid , two cooks , a gardener , a carriage and horse , and Anna instilled in the children a duty to uphold the family 's high social position . Van Gogh was a serious and thoughtful child . He was taught at home by Anna and a governess , and in 1860 was sent to the village school . In 1864 he was placed in a boarding school at Zevenbergen , where he felt abandoned , and campaigned to come home . In 1866 he moved to the middle school in Tilburg , where he was deeply unhappy . Van Gogh 's interest in art began at a young age ; his early drawings are expressive , but do not approach the intensity developed in his later work . Constantijn C. Huysmans , a successful artist in Paris , taught the students at Tilburg . His philosophy was to reject technique in favour of capturing the impressions of things , particularly nature or common objects . Van Gogh 's profound unhappiness seems to have overshadowed the lessons , which had little effect . In March 1868 , Van Gogh abruptly returned home . Later he wrote that his youth was `` austere and cold , and sterile . '' In July 1869 , Van Gogh 's uncle Cent obtained a position for him at the art dealers Goupil & Cie in The Hague . After completing his training in 1873 , Van Gogh was transferred to Goupil 's London branch , at 17 Southampton Street , and took lodgings at 87 Hackford Road , Stockwell . This was a happy time for Van Gogh ; he was successful at work , and at 20 was earning more than his father . Theo 's wife later remarked that this was the best year of his life . He became infatuated with his landlady 's daughter , Eugénie Loyer , but was rejected after confessing his feelings ; she was secretly engaged to a former lodger . Van Gogh grew more isolated , and religiously fervent . His father and uncle arranged a transfer to Paris , where he became difficult and resentful of issues such as the degree to which the firm commodified art , and was eventually dismissed . Van Gogh returned to England , taking unpaid work as a supply teacher in a small boarding school in Ramsgate . When the proprietor moved to Isleworth , Middlesex , Van Gogh went with him . The arrangement did not work out and he left to become a Methodist minister 's assistant . His parents had meanwhile moved to Etten ; in 1876 he returned home at Christmas for six months and took work at a bookshop in Dordrecht . He was unhappy in the position and spent his time doodling or translating passages from the Bible into English , French and German . He immersed himself in religion , and became increasingly pious and monastic . According to his room-mate of the time , Paulus van Görlitz , Van Gogh ate frugally , avoiding meat . To support Van Gogh 's religious convictions and his desire to become a pastor , in 1877 the family sent him to stay with an uncle in Amsterdam to study theology . Van Gogh prepared for the entrance examination with his uncle Johannes Stricker , a respected theologian . He failed the exam , and left his uncle Jan 's house in July 1878 . He undertook , but also failed , a three-month course at the Vlaamsche Opleidingsschool , a Protestant missionary school in Laeken , near Brussels . In January 1879 , Van Gogh took a post as a missionary at Petit-Wasmes in the coal-mining district of Borinage in Belgium . To show support for his impoverished congregation , he gave up his comfortable lodgings at a bakery to a homeless person , and moved to a small hut where he slept on straw . His squalid living conditions did not endear him to church authorities , who dismissed him for `` undermining the dignity of the priesthood '' . He then walked the 75 km to Brussels , returned briefly to Cuesmes in the Borinage , but gave in to pressure from his parents to return home to Etten . He stayed there until around March 1880 , which caused concern and frustration for his parents . There was particular conflict between Van Gogh and his father , who considered committing him to the lunatic asylum at Geel . Returning to Cuesmes that August , he lodged with a miner until October . He became interested in the people and scenes around him , and recorded them in drawings after Theo 's suggestion that he take up art in earnest . He travelled to Brussels later in the year , to follow Theo 's recommendation that he study with the Dutch artist Willem Roelofs , who persuaded him – in spite of his dislike of formal schools of art – to attend the Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts . He registered at the Académie in November 1880 , where he studied anatomy and the standard rules of modelling and perspective . Etten , Drenthe and The Hague Van Gogh returned to Etten in April 1881 for an extended stay with his parents . He continued to draw , often using his neighbours as subjects . In August 1881 , his recently widowed cousin , Kee Vos-Stricker , daughter of his mother 's older sister Willamina and Johannes Stricker , arrived for a visit . He was thrilled and took long walks with her that summer . Kee was seven years older than Van Gogh , and had an eight-year-old son . Van Gogh surprised everyone by declaring to her his love , and proposing marriage . She refused with the words `` No , nay , never '' ( `` nooit , neen , nimmer '' ) . After Kee returned to Amsterdam , Van Gogh went to The Hague to sell paintings and to meet with his cousin , Anton Mauve . Van Gogh wanted to apprentice himself to Mauve who was successful and was , according to Naifeh and Smith , `` the artist Vincent wanted to be '' . Mauve invited Van Gogh to return in a few months , and suggested he spend the intervening time working in charcoal and pastels ; Van Gogh went back to Etten and followed that advice . Late in November 1881 , Van Gogh wrote a letter to Johannes Stricker , which he described to Theo as an attack , and sent it by registered post to ensure its arrival . Within days he left for Amsterdam . Kee would not meet him , and her parents wrote that his `` persistence is disgusting . '' In desperation , he held his left hand in the flame of a lamp , with the words : `` Let me see her for as long as I can keep my hand in the flame . '' He did not recall the event well , but later assumed that his uncle blew out the flame . Kee 's father made it clear that her refusal should be heeded and that the two would not marry , largely because of Van Gogh 's inability to support himself . From Amsterdam , Van Gogh went to The Hague and asked Mauve to take him on as a student . Mauve introduced him to watercolours , which Van Gogh worked on for the next month before going home for Christmas . That Christmas he refused to attend church , quarrelling with his father as a result , and left the same day for The Hague . In January 1882 , Mauve introduced him to painting in oil and lent him money to set up a studio . Within a month they fell out , possibly over the viability of drawing from plaster casts . Van Gogh could only afford to hire people from the street as models , a practice of which Mauve seems to have disapproved . In June Van Gogh suffered a bout of gonorrhoea and spent three weeks in hospital . Soon after , he first painted in oil , using money borrowed from Theo . He liked the medium , and spread the oils liberally , scraping from the canvas and working back with the brush . He wrote that he was surprised at how good the results were . By March 1882 , Mauve appears to have suddenly gone cold towards Van Gogh , and stopped replying to his letters . He had learned of Van Gogh 's new domestic arrangement with an alcoholic prostitute , Clasina Maria `` Sien '' Hoornik ( 1850–1904 ) , and her young daughter . He had met Sien towards the end of January 1882 , when she had a five-year-old daughter and was pregnant . She had previously borne two children who died , but Van Gogh was unaware of this ; on 2 July , she gave birth to a baby boy , Willem . When Van Gogh 's father discovered the details of their relationship , he put pressure on his son to abandon Sien and her two children . Vincent at first defied him , and considered moving the family out of the city , but in late 1883 he left Sien and the children . Perhaps lack of money pushed Sien back into prostitution ; the home became less happy and Van Gogh may have felt family life was irreconcilable with his artistic development . Sien gave her daughter to her mother , and baby Willem to her brother . Willem remembered visiting Rotterdam when he was about 12 , when an uncle tried to persuade Sien to marry in order to legitimise the child . He believed Van Gogh was his father , but the timing of his birth makes this unlikely . In 1904 , Sien drowned herself in the River Scheldt . In September 1883 , Van Gogh moved to Drenthe in the northern Netherlands . In December , driven by loneliness , he went to stay with his parents , who had been posted to Nuenen , North Brabant . Emerging artist Nuenen and Antwerp ( 1883–86 ) In Nuenen , Van Gogh focused on painting and drawing . He completed sketches and paintings of weavers and their cottages , working outside and very quickly . In August 1884 , Margot Begemann , a neighbour 's daughter and ten years his senior , began joining him on his painting forays ; she fell in love , and he reciprocated , though less enthusiastically . They decided to marry , but the idea was opposed by both families , following which Margot took an overdose of strychnine . She was saved when Van Gogh rushed her to a nearby hospital . On 26 March 1885 , his father died of a heart attack . Van Gogh painted several groups of still lifes in 1885 . During his two-year stay in Nuenen , he completed numerous drawings and watercolours , and nearly 200 oil paintings . His palette consisted mainly of sombre earth tones , particularly dark brown , and showed no sign of the vivid colouration that distinguishes his later work . There was interest from collectors in Paris , and Theo asked Vincent whether he had paintings ready to exhibit . In May 1885 , Van Gogh completed his first major work , The Potato Eaters , and the series of `` peasant character studies '' ; the culmination of several years of work . When he complained that Theo was not making enough effort to sell his paintings in Paris , his brother responded that the paintings were too dark , and were not in keeping with the current bright style of Impressionism . August saw the first public exhibition of his work , in the shop windows of the paint dealer Leurs in The Hague . After one of his young peasant sitters became pregnant in September 1885 , Van Gogh was accused of forcing himself upon her , and the village priest forbade parishioners to model for him . In November 1885 Van Gogh moved to Antwerp , where he rented a small room above a paint dealer 's shop in the rue des Images ( Lange Beeldekensstraat ) . He lived in poverty and ate poorly , preferring to spend the money Theo sent on painting materials and models . Bread , coffee and tobacco were his staple intake . In February 1886 , he wrote to Theo saying that he could only remember eating six hot meals since the previous May . His teeth became loose and painful . In Antwerp he applied himself to the study of colour theory and spent time in museumsparticularly studying the work of Peter Paul Rubensand broadened his palette to include carmine , cobalt blue and emerald green . Van Gogh bought Japanese ukiyo-e woodcuts in the docklands , later incorporating elements of their style into the background of some of his paintings . Van Gogh had begun to drink heavily again , especially absinthe . He was treated by Amadeus Cavenaile in February and March 1886 , possibly for syphilis ; he recorded the treatment of alum irrigation and sitz baths in one of his notebooks . Despite his rejection of academic teaching , he took the higher-level admission exams at the Academy of Fine Arts in Antwerp , and in January 1886 matriculated in painting and drawing . For most of February , he was ill and run down by overwork , a poor diet and excessive smoking . File : Vincent van Gogh - Worn Out ( F997 ) .jpg|Worn Out , pencil on watercolour paper , 1882 . Van Gogh Museum , Amsterdam File : Vincent van Gogh - Sorrow.jpg|Sorrow , 1882 . In early April 1882 Van Gogh sent this to Theo , referring to it as `` the best figure I have drawn yet . '' The model posing was Clasina ( Sien ) Hoornik , whom he had met shortly after his arrival in The Hague and lived with her and her daughter afterwards . File : Vincent Willem van Gogh 129.jpg|Still Life with Straw Hat also Still Life with Yellow Straw Hat , 1881–85 . Kröller-Müller Museum , Otterlo File : Stilleven met bijbel - s0008V1962 - Van Gogh Museum.jpg|Still Life with Open Bible , Extinguished Candle and Novel also Still Life with Bible , 1885 . Van Gogh Museum , Amsterdam File : Vincent van Gogh - Bäuerin beim Umgraben.jpg|Peasant Woman Digging , or Woman with a Spade , Seen from Behind , 1885 . Art Gallery of Ontario , Toronto File : Vincent van Gogh - Head of a skeleton with a burning cigarette - Google Art Project.jpg|Skull of a Skeleton with Burning Cigarette , 1885–86 . Van Gogh Museum , Amsterdam|alt=A human skull , bare bones of a neck and shoulders . The skull has a lit cigarette between its teeth . Paris ( 1886–88 ) Van Gogh moved to Paris in March 1886 , beginning a series of moves that the art historian Melissa McQuillan believes also reflects later changes `` in style , his reorientation of his enterprise [ which ] might be linked '' . She believes that `` moving on became a way of avoiding conflict , '' and a coping mechanism for when the highly idealistic artist was faced with the realities of his then current situation . In Paris he shared Theo 's rue Laval apartment in Montmartre , and studied at Fernand Cormon 's studio . In June , they took a larger flat at 54 rue Lepic . In Paris , he painted portraits of friends and acquaintances , still life paintings , views of Le Moulin de la Galette , scenes in Montmartre , Asnières , and along the Seine . In 1885 in Antwerp he had become interested in Japanese ukiyo-e woodblock prints and had used them to decorate the walls of his studio ; while in Paris he collected hundreds of them . He tried his hand at Japonaiserie , tracing a figure from a reproduction on the cover of the magazine Paris Illustre , The Courtesan or Oiran ( after Kesai Eisen ) ( 1887 ) , which he then graphically enlarged in the painting . After seeing the portrait of Adolphe Joseph Thomas Monticelli at the Galerie Delareybarette , Van Gogh adopted a brighter palette and a bolder attack , particularly in paintings such as his Seascape at Saintes-Maries ( 1888 ) . Two years later , Vincent and Theo paid for the publication of a book on Monticelli paintings , and Vincent bought some of his works to add to his collection . Van Gogh learned about Fernand Cormon 's atelier from Theo . Van Gogh worked at the studio in April and May 1886 , where he frequented the circle of the Australian artist John Peter Russell , and met fellow students Émile Bernard , Louis Anquetin and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec – who painted a portrait of Van Gogh with pastel . The group congregated at Julien `` Père '' Tanguy 's paint shop ( which was , at that time , the only place where Paul Cézanne 's paintings were displayed ) . He had easy access to Impressionist works in Paris . In 1886 , two large exhibitions were staged , in which Pointillism and Neo-Impressionism were first exhibited , bringing attention to Georges Seurat and Paul Signac . Theo kept a stock of Impressionist paintings in his gallery on Boulevard Montmartre , but Van Gogh had problems acknowledging the new developments in art . Conflicts arose between the brothers . At the end of 1886 , Theo found that living with Vincent was `` almost unbearable '' . By early 1887 , they were again at peace , and Vincent had moved to Asnières , a northwestern suburb of Paris , where he became acquainted with Signac . He adopted elements of Pointillism , a technique in which a multitude of small coloured dots are applied to the canvas such that – when seen from a distance – they create an optical blend of hues . The style stresses the ability of complementary colours – including blue and orange – to form vibrant contrasts when juxtaposed . File : Van Gogh - Ein Paar Schuhe1.jpeg|A Pair of Boots , 1887 , Baltimore Museum of Art , Baltimore , Maryland File : WLANL - E V E - Absinthe Van Gogh Museum.jpg|Still Life with Glass of Absinthe and a Carafe , 1887 , Van Gogh Museum , Amsterdam File : Vincent van Gogh - In the café - Agostina Segatori in Le Tambourin - Google Art Project 2.jpg|Agostina Segatori Sitting in the Café du Tambourin , 1887 . Van Gogh Museum , Amsterdam File : Van Gogh - la courtisane.jpg|Courtesan ( after Eisen ) , 1887 . Van Gogh Museum , Amsterdam File : Van Gogh - Portrait of Pere Tanguy 1887-8.JPG|Portrait of Père Tanguy , 1887 . Musée Rodin , Paris File : Vincent van Gogh - Bloeiende pruimenboomgaard- naar Hiroshige - Google Art Project.jpg|The Blooming Plumtree ( after Hiroshige ) , 1887 . Van Gogh Museum , Amsterdam While in Asnières , Van Gogh painted parks and restaurants and the Seine , including Bridges across the Seine at Asnières . In November 1887 , Theo and Vincent befriended Paul Gauguin who had just arrived in Paris . Towards the end of the year , Vincent arranged an exhibition alongside Bernard , Anquetin , and probably Toulouse-Lautrec , at the Grand-Bouillon Restaurant du Chalet , 43 Avenue de Clichy , Montmartre . In a contemporary account , Bernard wrote that the exhibition was ahead of anything else in Paris . There Bernard and Anquetin sold their first paintings , and Van Gogh exchanged work with Gauguin . Discussions on art , artists , and their social situations started during this exhibition , and continued and expanded to include visitors to the show , like Camille Pissarro and his son Lucien , Signac and Seurat . In February 1888 , feeling worn out from life in Paris , he left , having painted more than 200 paintings during his two years there . Hours before his departure , accompanied by Theo , he paid his first and only visit to Seurat in his studio . Artistic breakthrough Arles ( 1888–89 ) Ill from drink and suffering from smoker 's cough , in February 1888 Van Gogh sought refuge in Arles . He seems to have moved with thoughts of founding a utopian art colony . The Danish artist Christian Mourier-Petersen became his companion for two months , and at first Arles appeared exotic . In a letter , he described it as a foreign country : `` The Zouaves , the brothels , the adorable little Arlésienne going to their First Communion , the priest in his surplice , who looks like a dangerous rhinoceros , the people drinking absinthe , all seem to me creatures from another world . '' It became one of his more prolific periods : he completed 200 paintings , and more than 100 drawings and watercolours . He was enchanted by the local landscape and light ; his works from this period are rich in yellow , ultramarine and mauve . His paintings include harvests , wheat fields and general rural landmarks from the area , including The Old Mill ( 1888 ) , a picturesque structure bordering the wheat fields . This

odql_11342--Vincent_van_Gogh.txt

What was the name of painter van Gogh’s brother to whom he wrote many letters?

Engineering is the application of mathematics , empirical evidence and scientific , economic , social , and practical knowledge in order to invent , innovate , design , build , maintain , research , and improve structures , machines , tools , systems , components , materials , processes and organizations . The discipline of engineering is extremely broad , and encompasses a range of more specialized fields of engineering , each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied science , technology and types of application . The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium , meaning `` cleverness '' and ingeniare , meaning `` to contrive , devise '' . Definition The American Engineers ' Council for Professional Development ( ECPD , the predecessor of ABET ) has defined `` engineering '' as : The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures , machines , apparatus , or manufacturing processes , or works utilizing them singly or in combination ; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design ; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions ; all as respects an intended function , economics of operation or safety to life and property . History Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge , lever , wheel , and pulley . Each of these inventions is essentially consistent with the modern definition of engineering . The term engineering is derived from the word engineer , which itself dates back to 1390 , when an engine'er ( literally , one who operates an engine ) originally referred to `` a constructor of military engines . '' In this context , now obsolete , an `` engine '' referred to a military machine , i.e. , a mechanical contraption used in war ( for example , a catapult ) . Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps , e.g. , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . The word `` engine '' itself is of even older origin , ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium ( c. 1250 ) , meaning `` innate quality , especially mental power , hence a clever invention . `` Origin : 1250–1300 ; ME engin Later , as the design of civilian structures such as bridges and buildings matured as a technical discipline , the term civil engineering entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the older discipline of military engineering . Ancient era The Pharos of Alexandria , the pyramids in Egypt , the Hanging Gardens of Babylon , the Acropolis and the Parthenon in Greece , the Roman aqueducts , Via Appia and the Colosseum , Teotihuacán and the cities and pyramids of the Mayan , Inca and Aztec Empires , the Great Wall of China , the Brihadeeswarar Temple of Thanjavur and Indian Temples , among many others , stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of the ancient civil and military engineers . The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep . As one of the officials of the Pharaoh , Djosèr , he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser ( the Step Pyramid ) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC . Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains . The Antikythera mechanism , the first known mechanical computer , and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering . Some of Archimedes ' inventions as well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing , two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution , and are still widely used today in diverse fields such as robotics and automotive engineering . Chinese , Greek and Roman armies employed complex military machines and inventions such as artillery which was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century B.C. , the trireme , the ballista and the catapult . In the Middle Ages , the trebuchet was developed . Renaissance era William Gilbert is considered to be the first electrical engineer with his 1600 publication of De Magnete . He coined the term `` electricity '' . The first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery . The development of this device gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades , allowing for the beginnings of mass production . With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century , the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends . Similarly , in addition to military and civil engineering the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering . Modern era The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to modern mechanical engineering . The development of specialized machines and machine tools during the industrial revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad . John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer , and is often regarded as the `` father '' of civil engineering . He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges , canals , harbours and lighthouses . He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist . Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse ( 1755–59 ) where he pioneered the use of 'hydraulic lime ' ( a form of mortar which will set under water ) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse . His lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeaton 's Tower . He is important in the history , rediscovery of , and development of modern cement , because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain `` hydraulicity '' in lime ; work which led ultimately to the invention of Portland cement . The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of `` engineer '' for the first time with a count of 2,000 . There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865 . In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates , with that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875 . In 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil , mining , mechanical and electrical . There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875 , and no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907 . Germany established technical universities earlier . The early stages of electrical engineering included the experiments of Alessandro Volta in the 1800s , the experiments of Michael Faraday , Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric motor in 1872 . The theoretical work of James Maxwell ( see : Maxwell 's equations ) and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics . The later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated the development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty . Chemical engineering developed in the late nineteenth century . Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created , dedicated to the development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants . The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes . Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including spacecraft design . Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century . Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering . The first PhD in engineering ( technically , applied science and engineering ) awarded in the United States went to Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863 ; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S . Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers , there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in World War I . Meanwhile , research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments . In 1990 , with the rise of computer technology , the first search engine was built by computer engineer Alan Emtage . Main branches of engineering Engineering is a broad discipline which is often broken down into several sub-disciplines . These disciplines concern themselves with differing areas of engineering work . Although initially an engineer will usually be trained in a specific discipline , throughout an engineer 's career the engineer may become multi-disciplined , having worked in several of the outlined areas . Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches : * Chemical engineering – The application of physics , chemistry , biology , and engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on a commercial scale , such as petroleum refining , microfabrication , fermentation , and biomolecule production . * Civil engineering – The design and construction of public and private works , such as infrastructure ( airports , roads , railways , water supply and treatment etc . ) , bridges , dams , and buildings . * Electrical engineering – The design , study and manufacture of various electrical and electronic systems , such as electrical circuits , generators , motors , electromagnetic/electromechanical devices , electronic devices , electronic circuits , optical fibers , optoelectronic devices , computer systems , telecommunications , instrumentation , controls , and electronics . * Mechanical engineering – The design and manufacture of physical or mechanical systems , such as power and energy systems , aerospace/aircraft products , weapon systems , transportation products , engines , compressors , powertrains , kinematic chains , vacuum technology , vibration isolation equipment , manufacturing , and mechatronics . Beyond these four , a number of other branches are recognized . Historically , naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches . Other engineering fields sometimes included as major branches are manufacturing engineering , acoustical engineering , corrosion engineering , Instrumentation and control , aerospace , automotive , computer , electronic , petroleum , systems , audio , software , architectural , agricultural , biosystems , biomedical , geological , textile , industrial , materials , and nuclear engineering . These and other branches of engineering are represented in the 36 professional engineering institutions the UK Engineering Council . New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches – for example Earth Systems Engineering and Management involves a wide range of subject areas including anthropology , engineering studies , environmental science , ethics and philosophy . A new or emerging area of application will commonly be defined temporarily as a permutation or subset of existing disciplines ; there is often gray area as to when a given sub-field warrants classification as a new `` branch . '' One key indicator of such emergence is when major universities start establishing departments and programs in the new field . For each of these fields there exists considerable overlap , especially in the areas of the application of fundamental sciences to their disciplines such as physics , chemistry , and mathematics . Practice One who practices engineering is called an engineer , and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as Professional Engineer , Chartered Engineer , Incorporated Engineer , Ingenieur or European Engineer , Designated Engineering Representative . In the UK many trades are called `` Engineer '' including gas , telephone , photocopy , maintenance , plumber-heating , drainage , sanitary , auto mechanic , TV , Refrigerator , electrician , washing machine , TV antenna installer ( satellite ) and many others . Methodology Engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as physics to find suitable solutions to problems or to make improvements to the status quo . More than ever , engineers are now required to have knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects . As a result , they keep on learning new material throughout their career . If multiple options exist , engineers weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements . The crucial and unique task of the engineer is to identify , understand , and interpret the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result . It is usually not enough to build a technically successful product ; it must also meet further requirements . Constraints may include available resources , physical , imaginative or technical limitations , flexibility for future modifications and additions , and other factors , such as requirements for cost , safety , marketability , productivity , and serviceability . By understanding the constraints , engineers derive specifications for the limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated . A general methodology and epistemology of engineering can be inferred from the historical case studies and comments provided by Walter Vincenti . Though Vincenti 's case studies are from the domain of aeronautical engineering , his conclusions can be transferred into many other branches of engineering , too . According to Billy Vaughn Koen , the `` engineering method is the use of heuristics to cause the best change in a poorly understood situation within the available resources . '' Koen argues that the definition of what makes one an engineer should not be based on what he produces , but rather how he goes about it . Problem solving Engineers use their knowledge of science , mathematics , logic , economics , and appropriate experience or tacit knowledge to find suitable solutions to a problem . Creating an appropriate mathematical model of a problem allows them to analyze it ( sometimes definitively ) , and to test potential solutions . Usually multiple reasonable solutions exist , so engineers must evaluate the different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best meets their requirements . Genrich Altshuller , after gathering statistics on a large number of patents , suggested that compromises are at the heart of `` low-level '' engineering designs , while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem . Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to full-scale production . They use , among other things : prototypes , scale models , simulations , destructive tests , nondestructive tests , and stress tests . Testing ensures that products will perform as expected . Engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs that will perform as well as expected and will not cause unintended harm to the public at large . Engineers typically include a factor of safety in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure . However , the greater the safety factor , the less efficient the design may be . The study of failed products is known as forensic engineering , and can help the product designer in evaluating his or her design in the light of real conditions . The discipline is of greatest value after disasters , such as bridge collapses , when careful analysis is needed to establish the cause or causes of the failure . Computer use As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors , computers and software play an increasingly important role . As well as the typical business application software there are a number of computer aided applications ( computer-aided technologies ) specifically for engineering . Computers can be used to generate models of fundamental physical processes , which can be solved using numerical methods . One of the most widely used design tools in the profession is computer-aided design ( CAD ) software like CATIA , Autodesk Inventor , DSS SolidWorks or Pro Engineer which enables engineers to create 3D models , 2D drawings , and schematics of their designs . CAD together with digital mockup ( DMU ) and CAE software such as finite element method analysis or analytic element method allows engineers to create models of designs that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes . These allow products and components to be checked for flaws ; assess fit and assembly ; study ergonomics ; and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses , temperatures , electromagnetic emissions , electrical currents and voltages , digital logic levels , fluid flows , and kinematics . Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of product data management software . There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as computer-aided manufacturing ( CAM ) software to generate CNC machining instructions ; manufacturing process management software for production engineering ; EDA for printed circuit board ( PCB ) and circuit schematics for electronic engineers ; MRO applications for maintenance management ; and AEC software for civil engineering . In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively come to be known as product lifecycle management ( PLM ) . Social context The engineering profession engages in a wide range of activities , from large collaboration at the societal level , and also smaller individual projects . Almost all engineering projects are obligated to some sort of financing agency : a company , a set of investors , or a government . The few types of engineering that are minimally constrained by such issues are pro bono engineering and open-design engineering . By its very nature engineering has interconnections with society , culture and human behavior . Every product or construction used by modern society is influenced by engineering . The results of engineering activity influence changes to the environment , society and economies , and its application brings with it a responsibility and public safety . Many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members and inform the public at large . Engineering projects can be subject to controversy . Examples from different engineering disciplines include the development of nuclear weapons , the Three Gorges Dam , the design and use of sport utility vehicles and the extraction of oil . In response , some western engineering companies have enacted serious corporate and social responsibility policies . Engineering is a key driver of innovation and human development . Sub-Saharan Africa in particular has a very small engineering capacity which results in many African nations being unable to develop crucial infrastructure without outside aid . The attainment of many of the Millennium Development Goals requires the achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable technological development . All overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers to apply solutions in disaster and development scenarios . A number of charitable organizations aim to use engineering directly for the good of mankind : * Engineers Without Borders * Engineers Against Poverty * Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief * Engineers for a Sustainable World * Engineering for Change * Engineering Ministries International Engineering companies in many established economies are facing significant challenges with regard to the number of professional engineers being trained , compared with the number retiring . This problem is very prominent in the UK where engineering has a poor image and low status . There are many negative economic and political issues that this can cause , as well as ethical issues It is widely agreed that the engineering profession faces an `` image crisis '' , rather than it being fundamentally an unattractive career . Much work is needed to avoid huge problems in the UK and other western economies . Relationships with other disciplines Science There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice ; in engineering , one applies science . Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and phenomena . Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations . Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks , such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes . Conversely , in the process of developing technology engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena , thus becoming , for the moment , scientists or more precisely `` engineering scientists '' . In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know It , Walter Vincenti asserts that engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research . First , it often deals with areas in which the basic physics or chemistry are well understood , but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner . Examples are the use of numerical approximations to the Navier–Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft , or the use of Miner 's rule to calculate fatigue damage . Second , engineering research employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research , one example being the method of parameter variation . As stated by Fung et al . in the revision to the classic engineering text Foundations of Solid Mechanics : Engineering is quite different from science . Scientists try to understand nature . Engineers try to make things that do not exist in nature . Engineers stress innovation and invention . To embody an invention the engineer must put his idea in concrete terms , and design something that people can use . That something can be a complex system , device , a gadget , a material , a method , a computing program , an innovative experiment , a new solution to a problem , or an improvement on what already exists . Since a design has to be realistic and functional , it must have its geometry , dimensions , and characteristics data defined . In the past engineers working on new designs found that they did not have all the required information to make design decisions . Most often , they were limited by insufficient scientific knowledge . Thus they studied mathematics , physics , chemistry , biology and mechanics . Often they had to add to the sciences relevant to their profession . Thus engineering sciences were born . Although engineering solutions make use of scientific principles , engineers must also take into account safety , efficiency , economy , reliability and constructability or ease of fabrication as well as the environment , ethical and legal considerations such as patent infringement or liability in the case of failure of the solution . Medicine and biology The study of the human body , albeit from different directions and for different purposes , is an important common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines . Medicine aims to sustain , repair , enhance and even replace functions of the human body , if necessary , through the use of technology . Modern medicine can replace several of the body 's functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as , for example , brain implants and pacemakers . The fields of bionics and medical bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems . Conversely , some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth studying , and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing biology with technology . This has led to fields such as artificial intelligence , neural networks , fuzzy logic , and robotics . There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and medicine . Both fields provide solutions to real world problems . This often requires moving forward before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both . Medicine , in part , studies the function of the human body . The human body , as a biological machine , has many functions that can be modeled using engineering methods . The heart for example functions much like a pump , the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers , the brain produces electrical signals etc . These similarities as well as the increasing importance and application of engineering principles in medicine , led to the development of the field of biomedical engineering that uses concepts developed in both disciplines . Newly emerging branches of science , such as systems biology , are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for engineering , such as systems modeling and computational analysis , to the description of biological systems . Art There are connections between engineering and art ; they are direct in some fields , for example , architecture , landscape architecture and industrial design ( even to the extent that these disciplines may sometimes be included in a university 's Faculty of Engineering ) ; and indirect in others . The Art Institute of Chicago , for instance , held an exhibition about the art of NASA 's aerospace design . Robert Maillart 's bridge design is perceived by some to have been deliberately artistic . At the University of South Florida , an engineering professor , through a grant with the National Science Foundation , has developed a course that connects art and engineering . Among famous historical figures , Leonardo da Vinci is a well-known Renaissance artist and engineer , and a prime example of the nexus between art and engineering . Business Engineering and Engineering Management Business Engineering deals with the relationship between professional engineering , IT systems , business administration and change management . Engineering management is a specialized field of management concerned with the engineering sector . The demand for management-focused engineers ( or from the opposite perspective , managers with an understanding of engineering ) , has resulted in the development of specialized engineering management degrees that develop the knowledge and skills needed for these roles . During an engineering management course , students will develop industrial engineering skills , knowledge and expertise , alongside knowledge of business administration , management techniques , and strategic thinking . Engineers specializing in change management must have in depth knowledge of the application of industrial and organizational psychology principles and methods . Professional engineers often train as certified management consultants in the very specialized field of management consulting applied to the engineering sector . This work often deals with large scale complex business transformation or Business process management initiatives in aerospace and defence , automotive , oil and gas , machinery , pharmaceutical , food and beverage , electrical & electronics , power distribution & generation , utilities and transportation systems . This combination of technical engineering practice , management consulting practice , industry sector knowledge , and change management expertise enables professional engineers who are also qualified as management consultants to lead major business transformation initiatives . These initiatives are typically sponsored by C-level executives . Other fields In political science , the term engineering has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of social engineering and political engineering , which deal with forming political and social structures using engineering methodology coupled with political science principles . Financial engineering has similarly borrowed the term .

bb_2939--Engineering.txt

What science is sometimes called 'the central science' because it connects maths and physics with other main branches of science such as astronomy, engineering, biology, etc?

Opera ( ; English plural : operas ; Italian plural : opere ) is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text ( libretto ) and musical score , usually in a theatrical setting . In traditional opera , singers do two types of singing : recitative , a speech-inflected style and arias , a more melodic style . Opera incorporates many of the elements of spoken theatre , such as acting , scenery , and costumes and sometimes includes dance . The performance is typically given in an opera house , accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble , which since the early 19th century has been led by a conductor . Opera is part of the Western classical music tradition . It started in Italy at the end of the 16th century ( with Jacopo Peri 's lost Dafne , produced in Florence in 1598 ) and soon spread through the rest of Europe : Schütz in Germany , Lully in France , and Purcell in England all helped to establish their national traditions in the 17th century . In the 18th century , Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe ( except France ) , attracting foreign composers such as Handel . Opera seria was the most prestigious form of Italian opera , until Gluck reacted against its artificiality with his `` reform '' operas in the 1760s . In the 2000s , the most renowned figure of late 18th-century opera is Mozart , who began with opera seria but is most famous for his Italian comic operas , especially The Marriage of Figaro ( Le Nozze Di Figaro ) , Don Giovanni , and Così fan tutte , as well as The Magic Flute ( Die Zauberflöte ) , a landmark in the German tradition . The first third of the 19th century saw the high point of the bel canto style , with Rossini , Donizetti and Bellini all creating works that are still performed in the 2000s It also saw the advent of Grand Opera typified by the works of Auber and Meyerbeer . The mid-to-late 19th century was a `` golden age '' of opera , led and dominated by Wagner in Germany and Verdi in Italy . The popularity of opera continued through the verismo era in Italy and contemporary French opera through to Puccini and Strauss in the early 20th century . During the 19th century , parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe , particularly in Russia and Bohemia . The 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles , such as atonality and serialism ( Schoenberg and Berg ) , Neoclassicism ( Stravinsky ) , and Minimalism ( Philip Glass and John Adams ) . With the rise of recording technology , singers such as Enrico Caruso and Maria Callas became known to much wider audiences that went beyond the circle of opera fans . Since the invention of radio and television , operas were also performed on ( and written for ) these mediums . Beginning in 2006 , a number of major opera houses began to present live high-definition video transmissions of their performances in cinemas around the world . In 2009 , an opera company offered an online download of a complete performance . Operatic terminology The words of an opera are known as the libretto ( literally `` small book '' ) . Some composers , notably Richard Wagner , have written their own libretti ; others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists , e.g . Mozart with Lorenzo Da Ponte . Traditional opera , often referred to as `` number opera '' , consists of two modes of singing : recitative , the plot-driving passages sung in a style designed to imitate and emphasize the inflections of speech , and aria ( an `` air '' or formal song ) in which the characters express their emotions in a more structured melodic style . Vocal duets , trios and other ensembles often occur , and choruses are used to comment on the action . In some forms of opera , such as singspiel , opéra comique , operetta , and semi-opera , the recitative is mostly replaced by spoken dialogue . Melodic or semi-melodic passages occurring in the midst of , or instead of , recitative , are also referred to as arioso . The terminology of the various kinds of operatic voices is described in detail below . During both the Baroque and Classical periods , recitative could appear in two basic forms , each of which was accompanied by a different instrumental ensemble : secco ( dry ) recitative , sung with a free rhythm dictated by the accent of the words , accompanied only by basso continuo , which was usually a harpsichord and a cello ; or accompagnato ( also known as strumentato ) in which the orchestra provided accompaniment . Over the 18th century , arias were increasingly accompanied by the orchestra . By the 19th century , accompagnato had gained the upper hand , the orchestra played a much bigger role , and Richard Wagner revolutionised opera by abolishing almost all distinction between aria and recitative in his quest for what he termed `` endless melody '' . Subsequent composers have tended to follow Wagner 's example , though some , such as Stravinsky in his The Rake 's Progress have bucked the trend . The changing role of the orchestra in opera is described in more detail below . History Origins The Italian word opera means `` work '' , both in the sense of the labour done and the result produced . The Italian word derives from the Latin opera , a singular noun meaning `` work '' and also the plural of the noun opus . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the Italian word was first used in the sense `` composition in which poetry , dance , and music are combined '' in 1639 ; the first recorded English usage in this sense dates to 1648 . Dafne by Jacopo Peri was the earliest composition considered opera , as understood today . It was written around 1597 , largely under the inspiration of an elite circle of literate Florentine humanists who gathered as the `` Camerata de ' Bardi '' . Significantly , Dafne was an attempt to revive the classical Greek drama , part of the wider revival of antiquity characteristic of the Renaissance . The members of the Camerata considered that the `` chorus '' parts of Greek dramas were originally sung , and possibly even the entire text of all roles ; opera was thus conceived as a way of `` restoring '' this situation . Dafne is unfortunately lost . A later work by Peri , Euridice , dating from 1600 , is the first opera score to have survived to the present day . The honour of being the first opera still to be regularly performed , however , goes to Claudio Monteverdi 's L'Orfeo , composed for the court of Mantua in 1607 . The Mantua court of the Gonzagas , employers of Monteverdi , played a significant role in the origin of opera employing not only court singers of the concerto delle donne ( till 1598 ) , but also one of the first actual `` opera singers '' ; Madama Europa . Italian opera The Baroque era Opera did not remain confined to court audiences for long . In 1637 , the idea of a `` season '' ( Carnival ) of publicly attended operas supported by ticket sales emerged in Venice . Monteverdi had moved to the city from Mantua and composed his last operas , Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria and L'incoronazione di Poppea , for the Venetian theatre in the 1640s . His most important follower Francesco Cavalli helped spread opera throughout Italy . In these early Baroque operas , broad comedy was blended with tragic elements in a mix that jarred some educated sensibilities , sparking the first of opera 's many reform movements , sponsored by the Arcadian Academy , which came to be associated with the poet Metastasio , whose libretti helped crystallize the genre of opera seria , which became the leading form of Italian opera until the end of the 18th century . Once the Metastasian ideal had been firmly established , comedy in Baroque-era opera was reserved for what came to be called opera buffa . Before such elements were forced out of opera seria , many libretti had featured a separately unfolding comic plot as sort of an `` opera-within-an-opera . '' One reason for this was an attempt to attract members of the growing merchant class , newly wealthy , but still not as cultured as the nobility , to the public opera houses . These separate plots were almost immediately resurrected in a separately developing tradition that partly derived from the commedia dell'arte , a long-flourishing improvisatory stage tradition of Italy . Just as intermedi had once been performed in-between the acts of stage plays , operas in the new comic genre of `` intermezzi '' , which developed largely in Naples in the 1710s and '20s , were initially staged during the intermissions of opera seria . They became so popular , however , that they were soon being offered as separate productions . Opera seria was elevated in tone and highly stylised in form , usually consisting of secco recitative interspersed with long da capo arias . These afforded great opportunity for virtuosic singing and during the golden age of opera seria the singer really became the star . The role of the hero was usually written for the high-pitched male castrato voice , which was produced by castration of the singer before puberty , which prevented a boy 's larynx from being transformed at puberty . Castrati such as Farinelli and Senesino , as well as female sopranos such as Faustina Bordoni , became in great demand throughout Europe as opera seria ruled the stage in every country except France . Farinelli was one of the most famous singers of the 18th century . Italian opera set the Baroque standard . Italian libretti were the norm , even when a German composer like Handel found himself composing the likes of Rinaldo and Giulio Cesare for London audiences . Italian libretti remained dominant in the classical period as well , for example in the operas of Mozart , who wrote in Vienna near the century 's close . Leading Italian-born composers of opera seria include Alessandro Scarlatti , Vivaldi and Porpora . Reform : Gluck , the attack on the Metastasian ideal , and Mozart Opera seria had its weaknesses and critics . The taste for embellishment on behalf of the superbly trained singers , and the use of spectacle as a replacement for dramatic purity and unity drew attacks . Francesco Algarotti 's Essay on the Opera ( 1755 ) proved to be an inspiration for Christoph Willibald Gluck 's reforms . He advocated that opera seria had to return to basics and that all the various elements—music ( both instrumental and vocal ) , ballet , and staging—must be subservient to the overriding drama . In 1765 Melchior Grimm published `` '' , an influential article for the Encyclopédie on lyric and opera librettos . Several composers of the period , including Niccolò Jommelli and Tommaso Traetta , attempted to put these ideals into practice . The first to succeed however , was Gluck . Gluck strove to achieve a `` beautiful simplicity '' . This is evident in his first reform opera , Orfeo ed Euridice , where his non-virtuosic vocal melodies are supported by simple harmonies and a richer orchestra presence throughout . Gluck 's reforms have had resonance throughout operatic history . Weber , Mozart , and Wagner , in particular , were influenced by his ideals . Mozart , in many ways Gluck 's successor , combined a superb sense of drama , harmony , melody , and counterpoint to write a series of comedies , notably Così fan tutte , The Marriage of Figaro , and Don Giovanni ( in collaboration with Lorenzo Da Ponte ) which remain among the most-loved , popular and well-known operas today . But Mozart 's contribution to opera seria was more mixed ; by his time it was dying away , and in spite of such fine works as Idomeneo and La clemenza di Tito , he would not succeed in bringing the art form back to life again . Bel canto , Verdi and verismo The bel canto opera movement flourished in the early 19th century and is exemplified by the operas of Rossini , Bellini , Donizetti , Pacini , Mercadante and many others . Literally `` beautiful singing '' , bel canto opera derives from the Italian stylistic singing school of the same name . Bel canto lines are typically florid and intricate , requiring supreme agility and pitch control . Examples of famous operas in the bel canto style include Rossini 's Il barbiere di Siviglia and La Cenerentola , as well as Donizetti 's Lucia di Lammermoor . Following the bel canto era , a more direct , forceful style was rapidly popularized by Giuseppe Verdi , beginning with his biblical opera Nabucco . This opera , and the ones that would follow in Verdi 's career , revolutionized Italian opera , changing it from merely a display of vocal fireworks , with Rossini 's and Donizetti 's works , to dramatic story-telling . Verdi 's operas resonated with the growing spirit of Italian nationalism in the post-Napoleonic era , and he quickly became an icon of the patriotic movement for a unified Italy . In the early 1850s , Verdi produced his three most popular operas : Rigoletto , Il trovatore and La traviata . The first of these , Rigoletto , proved the most daring and revolutionary . In it , Verdi blurs the distinction between the aria and recitative as it never before was , leading the opera to be `` an unending string of duets '' . La traviata was also novel . It tells the story of courtesan , and is often cited as one of the first `` realistic '' operas , because rather than featuring great kings and figures from literature , it focuses on the tragedies of ordinary life and society . After these , he continued to develop his style , composing perhaps the greatest French Grand Opera , Don Carlos , and ending his career with two Shakespeare-inspired works , Otello and Falstaff , which reveal how far Italian opera had grown in sophistication since the early 19th century . These final two works showed Verdi at his most masterfully orchestrated , and are both incredibly influential , and modern . In Falstaff , Verdi sets the preeminent standard for the form and style that would dominate opera throughout the twentieth century . Rather than long , suspended melodies , Falstaff contains many little motifs and mottos , that , rather than being expanded upon , are introduced and subsequently dropped , only to be brought up again later . These motifs never are expanded upon , and just as the audience expects a character to launch into a long melody , a new character speaks , introducing a new phrase . This fashion of opera directed opera from Verdi , onward , exercising tremendous influence on his successors Giacomo Puccini , Richard Strauss , and Benjamin Britten . After Verdi , the sentimental `` realistic '' melodrama of verismo appeared in Italy . This was a style introduced by Pietro Mascagni 's Cavalleria rusticana and Ruggero Leoncavallo 's Pagliacci that came virtually to dominate the world 's opera stages with such popular works as Giacomo Puccini 's La bohème , Tosca , and Madama Butterfly . Later Italian composers , such as Berio and Nono , have experimented with modernism . German-language opera The first German opera was Dafne , composed by Heinrich Schütz in 1627 , but the music score has not survived . Italian opera held a great sway over German-speaking countries until the late 18th century . Nevertheless , native forms would develop in spite of this influence . In 1644 , Sigmund Staden produced the first Singspiel , Seelewig , a popular form of German-language opera in which singing alternates with spoken dialogue . In the late 17th century and early 18th century , the Theater am Gänsemarkt in Hamburg presented German operas by Keiser , Telemann and Handel . Yet most of the major German composers of the time , including Handel himself , as well as Graun , Hasse and later Gluck , chose to write most of their operas in foreign languages , especially Italian . In contrast to Italian opera , which was generally composed for the aristocratic class , German opera was generally composed for the masses and tended to feature simple folk-like melodies , and it was not until the arrival of Mozart that German opera was able to match its Italian counterpart in musical sophistication . Mozart 's Singspiele , Die Entführung aus dem Serail ( 1782 ) and Die Zauberflöte ( 1791 ) were an important breakthrough in achieving international recognition for German opera . The tradition was developed in the 19th century by Beethoven with his Fidelio , inspired by the climate of the French Revolution . Carl Maria von Weber established German Romantic opera in opposition to the dominance of Italian bel canto . His Der Freischütz ( 1821 ) shows his genius for creating a supernatural atmosphere . Other opera composers of the time include Marschner , Schubert and Lortzing , but the most significant figure was undoubtedly Wagner . Wagner was one of the most revolutionary and controversial composers in musical history . Starting under the influence of Weber and Meyerbeer , he gradually evolved a new concept of opera as a Gesamtkunstwerk ( a `` complete work of art '' ) , a fusion of music , poetry and painting . He greatly increased the role and power of the orchestra , creating scores with a complex web of leitmotifs , recurring themes often associated with the characters and concepts of the drama , of which prototypes can be heard in his earlier operas such as Der fliegende Holländer , Tannhäuser and Lohengrin ; and he was prepared to violate accepted musical conventions , such as tonality , in his quest for greater expressivity . In his mature music dramas , Tristan und Isolde , Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg , Der Ring des Nibelungen and Parsifal , he abolished the distinction between aria and recitative in favour of a seamless flow of `` endless melody '' . Wagner also brought a new philosophical dimension to opera in his works , which were usually based on stories from Germanic or Arthurian legend . Finally , Wagner built his own opera house at Bayreuth with part of the patronage from Ludwig II of Bavaria , exclusively dedicated to performing his own works in the style he wanted . Opera would never be the same after Wagner and for many composers his legacy proved a heavy burden . On the other hand , Richard Strauss accepted Wagnerian ideas but took them in wholly new directions , along with incorporating the new form introduced by Verdi . He first won fame with the scandalous Salome and the dark tragedy Elektra , in which tonality was pushed to the limits . Then Strauss changed tack in his greatest success , Der Rosenkavalier , where Mozart and Viennese waltzes became as important an influence as Wagner . Strauss continued to produce a highly varied body of operatic works , often with libretti by the poet Hugo von Hofmannsthal . Other composers who made individual contributions to German opera in the early 20th century include Alexander von Zemlinsky , Erich Korngold , Franz Schreker , Paul Hindemith , Kurt Weill and the Italian-born Ferruccio Busoni . The operatic innovations of Arnold Schoenberg and his successors are discussed in the section on modernism . During the late 19th century , the Austrian composer Johann Strauss II , an admirer of the French-language operettas composed by Jacques Offenbach , composed several German-language operettas , the most famous of which was Die Fledermaus , which is still regularly performed today . Nevertheless , rather than copying the style of Offenbach , the operettas of Strauss II had distinctly Viennese flavor to them , which have cemented the Strauss II 's place as one of the most renowned operetta composers of all time . French opera In rivalry with imported Italian opera productions , a separate French tradition was founded by the Italian Jean-Baptiste Lully at the court of King Louis XIV . Despite his foreign origin , Lully established an Academy of Music and monopolised French opera from 1672 . Starting with Cadmus et Hermione , Lully and his librettist Quinault created tragédie en musique , a form in which dance music and choral writing were particularly prominent . Lully 's operas also show a concern for expressive recitative which matched the contours of the French language . In the 18th century , Lully 's most important successor was Jean-Philippe Rameau , who composed five tragédies en musique as well as numerous works in other genres such as opéra-ballet , all notable for their rich orchestration and harmonic daring . Despite the popularity of Italian opera seria throughout much of Europe during the Baroque period , Italian opera never gained much of a foothold in France , where its own national operatic tradition was more popular instead . After Rameau 's death , the German Gluck was persuaded to produce six operas for the Parisian stage in the 1770s . They show the influence of Rameau , but simplified and with greater focus on the drama . At the same time , by the middle of the 18th century another genre was gaining popularity in France : opéra comique . This was the equivalent of the German singspiel , where arias alternated with spoken dialogue . Notable examples in this style were produced by Monsigny , Philidor and , above all , Grétry . During the Revolutionary period , composers such as Méhul and Cherubini , who were followers of Gluck , brought a new seriousness to the genre , which had never been wholly `` comic '' in any case . Another phenomenon of this period was the 'propaganda opera ' celebrating revolutionary successes , e.g . Gossec 's Le triomphe de la République ( 1793 ) . By the 1820s , Gluckian influence in France had given way to a taste for Italian bel canto , especially after the arrival of Rossini in Paris . Rossini 's Guillaume Tell helped found the new genre of Grand Opera , a form whose most famous exponent was another foreigner , Giacomo Meyerbeer . Meyerbeer 's works , such as Les Huguenots emphasised virtuoso singing and extraordinary stage effects . Lighter opéra comique also enjoyed tremendous success in the hands of Boïeldieu , Auber , Hérold and Adolphe Adam . In this climate , the operas of the French-born composer Hector Berlioz struggled to gain a hearing . Berlioz 's epic masterpiece Les Troyens , the culmination of the Gluckian tradition , was not given a full performance for almost a hundred years . In the second half of the 19th century , Jacques Offenbach created operetta with witty and cynical works such as Orphée aux enfers , as well as the opera Les Contes d'Hoffmann ; Charles Gounod scored a massive success with Faust ; and Bizet composed Carmen , which , once audiences learned to accept its blend of Romanticism and realism , became the most popular of all opéra comiques . Jules Massenet , Camille Saint-Saëns and Léo Delibes all composed works which are still part of the standard repertory , examples being Massenet 's Manon , Saint-Saëns ' Samson et Dalila and Delibes ' Lakmé . At the same time , the influence of Richard Wagner was felt as a challenge to the French tradition . Many French critics angrily rejected Wagner 's music dramas while many French composers closely imitated them with variable success . Perhaps the most interesting response came from Claude Debussy . As in Wagner 's works , the orchestra plays a leading role in Debussy 's unique opera Pelléas et Mélisande ( 1902 ) and there are no real arias , only recitative . But the drama is understated , enigmatic and completely unWagnerian . Other notable 20th-century names include Ravel , Dukas , Roussel and Milhaud . Francis Poulenc is one of the very few post-war composers of any nationality whose operas ( which include Dialogues des Carmélites ) have gained a foothold in the international repertory . Olivier Messiaen 's lengthy sacred drama Saint François d'Assise ( 1983 ) has also attracted widespread attention . English-language opera In England , opera 's antecedent was the 17th-century jig . This was an afterpiece which came at the end of a play . It was frequently libellous and scandalous and consisted in the main of dialogue set to music arranged from popular tunes . In this respect , jigs anticipate the ballad operas of the 18th century . At the same time , the French masque was gaining a firm hold at the English Court , with even more lavish splendour and highly realistic scenery than had been seen before . Inigo Jones became the quintessential designer of these productions , and this style was to dominate the English stage for three centuries . These masques contained songs and dances . In Ben Jonson 's Lovers Made Men ( 1617 ) , `` the whole masque was sung after the Italian manner , stilo recitativo '' . [ http : //www.webrarian.co.uk/ivanhoe/ivan01.html From Webrarian.com 's ] Ivanhoe site . The approach of the English Commonwealth closed theatres and halted any developments that may have led to the establishment of English opera . However , in 1656 , the dramatist Sir William Davenant produced The Siege of Rhodes . Since his theatre was not licensed to produce drama , he asked several of the leading composers ( Lawes , Cooke , Locke , Coleman and Hudson ) to set sections of it to music . This success was followed by The Cruelty of the Spaniards in Peru ( 1658 ) and The History of Sir Francis Drake ( 1659 ) . These pieces were encouraged by Oliver Cromwell because they were critical of Spain . With the English Restoration , foreign ( especially French ) musicians were welcomed back . In 1673 , Thomas Shadwell 's Psyche , patterned on the 1671 'comédie-ballet ' of the same name produced by Molière and Jean-Baptiste Lully . William Davenant produced The Tempest in the same year , which was the first musical adaption of a Shakespeare play ( composed by Locke and Johnson ) . About 1683 , John Blow composed Venus and Adonis , often thought of as the first true English-language opera . Blow 's immediate successor was the better known Henry Purcell . Despite the success of his masterwork Dido and Aeneas ( 1689 ) , in which the action is furthered by the use of Italian-style recitative , much of Purcell 's best work was not involved in the composing of typical opera , but instead he usually worked within the constraints of the semi-opera format , where isolated scenes and masques are contained within the structure of a spoken play , such as Shakespeare in Purcell 's The Fairy-Queen ( 1692 ) and Beaumont and Fletcher in The Prophetess ( 1690 ) and Bonduca ( 1696 ) . The main characters of the play tend not to be involved in the musical scenes , which means that Purcell was rarely able to develop his characters through song . Despite these hindrances , his aim ( and that of his collaborator John Dryden ) was to establish serious opera in England , but these hopes ended with Purcell 's early death at the age of 36 . Following Purcell , the popularity of opera in England dwindled for several decades . A revived interest in opera occurred in the 1730s which is largely attributed to Thomas Arne , both for his own compositions and for alerting Handel to the commercial possibilities of large-scale works in English . Arne was the first English composer to experiment with Italian-style all-sung comic opera , with his greatest success being Thomas and Sally in 1760 . His opera Artaxerxes ( 1762 ) was the first attempt to set a full-blown opera seria in English and was a huge success , holding the stage until the 1830s . Although Arne imitated many elements of Italian opera , he was perhaps the only English composer at that time who was able to move beyond the Italian influences and create his own unique and distinctly English voice . His modernized ballad opera , Love in a Village ( 1762 ) , began a vogue for pastiche opera that lasted well into

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The ‘La Scala Opera House’ is in which European city?

According to Asger Aaboe , the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia , and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descendants in direct line from the work of the late Babylonian astronomers.Aaboe , Asger . `` The culture of Babylonia : Babylonian mathematics , astrology , and astronomy . '' The Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and other States of the Near East , from the Eighth to the Sixth Centuries B.C.E Eds . John Boardman , I. E. S. Edwards , N. G. L. Hammond , E. Sollberger and C. B. F. Walker . Cambridge University Press , ( 1991 ) Modern knowledge of Sumerian astronomy is indirect , via the earliest Babylonian star catalogues dating from about 1200 BCE . The fact that many star names appear in Sumerian suggests a continuity reaching into the Early Bronze Age . The history of astronomy in Mesopotamia , and the world , begins with the Sumerians who developed the earliest writing system—known as cuneiform—around 3500–3200 BC . The Sumerians developed a form of astronomy that had an important influence on the sophisticated astronomy of the Babylonians . Astrolatry , which gave planetary gods an important role in Mesopotamian mythology and religion , began with the Sumerians . They also used a sexagesimal ( base 60 ) place-value number system , which simplified the task of recording very great and very small numbers . The modern practice of dividing a circle into 360 degrees , of 60 minutes each hour , began with the Sumerians . During the 8th and 7th centuries BCE , Babylonian astronomers developed a new empirical approach to astronomy . They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the universe and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems . This was an important contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science , and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution . This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy . Classical Greek and Latin sources frequently use the term Chaldeans for the astronomers of Mesopotamia , who were , in reality , priest-scribes specializing in astrology and other forms of divination . Only fragments of Babylonian astronomy have survived , consisting largely of contemporary clay tablets with ephemerides and procedure texts , hence current knowledge of Babylonian planetary theory is in a fragmentary state . Nevertheless , the surviving fragments show that , according to the historian A. Aaboe , Babylonian astronomy was `` the first and highly successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena '' and that `` all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy , in the Hellenistic world , in India , in Islam , and in the West—if not indeed all subsequent endeavour in the exact sciences—depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways . '' Old Babylonian astronomy Old Babylonian astronomy refers to the astronomy that was practiced during and after the First Babylonian Dynasty ( ca . 1830 BC ) and before the Neo-Babylonian Empire ( ca . 626 BC ) . The Babylonians were the first to recognize that astronomical phenomena are periodic and apply mathematics to their predictions . Tablets dating back to the Old Babylonian period document the application of mathematics to the variation in the length of daylight over a solar year . Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena are recorded in the series of cuneiform tablets known as the Enûma Anu Enlil—the oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet 63 of the Enûma Anu Enlil , the Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa , which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period of about 21 years . It is the earliest evidence that planetary phenomena were recognized as periodic . The MUL.APIN contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting heliacal risings and settings of the planets , and lengths of daylight as measured by a water clock , gnomon , shadows , and intercalations . The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings ' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time intervals , and also employs the stars of the zenith , which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences . There are dozens of cuneiform Mesopotamian texts with real observations of eclipses , mainly from Babylonia . Planetary theory The Babylonians were the first civilization known to possess a functional theory of the planets . The oldest surviving planetary astronomical text is the Babylonian Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa , a 7th-century BC copy of a list of observations of the motions of the planet Venus that probably dates as early as the second millennium BC . The Babylonian astrologers also laid the foundations of what would eventually become Western astrology . The Enuma anu enlil , written during the Neo-Assyrian period in the 7th century BC , comprises a list of omens and their relationships with various celestial phenomena including the motions of the planets . Cosmology In contrast to the world view presented in Mesopotamian and Assyro-Babylonian literature , particularly in Mesopotamian and Babylonian mythology , very little is known about the cosmology and world view of the ancient Babylonian astrologers and astronomers . This is largely due to the current fragmentary state of Babylonian planetary theory , and also due to Babylonian astronomy being independent from cosmology at the time . Nevertheless , traces of cosmology can be found in Babylonian literature and mythology . In Babylonian cosmology , the Earth and the heavens were depicted as a `` spatial whole , even one of round shape '' with references to `` the circumference of heaven and earth '' and `` the totality of heaven and earth '' . Their worldview was not exactly geocentric either . The idea of geocentrism , where the center of the Earth is the exact center of the universe , did not yet exist in Babylonian cosmology , but was established later by the Greek philosopher Aristotle 's On the Heavens . In contrast , Babylonian cosmology suggested that the cosmos revolved around circularly with the heavens and the earth being equal and joined as a whole . The Babylonians and their predecessors , the Sumerians , also believed in a plurality of heavens and earths . This idea dates back to Sumerian incantations of the 2nd millennium BC , which refers to there being seven heavens and seven earths , linked possibly chronologically to the creation by seven generations of Gods . Neo-Babylonian astronomy Neo-Babylonian astronomy refers to the astronomy developed by Chaldean astronomers during the Neo-Babylonian , Achaemenid , Seleucid , and Parthian periods of Mesopotamian history . A significant increase in the quality and frequency of Babylonian observations appeared during the reign of Nabonassar ( 747–734 BC ) . The systematic records of ominous phenomena in Babylonian astronomical diaries that began at this time allowed for the discovery of a repeating 18-year Saros cycle of lunar eclipses , for example . The Greco-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy later used Nabonassar 's reign to fix the beginning of an era , since he felt that the earliest usable observations began at this time . The last stages in the development of Babylonian astronomy took place during the time of the Seleucid Empire ( 323–60 BC ) . In the 3rd century BC , astronomers began to use `` goal-year texts '' to predict the motions of the planets . These texts compiled records of past observations to find repeating occurrences of ominous phenomena for each planet . About the same time , or shortly afterwards , astronomers created mathematical models that allowed them to predict these phenomena directly , without consulting past records . Arithmetical and geometrical methods Though there is a lack of surviving material on Babylonian planetary theory , it appears most of the Chaldean astronomers were concerned mainly with ephemerides and not with theory . It had been thought that most of the predictive Babylonian planetary models that have survived were usually strictly empirical and arithmetical , and usually did not involve geometry , cosmology , or speculative philosophy like that of the later Hellenistic models , though the Babylonian astronomers were concerned with the philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe . Babylonian procedure texts describe , and ephemerides employ , arithmetical procedures to compute the time and place of significant astronomical events . More recent analysis of previously unpublished cuneiform tablets in the British Museum , dated between 350 and 50 BC , demonstrates that Babylonian astronomers sometimes used geometrical methods , prefiguring the methods of the Oxford Calculators , to describe the motion of Jupiter over time in an abstract mathematical space . In contrast to Greek astronomy which was dependent upon cosmology , Babylonian astronomy was independent from cosmology . Whereas Greek astronomers expressed `` prejudice in favor of circles or spheres rotating with uniform motion '' , such a preference did not exist for Babylonian astronomers , for whom uniform circular motion was never a requirement for planetary orbits . There is no evidence that the celestial bodies moved in uniform circular motion , or along celestial spheres , in Babylonian astronomy . Contributions made by the Chaldean astronomers during this period include the discovery of eclipse cycles and saros cycles , and many accurate astronomical observations . For example , they observed that the Sun 's motion along the ecliptic was not uniform , though they were unaware of why this was ; it is today known that this is due to the Earth moving in an elliptic orbit around the Sun , with the Earth moving swifter when it is nearer to the Sun at perihelion and moving slower when it is farther away at aphelion . Chaldean astronomers known to have followed this model include Naburimannu ( fl . 6th–3rd century BC ) , Kidinnu ( d. 330 BC ) , Berossus ( 3rd century BCE ) , and Sudines ( fl . 240 BCE ) . They are known to have had a significant influence on the Greek astronomer Hipparchus and the Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy , as well as other Hellenistic astronomers . Heliocentric astronomy The only surviving planetary model from among the Chaldean astronomers is that of Seleucus of Seleucia ( b . 190 BC ) , who supported Aristarchus of Samos ' heliocentric model . Seleucus is known from the writings of Plutarch , Aetius , Strabo , and Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi . Strabo lists Seleucus as one of the four most influential Chaldean/Babylonian astronomers , alongside Kidenas ( Kidinnu ) , Naburianos ( Naburimannu ) , and Sudines . Their works were originally written in the Akkadian language and later translated into Greek . Seleucus , however , was unique among them in that he was the only one known to have supported the heliocentric theory of planetary motion proposed by Aristarchus , where the Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the Sun . According to Plutarch , Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system through reasoning , though it is not known what arguments he used . According to Lucio Russo , his arguments were probably related to the phenomenon of tides . Seleucus correctly theorized that tides were caused by the Moon , although he believed that the interaction was mediated by the Earth 's atmosphere . He noted that the tides varied in time and strength in different parts of the world . According to Strabo ( 1.1.9 ) , Seleucus was the first to state that the tides are due to the attraction of the Moon , and that the height of the tides depends on the Moon 's position relative to the Sun . According to Bartel Leendert van der Waerden , Seleucus may have proved the heliocentric theory by determining the constants of a geometric model for the heliocentric theory and by developing methods to compute planetary positions using this model . He may have used trigonometric methods that were available in his time , as he was a contemporary of Hipparchus . None of his original writings or Greek translations have survived , though a fragment of his work has survived only in Arabic translation , which was later referred to by the Persian philosopher Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi ( 865-925 ) . Babylonian influence on Hellenistic astronomy Many of the works of ancient Greek and Hellenistic writers ( including mathematicians , astronomers , and geographers ) have been preserved up to the present time , or some aspects of their work and thought are still known through later references . However , achievements in these fields by earlier ancient Near Eastern civilizations , notably those in Babylonia , were forgotten for a long time . Since the discovery of key archaeological sites in the 19th century , many cuneiform writings on clay tablets have been found , some of them related to astronomy . Most known astronomical tablets have been described by Abraham Sachs and later published by Otto Neugebauer in the Astronomical Cuneiform Texts ( ACT ) . Since the rediscovery of the Babylonian civilization , it has become apparent that Hellenistic astronomy was strongly influenced by the Chaldeans . The best documented borrowings are those of Hipparchus ( 2nd century BCE ) and Claudius Ptolemy ( 2nd century CE ) . Early influence Many scholars agree that the Metonic cycle is likely to have been learned by the Greeks from Babylonian scribes . Meton of Athens , a Greek astronomer of the 5th century BCE , developed a lunisolar calendar based on the fact that 19 solar years is about equal to 235 lunar months , a period relation already known to the Babylonians . In the 4th century , Eudoxus of Cnidus wrote a book on the fixed stars . His descriptions of many constellations , especially the twelve signs of the zodiac , are suspiciously similar to Babylonian originals . The following century Aristarchus of Samos used an eclipse cycle of Babylonian origin called the Saros cycle to determine the year length . However , all these examples of early influence must be inferred and the chain of transmission is not known . Influence on Hipparchus and Ptolemy In 1900 , Franz Xaver Kugler demonstrated that Ptolemy had stated in his Almagest IV.2 that Hipparchus improved the values for the Moon 's periods known to him from `` even more ancient astronomers '' by comparing eclipse observations made earlier by `` the Chaldeans '' , and by himself . However Kugler found that the periods that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus had already been used in Babylonian ephemerides , specifically the collection of texts nowadays called `` System B '' ( sometimes attributed to Kidinnu ) . Apparently Hipparchus only confirmed the validity of the periods he learned from the Chaldeans by his newer observations . Later Greek knowledge of this specific Babylonian theory is confirmed by 2nd-century papyrus , which contains 32 lines of a single column of calculations for the Moon using this same `` System B '' , but written in Greek on papyrus rather than in cuneiform on clay tablets . It is clear that Hipparchus ( and Ptolemy after him ) had an essentially complete list of eclipse observations covering many centuries . Most likely these had been compiled from the `` diary '' tablets : these are clay tablets recording all relevant observations that the Chaldeans routinely made . Preserved examples date from 652 BC to AD 130 , but probably the records went back as far as the reign of the Babylonian king Nabonassar : Ptolemy starts his chronology with the first day in the Egyptian calendar of the first year of Nabonassar ; i.e. , 26 February 747 BC . This raw material by itself must have been tough to use , and no doubt the Chaldeans themselves compiled extracts of e.g. , all observed eclipses ( some tablets with a list of all eclipses in a period of time covering a saros have been found ) . This allowed them to recognise periodic recurrences of events . Among others they used in System B ( cf . Almagest IV.2 ) : * 223 ( synodic ) months 239 returns in anomaly ( anomalistic month ) 242 returns in latitude ( draconic month ) . This is now known as the saros period which is very useful for predicting eclipses . * 251 ( synodic ) months = 269 returns in anomaly * 5458 ( synodic ) months = 5923 returns in latitude * 1 synodic month 29 ; 31:50:08:20 days ( sexagesimal ; 29.53059413 ... days in decimals 29 days 12 hours 44 min 3⅓ s ) The Babylonians expressed all periods in synodic months , probably because they used a lunisolar calendar . Various relations with yearly phenomena led to different values for the length of the year . Similarly various relations between the periods of the planets were known . The relations that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus in Almagest IX.3 had all already been used in predictions found on Babylonian clay tablets . Other traces of Babylonian practice in Hipparchus ' work are * first Greek known to divide the circle in 360 degrees of 60 arc minutes . * first consistent use of the sexagesimal number system . * the use of the unit pechus ( `` cubit '' ) of about 2° or 2½° . * use of a short period of 248 days = 9 anomalistic months . Means of transmission All this knowledge was transferred to the Greeks probably shortly after the conquest by Alexander the Great ( 331 BC ) . According to the late classical philosopher Simplicius ( early 6th century ) , Alexander ordered the translation of the historical astronomical records under supervision of his chronicler Callisthenes of Olynthus , who sent it to his uncle Aristotle . It is worth mentioning here that although Simplicius is a very late source , his account may be reliable . He spent some time in exile at the Sassanid ( Persian ) court , and may have accessed sources otherwise lost in the West . It is striking that he mentions the title tèresis ( Greek : guard ) which is an odd name for a historical work , but is in fact an adequate translation of the Babylonian title massartu meaning `` guarding '' but also `` observing '' . Anyway , Aristotle 's pupil Callippus of Cyzicus introduced his 76-year cycle , which improved upon the 19-year Metonic cycle , about that time . He had the first year of his first cycle start at the summer solstice of 28 June 330 BC ( Julian proleptic date ) , but later he seems to have counted lunar months from the first month after Alexander 's decisive battle at Gaugamela in fall 331 BC . So Callippus may have obtained his data from Babylonian sources and his calendar may have been anticipated by Kidinnu . Also it is known that the Babylonian priest known as Berossus wrote around 281 BC a book in Greek on the ( rather mythological ) history of Babylonia , the Babyloniaca , for the new ruler Antiochus I ; it is said that later he founded a school of astrology on the Greek island of Kos . Another candidate for teaching the Greeks about Babylonian astronomy/astrology was Sudines who was at the court of Attalus I Soter late in the 3rd century BC . In any case , the translation of the astronomical records required profound knowledge of the cuneiform script , the language , and the procedures , so it seems likely that it was done by some unidentified Chaldeans . Now , the Babylonians dated their observations in their lunisolar calendar , in which months and years have varying lengths ( 29 or 30 days ; 12 or 13 months respectively ) . At the time they did not use a regular calendar ( such as based on the Metonic cycle like they did later ) , but started a new month based on observations of the New Moon . This made it very tedious to compute the time interval between events . What Hipparchus may have done is transform these records to the Egyptian calendar , which uses a fixed year of always 365 days ( consisting of 12 months of 30 days and 5 extra days ) : this makes computing time intervals much easier . Ptolemy dated all observations in this calendar . He also writes that `` All that he ( Hipparchus ) did was to make a compilation of the planetary observations arranged in a more useful way '' ( Almagest IX.2 ) . Pliny states ( Naturalis Historia II.IX ( 53 ) ) on eclipse predictions : `` After their time ( Thales ) the courses of both stars ( =Sun and Moon ) for 600 years were prophesied by Hipparchus , ... '' . This seems to imply that Hipparchus predicted eclipses for a period of 600 years , but considering the enormous amount of computation required , this is very unlikely . Rather , Hipparchus would have made a list of all eclipses from Nabonasser 's time to his own .

qw_3591--Babylonian_astronomy.txt

The Babylonians invented the clepsydra. What was it?

On the Buses is a British sitcom created by Ronald Wolfe and Ronald Chesney , broadcast in the United Kingdom from 1969 to 1973 . It spawned three feature spin off films and a stage version based on the series . The writers ' previous successes with The Rag Trade and Meet the Wife were for the BBC , but the corporation rejected On the Buses , not seeing much comedy potential in a bus depot as a setting . The comedy partnership turned to a friend , Frank Muir , Head of Entertainment at London Weekend Television , who loved the idea ; the show was accepted and despite a poor critical reception became a hit with viewers . The programme was broadcast internationally and was extremely successful particularly in Europe , Germany , Netherlands , Belgium and Sweden . In a 2004 poll to find Britain 's Best Sitcom , On the Buses was rated 53rd . Cast Characters Stan Butler ( Reg Varney ) Stan is a bus driver who works for the Luxton and District Bus Company , with his best mate Jack . His inspector Inspector Blake commonly known as `` Blakey '' . Stan lives with his Mum ( Doris Hare ) , sister Olive ( Anna Karen ) and Olive 's husband Arthur who is more obsessed with his motorbike than Olive , which regularly causes arguments throughout regular episodes . Stan is often chatting up the `` clippies '' at the bus depot . Mabel Butler ( Cicely Courtneidge ( season 1 ) , Doris Hare ( seasons 2-7 ) ) Stan 's mum Mabel is a maiden in distress when it comes to money . The Butler household is forever losing money and regularly getting the electricity cut off . Mabel is frequently caught up in arguments between Arthur , Olive and Stan . Olive Rudge ( Anna Karen ) Poor old Olive is always being criticised by her husband Arthur , even though she helps her mum with household jobs and frequently helping Stan do the decorating . Olive has been a clippie twice at the bus depot , both being unsuccessful . She is always wanting `` an early night '' with Arthur , much to his displeasure . Arthur Rudge ( Michael Robbins ) Arthur is Stan 's brother in law . He is somewhat snooty and stuck up , and frequently resists Olive 's intimate advances . It is also implied that he has had a vasectomy ( always referred to as his `` operation '' ) , which is a frequent source of ridicule from Stan . Arthur is always tampering with his motorbike , which usually falls apart . In the second of three spin off films Mutiny on the Buses Arthur is made redundant from his unknown job and becomes a bus driver , being trained by Stan who gives him driving lessons on his break . Jack Harper ( Bob Grant ) Jack is Stan 's best friend and next door neighbour who is always getting into trouble with Stan and getting reprimanded by Inspector Blake . Whether it is tampering with radio controls , changing and putting `` DIVERSION '' road signs in the wrong places or going on dates with the buxom clippies , Jack is always getting into regular scrapes with Stan . Inspector `` Blakey '' Blake ( Stephen Lewis ) Inspector Blake is the inspector at the bus depot . Whenever there is a `` brilliant idea '' at the bus depot , it is usually Blakey 's - which are usually elaborate schemes to temper Stan and Jack 's frequent insubordination , or entrap them in their misadventures in a bid to get them fired . However Blakey 's schemes typically backfire with hilarious consequences , and either land him in trouble with the General Manager or he ends up in hospital . Recurring characters The General Manager ( Michael Sheard ) The manager at the Luxton Bus Company is always arguing with Inspector Blake about something that Blakey has `` done '' . He was also the judge at the Gardening Competition in the episode `` Gardening Time '' . Sheard reprised his role as the bus depot manager in the third installment of the On The Buses film series Holiday On The Buses . The Inspector 's Niece ( Madeleine Mills and Sandra Miller ) The Inspector 's Niece was seen twice played by Madeleine Mills and twice by Sandra Miller . Her first two appearances where her and Stan in a love relationship , the second being them engaged but a tea party at Stan 's house makes them split up . Her third appearance was her getting married to Bill , a bus driver at the depot . She also appeared in the episode `` The New Nurse '' . Sandra ( Sandra Bryant ) Sandra is a clippie at the bus depot . Her character is seen frequently throughout the final season of the series . In the first serial , `` Olive 's Divorce '' , she goes on a date with Stan to the cinema , until Olive comes along too . Sandra is then seen in many of the remaining episodes of the series . Nobby ( Terry Duggan ) One of the bus depot 's mechanics . He often assists Stan and Jack in their typical schemes and misadventures . In his one appearance in the On The Buses film series he makes fake diversion signs to get the female bus drivers into trouble . Series production Seventy-four 25-minute episodes were made , as well as three spin-off films . At the beginning of the seventh ( and last ) series Arthur , who is not seen , has left Olive ; they are divorced . Olive again gets a job as a clippy on the buses as they are short of money now . Stan takes a job in the north of England in a car factory in the `` Goodbye Stan '' episode , and the Inspector takes Stan 's old room . In addition , two five-minute Christmas specials were made by LWT as part of All Star Comedy Carnival in 1969 and 1972 , ITV 's answer to the BBC 's Christmas Night with the Stars programme . The 1969 edition has been lost , but the 1972 edition – featuring a goose that the cast are chasing for Christmas dinner – exists in the Thames Television archive which is now owned by FremantleMedia . A spin-off series , Do n't Drink the Water ( 1974–75 ) , ran for 13 episodes , featuring Blake retiring to Spain with his sister , Dorothy ( Pat Coombs ) . The earlier series were recorded at London Weekend Television 's original studios in Wembley ( now Fountain Studios ) . In late 1972 , LWT relocated to new studios on the South Bank of the River Thames ; here the outside doors to the main and secondary studios were too small to accommodate the double-decker buses used in the series . Therefore , single decker buses were used and a plywood mock up of an upper deck was lowered from a lighting rig . Filmed external shots were part of the series . LWT arranged with the now defunct Eastern National Omnibus Company to use its buses at the long gone Wood Green bus garage in north London . For the series they were shown as under the ownership of Luxton and District . Luxton is supposed to be in Essex , and actual Essex towns including Southend-on-Sea , Basildon , Braintree and Tilbury are all mentioned . One of the termini for the buses was Cemetery Gates , for which LWT used the entrance to Lavender Hill Cemetery in Enfield , Middlesex , near Reg Varney 's home . A different Lavender Hill in Battersea also features in the last episode of the last series , featuring the town hall , now the Battersea Arts Centre . The fourth series was affected by the ITV colour strike , with seven of 13 episodes being made in black and white . On the Buses was the subject of a board game by Denys Fisher games . The format of On the Buses was sold to America , where it was remade by NBC as Lotsa Luck , starring Dom DeLuise as Stanley Belmont with Kathleen Freeman as Iris Belmont , his mum , Wynn Irwin as Arthur Swann , Beverly Sanders as Olive Swann and Jack Knight as Bummy Pfitzer , his best friend . After a pilot was made , it ran for one series of 22 episodes in 1973–74 . Episodes based on the original On The Buses scripts were adapted by such American writers as Carl Reiner , Bill Persky and Sam Denoff . The American version was unsuccessful and has never been screened in Britain . The Blakey character did not appear in the American version , as Stan worked at the lost property office at the bus depot rather than being a driver . The theme music for the series , entitled `` Happy Harry '' , was written by Tony Russell . Episodes Critical reception Despite the popularity of On the Buses with the viewing public , TV reviewers and historians have generally held the show in lower regard . In its section on situation comedies , The Guinness Book of Classic British TV describes On the Buses as ITV 's `` longest running and most self-consciously unfunny series '' . TV reviewer Victor Lewis-Smith would later criticise the then-head of LWT , Frank Muir , for green-lighting the programme , which Lewis-Smith called `` the wretched On the Buses '' . Daily Telegraph journalist Max Davidson , discussing 1970s British comedy , listed On the Buses as one of the `` unfunny sitcoms of the time '' , while The Guardian 's David Stubbs referred to On the Buses as `` a byword for 70s sitcom mediocrity '' . Buses The red Town & District buses were Bristol KSWs with Eastern Coach Works bodies . These were ex-Eastern National . Stan and Jack 's `` regular '' bus appeared to be VNO 857 . As of Feb 2015 this vehicle is still road legal . The Green Luxton & District buses were Bristol Lodekkas with bodywork by Eastern Coach Works of Lowestoft . In reality these were Eastern National buses ( in some episodes buses could be seen with Eastern National on the side ) , although as mentioned earlier , the later interior depot shots were in fact 'dummy ' buses . Some 'dummy ' buses were real single deck buses with a wooden frame on top , such as in the Series 3 episode `` Radio Control '' , when the bus has crashed into the bridge . The most commonly used bus in the series was AVW 399F . In later episodes the NBC symbol appears next to Luxton & District . Stan 's usual buses , AVW 399F and AEV 811F , are both still extant , in Lille , France and Los Angeles , California respectively . In episode 1 of series 6 , former London Transport RTL1557 ( OLD 666 ) is featured , and burnt out . DVD releases Region 1 Visual Entertainment released On the Buses : The Ultimate Collection , an eleven-disc box set featuring the complete series on DVD on 12 September 2006 . Region 2 Network DVD released On the Buses : The Complete Series box set on DVD on 13 November 2006 for the very first time . On 25 May 2008 the box set was re-released in a new repackaged version . They have also released each series individually . Region 4 Beyond Home Entertainment released the entire series on DVD in seven series sets between 2 July 2007 – 8 April 2009 . Film and stage versions The three spin-off films were produced by Hammer Film Productions . They are On the Buses ( 1971 ) , Mutiny on the Buses ( 1972 ) , and Holiday on the Buses ( 1973 ) , set in a holiday camp . On the Buses became Britain 's top box-office film of 1971 . The films were set in a different canon to the series – in the films , Arthur and Olive manage to have a child despite their apparently sexless marriage and Arthur 's `` operation '' - the three films follow a loose story arc which follows the child ( Little Arthur ) growing up . Olive is pregnant with a second child at the end of Mutiny , but no further mention of this was made in the third film . Arthur 's `` operation '' is mentioned in the first film , but later Olive gives birth to their baby son . The bus depot becomes The Town & District Bus Company instead of The Luxton & District Traction Bus Company . The buses in the films are mostly red ones and one green one ( not counting the Windsor Safari Park tour bus in Mutiny On The Buses ) . A stage play called , Busman 's Holiday , written by Sam Cree starred Stephen Lewis , Bob Grant and Anna Karen . It was performed as a 1973 summer season at the Pavilion Theatre , Torquay . All of the character names were different to those in the original television series . Planned sequel In 1990 there were plans to revive the series as Back on the Buses , and the original cast appeared on `` Wogan '' to promote the new series . However , although a pilot script was written it was n't made . Back On The Buses was to feature Stan Butler , having run his own business for some years and made some money , starting his own bus company in the newly deregulated market , and hiring Jack to work with him . As they attempt to get the company off the ground , they discover a rival company has set up in the town , owned by none other than Blakey . The comedy in the series would have come from the conflict between the two businesses , and how Stan and Jack attempted to battle Blakey 's bigger and more professional outfit . Repeats The original series has been repeated relatively regularly on ITV3 since 2009 , still being shown in 2016 . Fox Classics on the Australian Fox cable network regularly shows the series , with the latest run commencing on 5 March 2016 .

sfq_4811--On_the_Buses.txt

What was Reg Varney's character called in 'On the Buses'?

The Who are an English rock band that formed in 1964 . Their classic line-up consisted of lead singer Roger Daltrey , guitarist Pete Townshend , bass guitarist John Entwistle , and drummer Keith Moon . They are considered one of the most influential rock bands of the 20th century , selling over 100 million records worldwide and holding a reputation for their live shows and studio work . The Who developed from an earlier group , the Detours , and established themselves as part of the pop art and mod movements , featuring auto-destructive art by destroying guitars and drums on stage . Their first single as the Who , `` I Ca n't Explain '' , reached the UK top ten , followed by a string of singles including `` My Generation '' , `` Substitute '' and `` Happy Jack '' . In 1967 , they performed at the Monterey Pop Festival and released the US top ten single `` I Can See for Miles '' , while touring extensively . The group 's fourth album , 1969 's rock opera Tommy , included the single `` Pinball Wizard '' and was a critical and commercial success . Live appearances at Woodstock and the Isle of Wight Festival , along with the live album Live at Leeds , cemented their reputation as a respected rock act . With their success came increased pressure on lead songwriter and visionary Townshend , and the follow-up to Tommy , Lifehouse , was abandoned . Songs from the project made up 1971 's Who 's Next , which included the hit `` Wo n't Get Fooled Again '' . The group released the album Quadrophenia in 1973 as a celebration of their mod roots , and oversaw the film adaptation of Tommy in 1975 . They continued to tour to large audiences before semi-retiring from live performances at the end of 1976 . The release of Who Are You in 1978 was overshadowed by the death of Moon shortly after . Kenney Jones replaced Moon and the group resumed activity , releasing a film adaptation of Quadrophenia and the retrospective documentary The Kids Are Alright . After Townshend became weary of touring , the group split in 1982 . The Who occasionally re-formed for live appearances such as Live Aid in 1985 , a 25th anniversary tour in 1989 and a tour of Quadrophenia in 1996–97 . They resumed regular touring in 1999 , with drummer Zak Starkey . After Entwistle 's death in 2002 , plans for a new album were delayed . Townshend and Daltrey continued as the Who , releasing Endless Wire in 2006 , and continued to play live regularly . The Who 's major contributions to rock music include the development of the Marshall stack , large PA systems , use of the synthesizer , Entwistle and Moon 's lead playing styles , Townshend 's feedback and power chord guitar technique , and the development of the rock opera . They are cited as an influence by hard rock , punk rock and mod bands , and their songs still receive regular exposure . History Background The founding members of the Who , Roger Daltrey , Pete Townshend and John Entwistle , grew up in Acton , London and went to Acton County Grammar School . Townshend 's father , Cliff , played saxophone and his mother , Betty , had sung in the entertainment division of the Royal Air Force during World War II , and both supported their son 's interest in rock and roll . Townshend and Entwistle became friends in their second year of Acton County , and formed a trad jazz group ; Entwistle also played French horn in the Middlesex Schools ' Symphony Orchestra . Both were interested in rock , and Townshend particularly admired Cliff Richard 's début single , `` Move It '' . Entwistle moved to guitar , but struggled with it due to his large fingers , and moved to bass on hearing the guitar work of Duane Eddy . He was unable to afford a bass and built one at home . After Acton County , Townshend attended Ealing Art College , a move he later described as profoundly influential on the course of the Who . Daltrey , who was in the year above , had moved to Acton from Shepherd 's Bush , a more working-class area . He had trouble fitting in at the school , and discovered gangs and rock and roll . He was expelled at 15 and found work on a building site . In 1959 he started the Detours , the band that was to evolve into the Who . The band played professional gigs , such as corporate and wedding functions , and Daltrey kept a close eye on the finances as well as the music . Daltrey spotted Entwistle by chance on the street carrying a bass and recruited him into the Detours . In mid-1961 , Entwistle suggested Townshend as a guitarist , Daltrey on lead guitar , Entwistle on bass , Harry Wilson on drums , and Colin Dawson on vocals . The band played instrumentals by the Shadows and the Ventures , and a variety of pop and trad jazz covers . Daltrey was considered the leader and , according to Townshend , `` ran things the way he wanted them '' . Wilson was fired in mid-1962 and replaced by Doug Sandom , though he was older than the rest of the band , married , and a more proficient musician , having been playing semi-professionally for two years . Dawson left after frequently arguing with Daltrey and after being briefly replaced by Gabby Connolly , Daltrey moved to lead vocals . Townshend , with Entwistle 's encouragement , became the sole guitarist . Through Townshend 's mother , the group obtained a management contract with local promoter Robert Druce , who started booking the band as a support act . The Detours were influenced by the bands they supported , including Screaming Lord Sutch , Cliff Bennett and the Rebel Rousers , Shane Fenton and the Fentones , and Johnny Kidd and the Pirates . The Detours were particularly interested in the Pirates as they also only had one guitarist , Mick Green , who inspired Townshend to combine rhythm and lead guitar in his style . Entwistle 's bass became more of a lead instrument , playing melodies . In February 1964 , the Detours became aware of the group Johnny Devlin and the Detours and changed their name . Townshend and his room-mate Richard Barnes spent a night considering names , focusing on a theme of joke announcements , including `` No One '' and `` the Group '' . Townshend preferred `` the Hair '' , and Barnes liked `` the Who '' because it `` had a pop punch '' . Daltrey chose `` the Who '' the next morning . 1964–78 Early career By the time the Detours had become the Who , they had already found regular gigs , including at the Oldfield Hotel in Greenford , the White Hart Hotel in Acton , the Goldhawk Social Club in Shepherd 's Bush , and the Notre Dame Hall in Leicester Square . They had also replaced Druce as manager with Helmut Gorden , with whom they secured an audition with Chris Parmeinter for Fontana Records . Parmeinter found problems with the drumming and , according to Sandom , Townshend immediately turned on him and threatened to fire him if his playing did not immediately improve . Sandom left in disgust , but was persuaded to lend his kit to any potential stand-ins or replacements . Sandom and Townshend did not speak to each other again for 14 years . During a gig with a stand-in drummer in late April at the Oldfield , the band first met Keith Moon . Moon grew up in Wembley , and had been drumming in bands since 1961 . He was performing with a semi-professional band called the Beachcombers , and wanted to play full-time . Moon played a few songs with the group , breaking a bass drum pedal and tearing a drum skin . The band were impressed with his energy and enthusiasm , and offered him the job . Moon performed with the Beachcombers a few more times , but dates clashed and he chose to devote himself to the Who . The Beachcombers auditioned Sandom , but were unimpressed and did not ask him to join . The Who changed managers to Peter Meaden . He decided that the group would be ideal to represent the growing mod movement in Britain which involved fashion , scooters and music genres such as rhythm and blues , soul and beat . He renamed the group the High Numbers , dressed them up in mod clothes , secured a second , more favourable audition with Fontana and wrote the lyrics for both sides of their single `` Zoot Suit '' / '' I 'm the Face '' to appeal to mods . The tune for `` Zoot Suit '' was `` Misery '' by the Dynamics , and `` I 'm the Face '' borrowed from Slim Harpo 's `` I Got Love If You Want It '' . Although Meaden tried to promote the single , it failed to reach the top 50 and the band reverted to calling themselves the Who . The group began to improve their stage image ; Daltrey started using his microphone cable as a whip on stage , and occasionally leapt into the crowd ; Moon threw drumsticks into the air mid-beat ; Townshend mimed machine gunning the crowd with his guitar while jumping on stage and playing guitar with a fast arm-windmilling motion , or stood with his arms aloft allowing his guitar to produce feedback in a posture dubbed `` the Bird Man '' . Meaden was replaced as manager by two filmmakers , Kit Lambert and Chris Stamp . They were looking for a young , unsigned rock group that they could make a film about , and had seen the band at the Railway Hotel in Wealdstone , which had become a regular venue for them . Lambert related to Townshend and his art school background , and encouraged him to write songs . In August , Lambert and Stamp made a promotional film featuring the group and their audience at the Railway . The band changed their set towards soul , rhythm and blues and Motown covers , and created the slogan `` Maximum R & B '' . In June 1964 , during a performance at the Railway , Townshend accidentally broke the head of his guitar on the low ceiling of the stage . Angered by the audience 's laughter , he smashed the instrument on the stage , then picked up another guitar and continued the show . The following week , the audience were keen to see a repeat of the event . Moon obliged by kicking his drum kit over , and auto-destructive art became a feature of the Who 's live set . First singles and My Generation By late 1964 , the Who were becoming popular in London 's Marquee club , and a rave review of their live act appeared in Melody Maker . Lambert and Stamp attracted the attention of the American producer Shel Talmy , who had produced the Kinks . Townshend had written a song , `` I Ca n't Explain '' , that deliberately sounded like the Kinks to attract Talmy 's attention . Talmy saw the group in rehearsals and was impressed . He signed them to his production company , and sold the recording to the US arm of Decca Records , which meant that the group 's early singles were released in Britain on Brunswick Records , one of UK Decca 's labels for US artists . `` I Ca n't Explain '' was recorded in early November 1964 at Pye Studios in Marble Arch with the Ivy League on backing vocals , and Jimmy Page played fuzz guitar on the B-side , `` Bald Headed Woman '' . `` I Ca n't Explain '' became popular with pirate radio stations such as Radio Caroline . Pirate radio was important for bands as there were no commercial radio stations in the UK and BBC Radio played little pop music . The group gained further exposure when they appeared on the television programme Ready Steady Go ! Lambert and Stamp were tasked with finding `` typical teens '' , and invited the group 's regular audience from the Goldhawk Social Club . Enthusiastic reception on television and regular airplay on pirate radio helped the single slowly climb the charts in early 1965 until it reached the top 10 . The follow-up single , `` Anyway , Anyhow , Anywhere '' , by Townshend and Daltrey , features guitar noises such as pick sliding , toggle switching and feedback , which was so unconventional that it was initially rejected by the US arm of Decca . The single reached the top 10 in the UK and was used as the theme song to Ready Steady Go ! The transition to a hit-making band with original material , encouraged by Lambert , did not sit well with Daltrey , and a recording session of R & B covers went unreleased . The Who were not close friends either , apart from Moon and Entwistle , who enjoyed visiting nightclubs together in the West End of London . The group experienced a difficult time when touring Denmark in September , which culminated in Daltrey throwing Moon 's amphetamines down the toilet and assaulting him . Immediately on returning to Britain , Daltrey was sacked , but was reinstated on the condition that the group became a democracy without his dominant leadership . At this time , the group enlisted Richard Cole as a roadie . The next single , `` My Generation '' , followed in October . Townshend had written it as a slow blues , but after several abortive attempts , it was turned into a more powerful song with a bass solo from Entwistle . The song used gimmicks such as a vocal stutter to simulate the speech of a mod on amphetamines , and two key changes . Townshend insisted in interviews that the lyrics `` Hope I die before I get old '' were not meant to be taken literally . Peaking at No . 2 , `` My Generation '' is the group 's highest-charting single in the UK . The début album My Generation was released in late 1965 . Among original material by Townshend , including the title track and `` The Kids Are Alright '' , the album has several James Brown covers from the session earlier that year that Daltrey favoured . After My Generation , the Who fell out with Talmy , which meant an abrupt end to their recording contract . The resulting legal acrimony resulted in Talmy holding the rights to the master tapes , which prevented the album from being reissued until 2002 . The Who were signed to Robert Stigwood 's label , Reaction , and released `` Substitute '' . Townshend said he wrote the song about identity crisis , and as a parody of the Rolling Stones 's `` 19th Nervous Breakdown '' . It was the first single to feature him playing an acoustic twelve-string guitar . Talmy took legal action over the B-side , `` Instant Party '' , and the single was withdrawn . A new B-side , `` Waltz for a Pig '' , was recorded by the Graham Bond Organisation under the pseudonym `` the Who Orchestra '' . In 1966 the Who released `` I 'm a Boy '' , about a boy dressed as a girl , taken from an abortive collection of songs called Quads ; `` Happy Jack '' ; and an EP , Ready Steady Who , that tied in with their regular appearances on Ready Steady Go ! The group continued to have conflict ; on 20 May , Moon and Entwistle were late to a gig having been on the Ready Steady Go ! set with The Beach Boys ' Bruce Johnston . During `` My Generation '' , Townshend attacked Moon with his guitar ; Moon suffered a black eye and bruises , and he and Entwistle left the band , but changed their minds and rejoined a week later . Moon kept looking for other work , and Jeff Beck had him to play drums on his song `` Beck 's Bolero '' ( with Page , John Paul Jones and Nicky Hopkins ) because he was `` trying to get Keith out of the Who '' . A Quick One and The Who Sell Out To alleviate financial pressure on the band , Lambert arranged a song-writing deal which required each member to write two songs for the next album . Entwistle contributed `` Boris the Spider '' and `` Whiskey Man '' and found a niche role as second songwriter . The band found they needed to fill an extra ten minutes , and Lambert encouraged Townshend to write a longer piece , `` A Quick One , While He 's Away '' . The suite of song fragments is about a girl who has an affair while her lover is away , but is ultimately forgiven . The album was titled A Quick One ( Happy Jack in the US ) , and reached No . 4 in the UK charts . It was followed in 1967 by the UK Top 5 single `` Pictures of Lily '' . By 1966 , Ready Steady Go ! had ended , the mod movement was becoming unfashionable , and the Who found themselves in competition on the London circuit with groups including Cream and the Jimi Hendrix Experience . Lambert and Stamp realised that commercial success in the US was paramount to the group 's future , and arranged a deal with promoter Frank Barsalona for a short package tour in New York . The group 's performances , which still involved smashing guitars and kicking over drums , were well received , and led to their first major US appearance at the Monterey Pop Festival . The group , especially Moon , were not fond of the hippie movement , and thought their violent stage act would stand in sharp contrast to the peaceful atmosphere of the festival . Hendrix was also on the bill , and was also going to smash his guitar on stage . Townshend verbally abused Hendrix and accused him of stealing his act , and the pair argued about who should go on stage first , with the Who winning the argument . The Who brought hired equipment to the festival ; Hendrix shipped over his regular touring gear from Britain , including a full Marshall stack . According to biographer Tony Fletcher , Hendrix sounded `` so much better than the Who it was embarrassing '' . The Who 's appearance at Monterey gave them recognition in the US , and `` Happy Jack '' reached the top 30 . The group followed Monterey with a US tour supporting Herman 's Hermits . The Hermits were a straightforward pop band and enjoyed drugs and practical jokes . They bonded with Moon , who was excited to learn that cherry bombs were legal to purchase in Alabama . Moon acquired a reputation of destroying hotel rooms while on tour , with a particular interest in blowing up toilets . Entwistle said the first cherry bomb they tried `` blew a hole in the suitcase and the chair '' . Moon recalled his first attempt to flush one down the toilet : `` [ A ] ll that porcelain flying through the air was quite unforgettable . I never realised dynamite was so powerful . '' After a gig in Flint , Michigan on Moon 's 21st birthday on 23 August 1967 , the entourage caused $ 24,000 of damage at the hotel , and Moon knocked out one of his front teeth . Daltrey later said that the tour brought the band closer , and as the support act , they could turn up and perform a short show without any major responsibilities . After the Hermits tour , the Who recorded their next single , `` I Can See for Miles '' , which Townshend had written in 1966 but had avoided recording until he was sure it could be produced well . Townshend called it `` the ultimate Who record '' , and was disappointed it reached only No . 10 in the UK . It became their best selling single in the US , reaching No . 9 . The group toured the US again with Eric Burdon and the Animals , including an appearance on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour , miming to `` I Can See For Miles '' and `` My Generation '' . Moon bribed a stage hand to put explosives in his drum kit , who loaded it with ten times the expected quantity . The resulting detonation threw Moon off his drum riser and his arm was cut by flying cymbal shrapnel . Townshend 's hair was singed and his left ear left ringing , and a camera and studio monitor were destroyed . The next album was The Who Sell Out—a concept album paying tribute to pirate radio , which had been outlawed in August 1967 by the Marine , & c. , Broadcasting ( Offences ) Act 1967 . It included humorous jingles and mock commercials between songs , a mini rock opera called `` Rael '' , and `` I Can See For Miles '' . The Who declared themselves a pop art group and thus viewed advertising as an artform ; they recorded a wide variety of radio advertisements , such as for canned milkshakes and the American Cancer Society , in defiance of the rising anti-consumerist ethos of the hippie counterculture . Townshend stated , `` We do n't change offstage . We live pop art . '' Later that year , Lambert and Stamp formed a record label , Track Records , with distribution by Polydor . As well as signing Hendrix , Track became the imprint for all the Who 's UK output until the mid-1970s . The group started 1968 by touring Australia and New Zealand with the Small Faces . The groups had trouble with the local authorities and the New Zealand Truth called them `` unwashed , foul-smelling , booze-swilling no-hopers '' . They continued to tour across the US and Canada during the first half of the year . Tommy , Woodstock and Live at Leeds By 1968 the Who had started to attract attention in the underground press . Townshend had stopped using drugs and became interested in the teachings of Meher Baba . In August , he gave an interview to Rolling Stone editor Jann Wenner describing in detail the plot of a new album project and its relationship to Baba 's teachings . The album went through several names during recording , including Deaf Dumb and Blind Boy and Amazing Journey ; Townshend settled on Tommy for the album about the life of a deaf , dumb and blind boy , and his attempt to communicate with others . Some songs , such as `` Welcome '' and `` Amazing Journey '' were inspired by Baba 's teaching , and others came from observations within the band . `` Sally Simpson '' is about a fan who tried to climb on stage at a gig by the Doors that they attended and `` Pinball Wizard '' was written so that New York Times journalist Nik Cohn , a pinball enthusiast , would give the album a good review . Townshend later said , `` I wanted the story of Tommy to have several levels ... a rock singles level and a bigger concept level '' , containing the spiritual message he wanted as well as being entertaining . The album was projected for a Christmas 1968 release but recording stalled after Townshend decided to make a double album to cover the story in sufficient depth . By the end of the year , 18 months of touring had led to a well-rehearsed and tight live band , which was evident when they performed `` A Quick One While He 's Away '' at The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus television special . The Stones considered their own performance lacklustre , and the project was never broadcast . The Who had not released an album in over a year , and had not completed the recording of Tommy , which continued well into 1969 , interspersed with gigs at weekends . Lambert was a key figure in keeping the group focused and getting the album completed , and typed up a script to help them understand the story and how the songs fitted together . The album was released in May with the accompanying single , `` Pinball Wizard '' , a début performance at Ronnie Scott 's , and a tour , playing most of the new album live . Tommy sold 200,000 copies in the US in its first two weeks , and was a critical smash , Life saying , `` ... for sheer power , invention and brilliance of performance , Tommy outstrips anything which has ever come out of a recording studio '' . Melody Maker declared : `` Surely the Who are now the band against which all others are to be judged . '' Daltrey had significantly improved as a singer , and set a template for rock singers in the 1970s by growing his hair long and wearing open shirts on stage . Townshend had taken to wearing a boiler suit and Doctor Martens shoes . In August , the Who performed at the Woodstock Festival , despite being reluctant and demanding $ 13,000 up front . The group were scheduled to appear on Saturday night , 16 August , but the festival ran late and they did not take to the stage until 5am on Sunday ; they played most of Tommy . During their performance , Yippie leader Abbie Hoffman interrupted the set to give a political speech about the arrest of John Sinclair ; Townshend kicked him off stage , shouting : `` Fuck off my fucking stage ! '' During `` See Me , Feel Me '' , the sun rose almost as if on cue ; Entwistle later said , `` God was our lighting man '' . At the end , Townshend threw his guitar into the audience . The set was professionally recorded and filmed , and portions appear on the Woodstock film , The Old Grey Whistle Test and The Kids Are Alright . Woodstock has been regarded as culturally significant , but the Who were critical of the event . Roadie John `` Wiggie '' Wolff , who arranged the band 's payment , described it as `` a shambles '' . Daltrey declared it as `` the worst gig ever played '' and Townshend said , `` I thought the whole of America had gone mad . '' A more enjoyable appearance came a few weeks later at the second Isle of Wight Festival , which Townshend described as `` a great concert for '' the band . By 1970 , the Who were widely considered one of the best and most popular live rock bands ; Chris Charlesworth described their concerts as `` leading to a kind of rock nirvana that most bands can only dream about '' . They decided a live album would help demonstrate how different the sound at their gigs was to Tommy , and set about listening to the hours of recordings they had accumulated . Townshend baulked at the prospect of doing so , and demanded that all the tapes be burned . Instead , they booked two shows , one in Leeds on 14 February , and one in Hull the following day , with the intention of recording a live album . Technical problems from the Hull gig resulted in the Leeds gig being used , which became Live at Leeds . The album is viewed by several critics including The Independent , The Telegraph and the BBC , as one of the best live rock albums of all time . The Tommy tour included shows in European opera houses and saw the Who become the first rock act to play at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City . In March the Who released the UK top 20 hit `` The Seeker '' , continuing a theme of issuing singles separate to albums . Townshend wrote the song to commemorate the common man , as a contrast to the themes on Tommy . Lifehouse and Who 's Next Tommy secured the Who 's future , and made them millionaires . The group reacted

sfq_9464--The_Who.txt

Who succeeded Brian Epstein as manager of The Beatles?

Denis Law CBE ( born 24 February 1940 ) is a Scottish former football player . His career as a football player began at Second Division Huddersfield Town in 1956 . After four years at Huddersfield , he was signed by Manchester City for a transfer fee of £55,000 , which set a new British record . Law spent one year there before Torino bought him for £110,000 , this time setting a new record fee for a transfer between an English and an Italian club . Although he played well in Italy , he found it difficult to settle there and signed for Manchester United in 1962 , setting another British record transfer fee of £115,000 . Law spent 11 years at Manchester United , where he scored 237 goals in 404 appearances . His goals tally places him third in the club 's history , behind Bobby Charlton and Wayne Rooney . He was nicknamed The King and The Lawman by supporters , and Denis the Menace by opposing supporters . He is the only Scottish player to have won the Ballon d'Or award , doing so in 1964 , and helped his club win the First Division in 1965 and 1967 . He missed their European Cup triumph in 1968 through injury . Law left Manchester United in 1973 to return to Manchester City for a season , and represented Scotland at the 1974 FIFA World Cup . He retired at the start of the 1974–75 season . Law played for Scotland a total of 55 times and jointly holds the Scottish international record goal tally with 30 goals . Law holds a United record for scoring 46 competitive goals in a single season . Early life Law was born in Aberdeen , Scotland , to George Law , a fisherman , and his wife , Robina ; he was the youngest of seven children , four boys and three girls . The Law family were not well off and lived in a council flat at Printfield Terrace in Aberdeen . He went barefoot until he was 12 years old and wore handed-down shoes throughout his adolescence ; his first pair of football boots came as a second-hand birthday present from a neighbour , which he received as a teenager . He supported Aberdeen and watched them when he had enough money to do so , watching local non-league teams when he did not . His obsession with football led to him turning down a place at Aberdeen Grammar School , because he would have had to play rugby there . Instead , he attended Powis Academy in Aberdeen . Despite having a serious squint , he showed great promise once he was moved from full back to inside-left , and was selected for Scotland Schoolboys . Club career Huddersfield Town In the 1954–55 season , he was spotted by Archie Beattie , a scout for Huddersfield Town , who invited 15-year-old Law to go for a trial . When he got there , the manager said , `` The boy 's a freak . Never did I see a less likely football prospect – weak , puny and bespectacled . '' However , to Law 's surprise , they signed him on 3 April 1955 . While he was at Huddersfield , he had an operation to correct his squint , which greatly enhanced his self-confidence . Huddersfield 's relegation to what was then the Second Division made it easier for Law to get a game , and he made his debut on 24 December 1956 , aged only sixteen , in a 2–1 win over Notts County . Manchester United 's manager Matt Busby shortly offered Huddersfield £10,000 for Law , a substantial amount of money for a teenage footballer at that time , but the club turned the offer down . Bill Shankly was manager of Huddersfield between 1957 and 1959 , and when he left for Liverpool he wanted to take Law with him , but Liverpool were unable to afford him at that time . Manchester City In March 1960 , Law signed for Manchester City for what was then a British record transfer fee of £55,000 , although Law 's share of the fee was `` precisely nothing '' . Once again , Matt Busby had attempted to sign Law for Manchester United , but United 's cross-city rivals beat them to Law 's signature . Although a First Division side , City had narrowly avoided relegation the previous season , and he genuinely felt that Huddersfield had a better team at the time . Law made his debut on 19 March , scoring in a 4–3 defeat to Leeds United . In April 1961 , he scored two goals in a 4–1 win over Aston Villa that ensured City 's survival in Division One . Although he had thought about leaving , he was playing well and in 1961 Law scored an incredible six goals in an FA Cup tie against Luton Town . Unfortunately for him , the match was abandoned with twenty minutes to go , so his six goals did n't count . To make matters worse for him , Luton won the replay 3–1 , and City were knocked out of the Cup . Although he enjoyed his time at City , he wanted to play in a more successful side and was sold to the Italian club Torino in the summer of 1961 . Torino Law moved to Torino for a fee of £115,000 , and was accompanied by Joe Baker who had signed from Scottish side Hibernian . Law 's time in Italy did not go according to plan . Another Italian club , Internazionale , tried to prevent him becoming a Torino player as soon as he arrived , claiming he had signed a pre-contract agreement with them , although they dropped this claim before the season started . Players in the UK were not treated well at the time , and the maximum wage for footballers had only recently been abolished there , so he was pleasantly surprised to find that pre-season training was based in a luxury hotel in the Alps . However , Torino took performance-related pay to something of an extreme , giving the players bags full of money when the team won but little , if anything , when they lost . Like many British footballers who have gone to play in Italy , Law did not like the style of football and found adapting to it difficult . The ultra-defensive catenaccio system was popular there at the time , so forwards did not get many chances to score . On 7 February 1962 , he was injured in a car crash when his team-mate Joe Baker drove the wrong way around a roundabout and clipped the kerb as he tried to turn the car around , flipping it over . Baker was almost killed , but Law 's injuries were not life-threatening . By April , he had put in a transfer request , which was ignored . The final straw for Law came in a match against Napoli when he was sent off . After the match , he was told that Torino 's coach , Beniamino Santos , had instructed the referee to send him off because he was angry at Law for taking a throw in , which he had been told not to do . Law walked out , and was told that he would be transferred to Manchester United . A few days later , however , he was told that he was being sold to Juventus and that the small print in his contract committed him to going there whether he wanted to or not . He responded by flying home to Aberdeen , knowing that Torino would not get a penny in transfer fees if he refused to play at Juventus . He eventually signed for United on 10 July 1962 , for a new British record fee of £115,000 . Although his time in Italy was mixed , Law was voted number one foreign player in Italy ahead of team-mate Joe Baker , Fiorentina winger Kurt Hamrin and Inter Milan midfielder Luis Suarez . The lifestyle and culture of a foreign country was an eye-opener for the young Scotsman , and the medical expertise and sports science in Italy was far ahead of what was available in the UK at the time . Ultimately though , Law found the football to be joyless and overly defensive , with him being subjected to violent man marking and heavy tackling on a frequent basis . Manchester United Glory years Law moved back to Manchester , boarding with the same landlady with whom he had lived during his time as a City player . His first match for United was against West Bromwich Albion on 18 August 1962 , and he made an excellent start , scoring after only seven minutes . The match finished in a 2–2 draw . However , United 's form had been erratic since the Munich air disaster in 1958 , and because of their inconsistency they spent the season fighting relegation . In a league match against Leicester City Law scored a hat trick but United still lost . They found form in the FA Cup though , with Law scoring another hat trick in a 5–0 win against his old club Huddersfield Town , and they went on to reach the final against Leicester City . Leicester were strong favourites , having finished fourth in the league , but Law scored the first goal as United won 3–1 in what turned out to be the only FA Cup final of his career . He also married his wife Diana that season , on 11 December 1962 . An incident took place that season that Law felt had repercussions in later years . In a match against West Brom on 15 December 1962 , the referee Gilbert Pullin consistently goaded Law with taunts such as `` Oh , you clever so and so , you ca n't play '' , and after the match , Law and his manager Matt Busby reported the matter to the Football Association . A disciplinary committee decided that Pullin should be severely censured , but he did not accept their verdict and quit the game . Law later claimed that `` in the eyes of some referees , I was a marked man '' and blamed the incident for the `` staggeringly heavy punishments '' that he received later in his career . Law scored a number of goals early in the 1963–64 season and was selected to play for a Rest of the World side against England at Wembley , scoring their goal in a 2–1 defeat . He later described this as the greatest honour of his career . His season was interrupted by a 28-day suspension for a sending off that he received against Aston Villa . The unusually cold winter forced United to play many of their fixtures in a short time , and their results suffered . Law later blamed this for United 's failure to win a trophy in that season . Despite the lack of silverware , Law enjoyed a prolific goalscoring season and finished the campaign with 46 goals in all competitions , still a club record today . In 1964–65 , Law won the Ballon d'Or award , and Manchester United won their first league title since Munich . Law 's 28 league goals that season made him the First Division 's top scorer . The following season , Law injured his right knee while playing for Scotland against Poland on 21 October 1965 . He had previously had an operation on the same knee while at Huddersfield , and the injury was to trouble him for the rest of his career . In 1966 , Law asked United 's manager Matt Busby to give him a pay rise at his next contract renewal , and threatened to leave the club if he did not get one . Busby immediately placed Law on the transfer list , announcing that `` no player will hold this club to ransom , no player '' . When Law went to see him , Busby pulled out a written apology for him to sign , showing it to the press once he had done so . Law later claimed that Busby had used the incident to warn other players not to do the same thing , but had secretly given him the pay rise . Despite all this , Law scored 23 goals in 36 league appearances during 1966–67 , helping United win the league title again . In 1968 , United won the European Cup for the first time , but Law 's knee injury was causing him serious problems and he missed both the semi-final and the final as a result . He was regularly given cortisone injections to ease the pain , but playing while the knee was still injured was causing long-term damage . He visited a specialist in January 1968 who wrote to United claiming that a previous operation to remove the cartilage from the knee had failed and recommending that a second operation be performed , but Law was not shown the report for several years and had to continue full training . In 1968–69 , United reached the semi-final of the European Cup , playing AC Milan . United lost the first leg in the San Siro 2–0 , winning the second leg at Old Trafford 1–0 with a Bobby Charlton goal . Law believed that he had put the ball over the line only to see it kicked away by a Milan defender . Law claimed a goal but the referee waved play on and United went out on aggregate . Having scored seven times in the 10–2 aggregate first round victory over Waterford United , Law finished as top scorer in the tournament with 9 goals . Decline Wilf McGuinness took over as first team coach at the start of the 1969–70 season . United finished eighth in the league , but Law missed almost all of the season through injury , and in April 1970 he was transfer listed for £60,000 . Nobody made a bid for him , so he stayed at United . After a poor 1970–71 season , United appointed Frank O'Farrell as manager . They made a good start to the 1971–72 season and finished 1971 five points clear at the top of the league , with Law having scored twelve goals . However , results deteriorated and they finished the season in eighth place . Law scored in the first match of the following season , 1972–73 , but his knee injury was troubling him again , and he failed to score for the rest of the season . The poor results continued and O'Farrell was sacked . Law recommended that United replace O'Farrell with Tommy Docherty , whom he knew from his time playing with the Scottish national side . The club followed his recommendation , and things started well , with the team 's improved results lifting them into mid-table . Return to Manchester City Law was given a free transfer by Tommy Docherty in the summer of 1973 , after 11 years at the club during which he had scored a total of 237 goals in 404 games in all competitions , as well as collecting two league title medals and an FA Cup winner 's medal . Only Bobby Charlton ( who retired in 1973 ) had scored more goals for United . Law was then offered a contract by Manchester City manager Johnny Hart , scoring two goals on his debut against Birmingham City in the opening game of the season 1973–74 . He made 27 full appearances and two as substitute in that season , including City 's 2–1 defeat in the League Cup final against Wolves . In City 's last game of the 1973–74 season against Manchester United at Old Trafford , Law 's 81st-minute back-heeled goal gave City a 1–0 lead but , thinking his goal might relegate United , Law did not celebrate it . Results of the day 's other matches meant that United were relegated whatever their result , but Law did not know that at the time . A number of pitch invasions by United fans followed , and Law walked off the pitch with his head down as he was substituted . The pitch invasions forced the referee to abandon the game in the 85th minute . After a review , the Football League decided that the result should stand . In the summer of 1974 , he made one appearance for Scotland in the 1974 World Cup , against Zaire . Law still had a contract with Manchester City , but new manager Tony Book told him that he would only be playing reserve team football if he stayed at the club in the new season . He did not want to end his career in this way , so he retired from professional football in the summer of 1974 . Law played two games for Manchester City in the season 1974–75 , in the pre-season Texaco Cup tournament , scoring the last goal of his career in the game against Sheffield United at Bramall Lane on 6 August 1974 . His last professional game was the 2–1 victory against Oldham Athletic at Maine Road on 10 August 1974 . He formally retired on 26 August 1974 . International career Law was not chosen to play for Scotland in the 1958 FIFA World Cup , but scored on his debut against Wales on 18 October 1958 and quickly established himself as a first choice player . He played but did not score in Scotland 's match against England on 15 April 1961 . Scotland lost the match 9–3 , and Law described it as his `` blackest day '' . While with Torino , Law continued to play for Scotland , although the club were not keen to release him for international matches and had put a clause into his contract stating that they were not obliged to do so . Law was chosen for the Rest of the World team that faced England in the FA Centenary match in 1963 . Law injured his right knee while playing for Scotland against Poland on 21 October 1965 . Law scored in Scotland 's famous 3–2 victory over England on 15 April 1967 in the 1967 British Home Championship , less than a year after England had become world champions . Manchester United won the league that season , but Law felt that the victory over England was even more satisfying . Scotland reached the World Cup finals in the summer of 1974 , for the first time since 1958 . Although he had not played much first team football in the preceding season , Law was included in the squad and played in their first match , against Zaire . He did n't score , but Scotland won 2–0 . Law was `` very disappointed '' not to be picked for the following match against Brazil , and was not selected for the following match against Yugoslavia either . Although Scotland were not defeated in any of their matches , they did not qualify for the second phase and were out of the World Cup . The match against Zaire proved to be the last of Law 's 55 appearances for Scotland . Personal life He first met his wife-to-be , Diana , in an Aberdeenshire dancehall when they were both still teenagers . They married in December 1962 and went on to have five children . Their daughter , also called Diana , worked for several years in the Manchester United press office . Their other children are Gary , Andrew , Robert and Iain . And they also have five grandchildren , Emilia , Isla , Ollie , James and Harvey . Denis and Diana still live in the Manchester area . Since retiring as a player , Law has often worked on radio and television summarising and presenting games . He appeared as a special guest on the TV guest show This Is Your Life on 19 February 1975 , months after retiring as a player . Law was made an Inaugural Inductee of the English Football Hall of Fame in 2002 in recognition of his impact on the English game . On 23 February 2002 , a statue of Law was unveiled at Old Trafford , in the part of the stadium known as the Scoreboard End . He had a successful operation to treat prostate cancer in November 2003 and was awarded honorary degrees from the Universities of Aberdeen and St. Andrews in 2005 . The emergence of Dutch international Dennis Bergkamp in the 1990s uncovered a story that the player 's parents were fans of Law and named their son after him . However , Dutch authorities refused to recognise the name unless it was spelt with two ns as they felt it was otherwise too similar to the female name Denise . On 25 November 2005 , Law was at the bedside of former United team-mate George Best as he died of multiple organ failure . In May 2008 , at the City of Manchester Stadium , Law ( with UEFA president Michel Platini ) presented the medals to the winners of the UEFA Cup , Zenit Saint Petersburg and their opponents , Scottish side Rangers . In February 2010 , Law was named as patron of the UK based charity Football Aid , taking over from the late Sir Bobby Robson . Law was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 2016 New Year Honours for services to football and charity . Honours Club ; Manchester United * FA Cup : 1962–63 * Football League First Division : 1964–65 , 1966–67 * Charity Shield : 1965 , 1967 * European Cup : 1967–68 Individual * Ballon d'Or : 1964 * World Soccer World XI : 1964 * European Cup top scorer : 1968–69 * Football League 100 Legends : 1974 * PFA Merit Award : 1975 * Scotland national football team roll of honour ( players with 50+ caps ) : inducted in 1988 * FWA Tribute Award : 1994 * Inaugural Inductee of the English Football Hall of Fame : 2002 * Scotland 's Golden Player : Most Outstanding Player of the past 50 years by the Scottish Football Association ( November 2003 , to celebrate UEFA 's Jubilee ) * Scottish Football Hall of Fame : inducted in 2004 * PFA Team of the Century ( 1907-1976 ) : 2007 Career statistics Club International International goals Scores and results list Scotland 's goal tally first .

qz_2654--Denis_Law.txt

In 1961, who famously scored six goals in a match but still ended up on the losing team in a FA Cup tie?

Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum . Instruments used to measure pressure are called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges . A manometer is an instrument that uses a column of liquid to measure pressure , although the term is currently often used to mean any pressure measuring instrument . A vacuum gauge is used to measure the pressure in a vacuum—which is further divided into two subcategories : high and low vacuum ( and sometimes ultra-high vacuum ) . The applicable pressure ranges of many of the techniques used to measure vacuums have an overlap . Hence , by combining several different types of gauge , it is possible to measure system pressure continuously from 10 mbar down to 10−11 mbar . Absolute , gauge and differential pressures — zero reference Everyday pressure measurements , such as for tire pressure , are usually made relative to ambient air pressure . In other cases measurements are made relative to a vacuum or to some other specific reference . When distinguishing between these zero references , the following terms are used : * is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum , using an absolute scale , so it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure . * is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure , so it is equal to absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure . Negative signs are usually omitted . To distinguish a negative pressure , the value may be appended with the word `` vacuum '' or the gauge may be labeled a `` vacuum gauge . '' * is the difference in pressure between two points . The zero reference in use is usually implied by context , and these words are added only when clarification is needed . Tire pressure and blood pressure are gauge pressures by convention , while atmospheric pressures , deep vacuum pressures , and altimeter pressures must be absolute . For most working fluids where a fluid exists in a closed system , gauge pressure measurement prevails . Pressure instruments connected to the system will indicate pressures relative to the current atmospheric pressure . The situation changes when extreme vacuum pressures are measured ; absolute pressures are typically used instead . Differential pressures are commonly used in industrial process systems . Differential pressure gauges have two inlet ports , each connected to one of the volumes whose pressure is to be monitored . In effect , such a gauge performs the mathematical operation of subtraction through mechanical means , obviating the need for an operator or control system to watch two separate gauges and determine the difference in readings . Moderate vacuum pressure readings can be ambiguous without the proper context , as they may represent absolute pressure or gauge pressure without a negative sign . Thus a vacuum of 26 inHg gauge is equivalent to an absolute pressure of 30 inHg ( typical atmospheric pressure ) − 26 inHg = 4 inHg . Atmospheric pressure is typically about 100 kPa at sea level , but is variable with altitude and weather . If the absolute pressure of a fluid stays constant , the gauge pressure of the same fluid will vary as atmospheric pressure changes . For example , when a car drives up a mountain , the ( gauge ) tire pressure goes up because atmospheric pressure goes down . The absolute pressure in the tire is essentially unchanged . Using atmospheric pressure as reference is usually signified by a g for gauge after the pressure unit , e.g . 70 psig , which means that the pressure measured is the total pressure minus atmospheric pressure . There are two types of gauge reference pressure : vented gauge ( vg ) and sealed gauge ( sg ) . A vented gauge pressure transmitter for example allows the outside air pressure to be exposed to the negative side of the pressure sensing diaphragm , via a vented cable or a hole on the side of the device , so that it always measures the pressure referred to ambient barometric pressure . Thus a vented gauge reference pressure sensor should always read zero pressure when the process pressure connection is held open to the air . A sealed gauge reference is very similar except that atmospheric pressure is sealed on the negative side of the diaphragm . This is usually adopted on high pressure ranges such as hydraulics where atmospheric pressure changes will have a negligible effect on the accuracy of the reading , so venting is not necessary . This also allows some manufacturers to provide secondary pressure containment as an extra precaution for pressure equipment safety if the burst pressure of the primary pressure sensing diaphragm is exceeded . There is another way of creating a sealed gauge reference and this is to seal a high vacuum on the reverse side of the sensing diaphragm . Then the output signal is offset so the pressure sensor reads close to zero when measuring atmospheric pressure . A sealed gauge reference pressure transducer will never read exactly zero because atmospheric pressure is always changing and the reference in this case is fixed at 1 bar . To produce an absolute pressure sensor the manufacturer will seal a high vacuum behind the sensing diaphragm . If the process pressure connection of an absolute pressure transmitter is open to the air , it will read the actual barometric pressure . Units The SI unit for pressure is the pascal ( Pa ) , equal to one newton per square metre ( N·m−2 or kg·m−1·s−2 ) . This special name for the unit was added in 1971 ; before that , pressure in SI was expressed in units such as N·m−2 . When indicated , the zero reference is stated in parenthesis following the unit , for example 101 kPa ( abs ) . The pound per square inch ( psi ) is still in widespread use in the US and Canada , for measuring , for instance , tire pressure . A letter is often appended to the psi unit to indicate the measurement 's zero reference ; psia for absolute , psig for gauge , psid for differential , although this practice is discouraged by the NIST . Because pressure was once commonly measured by its ability to displace a column of liquid in a manometer , pressures are often expressed as a depth of a particular fluid ( e.g. , inches of water ) . Manometric measurement is the subject of pressure head calculations . The most common choices for a manometer 's fluid are mercury ( Hg ) and water ; water is nontoxic and readily available , while mercury 's density allows for a shorter column ( and so a smaller manometer ) to measure a given pressure . The abbreviation `` W.C. '' or the words `` water column '' are often printed on gauges and measurements that use water for the manometer . Fluid density and local gravity can vary from one reading to another depending on local factors , so the height of a fluid column does not define pressure precisely . So measurements in `` millimetres of mercury '' or `` inches of mercury '' can be converted to SI units as long as attention is paid to the local factors of fluid density and gravity . Temperature fluctuations change the value of fluid density , while location can affect gravity . Although no longer preferred , these manometric units are still encountered in many fields . Blood pressure is measured in millimetres of mercury ( see torr ) in most of the world , and lung pressures in centimeters of water are still common , as in settings for CPAP machines . Natural gas pipeline pressures are measured in inches of water , expressed as `` inches W.C. '' Scuba divers often use a manometric rule of thumb : the pressure exerted by ten meters depth of sea water ( `` 10 msw '' ) is approximately equal to one atmosphere . In vacuum systems , the units torr ( milimeter of mercury ) , micron ( micrometer of mercury ) , and inch of mercury ( inHg ) are most commonly used . Torr and micron usually indicates an absolute pressure , while inHg usually indicates a gauge pressure . Atmospheric pressures are usually stated using hectopascal ( hPa ) , kilopascal ( kPa ) , millibar ( mbar ) or atmospheres ( atm ) . In American and Canadian engineering , stress is often measured in kip . Note that stress is not a true pressure since it is not scalar . In the cgs system the unit of pressure was the barye ( ba ) , equal to 1 dyn·cm−2 . In the mts system , the unit of pressure was the pieze , equal to 1 sthene per square metre . Many other hybrid units are used such as mmHg/cm2 or grams-force/cm2 ( sometimes as kg/cm2 without properly identifying the force units ) . Using the names kilogram , gram , kilogram-force , or gram-force ( or their symbols ) as a unit of force is prohibited in SI ; the unit of force in SI is the newton ( N ) . Static and dynamic pressure Static pressure is uniform in all directions , so pressure measurements are independent of direction in an immovable ( static ) fluid . Flow , however , applies additional pressure on surfaces perpendicular to the flow direction , while having little impact on surfaces parallel to the flow direction . This directional component of pressure in a moving ( dynamic ) fluid is called dynamic pressure . An instrument facing the flow direction measures the sum of the static and dynamic pressures ; this measurement is called the total pressure or stagnation pressure . Since dynamic pressure is referenced to static pressure , it is neither gauge nor absolute ; it is a differential pressure . While static gauge pressure is of primary importance to determining net loads on pipe walls , dynamic pressure is used to measure flow rates and airspeed . Dynamic pressure can be measured by taking the differential pressure between instruments parallel and perpendicular to the flow . Pitot-static tubes , for example perform this measurement on airplanes to determine airspeed . The presence of the measuring instrument inevitably acts to divert flow and create turbulence , so its shape is critical to accuracy and the calibration curves are often non-linear . Applications * Altimeter * Barometer * MAP sensor * Pitot tube * Sphygmomanometer Instruments Many instruments have been invented to measure pressure , with different advantages and disadvantages . Pressure range , sensitivity , dynamic response and cost all vary by several orders of magnitude from one instrument design to the next . The oldest type is the liquid column ( a vertical tube filled with mercury ) manometer invented by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643 . The U-Tube was invented by Christiaan Huygens in 1661 . Hydrostatic Hydrostatic gauges ( such as the mercury column manometer ) compare pressure to the hydrostatic force per unit area at the base of a column of fluid . Hydrostatic gauge measurements are independent of the type of gas being measured , and can be designed to have a very linear calibration . They have poor dynamic response . Piston Piston-type gauges counterbalance the pressure of a fluid with a spring ( for example tire-pressure gauges of comparatively low accuracy ) or a solid weight , in which case it is known as a deadweight tester and may be used for calibration of other gauges . Liquid column By using the pressure head equation , liquids can be used for instrumentation where gravity is present . Liquid column gauges consist of a vertical column of liquid in a tube that has ends which are exposed to different pressures . The column will rise or fall until its weight ( a force applied due to gravity ) is in equilibrium with the pressure differential between the two ends of the tube ( a force applied due to fluid pressure ) . A very simple version is a U-shaped tube half-full of liquid , one side of which is connected to the region of interest while the reference pressure ( which might be the atmospheric pressure or a vacuum ) is applied to the other . The difference in liquid level represents the applied pressure . The pressure exerted by a column of fluid of height h and density ρ is given by the hydrostatic pressure equation , P = hgρ . Therefore , the pressure difference between the applied pressure Pa and the reference pressure P0 in a U-tube manometer can be found by solving . In other words , the pressure on either end of the liquid ( shown in blue in the figure ) must be balanced ( since the liquid is static ) and so . In most liquid column measurements , the result of the measurement is the height , h , expressed typically in mm , cm , or inches . The h is also known as the pressure head . When expressed as a pressure head , pressure is specified in units of length and the measurement fluid must be specified . When accuracy is critical , the temperature of the measurement fluid must likewise be specified , because liquid density is a function of temperature . So , for example , pressure head might be written `` 742.2 mmHg '' or `` 4.2 inH2O at 59 °F '' for measurements taken with mercury or water as the manometric fluid , respectively . The word `` gauge '' or `` vacuum '' may be added to such a measurement to distinguish between a pressure above or below the atmospheric pressure . Both mm of mercury and inches of water are common pressure heads which can be converted to S.I . units of pressure using unit conversion and the above formulas . If the fluid being measured is significantly dense , hydrostatic corrections may have to be made for the height between the moving surface of the manometer working fluid and the location where the pressure measurement is desired except when measuring differential pressure of a fluid ( for example across an orifice plate or venturi ) , in which case the density ρ should be corrected by subtracting the density of the fluid being measured . Although any fluid can be used , mercury is preferred for its high density ( 13.534 g/cm3 ) and low vapour pressure . For low pressure differences , light oil or water are commonly used ( the latter giving rise to units of measurement such as inches water gauge and millimetres H2O . Liquid-column pressure gauges have a highly linear calibration . They have poor dynamic response because the fluid in the column may react slowly to a pressure change . When measuring vacuum , the working liquid may evaporate and contaminate the vacuum if its vapor pressure is too high . When measuring liquid pressure , a loop filled with gas or a light fluid can isolate the liquids to prevent them from mixing but this can be unnecessary , for example when mercury is used as the manometer fluid to measure differential pressure of a fluid such as water . Simple hydrostatic gauges can measure pressures ranging from a few Torr ( a few 100 Pa ) to a few atmospheres . ( Approximately 1,000,000 Pa ) A single-limb liquid-column manometer has a larger reservoir instead of one side of the U-tube and has a scale beside the narrower column . The column may be inclined to further amplify the liquid movement . Based on the use and structure following type of manometers are used [ Was : `` fluidengineering.co.nr/Manometer.htm '' . At 1/2010 that took me to bad link . Types of fluid Manometers ] # Simple Manometer # Micromanometer # Differential manometer # Inverted differential manometer McLeod gauge A McLeod gauge isolates a sample of gas and compresses it in a modified mercury manometer until the pressure is a few millimetres of mercury . The technique is slow and unsuited to continual monitoring , but is capable of good accuracy . Unlike other manometer gauges , the McLeod gauge reading is dependent on the composition of the gas since the interpretation relies on the sample compressing as an ideal gas . Due to the compression process , the McLeod gauge completely ignores partial pressures from non-ideal vapors that condense , such as pump oils , mercury , and even water if compressed enough . Useful range : from around 10−4 torr [ http : //www.tau.ac.il/~phchlab/experiments/vacuum/Techniques_of_high_vacuum/Vacuum5.html Techniques of high vacuum ] ( roughly 10−2 Pa ) to vacuums as high as 10−6 Torr ( 0.1 mPa ) , 0.1 mPa is the lowest direct measurement of pressure that is possible with current technology . Other vacuum gauges can measure lower pressures , but only indirectly by measurement of other pressure-controlled properties . These indirect measurements must be calibrated to SI units via a direct measurement , most commonly a McLeod gauge . Aneroid Aneroid gauges are based on a metallic pressure-sensing element that flexes elastically under the effect of a pressure difference across the element . `` Aneroid '' means `` without fluid , '' and the term originally distinguished these gauges from the hydrostatic gauges described above . However , aneroid gauges can be used to measure the pressure of a liquid as well as a gas , and they are not the only type of gauge that can operate without fluid . For this reason , they are often called mechanical gauges in modern language . Aneroid gauges are not dependent on the type of gas being measured , unlike thermal and ionization gauges , and are less likely to contaminate the system than hydrostatic gauges . The pressure sensing element may be a Bourdon tube , a diaphragm , a capsule , or a set of bellows , which will change shape in response to the pressure of the region in question . The deflection of the pressure sensing element may be read by a linkage connected to a needle , or it may be read by a secondary transducer . The most common secondary transducers in modern vacuum gauges measure a change in capacitance due to the mechanical deflection . Gauges that rely on a change in capacitance are often referred to as capacitance manometers . Bourdon The Bourdon pressure gauge uses the principle that a flattened tube tends to straighten or regain its circular form in cross-section when pressurized . Although this change in cross-section may be hardly noticeable , and thus involving moderate stresses within the elastic range of easily workable materials , the strain of the material of the tube is magnified by forming the tube into a C shape or even a helix , such that the entire tube tends to straighten out or uncoil , elastically , as it is pressurized . Eugene Bourdon patented his gauge in France in 1849 , and it was widely adopted because of its superior sensitivity , linearity , and accuracy ; Edward Ashcroft purchased Bourdon 's American patent rights in 1852 and became a major manufacturer of gauges . Also in 1849 , Bernard Schaeffer in Magdeburg , Germany patented a successful diaphragm ( see below ) pressure gauge , which , together with the Bourdon gauge , revolutionized pressure measurement in industry . But in 1875 after Bourdon 's patents expired , his company Schaeffer and Budenberg also manufactured Bourdon tube gauges . In practice , a flattened thin-wall , closed-end tube is connected at the hollow end to a fixed pipe containing the fluid pressure to be measured . As the pressure increases , the closed end moves in an arc , and this motion is converted into the rotation of a ( segment of a ) gear by a connecting link that is usually adjustable . A small-diameter pinion gear is on the pointer shaft , so the motion is magnified further by the gear ratio . The positioning of the indicator card behind the pointer , the initial pointer shaft position , the linkage length and initial position , all provide means to calibrate the pointer to indicate the desired range of pressure for variations in the behavior of the Bourdon tube itself . Differential pressure can be measured by gauges containing two different Bourdon tubes , with connecting linkages . Bourdon tubes measure gauge pressure , relative to ambient atmospheric pressure , as opposed to absolute pressure ; vacuum is sensed as a reverse motion . Some aneroid barometers use Bourdon tubes closed at both ends ( but most use diaphragms or capsules , see below ) . When the measured pressure is rapidly pulsing , such as when the gauge is near a reciprocating pump , an orifice restriction in the connecting pipe is frequently used to avoid unnecessary wear on the gears and provide an average reading ; when the whole gauge is subject to mechanical vibration , the entire case including the pointer and indicator card can be filled with an oil or glycerin . Tapping on the face of the gauge is not recommended as it will tend to falsify actual readings initially presented by the gauge . The Bourdon tube is separate from the face of the gauge and thus has no effect on the actual reading of pressure . Typical high-quality modern gauges provide an accuracy of ±2 % of span , and a special high-precision gauge can be as accurate as 0.1 % of full scale . In the following illustrations the transparent cover face of the pictured combination pressure and vacuum gauge has been removed and the mechanism removed from the case . This particular gauge is a combination vacuum and pressure gauge used for automotive diagnosis : * the left side of the face , used for measuring manifold vacuum , is calibrated in centimetres of mercury on its inner scale and inches of mercury on its outer scale . * the right portion of the face is used to measure fuel pump pressure or turbo boost and is calibrated in fractions of 1 kgf/cm2 on its inner scale and pounds per square inch on its outer scale . Mechanical details Stationary parts : * A : Receiver block . This joins the inlet pipe to the fixed end of the Bourdon tube ( 1 ) and secures the chassis plate ( B ) . The two holes receive screws that secure the case . * B : Chassis plate . The face card is attached to this . It contains bearing holes for the axles . * C : Secondary chassis plate . It supports the outer ends of the axles . * D : Posts to join and space the two chassis plates . Moving Parts : # Stationary end of Bourdon tube . This communicates with the inlet pipe through the receiver block . # Moving end of Bourdon tube . This end is sealed . # Pivot and pivot pin . # Link joining pivot pin to lever ( 5 ) with pins to allow joint rotation . # Lever . This is an extension of the sector gear ( 7 ) . # Sector gear axle pin . # Sector gear . # Indicator needle axle . This has a spur gear that engages the sector gear ( 7 ) and extends through the face to drive the indicator needle . Due to the short distance between the lever arm link boss and the pivot pin and the difference between the effective radius of the sector gear and that of the spur gear , any motion of the Bourdon tube is greatly amplified . A small motion of the tube results in a large motion of the indicator needle . # Hair spring to preload the gear train to eliminate gear lash and hysteresis . Diaphragm A second type of aneroid gauge uses deflection of a flexible membrane that separates regions of different pressure . The amount of deflection is repeatable for known pressures so the pressure can be determined by using calibration . The deformation of a thin diaphragm is dependent on the difference in pressure between its two faces . The reference face can be open to atmosphere to measure gauge pressure , open to a second port to measure differential pressure , or can be sealed against a vacuum or other fixed reference pressure to measure absolute pressure . The deformation can be measured using mechanical , optical or capacitive techniques . Ceramic and metallic diaphragms are used . Useful range : above 10−2 Torr [ http : //www.schoonoverinc.com/PDFs/Sky % 20Brochure.pdf Product brochure from Schoonover , Inc ] ( roughly 1 Pa ) For absolute measurements , welded pressure capsules with diaphragms on either side are often used . shape : * Flat * corrugated * flattened tube * capsule Bellows In gauges intended to sense small pressures or pressure differences , or require that an absolute pressure be measured , the gear train and needle may be driven by an enclosed and sealed bellows chamber , called an aneroid , which means `` without liquid '' . ( Early barometers used a column of liquid such as water or the liquid metal mercury suspended by a vacuum . ) This bellows configuration is used in aneroid barometers ( barometers with an indicating needle and dial card ) , altimeters , altitude recording barographs , and the altitude telemetry instruments used in weather balloon radiosondes . These devices use the sealed chamber as a reference pressure and are driven by the external pressure . Other sensitive aircraft instruments such as air speed indicators and rate of climb indicators ( variometers ) have connections both to the internal part of the aneroid chamber and to an external enclosing chamber . Magnetic coupling These gauges use the attraction of two magnets to translate differential pressure into motion of a dial pointer . As differential pressure increases , a magnet attached to either a piston or rubber diaphragm moves . A rotary magnet that is attached to a pointer then moves in unison . To create different pressure ranges , the spring rate can be increased or decreased . Spinning rotor gauge The spinning rotor gauge works by measuring the amount a rotating ball is slowed by the viscosity of the gas being measured . The ball is made of steel and is magnetically levitated inside a steel tube closed at one end and exposed to the gas to be measured at the other . The ball is brought up to speed ( about 2500 rad/s ) , and the speed measured after switching off the drive , by electromagnetic transducers . The range of the instrument is 10−5 to 102 Pa ( 103 Pa with less accuracy ) . It is accurate and stable enough to be used as a secondary standard . The instrument requires some skill and knowledge to use correctly . Various corrections must be applied and the ball must be spun at a pressure well below the intended measurement pressure for five hours before using . It is most useful in calibration and research laboratories where high accuracy is required and qualified technicians are available . Electronic pressure sensors ; Piezoresistive Strain Gage Uses the piezoresistive effect of bonded or formed strain gauges to detect strain due to applied pressure . ; Capacitive Uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to create a variable capacitor to detect strain due to applied pressure . ; Magnetic Measures the displacement of a diaphragm by means of changes in inductance ( reluctance ) , LVDT , Hall Effect , or by eddy current principle . ; Piezoelectric Uses the piezoelectric effect in certain materials such as quartz to measure the strain upon the sensing mechanism due to pressure . ; Optical Uses the physical change of an optical fiber to detect strain due to applied pressure . ; Potentiometric Uses the motion of a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the strain caused by applied pressure . ; Resonant Uses the changes in resonant frequency in a sensing mechanism to measure stress , or changes in gas density , caused by applied pressure . Thermal conductivity Generally , as a real gas increases in density -which may indicate an increase in pressure- its ability to conduct heat increases . In this type of gauge , a wire filament is heated by running current through it . A thermocouple

dpql_2467--Pressure_measurement.txt

What is measured by a Bourdon Gauge?

The Sound of Music is a 1965 American musical drama film produced and directed by Robert Wise , and starring Julie Andrews and Christopher Plummer . The film is an adaptation of the 1959 Broadway musical The Sound of Music , composed by Richard Rodgers with lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II . The film 's screenplay was written by Ernest Lehman , adapted from the stage musical 's book by Howard Lindsay and Russel Crouse . Based on the memoir The Story of the Trapp Family Singers by Maria von Trapp , the film is about a young Austrian woman studying to become a nun in Salzburg in 1938 who is sent to the villa of a retired naval officer and widower to be governess to his seven children . After bringing love and music into the lives of the family through kindness and patience , she marries the officer and together with the children they find a way to survive the loss of their homeland through courage and faith . The film was released on March 2 , 1965 in the United States , initially as a limited roadshow theatrical release . The critical response to the film was widely mixed , with Bosley Crowther of The New York Times calling it `` romantic nonsense and sentiment , '' and Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times describing it as `` three hours of visual and vocal brilliance . '' The film was a major commercial success , becoming the number one box office movie after four weeks , and the highest-grossing film of 1965 . By November 1966 , The Sound of Music became the highest-grossing film of all-time—surpassing Gone with the Wind—and held that distinction for five years . The film was just as popular throughout the world , breaking previous box-office records in twenty-nine countries . Following an initial theatrical release that lasted four and a half years , and two successful re-releases , the film sold 283.3 million admissions worldwide and earned a total worldwide gross of $ 286,214,076 . Adjusted for inflation , the film earned $ 2.366 billion at 2014 prices—the fifth highest grossing film of all time . The Sound of Music received five Academy Awards , including Best Picture and Best Director . The film also received two Golden Globe Awards , for Best Motion Picture and Best Actress , the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement , and the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Written American Musical . In 1998 , the American Film Institute ( AFI ) listed The Sound of Music as the fifty-fifth greatest American movie of all time , and the fourth greatest movie musical . In 2001 , the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry , finding it `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' . Plot Maria is a free-spirited young Austrian woman studying to become a nun at Nonnberg Abbey in Salzburg in 1938 . Her love of music and the mountains , her youthful enthusiasm and imagination , and her lack of discipline cause some concern among the nuns . The Mother Abbess , believing Maria would be happier outside the abbey , sends her to the villa of retired naval officer Captain Georg von Trapp to be governess to his seven children—Liesl , Friedrich , Louisa , Kurt , Brigitta , Marta , and Gretl . The Captain has been raising his children alone using strict military discipline following the death of his first wife . At first , the children treat Maria as they did their former governesses—playing tricks on her as a way of gaining their father 's attention . Maria responds with kindness and patience , and soon the children come to trust and respect her . While the Captain is away in Vienna , Maria makes play clothes for the children out of old drapes—replacing their naval-style uniforms—and takes them around Salzburg and the surrounding mountains . Their bond is strengthened when she teaches them how to sing . When the Captain returns to the villa with Baroness Elsa Schraeder , a wealthy socialite , and their mutual friend , Max Detweiler , they are greeted by Maria and the children returning from a boat ride on the lake that concludes when their boat overturns . Displeased by his children 's clothes and activities , and Maria 's impassioned appeal that he get closer to his children , the Captain orders her to return to the abbey . Just then he hears singing coming from inside the house and is astonished to see his children singing for the Baroness . Filled with emotion , the Captain joins his children , singing for the first time in years . Afterwards , he apologizes to Maria and asks her to stay . Soon after , Maria and the children put on a marionette show for the Baroness , the Captain , and Max , who proposes he enter them in the upcoming Salzburg Festival—a suggestion immediately rejected by the Captain who will not allow his children to sing in public . He does agree , however , to organize a grand party at the villa . The night of the party , while guests in formal attire waltz in the ballroom , Maria and the children look on from the garden terrace . When the Captain notices Maria teaching Kurt the traditional Ländler folk dance , he cuts in and partners with Maria in a graceful performance , culminating in a close embrace . Confused about her feelings , Maria blushes and breaks away . Later , the Baroness , who noticed the Captain 's attraction to Maria , hides her jealousy while convincing Maria that she must return to the abbey . Maria 's departure deeply affects the children , who no longer find joy in singing . They are also disappointed to learn that the Baroness will soon become their stepmother . Back at the abbey , when Mother Abbess learns that Maria has stayed in seclusion to avoid her feelings for the Captain , she encourages her to return to the villa to look for her life . After Maria returns to the villa , she learns about the Captain 's engagement to the Baroness and agrees to stay until they find a replacement governess . The Captain 's feelings for Maria , however , have not changed , and soon he breaks his engagement and declares his love to Maria , who returns his affections and accepts his marriage proposal . Some time later , Maria walks down the aisle of a large baroque cathedral toward the Captain , who is waiting at the altar dressed in his naval uniform—and they are married . While the Captain and Maria are on their honeymoon , Max enters the children in the Salzburg Festival against their father 's wishes . When they learn that Austria has been annexed into the Third Reich in the Anschluss , the couple return to their home , where a large Nazi flag hangs above the front door . After pulling the flag down and ripping it in half , the Captain reads a telegram informing him that he must report to the German Naval Headquarters in Bremerhaven to accept a commission in the German Navy . Strongly opposed to the Nazis and the Anschluss , the Captain tells his family they must leave Austria immediately . That night , as the von Trapp family attempt to leave , they are stopped by German soldiers waiting outside the villa . When questioned by Gauleiter Hans Zeller , the Captain maintains they are headed to the Salzburg Festival to perform . Zeller insists on escorting them to the festival , after which his men will accompany the Captain to Bremerhaven . Later that night at the festival , during their final number , the von Trapp family slip away and seek shelter at the nearby abbey , where Mother Abbess hides them in the cemetery crypt . Nazi soldiers soon arrive and search the abbey , but the family is able to escape using the caretaker 's car . When the soldiers attempt to pursue , they discover their cars will not start as two nuns have removed parts of their engines . The next morning , after driving to the border , the von Trapp family make their way on foot across the mountains into Switzerland to freedom . Cast * Julie Andrews as Maria , a young Austrian woman studying to become a nun * Christopher Plummer as Captain von Trapp , a retired Austrian naval officer * Eleanor Parker as the Baroness , Elsa von Schraeder * Richard Haydn as Max Detweiler , a friend of the Baroness and the Captain * Peggy Wood as the Mother Abbess * Charmian Carr as Liesl , the first and eldest child * Nicholas Hammond as Friedrich , the second child * Heather Menzies as Louisa , the third child * Duane Chase as Kurt , the fourth child and younger boy * Angela Cartwright as Brigitta , the fifth child * Debbie Turner as Marta , the sixth child * Kym Karath as Gretl , the seventh and youngest child * Anna Lee as Sister Margaretta * Portia Nelson as Sister Berthe * Ben Wright as Herr Zeller * Daniel Truhitte as Rolfe , a telegram delivery boy * Norma Varden as Frau Schmidt , the housekeeper * Gil Stuart as Franz , the butler * Marni Nixon as Sister Sophia * Evadne Baker as Sister Bernice * Doris Lloyd as Baroness Ebberfeld , a guest at the Captain 's ball Background The Sound of Music story is based on Maria von Trapp 's memoir , The Story of the Trapp Family Singers , published in 1949 to help promote her family 's singing group following the death of her husband Georg in 1947 . Hollywood producers expressed interest in purchasing the title only , but Maria refused , wanting her entire story to be told . In 1956 , German producer Wolfgang Liebeneiner purchased the film rights for $ 9,000 ( ) , hired George Hurdalek and Herbert Reinecker to write the screenplay , and Franz Grothe to supervise the soundtrack , which consisted of traditional Austrian folk songs . The Trapp Family was released in West Germany on October 9 , 1956 and became a major success . Two years later , Liebeneiner directed a sequel , The Trapp Family in America , and the two pictures became the most successful films in West Germany during the post-war years . Their popularity extended throughout Europe and South America . In 1956 , Paramount Pictures purchased the United States film rights , intending to produce an English-language version with Audrey Hepburn as Maria . The studio eventually dropped its option , but one of its directors , Vincent J. Donehue , proposed the story as a stage musical for Mary Martin . Producers Richard Halliday and Leland Heyward secured the rights and hired playwrights Howard Lindsay and Russel Crouse , who had won the Pulitzer Prize for State of the Union . They approached Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II to compose one song for the musical , but the composers felt the two styles—traditional Austrian folk songs and their composition—would not work together . They offered to write a complete new score for the entire production if the producers were willing to wait while they completed work on Flower Drum Song . The producers quickly responded that they would wait as long as necessary . The Sound of Music stage musical opened on November 16 , 1959 at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre in New York City and ran on Broadway for 1,443 performances , winning six Tony Awards , including Best Musical . In June 1960 , Twentieth Century Fox purchased the film adaptation rights to the stage musical for $ 1.25 million ( ) against ten percent of the gross . Production The original Rodgers and Hammerstein stage musical score was enhanced by two new songs by Richard Rodgers . Arranger and conductor Irwin Kostal prerecorded the songs with a large orchestra and singers on a stage prior to the start of filming , and later adapted instrumental underscore passages based on the songs . Choreographers Marc Breaux and Dee Dee Wood , who had worked with Andrews on Mary Poppins , worked out all new choreography sequences that incorporated many of the Salzburg locations and settings . The Sound of Music was filmed from March 26 through September 1 , 1964 , with external scenes shot on location in Salzburg , Austria , and the surrounding region , and interior scenes filmed at the 20th Century Fox studios in California . The movie was photographed in 70 mm Todd-AO by Ted McCord and produced with DeLuxe Color processing and six-track sound recording . Screenplay and pre-production In December 1962 , 20th Century Fox president Richard D. Zanuck hired Ernest Lehman to write the screenplay for the film adaptation of the stage musical . Lehman reviewed the original script for the stage musical , rearranged the sequence of songs , and began transforming a work designed for the stage into a film that could use the camera to emphasize action and mood , and open the story up to the beautiful locations of Salzburg and the Austrian Alps . The `` Do-Re-Mi '' sequence in the play , for example , was originally a stagnant number ; Lehman transformed it into a lively montage showing some of the beautiful sites of Salzburg , as well as showing Maria and the children growing closer over time . Lehman also eliminated two songs , `` How Can Love Survive ? '' and `` No Way to Stop It '' , sung by the characters of Elsa and Max . In January 1963 , he saw the Fox English-dubbed version of the two German films , was not especially impressed , and decided to use the stage musical and Maria 's memoir for most of his source material . While Lehman was developing the screenplay , he and Zanuck began looking for a director . Their first choice was Robert Wise , with whom Lehman had worked on the film adaptation of West Side Story , but Wise was busy preparing work for another film , The Sand Pebbles . Other directors were approached and turned down the offer , including Stanley Donen , Vincent J. Donehue , George Roy Hill , and Gene Kelly . In January 1963 , Lehman invited one of his favorite directors , William Wyler , to travel to New York with him to see the Broadway musical . After seeing the show , Wyler said he hated it , but after two weeks of Lehman 's persuasion , Wyler reluctantly agreed to direct and produce the film . After hiring musical supervisor Roger Edens , Wyler , Lehman , and Edens traveled to Salzburg to scout filming locations . In two weeks they managed to see approximately seventy-five locations—an experience that helped Lehman conceptualize several important sequences . During that trip , Lehman began to have reservations about Wyler 's commitment to the project , and communicated this to Zanuck , who instructed the writer to finalize the first draft of the screenplay as quickly as possible . Lehman completed the first draft on September 10 , 1963 and sent it to Wyler , who had no suggestions or changes . At that time , Lehman also secretly gave a copy of the script to the agent of Robert Wise , whom Lehman still wanted as the director . Later that month , Wyler 's agent approached Zanuck asking that production on the film be delayed so Wyler could direct The Collector . Zanuck told him to tell Wyler to make the other film , and that they would move ahead on schedule with another director , ending Wyler 's participation . Meanwhile , Wise , whose film The Sand Pebbles had been postponed , read Lehman 's first draft , was impressed by what he read , and agreed to direct the film . Wise joined the picture in October 1963 , and flew to Salzburg with associate producer Saul Chaplin and members of his production team to scout filming locations , including many that Wyler had identified . When he returned , Wise began working on the script . Wise shared Lehman 's vision of the film being centered on the music , and the changes he made were consistent with the writer 's approach—mainly reducing the amount of sweetness and sentimentality found in the stage musical . He had reservations about Lehman 's opening aerial sequence because they 'd used a similar opening in West Side Story , but decided to keep it . Other changes included replacing `` An Ordinary Couple '' with a more romantic number , and a new song for Maria 's departure from the abbey—Rodgers provided `` Something Good '' and `` I Have Confidence '' especially for the film . Lehman completed the second draft on December 20 , 1963 , but additional changes would be made based on input from Maria von Trapp and Christopher Plummer about the character of the Captain . Plummer especially helped transform a character lacking substance into a stronger , more forceful complex figure with a wry sense of humor and a darker edge . Lehman completed his final draft on March 20 , 1964 . Casting and rehearsals Lehman 's first and only choice for Maria was Julie Andrews . When Wise joined the project , he made a list of his choices for the role , which included Andrews as his first choice , Grace Kelly , and Shirley Jones . Wise and Lehman went to Disney Studios to view footage from Mary Poppins , which was not yet released . A few minutes into the film , Wise told Lehman , `` Let 's go sign this girl before somebody else sees this film and grabs her ! '' Andrews had some reservations—mainly about the amount of sweetness in the theatrical version—but when she learned that her concerns were shared by Wise and Lehman and what their vision was , she signed a contract with Fox to star in The Sound of Music and one other film for $ 225,000 ( ) . Wise had a more difficult time casting the role of the Captain . A number of actors were considered for the part , including Bing Crosby , Yul Brynner , Sean Connery , and Richard Burton . Wise had seen Christopher Plummer on Broadway and wanted him for the role , but the stage actor turned down the offer several times . Wise flew to London to meet with Plummer and explained his concept of the film ; the actor accepted after being assured that he could work with Lehman to improve the character ; Plummer later described himself as having become quite arrogant at the time , `` spoiled by too many great theater roles '' . Wise also spent considerable time and effort on casting the secondary characters . For the role of Max Detweiler , Wise initially considered Victor Borge , Noël Coward , and Hal Holbrook among others before deciding on Richard Haydn . For the character of Baroness Elsa Schraeder , Wise looked for a `` name '' actress—Andrews and Plummer were not yet widely known to film audiences—and decided on Eleanor Parker . The casting of the children characters began in November 1963 and involved over two hundred interviews and auditions throughout the United States and England . Some of the child-actors interviewed or tested , who were not selected , included Mia Farrow , Patty Duke , Lesley Ann Warren , Geraldine Chaplin , Shelley Fabares , Teri Garr , Kurt Russell , and The Osmonds . Most of the actors selected had some acting , singing , or dancing experience . Charmian Carr , however , was a model who worked part-time in a doctor 's office and had no ambition to pursue a career as an actress . After a friend sent her photo to Wise 's office , she was asked to interview . Wise later recalled , `` She was so pretty and had such poise and charm that we liked her immediately . '' The last person to be cast was Daniel Truhitte in the role of Rolf . Rehearsals for the singing and dance sequences began on February 10 , 1964 . The husband-and-wife team of Marc Breaux and Dee Dee Wood , who had worked with Andrews on Mary Poppins , worked out the choreography with Saul Chaplin on piano—the arrangements could not be altered under Rodgers and Hammerstein 's contract . The stage choreography was not used because it was too restrictive . Breaux and Wood worked out all new choreography better suited for film that incorporated many of the Salzburg locations and settings . They even choreographed the newly added puppet dance sequence for `` The Lonely Goatherd '' . The choreography for the Ländler strictly followed the traditional Austrian folk dance . The musical arranger Irwin Kostal prerecorded the songs with a large orchestra and singers on a stage prior to the start of filming . Kostal used seven children and five adults to record the children 's voices ; the only scene where the child-actors actually sing is when they sing `` The Sound of Music '' on their own after Maria leaves . The voices of some of the adult actors also had voice doubles , including Peggy Wood and Christopher Plummer . Filming and post-production Principal photography began on March 26 , 1964 at 20th Century Fox studios in Los Angeles , where scenes from Maria 's bedroom and the abbey cloister and graveyard were filmed . The company then flew to Salzburg where filming resumed on April 23 at Mondsee Abbey for the wedding scenes . From April 25 through May 22 , scenes were filmed at the Felsenreitschule ( festival concert ) , Nonnberg Abbey , Mirabell Palace Gardens , Residence Fountain , and various street locations throughout the Altstadt ( Old Town ) area of the city . Wise faced opposition from city leaders who opposed him staging scenes with swastika banners . They relented after he threatened instead to include actual newsreel footage of crowds cheering Hitler during a visit to the town . On days when it rained—a constant challenge for the company —Wise arranged for scenes to be shot at St. Margarethen Chapel and Dürer Studios ( Reverend Mother 's office ) . From May 23 to June 7 , the company worked at Schloss Leopoldskron and an adjacent property called Bertelsmann for scenes representing the lakeside terrace and gardens of the von Trapp villa . From June 9 to 19 , scenes were shot at Frohnburg Palace which represented the front and back façades of the villa . The `` Do-Re-Mi '' picnic scene in the mountains was filmed above the town of Werfen in the Salzach River valley on June 25 and 27 . The opening sequence of Maria on her mountain was filmed from June 28 to July 2 at Mehlweg mountain near the town of Marktschellenberg in Bavaria . The final scene of the von Trapp family escaping over the mountains was filmed on the Obersalzberg in the Bavarian Alps . The cast and crew flew back to Los Angeles and resumed filming at Fox studios on July 6 for all remaining scenes , including those in the villa dining room , ballroom , terrace , living room , and gazebo . Following the last two scenes shot in the gazebo—for the songs `` Something Good '' and `` You Are Sixteen '' —principal photography concluded on September 1 , 1964 . A total of eighty-three scenes were filmed in just over five months . Post-production work began on August 25 with three weeks of dialogue dubbing to correct lines that were ruined by various street noises and rain . In October , Christopher Plummer 's singing voice was dubbed by veteran Disney playback singer Bill Lee . The film was then edited by Wise and film editor William Reynolds . Once the film was edited , Irwin Kostel , who orchestrated the musical numbers , underscored the film with background music consisting of variations on Rodgers and Hammerstein 's original songs to amplify or add nuances to the visual images . When dubbing , editing , and scoring were complete , Wise arranged for two sneak-preview showings—the first one held in Minneapolis on Friday January 15 , 1965 at the Mann Theater , and the second one held the following night in Tulsa . Despite the `` sensational '' responses from the preview audiences , Wise made a few final editing changes before completing the film . According to the original print information for the film , the running time for the theatrical release version was 174 minutes . The film was eventually given a G rating by the Motion Picture Association of America . The Sound of Music was filmed in 70 mm Todd-AO by Ted McCord and produced with DeLuxe Color processing . Aerial footage was photographed with an MCS-70 camera . The sound was recorded on 70 mm six-track using a Westrex recording system . The sets used for the film were based on the storyboards of sketch artist Maurice Zuberano , who accompanied Wise to Austria to scout filming locations in November 1963 . Wise met with the artist over a ten-week period and explained his objective for each scene—the feeling he wanted to convey and the visual images he wanted to use . When Zuberano was finished , he provided Wise with a complete set of storyboards that illustrated each scene and set—storyboards the director used as guidance during filming . Zuberano 's storyboards and location photos were also used by art director Boris Leven to design and construct all of the original interior sets at Fox studios , as well as some external sets in Salzburg . The von Trapp villa , for example , was actually filmed in several locations : the front and back façades of the villa were filmed at Frohnburg Palace , the lakeside terrace and gardens were a set constructed on a property adjacent to Schloss Leopoldskron called Bertelsmann , and the interior was a constructed set at Fox studios . The gazebo scenes for `` Something Good '' and `` Sixteen Going on Seventeen '' were filmed on a larger reconstructed set at Fox studios , while some shots of the original gazebo were filmed on the grounds at Schloss Leopoldskron in Salzburg . Release Marketing Robert Wise hired Mike Kaplan to direct the publicity campaign for the film . After reading the script , Kaplan decided on the ad line `` The Happiest Sound in All the World '' , which would appear on promotional material and artwork . Kaplan also brought in outside agencies to work with the studio 's advertising department to develop the promotional artwork , eventually selecting a painting by Howard Terpning of Andrews on an alpine meadow with her carpetbag and guitar case in hand with the children and Plummer in the background . In February 1964 , Kaplan began placing ads in the trade papers Daily Variety , Weekly Variety , and The Hollywood Reporter to attract future exhibitor interest in the project . The studio intended the film to have an initial roadshow theatrical release in select large cities in theaters that could accommodate the 70-mm screenings and six-track stereophonic sound . The roadshow concept involved two showings a day with reserved seating and an intermission similar to Broadway musicals . Kaplan identified forty key cities that would likely be included in the roadshow release and developed a promotional strategy targeting the major newspapers of those cities . During the Salzburg production phase , 20th Century Fox organized press junkets for America journalists to interview Wise and his team and the cast members . Critical response The film had its opening premiere on March 2 , 1965 at the Rivoli Theater in New York City . Initial reviews were mixed . Bosley Crowther , in The New York Times , criticized the film 's `` romantic nonsense and sentiment '' , the children 's `` artificial roles '' , and Robert Wise 's `` cosy-cum-corny '' direction . Judith Crist , in a biting review in the New York Herald Tribune , dismissed the movie as `` icky sticky '' and designed for `` the five to seven set and their mommies '' . Wise later recalled , `` The East Coast , intellectual papers and magazines destroyed us , but the local papers and the trades gave us great reviews . '' Indeed , reviewers such as Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times described the film as `` three hours of visual and vocal brilliance '' , and Daily Variety called it `` a warmly-pulsating , captivating drama set

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How many Von Trapp children were there in the Sound of Music?

Mindanao ( ) is the second largest and southernmost major island in the Philippines . It is also the name of one of the three island groups in the country ( the other two being Luzon and the Visayas ) , consisting of the island of Mindanao and smaller outlying islands . Davao City is the largest city in Mindanao . As of the 2010 census , the island 's population itself is 20,281,545 people , while the Mindanao island group has 21,968,174 inhabitants . Davao City is the most populous in Mindanao as 1,632,991 population , and the 2nd is Zamboanga City as 861,799 population , the 3rd is Cagayan de Oro City as 675,950 population , and followed by General Santos City as 594,446 population as of 2015 census . Parts of south-western Mindanao island group , particularly the provinces of Maguindanao , Basilan , Lanao del Sur , Sulu , and Tawi-Tawi ( part of the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao ( ARMM ) ) , are home to a sizeable Muslim population , making the island group , along with Palawan , the only area of the Philippines with a significant Muslim presence . The island has seen a communist insurgency as well as armed Moro separatist movements . Mindanao is considered the food basket of the Philippines . Eight of the top 10 agri-commodities exported from the Philippines come from here . Mindanao is also dubbed with the moniker as The Philippines ' Land of Promise . History Mindanao is named after the Maguindanaons who constituted the largest Sultanate historically , and evidence from maps made during the 17th and 18th centuries suggests that the name was used to refer to the island by the powerful natives at the time . Evidence of human occupation dates back tens of thousands of years . In prehistoric times the Negrito people arrived . Sometime around 1500 BC , Austronesian peoples spread throughout the Philippines and far beyond . Native people of the Maluku Islands refer the island as Maluku Besar ( Great Moluccas ) . Mindanao Island is also a sacred home of Paramata Bantogen , Mabaning Gandamatu and Daranda Mabagani the Meranaw native people from Kiaranda a Ragat a Tiongcopa Layagen before Islamic Da wah , the largest non-Muslim tribe , and the Subanon Tribe ; the aborigine of the Zamboanga Peninsula ’ s Zamboanga del Norte , Zamboanga del Sur , Zamboanga Sibugay , Island of Basilan , and northern provinces of Misamis Occidental , Lanao del Norte , and Misamis Oriental . Neolithic and Bronze Age The Subanon are believed to have established themselves on Mindanao Island during the Neolithic Era , or New Stone Age , the period in the development of human technology beginning around 10,000 BC according to the ASPRO chronology ( between 4,500 and 2,000 BC ) . The evidence of old stone tools in Zamboanga del Norte may indicate a late Neolithic presence . Burial jars , both earthen and glazed , as well as Chinese celadons , have been found in caves , together with shell bracelets , beads , and gold ornaments . Many of the ceramic objects are from the Yuan and Ming periods . Evidently , there was a long history of trade between the Subanon and the Chinese long before the latter ’ s contact with Islam . Hindu-Buddhist era In the Classic epoch of Philippine history ( 900AD onwards ) , the people of Mindanao were heavily exposed to Hindu and Buddhist influence and beliefs from Indonesia and Borneo . Indianized abugida scripts such as Kawi and Baybayin had been introduced through Sulawesi and Java , and the cultural icons of the sarong ( known as malong or patadyong ) , the pudong turban , silk , and batik and ikat weaving and dyeing methods introduced . Artifacts found from this era include the Golden kinnara , Golden Tara , and the Ganesh pendant . These cultural traits passed through Mindanao into the Visayas and Luzon , lost or heavily modified in these areas after the Spanish arrival in the 16th century . In coastal areas , the Hindu-Buddhist cultural revolution was strongest , whereas in interior parts , influences were indigenized into local animist beliefs and customs and appeared more subtly . The Darangen epic of the Maranao people hearten back to this era as the most compete local version of the Ramayana . The Maguindanao at this time also had strong Hindu beliefs , evidenced by the Ladya Lawana ( Rajah Ravana ) epic saga that survives to the modern day , albeit highly islamized from the 17th century onwards , The Rajahnate of Butuan , a fully-Hindu kingdom mentioned in Chinese records as a vassal state in the 10th century AD , was concentrated along the northeastern coast of the island around Butuan . Coming of Islam The coming of Islam happened in the 14th century . The first mosque in the Philippines was built in the mid-14th century in the town of Simunul . The Philippine sultanates of Sulu and Maguindanao were subsequently established in the 15th and 16th centuries , respectively from Hindu-Buddhist Rajahnates . In the late 16th to early 17th centuries , the first contact with Spain occurred . By this time , Islam was well established in Mindanao and had started influencing groups on the big islands of the Visayas such as Cebu and as far north as Bohol and present-day Manila on the island of Luzon . Manila itself once was Muslim when the Sultanate of Brunei annexed it . Spanish arrival Upon the Spaniards ' arrival to the Philippines , they were dismayed to find such a strong Muslim presence on the island , having just expelled the Moors from Spain after centuries of fighting under the Reconquista . In fact , the name Moros ( the Spanish word for `` Moors '' ) was given to the Muslim inhabitants by the Spanish . Caesarea Caroli was the name given by Villalobos to the island of Mindanao when he reached the sea near it . This was named after Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire ( and I of Spain ) . Spain was forced to abandon Zamboanga in Mindanao temporarily and to withdraw its soldiers to Manila in 1662 after the Chinese under Koxinga threatened to invade the Spanish Philippines . Modern history After the Spanish–American War , the Americans fought numerous battles against the Moro . At the start of World War II , Japanese forces defeated Gen. William F. Sharp 's forces , including Gen . Guy O. Fort 's 81st Division , after a battle which started at Malabang , near in Gandamatu Macadar , Lanao , on 29 April 1942 , and ended near Ganassi , Lanao , on 10 May 1942.Childress , C. , 2003 , `` Wendell Fertig 's Fictional 'Autobiography ' : a Critical Review of They Fought Alone '' , Bulletin of the American Historical Collection , Vol . 31 , No . 1 ( 123 ) However , Filipino soldiers and local guerrilla fighters were active until liberation at the conclusion of the Battle of Mindanao . The native Moro Muslims and Lumads were supplanted by the first Spanish and American colonization programs , with Christian settlers taking control of key areas and disrupting the Muslim 's administrative structures and control over resources . The Americans chose Christian settlers to become officials of settler-populated townships instead of Lumads and Muslims . Due to the activities of the settlers , including logging , the environment has suffered significant damage . Eric S. Casiño wrote on the interaction between the Filipino settlers , the Moro Muslim and Lumad natives and the impact on the environment in his book Mindanao Statecraft and Ecology : Moros , Lumads , and Settlers Across the Lowland-highland Continuum . The Americans started a colonization program on Mindanao for foreign agricultural companies and Filipino Christian settlers against the native Muslims and non-Muslim Lumads of Mindanao , in order to secure the area with a Christian presence and help the American military assert control over the area once it was conquered . Europeans and Japanese were suggested as potential immigrants along with Filipino Christians by the American General Wood . Davao in Mindanao had a large population of Japanese immigrants who acted as a fifth column , welcoming the Japanese invaders during World War II . These Japanese were hated by the Moros and disliked by the Chinese . The Moros were judged as `` fully capable of dealing with Japanese fifth columnists and invaders alike . '' The Moros were to fight the Japanese invaders when they landed at Davao on Mindanao . The Japanese went back to their ships at night to sleep since the Moros struck so much fear into them , even though the Moros were outnumbered by the Japanese . 90 % of Mindanao 's people consisted of native Moro Muslims at the start of the 20th century , but the invasion and colonization sponsored by the American and Philippine governments led to Filipino Christian settlers turning into the majority of almost 75 % of the population , with the American colonial government giving the land titles to Christian colonists . Media compared the American conquest of the west from the Native Americans to the Filipino conquest and settlement of Mindanao from the Muslims , the Philippine government , Philippine military and Filipino militias used extremely violent tactics against natives to support the settlers . The government agencies involved in settlement on Mindanao were the National Land Settlement Administration ( NLSA ) and subsequently the Land Settlement and Development Corporation ( LASEDECO ) , followed by the National Resettlement and Rehabilitation Administration ( NARRA ) . The Americans used their control over property and land laws to let American corporations and Filipino Christian settlers take over Lumad and Moro Muslim resources and land and depriving them of self-governance after eliminating the sovereignty of the Moro Sultanates , and ignoring Moro requests for their own independence , with the Philippine government continuing the colonization program after independence leading to a humongous number of Filipino settlers streaming into Moro territories , and this led to Moros making moves for independence and armed struggle against the Philippines . After 1960 , the settlement program turned the Moro Muslims into a minority from their previous majority in Mindanao , similar to what happened in the Indonesian Transmigration program where Javanese people where frontier areas are settled with ethnic Madurese and Javanese people . The native Moros became victims to land-grabs by Filipino Christian settlers . Severe violence between native Muslims and Christian settlers erupted due to the influx of Christian colonists , companies and other entities seeking to exploit new land on Mindanao who engaged in land grabbing . Lumad and Muslim interests were ignored by the state sponsored colonization program led by the National Land Settlement Administration ( NLSA ) which provided benefits for the colonists and made no consideration for the Muslims . Moro Muslims are just 17 % of Mindanao 's population , whereas prior to the colonization program initiated by the governments of the Philippines , they had been a massive majority and the colonization and land grabs led to the current violent conflict , with private companies and Filipino colonists from the Visayas and Luzon taking lands from Moro clans with the Philippine government issuing land titles to settlers and ignoring Moro ownership of the land since they declared Moro land as public lands . Massive settlement by Filipino Christian colonists continued after independence was granted and rule passed to Christian Filipinos from the Americans , and land disputes the Christian settlers had with the Muslim and tribal natives broke out in violence ; eventually the colonization , along with the Jabidah massacre , led to the formation of the Moro National Liberation Front and Moro armed insurgency against Philippine rule . The Philippine government encouraged Filipino Christian settlers in Mindanao to form militias called Ilaga to fight the Moros . The Ilaga engaged in massacres and atrocities and were responsible for Manili massacre of 65 Moro Muslim civilians in a Mosque on June 1971 , including women and children . The Ilaga also engaged in cannibalism , cutting off the body parts of their victims to eat in rituals . The Ilaga settlers were given the sarcastic nickname as an acronym , the `` Ilonggo Land Grabbers ’ Association '' . The American and Philippine colonization placed Filipino Christian settlers on Muslim lands and resulted in violence . The potential for Moro independence was deliberately targeted by the colonization of Moroland with Christians by the Philippine government since the Moros protested against Mindanao being in the Philippines upon independence in 1946 from the United States . The Muslim South in Mindanao became flooded by Christian colonists supported by the Philippine government and Moros are now 20 % of the population , down from 40 % in 1976 , down from a previous figure of 98 % , the Moros objected to being included in the Philippines upon independence from America and rejected the identity of Filipino . After 7 decades of settler-biased land tenure laws , changing of traditional and cultural places to Roman Catholic Saints names and even names of a General bringing in Settlers , putting the crucifix on top of Mindanao Mountains , formation of religious based Settler militia called Ilaga led by officers of the Philippine Constabulary , connivance of Philippine Armed Forces with the Ilaga as a tool for counter insurgency resulted in full blown Insurgency led mostly by the Moro , Lumads and few impoverished Settlers . Cycles of displacement that have affected Central Mindanao for several decades have peaked during the first decade of the 20th Century . After decades of “ low intensity conflict ” in Maguindanao between 1976 and 2000 , President Estrada ’ s “ All Out War ” strategy declared in 2000 led to the displacement of more than 930,000 individuals . The decade that followed has been marked by a cycle of violence and resumption of peace talks between the government and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front that sought to establish an independent Islamic state in Maguindanao . The fighting led to several periods of mass population displacement at the very latest even until the term of President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo displacing another 150,000 individuals mostly of Moro & Lumad communities Between 2000 and 2010 , four out of ten households ( 41 % ) reported having experienced displacement : 29 % reported displacement caused by armed groups ’ movements , 9 % identified ridos ( blood feuds ) , and 9 % identified other causes , such as economic displacement ( 3 % ) or natural disasters ( 2 % ) . Armed groups ’ movements were by far the most frequent cause of displacement and also the most damageable . Some provinces were more affected than others , mostly of the Moro as they are the most active in resistance to what they perceived to be an extension of Spanish colonialism now perpetuated by the hands of the Philippine Government . Areas that suffered most damage and displacement are Maguindanao ( 82 % ) , Lanao del Norte ( 48 % ) and Lanao del Sur ( 47 % ) . Other forms of violence have also been prevalent . For example , in Maguindanao , 45 % of the total population reported the destruction of their home . Other forms of violence reported in that province include the destruction of goods ( 37 % ) , being attacked by someone with a weapon ( 20 % ) , witness looting ( 32 % ) , and witness killing ( 16 % ) . A number of livelihood intervention projects , from organisations such as USAID and the Emergency Livelihood Assistance Program ( ELAP ) , have been beneficial in the reconstruction of Mindanao . Geography Mindanao is the second largest island in the Philippines at 104,630 square kilometers , and is the eighth most populous island in the world . The island of Mindanao is larger than 125 countries worldwide , including the Netherlands , South Korea , Austria , Portugal , Czech Republic , Hungary , and Ireland . The island is mountainous , and is home to Mount Apo , the highest mountain in the country . Mindanao is surrounded by 4 seas : the Sulu Sea to the west , the Philippine Sea to the east , and the Celebes Sea to the south , and the Mindanao Sea to the north . Of all the islands of the Philippines , Mindanao shows the greatest variety of physiographic development . High , rugged , faulted mountains ; almost isolated volcanic peaks ; high rolling plateaus ; and broad , level , swampy plains are found there . The Mindanao island group is an arbitrary grouping of islands in southern Philippines which comprises the Mindanao mainland , the Sulu Archipelago to the southwest , consisting of the major islands of Basilan , Sulu , and Tawi-tawi , plus the outlying islands of Camiguin , Dinagat , Siargao , and Samal in other areas . The mountains of Mindanao can be conveniently grouped into ten ranges , including both complex structural mountains and volcanoes . The structural mountains on the extreme eastern and western portions of the island show broad exposures of Mesozoic rock with ultrabasic rocks at the surface in many places along the east coast . Other parts of the island consists mainly of Cenozoic and Quaternary volcanic or sedimentary rocks . Paralleling the east coast , from Bilas Point in Surigao del Norte to Cape Agustin in southeast Davao , is a range of complex mountains known in their northern portion as the Diwata Mountains . This range is low and rolling in its central portion . A proposed road connecting Bislig on the east coast with the Agusan River would pass through a broad saddle across the mountains at a maximum elevation of less than , while the existing east-west road from Lianga , 30 mi north of Bislig , reaches a maximum elevation of only . The Diwata Mountains , north of these low points , are considerably higher and more rugged , reaching an elevation of in Mount Hilong-Hilong , 17 mi along the eastern portion of Cabadbaran City . The southern portion of this east coast range is broader and even more rugged than the northern section . In eastern Davao , several peaks rise above and one mountain rises to . The east-facing coastal regions of Davao and Surigao del Sur are marked by a series of small coastal lowlands separated from each other by rugged forelands which extend to the water ’ s edge . Offshore are numerous coral reefs and tiny islets . This remote and forbidding coast is made doubly difficult to access during the months from October to March by the heavy surf driven before the northeast trade winds . A few miles offshore is found the Mindanao or Philippine Deep . This ocean trench , reaching measured depths of 34696 ft , is the third deepest trench , ( after the Mariana Trench and Tonga Trench ) on the earth ’ s surface . A second north-south range extends along the western borders of the Agusan ( del Norte and del Sur ) and Davao provinces from Camiguin Island in the north to Tinaca Point in the south . This range is mainly structural in origin , but it also contains at least three active volcano peaks . In the central and northern portions of this range , there are several peaks between , and here the belt of mountains is about 30 mi across . West of Davao City are two inactive volcanoes : Mount Talomo at and Mount Apo at , which is the highest point in the Philippines and dominates the skyline . South of Mount Apo , this central mountain belt is somewhat lower than it is to the north , with peaks averaging only . In Western Mindanao , a range of complex structural mountains forms the long , hand-like Zamboanga Peninsula . These mountains , reaching heights of only , are not as high as the other structural belts in Mindanao . In addition , there are several places in the Zamboanga Mountains where small inter-mountain basins have been created , with some potential for future agricultural development . The northeastern end of this range is marked by the twin peaks of the now extinct volcano , Mount Malindang , which rise behind Ozamis City to a height of . Mount Dapia is the highest mountain in the Zamboanga Peninsula , reaching a height of 2617 m. Meanwhile , Batorampon Point is the highest mountain of the southernmost end of the peninsula , reaching a height of only 1335 m ; it is located in the boundary of Zamboanga City . A series of volcanic mountains is found near Lake Lanao in a broad arc through Lanao del Sur , northern Cotabato and western Bukidnon provinces . At least six of the twenty odd peaks in this area are active and several are very impressive as they stand in semi-isolation . The Butig Peaks , with their four crater lakes , are easily seen from Cotabato . Mount Ragang , an active volcano cone reaching , is the most isolated , while the greatest height is reached by Mount Kitanglad at . In southwestern Cotabato , still another range of volcanic mountains is found , this time paralleling the coast . These mountains have a maximum extent of 110 mi from northwest to southeast and measure some 30 mi across . One of the well-known mountains here is Mount Parker , whose almost circular crater lake measures a mile and a quarter in diameter and lies below its summit . Mount Matutum is a protected area and is considered as one of the major landmarks of South Cotabato Province . A second important physiographic division of Mindanao is the series of upland plateaus in Bukidnon and Lanao del Sur provinces . These plateaus are rather extensive and almost surround several volcanoes in this area . The plateaus are made up of basaltic lava flows interbedded with ash and volcanic tuff . Near their edges , the plateaus are cut by deep canyons , and at several points spectacular waterfalls drop to the narrow coastal plain . These falls hold considerable promise for development of hydroelectric energy . Indeed , one such site at Maria Cristina Falls has already become a major producer . Because the rolling plateaus lie at an elevation averaging 700 meters above sea level , they offer relief from the often oppressive heat of the coastal lowlands . Lake Lanao occupies the major portion of one such plateau in Lanao del Sur . This largest lake on Mindanao and second in the country is roughly triangular in shape with an 18 mi-long base . Having a surface at 780 meters above sea level , and being rimmed on the east , south and west by series of peaks reaching 2,300 meters , the lake provides a scenic grandeur and pleasant temperature seldom equaled in the country . Marawi City , at the northern tip of the lake , is bisected by the Agus River , which feeds the Maria Cristina Falls . Another of Mindanao ’ s spectacular waterfall sites is located in Malabang , 15 mi south of Lake Lanao . Here the Jose Abad Santos Falls present one of the nation ’ s scenic wonders at the gateway to a 200-hectare national park development . The Limunsudan Falls , with an approximate height of 800 ft , is the highest waterfalls in the Philippines ; it is located at Iligan City . Mindanao contains two large inland lowland areas , the valleys of the Agusan and Mindanao rivers in Agusan and Cotabato Provinces , respectively . There is some indication that the Agusan Valley occupies a broad syncline between the central mountains and the east-coast mountains . This valley measures 110 mi from south to north and varies from 20 to in width . 35 mi north of the head of Davao Gulf lies the watershed between the Agusan and the tributaries of the Libuganon River , which flows to the Gulf . The elevation of this divide is well under , indicating the almost continuous nature of the lowland from the Mindanao Sea on the north to the Davao Gulf . The Rio Grande de Mindanao and its main tributaries , the Catisan and the Pulangi , form a valley with a maximum length of 120 mi and a width which varies from 12 mi at the river mouth to about 60 mi in central Cotabato . The southern extensions of this Cotabato Valley extend uninterrupted across a watershed from Illana Bay on the northwest to Sarangani Bay on the southeast . Other lowlands of a coastal nature are to be found in various parts of Mindanao . Many of these are tiny isolated pockets , as along the northwest coast of Zamboanga . In other areas such as the Davao Plain , these coastal lowlands are as much as wide and several times that length . From Dipolog City eastward along the northern coast of Mindanao almost to Butuan City extends a rolling coastal plain of varying width . In Misamis Occidental , the now dormant Mount Malindang has created a lowland averaging in width . Shallow Panquil Bay divides this province from Lanao del Norte , and is bordered by low-lying , poorly drained lowlands and extensive mangroves . In Misamis Oriental , the plain is narrower and in places almost pinched out by rugged forelands which reach to the sea . East of Cagayan de Oro , a rugged peninsula extends well into the Mindanao Sea . Administrative divisions The island is covered by 6 administrative regions , 22 provinces , and 30 cities ( 27 provinces and 33 cities if associated islands are included ) . Culture Mindanao is the most culturally diverse island in the Philippines where people of different languages , tribes and races meet . As the Moro and Lumad alliance provided an effective resistance to Spanish rule , Mindanao became a melting pot of different cultures , it creates a more distinct culture which is not present in other island groups in the country . Mindanao has been the seat of three great Sultanates namely the Sultanate of Sulu , the Sultanate of Lanao and the Sultanate of Maguindanao , a Rajahnate ( The Rajahnate of Butuan ) along with the most hispanized city in Asia , the strategic Zamboanga City ( A city that speaks Chavacano , a Spanish creole ) . A considerable number of Buddhist and Taoist temples and the indigenous tribes known as Lumad people which makes it more diverse . Due to the continuous re settlement programs [ http : //issuu.com/lgspa/docs/land-tenure-stories-in-central-mindanao ISSUU - Land Tenure Stories in Central Mindanao by Local Governance Support Program in ARMM ] by the Central Government in Manila , Cebuano is spoken by the majority of people in Mindanao . Cebuano is generally the first language in most regions , except for the Bangsamoro areas on the west coast and among the Lumads . Tagalog is also widely spoken among the people . Hiligaynon/Ilonggo is widely spoken in South Cotabato , Sultan Kudarat and a large part of North Cotabato , as well as scattered areas around the island . English is also widely spoken . The Spanish-based creole , Zamboangueño Chavacano is the main language spoken in Zamboanga City and Basilan , scatteredly spoken around Zamboanga del Sur , Zamboanga del Norte , Zamboanga Sibugay , parts of Sulu and Tawi-Tawi . The Zamboangueño dialect is one of the six dialects of Chavacano language ( spoken by a distinct Ethnolinguistic group , the Zamboangueños ) . Other spoken dialects of Chavacano language are the following : Cotabateño in Cotabato City and Castellano Abakay/Davaoeño in Davao Region . Settlers now form the majority , with 63 % of the population ; Moro are 32 % of the population ; 5 % are Lumads and most of them intermarried with the Settlers . The native Maguindanaon and other native Moro or Lumad groups of Mindanao have a culture that is different from the main culture of the Philippines . Religion More than 70 % of the population of Mindanao adhere to Christianity . Roman Catholicism is the largest single religious affiliation at 60.9 percent of the total household population . Islam comprises 20.44 % , while a figure as high as 40 % has been cited . Muslims were formerly the majority until the influx of Christian Filipino settlers in the 20th century . Other religions are as follows : Evangelical ( 5.34 % ) , Aglipayan (

tb_1150--Mindanao.txt

Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao form the three major island groups of which country?

The Arabian or Arab horse ( , DMG ḥiṣān ʿarabī ) is a breed of horse that originated on the Arabian Peninsula . With a distinctive head shape and high tail carriage , the Arabian is one of the most easily recognizable horse breeds in the world . It is also one of the oldest breeds , with archaeological evidence of horses in the Middle East that resemble modern Arabians dating back 4,500 years . Throughout history , Arabian horses have spread around the world by both war and trade , used to improve other breeds by adding speed , refinement , endurance , and strong bone . Today , Arabian bloodlines are found in almost every modern breed of riding horse . The Arabian developed in a desert climate and was prized by the nomadic Bedouin people , often being brought inside the family tent for shelter and protection from theft . Selective breeding for traits including an ability to form a cooperative relationship with humans created a horse breed that is good-natured , quick to learn , and willing to please . The Arabian also developed the high spirit and alertness needed in a horse used for raiding and war . This combination of willingness and sensitivity requires modern Arabian horse owners to handle their horses with competence and respect . The Arabian is a versatile breed . Arabians dominate the discipline of endurance riding , and compete today in many other fields of equestrian sport . They are one of the top ten most popular horse breeds in the world . They are now found worldwide , including the United States and Canada , United Kingdom , Australia , continental Europe , South America ( especially Brazil ) , and their land of origin , the Middle East . Breed characteristics Arabian horses have refined , wedge-shaped heads , a broad forehead , large eyes , large nostrils , and small muzzles . Most display a distinctive concave , or `` dished '' profile . Many Arabians also have a slight forehead bulge between their eyes , called the jibbah by the Bedouin , that adds additional sinus capacity , believed to have helped the Arabian horse in its native dry desert climate . Archer , Arabian Horse , pp . 89–92 Another breed characteristic is an arched neck with a large , well-set windpipe set on a refined , clean throatlatch . This structure of the poll and throatlatch was called the mitbah or mitbeh by the Bedouin . In the ideal Arabian it is long , allowing flexibility in the bridle and room for the windpipe . Other distinctive features are a relatively long , level croup , or top of the hindquarters , and naturally high tail carriage . The USEF breed standard requires Arabians have solid bone and standard correct equine conformation . Well-bred Arabians have a deep , well-angled hip and well laid-back shoulder.Edwards , Gladys Brown ( January 1989 ) . `` How I Would 'Build ' an Arabian Stallion '' . Arabian Horse World . p. 542 . Reprinted in Parkinson , pp . 157–158 . Within the breed , there are variations . Some individuals have wider , more powerfully muscled hindquarters suitable for intense bursts of activity in events such as reining , while others have longer , leaner muscling better suited for long stretches of flat work such as endurance riding or horse racing . Most have a compact body with a short back . Arabians usually have dense , strong bone , and good hoof walls . They are especially noted for their endurance , Edwards , The Arabian , pp . 245–246 and the superiority of the breed in Endurance riding competition demonstrates that well-bred Arabians are strong , sound horses with superior stamina . At international FEI-sponsored endurance events , Arabians and half-Arabians are the dominant performers in distance competition . Skeletal analysis Some Arabians , though not all , have 5 lumbar vertebrae instead of the usual 6 , and 17 pairs of ribs rather than 18.Edwards , The Arabian , pp . 27–28 A quality Arabian has both a relatively horizontal croup and a properly angled pelvis as well as good croup length and depth to the hip ( determined by the length of the pelvis ) , that allows agility and impulsion . A misconception confuses the topline of the croup with the angle of the `` hip '' ( the pelvis or ilium ) , leading some to assert that Arabians have a flat pelvis angle and can not use their hindquarters properly . However , the croup is formed by the sacral vertebrae . The hip angle is determined by the attachment of the ilium to the spine , the structure and length of the femur , and other aspects of hindquarter anatomy , which is not correlated to the topline of the sacrum . Thus , the Arabian has conformation typical of other horse breeds built for speed and distance , such as the Thoroughbred , where the angle of the ilium is more oblique than that of the croup . Edwards , Gladys Brown . `` An Illustrated Guide to Arabian Horse Conformation . '' Arabian Horse World Quarterly , Spring , 1998 , p. 86 . Reprinted in Parkinson , p. 121 Thus , the hip angle is not necessarily correlated to the topline of the croup . Horses bred to gallop need a good length of croup and good length of hip for proper attachment of muscles , and so unlike angle , length of hip and croup do go together as a rule . Size The breed standard stated by the United States Equestrian Federation , describes Arabians as standing between tall , `` with the occasional individual over or under . '' Thus , all Arabians , regardless of height , are classified as `` horses '' , even though is the traditional cutoff height between a horse and a pony . A common myth is that Arabians are not strong because they are relatively small and refined . However , the Arabian horse is noted for a greater density of bone than other breeds , short cannons , sound feet , and a broad , short back , all of which give the breed physical strength comparable to many taller animals . Thus , even a smaller Arabian can carry a heavy rider . For tasks where the sheer weight of the horse matters , such as farm work done by a draft horse , Ensminger , Horses and Horsemanship p. 84 any lighter-weight horse is at a disadvantage . However , for most purposes , the Arabian is a strong and hardy light horse breed able to carry any type of rider in most equestrian pursuits.Ensminger , Horses and Horsemanship p. 96 Temperament For centuries , Arabian horses lived in the desert in close association with humans . For shelter and protection from theft , prized war mares were sometimes kept in their owner 's tent , close to children and everyday family life . Only horses with a naturally good disposition were allowed to reproduce , with the result that Arabians today have a good temperament that , among other examples , makes them one of the few breeds where the United States Equestrian Federation rules allow children to exhibit stallions in nearly all show ring classes , including those limited to riders under 18.Stallions may be shown in most youth classes , except for 8 and under walk-trot : [ http : //www.usef.org/documents/ruleBook/2008/05-AR.pdf 2008 USEF Arabian , Half-Arabian and Anglo-Arabian Division Rule Book , Rule AR-112 ] Breeds not allowing stallions in youth classes include , but are not limited to , [ http : //www.aqha.com/Resources/Handbook.aspx Rule 404 ( c ) American Quarter Horse ] ; [ http : //www.appaloosa.com/pdfs/rulebook12.pdf Rule 607 Appaloosa ] ; [ http : //www.usef.org/documents/ruleBook/2008/26-SB.pdf SB-126 Saddlebreds ] ; [ http : //www.usef.org/documents/ruleBook/2008/23-PF.pdf PF-106 Paso Finos - no children under 13 ] ; [ http : //www.usef.org/documents/ruleBook/2008/20-MO.pdf MO-104 Morgans ] ; [ http : //www.usef.org/documents/ruleBook/2008/19-JH.pdfJH 101 Children 's and Junior Hunters ] ; [ http : //www.usef.org/documents/ruleBook/2008/17-HP.pdf HP-101 Hunter Pony ] ; [ http : //www.usef.org/documents/ruleBook/2008/14-HK.pdf HK-101 Hackney ] ; [ http : //www.usef.org/documents/ruleBook/2008/13-FR.pdf FR-101 Friesians ] ; [ http : //www.usef.org/documents/ruleBook/2008/11-EQ.pdf EQ-102 Equitation - stallions prohibited except if limited only to breeds that allow stallions ] ; [ http : //www.usef.org/documents/ruleBook/2008/07-CP.pdf CP-108 Carriage and Pleasure Driving ] ; [ http : //www.usef.org/documents/ruleBook/2008/30-WS.pdf WS 101 Western division ] . Other breeds allowing stallions in youth classes include [ http : //www.usef.org/documents/ruleBook/2008/04-AL.pdf AL-101 , Andalusians ] , [ http : //www.usef.org/documents/ruleBook/2008/06-CO.pdf CO-103 Connemaras ] and [ http : //www.usef.org/documents/ruleBook/2008/30-WS.pdf ( WL 115 and WL 139 Welch pony and cob ] On the other hand , the Arabian is also classified as a `` hot-blooded '' breed , a category that includes other refined , spirited horses bred for speed , such as the Akhal-Teke , the Barb and the Thoroughbred . Like other hot-bloods , Arabians ' sensitivity and intelligence enable quick learning and greater communication with their riders ; however , their intelligence also allows them to learn bad habits as quickly as good ones , and they do not tolerate inept or abusive training practices.Rashid , A Good Horse Is Never a Bad Color , p. 50 Some sources claim that it is more difficult to train a `` hot-blooded '' horse . Though most Arabians have a natural tendency to cooperate with humans , when treated badly , like any horse , they can become excessively nervous or anxious , but seldom become vicious unless seriously spoiled or subjected to extreme abuse . At the other end of the spectrum , romantic myths are sometimes told about Arabian horses that give them near-divine characteristics.Edwards , The Arabian , p. 28 Colors The Arabian Horse Association registers purebred horses with the coat colors bay , gray , chestnut , black , and roan . Bay , gray and chestnut are the most common ; black is less common . The classic roan gene does not appear to exist in Arabians ; Sponenberg , Equine Color Genetics , p. 69 rather , Arabians registered by breeders as `` roan '' are usually expressing rabicano or , sometimes , sabino patterns with roan features . All Arabians , no matter their coat color , have black skin , except under white markings . Black skin provided protection from the intense desert sun . Gray and white Although many Arabians appear to have a `` white '' hair coat , they are not genetically `` white '' . This color is usually created by the natural action of the gray gene , and virtually all white-looking Arabians are actually grays . A specialized colorization seen in some older gray Arabians is the so-called `` bloody-shoulder '' , which is a particular type of `` flea-bitten '' gray with localized aggregations of pigment on the shoulder . There are a very few Arabians registered as `` white '' having a white coat , pink skin and dark eyes from birth . These animals are believed to manifest a new form of dominant white , a result of a nonsense mutation in DNA tracing to a single stallion foaled in 1996 . This horse was originally thought to be a sabino , but actually was found to have a new form of dominant white mutation , now labeled W3 . It is possible that white mutations have occurred in Arabians in the past or that mutations other than W3 exist but have not been verified by genetic testing . Sabino One spotting pattern , sabino , does exist in purebred Arabians . Sabino coloring is characterized by white markings such as `` high white '' above the knees and hocks , irregular spotting on the legs , belly and face , white markings that extend beyond the eyes or under the chin and jaw , and sometimes lacy or roaned edges . The genetic mechanism that produces sabino patterning in Arabians is undetermined , and more than one gene may be involved . Studies at the University of California , Davis indicate that Arabians do not appear to carry the autosomal dominant gene `` SB1 '' or sabino 1 , that often produces bold spotting and some completely white horses in other breeds . The inheritance patterns observed in sabino-like Arabians also do not follow the same mode of inheritance as sabino 1 . Rabicano or roan ? There are very few Arabians registered as roan , and according to researcher D. Phillip Sponenberg , roaning in purebred Arabians is actually the action of rabicano genetics . Unlike a genetic roan , rabicano is a partial roan-like pattern ; the horse does not have intermingled white and solid hairs over the entire body , only on the midsection and flanks , the head and legs are solid-colored . Some people also confuse a young gray horse with a roan because of the intermixed hair colors common to both . However , a roan does not consistently lighten with age , while a gray does . Colors that do not exist in purebreds Purebred Arabians never carry dilution genes.Beaver , Horse color , p. 98 Therefore , purebreds can not be colors such as dun , cremello , palomino or buckskin.Gower , Horse Color Explained , p. 30 However , there is pictorial evidence from pottery and tombs in Ancient Egypt suggesting that spotting patterns may have existed on ancestral Arabian-type horses in antiquity.Edwards , The Arabian , p. 5 Nonetheless , purebred Arabians today do not carry genes for pinto or Leopard complex ( `` Appaloosa '' ) spotting patterns , except for sabino . Spotting or excess white was believed by many breeders to be a mark of impurity until DNA testing for verification of parentage became standard . For a time , horses with belly spots and other white markings deemed excessive were discouraged from registration and excess white was sometimes penalized in the show ring . To produce horses with some Arabian characteristics but coat colors not found in purebreds , they have to be crossbred with other breeds . Though the purebred Arabian produces a limited range of potential colors , they do not appear to carry any color-based lethal disorders such as the frame overo gene ( `` O '' ) that can produce lethal white syndrome ( LWS ) . Because purebred Arabians can not produce LWS foals , Arabian mares were used as a non-affected population in some of the studies seeking the gene that caused the condition in other breeds . Nonetheless , partbred Arabian offspring can , in some cases , carry these genes if the non-Arabian parent was a carrier . Genetic disorders There are six known genetic disorders in Arabian horses . Two are inevitably fatal , two are not inherently fatal but are disabling and usually result in euthanasia of the affected animal ; the remaining conditions can usually be treated . Three are thought to be autosomal recessive conditions , which means that the flawed gene is not sex-linked and has to come from both parents for an affected foal to be born ; the others currently lack sufficient research data to determine the precise mode of inheritance . Arabians are not the only breed of horse to have problems with inherited diseases ; fatal or disabling genetic conditions also exist in many other breeds , including the American Quarter Horse , American Paint Horse , American Saddlebred , Appaloosa , Miniature horse , and Belgian . Genetic diseases that can occur in purebred Arabians , or in partbreds with Arabian ancestry in both parents , are the following : * Severe Combined Immunodeficiency ( SCID ) . Recessive disorder , fatal when homozygous , carriers ( heterozygotes ) show no signs . Similar to the `` bubble boy '' condition in humans , an affected foal is born with a complete lack of an immune system , and thus generally dies of an opportunistic infection , usually before the age of three months . There is a DNA test that can detect healthy horses who are carriers of the gene causing SCID , thus testing and careful , planned matings can now eliminate the possibility of an affected foal ever being born . * Lavender Foal Syndrome ( LFS ) , also called Coat Color Dilution Lethal ( CCDL ) . Recessive disorder , fatal when homozygous , carriers show no signs . The condition has its name because most affected foals are born with a coat color dilution that lightens the tips of the coat hairs , or even the entire hair shaft . Foals with LFS are unable to stand at birth , often have seizures , and are usually euthanized within a few days of birth . In November 2009 , Cornell University announced that a DNA test has been developed to detect carriers of LFS . Simultaneously , the University of Pretoria also announced that they had also developed a DNA test . * Cerebellar abiotrophy ( CA or CCA ) . Recessive disorder , homozygous horses are affected , carriers show no signs . An affected foal is usually born without clinical signs , but at some stage , usually after six weeks of age , develops severe incoordination , a head tremor , wide-legged stance and other symptoms related to the death of the purkinje cells in the cerebellum . Such foals are frequently diagnosed only after they have crashed into a fence or fallen over backwards , and often are misdiagnosed as suffering from a head injury caused by an accident . Severity varies , with some foals having fast onset of severe coordination problems , others showing milder signs . Mildly affected horses can live a full lifespan , but most are euthanized before adulthood because they are so accident-prone as to be dangerous . As of 2008 , there is a genetic test that uses DNA markers associated with CA to detect both carriers and affected animals . Clinical signs are distinguishable from other neurological conditions , and a diagnosis of CA can be verified by examining the brain after euthanasia . * Occipital Atlanto-Axial Malformation ( OAAM ) . This is a condition where the occiput , atlas and axis vertebrae in the neck and at the base of the skull are fused or malformed . Symptoms range from mild incoordination to the paralysis of both front and rear legs . Some affected foals can not stand to nurse , in others the symptoms may not be seen for several weeks . This is the only cervical spinal cord disease seen in horses less than 1 month of age , and a radiograph can diagnose the condition . There is no genetic test for OAAM , and the hereditary component of this condition is not well researched at present . * Equine juvenile epilepsy , or Juvenile Idiopathic Epilepsy , sometimes referred to as `` benign '' epilepsy , is not usually fatal . Foals appear normal between epileptic seizures , and seizures usually stop occurring between 12 and 18 months . Affected foals may show signs of epilepsy anywhere from two days to six months from birth . Seizures can be treated with traditional anti-seizure medications , which may reduce their severity . Though the condition has been studied since 1985 at the University of California , Davis , the genetic mode of inheritance is unclear , though the cases studied were all of one general bloodline group . Recent research updates suggest that a dominant mode of inheritance is involved in transmission of this trait . One researcher hypothesized that epilepsy may be linked in some fashion to Lavender Foal Syndrome due to the fact that it occurs in similar bloodlines and some horses have produced foals with both conditions . * Guttural Pouch Tympany ( GPT ) occurs in horses ranging from birth to 1 year of age and is more common in fillies than in colts . It is thought to be genetic in Arabians , possibly polygenic in inheritance , but more study is needed . Foals are born with a defect that causes the pharyngeal opening of the eustachian tube to act like a one-way valve – air can get in , but it can not get out . The affected guttural pouch is distended with air and forms a characteristic nonpainful swelling . Breathing is noisy in severely affected animals . Diagnosis is based on clinical signs and radiographic examination of the skull . Medical management with NSAID and antimicrobial therapy can treat upper respiratory tract inflammation . Surgical intervention is needed to correct the malformation of the guttural pouch opening , to provide a route for air in the abnormal guttural pouch to pass to the normal side and be expelled into the pharynx . Foals that are successfully treated may grow up to have fully useful lives . The Arabian Horse Association in the United States has created a foundation that supports research efforts to uncover the roots of genetic diseases . The organization F.O.A.L . ( Fight Off Arabian Lethals ) is a clearinghouse for information on these conditions . Additional information is available from the World Arabian Horse Association ( WAHO ) . Legends Arabian horses are the topic of many myths and legends . One origin story tells how Muhammad chose his foundation mares by a test of their courage and loyalty . While there are several variants on the tale , a common version states that after a long journey through the desert , Muhammad turned his herd of horses loose to race to an oasis for a desperately needed drink of water . Before the herd reached the water , Muhammad called for the horses to return to him . Only five mares responded . Because they faithfully returned to their master , though desperate with thirst , these mares became his favorites and were called Al Khamsa , meaning , the five . These mares became the legendary founders of the five `` strains '' of the Arabian horse . Archer , Arabian Horse , pp . 92–93 Although the Al Khamsa are generally considered fictional horses of legend , some breeders today claim the modern Bedouin Arabian actually descended from these mares . Another origin tale claims that King Solomon was given a pure Arabian-type mare named Safanad ( `` the pure '' ) by the Queen of Sheba . A different version says that Solomon gave a stallion , Zad el-Raheb or Zad-el-Rakib ( `` Gift to the Rider '' ) , to the Banu Azd people when they came to pay tribute to the king . This legendary stallion was said to be faster than the zebra and the gazelle , and every hunt with him was successful , thus when he was put to stud , he became a founding sire of legend . Yet another creation myth puts the origin of the Arabian in the time of Ishmael , the son of Abraham.Archer , Arabian Horse , p. 2 In this story , the Angel Jibril ( also known as Gabriel ) descended from Heaven and awakened Ishmael with a `` wind-spout '' that whirled toward him . The Angel then commanded the thundercloud to stop scattering dust and rain , and so it gathered itself into a prancing , handsome creature - a horse - that seemed to swallow up the ground . Hence , the Bedouins bestowed the title `` Drinker of the Wind '' to the first Arabian horse . Finally , a Bedouin story states that Allah created the Arabian horse from the south wind and exclaimed , `` I create thee , Oh Arabian . To thy forelock , I bind Victory in battle . On thy back , I set a rich spoil and a Treasure in thy loins . I establish thee as one of the Glories of the Earth ... I give thee flight without wings . '' Other versions of the story claim Allah said to the South Wind : `` I want to make a creature out of you . Condense . '' Then from the material condensed from the wind , he made a kamayt-colored animal ( a bay or burnt chestnut ) and said : `` I call you Horse ; I make you Arabian and I give you the chestnut color of the ant ; I have hung happiness from the forelock which hangs between your eyes ; you shall be the Lord of the other animals . Men shall follow you wherever you go ; you shall be as good for flight as for pursuit ; you shall fly without wings ; riches shall be on your back and fortune shall come through your meditation . '' Origins Arabians are one of the oldest human-developed horse breeds in the world . The progenitor stock , the Oriental subtype or `` Proto-Arabian '' was a horse with oriental characteristics similar to the modern Arabian . Horses with these features appeared in rock paintings and inscriptions in the Arabian Peninsula dating back 3500 years . In ancient history throughout the Ancient Near East , horses with refined heads and high-carried tails were depicted in artwork , particularly that of Ancient Egypt in the 16th century BC . Some scholars of the Arabian horse once theorized that the Arabian came from a separate subspecies of horse , known as equus caballus pumpelli . Other scholars , including Gladys Brown Edwards , a noted Arabian researcher , believe that the `` dry '' oriental horses of the desert , from which the modern Arabian developed , were more likely Equus ferus caballus with specific landrace characteristics based on the environments in which they lived , rather than being a separate subspecies . Horses with similar , though not identical , physical characteristics include the Marwari horse of India , the Barb of North Africa , the Akhal-Teke of western Asia and the now-extinct Turkoman Horse . Desert roots There are different theories about where the ancestors of the Arabian originally lived . Most evidence suggests the proto-Arabian came from the area along the northern edge of the Fertile Crescent . Another hypothesis suggests the southwestern corner of the Arabian peninsula , in modern-day Yemen , where three now-dry riverbeds indicate good natural pastures existed long ago , perhaps as far back as the Ice Age . This hypothesis has gained renewed attention following a 2010 discovery of artifacts dated between 6590 and 7250 BCE in Al-Magar , in southwestern Saudi Arabia , that appeared to portray horses . The proto-Arabian horse may have been domesticated by the people of the Arabian peninsula known today as the Bedouin , some time after they learned to use the camel , approximately 4,000–5,000 years ago . One theory is that this development occurred in the Nejd plateau in central Arabia . Other scholars , noting that horses were common in the Fertile Crescent but rare in the Arabian peninsula prior to the rise of Islam , theorize that the breed as it is known today only developed in large numbers when the conversion of the Persians to Islam in the 7th century brought knowledge of horse breeding and horsemanship to the Bedouin . The oldest depictions in the Arabian Peninsula of horses that are clearly domesticated date no earlier than 1800-2000 BCE . Regardless of origin , climate and culture ultimately created the Arabian . The desert environment required a domesticated horse to cooperate with humans to survive ; humans were the only providers of food and water in certain areas , and even hardy Arabian horses needed far more water than camels in order to survive ( most horses can only live about 72 hours without water ) . Where there was no pasture or water , the Bedouin fed their horses dates and camel 's milk . The desert horse needed the ability to thrive on very little food , and to have anatomical traits to compensate for life in a dry climate with wide temperature extremes from day to night . Weak individuals were weeded out of the breeding pool , and the animals that remained were also honed by centuries of human warfare.Archer , Arabian Horse , pp . 2–4 The Bedouin way of life depended on camels and horses : Arabians were bred to be war horses with speed , endurance , soundness , and intelligence . Because many raids required stealth , mares were preferred over stallions as they were quieter , and therefore would not give away the position of the fighters . A good disposition was also critical ; prized war mares were often brought inside family tents to prevent theft and for protection from weather and predators . Though appearance was not necessarily a survival factor , the Bedouin bred for refinement and beauty in their horses as well as for more practical features . Strains and pedigrees For centuries , the Bedouin

bb_6792--Arabian_horse.txt

Shire, Arabian, Mustang, and Hackney are types of?

Jimmy James may refer to : People * Jimmy James ( comedian ) ( 1892–1965 ) , British comedian * Jimmy James ( tracker ) ( 1913–1991 ) , Australian tracker * Jimmy James , the nickname of Bertram James ( 1915–2008 ) , RAF officer who survived `` The Great Escape '' * Jimmy James ( dancer ) ( 1915–1992 ) , New Zealand dancer , dance teacher and cabaret proprietor * Jimmy James ( singer ) ( born 1940 ) , British soul singer with his band The Vagabonds * Jimmy James and the Blue Flames , a short-lived band fronted by Jimi Hendrix * Jimmy James ( aviator ) , flew the first package for Western Air Express * J. R. `` Jimmy '' James , ( 1912–1980 ) , British town planner * N. D. G. James , English historian of forestry Other * `` Jimmy James '' ( song ) , a 1992 Beastie Boys song * Jimmy James , a NewsRadio character portrayed by Stephen Root

qf_3542--Jimmy_James.txt

What was the name of Jimmy James' backing group?

The Suzuki Cultus Crescent is a compact car that was produced by Suzuki in Japan between 1995 and 2002 , with South Asian production continuing until 2007 . The Cultus Crescent was sold as such in Japan until May 1998 , when it was renamed Suzuki Cultus due to the sales discontinuation of the previous Cultus in the Japanese market . The Cultus Crescent was also marketed as the Suzuki Esteem in North America , and as the throughout Asia , Australasia , and Europe . In India where it was manufactured by Maruti Suzuki , the Cultus Crescent was sold as the Maruti Baleno . In the Philippines , it was marketed as the Chevrolet Cassia . History The Cultus Crescent was introduced in the global market in the first half of 1995 as Suzuki 's first attempt in the competitive compact segment . As a North American replacement for the Suzuki Cultus ( Swift ) sedan ( the three-door hatchback remained after it was redesigned in 1995 ) , it was built on a slightly stretched Cultus platform for improved cabin room , but otherwise sharing most of internal components with the smaller model—and marketed as a distinct model . The Cultus Crescent was initially available as a three-door hatchback and four-door sedan , with the SOHC 16-valve G-family engine , in 1.3- and 1.5-liter form , with power ranging from 85 to . The 1.3-liter was only offered in the hatch while a 1.6-liter with 99 PS was only fitted to the sedan . Eventually , 4WD was offered with the 1.6-liter variant , basically the same engine as found in the Suzuki Escudo , with power raised to 115 PS . A sports variant , dubbed GT , used Mazda 's 1,840 cc BP engine , with 135 PS . It was introduced in the spring of 1996 , at the same time that the lineup was extended with the Baleno/Esteem Wagon ( Maruti Baleno Altura in India ) . This was Suzuki 's first station wagon ( excluding kei cars ) , also with the same 1.6-liter , which also received the optional four-wheel drive in the wagon . 1998 facelift Suzuki restyled the Cultus Crescent in late 1998 ( 1999 model year in North America ) . The car was given a new frontend , with a rounder grille and new headlights , and the engine lineup was expanded to include Suzuki 's J18A chain-driven DOHC engine that was fitted to the sedan and wagon . In North America , the Esteem 1.8-liter wagon completely replaced the Esteem 1.6 , but in most markets the 1.8 sedan became the sports model . In some European markets , the 1.8-liter was installed in the hatchback and sold as the limited edition Baleno GSR . The Suzuki 1.8 had exactly the same displacement as the earlier Mazda BP engine , but was less powerful with only 121 PS in European specifications . Europe also gained a diesel version , with a 75 PS XUD9 engine supplied by Peugeot . The Cultus Crescent was replaced in most markets by the new Aerio/Liana , which was launched in 2001 . In Japan , the sedan was discontinued in November 2001 , although the wagon remained until August 2002 . The entire range was pulled from the market in Europe and North American in 2002 , after one year of overlapping with the Aerio/Liana . The car remained available in many developing countries , including India and Southeast Asia , where it was sold until 2007 , when production stopped at the Maruti factory , with the assembly line giving way to the SX4 sedan . Gallery File : Suzuki Baleno rear 20080220.jpg|1995–1998 Suzuki Baleno hatchback ( Germany ) File : Suzuki Baleno rear 20071004.jpg|1995–1999 Suzuki Baleno sedan ( Germany ) File : Suzuki Cultus 002.JPG|1998–2001 Suzuki Cultus sedan ( Japan ) File : Suzuki Cultus 004.JPG|1998–2002 Suzuki Cultus Wagon ( Japan ) File:02 baleno id.jpg|2002 Suzuki Baleno Sedan ( Indonesia )

sfq_5165--Suzuki_Cultus_Crescent.txt

Which car company has manufactured models called Baleno, Alto and Vitara?

Cheddington is a village and civil parish in the Aylesbury Vale district of Buckinghamshire . The parish has an area of 1429 acre . The village is about 6 miles north-east of Aylesbury and three miles north of Tring in Hertfordshire . The hamlet of Cooks Wharf has grown up where the main road into the village from Pitstone crosses the Grand Union Canal . Archaeology At Southend Hill near the village are the remains of an Iron Age hill fort which has been largely obliterated through arable cultivation . History The earliest known record of the village is in the Domesday Book in which it is called Cetendone , which is Old English for `` Cetta 's Hill '' . The Church of England parish church of Saint Giles was originally Norman . There is also a Methodist church with a large congregation . Cheddington manor house is a much gabled and half timbered red brick building under a tiled roof , dating from the 16th century . In 1963 Cheddington featured in the national press as it was near the location of the `` Great Train Robbery '' of 1963 at Bridego Railway Bridge in the hamlet of Ledburn . In 1984 , again Cheddington achieved national notoriety as the location of the first assault by Malcolm Fairley , a violent armed rapist , nicknamed `` The Fox '' because of his cunning nocturnal attacks . In the last thirty years Cheddington , due to its railway station and easy access to four towns , has more than quadrupled in size . In information released from the 2001 Census , Cheddington has the highest density of people under the age of 35 in the whole of Buckinghamshire . In 2005 Cheddington won the Buckinghamshire Best Kept Village Competition DeFraine Cup and also the Buckinghamshire Village of the Year Competition . It went on to win the East of England Young People award in the national competition . Cheddington also won the smaller villages category in the 2006 and 2007 Buckinghamshire Village of the Year Competition and received a special community building award . Amenities The village has two public houses : The Swan , a thatched inn , and The Three Horseshoes . A third inn , known as the Rosebery Arms , designed by the Victorian architect George Devey has recently been converted into houses . Cheddington Combined School is a mixed , community primary school , that takes children between the ages of four and 11 . The school has about 200 pupils , and its catchment area includes the neighbouring parishes of Horton and Slapton . Cheddington has various clubs including a tennis club , a bell ringers ' association , a badminton club , a history society , a bowls club , a petanque club and a football team .

qf_1615--Cheddington.txt

What criminal offence took place in Cheddington, Buckinghamshire in August (8th) 1963?

The Ghosts , primarily Blinky , Pinky , Inky and Clyde , are the monsters chasing the player in the Pac-Man franchise . History The enemies in Pac-Man are known variously as `` ghosts , '' `` goblins , '' and `` monsters '' . Despite the seemingly random nature of the enemies , their movements are strictly deterministic , which players have used to their advantage . In an interview , creator Toru Iwatani stated that he had designed each enemy with its own distinct personality in order to keep the game from becoming impossibly difficult or boring to play . More recently , Iwatani described the enemy behaviors in more detail at the 2011 Game Developers Conference . He stated that the red enemy chases Pac-Man , and the pink and blue enemies try to position themselves in front of Pac-Man 's mouth . Although he claimed that the orange enemy 's behavior is random , the game 's code reveals that it actually chases Pac-Man most of the time , but also moves toward the lower-left corner of the maze when it gets too close to Pac-Man . Cartoons In the Pac-Man cartoon , with the male Ghost Monsters wearing various styles of hats and partnered with a new ghost named Sue ( who was purple and wore earrings ) , the Ghost Monsters work for Mezmaron who assigns them the job of finding the Power Pellet Forest . Just as Pac-Man could `` chomp '' the Ghost Monsters to devour their `` suits '' after gulping down a power pellet and thus turning the Ghost Monsters blue — with their disembodied `` eyes '' floating back to Mezmaron 's lair — the Ghost Monsters themselves , whenever Pac-Man had n't been able to consume a power pellet for a time , could likewise `` chomp '' Pac-Man to defeat him . The episodes `` Chomp-Out at the O.K . Corral '' and `` The Greatest Show in Pacland '' featured the Ghost Monsters ' 3-year-old cousin named Dinky who was bratty , which greatly annoyed all the male ghost monsters . In the 2013 TV series Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures , the four Ghosts come from the Netherworld . Though they are ruled by Lord Betrayus , they are actually good-natured spirits and often supply Pac-Man with information about Lord Betrayus ' plots , while ensuring Betrayus does n't catch them in the act . It is also suggested that they could be reunited with their bodies and brought back to life , though their 'living ' forms are unknown . There were also some Ghosts that were exclusive to the TV series like Cyclops Ghosts ( a race of heavyset , horned Ghosts with one eye ) , Fire Ghosts ( a race of orange Ghosts who can emit fire from their body ) , Tentacle Ghosts ( a race of 4-eyed purple-black Ghosts who look similar to jellyfish ) , Guardian Ghosts ( a race of large Ghosts who guard the Netherworld ) , and Aqua Ghosts ( a race of light blue Ghosts with fins on their head ) . Known Ghosts Below is the description of each Ghost . Blinky Blinky is a red ghost who , in the original arcade game , follows behind Pac-man . He is considered the leader of the ghosts . In the Pac-Man cartoon , Blinky ( voiced by Chuck McCann ) is slow-witted and cowardly with grammar problems . In Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures , Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures 2 , & Mappy : The Movie , Blinky ( voiced by Ian James Corlett in the TV series and by Lucien Dodge in the video game ) is the default leader of the Ghost Gang Family and tends to help the winning side . Blinky receives a speed boost after a number of pac-pellets have been cleared . This mode has been informally referred to as `` Cruise Elroy '' . Pinky Pinky is a pink ghost who , in the original arcade game , positions him/herself in front of Pac-man . In the Pac-Man cartoon , Pinky ( voiced by Chuck McCann ) is depicted as male dimwitted shape shifter . In recent games , and Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures & Mappy : The Movie , Pinky ( voiced by Ashleigh Ball in the TV series and by Julie Kliewer in the video game and sequel ) is depicted as a female with a crush on Pac-Man , which often puts her at odds with Cylindria . Inky Inky is a baby blue ghost who , in the original arcade game , has a fickle mood . He can be unpredictable . Sometimes he chases Pac-Man aggressively like Blinky ; other times he jumps ahead of Pac-Man as Pinky would . He might even wander off like Clyde on occasion . In the Pac-Man cartoon , Inky ( voiced by Barry Gordon ) is depicted as dim and loony . In Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures , Inky ( voiced by Lee Tockar in the TV series and by Bryce Papenbrook in the video game ) is the youngest member . Though the smartest , he lacks focus most of the time . In Pac-Man , Inky likes to appear in front of Pac-Man 's face . Clyde Clyde is an orange ghost who , in the original arcade game , acts stupid . He will chase after Pac-man in Blinky 's manner , but will wander off to his home corner when he gets too close . In Ms. Pac-Man , this ghost is named Sue , and in Jr. Pac-Man , this ghost is named Tim . In the animated series , Clyde ( voiced by Neil Ross ) is the leader of the group . In recent games and Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures , Clyde ( voiced by Brian Drummond in the TV series and by Orion Acaba in the video game ) is depicted as a large ghost who is simple , but not unintelligent and has an appetite equal to Pac-Man 's . He lacks the devious natures of his brothers and sister and is considerate towards others . In the Pac-Man World games , Clyde and Blinky 's roles are reversed . Other Ghosts With the release of further Pac-Man games , more ghosts have been added . * Kinky - a yellow Ghost that only appeared in Pac-Man Arrangement . He is also called Kinzo . Kinky is the scientist of the Ghosts who has the ability to combine with other Ghosts . When he combines with Clyde ( note : in Pac-Man Arrangement , Clyde was the red ghost and Blinky was orange ) , Kinky becomes a bull-like ghost named Urchin that can charge after Pac-Man . When he combines with Inky , Kinky 's glasses appear on Inky 's body and grant this new combined ghost ( named Stylist ) the ability to split in two . Stylist 's reflection will mirror Stylist 's movements on the other half of the map ( about the vertical axis ) . When Kinky combines with Pinky , the resulting ghost is rabbit-like and named Romp . Romp can hop to any part of the map , usually very close to Pac-Man 's position . The combination of Kinky and Blinky ( who is orange in Pac-Man Arrangement ) results in Crybaby , a chubbier version of Blinky who adds 20-point Pac-Dots to the maze . * Orson / Toc-Man - a greenish-gray intellectual Ghost who initially appears as the main antagonist of Pac-Man World under the alias of Toc-Man . In Pac-Man World 3 , Orson has reformed and is now an ally of Pac-Man . * Spooky - a dark gray Ghost in gray armor that is the King of the Ghosts in ancient times until he was sealed under Pac-Ville 's largest tree by Sir Pac-A-Lot . * Funky - a jumping green Ghost that debuted in the game Pac-Mania . He has an interest in Sue . * Spunky - a jumping iron gray Ghost that debuted in Pac-Mania . She is a counterpart of Funky . * Sue - is the female counterpart of Clyde in Ms. Pac-Man , entirely identical to him . In the Pac-Man series , Sue ( voiced by Susan Silo ) is featured as Clyde 's second-in-command . She also appears in Pac-Mania colored purple with mascara and eyeshadow , greatly resembling her cartoon counterpart . * Tim - is an orange Ghost that appeared exclusively as Clyde 's replacement in Jr. Pac-Man . * Yum-Yum - a female red Ghost that debuted in Jr. Pac-Man . She is a relative of Blinky and has a romantic relationship with Jr. Pac-Man . Yum-Yum appears exclusively in Jr. Pac-Man 's cutscenes . * Lord Betrayus ( full name : Betrayus Sneakerus Spheros ) - a white ghost that is the supreme ruler of the Netherworld and of all Ghosts and Monsters and acts as the main antagonist of Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures . His primary goal is to steal the power berries and take over Pac-World and rule it with an iron fist . He is currently voiced by Samuel Vincent . * Butt-ler - Betrayus ' long suffering personal servant and butler who appears in Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures . He is a purple-gray ghost with a butt-shaped head , topped with a dapper black hat . He 's always loyal to his master . He will take some small satisfaction seeing Betrayus fall flat on his face . * Dr. Buttocks - The Netherworld 's greatest mad scientist and Butt-ler 's twin brother who also has a butt-shaped head , but is light blue , has a cybernetic right hand , wears glasses and speaks with a German accent . He specializes in monster experimentation in hopes of achieving Pac-World domination . He sometimes suspects that the Ghost Gang are working with Pac-Man , but has had no luck convincing Betrayus of this since he usually blames him or his brother for his failures and sometimes tortures him for fun . He wants all of the workers to get out of his way . He sometimes hates his twin brother , Butt-ler . Voice actors American Blinky : Chuck McCann in the television seriesMartin T. Sherman in Pac-Man World 3Ian James Corlett in Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures TV seriesLucien Dodge in Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures video game and sequelInky : Barry Gordon in the television seriesStuart Milligan in Pac-Man World 3Lee Tockar in Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures TV series ) Bryce Papenbrook in Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures video game and sequelPinky : Chuck McCann in the television seriesMindy Lee Raskin in Pac-Man World 3Ashleigh Ball in Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures TV series ) Julie Kliewer in Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures video game and sequelClyde : Neil Ross in the television seriesJohn Guerrasio in Pac-Man World 3Kevin Deters in Wreck-It RalphBrian Drummond in Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures TV series ) Orion Acaba in Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures video game and sequelSue : Susan Silo in the television series Japanese Blinky : Kazuhiro Fusegawa in Pac-Man and the Ghostly AdventuresInky : Mai Tōdō in Pac-Man and the Ghostly AdventuresPinky : Kiyono Yasuno in Pac-Man and the Ghostly AdventuresClyde : Yutaka Nakano in Wreck-It RalphKunpei Sakamoto in Pac-Man and the Ghostly Adventures In other media * In the Tiny Toon Adventures episode `` Gang Busters , '' Buster Bunny & Plucky Duck play Pac-Man using their eyeballs as the characters & Buster plays as the ghosts . * The Ghosts appear in The Simpsons episode `` Homer and Ned 's Hail Mary Pass , '' where they are seen at Pac-Man 's wedding . They also appear in the episode `` I Married Marge , '' where Mr. Burns was playing Ms. Pac-Man and laughs when he eats the ghosts . * The Ghosts appear in the Futurama episode `` Anthology of Interest II . '' * The Ghosts appear in the South Park trilogy `` Imaginationland . '' * The Ghosts appear in the Family Guy episode `` Stuck Together , Torn Apart . '' * The Ghosts appear in the Annoying Orange episodes `` Pac-Mania '' and `` TV OF TERROR '' . * Blinky , Inky , Pinky , and Clyde appear in Wreck-It Ralph . While Blinky , Inky , and Pinky appear in Game Central Station , Clyde ( voiced by Kevin Deters ) is shown to be the head of Bad-Anon ( a support group for video game villains ) where the members have been meeting in the Pac-Man game once a week . When Wreck-It Ralph comments on how he does n't want to be a villain anymore , Clyde is among the villains that react to this as he turns blue ( Like when Pac-Man eats a power pellet ) . After Ralph states he gets no respect from the others characters , except the eponymous hero in Fix-It Felix , Jr. the game that he comes from , Clyde understands how he feels , but says that he 'll have to accept who he is . * The Ghosts appear in the MAD segments `` Diary of a Wimpy Kid Icarus '' ( where they were shown chasing Pac-Man ) and `` ParaMorgan '' ( where they were shown with other popular fictional ghosts ) . * The Ghosts appear in secret levels in Wolfenstein 3D . * The Ghosts appeared in Abobo 's Big Adventure as enemies on Contra Bobo . When Abobo hits them , they will turn blue and when Abobo hit scared ghosts , they will die with their eyes run offscreen . * The Ghosts appear in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U. Pac-Man uses them for his Smash attacks and they can also be summoned through an Assist Trophy . The Ghosts also wander in the Pac-Maze stage found in the 3DS version . They deal damage upon contact with other fighters and can be eaten by those who got a Power Pellet .

sfq_1122--Ghosts_(Pac-Man).txt

Blinky, Pinky, Inky, and Clyde are four ghosts in which arcade game?

Japan ( Nippon or Nihon ; formally ' or Nihon-koku , `` State of Japan '' ) is an island country in East Asia . Located in the Pacific Ocean , it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan , the East China Sea , China , Korea and Russia , stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south . The kanji that make up Japan 's name mean `` sun origin '' , and it is often called the `` Land of the Rising Sun '' . Japan is a stratovolcanic archipelago of 6,852 islands . The four largest are Honshu , Hokkaido , Kyushu and Shikoku , which make up about ninety-seven percent of Japan 's land area . The country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions . The population of 126 million is the world 's tenth largest . Japanese people make up 98.5 % of Japan 's total population . Approximately 9.1 million people live in the core city of Tokyo , the capital city of Japan , which is the sixth largest city proper in the OECD and the fourth leading global city in the world . The Greater Tokyo Area , which includes Tokyo and several surrounding prefectures , is the world 's largest metropolitan area with over 35 million residents and the world 's largest urban agglomeration economy . Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period . The first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century CE . Influence from other regions , mainly Imperial China , followed by periods of isolation , particularly from Western Europe , has characterized Japan 's history . From the 12th century until 1868 , Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor . Japan entered into a long period of isolation in the early 17th century , which was ended in 1853 when a United States fleet pressured Japan to open to the West . Nearly two decades of internal conflict and insurrection followed before the Meiji Emperor was restored as head of state in 1868 and the Empire of Japan was proclaimed , with the Emperor as a divine symbol of the nation . In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , victories in the First Sino-Japanese War , the Russo-Japanese War and World War I allowed Japan to expand its empire during a period of increasing militarism . The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941 , which came to an end in 1945 following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Since adopting its revised constitution in 1947 , Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an Emperor and an elected legislature called the National Diet . Japan is a member of the UN , the G7 , the G8 , and the G20 and is considered a great power . The country has the world 's third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the world 's fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity . It is also the world 's fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer . Although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war , it maintains a modern military with the world 's eighth largest military budget , used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles . Japan is a developed country with a high standard of living and Human Development Index whose population enjoys the highest life expectancy , the third lowest infant mortality in the world , and ranked first in the number of Nobel laureates of any country in Asia . Japan is ranked first in the Country Brand Index , [ http : //www.futurebrand.com/news/futurebrand-launches-the-country-brand-index-2014-15 FutureBrand | News | FutureBrand launches the Country Brand Index 2014–15 ] ranked sixth in the Global Competitiveness Report 2015–2016 and is the highest-ranked Asian country in the Global Peace Index . Japan was the first country in Asia to host both the Summer and Winter Olympic Games . Etymology The English word Japan possibly derives from the early Mandarin Chinese or Wu Chinese pronunciation of the Japanese name , , which in Japanese is pronounced Nippon or Nihon . Japanese people refer to themselves as and to their language as . From the Meiji Restoration until the end of World War II , the full title of Japan was , meaning `` the Empire of Great Japan '' . Today the name is used as a formal modern-day equivalent simply meaning `` the State of Japan '' ; countries like Japan whose long form does not contain a descriptive designation are generally given a name appended by the character , meaning `` country '' , `` nation '' or `` state '' . The character means `` sun '' or `` day '' ; means `` base '' or `` origin '' . The compound means `` origin of the sun '' or `` sunrise '' ( from a Chinese point of view , the sun rises from Japan ) ; it is a source for the popular Western description of Japan as the `` Land of the Rising Sun '' . Before Nihon came into official use , Japan was known as or . The English word for Japan came to the West via early trade routes . The Old Mandarin or possibly early Wu Chinese pronunciation of Japan was recorded by Marco Polo as Cipangu . In modern Shanghainese , a Wu dialect , the pronunciation of characters Japan is Zeppen . The old Malay word for Japan , Jepang , was borrowed from a southern coastal Chinese dialect , probably Fukienese or Ningpo , and this Malay word was encountered by Portuguese traders in Malacca in the 16th century . Portuguese traders were the first to bring the word to Europe . An early record of the word in English is in a 1565 letter , spelled Giapan . History Prehistory and ancient history A Paleolithic culture around 30,000 BC constitutes the first known habitation of the Japanese archipelago . This was followed from around 14,000 BC ( the start of the Jōmon period ) by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer culture , who include ancestors of both the contemporary Ainu people and Yamato people , characterized by pit dwelling and rudimentary agriculture . Decorated clay vessels from this period are some of the oldest surviving examples of pottery in the world . Around 300 BC , the Yayoi people began to enter the Japanese islands , intermingling with the Jōmon . The Yayoi period , starting around 500 BC , saw the introduction of practices like wet-rice farming , a new style of pottery , and metallurgy , introduced from China and Korea . Japan first appears in written history in the Chinese Book of Han . According to the Records of the Three Kingdoms , the most powerful kingdom on the archipelago during the 3rd century was called Yamataikoku . Buddhism was first introduced to Japan from Baekje , Korea and was promoted by Prince Shōtoku , but the subsequent development of Japanese Buddhism was primarily influenced by China . Despite early resistance , Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class and gained widespread acceptance beginning in the Asuka period ( 592–710 ) . The Nara period ( 710–784 ) of the 8th century marked an emergence of the centralized Japanese state centered on the Imperial Court in Heijō-kyō ( modern Nara ) . The Nara period is characterized by the appearance of a nascent literature as well as the development of Buddhist-inspired art and architecture . The smallpox epidemic of 735–737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of Japan 's population . In 784 , Emperor Kanmu moved the capital from Nara to Nagaoka-kyō before relocating it to Heian-kyō ( modern Kyoto ) in 794 . This marked the beginning of the Heian period ( 794–1185 ) , during which a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged , noted for its art , poetry and prose . Murasaki Shikibu 's The Tale of Genji and the lyrics of Japan 's national anthem Kimigayo were written during this time . Buddhism began to spread during the Heian era chiefly through two major sects , Tendai by Saichō , and Shingon by Kūkai . Pure Land Buddhism ( Jōdo-shū , Jōdo Shinshū ) became greatly popular in the latter half of the 11th century . Feudal era Japan 's feudal era was characterized by the emergence and dominance of a ruling class of warriors , the samurai . In 1185 , following the defeat of the Taira clan in the Genpei War , sung in the epic Tale of Heike , samurai Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed shogun by Emperor Go-Toba , and he established a base of power in Kamakura . After his death , the Hōjō clan came to power as regents for the shoguns . The Zen school of Buddhism was introduced from China in the Kamakura period ( 1185–1333 ) and became popular among the samurai class . The Kamakura shogunate repelled Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281 , but was eventually overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo . Emperor Go-Daigo was himself defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336 . Ashikaga Takauji established the shogunate in Muromachi , Kyoto . This was the start of the Muromachi period ( 1336–1573 ) . The Ashikaga shogunate achieved glory in the age of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu , and the culture based on Zen Buddhism ( art of Miyabi ) prospered . This evolved to Higashiyama Culture , and prospered until the 16th century . On the other hand , the succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal warlords ( daimyo ) , and a civil war ( the Ōnin War ) began in 1467 , opening the century-long Sengoku period ( `` Warring States '' ) . During the 16th century , traders and Jesuit missionaries from Portugal reached Japan for the first time , initiating direct commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West . This allowed Oda Nobunaga to obtain European technology and firearms , which he used to conquer many other daimyo . His consolidation of power began what was known as the Azuchi–Momoyama period ( 1573–1603 ) . After he was assassinated in 1582 , his successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi unified the nation in 1590 and launched two unsuccessful invasions of Korea in 1592 and 1597 . Tokugawa Ieyasu served as regent for Hideyoshi 's son and used his position to gain political and military support . When open war broke out , he defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 . Tokugawa Ieyasu was appointed shogun by Emperor Go-Yōzei in 1603 , and he established the Tokugawa shogunate in Edo ( modern Tokyo ) . The Tokugawa shogunate enacted measures including buke shohatto , as a code of conduct to control the autonomous daimyo ; and in 1639 , the isolationist sakoku ( `` closed country '' ) policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period ( 1603–1868 ) . The study of Western sciences , known as rangaku , continued through contact with the Dutch enclave at Dejima in Nagasaki . The Edo period also gave rise to kokugaku ( `` national studies '' ) , the study of Japan by the Japanese . Modern era On March 31 , 1854 , Commodore Matthew Perry and the `` Black Ships '' of the United States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the outside world with the Convention of Kanagawa . Subsequent similar treaties with Western countries in the Bakumatsu period brought economic and political crises . The resignation of the shogun led to the Boshin War and the establishment of a centralized state nominally unified under the Emperor ( the Meiji Restoration ) . Adopting Western political , judicial and military institutions , the Cabinet organized the Privy Council , introduced the Meiji Constitution , and assembled the Imperial Diet . The Meiji Restoration transformed the Empire of Japan into an industrialized world power that pursued military conflict to expand its sphere of influence . After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War ( 1894–1895 ) and the Russo-Japanese War ( 1904–1905 ) , Japan gained control of Taiwan , Korea , and the southern half of Sakhalin . Japan 's population grew from 35 million in 1873 to 70 million in 1935 . World War I enabled Japan , on the side of the victorious Allies , to widen its influence and territorial holdings in Asia . The early 20th century saw a brief period of `` Taishō democracy ( 1912-1926 ) '' but the 1920s saw a fragile democracy buckle under a political shift towards fascism , the passing of laws against political dissent and a series of attempted coups . The subsequent `` Shōwa period '' initially saw the power of the military increased and brought about Japanese expansionism and militarization along with the totalitarianism and ultranationalism that are a part of fascist ideology . In 1931 Japan invaded and occupied Manchuria and followeing international condemnation of this occupation , Japan resigned from the League of Nations in 1933 . In 1936 , Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany , and the 1940 Tripartite Pact made it one of the Axis Powers . In 1941 , Japan negotiated the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact , which lasted until 1945 with the Soviet invasion of Manchuria . The Empire of Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937 , precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War ( 1937–1945 ) . The Imperial Japanese Army swiftly captured the capital Nanjing and conducted the Nanking Massacre . In 1940 , the Empire then invaded French Indochina , after which the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan . On December 7–8 , 1941 , Japanese forces carried out surprise attacks on Pearl Harbor , British forces in Malaya , Singapore , and Hong Kong and declared war on the United States and the United Kingdom , bringing the US and the UK into World War II in the Pacific . Following a series of defeats across the Pacific during 1942-1945 , which culminated in the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 , Japan agreed to an unconditional surrender on August 15 . The war cost Japan , it 's colonies , China and the war 's other combatants tens of millions of lives and left much of Japan 's industry and infrastructure destroyed . The Allies ( led by the US ) repatriated millions of ethnic Japanese from colonies and military camps throughout Asia , largely eliminating the Japanese empire and restoring the independence of its conquered territories . The Allies also convened the International Military Tribunal for the Far East on May 3 , 1946 to prosecute some Japanese leaders for war crimes . However , the bacteriological research units and members of the imperial family involved in the war were exonerated from criminal prosecutions by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers despite calls for the trial of both groups . In 1947 , Japan adopted a new constitution emphasizing liberal democratic practices . The Allied occupation ended with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952 and Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956 . Japan later achieved rapid growth to become the second-largest economy in the world , until surpassed by China in 2010 . This ended in the mid-1990s when Japan suffered a major recession . In the beginning of the 21st century , positive growth has signaled a gradual economic recovery . On March 11 , 2011 , Japan suffered the strongest earthquake in its recorded history ; this triggered the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster , one of the worst disasters in the history of nuclear power . Government and politics Japan is a constitutional monarchy whereby the power of the Emperor is very limited . As a ceremonial figurehead , he is defined by the constitution as `` the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people . '' Power is held chiefly by the Prime Minister and other elected members of the Diet , while sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people . Akihito is the current Emperor of Japan ; Naruhito , Crown Prince of Japan , stands as next in line to the Chrysanthemum Throne . Japan 's legislative organ is the National Diet , seated in Chiyoda , Tokyo . The Diet is a bicameral body , consisting of a House of Representatives with 480 seats , elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved , and a House of Councillors of 242 seats , whose popularly elected members serve six-year terms . There is universal suffrage for adults over 18 years of age , with a secret ballot for all elected offices . The Diet is dominated by the social liberal Democratic Party of Japan and the conservative Liberal Democratic Party ( LDP ) . The LDP has enjoyed near continuous electoral success since 1955 , except for a brief 11-month period between 1993 and 1994 , and from 2009 to 2012 . It holds 294 seats in the lower house and 83 seats in the upper house . The Prime Minister of Japan is the head of government and is appointed by the Emperor after being designated by the Diet from among its members . The Prime Minister is the head of the Cabinet , and he appoints and dismisses the Ministers of State . Following the LDP 's landslide victory in the 2012 general election , Shinzō Abe replaced Yoshihiko Noda as the Prime Minister on December 26 , 2012 and became the country 's sixth prime minister to be sworn in during a span of six years . Although the Prime Minister is formally appointed by the Emperor , the Constitution of Japan explicitly requires the Emperor to appoint whoever is designated by the Diet . Historically influenced by Chinese law , the Japanese legal system developed independently during the Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki . However , since the late 19th century the judicial system has been largely based on the civil law of Europe , notably Germany . For example , in 1896 , the Japanese government established a civil code based on a draft of the German Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch ; with the code remaining in effect with post–World War II modifications . Statutory law originates in Japan 's legislature and has the rubber stamp of the Emperor . The Constitution requires that the Emperor promulgate legislation passed by the Diet , without specifically giving him the power to oppose legislation . Japan 's court system is divided into four basic tiers : the Supreme Court and three levels of lower courts . The main body of Japanese statutory law is called the Six Codes . Foreign relations and military Japan is a member of the G8 , APEC , and `` ASEAN Plus Three '' , and is a participant in the East Asia Summit . Japan signed a security pact with Australia in March 2007 and with India in October 2008 . It is the world 's fifth largest donor of official development assistance , donating US $ 9.2 billion in 2014 . Japan has close economic and military relations with the United States ; the US-Japan security alliance acts as the cornerstone of the nation 's foreign policy . A member state of the United Nations since 1956 , Japan has served as a non-permanent Security Council member for a total of 20 years , most recently for 2009 and 2010 . It is one of the G4 nations seeking permanent membership in the Security Council . Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors : with Russia over the South Kuril Islands , with South Korea over the Liancourt Rocks , with China and Taiwan over the Senkaku Islands , and with China over the EEZ around Okinotorishima . Japan also faces an ongoing dispute with North Korea over the latter 's abduction of Japanese citizens and its nuclear weapons and missile program ( see also Six-party talks ) . Japan maintains one of the largest military budgets of any country in the world . Japan contributed non-combatant troops to the Iraq War but subsequently withdrew its forces . The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force ( JMSDF ) is a regular participant in RIMPAC maritime exercises . Japan 's military ( the Japan Self-Defense Forces ) is restricted by Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution , which renounces Japan 's right to declare war or use military force in international disputes . Accordingly , Japan 's Self-Defence force is a usual military that has never fired shots outside Japan . It is governed by the Ministry of Defense , and primarily consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force ( JGSDF ) , the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force ( JMSDF ) and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force ( JASDF ) . The forces have been recently used in peacekeeping operations ; the deployment of troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of Japan 's military since World War II . Japan Business Federation has called on the government to lift the ban on arms exports so that Japan can join multinational projects such as the Joint Strike Fighter . In May 2014 Prime Minister Shinzō Abe said Japan wanted to shed the passiveness it has maintained since the end of World War II and take more responsibility for regional security . He said Japan wanted to play a key role and offered neighboring countries Japan 's support . Administrative divisions Japan consists of forty-seven prefectures , each overseen by an elected governor , legislature and administrative bureaucracy . Each prefecture is further divided into cities , towns and villages . The nation is currently undergoing administrative reorganization by merging many of the cities , towns and villages with each other . This process will reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrative regions and is expected to cut administrative costs . Geography Japan has a total of 6,852 islands extending along the Pacific coast of East Asia . The country , including all of the islands it controls , lies between latitudes 24° and 46°N , and longitudes 122° and 146°E . The main islands , from north to south , are Hokkaido , Honshu , Shikoku and Kyushu . The Ryukyu Islands , which include Okinawa , are a chain to the south of Kyushu . Together they are often known as the Japanese archipelago . About 73 percent of Japan is forested , mountainous , and unsuitable for agricultural , industrial , or residential use . As a result , the habitable zones , mainly located in coastal areas , have extremely high population densities . Japan is one of the most densely populated countries in the world . The islands of Japan are located in a volcanic zone on the Pacific Ring of Fire . They are primarily the result of large oceanic movements occurring over hundreds of millions of years from the mid-Silurian to the Pleistocene as a result of the subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate beneath the continental Amurian Plate and Okinawa Plate to the south , and subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Okhotsk Plate to the north . Japan was originally attached to the eastern coast of the Eurasian continent . The subducting plates pulled Japan eastward , opening the Sea of Japan around 15 million years ago . Japan has 108 active volcanoes . During the twentieth century several new volcanoes emerged , including Shōwa-shinzan on Hokkaido and Myōjin-shō off the Bayonnaise Rocks in the Pacific . Destructive earthquakes , often resulting in tsunami , occur several times each century . The 1923 Tokyo earthquake killed over 140,000 people . More recent major quakes are the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake , a 9.0-magnitude quake which hit Japan on March 11 , 2011 , and triggered a large tsunami . Japan is substantially prone to earthquakes , tsunami and volcanoes due to its location along the Pacific Ring of Fire and has the highest natural disaster risk in the developed world . Climate The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate , but varies greatly from north to south . Japan 's geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones : Hokkaido , Sea of Japan , Central Highland , Seto Inland Sea , Pacific Ocean , and Ryukyu Islands . The northernmost zone , Hokkaido , has a humid continental climate with long , cold winters and very warm to cool summers . Precipitation is not heavy , but the islands usually develop deep snowbanks in the winter . In the Sea of Japan zone on Honshu 's west coast , northwest winter winds bring heavy snowfall . In the summer , the region is cooler than the Pacific area , though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures because of the foehn . The Central Highland has a typical inland humid continental climate , with large temperature differences between summer and winter seasons , as well as large diurnal variation ; precipitation is light , though winters are usually snowy . The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the Seto Inland Sea from seasonal winds , bringing mild weather year-round . The Pacific coast features a humid subtropical climate that experiences milder winters with occasional snowfall and hot , humid summers because of the southeast seasonal wind . The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate , with warm winters and hot summers . Precipitation is very heavy , especially during the rainy season . The average winter temperature in Japan is and the average summer temperature is . The highest temperature ever measured in Japan was recorded on August 16 , 2007 . The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa , and the rain front gradually moves north until reaching Hokkaido in late July . In most of Honshu , the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks . In late summer and early autumn , typhoons often bring heavy rain . Biodiversity Japan has nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands . They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin Islands , to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands , to temperate coniferous forests in the cold , winter portions of the northern islands . Japan has over 90,000 species of wildlife , including the brown bear , the Japanese macaque , the Japanese raccoon dog , the Large Japanese Field Mouse , and the Japanese giant salamander . A large network of national parks has been established to protect important areas of flora and fauna as well as thirty-seven Ramsar wetland sites . Four sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for their outstanding natural value . Environment In the period of rapid economic growth after World War II , environmental policies were downplayed by the government and industrial corporations ; as a result , environmental pollution was widespread in the 1950s and 1960s . Responding to rising concern about the problem , the government introduced several environmental protection laws in 1970 . The oil crisis in 1973 also encouraged the efficient use of energy because of Japan 's lack of natural resources . Current environmental issues include urban air pollution ( NOx , suspended particulate matter , and toxics ) , waste management , water eutrophication , nature conservation , climate change , chemical management and international co-operation for conservation . As of June 2015 , more than 40 coal-fired power plants are planned or under construction in Japan . The NGO Climate Action Network announced Japan as the winner of its `` Fossil of the Day '' award for `` doing the most to block progress on climate action . '' Japan ranks 39th in the 2016 Environmental Performance Index , which measures a nation 's commitment to environmental sustainability . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference that created it , Japan is under treaty obligation to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps to curb climate change . Economy Economic history Modern Japan 's economic growth began in the Edo period . Some of the surviving elements of the Edo period are roads and water transportation routes , as well as financial instruments such as futures contracts , banking and insurance of the Osaka rice brokers . During the Meiji period from 1868 , Japan expanded economically with the embrace of the market economy . Many of today 's enterprises were founded at the

wh_2171--Japan.txt

In Japan, the term Mikado is an alternative name for what ?

The First Bulgarian Empire ( Old ) was a medieval Bulgarian state that existed in southeastern Europe between the 7th and 11th centuries AD . It was founded circa 681 when Bulgar tribes led by Asparukh moved to the northeastern Balkans . There they secured Byzantine recognition of their right to settle south of the Danube by defeating — possibly with the help of local South Slavic tribes — the Byzantine army led by Constantine IV . At the height of its power , Bulgaria spread from the Danube Bend to the Black Sea and from the Dnieper River to the Adriatic Sea . As the state solidified its position in the Balkans , it entered into a centuries-long interaction , sometimes friendly and sometimes hostile , with the Byzantine Empire . Bulgaria emerged as Byzantium 's chief antagonist to its north , resulting in several wars . The two powers also enjoyed periods of peace and alliance , most notably during the Second Arab siege of Constantinople , where the Bulgarian army broke the siege and destroyed the Arab army , thus preventing an Arab invasion of Southeastern Europe . Byzantium had a strong cultural influence on Bulgaria , which also led to the eventual adoption of Christianity in 864 . After the disintegration of the Avar Khaganate , the country expanded its territory northwest to the Pannonian Plain . Later the Bulgarians confronted the advance of the Pechenegs and Cumans , and achieved a decisive victory over the Magyars , forcing them to establish themselves permanently in Pannonia . During the late 9th and early 10th centuries , Simeon I achieved a string of victories over the Byzantines . Thereafter , he was recognized with the title of Emperor , and proceeded to expand the state to its greatest extent . After the annihilation of the Byzantine army in the battle of Anchialus in 917 , the Bulgarians laid siege to Constantinople in 923 and 924 . The Byzantines , however , eventually recovered , and in 1014 , under Basil II , inflicted a crushing defeat on the Bulgarians at the Battle of Kleidion . By 1018 , the last Bulgarian strongholds had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire , and the First Bulgarian Empire had ceased to exist . It was succeeded by the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1185 . After the adoption of Christianity , Bulgaria became the cultural center of Slavic Europe . Its leading cultural position was further consolidated with the invention of the Glagolitic and Early Cyrillic alphabets shortly after in the capital Preslav , and literature produced in Old Bulgarian soon began spreading north . Old Bulgarian became the lingua franca of much of Eastern Europe and it came to be known as Old Church Slavonic . Benjamin W. Fortson . Indo-European Language and Culture : An Introduction , p. 374 In 927 , the fully independent Bulgarian Patriarchate was officially recognized . The Bulgars and other non-Slavic tribes in the empire gradually adopted an essentially foreign Slavic language . Since the late 10th century , the names Bulgarians and Bulgarian gained prevalence and became permanent designations for the local population , both in literature and in common parlance . The development of Old Church Slavonic literacy had the effect of preventing the assimilation of the South Slavs into neighboring cultures , while stimulating the formation of a distinct Bulgarian identity . Nomenclature The First Bulgarian Empire became known simply as Bulgaria since its recognition by the Byzantine Empire in 681 . Some historians use the terms Danube Bulgaria , First Bulgarian State , or First Bulgarian Tsardom ( Empire ) . Between 681 and 864 the country was also known as the Bulgarian Khanate , Danube Bulgarian Khanate , or Danube Bulgar Khanate in order to differentiate it from Volga Bulgaria , which emerged from another Bulgar group . During its early existence , the country was also called the Bulgar state or Bulgar qaghanate . Between 864 and 917/927 , the country was known as the Principality of Bulgaria or Knyazhestvo Bulgaria . In English language sources , the country is often known as the Bulgarian Empire . Created as a union between Bulgars and Slavs , for mutual protection against the Byzantine Empire to the south and the Avars to the north-west , the First Bulgarian Empire was ruled according to Bulgar tradition with the head of state being the Khan . The Slavs kept significant autonomy and eventually their language and traditions shaped the Bulgarian culture and people with Bulgaria becoming a Slavic country . Background During the time of the late Roman Empire , the lands of present-day Bulgaria had been organized into several provinces - Scythia Minor , Moesia ( Upper and Lower ) , Thrace , Macedonia ( First and Second ) , Dacia ( north of the Danube ) , Dardania , Rhodope and Hermimont , and had a mixed population of Romanized Getae and Hellenized Thracians . Several consecutive waves of Slavic migration throughout the 6th and early 7th centuries led to the almost complete Slavicization of the region , at least linguistically . The Bulgars The Bulgars also included the tribes of Onogurs , Utigurs and Kutrigurs . Between 630 and 635 , Khan Kubrat managed to unite the main Bulgar tribes , creating a powerful confederation called Old Great Bulgaria , also known as Onoguria . Under strong Khazar pressure Old Great Bulgaria disintegrated in 668 . Afterwards Khan Asparuh parted ways to seek a secure home . It is difficult to estimate the number of Asparuh 's Bulgars , Zlatarski posits that their number was not great , on the contrary Runciman consider that the tribe must have been of considerable dimension . In 680 Asparukh founded after the Battle of Ongal the First Bulgarian Empire , south of the Danube on Byzantine territory . It was officially recognized as an independent state by the Byzantine Empire in 681 . Formation of the Bulgarian ethnicity It is likely that the original Bulgars were greatly outnumbered by the Slavic population among whom they were settled . Between the 7th and the 10th centuries , the Bulgars gradually became absorbed by the Slavs , adopting a South Slav language and converting to Christianity ( of the Byzantine rite ) under Boris I of Bulgaria in 864 . Modern Bulgarians are normally considered to be of Southern Slavic origin . However , the Slavs were only one of the communities that had been present in the area conquered by Bulgars , themselves being recent migrants in the Balkans . Several other peoples were eventually absorbed into the new ethnicity . At that time the process of absorption of the remnants of the old Thraco-Roman and Thraco-Byzantine population had already been significant in the formation of this new ethnic group . The new single identity nation would continue to identify as Bulgarian and uphold the eponymous state as its own . Modern Bulgarians continue to celebrate the original non-Slavic Bulgar state and Thracian ancestors , while embracing a Slavic identity at the same time . History Establishing a firm foothold in the Balkans After the decisive victory at Ongala in 680 the armies of the Bulgars and Slavs advanced to the south of the Balkan mountains , defeating again the Byzantines who were then forced to sign a humiliating peace treaty which acknowledged the establishment of a new state on the borders of the Empire . They were also to pay an annual tribute to Bulgaria . In the same time the war with the Khazars to the east continued and in 700 Khan Asparough perished in battle with them . The Bulgars lost the territories to the east of the Dnester River , but managed to hold the lands to the west . The Bulgars and the Slavs signed a treaty according to which the head of the state became the Khan of the Bulgars , who had also the obligation to defend the country against the Byzantine , while the Slavic leaders gained considerable autonomy and had to protect the northern borders along the Carpathian mountains against the Avars . Khan Asparuh 's successor , Khan Tervel helped the deposed Byzantine Emperor Justinian II to regain his throne in 705 . In return he was given the area Zagore in Northern Thrace , which was the first expansion of the country to the south of the Balkan mountains . However , three years later Justinian tried to take it back by force , but his army was defeated at Anchialus . In 716 Khan Tervel signed an important agreement with Byzantium . During the siege of Constantinople in 717–718 he sent 50,000 troops to help the besieged city . In the decisive battle the Bulgarians massacred around 30,000 Arabs and Khan Tervel was called The saviour of Europe by his contemporaries . Internal instability and struggle for survival Khan Sevar , the last scion of the Dulo clan , died in 753 . With his death the Khanate fell into a long political crisis during which the young country was on the verge of destruction . In just fifteen years , seven Khans ruled , all of whom were murdered . There were two main factions : some nobles wanted uncompromising war against the Byzantines , while others searched for a peaceful settlement of the conflict . That instability was used by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine V ( 745–775 ) , who launched nine major campaigns aiming to eliminate Bulgaria . In 763 he defeated the Bulgarian Khan Telets at Anchialus , but the Byzantines were unable to advance further North . In 775 Khan Telerig tricked Constantine into revealing those loyal to him in the Bulgarian Court , then executed all the Byzantine spies in the capital Pliska . Under his successor Khan Kardam , the war took a favourable turn after the great victory in the battle of Marcelae in 792 . The Byzantines were thoroughly defeated and forced once again to pay tribute to the Khans . As a result of the victory , the crisis was finally overcome , and Bulgaria entered the new century stable , stronger , and consolidated . Territorial expansion Under the great Khan Krum ( 803–814 ) , also known as Crummus and Keanus Magnus , Bulgaria expanded southward and to the northwest , occupying the lands between the middle Danube and Moldova , the whole territory of present-day Romania , Sofia in 809 and Adrianople ( modern Edirne ) in 813 , threatening Constantinople itself . Between 804 and 806 the Bulgarian armies thoroughly eliminated the Avar Khanate and a border with the Frankish Empire was established along the middle Danube . In 811 a large Byzantine army was decisively defeated in the battle of the Varbitsa Pass . The Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus I was slain along with most of his troops , and his skull was used as a drinking cup . Krum immediately took the initiative and moved the war towards Thrace , defeating the Byzantines once more at Versinikia in 813 . After a treacherous Byzantine attempt to kill the Khan during negotiations , Krum pillaged the whole of Thrace , seized Odrin , and resettled its 10,000 inhabitants in `` Bulgaria across the Danube '' . He made enhanced preparation to capture Constantinople : 5,000 iron-plated wagons were built to carry the siege equipment ; the Byzantines even pleaded for help from the Frankish Emperor Louis the Pious . Due to the sudden death of the great Khan , however , the campaign was never launched . Khan Krum implemented legal reform , establishing equal rules and punishment for all peoples living within the country 's boundaries , intending to reduce poverty and to strengthen the social ties in his vastly enlarged state . Khan Omurtag ( 814–831 ) concluded a 30-year peace treaty with the Byzantines , thus allowing both countries to restore their economies and finance after the bloody conflicts in the first decade of the century . The northwestern boundaries with the Frankish Empire were firmly settled along the middle Danube by 827 . Extensive building was undertaken in the capital Pliska , including the construction of a magnificent palace , pagan temples , ruler 's residence , fortress , citadel , water-main , and bath , mainly from stone and brick . During the short reign of Khan Malamir ( 831–836 ) , the important city of Plovdiv was incorporated into the country . Under Khan Presian ( 836–852 ) , the Bulgarians took most of Macedonia , and the borders of the country reached the Adriatic and Aegean Seas . Byzantine historians do not mention any resistance against the Bulgarian expansion in Macedonia , leading to the conclusion that the expansion was largely peaceful . Between 839 and 842 the Bulgarians waged war on the Serbs but did not make any progress . Bulgaria under Boris I The reign of Boris I ( 852–889 ) began with numerous setbacks . For ten years the country fought against the Byzantine and Eastern Frankish Empires , Great Moravia , the Croats and the Serbs forming several unsuccessful alliances and changing sides . In August 863 there was a period of 40 days of earthquakes and there was a lean year , which caused famine throughout the country . To cap it all , there was an incursion of locusts . Christianization In 864 the Byzantines under Michael III invaded Bulgaria on suspicions that Khan Boris I prepared to accept Christianity in accordance with the Western rites . Upon the news of the invasion , Boris I started negotiations for peace . The Byzantines returned some lands in Macedonia and their single demand was that he accept Christianity from Constantinople rather than Rome . Khan Boris I agreed to that term and was baptised in September 865 assuming the name of his godfather , Byzantine Emperor Michael , and became Boris-Mihail . The pagan title `` Khan '' was abolished and the title `` Knyaz '' assumed in its place . The reason for the conversion to Christianity , however , was not the Byzantine invasion . The Bulgarian ruler was indeed a man of vision and he foresaw that the introduction of a single religion would complete the consolidation of the emerging Bulgarian nation , which was still divided on a religious basis . He also knew that his state was not fully respected by Christian Europe and its treaties could have been ignored by other signatories on religious basis . Тhe Byzantines ' goal was to achieve with peace what they were unable to after two centuries of warfare : to slowly absorb Bulgaria through the Christian religion and turn it into a satellite state , as naturally , the highest posts in the newly founded Bulgarian Church were to be held by Byzantines who preached in the Greek language . Knyaz Boris I was well aware of that fact and after Constantinople refused to grant autonomy of the Bulgarian Church in 866 , he sent a delegation to Rome declaring his desire to accept Christianity in accordance with the Western rites along with 115 questions to Pope Nicolas I . The Bulgarian ruler desired to take advantage of the rivalry between the Churches of Rome and Constantinople as his main goal was the establishment of an independent Bulgarian Church in order to prevent both the Byzantines and the Catholics from exerting influence in his lands through religion . The Pope 's detailed answers to Boris ' questions were delivered by two bishops heading a mission whose purpose was to facilitate the conversion of the Bulgarian people . However , Nicolas I and his successor Pope Adrian II also refused to recognize an autonomous Bulgarian Church , which cooled the relations between the two sides , but Bulgaria 's shift towards Rome made the Byzantines much more conciliatory . In 870 , at the Fourth Council of Constantinople , the Bulgarian Church was recognized as an Autonomous Eastern Orthodox Church under the supreme direction of the Patriarch of Constantinople . It was the first Church officially accepted , apart from the ancient Pentarchy . Eventually , in 893 , the Old Bulgarian language became the third official language , recognized by the Churches and used during services and in Christian literature . After the adoption of Christianity the country preserved many institutions from the pagan state of the Bulgars . Creation of the Slavic Writing System Although the Bulgarian Knyaz succeeded in securing an autonomous Church , its higher clergy and theological books were still Greek , which impeded the efforts to convert the populace to the new religion . Between 860 and 863 the Byzantine monks of Greek origin Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius created the Glagolitic alphabet , the first Slavic alphabet by order of the Byzantine Emperor , who aimed to convert Great Moravia to Orthodox Christianity . However , these attempts failed and in 886 their disciples Clement of Ohrid , Naum of Preslav and Angelarius , who were banished from Great Moravia , reached Bulgaria and were warmly welcomed by Boris I . The Bulgarian Knyaz commissioned the creation of two theological academies to be headed by the disciples where the future Bulgarian clergy was to be instructed in the local vernacular . Clement was sent to Ohrid in Macedonia , a southwestern province of the Bulgarian kingdom , where he taught 3,500 pupils between 886 and 893 . Naum established the literary school in the capital Pliska , moved later to the new capital Preslav . During the Council of Preslav in 893 , Bulgaria adopted the Glagolitic alphabet and Old Church Slavonic ( Old Bulgarian ) language as official language of the church and state , and expelled the Byzantine clergy . In the 890s the Cyrillic script was created at the Preslav Literary School by the order of Simeon the Great.Paul Cubberley ( 1996 ) `` The Slavic Alphabets '' . In Daniels and Bright , eds . The World 's Writing Systems . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0-19-507993-0 . The Golden Age By the late 9th and the beginning of the 10th century , Bulgaria extended to Epirus and Thessaly in the South , Bosnia in the West and controlled the whole of present-day Romania and Eastern Hungary to the North . The Serbian state came into existence in the mid-9th century as a response to the Bulgarian expansion West of the Morava . Switching loyalties between Bulgaria and the Byzantines , the Serb rulers successfully resisted several Bulgarian invasions until 924 AD , when they were fully subordinated under the general and possibly Count of Sofia Marmais . Under Tsar Simeon I ( Simeon the Great ) , who was educated in Constantinople , Bulgaria became again a serious threat to the Byzantine Empire and reached its greatest territorial extension . Simeon I hoped to take Constantinople and fought a series of wars with the Byzantines throughout his long reign ( 893–927 ) . The border close to the end of his rule reached the Northern limits of Attica in the South . Simeon I styled himself `` Emperor ( Tsar ) of the Bulgarians and Autocrat of the Greeks '' , a title which was recognized by the Pope , but not by the Byzantine Emperor nor the Ecumenical Patriarch of the Eastern Orthodox Church . He was recognized `` Emperor ( Tsar ) of the Bulgarians '' by the Byzantine Emperor and the Patriarch only at the end of his rule . Between 894 and 896 he defeated the Byzantines and their allies the Magyars in the `` Trade War '' , so-called because the pretext of the war was the shifting of the Bulgarian market from Constantinople to Thessaloniki ( Solun ) .Delev , Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri car Simeon . In the decisive battle of Bulgarophygon , the Byzantine army was routed , and the war ended favourably for Bulgaria , though the peace was often violated by Simeon I . In 904 he captured Solun , which was previously looted by the Arabs , and returned it to the Byzantines only after Bulgaria received all Slavic-populated areas in Macedonia and 20 fortresses in Albania , including the important town Drach . After the unrest in the Byzantine Empire following the death of Emperor Alexander in 913 , Simeon I invaded Byzantine Thrace , but he was persuaded to stop in return for official recognition of his Imperial title and marriage of his daughter to the infant Emperor Constantine VII . Simeon I was supposed to become regent of the Emperor and to temporarily rule the Byzantine Empire . However , after a plot in the Byzantine court , Empress Zoe , mother of Constantine VII , rejected the marriage and Simeon 's title , and both sides prepared for a decisive battle . By 917 Simeon I broke every attempt of the Empire to form an alliance with the Magyars , the Pechenegs , and the Serbs , and the Byzantines were forced to fight alone . On 20 August the two armies clashed at Anchialus in one of the greatest battles in the Middle Ages . The Byzantines suffered an unprecedented defeat , leaving 70,000 killed on the battlefield ; the pursuing Bulgarian forces defeated the remainder of the enemy armies at Katasyrtai . Constantinople was saved by a Serb attack from the West ; the Serbs were thoroughly defeated , but their attack allowed the Byzantine admiral and later Emperor Romanos Lakepanos to prepare the defense of the city . In the following decade the Bulgarians gained control of the whole Balkan peninsula with the exception of Constantinople and Peloponnese . In a Croatian–Bulgarian battle of 926 , often called the Battle of the Bosnian Highlands , Duke Alogobotur attacked Croatia . The Croatian forces under the leadership of their King Tomislav completely devastated the Bulgarian army and stopped Simeon 's expansion westwards.Bakalov , Istorija na Bǎlgarija , `` Simeon I Veliki '' Decline After Simeon 's death in 927 , Bulgarian power slowly declined . In a peace treaty the same year , the Byzantines officially recognized the Imperial title of his son Peter I and the Bulgarian Patriarchate . Peace with Byzantium , however , did not bring prosperity to Bulgaria . From the beginning of his rule , Peter faced internal problems and unrest with his brothers , and in the 930s he was forced to recognize the independence of Rascia . The biggest blow came from the North : between 934 and 965 the country suffered five Magyar invasions . In 944 Bulgaria was attacked by the Pechenegs , who looted the northeastern regions of the Empire . Under Peter I and Boris II the country was divided by the egalitarian religious heresy of the Bogomils . In 968 the country was attacked by the Kievan Rus , whose leader Svyatoslav I took Preslav and established his capital at Preslavets . Three years later , Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimiskes intervened in the struggle and defeated Svyatoslav at Dorostolon . Boris II was captured and ritually divested of his imperial title in Constantinople , and eastern Bulgaria was proclaimed a Byzantine protectorate . Fall After the Byzantine takeover , the lands to the west of the Iskar River remained in Bulgarian hands , and resistance against the Byzantines was headed by the Comitopuli brothers . By 976 , the fourth brother , Samuil , concentrated all power in his hands after the deaths of his eldest brother . When the rightful heir to the throne , Roman , escaped from captivity in Constantinople , he was recognized as Emperor by Samuil in Vidin , and the latter remained the chief commander of the Bulgarian army . A brilliant general and good politician , he managed to turn the fortunes to the Bulgarians . The new Byzantine Emperor Basil II was decisively defeated in the battle of the Gates of Trajan in 986 and barely escaped . Five years later he eliminated the Serbian state of Rascia . In 997 , following the death of Roman , the last heir of the Krum dynasty , Samuil was proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria . After 1001 , however , the war turned in favor of the Byzantines , who captured the old capitals of Pliska and Preslav , and beginning in 1004 launched annual campaigns against Bulgaria . The Byzantines further benefited from a war between Bulgaria and the newly established Kingdom of Hungary in 1003 . The Byzantine victories at Spercheios and Skopje decisively weakened the Bulgarian army , and in annual campaigns , Basil methodically reduced the Bulgarian strongholds . Eventually , at the Battle of Kleidion in 1014 , the Bulgarians were completely defeated . The Bulgarian army was captured ; it is said that 99 out of every 100 men were blinded , with the remaining hundredth man left with one eye so as to lead his compatriots home ( earning Basil the moniker `` Bulgaroktonos '' , the Bulgar Killer ) . When Tsar Samuil saw the broken remains of his army , he suffered a heart attack and died . In 1018 , after the unexpected death of Tsar Ivan Vladislav , the Romans offered autonomy to the Bulgarian elite . A grand meeting between the Boyars and Basil happened in Odrin , after which Theme Bulgaria was established with Bulgarian archbishop on top , the Boyars kept their internal independence and in return acknowledged Basil as a ruler . Culture The cultural heritage of the First Bulgarian Empire is usually defined in Bulgarian historiography as the Pliska-Preslav culture , named after the first two capitals , Pliska and Preslav , where most of the surviving monuments are concentrated . Many monuments of that period have been found around Madara , Shumen , Novi Pazar , the village of Han Krum in north-eastern Bulgaria , as well in the territory of modern Romania , where Romanian archaeologists called it the `` Dridu culture '' Remains left by the First Empire have also been discovered in southern Bessarabia , now divided between Ukraine and Moldova . Architecture The most important feature of the early Bulgarian architecture was monumental construction known to the Romans but not used in the contemporary Byzantine Empire . There were two main types of construction employed in the building of Pliska . For the first one the construction materials were timber and bricks . The second type was construction of defensive walls using large carved limestone blocks put together with plaster . The same method was used in the construction of the fortress of Preslav , the military camp at Han Krum , the hunting palace in Madara , and in the fortress on the island of Păcuiul lui Soare . Fortresses were mainly situated in the plains , unlike those constructed during the Second Bulgarian Empire . After the adoption of Christianity in 864 , intensive construction of churches and monasteries began throughout the Empire , including the Great Basilica of Pliska , which was one of the biggest structures of the time with its length of 99 m , and the splendid Golden Church in Preslav . Most of the churches built during that period had three naves . The Bulgarian capital was also famous for the ceramics that adorned its public and religious buildings . Beautiful icons and church altars were made of special ceramic tiles . There were numerous goldsmith and silversmith workshops producing fine jewellery . Ceramics One of the most famous features of the Pliska-Preslav culture was the decoration of palaces and churches with lacquered ceramic plates , which may indicate a Near Eastern ( Arabic ) influence . The ceramic plates were painted mostly with geometric or vegetative elements , while a few feature depictions of saints . Among the most notable of those is the well-preserved , 20-tile Icon of St Theodore , found in the ruins of the Saint Panteleimon Monastery in the outskirts of Preslav . The tiles were either flat or tubular and were arranged to form friezes of repeating motifs . Due to the destruction of Pliska and Preslav , only fragments and details of the ceramic decoration have survived . Most finds of tiles , as well as archaeological evidence of the workshops producing them , come from Preslav and the surrounding region ( chiefly the village of Patleina ) . The main sources for Bulgarian domestic use-oriented pottery are the necropoleis at Novi Pazar , Devnya , and Varna . The vessels were made with a potter 's wheel , unlike Slavic practice . Two-story ovens were used for the annealing of the pottery . The shape and decoration of the early Bulgarian pottery was similar to that found in northern Caucasus , the Crimea , and the shores of the Sea of Azov . Literature Bulgarian literature is the oldest Slavic literature . Missionaries from Thessalonica , Cyril and Methodius , devised the Glagolitic alphabet , which was adopted in the Bulgarian Empire around 886 . The alphabet

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What is the principal language of Bulgaria?

Malaysia ( or ; ) is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia . It consists of thirteen states and three federal territories and has a total landmass of 330803 km2 separated by the South China Sea into two similarly sized regions , Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia ( Malaysian Borneo ) . Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore , Vietnam , and Indonesia . East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam . The capital city is Kuala Lumpur , while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government . With a population of over 30 million , Malaysia is the 44th most populous country . The southernmost point of continental Eurasia , Tanjung Piai , is in Malaysia . Located in the tropics , Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth , with large numbers of endemic species . Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which , from the 18th century , became subject to the British Empire . The first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements , whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates . The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946 . Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948 , and achieved independence on 31 August 1957 . Malaya united with North Borneo , Sarawak , and Singapore on 16 September 1963 . Less than two years later in 1965 , Singapore was expelled from the federation . The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural , which plays a large role in politics . About half the population is ethnically Malay , with large minorities of Malaysian Chinese , Malaysian Indians , and indigenous peoples . The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims . The government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law . The head of state is the king , known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong . He is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years . The head of government is the prime minister . Since its independence , Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia , with its GDP growing at an average of 6.5 % per annum for almost 50 years . The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its natural resources , but is expanding in the sectors of science , tourism , commerce and medical tourism . Today , Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy , ranked third largest in Southeast Asia and 29th largest in the world . It is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations , the East Asia Summit and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , and a member of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , the Commonwealth of Nations , and the Non-Aligned Movement . Etymology The name `` Malaysia '' is a combination of the word `` Malay '' and the Latin-Greek suffix `` -sia '' /-σία . The word `` melayu '' in Malay may derive from the Tamil words `` malai '' and `` ur '' meaning `` mountain '' and `` city , land '' , respectively . `` Malayadvipa '' was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula . Whether or not it originated from these roots , the word `` melayu '' or `` mlayu '' may have been used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run . This term was applied to describe the strong current of the river Melayu in Sumatra . The name was later adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra . Before the onset of European colonisation , the Malay Peninsula was known natively as `` Tanah Melayu '' ( `` Malay Land '' ) . Under a racial classification created by a German scholar Johann Friedrich Blumenbach , the natives of maritime Southeast Asia were grouped into a single category , the Malay race . Following the expedition of French navigator Jules Dumont d'Urville to Oceania in 1826 , he later proposed the terms of `` Malaysia '' , `` Micronesia '' and `` Melanesia '' to the Société de Géographie in 1831 , distinguishing these Pacific cultures and island groups from the existing term `` Polynesia '' . Dumont d'Urville described Malaysia as `` an area commonly known as the East Indies '' . In 1850 , the English ethnologist George Samuel Windsor Earl , writing in the Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia , proposed naming the islands of Southeast Asia as `` Melayunesia '' or `` Indunesia '' , favouring the former . In modern terminology , `` Malay '' remains the name of an ethnoreligious group of Austronesian people predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula and portions of the adjacent islands of Southeast Asia , including the east coast of Sumatra , the coast of Borneo , and smaller islands that lie between these areas . The state that gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1957 took the name the `` Federation of Malaya '' , chosen in preference to other potential names such as `` Langkasuka '' , after the historic kingdom located at the upper section of the Malay Peninsula in the first millennium CE . The name `` Malaysia '' was adopted in 1963 when the existing states of the Federation of Malaya , plus Singapore , North Borneo and Sarawak formed a new federation . One theory posits the name was chosen so that `` si '' represented the inclusion of Singapore , North Borneo , and Sarawak to Malaya in 1963 . Politicians in the Philippines contemplated renaming their state `` Malaysia '' before the modern country took the name . History Evidence of modern human habitation in Malaysia dates back 40,000 years . In the Malay Peninsular , the first inhabitants are thought to be Negritos . Traders and settlers from India and China arrived as early as the first century AD , establishing trading ports and coastal towns in the second and third centuries . Their presence resulted in strong Indian and Chinese influences on the local cultures , and the people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the religions of Hinduism and Buddhism . Sanskrit inscriptions appear as early as the fourth or fifth century . The Kingdom of Langkasuka arose around the second century in the northern area of the Malay Peninsula , lasting until about the 15th century . Between the 7th and 13th centuries , much of the southern Malay Peninsula was part of the maritime Srivijaya Empire . After the fall of Srivijaya , the Majapahit Empire had influence over most of Peninsular Malaysia and the Malay Archipelago . Islam began to spread among Malays in the 14th century . In the early 15th century , Sultan Iskandar Shah , a runaway king of the former Kingdom of Singapura , founded the Malacca Sultanate , commonly considered the first independent state in the peninsula area . Malacca was an important commercial centre during this time , attracting trade from around the region . In 1511 , Malacca was conquered by Portugal , after which it was taken by the Dutch in 1641 . In 1786 , the British Empire established a presence in Malaya , when the Sultan of Kedah leased Penang Island to the British East India Company . The British obtained the town of Singapore in 1819 , and in 1824 took control of Malacca following the Anglo-Dutch Treaty . By 1826 , the British directly controlled Penang , Malacca , Singapore , and the island of Labuan , which they established as the crown colony of the Straits Settlements . By the 20th century , the states of Pahang , Selangor , Perak , and Negeri Sembilan , known together as the Federated Malay States , had British residents appointed to advise the Malay rulers , to whom the rulers were bound to defer to by treaty . The remaining five states in the peninsula , known as the Unfederated Malay States , while not directly under British rule , also accepted British advisers around the turn of the 20th century . Development on the peninsula and Borneo were generally separate until the 19th century . Under British rule the immigration of Chinese and Indians to serve as labourers was encouraged . The area that is now Sabah came under British control as North Borneo when both the Sultan of Brunei and the Sultan of Sulu transferred their respective territorial rights of ownership , between 1877 and 1878 . In 1842 , Sarawak was ceded by the Sultan of Brunei to James Brooke , whose successors ruled as the White Rajahs over an independent kingdom until 1946 , when it became a crown colony . In the Second World War , the Japanese Army invaded and occupied Malaya , North Borneo , Sarawak , and Singapore for over three years . During this time , ethnic tensions were raised and nationalism grew . Popular support for independence increased after Malaya was reconquered , by Allied forces . Post-war British plans to unite the administration of Malaya under a single crown colony called the `` Malayan Union '' met with strong opposition from the Malays , who opposed the weakening of the Malay rulers and the granting of citizenship to the ethnic Chinese . The Malayan Union , established in 1946 , and consisting of all the British possessions in the Malay Peninsula with the exception of Singapore , was quickly dissolved and replaced on 1 February 1948 by the Federation of Malaya , which restored the autonomy of the rulers of the Malay states under British protection . During this time , mostly Chinese rebels under the leadership of the Malayan Communist Party launched guerrilla operations designed to force the British out of Malaya . The Malayan Emergency lasted from 1948 to 1960 , and involved a long anti-insurgency campaign by Commonwealth troops in Malaya . On 31 August 1957 Malaya became an independent member of the Commonwealth of Nations . After this a plan was put in place to federate Malaya with the crown colonies of North Borneo ( which joined as Sabah ) , Sarawak , and Singapore . The date of federation was planned to be 31 August 1963 so as to coincide with the anniversary of Malayan independence ; however , federation was delayed until 16 September 1963 in order for a United Nations survey of support for federation in Sabah and Sarawak , called for by parties opposed to federation including Indonesia 's Sukarno and the Sarawak United Peoples ' Party , to be completed . Federation brought heightened tensions including a conflict with Indonesia , Singapore 's eventual exit in 1965 , and racial strife . This strife culminated in the 13 May race riots in 1969 . After the riots , the controversial New Economic Policy was launched by Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak , trying to increase the share of the economy held by the bumiputera . Under Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad there was a period of rapid economic growth and urbanisation beginning in the 1980s . The economy shifted from being agriculturally based to one based on manufacturing and industry . Numerous mega-projects were completed , such as the Petronas Towers , the North-South Expressway , the Multimedia Super Corridor , and the new federal administrative capital of Putrajaya . However , in the late 1990s the Asian financial crisis almost caused the collapse of the currency and the stock and property markets . Government and politics Malaysia is a federal constitutional elective monarchy , and the only federation in Southeast Asia . The system of government is closely modelled on that of the Westminster parliamentary system , a legacy of British colonial rule . The head of state is the Yang di-Pertuan Agong , commonly referred to as the King . The King is elected to a five-year term by and from among the nine hereditary rulers of the Malay states ; the other four states , which have titular Governors , do not participate in the selection . By informal agreement the position is systematically rotated among the nine , and has been held by Abdul Halim of Kedah since December 2011 . The King 's role has been largely ceremonial since changes to the constitution in 1994 , picking ministers and members of the upper house . Legislative power is divided between federal and state legislatures . The bicameral federal parliament consists of the lower house , the House of Representatives and the upper house , the Senate . The 222-member House of Representatives is elected for a maximum term of five years from single-member constituencies . All 70 senators sit for three-year terms ; 26 are elected by the 13 state assemblies , and the remaining 44 are appointed by the King upon the Prime Minister 's recommendation . The parliament follows a multi-party system and the government is elected through a first-past-the-post system . Since independence Malaysia has been governed by a 13-party coalition known as the Barisan Nasional . Each state has a unicameral State Legislative Assembly whose members are elected from single-member constituencies . State governments are led by Chief Ministers , who are state assembly members from the majority party in the assembly . In each of the states with a hereditary ruler , the Chief Minister is normally required to be a Malay , appointed by the ruler upon the recommendation of the Prime Minister . Parliamentary elections are held at least once every five years , the most recent of which took place in May 2013 . Registered voters of age 21 and above may vote for the members of the House of Representatives and , in most of the states , for the state legislative chamber . Voting is not mandatory . Except for state elections in Sarawak , by convention state elections are held concurrently with the federal election . Executive power is vested in the Cabinet , led by the Prime Minister . The prime minister must be a member of the house of representatives , who in the opinion of the King , commands a majority in parliament . The cabinet is chosen from members of both houses of Parliament . The Prime Minister is both the head of cabinet and the head of government . The incumbent , Najib Razak , appointed in 2009 , is the sixth prime minister . Malaysia 's legal system is based on English Common Law . Although the judiciary is theoretically independent , its independence has been called into question and the appointment of judges lacks accountability and transparency . The highest court in the judicial system is the Federal Court , followed by the Court of Appeal and two high courts , one for Peninsular Malaysia and one for East Malaysia . Malaysia also has a special court to hear cases brought by or against royalty . The death penalty is in use for crimes such as murder , terrorism and drug trafficking . Separate from and running parallel to the civil courts are the Syariah Courts , which apply Shariah law to Muslims in the areas of family law and religious observances . Race is a significant force in politics , and many political parties are ethnically based . Affirmative actions such as the New Economic Policy and the National Development Policy which superseded it , were implemented to advance the standing of the bumiputera , consisting of Malays and the indigenous tribes who are considered the original inhabitants of Malaysia , over non-bumiputera such as Malaysian Chinese and Malaysian Indians . These policies provide preferential treatment to bumiputera in employment , education , scholarships , business , and access to cheaper housing and assisted savings . However , it has generated greater interethnic resentment . There is ongoing debate over whether the laws and society of Malaysia should reflect secular or Islamic principles . Islamic criminal laws passed by the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party with the support of UMNO state assemblymen in the state legislative assembly of Kelantan have been blocked by the federal government on the basis that criminal laws are the responsibility of the federal government . Foreign relations and military A founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation ( OIC ) , the country participates in many international organisations such as the United Nations , the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , the Developing 8 Countries , and the Non-Aligned Movement ( NAM ) . It has chaired ASEAN , the OIC , and the NAM in the past . A former British colony , it is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations . Kuala Lumpur was the site of the first East Asia Summit in 2005 . Malaysia 's foreign policy is officially based on the principle of neutrality and maintaining peaceful relations with all countries , regardless of their political system . The government attaches a high priority to the security and stability of Southeast Asia , and seeks to further develop relations with other countries in the region . Historically the government has tried to portray Malaysia as a progressive Islamic nation while strengthening relations with other Islamic states . A strong tenet of Malaysia 's policy is national sovereignty and the right of a country to control its domestic affairs . The policy towards territorial disputes by the government is one of pragmatism , with the government solving disputes in a number of ways , such as bringing the case to the International Court of Justice . The Spratly Islands are disputed by many states in the area , and a large portion of the South China Sea is claimed by China . Unlike its neighbours of Vietnam and the Philippines , Malaysia historically avoided conflicts with China . However , after the enroachment of Chinese ships in Malaysian territorial waters , Malaysia has become active in condemning China . Brunei and Malaysia in 2009 announced an end to claims of each other 's land , and committed to resolve issues related to their maritime borders . The Philippines has a dormant claim to the eastern part of Sabah . Singapore 's land reclamation has caused tensions , and minor maritime and land border disputes exist with Indonesia . Malaysia has never recognised Israel and has no diplomatic ties with it , and has called for the International Criminal Court to take action against Israel over their Gaza flotilla raid . Malaysia has stated it will only establish an official relations with Israel once a peace agreement with the State of Palestine been reached and called for both parties to find a quick resolution . Malaysian peacekeeping forces have contributed to many UN peacekeeping missions , such as in Congo , Iran–Iraq , Namibia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Somalia , East Timor and Lebanon . The Malaysian Armed Forces have three branches , the Royal Malaysian Navy , the Malaysian Army , and the Royal Malaysian Air Force . There is no conscription , and the required age for voluntary military service is 18 . The military uses 1.5 % of the country 's GDP , and employs 1.23 % of Malaysia 's manpower . The Five Power Defence Arrangements is a regional security initiative which has been in place for almost 40 years . It involves joint military exercises held among Malaysia , Singapore , Australia , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom . Joint exercises and war games also been held with Brunei , China , Indonesia and the United States . Malaysia , Philippines , Thailand and Vietnam have agreed to host joint security force exercises to secure their maritime border and tackle issues such as illegal immigration , piracy and smuggling . There are fears that extremist militants activities in the Muslim areas of the southern Philippines and southern Thailand would spill over into Malaysia . Subdivisions Malaysia is a federation of 13 states and three federal territories . These are divided between two regions , with 11 states and two federal territories on Peninsular Malaysia and the other two states and one federal territory in East Malaysia . Each state is divided into districts , which are then divided into mukim . In Sabah and Sarawak districts are grouped into divisions . Governance of the states is divided between the federal and the state governments , with different powers reserved for each , and the Federal government has direct administration of the federal territories . Lower-level administration is carried out by local authorities , which include city councils , district councils , and municipal councils , although autonomous statutory bodies can be created by the federal and state governments to deal with certain tasks . The federal constitution puts local authorities outside of the federal territories under the exclusive jurisdictions of the state government , although in practice the federal government has intervened in the affairs of state local governments . There are 144 local authorities , consisting of 11 city councils , 33 municipal councils , and 97 district councils . The 13 states are based on historical Malay kingdoms , and 9 of the 11 Peninsular states , known as the Malay states , retain their royal families . The King is elected by and from the nine rulers to serve a five-year term . This King appoints governors serving a four-year term for the states without monarchies , after consultations with the chief minister of that state . Each state has a unicameral legislature known as the State Legislative Assembly , and its own written constitution . Sabah and Sarawak have considerably more autonomy than the other states , most notably having separate immigration policies and controls , and a unique residency status . Federal intervention in state affairs , lack of development , and disputes over oil royalties have occasionally led to statements about secession from leaders in several states such as Johor , Kelantan , Sabah and Sarawak , although these have not been followed up and no serious independence movements exist . Geography Malaysia is the 66th largest country by total land area , with a land area of 329613 km2 . It has land borders with Thailand in West Malaysia , and Indonesia and Brunei in East Malaysia . It is linked to Singapore by a narrow causeway and a bridge . The country also has maritime boundaries with Vietnam and the Philippines . The land borders are defined in large part by geological features such as the Perlis River , the Golok River and the Pagalayan Canal , whilst some of the maritime boundaries are the subject of ongoing contention . Brunei forms what is almost an enclave in Malaysia , with the state of Sarawak dividing it into two parts . Malaysia is the only country with territory on both the Asian mainland and the Malay archipelago . Tanjung Piai , located in the southern state of Johor , is the southernmost tip of continental Asia . The Strait of Malacca , lying between Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia , is one of the most important thoroughfares in global commerce , carrying 40 per cent of the world 's trade . The two parts of Malaysia , separated from each other by the South China Sea , share a largely similar landscape in that both Peninsular and East Malaysia feature coastal plains rising to hills and mountains . Peninsular Malaysia , containing 40 per cent of Malaysia 's land area , extends 740 km from north to south , and its maximum width is 322 km . It is divided between its east and west coasts by the Titiwangsa Mountains , rising to a peak elevation of at Mount Korbu , part of a series of mountain ranges running down the centre of the peninsula . These mountains are heavily forested , and mainly composed of granite and other igneous rocks . Much of it has been eroded , creating a karst landscape . The range is the origin of some of Peninsular Malaysia 's river systems . The coastal plains surrounding the peninsula reach a maximum width of 50 km , and the peninsula 's coastline is nearly 1931 km long , although harbours are only available on the western side . East Malaysia , on the island of Borneo , has a coastline of 2607 km . It is divided between coastal regions , hills and valleys , and a mountainous interior . The Crocker Range extends northwards from Sarawak , dividing the state of Sabah . It is the location of the 4095 m high Mount Kinabalu , the tallest mountain in Malaysia . Mount Kinabalu is located in the Kinabalu National Park , which is protected as one of the four UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Malaysia . The highest mountain ranges form the border between Malaysia and Indonesia . Sarawak contains the Mulu Caves , the largest cave system in the world , in the Gunung Mulu National Park which is also a World Heritage Site . Around these two halves of Malaysia are numerous islands , the largest of which is Banggi . The local climate is equatorial and characterised by the annual southwest ( April to October ) and northeast ( October to February ) monsoons . The temperature is moderated by the presence of the surrounding oceans . Humidity is usually high , and the average annual rainfall is 250 cm . The climates of the Peninsula and the East differ , as the climate on the peninsula is directly affected by wind from the mainland , as opposed to the more maritime weather of the East . Local climates can be divided into three regions , highland , lowland , and coastal . Climate change is likely to affect sea levels and rainfall , increasing flood risks and leading to droughts . Biodiversity Malaysia signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 12 June 1993 , and became a party to the convention on 24 June 1994 . It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan , which was received by the convention on 16 April 1998 . The country is megadiverse with a high number of species and high levels of endemism . It is estimated to contain 20 per cent of the world 's animal species . High levels of endemism are found on the diverse forests of Borneo 's mountains , as species are isolated from each other by lowland forest . There are about 210 mammal species in the country . Over 620 species of birds have been recorded in Peninsular Malaysia , with many endemic to the mountains there . A high number of endemic bird species are also found in Malaysian Borneo . 250 reptile species have been recorded in the country , with about 150 species of snakes and 80 species of lizards . There are about 150 species of frogs , and thousands of insect species . Malaysia 's exclusive economic zone is 1.5 times larger than its land area , and some of its waters are in the Coral Triangle , a biodiversity hotspot . The waters around Sipadan island are the most biodiverse in the world . Bordering East Malaysia , the Sulu Sea is a biodiversity hotspot , with around 600 coral species and 1200 fish species . The unique biodiversity of Malaysian Caves always attracts lovers of ecotourism from all over the world . Nearly 4,000 species of fungi , including lichen-forming species have been recorded from Malaysia . Of the two fungal groups with the largest number of species in Malaysia , the Ascomycota and their asexual states have been surveyed in some habitats ( decaying wood , marine and freshwater ecosystems , as parasites of some plants , and as agents of biodegradation ) , but have not been or have been only poorly surveyed in other habitats ( as endobionts , in soils , on dung , as human and animal pathogens ) ; the Basidiomycota are only partly surveyed : bracket fungi , and mushrooms and toadstools have been studied , but Malaysian rust and smut fungi remain very poorly known . Without doubt , many more fungal species in Malaysia have not yet been recorded , and it is likely that many of those , when found , will be new to science . About two thirds of Malaysia is covered in forest , with some forests believed to be 130 million years old . The forests are dominated by dipterocarps . Lowland forest covers areas below 760 m , and formerly East Malaysia was covered in such rainforest , which is supported by its hot wet climate . There are around 14,500 species of flowering plants and trees . Besides rainforests , there are over 1425 km2 of mangroves in Malaysia , and a large

sfq_17004--Malaysia.txt

What separates East and West Malaysia?

Mud is a mixture of water and any combination of soil , silt , and clay , and it usually forms after rainfall or near water sources . Ancient mud deposits harden over geological time to form sedimentary rock such as shale or mudstone ( generally called lutites ) . When geological deposits of mud are formed in estuaries the resultant layers are termed bay muds . Building and construction Adhesive In the construction industry , mud is a semi-fluid material that can be used to coat , seal , or adhere materials . Depending on the composition of the mud , it can be referred by many different names , including slurry , mortar , plaster , stucco , and concrete . Material Mud , cob , adobe , clay , and many other names are historically used synonymously to mean a mixture of subsoil and water possibly with the addition of stones , gravel , straw , lime , and/or bitumen . This material was used a variety of ways to build walls , roofs and floors . Mudbrick Mud can be made into mud bricks , also called adobe , by mixing mud with water , placing the mixture into moulds and then allowing it to dry in open air . Straw is sometimes used as a binder within the bricks , as it adds a support lattice . When the brick would otherwise break , the straw will redistribute the force throughout the brick , decreasing the chance of breakage . Such buildings must be protected from groundwater , usually by building upon a masonry , fired brick , rock or rubble foundation , and also from wind-driven rain in damp climates , usually by deep roof overhangs . In extremely dry climates a well drained flat roof may be protected with a well-prepared ( puddled ) and properly maintained dried mud coating , viable as the mud will expand when moistened and so become more water resistant . Adobe mudbricks were commonly used by the Pueblo Indians to build their homes and other necessary structures . Fired brick Mud that is mostly clay , or a mixture of clay and sand may be used for ceramics , of which one form is the common fired brick . Fired brick are more durable but consume much more energy to produce . Stabilized mud Stabilized mud ( earth , soil ) is mud which has had a binder such as cement or bitumen added . Examples are mudcrete , landcrete , and soil cement . Art and Pottery Pottery is made by forming a clay body into objects of a required shape and heating them to high temperatures in a kiln which removes all the water from the clay , which induces reactions that lead to permanent changes including increasing their strength and hardening and setting their shape . A clay body can be decorated before or after firing . Prior to some shaping processes , clay must be prepared . Kneading helps to ensure an even moisture content throughout the body . Air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed . This is called de-airing and can be accomplished by a machine called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging . Wedging can also help produce an even moisture content . Once a clay body has been kneaded and de-aired or wedged , it is shaped by a variety of techniques . After shaping it is dried and then fired . In ceramics , the making of liquid mud ( called Slip ) is a stage in the process of refinement of the materials , since larger particles will settle from the liquid . Habitat Land Mud can provide a home for numerous types of animals , including varieties of worms , frogs , snails , clams , and crayfish . Other animals , such as hippopotamuses , pigs , rhinoceroses , water buffalo and elephants , bathe in mud in order to cool off and protect themselves from the sun . Marine Life Mud plays an important role in the marine ecosystem . The activities of burrowing animals and fish have a dramatic churning effect on muddy seabeds . This allows the exchange and cycling of oxygen , nutrients , and minerals between water and sediment . Below the surface , the burrows of some species form intricate lattice-like networks and may penetrate a meter or more downwards . This means that the burrowed mud is a productive habitat , providing food and shelter for a wide range of mud-dwellers and other animals that forage in and over the mud . Problems Mud can pose problems for motor traffic when moisture is present , because every vehicle function that changes direction or speed relies on friction between the tires and the road surface , so a layer of mud on the surface of the road or tires can cause the vehicle to hydroplane . Heavy rainfall , snowmelt , or high levels of ground water may trigger a movement of soil or sediments , possibly causing mudslides , landslides , avalanches , or sinkholes . Mudslides in volcanic terrain ( called Lahars ) occur after eruptions as rain remobilizes loose ash deposits . Mudslides are also common in the western United States during El Niño years due to prolonged rainfall . As food Mud and dirt can be consumed accidentally during sports and other outdoor activities . This has led to dysphemisms for poor-tasting food such as `` tastes like dirt '' , based on the experience of getting mud , dirt , etc . in one 's mouth . There also exist children 's recipes for `` mud '' , which is generally a chocolate or cornstarch-based sludge used more for visual appeal than actual taste . Never does this confectionery mud actually contain real mud . Recreation Mud bath A mud bath is a bath of mud , commonly from areas where hot spring water can combine with volcanic ash . Mud baths have existed for thousands of years , and can be found now in high-end spas in many countries of the world . Mudding Mud bogging is a form of off-road motorsport popular in Canada and the United States in which the goal is to drive a vehicle through a pit of mud or a track of a set length . Winners are determined by the distance traveled through the pit . However , if several vehicles are able to travel the entire length , the time taken to traverse the pit will determine the winner . Mud run Mud Runs are a popular activity involving mud . Participants run a distance of 3 miles to as long as 10 miles , while crawling through mud bogs , and battling other obstacles . Other * Mud is used in mud wrestling as a form of entertainment . * Mud can be used in a dunk tank . * Dirt biking involves biking through muddy tracks and courses . * Baseball Rubbing Mud is used to remove the sheen from new baseballs . * Children often like to make 'mud pies ' , throw mud at each other and play barefoot and/or coat themselves in mud . * Albuquerque and other towns across the United States such as Gillette , Wyoming hold a yearly event in which participants play volleyball in a giant mud pit .

sfq_3785--Mud.txt

Rob Davis, Les Gray, Dave Mount and Ray Stiles are members of which pop group?

On 20 July 1944 , an attempt was made to assassinate Adolf Hitler , Führer of Nazi Germany , perpetrated by Claus von Stauffenberg and other conspirators , inside his Wolf 's Lair field headquarters near Rastenburg , East Prussia . The name Operation Valkyrie , originally referring to a component part of the conspirators ' overall plot , has become associated with the event . The apparent purpose of the assassination attempt was to seize political control of Germany and its armed forces from the Nazi Party ( including the SS ) in order to obtain peace with the western Allies as soon as possible . The underlying desire of many of the involved high ranking Wehrmacht officers was apparently to show to the world that not all Germans were like Hitler and the Nazi Party . The details of the conspirators ' peace initiatives remain unknown , but they likely would have included demands to accept wide-reaching territorial annexations by Germany in Europe . The plot was the culmination of the efforts by several groups in the German Resistance to overthrow the Nazi-led German government . The failure of both the assassination and the military coup d'état which was planned to follow , led to the arrest of at least 7,000 people by the Gestapo . According to records of the Führer Conferences on Naval Affairs , 4,980 of these were executed . Background Since 1938 , conspiratorial groups planning an overthrow of some kind had existed in the German Army ( Wehrmacht Heer ) and in the German Military Intelligence Organization ( Abwehr ) . Early leaders of these plots included Brigadier-General Hans Oster , General Ludwig Beck and Field Marshal Erwin von Witzleben . Oster was the deputy head of the Military Intelligence Office . Beck was a former Chief-of-Staff of the German Army High Command ( Oberkommando des Heeres , OKH ) . Von Witzleben was the former commander of the German 1st Army and the former Commander-in-Chief of the German Army Command in the West ( Oberbefehlshaber West , or OB West ) . They soon established contacts with several prominent civilians , including Carl Goerdeler , the former mayor of Leipzig , and Helmuth James Graf von Moltke , the great-grandnephew of the hero of the Franco-Prussian War . Military conspiratorial groups exchanged ideas with civilian , political , and intellectual resistance groups in the Kreisauer Kreis ( which met at the von Moltke estate in Kreisau ) and in other secret circles . Moltke was against killing Hitler ; instead , he wanted him placed on trial . Moltke said , `` we are all amateurs and would only bungle it '' . Moltke also believed killing Hitler would be hypocritical . Hitler and National Socialism had turned `` wrong-doing '' into a system , something which the resistance should avoid . Plans to stage an overthrow and prevent Hitler from launching a new world war were developed in 1938 and 1939 , but were aborted because of the indecision of Army Generals Franz Halder and Walther von Brauchitsch , and the failure of the Western powers to oppose Hitler 's aggression until 1939 . This first military resistance group delayed their plans after Hitler 's extreme popularity following the unexpectedly rapid success in the battle for France . In 1942 , a new conspiratorial group formed , led by Colonel Henning von Tresckow , a member of Field Marshal Fedor von Bock 's staff , who commanded Army Group Centre in Operation Barbarossa . Tresckow systematically recruited oppositionists to the Group 's staff , making it the nerve centre of the army resistance . Little could be done against Hitler as he was heavily guarded , and none of the plotters could get near enough to him . During 1942 , Oster and Tresckow nevertheless succeeded in rebuilding an effective resistance network . Their most important recruit was General Friedrich Olbricht , head of the General Army Office headquarters at the Bendlerblock in central Berlin , who controlled an independent system of communications to reserve units throughout Germany . Linking this asset to Tresckow 's resistance group in Army Group Centre created a viable coup apparatus . In late 1942 , Tresckow and Olbricht formulated a plan to assassinate Hitler and stage an overthrow during Hitler 's visit to the headquarters of Army Group Centre at Smolensk in March 1943 , by placing a bomb on his plane ( Operation Spark ) . The bomb failed to detonate , and a second attempt a week later with Hitler at an exhibition of captured Soviet weaponry in Berlin also failed . These failures demoralised the conspirators . During 1943 Tresckow tried without success to recruit senior army field commanders such as Field Marshal Erich von Manstein and Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt , to support a seizure of power . Tresckow in particular worked on his Commander-in-Chief of Army Group Centre , Field Marshal Günther von Kluge , to persuade him to move against Hitler and at times succeeded in gaining his consent , only to find him indecisive at the last minute . However , despite their refusals , none of the Field Marshals reported their treasonous activities to the Gestapo or Hitler . Motivation and goals of the plot While the main goal of the plotters was to remove Hitler from power , they did so for various reasons . The majority of the group behind the 20 July plot were conservative nationalists who shared many goals with Hitler and did not necessarily believe in or understand democratic ideas . Martin Borschat writes that the plot was mainly done by conservative elites who were initially integrated by the Nazi government but during the war lost their influence and were concerned about regaining it . Attitude towards Poland The overall goals towards Poland were mixed within the plotters . Most of the plotters found it desirable to restore the old German borders from 1914 , while others pointed out that the demands are unrealistic and amendments have to be made . Some like Friedrich-Werner Graf von der Schulenburg even saw all of Poland annexed to Germany . To Poland , which was fighting as an ally with both its army and government in exile , the vast territorial demands and traditional nationalistic visions of resistance made the plotters lose all credibility , and Poles saw little difference between them and racist policies of Hitler . Stauffenberg , as one of the leaders of the plot , stated 5 years before the coup in 1939 during the Poland campaign about Poles and Poland : `` It is essential that we begin a systemic colonisation in Poland . But I have no fear that this will not occur . '' Involvement in war crimes and atrocities Involvement of the plotters in war crimes and atrocities has been studied by historians such as Christian Gerlach . Gerlach proved that plotters like Tresckow or Gersdorff were aware of mass murder happening in the East from at least 1941 . He writes : `` Especially with reference to the murder of the Jews , [ it is said that ] 'the SS ' had deceived the officers by killing in secret , filing incomplete reports or none at all ; if general staff offices protested , the SS threatened them . '' Gerlach concludes : `` This is , of course , nonsense . '' Tresckow also `` signed orders for the deportation of thousands of orphaned children for forced labor in the Reich '' ( the so-called Heu-Aktion ) . Such actions lead historians to question the motives of the plotters , which seemed to worry more about the military situation than the Nazi atrocities and German war crimes . However some others assert that , in such actions , Tresckow had to act out of principle to continue with his coup plans . Gerlach pointed out that the plotters had `` selective moral criteria '' and while they were concerned about Jews being exterminated in the Holocaust , they were far less disturbed about mass murder of civilians in the East . To Gerlach , the primary motivation of the plotters was to ensure German victory in the war or at least not to lose it . Gerlach 's arguments were later supported by historian Hans Mommsen , who stated that the plotters were interested above all in military victory . But Gerlach 's arguments were also criticized by some scholars , among them Peter Hoffmann from McGill University and Klaus Jochen Arnold ( de ) from the Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung.Peter Hoffmann , Carl Goerdeler and the Jewish question , 1933-1942 , Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press , 2011 , xvi.Klaus Jochen Arnold , [ http : //www.zeitgeschichte-online.de/sites/default/files/media/20juli_arnold.pdf Verbrecher aus eigener Initiative ? Der 20 . Juli 1944 und die Thesen Christian Gerlachs ] Planning a coup Von Stauffenberg joins the conspirators By mid-1943 , the tide of war was turning decisively against Germany . The army plotters and their civilian allies became convinced that Hitler should be assassinated , so that a government acceptable to the western Allies could be formed , and a separate peace negotiated in time to prevent a Soviet invasion of Germany . In August 1943 , Tresckow met , for the first time , a young staff officer named Lieutenant Colonel Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg . Badly wounded in North Africa , Claus von Stauffenberg was a political conservative , a zealous German nationalist , and a Roman Catholic . From early 1942 , he had come to share two basic convictions with many military officers : that Germany was being led to disaster , and that Hitler 's removal from power was necessary . After the Battle of Stalingrad in December 1942 , despite his religious scruples , he concluded that the Führer 's assassination was a lesser moral evil than Hitler 's remaining in power . Stauffenberg brought a new tone of decisiveness to the ranks of the resistance movement . When Tresckow was assigned to the Eastern Front , Stauffenberg took charge of planning and executing the assassination attempt . A new plan Olbricht now put forward a new strategy for staging a coup against Hitler . The Replacement Army ( Ersatzheer ) had an operational plan called Operation Valkyrie , which was to be used in the event that the disruption caused by the Allied bombing of German cities caused a breakdown in law and order , or an uprising by the millions of forced labourers from occupied countries now being used in German factories . Olbricht suggested that this plan could be used to mobilise the Reserve Army for the purpose of the coup . In August and September 1943 , Tresckow drafted the `` revised '' Valkyrie plan and new supplementary orders . A secret declaration began with these words : `` The Führer Adolf Hitler is dead ! A treacherous group of party leaders has attempted to exploit the situation by attacking our embattled soldiers from the rear in order to seize power for themselves . '' Detailed instructions were written for occupation of government ministries in Berlin , Heinrich Himmler 's headquarters in East Prussia , radio stations and telephone offices , and other Nazi apparatus through military districts , and concentration camps . Previously , it was believed that Stauffenberg was mainly responsible for the Valkyrie plan , but documents recovered by the Soviet Union after the war and released in 2007 suggest that the plan was developed by Tresckow by autumn of 1943 . All written information was handled by Tresckow 's wife , Erika , and by Margarethe von Oven , his secretary . Both women wore gloves to avoid leaving fingerprints . On at least two other occasions Tresckow had tried to assassinate the Führer . The first plan was to shoot him during dinner at the army base camp , but this plan was aborted because it was widely believed that Hitler wore a bullet-proof vest . The conspirators also considered poisoning him , but this was not possible because his food was specially prepared and tasted . This left a time bomb as the only option . Operation Valkyrie could only be put into effect by General Friedrich Fromm , commander of the Reserve Army , so he must either be won over to the conspiracy or in some way neutralised if the plan was to succeed . Fromm , like many senior officers , knew in general about the military conspiracies against Hitler but neither supported them nor reported them to the Gestapo . Previous failed attempts During 1943 and early 1944 von Tresckow and von Stauffenberg organised at least four attempts to get one of the military conspirators near enough to Hitler , for long enough to kill him with hand grenades , bombs , or a revolver : * in March 1943 by Rudolf Christoph Freiherr von Gersdorff * in late November 1943 by Axel Freiherr von dem Bussche-Streithorst * in February 1944 by Ewald-Heinrich von Kleist-Schmenzin * on 11 March 1944 by Eberhard Freiherr von Breitenbuch As the war situation deteriorated , Hitler no longer appeared in public and rarely visited Berlin . He spent most of his time at his headquarters at the Wolfsschanze ( Wolf 's Lair ) near Rastenburg in East Prussia , with occasional breaks at his Bavarian mountain retreat Obersalzberg near Berchtesgaden . In both places he was heavily guarded and rarely saw people he did not know or trust . Himmler and the Gestapo were increasingly suspicious of plots against Hitler and rightly suspected the officers of the General Staff , which was indeed the source of many conspiracies against Hitler . Preparations By the summer of 1944 , the Gestapo was closing in on the conspirators . There was a sense that time was running out , both on the battlefield , where the Eastern front was in full retreat and where the Allies had landed in France on 6 June , and in Germany , where the resistance 's room for manoeuvre was rapidly contracting . When Stauffenberg sent Tresckow a message through Lieutenant Heinrich Graf von Lehndorff-Steinort asking whether there was any reason for trying to assassinate Hitler given that no political purpose would be served , Tresckow 's response was : `` The assassination must be attempted , coûte que coûte [ whatever the cost ] . Even if it fails , we must take action in Berlin . For the practical purpose no longer matters ; what matters now is that the German resistance movement must take the plunge before the eyes of the world and of history . Compared to that , nothing else matters . '' Himmler had at least one conversation with a known oppositionist when , in August 1943 , the Prussian Finance Minister Johannes Popitz , who was involved in Goerdeler 's network , came to see him and offered him the support of the opposition if he would make a move to displace Hitler and secure a negotiated end to the war . Nothing came of this meeting , but Popitz was not immediately arrested ( although he was later executed towards the end of the war ) , and Himmler apparently did nothing to track down the resistance network which he knew was operating within the state bureaucracy . It is possible that Himmler , who by late 1943 knew that the war was unwinnable , allowed the plot to go ahead in the knowledge that if it succeeded he would be Hitler 's successor , and could then bring about a peace settlement . Popitz was not alone in seeing in Himmler a potential ally . General von Bock advised Tresckow to seek his support , but there is no evidence that he did so . Goerdeler was apparently also in indirect contact with Himmler via a mutual acquaintance , Carl Langbehn . Wilhelm Canaris biographer Heinz Höhne suggests that Canaris and Himmler were working together to bring about a change of regime , but this remains speculation . Tresckow and the inner circle of plotters had no intention of removing Hitler just to see him replaced by the dreaded and ruthless SS chief , and the plan was to kill them both if possible – to the extent that Stauffenberg 's first attempt on 11 July was aborted because Himmler was not present . File : Bundesarchiv Bild 146-2004-0007 , Hans Oster.jpg|Hans Oster File : Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1980-033-04 , Ludwig Beck.jpg|Ludwig Beck File : Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1971-069-87 , Erwin v. Witzleben.jpg|Erwin von Witzleben File : Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1993-069-06 , Carl Friedrich Goerdeler.jpg|Carl Friedrich Goerdeler File : Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1976-130-53 , Henning v. Tresckow.jpg|Henning von Tresckow File : Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1981-072-61 , Friedrich Olbricht.jpg|Friedrich Olbricht File : Claus von Stauffenberg ( 1907-1944 ) .jpg|Claus von Stauffenberg File : Bundesarchiv Bild 146III-347 , Werner Karl v. Haeften.jpg|Werner von Haeften Countdown to Stauffenberg 's attempt 1–6 July 1944 On Saturday , 1 July 1944 Stauffenberg was appointed chief of staff to General Fromm at the Reserve Army headquarters on Bendlerstraße in central Berlin . This position enabled Stauffenberg to attend Hitler 's military conferences , either at the Wolfsschanze in East Prussia or at Berchtesgaden , and would thus give him an opportunity , perhaps the last that would present itself , to kill Hitler with a bomb or a pistol . Meanwhile , new key allies had been gained . These included General Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel , the German military commander in France , who would take control in Paris when Hitler was killed and , it was hoped , negotiate an immediate armistice with the invading Allied armies . 7–14 July 1944 The plot was now fully prepared . On 7 July 1944 General Stieff was to kill Hitler at a display of new uniforms at Klessheim castle near Salzburg . However , Stieff felt unable to kill Hitler . Stauffenberg now decided to do both : to assassinate Hitler , wherever he was , and to manage the plot in Berlin . On 14 July Stauffenberg attended Hitler 's conferences carrying a bomb in his briefcase , but because the conspirators had decided that Heinrich Himmler and Hermann Göring should be killed simultaneously if the planned mobilisation of Operation Valkyrie was to have a chance to succeed , he held back at the last minute because Himmler was not present . In fact , it was unusual for Himmler to attend military conferences . 15 July 1944 : Aborted attempt By 15 July , when Stauffenberg again flew to the Wolfsschanze , this condition had been dropped . The plan was for Stauffenberg to plant the briefcase with the bomb in Hitler 's conference room with a timer running , excuse himself from the meeting , wait for the explosion , then fly back to Berlin and join the other plotters at the Bendlerblock . Operation Valkyrie would be mobilised , the Reserve Army would take control of Germany and the other Nazi leaders would be arrested . Beck would be appointed provisional head of state , Goerdeler would be chancellor , and Witzleben would be commander-in-chief of the armed forces . Again on 15 July the attempt was called off at the last minute . Himmler and Göring were present , but Hitler was called out of the room at the last moment . Stauffenberg was able to intercept the bomb and prevent its discovery . 20 July 1944 Operation Valkyrie initiated On 18 July rumours reached Stauffenberg that the Gestapo had wind of the conspiracy and that he might be arrested at any time—this was apparently not true , but there was a sense that the net was closing in and that the next opportunity to kill Hitler must be taken because there might not be another . At 10:00 on 20 July Stauffenberg flew back to the Wolfsschanze for another Hitler military conference , once again with a bomb in his briefcase . The conference took place in the main room of Wolf 's Lair instead of the underground bunker due to the hot weather . At around 12:30pm as the conference began , Stauffenberg made an excuse to use a washroom in Wilhelm Keitel 's office where he used pliers to crush the end of a pencil detonator inserted into a 1 kg block of plastic explosive wrapped in brown paper , that was prepared by Wessel von Freytag-Loringhoven . The detonator consisted of a thin copper tube containing copper chloride that would take about ten minutes to silently eat through wire holding back the firing pin from the percussion cap . It was slow going due to war wounds that had cost Stauffenberg an eye , his right hand , and two fingers on his left hand . Interrupted by a guard knocking on the door advising him that the meeting was about to begin , he was not able to prime the second bomb , which he gave to his aide-de-camp , Werner von Haeften . Stauffenberg placed the single primed bomb inside his briefcase and , with the unwitting assistance of Major Ernst John von Freyend , entered the conference room containing Hitler and 20 officers , positioning the briefcase under the table near Hitler . After a few minutes , Stauffenberg received a planned telephone call and left the room . It is presumed that Colonel Heinz Brandt , who was standing next to Hitler , used his foot to move the briefcase aside by pushing it behind the leg of the conference table , thus unwittingly deflecting the blast from Hitler but causing his own death with the loss of one of his legs when the bomb detonated . Between 12:40 and 12:50 [ http : //www.spiegel.de/panorama/0,1518,309271,00.html Spiegel.de ] the bomb detonated , demolishing the conference room . Three officers and the stenographer were seriously injured and died soon after . Hitler survived , as did everyone else who was shielded from the blast by the conference table leg . Hitler 's trousers were singed and tattered ( see photograph below ) and he suffered from a perforated eardrum , as did most of the other 24 people in the room . Had the second block of explosive been used , it is probable that everyone present would have been killed . Escape from the Wolf 's Lair and flight to Berlin Stauffenberg was seen leaving the conference building by Kurt Salterberg , a soldier on guard duty who did not consider this out of the ordinary as attendees sometimes left to collect documents . He then saw a `` massive '' cloud of smoke , wood splinters and paper and men being hurled through a window and door . [ http : //www.dw.com/en/germany-remembers-the-plot-to-kill-hitler/a-17792469 Germany remembers the plot to kill hitler at dw ] . Retrieved 22 July 2015 Stauffenberg upon hearing the explosion and seeing the smoke assumed that Hitler was dead . He then climbed into a staff car with his aide Werner von Haeften and managed to bluff his way past three checkpoints to exit the Wolfsschanze complex . Werner von Haeften then tossed the second unprimed bomb into the forest as they made a dash for Rastenburg airfield , reaching it before it could be realised that Stauffenberg could be responsible for the explosion . By 13:00 he was airborne in a Heinkel He 111 arranged by General Eduard Wagner . By the time Stauffenberg 's aircraft reached Berlin about 16:00 , General Erich Fellgiebel , an officer at the Wolfsschanze who was in on the plot , had phoned the Bendlerblock and told the plotters that Hitler had survived the explosion . As a result , the plot to mobilise Operation Valkyrie would have no chance of succeeding once the officers of the Reserve Army knew that Hitler was alive . There was more confusion when Stauffenberg 's aircraft landed and he phoned from the airport to say that Hitler was in fact dead . The Bendlerblock plotters did not know whom to believe . Finally at 16:00 Olbricht issued the orders for Operation Valkyrie to be mobilised . The vacillating General Fromm , however , phoned Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel at the Wolf 's Lair and was assured that Hitler was alive . Keitel demanded to know Stauffenberg 's whereabouts . This told Fromm that the plot had been traced to his headquarters , and that he was in mortal danger . Fromm replied that he thought Stauffenberg was with Hitler . Meanwhile , Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel , military governor of occupied France , managed to disarm the SD and SS , and captured most of their leadership . He travelled to Günther von Kluge 's headquarters and asked him to contact the Allies , only to be informed that Hitler was alive . At 16:40 Stauffenberg and Haeften arrived at the Bendlerblock . Fromm , presumably to protect himself , changed sides and attempted to have Stauffenberg arrested . Olbricht and Stauffenberg restrained him at gunpoint and Olbricht then appointed General Erich Hoepner to take over his duties . By this time Himmler had taken charge of the situation and had issued orders countermanding Olbricht 's mobilisation of Operation Valkyrie . In many places the coup was going ahead , led by officers who believed that Hitler was dead . City Commandant , and conspirator , General Paul von Hase ordered the Wachbataillon Großdeutschland , under the command of Major Otto Ernst Remer , to secure the Wilhelmstraße and arrest Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels . In Vienna , Prague , and many other places troops occupied Nazi Party offices and arrested Gauleiters and SS officers . The coup fails At around 18:00 the commander of Military District ( Wehrkreis ) III ( Berlin ) General Joachim von Kortzfleisch was summoned to the Bendlerblock ; he angrily refused Olbricht 's orders , kept shouting `` the Führer is alive '' , was arrested and held under guard . General Karl Freiherr von Thüngen was appointed in his place , but proved to be of little help . General Fritz Lindemann , who was supposed to make a proclamation to the German people over the radio , failed to appear and as he held the only copy , Beck had to work on a new one . The decisive moment came at 19:00 , when Hitler was sufficiently recovered to make phone calls . He called Goebbels at the Propaganda Ministry . Goebbels arranged for Hitler to speak to Major Remer , commander of the troops surrounding the Ministry . After assuring him that he was still alive , Hitler ordered Remer to regain control of the situation in Berlin . Major Remer ordered his troops to surround and seal off the Bendlerblock , but not to enter the buildings . At 20:00 a furious Witzleben arrived at the Bendlerblock and had a bitter argument with Stauffenberg , who was still insisting that the coup could go ahead . Witzleben left shortly afterwards . At around this time the planned seizure of power in Paris was aborted when Field Marshal Günther von Kluge , who had recently been appointed commander-in-chief in the west , learned that Hitler was alive . As Remer regained control of the city and word spread that Hitler was still alive , the less resolute members of the conspiracy in Berlin began to change sides . Fighting broke out in the Bendlerblock between officers supporting and opposing the coup , and Stauffenberg was wounded . By 23:00 Fromm had regained control , hoping by a show of zealous loyalty to save himself . Beck , realising the situation was hopeless , shot himself—the first of many suicides in the coming days . Although at first Beck only just managed to seriously wound himself , he was shot in the neck by soldiers . Fromm convened an impromptu court martial consisting of himself , and sentenced Olbricht , Stauffenberg , Haeften and another officer , Albrecht Mertz von Quirnheim , to death . At 00:10 on 21 July they were executed in the courtyard outside , possibly to prevent them from revealing Fromm 's involvement . Others would have been executed as well , but at 00:30 SS personnel led by Otto Skorzeny arrived and further executions were forbidden . Alternative possibilities In 2005 , the Military Channel 's show Unsolved History aired an episode titled Killing Hitler in which each scenario was re-created using live explosives and test dummies . The results supported the conclusion that Hitler would have been killed had any of three other scenarios occurred : * both bombs detonated ; * the meeting was held inside Hitler 's bunker ; * the briefcase was not moved . Had Hitler in fact been killed by the plotters , some historians argue that the plot would have unfolded ( and failed ) in relatively the same fashion , but with

jp_1022--20_July_plot.txt

Who did Claus von Stauffenberg plot to kill?

Liverpool is a major city and metropolitan borough in north west England . By 2015 , the city council area had an estimated population of 478,580 whilst the Liverpool/Birkenhead metropolitan area had a population over 2.2 million . Liverpool is the principal city within the Liverpool City Region . Liverpool sits on the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary and historically lay within the ancient hundred of West Derby in the south west of the county of Lancashire . It became a borough from 1207 and a city from 1880 . The expansion of the city in the Industrial Revolution paralleled its growth as a major port , and participation in the Atlantic slave trade . Liverpool was the port of registry of the ocean liner RMS Titanic , and many other Cunard and White Star ocean liners such as the RMS Lusitania , Queen Mary , and Olympic . The city celebrated its 800th anniversary in 2007 , and it held the European Capital of Culture title together with Stavanger , Norway , in 2008 . Several areas of Liverpool city centre were granted World Heritage Site status by UNESCO in 2004 . The Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City includes the Pier Head , Albert Dock , and William Brown Street . Tourism forms a significant part of the city 's economy . Labelled the `` World Capital City of Pop '' by Guinness World Records , the popularity of The Beatles and other groups from the Merseybeat era and later contributes to Liverpool 's status as a tourist destination . Liverpool is also the home of two Premier League football clubs , Liverpool and Everton , matches between the two being known as the Merseyside derby . The world-famous Grand National horse race takes place annually at Aintree Racecourse on the outskirts of the city . Liverpool 's status as a port city has contributed to its diverse population , which , historically , was drawn from a wide range of peoples , cultures , and religions , particularly those from Ireland and Wales . The city is also home to the oldest Black African community in the country and the oldest Chinese community in Europe . Natives of Liverpool are referred to as Liverpudlians ( or less commonly Liverpolitans ) and colloquially as `` Scousers '' , a reference to `` scouse '' , a form of stew . The word `` Scouse '' has also become synonymous with the Liverpool accent and dialect . History Early history King John 's letters patent of 1207 announced the foundation of the borough of Liverpool , but by the middle of the 16th century the population was still only around 500 . The original street plan of Liverpool is said to have been designed by King John near the same time it was granted a royal charter , making it a borough . The original seven streets were laid out in an H shape : Bank Street ( now Water Street ) , Castle Street , Chapel Street , Dale Street , Juggler Street ( now High Street ) , Moor Street ( now Tithebarn Street ) and Whiteacre Street ( now Old Hall Street ) . In the 17th century there was slow progress in trade and population growth . Battles for the town were waged during the English Civil War , including an eighteen-day siege in 1644 . In 1699 Liverpool was made a parish by Act of Parliament , that same year its first slave ship , Liverpool Merchant , set sail for Africa . As trade from the West Indies surpassed that of Ireland and Europe , and as the River Dee silted up , Liverpool began to grow . The first commercial wet dock was built in Liverpool in 1715 . Substantial profits from the slave trade helped the town to prosper and rapidly grow , although several prominent local men , including William Rathbone , William Roscoe and Edward Rushton , were at the forefront of the abolitionist movement . 19th century By the start of the 19th century , a large volume of trade was passing through Liverpool , and the construction of major buildings reflected this wealth . In 1830 , Liverpool and Manchester became the first cities to have an intercity rail link , through the Liverpool and Manchester Railway . The population continued to rise rapidly , especially during the 1840s when Irish migrants began arriving by the hundreds of thousands as a result of the Great Famine . Given the crucial place of both cotton and slavery in the city 's economy , during the American Civil War Liverpool was , in the words of historian Sven Beckert , `` the most pro-Confederate place in the world outside the Confederacy itself . '' For periods during the 19th century , the wealth of Liverpool exceeded that of London , and Liverpool 's Custom House was the single largest contributor to the British Exchequer . Liverpool 's status can be judged from the fact that it was the only British city ever to have its own Whitehall office . In the early 19th century , Liverpool played a major role in the Antarctic sealing industry , in recognition of which Liverpool Beach in the South Shetland Islands is named after the city . As early as 1851 the city was described as `` the New York of Europe '' . During the late 19th and early 20th centuries , Liverpool was drawing immigrants from across Europe . This resulted in construction of a diverse array of religious buildings in the city for the new ethnic and religious groups , many of which are still in use today . The Deutsche Kirche Liverpool , Greek Orthodox Church of St Nicholas , Gustav Adolf Church and Princes Road Synagogue were all established in the 1800s to serve Liverpool 's growing German , Greek , Nordic and Jewish communities , respectively . One of Liverpool 's oldest surviving churches , St. Peter 's Roman Catholic Church , served the Polish community in its final years as a place of worship . 20th century The postwar period was marked by social unrest as society grappled with the massive war losses of young men , as well as trying to integrate veterans into the economy . Union organizing and strikes took place in numerous locations , including police strikes in London among the Metropolitan Police . Numerous colonial soldiers and sailors who had served with the UK settled in Liverpool and other port cities . In June 1919 they were subject to attack by whites in racial riots ; residents in the port included Swedish immigrants , and both groups had to compete with native people from Liverpool for jobs and housing . In this period , race riots also took place in Cardiff , Newport and Barry , and there had been incidents in Glasgow , South Shields , London , Hull and Salford . [ http : //www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/840 Dr. Laura Tabili , `` Review of Jacqueline Jenkinson , Black 1919 : Riots , Racism and Resistance in Imperial Britain , Liverpool , Liverpool University Press , 2009 , ISBN 9781846312007 '' , Reviews in History website , accessed 13 April 2016 ] There were so many racial riots that summer in major cities of the United States that a black leader termed it Red Summer . There were also riots in Caribbean and South African cities in that first postwar year . The Housing Act 1919 resulted in mass council housing being built across Liverpool during the 1920s and 1930s . Thousands of families were relocated from the inner-city to new suburban housing estates , based on the belief that this would improve their standard of living , though this is largely subjective . Numerous private homes were also built during this era . The Great Depression of the early 1930s saw unemployment in the city peak at around 30 % . Liverpool was the site of Britain 's first provincial airport , operating from 1930 . This was the first British airport to be renamed after an individual : the late singer and composer John Lennon of the Beatles , an internationally known band beginning in the early 1960s , who was murdered in New York City . During the Second World War , the critical strategic importance of Liverpool was recognised by both Hitler and Churchill , with the city suffering a blitz second only to London 's . The pivotal Battle of the Atlantic was planned , fought and won from Liverpool . Germans made 80 air-raids on Merseyside , killing 2,500 people and causing damage to almost half the homes in the metropolitan area . Significant rebuilding followed the war , including massive housing estates and the Seaforth Dock , the largest dock project in Britain . Much of the immediate reconstruction of the city centre has been deeply unpopular . It was as flawed as much subsequent town planning renewal in the 1950s and 1960s . The historic portions of the city that survived German bombing suffered extensive destruction during urban renewal . Since 1952 Liverpool has been twinned with Cologne , Germany , a city which also suffered severe aerial bombing during the war . Like most British cities and industrialised towns , Liverpool became home to a significant number of Commonwealth immigrants , beginning after World War I with colonial soldiers and sailors who had served in the area . A significant West Indian black community existed in the city since the first two decades of the 20th century . More immigrants arrived after World War II , mostly settling in older inner-city areas such as Toxteth , where housing was less expensive . The construction of suburban public housing expanded after the Second World War . Some of the older inner city areas were redeveloped for new homes . In the 1960s Liverpool was the centre of the `` Merseybeat '' sound , which became synonymous with The Beatles and fellow Liverpudlian rock bands . Influenced by American rhythm and blues and rock music , they also strongly affected American music for years and were internationally popular . Previously part of Lancashire , and a county borough from 1889 , Liverpool in 1974 became a metropolitan borough within the newly created metropolitan county of Merseyside . From the mid-1970s onwards , Liverpool 's docks and traditional manufacturing industries went into sharp decline due to restructuring of shipping and industry , causing massive losses of jobs . The advent of containerisation meant that the city 's docks became largely obsolete , and dock workers were thrown out of jobs . By the early 1980s unemployment rates in Liverpool were among the highest in the UK , standing at 17 % by January 1982 . This was about half the level of unemployment that had affected the city during the Great Depression 50 years previously . In the later 19th century , Liverpool 's economy began to recover . Since the mid-1990s the city has enjoyed growth rates higher than the national average . At the end of the 20th century Liverpool was concentrating on regeneration , a process which continues today . 21st century To celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II in 2002 , the conservation charity Plantlife organised a competition to choose county flowers ; the sea-holly was Liverpool 's final choice . Capitalising on the popularity of 1960s rock groups , such as The Beatles , as well as the city 's world-class art galleries , museums and landmarks , tourism has also become a significant factor in Liverpool 's economy . In 2004 , property developer Grosvenor started the Paradise Project , a £920 m development based on Paradise Street > This produced the most significant changes to Liverpool 's city centre since the post-war reconstruction . Renamed 'Liverpool ONE , ' the centre opened in May 2008 . In 2007 , the city celebrated the 800th anniversary of the founding of the borough of Liverpool , for which a number of events were planned . Liverpool was designated as a joint European Capital of Culture for 2008 . The main celebrations , in September 2008 , included erection of La Princesse , a large mechanical spider 20 metres high and weighing 37 tonnes , and represents the `` eight legs '' of Liverpool : honour , history , music , the Mersey , the ports , governance , sunshine and culture . La Princesse roamed the streets of the city during the festivities , and concluded by entering the Queensway Tunnel . Spearheaded by the multi-billion-pound Liverpool ONE development , regeneration has continued through to the start of the early 2010s . Some of the most significant redevelopment projects include new buildings in the Commercial District , the King 's Dock , Mann Island , the Lime Street Gateway , the Baltic Triangle , the RopeWalks , and the Edge Lane Gateway . All projects could be eclipsed by the Liverpool Waters scheme , which if built will cost in the region of £5.5billion and be one of the largest megaprojects in the UK 's history . Liverpool Waters is a mixed-use development planned to contain one of Europe 's largest skyscraper clusters . The project received outline planning permission in 2012 , despite fierce opposition from such groups as UNESCO , which claimed that it would adversely affect Liverpool 's World Heritage status . On 9 June 2014 , Prime Minister David Cameron launched the International Festival for Business in Liverpool , the world 's largest business event in 2014 , and the largest in the UK since the Festival of Britain in 1951 . Inventions and innovations Liverpool has been a center of industrial and later innovation . Railways , transatlantic steamships , municipal trams , electric trains were all pioneered in Liverpool as modes of mass transit . In 1829 and 1836 the first railway tunnels in the world were constructed under Liverpool . From 1950 to 1951 , the world 's first scheduled passenger helicopter service ran between Liverpool and Cardiff . The first School for the Blind , Mechanics ' Institute , High School for Girls , council house and Juvenile Court were all founded in Liverpool . The RSPCA , NSPCC , Age Concern , Relate , Citizen 's Advice Bureau and Legal Aid all evolved from work in the city . In the field of public health , the first lifeboat station , public baths and wash-houses , sanitary act , medical officer for health , district nurse , slum clearance , purpose-built ambulance , X-ray medical diagnosis , school of tropical medicine , motorised municipal fire-engine , free school milk and school meals , cancer research centre , and zoonosis research centre all originated in Liverpool . The first British Nobel Prize was awarded in 1902 to Ronald Ross , professor at the School of Tropical Medicine , the first school of its kind in the world . Orthopaedic surgery was pioneered in Liverpool by Hugh Owen Thomas , and modern medical anaesthetics by Thomas Cecil Gray . The world 's first integrated sewer system was constructed in Liverpool by James Newlands , appointedin 1847 as the UK 's first borough engineer . In finance , Liverpool founded the UK 's first Underwriters ' Association and the first Institute of Accountants . The Western world 's first financial derivatives ( cotton futures ) were traded on the Liverpool Cotton Exchange in the late 1700s . In the arts , Liverpool was home to the first lending library , athenaeum society , arts centre and public art conservation centre . Liverpool is also home to the UK 's oldest surviving classical orchestra , the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra , as well as the oldest surviving repertory theatre , the Liverpool Playhouse . In 1864 , Peter Ellis built the world 's first iron-framed , curtain-walled office building , Oriel Chambers , the prototype of the skyscraper . The UK 's first purpose-built department store was Compton House , completed in 1867 for the retailer J.R. Jeffrey ; it was the largest store in the world at the time . Between 1862 and 1867 , Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival . Devised by John Hulley and Charles Melly , these games were the first to be wholly amateur in nature and international in outlook . The programme of the first modern Olympiad in Athens in 1896 was almost identical to that of the Liverpool Olympics . In 1865 Hulley co-founded the National Olympian Association in Liverpool , a forerunner of the British Olympic Association . Its articles of foundation provided the framework for the International Olympic Charter . Shipowner Sir Alfred Lewis Jones introduced the banana to Great Britain in 1884 . The Mersey Railway , opened in 1886 , incorporated the world 's first tunnel under a tidal estuary and the world 's first deep-level underground stations . In 1889 , borough engineer John Alexander Brodie invented the football goal-net . He also was a pioneer in the use of pre-fabricated housing . Brodie oversaw the construction of the UK 's first ring road , the UK 's first intercity highway , as well as the Queensway Tunnel linking Liverpool and Birkenhead . Described as `` the eighth wonder of the world '' at the time of its construction , it was the longest underwater tunnel in the world , a title it held for 24 years . In 1897 , the Lumière brothers filmed Liverpool , including what is believed to be the world 's first tracking shot , taken from the Liverpool Overhead Railway , the world 's first elevated electrified railway . The Overhead Railway was the first railway in the world to use electric multiple units , the first to employ automatic signalling , and the first to install an escalator . Liverpool inventor Frank Hornby was a visionary in toy development and manufacture ; he produced three of the most popular lines of toys in the 20th century : Meccano , Hornby Model Railways and Dinky Toys . The British Interplanetary Society , founded in Liverpool in 1933 by Phillip Ellaby Cleator , is the world 's oldest existing organisation devoted to the promotion of spaceflight . Its journal is the longest-running astronautical publication in the world . In 1999 , Liverpool was the first city outside the capital to be awarded blue plaques by English Heritage in recognition of the `` significant contribution made by its sons and daughters in all walks of life . '' Government Liverpool has several tiers of government ; the Mayor and Local Council , who are also stakeholders in the Liverpool City Region Combined Authority , the National Government and the European Parliament . Liverpool is officially governed by a Unitary Authority , as when Merseyside County Council was disbanded civic functions were returned to a district borough level . However several services such as the Police and Fire and Rescue Service , continue to be run at a county-wide level . Mayor and local council The City of Liverpool is governed by the Directly elected mayor of Liverpool and Liverpool City Council , and is one of six metropolitan boroughs that combine to make up the Liverpool City Region . The Mayor is elected by the citizens of Liverpool every four years and is responsible for the day-to-day running of the council . The council 's 90 elected councillors who represent local communities throughout the city , are responsible for scrutinising the Mayor 's decisions , setting the Budget , and policy framework of the city . The Mayor 's responsibility is to be a powerful voice for the city both nationally and internationally , to lead , build investor confidence , and to direct resources to economic priorities . The Mayor also exchanges direct dialogue with government ministers and the Prime minister through his seat at the 'Cabinet of Mayors ' . Discussions include pressing decision makers in the government on local issues as well as building relationships with the other Directly elected mayors in England and Wales . The mayor is Joe Anderson . The city of Liverpool effectively has two Mayors . As well as the directly elected Mayor , there is the ceremonial 'Lord Mayor ' ( or civic Mayor ) who is elected by the full city council at its annual general meeting in May , and stands for one year in office . The Lord Mayor acts as the 'first citizen ' of Liverpool and is responsible for promoting the city , supporting local charities and community groups as well as representing the city at civic events . The Lord Mayor is Councillor Frank Prendergast . For local elections the city is split into 30 local council wards , which in alphabetical order are : During the most recent local elections , held in May 2011 , the Labour Party consolidated its control of Liverpool City Council , following on from regaining power for the first time in 12 years , during the previous elections in May 2010 . The Labour Party gained 11 seats during the election , taking their total to 62 seats , compared with the 22 held by the Liberal Democrats . Of the remaining seats the Liberal Party won three and the Green Party claimed two . The Conservative Party , one of the three major political parties in the UK had no representation on Liverpool City Council . In February 2008 , Liverpool City Council was revealed to be the worst-performing council in the country , receiving just a one star rating ( classified as inadequate ) . The main cause of the poor rating was attributed to the council 's poor handling of tax-payer money , including the accumulation of a £20m shortfall on Capital of Culture funding . While Liverpool through most of the 19th and early 20th Century was a municipal stronghold of Toryism , support for the Conservative Party recently has been among the lowest in any part of Britain , particularly since the monetarist economic policies of prime minister Margaret Thatcher after her 1979 general election victory contributed to high unemployment in the city which did not begin to fall for many years . Liverpool is one of the Labour Party 's key strongholds ; however the city has seen hard times under Labour governments as well , particularly in the Winter of Discontent ( late 1978 and early 1979 ) when Liverpool suffered public sector strikes along with the rest of the United Kingdom but also suffered the particularly humiliating misfortune of having grave-diggers going on strike , leaving the dead unburied . Liverpool City Region Combined Authority The City of Liverpool is one of the six constituent local government districts of the Liverpool City Region . Since 1 April 2014 , some of the city 's responsibilities have been pooled with neighbouring authorities within the metropolitan area and subsumed into the Liverpool City Region Combined Authority . The combined authority has effectively become the top-tier administrative body for the local governance of the city region and The Mayor of Liverpool , along with the five other leaders from neighbouring local government districts , take strategic decisions over economic development , transport , employment and skills , tourism , culture , housing and physical infrastructure . As of July 2015 , negotiations are currently taking place between the UK national government and the combined authority over a possible devolution deal to confer greater powers on the region . Discussions include whether to introduce an elected ‘ Metro Mayor ’ to oversee the entire metropolitan area . Parliamentary constituencies and MPs Liverpool has four parliamentary constituencies entirely within the city , through which members of parliament ( MPs ) are elected to represent the city in Westminster : Liverpool Riverside , Liverpool Walton , Liverpool Wavertree and Liverpool West Derby . At the last general election , all were won by Labour with representation being from Louise Ellman , Steve Rotheram , Luciana Berger and Stephen Twigg respectively . Due to boundary changes prior to the 2010 election , the Liverpool Garston constituency was merged with most of Knowsley South to form the Garston and Halewood cross-boundary seat . At the most recent election this seat was won by Maria Eagle of the Labour Party . Geography Liverpool has been described as having `` the most splendid setting of any English city . '' At ( 53.4 , −2.98 ) , 176 mi northwest of London , located on the Liverpool Bay of the Irish Sea the city of Liverpool is built across a ridge of sandstone hills rising up to a height of around 230 feet ( 70 m ) above sea-level at Everton Hill , which represents the southern boundary of the West Lancashire Coastal Plain . The Mersey Estuary separates Liverpool from the Wirral Peninsula . The boundaries of Liverpool are adjacent to Bootle , Crosby and Maghull in south Sefton to the north , and Kirkby , Huyton , Prescot and Halewood in Knowsley to the east . Climate Liverpool experiences a temperate maritime climate , like much of the British Isles , with relatively cool summers and mild winters . Historically , Bidston Observatory ( actually located on the Wirral Peninsula ) has provided the longest and most unbroken weather data for the Merseyside area . More recently , the Met Office has operated a weather station at Crosby . The absolute minimum temperature recorded at Bidston was during January 1881 , typically the coldest night of the year should fall to ( 1971–2000 average ) However , the variability of the local climate was exposed as the weather station at Crosby fell to during December 2010 . The absolute maximum temperature recorded at Bidston was in August 1990 – typically the warmest day of the year should reach ( 1971–2000 average ) . The absolute maximum at Crosby is , recorded in July 2006 . Liverpool 's moderated oceanic climate is in stark contrast to temperatures expected in continental Europe both at the same latitude as well as latitudes much further north , with very small swings between seasons in comparison . For example , areas in continental Scandinavia much further north experience hotter summers with longer heatwaves , whilst Liverpool just like the rest of the British Isles lacks a regular snowy winter , in spite of its geographically northerly location . Green Liverpool In 2010 Liverpool City Council and the Primary Care Trust Commissioned [ http : //www.merseyforest.org.uk The Mersey Forest ] to complete A Green Infrastructure Strategy for the City . Demography Population The city At the 2011 UK Census the recorded population of Liverpool was 466,415 , a 6.1 % increase on the figure of 439,473 recorded in the 2001 census . The population of the Liverpool city council area peaked in the 1930s with 846,101 recorded in the 1931 census . Until the 2011 figures were released revealing a return to population growth , the city council area had experienced negative population growth every decade since the 1931 census . Much of the population loss was as a result of large-scale resettlement programmes to nearby areas introduced in the aftermath of the Second World War , with towns such as Kirkby , Skelmersdale and Runcorn seeing a corresponding rise in their populations ( Kirkby being the fastest growing town in Britain during the 1960s ) . Liverpool 's population is younger than that of England as a whole , with 42.3 per cent of its population under the age of 30 , compared to an English average of 37.4 per cent . , 66 per cent of the population was of working age . Urban and metropolitan area Liverpool is the largest local authority by populace , GDP and area in Merseyside . Liverpool and is typically grouped with the wider Merseyside area for the purpose of defining its metropolitan footprint , and there are several methodologies . Liverpool is defined as a standalone NUTS3 area by the ONS for statistical purpose , and makes up part of the NUTS2 area `` Merseyside '' along with East Merseyside ( Knowsley , St Helens and Halton ) , Sefton and the Wirral . The population of this area was 1,513,306 based on 2014 estimates . The `` Liverpool Urban Area '' is a term used by the Office for National Statistics ( ONS ) to denote the urban area around the city to the east of the River Mersey . The contiguous built-up area extends beyond the area administered by Liverpool City Council into adjoining local authority areas , particularly parts of Sefton and Knowsley . As

qz_2291--Liverpool.txt

How meny times have Liverpool won the Europion Cup?

Andrew Michael Robson OBE ( born 1964 ) is an English professional bridge player , writer and teacher . He is a British and English international . Robson is the bridge columnist for The Times and Country Life . Robson was a member of the Great Britain Juniors team which won the World Youth Team Championship in 1989 and of the Great Britain Open team which won the European Open Teams Championship in 1991 . Robson is from London . Personal life Robson attended Abingdon School as a dayboy in Randolph House from 1977 to 1982 . He obtained a BSc at the University of Bristol in 1985 , and a Cert Ed the following year . In 2001 he suffered serious injuries when he slipped on ice when hill-walking in the Lake District and fell thirty feet . He broke many bones , spent two months in hospital and was in a wheelchair for much longer . Robson was able to return to the bridge table five months after the accident , the speed of his recovery astonishing his doctors . As a result , he received the International Bridge Press Association ( IBPA ) Sportmanship Award in 2001 `` for his spectacular recovery from adversity '' . He is married and has two daughters . [ http : //www.ebu.co.uk/general/biographies/players/andrewrobson.htm EBU site profile of Andrew Robson ] Retrieved 4 August 2011 Bridge career As well as winning the World Youth Team Championship in 1989 Robson was also a member of the team which won the junior Common Market Championship the same year , on both occasions partnering John Pottage . On turning 25 , later that year , he was no longer eligible for junior events , and Tony Forrester proposed that they should form a partnership . This lasted for seven years and was highly successful . They were part of the team which won the European Open Championship in 1991 , and amongst the pairs events which they won were the prestigious Cap Gemini and Sunday Times-Macallan . After his partnership with Forrester broke up , Robson played on a number of occasions with Zia Mahmood , with whom he won the Cap Gemini two more times . He has also partnered David Bakhshi , with whom he won the Gold Cup in 2002 , and Alexander Allfrey , who was a teammate when he won the Gold Cup a second time in 2004 . Robson has since had five further wins in 2007 , 2009 , 2012 , 2013 and 2014 . He has also played a large amount in the United States , partnering Rita Shugart . In 1998 he was the first Briton , with team-mate Forrester , to win a prestigious US Major , the Reisinger , and the same squad won the event a second time the following year . In 2014 he and Forrester revived their partnership , and played together as part of the England team in that year 's European Open Championship . The team finished third , thereby winning the bronze medal and qualifying for the finals of the 2015 World Championships . As well as his daily column in The Times , Robson writes a column for the weekly magazine Country Life . In the past he has also written for The Oldie , The Spectator and the Express on Sunday . In addition to the books that Robson has written ( see Bibliography below ) , in 2008 he produced a DVD entitled Play Modern Bridge , and he is also responsible for five instructional CDs . He opened his own bridge club , The Andrew Robson Bridge Club , in London in 1995 . Robson has put his training as a schoolteacher to good use by heading many instructional seminars around the UK , as well as hosting master classes and charity bridge events and teaching at his club . He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2013 New Year Honours for services to bridge and charity . Later the same year he was the joint winner of Personality of the Year at the International Bridge Press Association 's annual awards , together with Netherlands ' Bauke Muller . Bibliography * – ( 1993 ) Los Alamitos , CA : C & T Bridge Supplies , pp . 408 . ISBN 978-0-9628297-3-4 OCLC 32361687 . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

sfq_16169--Andrew_Robson.txt

Andrew Robson writes a daily column for The Times on what topic?