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112478

3701662

On Oxalurate of Ammonia as a Constituent of Human Urine

140

143

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Edward Schunck

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0023

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112478

10.1098/rspl.1867.0023

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112478

Chemistry 2

Biology 2

Chemistry

IV . " On Oxalurate of Ammonia as a Constituent of Human Urine . " By EDWARD SCHUNCK , F.R.S. Received November 15 , 1866* . When urine is allowed to percolate through animal charcoal in the manner described in the preceding Paper , several organic substances are absorbed and separated by the charcoal in addition to the fatty acid there referred to . The liquid obtained by treating the charcoal with boiling alcohol yields on evaporation a syrupy residue , of which a great part dissolves in water , the fatty acid being left undissolved . The filtered liquid on being again evaporated leaves a brown syrup , among which a quantity of yellowish crystals is formed on standing . On treating the mass with cold alcohol , the syrupy portion , consisting of urinary extractive matter , is removed , the crystals being left undissolved . The latter are filtered off , washed with alcohol , and then dissolved in boiling water . The solution , which has a slightly yellow colour , is evaporated to a small volume , and the crystals , which separate on standing , are pressed between blotting-paper and then dissolved in a little boiling water to which a small quantity of animal charcoal is added . The filtered solution , if tolerably concentrated , becomes on cooling almost solid , from the formation of a quantity of white crystalline needles , which , after the liquid has been drained off , only require drying . The substance as thus prepared consists of pure oxalurate of ammonia , since it is found to possess both the properties and the composition of that salt , as I shall now proceed to show . The crystals of which it consists are mostly small , and exhibit , even when magnified , few well-defined forms . When a few drops of the watery solution are allowed to evaporate spontaneously on a slip of glass , the residue , when viewed under the microscope , is found to consist mainly of groups of crystals arranged round centres in various irregular form-s , the larger ones being composed of prisms , which are acuminated , jagged at the edges , and transversely striated , the smaller ones of needles arranged in star-shaped , double fan-shaped , or circular masses . Occasionally isolated crystals are seen , having the form of rhombic plates , some of which have two of their opposite angles truncated . I have not yet had an opportunity of comparing these forms with those exhibited by the oxalurate of ammonia obtained directly from uric acid . The substance is tolerably soluble in boiling water , but very slightly soluble in boiling alcohol , the little which dissolves in the latter being deposited , on the solution cooling , in fine needles arranged in stars . The watery solution is neutral to test-paper ; but on allowing a drop to fall on blue litmus-paper , and exposing the latter to the air for some hours , the spot will appear quite red . The watery solution , on being mixed with hydrochloric or nitric acid , yields a white crystalline deposit ( oxaluric acid ) , which , on being left in contact with the acid liquid , gradually disappears . If nitric acid has been employed and the solution , after R teadc November 15 , 1866 : see Abstract , vol. xv . p. 259 . 140 L[gecess , the deposit has dissolved , he spontaneously evaporated , a mass of crystals is left , some of which have the well-known form of nitrate of urea , while the others are prismatic , and consist doubtless of oxalic acid . If the solution , after the addition of any strong acid , be boiled , oxalic acid may after a few moments be detected in it . The watery solution gives no precipitate with chloride of calcium , not even on the addition of ammonia ; but on boiling , an abundant precipitation of oxalate of lime takes place . If a tolerably concentrated solution be mixed with chloride of calcium and left to stand , it deposits after some time a quantity of prismatic lustrous crystals , consisting doubtless of oxalurate of lime . The watery solution gives no immediate precipitate with nitrate of silver ; but after a few moments it begins to deposit white crystalline needles , which , if the solution was concentrated , increase to such an extent as to fill the whole liquid . These needles are silky in appearance , and do not blacken on exposure to the light , but only become slightly yellow ; they dissolve easily in ammonia , but no reduction takes place on boiling the solution . The watery solution of the substance gives with acetate of lead a copious crystalline deposit , and if this be filtered off , the solution yields on standing a crop of small lustrous crystals . These crystals , when examined under the microscope , are found to have very regular forms , consisting of elongated four-sided prisms , with six terminal faces . Whether this form is the same as that of the oxalurate of lead , prepared with acid obtained from the usual source , I cannot say , as I have been unable to find any description of the salt in the books . The watery solution gives no precipitate with perchloride of mercury ; but on the addition of chloride of zinc it deposits after some time a quantity of white , hard crystalline grains , which , after being filtered off and washed , are found to contain no chlorine , and on being heated , melt and burn , leaving a white residue of oxide of zinc . If the substance is dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid , and the solution , after the addition of bichloride of platinum , is evaporated to dryness , the residue on being treated with cold alcohol dissolves partly , a quantity of shining yellow crystals , consisting of chloride of platinum and ammonium , being left undissolved . Such are the principal reactions of this substance . Its analysis yielded the following results:-0'6230grm . lost , on being heated for several hours in the water-bath , 0'0030 grm. , or 0'48 per cent. , a loss too trifling to be attributed to anything but hygroscopic moisture . 0'3565 grm. of the dry substance gave 0'3150grm . carbonic acid and 0 1615 grm. water . 0-2605 grm. , burnt with soda-lime , gave 1 ' 1425 grm. chloride of platinum and ammonium . These numbers lead to the formula C. IH , N3 O8 , which is that of oxalurate of ammonia , and requires 1867 . ] Almmzonia in Urine . 141 Experiment . C , ... ... . . 36 24 16 24-09 Hi7 ... . 7 4-70 5-03 N3 ... ... . . 42 28-19 27-54 08 ... ... . . 64 42'95 43'34 149 V10000 100'00 It is therefore certain that the substance obtained by this process is oxalurate of ammonia . These experiments , however , by no means decide the question whether the oxaluric acid exists originally in a friee or combined state , since most chemists deny the presence of ready-formed ammonia in urine ; and it is quite possible that in my experiments a sufficient quantity of ammonia was formed by the decomposition of urea to saturate the oxaluric acid present . Still I incline to the opinion that the ammoniasalt preexisted in the urine examined , since there were no perceptible indications of decomposition during the percolation of the urine through animal charcoal , a process , indeed , which would rather tend to prevent decomposition than to promote it . The acid reaction of the urine might be urged as an objection to this view ; but , on the other hand , it may safely be asserted that we are still in the dark as to the cause of the acid reaction of urine , which may be due to an acid or acids much weaker than oxaluric . Whether oxaluric acid , either free or combined , is a normal constituent of human urine or not , is a question which may also be raised ; but it is one to which I am unable to give a decided reply , as my experiments are not sufficiently numerous for the purpose . I may venture , however , to express my opinion that this acid will be found to be a constituent of the healthy secretion : . The presence of oxaluric acid in urine had been previously suspected , since the dumb-bell crystals occasionally found among the deposits of oxalate of lime are supposed , by Golding Bird and others , to consist of oxalurate of lime , though the evidence on which this opinion is founded is unsatisfactory , and has been refuted by other observers . On the other hand , there can be no doubt that the presence of oxaluric acid or its compounds in urine , whether it be an exceptional phenomenon or not , serves to explain , in an easy and satisfactory manner , the formation * In a mixture , or any impure product supposed to contain oxaluric acid , I would recommend its detection in the following manner:-The matter , if soluble , should be dissolved in water ; but if it is insoluble , in consequence of the presence of some base , a little sulphuric acid should be added to set at liberty the oxaluric acid , after which the solution should be mixed with acetate of lead ; and if any precipitate is thereby produced , this must be filtered off and the liquid left to stand , when it deposits small shining crystals if oxaluric acid is present . The residue obtained by evaporation of the mother-liquid of creatine , obtained from urine in the usual manner by means of chloride of zinc , gave , when treated in this way , crystals which could not be distinguished by their form from oxalurate of lead . Oxalurate of silver , distinctly crystallized , can only be obtained from perfectly pure oxaluric acid , [ Rlecess , 14 of oxalate of lime so often taking place in the secretion . The appearance of oxalate of lime as a deposit from urine long after its emission has hitherto been a puzzling phenomenon , and the most improbable hypotheses have been resorted to in order to explain it . It has , for instance , been assumed that there exists in the animal economy a tendency to the forrmation of a soluble triple compound of oxalic acid , lime , and albumen , which , by its decomposition , allows oxalate of lime to crystallize . Then it has been maintained by Rees that uric acid and the urates furnish oxalic acid when the urine containing them is simply heated or boiled ; though this statement is questioned by other observers , and it is certain that under ordinary circumstances the conversion of one into the other can only be effected by means of very powerful oxidizing agents such as nitric acid . The attempts which have been m ade to prove that oxalate of lime may exist ready formed and in a state of solution in the urine are also unsatisfactory , the only known solvent likely to occulr naturally being acid phosphate of soda . Were this salt really the means of keeping the oxalate dissolved , the latter would only be deposited when the acid reaction of the urine had disappeared , or had at least somewhat diminished , which is not the case . Now , however , the whole process may be easily explained . Oxaluric acid , as all chemists know , may be considered as a compound of oxalic acid and urea minus water , its composition corresponding to that of oxamic acid . By the action of acids , alkalies , or even water at a high temperature , it is decomposed , yielding oxalic acid and urea . How easily this process of decomposition may be set up in urine when allowed to stand , or even boiled , need not be pointed out . The oxalic acid as soon as formed combines , of course , with the lime which is always present in urine , producing the well-known deposit of oxalate . Those who maintain , with Rees , that oxalate of lime may be produced in the urine after excretion are therefore quite correct , though the phenomenon has hitherto been wrrongly interpreted . The conversion of oxaluric into oxalic acid may , howeever , commence already in the bladder , or even more remote parts of the system , and thus lead to the formation of concretions and calculi . Regarding the origin of the oxaluric acid of urine there can be little doubt . In the animal frame , just as in the laboratory , it must be formed by the oxidation of uric acid , which is its only known source ; it may be considered as the vehicle appointed by nature for getting rid of oxalic acid in the least injurious form . Were this acid excreted as such , it would , by combining with lime , produce serious results , which are prevented by the simple expedient of causing it to pass off in a state of intimate union with urea . 1867 . ] Ainmoniazj in Urine . 143

112479

3701662

On a New Class of Bodies Homologous to Hydrocyanic Acid

144

147

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

A. W. Hofmann

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0024

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112479

10.1098/rspl.1867.0024

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112479

Chemistry 2

Biography

Chemistry

I. " On a New Class of Bodies Homologous to Hydrocyanic Acid."I . By A. W. HOMANN , LL. D. , F.R.S. Received August 20 , 1867 . The typical transformation which hydrocyanic acid undergoes when submitted , under appropriate circumstances , to the action of water , is capable of assuming two different forms when accomplished in its homologues . If the hydrocyanic molecule be found to fix the elements of two molecules of water , yielding ultimately formic acid and ammonia , it is obvious that the atom group which in the homologues of hydrocyanic acid we assume in the place of hydrogen may be eliminated when these homologues are decomposed by water in conjunction either with formic acid or with ammonia . To take an example:-When acting with water upon the simplest homologue of hydrocyanic acid ( upon cyanide of methyl ) , we may expect to see the methyl-group separating either in the form of methyl-formic , i. e. acetic acid , or in the form of methyl-ammonia , i. e. of methylamine . The difference of the two reactions and their relation to the metamorphosis of hydrocyanic acid itself are exhibited by the following equations : CI-IN + 21120 = C1202 + H3N . Prussic acid . Formiic acid . 1 . C2H3N + 2H20 C211402 + H1N . Cyanide of Methylformic methyl a. ( acetic ) acid . 2 . C H3 N+ 21-,0 =o C202 + CH3 N. Cyanide of Formic Methylamine . methyl 3 . acid . The former one of these processes of transformation is familiar to chemists from the study of the hydrocyanic ethers or nitriles . The first member of this remarkable group of bodies ( cyanide of ethyl ) was discovered by Pelouze ; the general character of their transformation was subsequently established by the beautiful investigations of Kolbe and Frankland on the one hand , and by those of Dumas , Malaguti , and Le Blanc on the other . Researches in which I have been engaged during the last few weeks have proved that the second process of transformation does not less frequently occur . Indeed I have found that there corresponds to each of the hydrocyanic ethers or nitriles known hitherto , a second body of precisely the same composition but of absolutely different properties . These substances , when changed by water , undergo the transformation which is exhibited by the last one of the three above equations . A happy experiment has led me to the discovery of this new class of bodies , In a lecture I wanted to exhibit the interesting transformation of ammonia into prussic acid by means of chloroform , which was first observed by M. Cloez , and which illustrates so well our present views on quantivalence . When the two substances alone are allowed to act upon one another , this reaction can be rapidly accomplished only at a high temperature and consequently under pressure . In order to shorten the process ( in one word , in order to exhibit this important reaction in a lecture-experiment ) , I had added potash to the mixture for the purpose of fixing the newly formed prussic acid , and was delighted to find that a few seconds ' ebullition was sufficient to yield a considerable amount of cyanide of potassium , so as to furnish , after the addition of the two salts of iron , a large quantity of Prussian blue . On subsequently repeating the experiment with some of the derivatives of ammonia , more especially with several primary monamines , I was astonished to observe in each case a powerful reaction giving rise to the evolution of vapours of an almost overwhelming odour , strongly recalling that of prussic acid . But few experiments were necessary for the purpose of isolating the odoriferous bodies . The compounds thus formed are the substances isomeric with the hydrocyanic ethers or nitriles hitherto examined . From the host of bodies which were thus suddenly thrown into view , it was necessary to single out the compound of a particular series in order to determine by accurate experiments the nature of the new reaction . The facility of procuring the necessary material , as well as old predilections , suggested the phenyl-series as the one to be examined in the first place . I beg leave to submit to the Royal Society a brief account of the mode of preparation , and of the principal properties , of the new derivative of aniline . Cyanide of Phenyl . A mixture of aniline , chloroform , and alcoholic potash yields on distillation a liquid of a powerfully aromatic but , at the same time , hydrocyanic-acidlike odour . The vapour of the liquid gives rise to a peculiar bitter taste , and causes , moreover , in the throat the suffocating sensation so characteristic of hydrocyanic acid . On redistilling the liquid , alcohol and water pass first , and ultimately an oily body is procured , which , in addition to the smelling substance , still contains a large amount of aniline . The latter is separated by oxalic acid , when the powerfully smelling compound remains in the form of a brownish oil . Freed from water by hydrate of potassium and purified by distillation , the new body presents itself as a mobile liquid , exhibiting a greenish colour in transmitted , and a beautifully blue colour in reflected light . This colour does not disappear by distillation even in a current of hydrogen . The analysis of the blue oil has established the formula C7T11N . The compound is thus seen to be isomeric with benzonitrile , discovered by Fehling , from which it differs , however , in all its properties . In order to distinguish the new compound from benzonitrile I will call it cyanide of 1867r.l 145 phenyl , without intending , however , by selecting this name , to express any particular view as to its constitution . The formation of cyanide of phenyl is represented by the following equation : C611N + CHC,1 C7-5 N+ 3HCL Aniline . Chloroform . Cyanide of phenyl . Cyanide of phenyl cannot be volatilized without undergoing decomposition . During distillation the thermometer marks for sometime the constant temperature of 167 ? , which may be taken as the boiling-point of cyanide of phenyl . Then the temperature rises rapidly to from 220 ? to 230 ? . The brown liquid which now distils is destitute of odour , and solidifies on cooling to a crystalline mass , easily purified by solution in alcohol , but not yet more minutely examined . Cyanide of phenyl is remarkable for the facility with which it combines with other cyanides . The compound with cyanide of silver is particularly beautiful . The behaviour of cyanide of phenyl with acids is more especially characteristic . Scarcely changed by the action of alkalies , it cannot be left in contact even with moderately dilute acids without undergoing alteration . When submitted to the action of concentrated acids , the liquid bursts into ebullition , and the solution , after cooling , contains only formic acid and aniline . C7 1HN + 21-0 =CH20+C JI7 N Cyanide of Formic Aniline . phenyl . acid . Benzonitrile , isomeric with cyanide of phenyl , is known to be slowly attacked by acids , but to be rapidly transformed by alkalies into benzoic acid and amm-onia . C7 H5N + 2H10 C7H60 , -I3N . Benzonitrile . B3enzoic acid . The transformation of benzonitrile into benzoate of ammonium , as , indeed , the transformation of the nitriles into the ammonium-salts of the respective acids generally , is not accomplished in one single bound . By fixing only one molecule of water , benzonitrile is first converted into benzamide , Cy7g N+ -120 = C77yyNO Benzonitrile . Benzamlide . Nor is the corresponding term of the isomeric series wanting . This substance has long been known as phenyl-formamide or formanilide , C71-1N +H2O == C717NO Cyanide of Phenylphenyl . formamirde . But , in addition to phenyl-formamide , there figures in this series a second inltermediate compound , the analogjue of which among the derivatives of benzonitrile is not yet perfectly known * . This compound is the well-defined base which some time ago I described as methenyldiphenyldiamine , and which may be looked upon as formed by the association of a molecule of cyanide of phenyl with a molecule of aniline . The successive changes which cyanide of phenyl undergoes when submitted to the influence of water are thus exhibited by the following series of equations : C14 1 2m 0 cy 2 mnols . cyanide of phenyl . C13 111 , N , Methenyldiphenylcliamine . C7 -7 NO Phenylformamide . + 2H,0 = C10 + CI02 +C N , Formic ac , id. Methenyldiphenyldiamine . + -I,0 = C7iNO +C yH7N PhenylAniline . +H2O fobrmamidce . =CI 20 Formic acidd . + C6-I7N Aniline . A glance at these formulme shows that the metamorphosis of phenylic cyanide is perfectly analogous to that of phenylic cyanate , which I have studied at an earlier date . C1 1110N2 2O + 21120 CH , 32 mols . cyanate Carbonic of phenyl . hydrate . C13 H12N,0 +,0 =C7N 02 Diphenyl-urea . Anhydrous carbonate of aniline . C , H7N02 + 120 = C1-203 Anhydrous carCarbonic bonate of aniline . hydrate . + C13 IN^2 0 Diphenyl-urea . +C HI7 N Aniline . +C 117N Aniline . In conclusion , I may state that I have submitted ethylamine , amylamine , and toluidine to the action of chloroform . The phenomena are , as might have been expected , perfectly analogous . Indeed the application of the new reaction to the different classes of the ammonia derivatives , to the amides , to the diamines and triamines , and perhaps even to some of the natural alkaloids , promises a rich harvest of results . Should I have the good fortune of gathering some of these , I shall not fail to present them to the Society , which has so generously encouraged and assisted my earlier researches in the field of organic chemistry . Shortly before his death , Gerhardt was engaged in experiments on the action of pentachloride of phosphorus on the amides , a brief account of which was subsequently published by M. Cahours . Among other substances , I find that , by acting with pentachloride of phosphorus upon benzanilide , Gerhardt obtained a chloride , C12 HI iNCI , which yields with ammonia a crystalline substance . It can scarcely be doubted that this compound is the derivative of benzonitrile corresponding to methenyldiphenyldiamine , C3 H loN Cl+H3 N =C3 H12 Ni , IHC1 . 1867 . ]

112480

3701662

On a New Series of Bodies Homologous to Hydrocyanic Acid.--II

148

150

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

A. W. Hofmann

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0025

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112480

10.1098/rspl.1867.0025

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112480

Chemistry 2

Biography

Chemistry

II . " On a New Series of Bodies Homologous to I-Hydrocyanic Acid."II . ByA . W. HOFMANN , LL. D. , F.R.S. Received August 31,1867 . In a letter submitted to the Royal Society some weeks ago I directed attention to a new series of homologues and analogues of hydrocyanic acid , generated by the action of chloroform on the primary monamines . As a representative of this group of bodies , I described the cyanide of phenyl , the formation and the properties of which had been almost exclusively the subject of my researches . I have followed up the study of these new bodies , which have become more and more attractive to me in proportion as I investigated their nature . Being formed in a well-defined reaction , endowed with properties quite unexpected , stable in certain cases , and of extreme alterability in others , capable of the most varied reactions that can be imagined , these bodies possess all the characters which invite a detailed examination . Thus I find myself at the threshhold of a long investigation , the results of which I beg permission to submit to the Royal Society in the order in which they present themselves . Cyanide of Ethyl . After having fixed in the phenylic group the general characters of the reaction , my attention was very naturally directed to the ethylic series . For this purpose , it was first necessary to procure ethylamine in rather considerable quantities . Iappily in this case the liberal cooperation , so often experienced , of my friend Mr. E. C. Nicholson , was again at hand . Interesting himself with a cordiality , for which I cannot sufficiently thank him , in the continuation of my researches on the ethylic bases , Mr. Nicholson had placed at my disposal the product of the action of ammonia on iodide of ethyl produced in a single operation performed in one of his great autoclaves on 20 kilogs . of iodide of ethyl . Thanks to the happy alliance between science and industry , which characterizes our times , I was thus enabled to study the transformation of ethylamine under the influence of chloroform on a rather large scale . On gradually introducing a mixture of an alcoholic solution of ethylamine and chloroform into a retort containing powdered potassic hydrate , a most powerful reaction takes place ; the mixture enters into ebullition , and a liquid distils over , the penetrating odour of which surpasses anything that it is possible to conceive . Besides the odoriferous body the product of the distillation contains ethylamine , chloroform , alcohol , and water , and a considerable number of rectifications are required in order to isolate the cyanide of ethyl from this mixture . As the substance is rather volatile , the frequently repeated fractional distillations become a most painful operation , and more than once , while I have been engaged in these experiments , my laboratory has been almost inaccessible . Thus with a temperature of 30 ? I have found it desirable to 14,8 interrupt for the time the preparation in the pure state of the cyanide of ethyl , and to resume it at a more favourable season . I was nevertheless curious to study , even now , a true homologue of cyanide of ethyl in order to compare its properties with those of cyanide of phenyl . The boiling-points of the amylic compounds being within convenient limits , I was induced to select the amyl-series as presenting the greatest chance of success . On submitting amylamine to the action of chloroform , the same phenomena are observed as in the analogous reaction between chloroform and aniline . One molecule of amylamine and one molecule of chloroform contain the elements of one molecule of cyanide of amyl and three of hydrochloric acid : C H13 N+ CtICI , = C , H-1 N+3 IC1l Amylamine . Chloroform . Cyanide of amyl . The cyanide of amyl is a transparent colourless liquid lighter than water , insoluble in water , but dissolved by alcohol and ether , of an oppressive odour , resembling at the same time that of amylic alcohol and of hydrocyanic acid . Its vapour possesses , in a still higher degree than that of the cyanide of phenyl , the property of producing on the tongue an insupportably bitter taste , and of giving rise in the throat to the sensation of suffocation , so characteristic of hydrocyanic acid . The cyanide of amyl may be distilled without decomposition . It boils at 1370 C. , that is , at a temperature 8 ? lower than the boiling-point of its isomer , capronitrile . It will be remembered that the boiling-point of cyanide of phenvl is lower than that of benzonitrile . Under the influence of alkalies and acids , the cyanide of amyl behaves in the same manner as the phenylic cyanide . Though only slightly attacked by alkalies , it is decomposed by acids with a violence which is almost explosive ; a short ebullition with water is sufficient to transform it into formic acid and amylamine-C H,1lN +2 1H = CIH,20 , + C5 H13N . Cyanide of amyl . Formic acid . Amylamine . In order to fix this equation by numbers , I have carried out the reaction by means of dilute sulphuric acid . The formic acid was then distilled off and transformed into a sodium-salt , and analyzed as formate of silver ; the residue in the retort furnished , on addition of an alkali , amylamine in considerable quantities . It was identified with that obtained from cyanate of amyl , both by the determination of its boiling-point and by the analysis of the platinum-salt . The transformation of the cyanide of amyl , like that of the cyanide of phenyl , does not take place at a single step ; intermediate combinations corresponding to metheylphyliphenyldiamine and to phenylformamide are produced , but I have not yet obtained them in a state of purity . 1867 . ] ].49 I have designated the body described in this note by the name of cyanide of amyl ; I am of course aware that the same name has been given to the substance produced by the action of cyanide of potassium on the sulphamylates ; but as the latter compound , in consequence of its transformation into caproic acid and ammonia , has a right to the name capronitrille , I have thought it desirable to distinguish , provisionally at least , the new product by the name of cyanide of amyl . The examination of the cyanides of amyl and phenyl establishes in a positive manner the existence of a group of bodies isomeric with the nitriles derived from the ordinary alcohols and phenols . I have not as yet pursued more minutely the study of the other terms of these groups ; in fact the field opened by these new observations presents questions much more attractive . The existence of the new homologues of hydrocyanic acid allow us to foresee the formation of quite another series of homologues of cyanogen . These bodies will be produced by the action of chloroform on the diamines . Ethylene-diamine , for example , will thus be transformed into the dicyanide of ethylene ; C2H N2 + 2CHCI3 = C4H , N2 + 6HC1 . EthyleneChloroform . Dicyanide of diamine . ethylene . I am now occupied with the study of the action of chloroform on ethylene-diamine , and I propose shortly to inform the Royal Society whether experiment confirms the predictions of theory .

112481

3701662

On a New Series of Bodies Homologous to Hydrocyanic Acid.--III

150

153

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

A. W. Hofmann

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0026

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112481

10.1098/rspl.1867.0026

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112481

Chemistry 2

Biography

Chemistry

III . " On a New Series of Bodies Homologous to Hydrocyanic Acid."III . By A. W. HoiMANN- , LL. D. , F.R.S. Reccived September 7 , 1867 . The new cyanides isomeric with the nitriles , which I have described in two previous communications , are not formed exclusively by the action of chloroform on the primary monamines . On perusing the papers describing the examination of the organic cyanides , we see at a glance that the chemists who investigated them have had in their hands at the same time the isomeric cyanides with which I am engaged . In fact everyone who has distilled mixtures of sulphomethylate , sulphethylate , or sulphamylate of potassium with the cyanide of the same metal , will remember the repulsive odour possessed by the products so obtained . This odour only disappears in proportion as the product is purified , and especially after its treatment with acid , in order to remove the ammonia , and with oxide of mercury to separate the hydrocyanic acid . Dumas , Malaguti , and Le Blanc , in their researches on the nitriles , mention the insupportable odour possessed by the cyanides obtained by the cyanide-of-potassium process ; while the products obtained by the dehydration of the ammoniacal salts by means of phosphoric anhydride have a very agreeable aromatic odour . 150 In a research made by Mr. Buckton and myself on the transformations of the amides and nitriles under the influence of sulphuric acid , we repeatedly had occasion to prepare acetonitrile ( cyanide of methyl ) and propionitrile ( cyanide of ethyl ) by the distillation of a sulphomethyiate or sulphethylate with cyanide of potassium . In our paper we mention substances of a formidable odour which appeared in these reactions , and we describe the efforts we made in order to isolate them . But as they are only formed in small quantity , we had to give up the attempt . Mr. E. Meeyer* , who has also been occupied with cyanide of ethyl , but who employed another method of preparation , encountered the same bodies . By acting on cyanide of silver with iodide of ethyl in sealed tubes , he obtained , together with iodide of silver , an unstable compound of cyanide of silver and cyanide of ethyl ; and there was formed in the same reaction a liquid of an overwhelming odour . This latter , on distillation , presented the characters of a mixture from which it was impossible to isolate a product with a constant boiling-point . When treated with an acid thetodour disappeared , and the solution contained ethylamine which was identified by the analysis of the platinum-salt . These are certainly the characters of the cyanides formed by the action of chloroform on the primary monamines ; and it cannot be doubted that Mr. Meyer has had in his hands the ethyl-term of the series of cyanides which I am studying , both in the combination with cyanide of silver and in the complex liquid which accompanied it . If such results did not particularly attract the attention of chemists , it was owing to the fact that the author failed in aseertaining the complementary product of ethylamine , namely , formic acid . Mr. Meyer , besides , states that his research remained unfinished ; and thus it will be understood how experiments otherwise so carefully carried out should have fallen into an oblivion from which neither the author nor any other chemist has endeavoured to recall them during the many years which have elapsed since their publication . In consequence of the examination of the bodies produced by the action of chloroform on the primary monamines , these old experiments have acquired a new interest ; and it appeared to me , for more than one reason , that it would be desirable to repeat them , making use of the experience gained by my late researches . For this purpose I have submitted cyanide of silver to the action of several organic iodides . The iodides of methyl and ethyl act very slowly on cyanide of silver at the ordinary temperature ; but the reaction takes place at the temperature of boiling water . After a digestion of about ten hours , the transformation is complete ; a brown solid matter is formed , having the appearance of paracyanogen , together with a yellowish oily layer possessing in a marked manner the odour of the isomers of the nitriles . As several preliminary experiments gave indications of a rather complicated reaction , and as it would have been difficult for me readily to obtain sufficient substance by operating in sealed tubes , I performed the experiment in the amylic series , supposing that the higher boiling-point of the iodide of amyl would render it more easy of attack . My expectation was indeed fulfilled : two molecules of cyanide of silver and one molecule of iodide of amyl act on one another with extreme violence at the boilingpoint of the latter . It is convenient to operate on a moderate scale , so as to be carefully protected from the escaping gases , which consist of equal volumes of amylene and hydrocyanic acid , mixed with a small quantity of the cyanide of amyl . The experiment was made in a retort adapted to the lower end of a condenser , the upper end of which was connected with a series of washing-bottles . In the first a small quantity of cyanide of amyl was condensed ; the second contained water intended to absorb the hydrocyanic acid ; the third one water and bromine in order to transform the amylene into bromide , of which I was thus enabled to collect a considerable quantity during my researches . After an hour 's digestion , the reaction is finished , and the residue in the retort consists of a dark viscous mass , becoming almost solid on cooling ; this is a mixture of iodide of silver and a combination of cyanide of silver and cyanide of amyl . The reaction then takes place according to the equation : C5 HI + 2AgCN AgI + AgCN , C , H1 CN . Iodide of amyl . Cyanide of silver . Compouind of cyanide of silver and cyanide of amyl . BJ3t simultaneously a certain quantity of cyanide of amyl splits into amylene and hydrocyanic acid : C5 H1 CN C5H , +CN N. Cyanide of amyl . Amylene . HIydrocyanic acid . This secondary transformation depends principally on the manner in which the operation is conducted ; it may give rise to very great loss if the reaction be rather tumultuous . It was now necessary to separate the cyanide of amyl from the residue in the retort . Up to the present time I have found no other means of effecting this than by submitting the residue to dry distillation ; in this operation a further quantity of hydrocyanic acid and amylene is disengaged , and a liquid distils over , which on rectification boils between 50 ? and 200 ? . By submitting it to fractional distillation it was found that the first part still contained a quantity of amylene , whilst the latter products had become inodorous . The intermediate portion , rectified several times , finally exhibited a constant boiling-point between 135 ? andc 13 ? . The liquid which distils at this temperature is perfectly pure cyanide of amyl . It possesses all the properties which I have described in my previous communication , and is characterized especially by its odour and by the facility with which , under the influence of hydrochloric acid , it splits into formic acid and amylamine . I have not yet completely examined the products boiling at a higher temperature , but everything seems to show that they consist , partly at least , of capronitrile . The experiments which I have just described show , in a positive manner , that the same bodies can be obtained by the action of chloroform on the primary monamines , and by the treatment of cyanide of silver with the alcoholic iodides . In the latter process many secondary products are obtained ; but by a more complete study perhaps it may be modified so as to diminish their quantity . However this may be , the study of the action of the alcoholic iodides upon silver-salts deserves to be resumed ; and it is very probable that in many cases it will be found that the bodies so produced will be but isomeric with those obtained by the ordinary processes . For the special researches in which 1 am engaged at the present time , the observations just described have a particular interest ; they permit us , in fact , to produce the isomeric cyanides without first preparing the primary monamines ; they are especially important with reference to the generation of the polycyanides . The polyamines , in fact , are little , if at all , known up to the present , whilst the iodides of methylene and ethylene and iodoform are easy to procure . If I have not yet succeeded in preparing a dicyanide of ethylene , C4 H4 N , , isomeric with Mr. Maxwell Simpson 's cyanide , it is because I have not had at my disposal a sufficient quantity of ethylene-diamine . I now hope to obtain this body by submitting cyanide of silver to the action of iodide of ethylene . In conclusion , I may be permitted to announce as very probable the ex. istence of a series of bodies isomeric with the sulphocyanides . Already Mr. Cloez has shown that the action of chloride of cyanogen on ethylate of potassium gives rise to the formation of an ethylic cyanate possessing properties absolutely different from those belonging to the cyanate discovered by Mr. Wurtz . On comparing , on the other hand , the properties of the methylic and ethylic sulphocyanides with those of the sulphocyanides of allyl and phenyl , we can scarcely doubt that we have here the representatives of two groups entirely different , and that the terms of the methylic and ethylic series , which correspond to oil of mustard and to the sulphocyanide of phenyl , still remain to be discovered . Experiments with which I am now engaged will show whether these bodies can be obtained by the action of the iodides of methyl and ethyl on sulphocyanide of silver . I must not conclude this note without expressing my thanks to Messrs. Sell and Pinner for the hearty cooperation that they are giving me in these researches .

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Second Supplementary Paper on the Calculation of the Numerical Value of Euler's Constant

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William Shanks

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Tables

Biography

Tables

IV . " Second SupplementsW Paper on the Calculation of the Numerical Value of Euler 's Constant , " By WILLIAM SHANKS ) Houghton-le-Spring , Durham . Communicated by the Rev. Professor PRICE , F.R.S. Received August 29 , 1867 . When in=2000 , we have ++2 + . 0 . -0 =-817836 81036 10282 40957 76565 71641 69368 79354 66740 91251 77402 20409 26320 14205 58039 78429 87946 27554 87631 13645+ E='57721 56649 01532 86060 65120 90082 40243 10421 59335 93995 35988 05772 51046 48794 94723 80546 ( last term is B1 , 24 . 200024 ) ' Here the 60th decimal place in the value of E is the same when n is 2000 as it is when n is 1000 . When n=500 , we have in the value of E , 60th }1 53865 48677 & e. decimal and onwards ... ... . . , 1000 , , , . SS 2 02455 61942 & c , 2000 , , , , , 2 51046 48794 &c. By subtracting the first of these three from the 1 48590 13265 second , we have ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . j By subtracting the second from the third , we have 48590 86852 It is somewhat remarkable that these differences are the same to five places of decimals ; and it may be observed that the value of E will probably be changed and extended very slowly nlindeed b employing higher values of n. The remark in the previous Supplementary Paper* , as to n being 50000 or even 100000 in order to obtain probably about 100 places of decimals in E , seems , the author now thinks , to be not well founded ; and he hesitates even to conjecture what number of terms of the Harmonic Progression should be " summed " to ensure accuracy in the value of E to 100 decimals .

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Addition to Memoir on the Resultant of a System of Two Equations. [Abstract]

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A. Cayley

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Biography

Chemistry 2

Biography

I. " On a New Class of Bodies Homologous to Hydrocyanic Acid . " I.-By A. W. HOFMANN , F.R.S. Received August 20 , 1867 . ( See page 144 . ) II . " On a New Series of Bodies Homologous to Hydrocyanic Acid . " -II . By A. W. HOFMANN , LL. D. , F.R.S. Received August 31 , 1867 . ( See page 148 . ) III.- " On a New Series of Bodies Homologous to Hydrocyanic Acid."-III . By A. W. HOFMANN , LL. D. , F.R.S. Received September 7 , 1867 . ( See page 150 . ) IV.- " Second Supplementary Paper on the Calculation of the Numerical Value of Euler 's Constant . " By WILLIAM SHANKS , Houghton-le-Spring , Durham . Communicated by the Rev. Professor PRICE . Received August 29 , 1867 . ( See page 154 . ) V. " Addition to Memoir on the Resultant of a System of Two Equations . " By A. CAYLEY . Received August 6 , 1867 . ( Abstract . ) The elimination tables in the memoir on the Resultant of a System of two Equations ( Phil. Trans. 1857 , pp. 703-715 ) , relate to equations of the form ( a , b. . x , y)-"=O , without numerical coefficients ; but it is , I think , desirable to give the corresponding tables for equations in the form ( a , b. . x , y)m =O , with numerical coefficients , which is the standard form in quantics . The transformation can of course be effected without difficulty , and the results are as here given . It is easy to see d priori that the sum of the numerical coefficients in each table ought to vanish ; these sums do in fact vanish , and we have thus a verification as well of the tables of the present addition as of the tables of the original memoir , by means whereof the present tables were calculated . VI . " Contributions to the History of Methylic Aldehyde . " By A. W. HOFMANN , LL. D. , F.R.S. Received September 30 , 1867 . " The aldehyde of the methyl-series is not known ; " all the chemical manuals say so , and for the last twenty years my students have been duly informed thereof . It will scarcely appear strange that more efforts to become acquainted with that body should not have been made , since the masterly picture which Liebig has delineated of the aldehyde par excellence embraced as it were the history of the whole class , and of course also of the aldehyde in question . Nevertheless methylic aldehyde deserves our consideration for more than one reason . As one of the simplest terms of the monocarbon-series , occupying a position intermediate between marshgas and carbonic acid , as a link of transition connecting methylic alcohol and formic acid , as either aldehyde or acetone , according to the point of view from which we look upon it , the compound CH , O illustrates-a greater variety of relations than any one of the higher aldehydes . But in addition to the interest with which the methyl-compound has thus always been invested , this substance possesses special claims upon our attention at the present moment . Our actual method of treating organic chemistry for the purposes of instruction almost involves the necessity of starting from the methyl-series . The simplest of aldehydes thus acquires quite an especial importance , and all those who , like the author of this note , are engaged in teaching , cannot fail to have sadly missed a compound which is the carrier of such varied and interesting considerations . The desire which I have frequently felt in my lectures of developing the idea of the genus aldehyde , when speaking of the methyl-compounds , has 156 [ Nov. 21 ,

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Contributions to the History of Methylic Aldehyde

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A. W. Hofmann

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Chemistry 2

Thermodynamics

Chemistry

VI . " Contributions to the History of Methylic Aldehyde . " By A. W. HOFMANN , LL. D. , F.R.S. Received September 30 , 1867 . " The aldehyde of the methyl-series is not known ; " all the chemical manuals say so , and for the last twenty years my students have been duly informed thereof . It will scarcely appear strange that more efforts to become acquainted with that body should not have been made , since the masterly picture which Liebig has delineated of the aldehyde par excellence embraced as it were the history of the whole class , and of course also of the aldehyde in question . Nevertheless methylic aldehyde deserves our consideration for more than one reason . As one of the simplest terms of the monocarbon-series , occupying a position intermediate between marshgas and carbonic acid , as a link of transition connecting methylic alcohol and formic acid , as either aldehyde or acetone , according to the point of view from which we look upon it , the compound CH , O illustrates-a greater variety of relations than any one of the higher aldehydes . But in addition to the interest with which the methyl-compound has thus always been invested , this substance possesses special claims upon our attention at the present moment . Our actual method of treating organic chemistry for the purposes of instruction almost involves the necessity of starting from the methyl-series . The simplest of aldehydes thus acquires quite an especial importance , and all those who , like the author of this note , are engaged in teaching , cannot fail to have sadly missed a compound which is the carrier of such varied and interesting considerations . The desire which I have frequently felt in my lectures of developing the idea of the genus aldehyde , when speaking of the methyl-compounds , has 156 [ Nov. 21 , more than once induced me to attempt the preparation of methyl-aldehyde , but it was only at the conclusion of my last summer course that I succeeded , to a certain extent at all events , in attaining the object of my wishes . A substance possessing the composition and the properties of methylic aldehyde is formed with surprising facility if a current of atmospheric air , charged with the vapour of methylic alcohol , be directed upon an incandescent platinum spiral . The bottom of a strong three-necked bottle , of two litres ' capacity , is covered to the height of about five centimetres with moderately warm methylic alcohol . The first neck is provided with a tube descending to the very surface of the liquid ; into the second is fixed a loosely-fitting cork , which carries the platinum spiral ; the third one , lastly , communicates with the upper end of a condenser , the lower end of which is fastened into a twonecked receiver . This receiver is in its turn connected with a series of washbottles , and the last of these communicates with a water-jet aspirator , by which a current of air can be sucked through the whole system . The apparatus being disposed in this manner , the platinum spiral is heated to redness and introduced into the three-necked bottle . After a few minutes the flameless combustion of the methyl-alcohol begins to manifest itself by the evolution of a vapour powerfully affecting the nose and eyes . Gradually the temperature of the apparatus rises , and soon droplets of a colourless liquid are condensed in the receiver . The formation of methyl-aldehyde is now fairly proceeding , and if the current of air be appropriately adjusted , the platinum spiral remains incandescent for hours and even for days . There is no difficulty in collecting from 50 to 100 grammes of a liquid rather rich in methyl-aldehyde . Instead of establishing the current of air by a water-jet aspirator , a pair of bellows may be conveniently employed . I have often used with advantage the bellows of an ordinary glass-blowing table . This mode of proceeding is more particularly adapted to the requirements of the lecturer , who is thus enabled , by simply accelerating the movement of the foot , to enliven the combustion , so as to keep the whole spiral in a state of incandescence . By thus proceeding it happens , however , occasionally that the gaseous mixture in the three-necked bottle is fired ; but these explosions are perfectly harmless , the whole effect being the forcible ejection of the loosely-fitting cork which carries the platinum spiral . The liquid which is being collected in the receiver has all the properties which theory assigns to the aldehyde of the methyl-series , or , more properly speaking , to its methyl-alcoholic solution . When rendered slightly alkaline by a few drops of ammonia , and mixed with nitrate of silver , it yields , on gently warming , a silver mirror of irreproachable perfection , which is indeed more readily and more certainly produced than with the aldehyde of the ethyl-series . The reduction in this case is the result of two consecutive reactions ; in the first stage the aldehyde yields formic acid , which in the second stage is converted into water and carbonic acid . N2 1867 . ] 157 On heating the methyl-alcoholic solution of the aldehyde with a few drops of a fixed alkali , the liquid becomes turbid on ebullition , acquires a yellowish coloration , and soon deposits droplets of a brownish oil , possessing in the highest degree the peculiar odour of ethyl-aldehyde-resin . After the observation which I have mentioned , it was scarcely doubtful that the product of the slow combustion of methylic alcohol contained the aldehyde of this alcohol in considerable proportion . Nevertheless it appeared necessary to fix the nature of this compound by some numbers . The commencement of the vacations being at hand , there was but little hope of preparing the liquid in sufficient quantity for the purpose of obtaining the aldehyde , which will probably be found to be either gaseous at the common temperature or extremely volatile , in a state of purity for analysis . Under these circumstances I have been compelled to limit myself to the preparation of an easily accessible derivative of methyl-aldehyde possessing a characteristic composition , and the analysis of which would not be less conclusive than that of the aldehyde itself . The slight solubility and the powerfully crystalline tendencies of the sulphaldehyde of the ethyl series could not fail to indicate the direction in which I had a right to hope that the object which I was aiming at might be accomplished . If a current of sulphuretted hydrogen be passed through the methyl-alcoholic solution of methyl-aldehyde , the liquid becomes turbid after a few minutes , and on allowing the saturated solution to stand for some hours , a body of an alliaceous odour begins to be separated at the bottom of the flask . If the liquid be now mixed with half its volume of concentrated hydrochloric acid , and heated to ebullition , it becomes limpid , and solidifies on cooling into a mass of felted needles of dazzling whiteness . These needles fuse at 218 ? ; they are volatile without decomposition . Slightly soluble in water , they are more readily dissolved by alcohol , and still more so by ether . For the purpose of analysis they were recrystallized from boiling water , in order to exclude free sulphur , with which they might have possibly been contaminated . The numbers obtained in the analysis of the crystals unmistakeably establish their nature . The white crystals , as might have been expected , have the composition of the sulphaldehyde of the methyl-series , CH2 S. The analysis of the sulphur-compound fixes , of course , the presence of the corresponding oxygen compound among the products of the slow combustion of methylic alcohol . A more minute examination of methylic aldehyde and its derivatives remains still to be made . It will be absolutely necessary to isolate the oxygen-term and to determine its vapour-density , in order to ascertain its molecular weight . If we remember the facility with which the aldehydes are polimerized , the question presents itself , whether the aldehyde formed by the slow combustion of methylic alcohol is represented by the formula CI , 0 , or a multiple thereof . A similar remark applies to the sulphur-derivative . 158 [ Nov. 21 , It deserves , moreover , to be mentioned that a compound isomeric with methylic aldehyde , the dioxymethylene ( C2 H4 02 ) of M. Boutlerow , is known already ; also that a sulphur-compound of the formula CH1 S has been obtained by M. Aim Girard , who observed that bisulphide of carbon is reduced by the action of nascent hydrogen with disengagement of sulphuretted hydrogen . In the course of next winter I propose to perform some further experiments on the product of the slow combustion of methylic alcohol for the purpose , if possible , of isolating methylic aldehyde in a state of purity , and of thus completing this inquiry .

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On the New Reflecting Telescope to Be Used at Melbourne, Australia

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Dr. Robinson

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Measurement

Astronomy

Measurement

VII . " On the New Reflecting Telescope to be used at Melbourne , Australia . " In a Letter to the President . By the Rev. Dr. ROBINsoN , F.R.S. Received October 15 , 1867 . Observatory , Armagh , October 14 , 1867 . MY DEAR FRIEND , -AS you express a wish to know my recent impressions respecting the great telescope , I can say that they are very satisfactory . When I saw it six weeks ago the first of the two great specula was just polished ; and though the essential parts of the equatoreal were in position , and one could estimate the facility with which it could be managed , the optical part of the telescope remained incomplete . Now , I found the great and small specula in their places , a finder of four inches aperture attached , the circles divided , and the clock for driving the telescope enshrined in the pier . One thing was wanting , weather fit for trying its power ; and during eighteen nights there was only one of even middling goodness . That , however , was sufficient to prove that the instrument is thoroughly up to its intended work . I examined several nebnlne and clusters , with whose appearance in Lord Rosse 's six-feet reflector I am familiar , and the difference was far less than I expected . I may specify among them 51 Messier , whose spirals were seen on strong aurora , and the nebula in Aquarius , with its appendages like the ring of Saturn . Its definition of stars is very good : a Lyrae had as small and sharp an image as I ever saw on such a night ; and a few pretty close double stars were well and clearly separated . Part of this is probably due to the lattice-tube , which permits the escape of heated air , but more to the figure of the speculum , which is truly parabolic . The peculiar nature of the mounting brings the circles completely within reach of the observer 's assistant ; and the mechanical appliances for the motions in right ascension and polar distance are so perfect , that we set the instrument on the faint objects which we were examning with great facility and rapidity . One man can reverse the telescope in a minute and a quarter ; the quick motion in polar distance is of course far easier , and the slow one acts more like the tangent screw of 159 a circle than the mover of such a huge mass . The clock is rather gigantic , but does its work with great precision , the objects which I examined remaining steady on the wire as long as I watched them ; and there is an ingenious and new contrivance for suiting its speed to planets or the moon . There remain but a few matters to be completed ; the second great speculum is nearly polished , the glass small one is ready ; the micrometer and observing-chair are not commenced , nor the photographic apparatus and spectroscope . These two last are no part of Mr. Grubb 's contract ; but the Committee thought themselves justified by the correspondence in ordering them , as their cost is small , and they will add greatly to the utility of the telescope . In the fine sky of Melbourne it will , I trust , yield spectroscopic results surpassing any that have as yet been obtained * . That it will realize fully the expectations of the people whose enlightened liberality has ordered its construction I am quite certain ; but I am not so certain that it will retain its present perfection very long if exposed without some shelter . It is true that Mr. Cooper 's great achromatic has stood exposed to the rain and wind of Connaught for more than thirty years , and is still serviceable ; but besides its inferior size it is of coarser workmanship , and is provided with fewer of those beautiful contrivances which in this instrument make its movements so easy . At Melbourne the rain of Markree is not to be feared ; but if one may judge from its position on the verge of a great continent , and from the analogy of India and the Cape , another enemy is to be dreaded , the fine dust which winds from the interior will probably bring . This would find its way into all the bearings , and besides clogging their action would grind them out of truth . The danger of this induces me , after careful discussion with Messrs. Le Sueur and the two Grubbs , to lay before you my views , which ( if you think them sound ) you may hold it advisable to mention to the authorities of Victoria . Three modes occur to me of covering the telescope . In any case it must be surrounded by a wall , for the comfort of the observer and to prevent intrusion . This wall may support a moveable covering of such a kind as to let the instrument be pointed to every part of the sky . The most usual form of this covering is a dome running on a circular railway , and with an opening or chase on one side reaching from its base to its summit , and closed by a sliding shutter . The disadvantages of this plan are , that the performance of the telescope is somewhat injured by currents of warm air rising through the chase , and that it is much heavier and more costly than either of the others . In this instance its diameter could not be less than 56 feet ; and though that magnitude is not beyond the resources of an accomplished engineer , yet it is not one to be encountered without the prospect of some adequate advantage . The largest dome which I know ( Sir James South 's , of 36 feet diameter ) is a total failure ; but this does not weigh much with me-for , though planned by the celebrated Brunel , it transgresses against the elements of mechanical science . A much simpler plan is the sliding roof . In this case the walls are rectangular , enclosing a space rather broader than the instrument , and about three times as long . The longer sides carry two rails , on which runs a kind of house long enough to cover the instrument and pier , and high enough to clear the latter . That end which at Melbourne will be its north is closed by doors , which are opened at the time of observation , and the roof is wheeled away , leaving all in the open air . It will be the cheapest and least bulky of the three . Its defects are , that the open end presents some engineering difficulty , that the roof will hide about 12 ? under the pole , and that the whole machinery is exposed to any dust that may be stirring during the hours of observing . That which appears the best is the revolving roof . Its vertical part is a prism of sixteen sides , six feet high , springing from a ring of cast iron , which revolves by rollers on a circular rail borne by the wall . The top is nearly flat , with a chase large enough to let the telescope work freely , which can be covered by sliding shutters . The tube , when in use , would project through the chase , and be essentially in free air , at other times could be lowered and completely sheltered ; while the other parts would be as well protected as under a dome . In this case the internal diameter should be about 46 feet , with a chase 16 feet wide . These dimensions would give complete command of the heavens , and such a roof would give less hold to a high wind than either of the others . I enclose a rough sketch of its framing . The panels and the three girders at the top to be of angleiron , light but strong , and these covered with tin plate . If it were adopted , I suppose the frame would be made here , sent out in pieces , and put together and covered on its arrival . The weight would be about 5 tons . As to its cost , no estimate can be given , as labour costs more at Melbourne than with us ; but in Ireland it would be about ? 1200 . I will conclude this long letter by telling you how much I am satisfied with our selection of the astronomer who is to work this glorious instrument . He is not a mere mathematician ; such a one might be very helpless when he came to the practical details of observing , but he is thoroughly versed in its optical and mechanical requirements , and in the daily work of an observatory . For this last he has been trained by Professor Adams during the past year ; one of the Committee , Mr. Warren De la Rue , the first of celestial photographers , has instructed him in the mysteries of that surprising art ; and for the last three months he has been constantly in Mr. Grubb 's works , studying all the mechanism of the telescope ( of which I see he has acquired full command ) , and taking an active part in the polishing of the great specula . He seems fully to understand this most delicate process ; and it is my opinion that , if repolishing becomes necessary , he is fully competent to do it successfully . I may therefore congratulate you in full hope on the inestimable harvest of discovery and triumph which will soon crown this magnificent enterprise . Yours ever , ( Signed ) T.R. ROBINSON . 161

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Copy of a Despatch Addressed to Her Majesty's Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs by the British Consul at Canea, Crete, Giving an Account of an Earthquake Which Took Place in That Island

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C.H. Dickson

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Reporting

Meteorology

Reporting

VIII . " Copy of a Despatch addressed to Her Majesty 's Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs by the British Consul at Canea , Crete , giving an account of an Earthquake which took place in that Island . " Communicated by the Lord STANLEY , F.R.S. Received October 17 , 1867 . Canea , Crete , September 23 , 1867 . MY LORD , -I have the honour to acquaint your Lordship that two shocks of earthquake were felt here at 5~ on the afternoon of the 19th instant , and again on the following morning , after an interval of twelve hours . The latter shock was severe , and lasted about ten seconds . The oscillations were horizontal , and appeared to proceed from east to west . Several houses have been'cracked and otherwise damaged , and one of the old Venetian galley-arches fell sideways in a block , killing a Turkish sentry and a hospital attendant . A remarkable phenomenon occurred that morning soon after the earthquake . The sea receded at the rate of about ten inches per minute , until , attaining a maximum depression of some four feet , it gradually rose again above its former level . The water in the wells was affected in the same degree , and on rising it became much agitated . At 53 A.M. the sea-water was tepid , with a temperature of 87 ? ( Fahr. ) , being equal to that of the air . The morning was unusually still and sultry , and it was not until the afternoon that the sea subsided into its normal condition , tempered by a cool northerly breeze . A strong eddy had set in , causing much damage to shipping , several of the smaller craft parting their cables and coming into collision with each other . With reference to the state of the sea , it is worthy of note that the copper-bottom of Her Majesty 's Ship 'Wizard , ' now in this port , became suddenly clean and bright . Many of the town inhabitants have fled to the country , and the Generalissimo , with His Highness 's staff , has since removed to the camp outside the town . Mr. Iall , second master of Her Majesty 's Gunboat 'Wizard , ' has kindly given me the following results of his observations : Thursday , Sept. 19 , 1867.-5.40 P.M. Therm. 86 ? Fahr. Sea-water 85 ? .-Experienced the shock of an earthquake , four seconds ' duration . Friday , Sept. 20.-5.44 A.M. Mean time . Place Chr. Therm. 85 ? to 87 ? Fahr. Sea-water 87 ? .-Experienced a second shock of an earthquake , five seconds ' duration , followed by a series of violent effluxes and influxes of the sea at intervals of ten minutes . 6.0 A.M. Therm. 78 ? . Water 77 ? .-Rate of efflux and influx on perpendicular three feet in four minutes . 6.45 A.M.-Duration of efflux and influx six minutes . Rate of do . six minutes . Perpendicular two feet in four minutes . Noon.-Duration of efflux and influx four minutes . I have the honour to be , with the highest respect , my Lord , Your Lordship 's most obedient humble Servant , ( Signed ) C. II . DICKSON ,

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Anniversary Meeting

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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112487

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112487

Biography

Agriculture

Biography

GENTLEMEN , THE year which has passed since I last addressed you has been to us a mournfully eventful one . Death has taken from us three of our most eminent and respected Members . Two were my predecessors in this Chair , for whom , only a few months ago , we might well have hoped that many years of useful life were yet in store . In regard to the third , the declining health of Faraday ( one of the greatest names in our annals ) for a considerable time forbade such hope in his case . Whilst you deplore with me the losses we have sustained , you will be prepared to read with strong interest the biographical notices of these distinguished men , which are very shortly to appear in our obituary . It is well that I am able to announce that these will be so soon in your hands , for even the feeble attempt on my part to do justice to such a theme on this occasion , which might otherwise have been expected of me ( altogether inadequate as it must have been ) , would have occupied the greater part , if not the whole , of the time claimed by our more ordinary topics . I pass therefore at once to the relation of the action taken by the Royal Society in the promotion of science in the past year . At the last Anniversary I gave an account of the progress made up to that time in printing the Catalogue of Scientific Papers . I am happy now to be able to announce that the first volume lies before us ready for publication . It comprehends a portion of the first part of the Catalogue , in which the titles are arranged alphabetically , according to authors ' names , and extends from A to Clu . An explanatory Preface and Introduction are prefixed , as is also a list of the periodical works from which the titles have been extracted , with the abbreviations under which they are referred to . I need scarcely remind you how often the appearance of the first volume of a series is necessarily subject to delays not incident to the succeeding volumes . This has happened in the present case ; and we may now confidently anticipate that the work will progress rapidly and uninterruptedly . You are aware that the work is being printed at Her Majesty 's Stationery Office , and that arrangements will be made , with the approval of the Government , for distributing a certain number of copies as presents to scientific institutions and other parties , while the remainder will be offered for sale at such a price as may defiay the cost of printing . The attention of the President and Council has continued to be much occupied duringthe past year in aiding , at the request of Her Majesty 's Government , in the reorganization of the meteorological department of the Board of Trade , and in preparing the preliminary arrangements of a system of British Land-Meteorology to be carried out under the authorization of that Board . In my Anniversary Address of last year , I brought before you , as fully as the time at our command would permit , the reasons which had influenced both the Government and the Royal Society in desiring the establishment in this country of meteorological observatories conducted on a systematic plan , and directed towards the attainment of a more perfect knowledge of the meteorology of our country than we at present possess . The scheme , which , at the instance of the Board of Trade , had been suggested by the President and Council , consisted in the establishment of six or seven observatories , well distributed over the area of the British Islands , furnished with self-recording instruments on the pattern of those devised and in use at the Kew Observatory , and transmitting their records of the temperature , pressure , electric and hygrometric state of the atmosphere , and of the direction and force of the wind to a central office , where ( under the general superintendence of a committee of scientific men ) tley should undergo the processes of reduction and combination , and be applied to the general study of the phenomena . The Government , acting with due caution , determined on submitting this suggestion , as well as , generally , the functions of the meteorological department of the Board of Trade as it had previously existed , to a committee of scientific and practical men to be nominated by the Government itself , the Royal Society being invited to name one of the members . The suggestion to which I have adverted , of the establishment of a small number of meteorological observatories supplied with self-recording instruments for the purpose of making a full , accurate , and continuous record of meteorological phenomena at certain selected stations , appears to have received the unqualified and emphatic approval of the committee , and to have been viewed by them as the most effectual means of supplying a secure and adequate basis for the discussion of the variations of the weather in the British Islands . Self-recording instruments are spoken of in the report as likely to prove of eminent local and international utility ; it is anticipated that the establishment of observatories furnished with them in England may be expected to confer a wide benefit , that they would give precision and fulness to the charts of our own weather , and would set an example that foreign governments would probably soon follow , and that they would afford material in a very acceptable form to meteorologists at home and abroad for the discussion of weather phenomena . The Board of Trade , after reference to the Admiralty and to the Treasury , adopted the Report of their Committee in a " Circular " dated November 29th , 1866 ; and at the same time asked the Royal Society whether they would be willing to name a committee of their own members to give their gratuitous services in the organization of the observatories recommended , and in the general superintendence of the Meteorological Department . The public service thus requested was unhesitatingly undertaken ; and on the 13th of December , 1866 , a committee was named of eight of the Fellows of the Royal Society who were willing to devote themselves to the onerous and responsible duties of such an undertaking . were required , and were furnished by them , of the probable cost of the organization , and of the annual expense of the Observatories . In August of the present year ( 1867 ) the estimates were passed in the House of Corn . mons ; and I have now the satisfaction of announcing , on the part of the Committee , that they have reason to believe that in January 1868 , being not more than six months after the passing of the estimates , Observatories supplied with self-recording instruments which have been prepared and verified at Kew , working under competent superintendence , and with a trained staff at each Observatory , will have commenced their observations at Falmouth , Kew , Stonyhurst , Armagh , and Glasgow , and that there is ground of expectation that , in a month or two later , Valentia and Aberdeen will be added to the list . The estimates passed in August 1867 will have defrayed the expenses of organization and maintenance of these seven Observatories until the 31st of March 1868 ( the close of the present financial year ) . The continuance of the Observatories must necessarily depend upon the disposition of Government to recommend , and of the House of Commons to supply , the necessary funds . The Superintending Committee of the Royal Society are prepared for either alternative , viz. either to continue their general superintendence , or to regard their honourable and laborious undertaking as terminated . In the former case , it will become their office to trace the variations of the weather , as presented in the continuous and well-distributed records over the area of the British Islands , viewed in conjunction with the telegrams from the Ports and with the information received from other countries , and thus so to contribute to a knowledge of the laws which govern those variations as to enable meteorologists gradually , and as far as may be possible , to place the practice of forecasting the weather on a sound and dependable basis . The Report of the Committee of the Board of Trade contains many valuable suggestions regarding the treatment which the information accumulated in the office of the meteorological department of that Board should undergo , with the view of extracting from it the information it is capable of affording on the meteorological statistics of the Ocean , and specially of the parts most frequented by British ships . This great branch of meteorological research , so eminently befitting a great maritime and commercial nation , was most prominently urged on the consideration of Ier Majesty 's Government by the President and Council of the Royal Society in a letter dated February 22 , 1855 ; and in the subsequent establishment of the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade it was recognized as being one of the chief functions of the office so constituted . The collection of a very considerable mass of information , embodied in the logs of ships to which instruments and instructions have been supplied , has been the result ; but comparatively little advance appears to have been made in the labour of extracting , collating , combining , and discussing the valuable nafterals thus obtained . The work , both of collecting further information , and of discussing and arranging for communication to the public the information already in the office and that which may hereafter be obtained , has been resumed under the general superintendence of the Meteorological Committee of the Royal Society , profiting by the valuable suggestions contained in the Report of the Committee of the Board of Trade . This forms the second portion of the duties which they have taken upon themselves . A third portion consists in the endeavour to make available for the benefit of mariners the information which reaches the office by telegraph early in the day as to the state of the weather at different points of the coast . A copy of this information is transmitted , by the first post after its reception , to any port which desires to receive it . If the authorities at any port require any special telegraphic intelligence , it is furnished to them without unnecessary delay , on their agreeing to defray half the cost of transmission of the message , and stating the precise nature of the information required . Lastly , the Committee are prepared to convey , free of cost , telegraphic intelligence of the existence of any serious atmospherical disturbance which may have come to their knowledge , to all ports to which it appears to them that such information would be of importance . Such a telegram may be , for example:"Storm from West at Penzance and South coast . " On the receipt of such a message the local authorities are expected to hoist a drum as a general warning , on seeing which masters of vessels or other interested persons may learn by inquiry at the local office ( or by other arrangements ) the precise nature of the information received , together with any additional particulars which may have been transmitted from the central office . It is clearly understood by all parties that any telegraphic message of a warning nature ( like the example here mentioned ) is merely meant to imply that there is a serious atmospherical disturbance existing along a certain region of coast , and consequently that there is , or may be , danger impending in other districts . Some such arrangement as that which has been now described was the subject of early discussion between the Board of Trade and the Committee of the Royal Society . The arrangement as adopted was proposed by the Committee in a letter dated the 8th of June , being some weeks before the estimates had passed , and consequently before they were authorized to incur any expenditure whatever on the public account . It has been since approved by the Board of Trade , and is now in operation . The telegraphic messages , which are now limited to a notice of " existing facts , " are obviously capable of extension hereafter , in proportion as the basis upon which sound meteorological anticipations may rest shall be enlarged ; and this we may reasonably hope for , as one of the fruits of the establishment and action of the " 6 Land Meteorological Observatories . " Meantime a not unimportant preliminary measure has received its due consideration . FroT an early period the attention of the Committee had been drawn to the importance of improving , as far as possible , the quality of the intelligence received from the coast stations . With this view they gave directions that all the telegraph stations at which observations are made should be inspected-a practice which had never before been carried out . The inspection of all the stations situated in the British Islands has now been completed . It is hoped that , as the result of these measures , the accuracy and consequent value of the reports received will be in future materially improved ; and such desirable improvement has indeed already been in part effected . The four-foot reflector destined for the Melbourne Observatory approaches its completion , with a full prospect of its being ready to proceed to its destination early in the coming year , under the charge of Mr. Le Sueur . The spectroscope and photographic apparatus , which are to be used with it , are in progress . A question has arisen as to the expediency of providing it with some roof or covering which , while admitting of the telescope being directed to any part of the heavens , shall be an efficient protection for it from the weather at all times when not in actual use . Three designs for this purpose , viz. a dome , a sliding roof , and a revolving roof , with the estimated cost of each , have been supplied by Mr. Grubb , and have been sent to Melbourne to be submitted to the choice of the Board of Visitors of the Observatory ; their decision may be expected to arrive very shortly , and Mr. Grubb is prepared to carry it into effect with all promptitude . There is therefore full reason to expect that this magnificent instrument will be at work in the splendid field which awaits its operations , in the hands of a thoroughly skilled and competent observer , before our next Anniversary . The Superintending Committee , whose assistance in this important undertaking has been unremittingly given , have sustained a loss , which all who hear me will appreciate , in the lamented decease of the Earl of Rosse . Deeply as the death of one so highly gifted , and who devoted his gifts to such high objects , is to be deplored , it is some consolation that his son and successor is one who will add to the lustre of their name . He is already known to you by the important paper on the Nebula of Orion which was read at the close of our last session , and is now in course of publication in the Philosophical Transactions . This paper appears clearly to show that , in the course of the last fifteen years , considerable changes have taken place in that remarkable object , such as cannot be attributed either to atmospheric difficulties of vision , or changes in the instrument , or in the observer 's eye . It confirms fully the researches of Mr. Huggins , and at the same time explains what had presented some difficulty , the absence of a continuous spectrum when the telescope shows a multitude of stars . In conformity with the course of proceeding directed by the Melbourne Board of Visitors , in the event of such an emergency as the death of one of the three members of the Committee of Superintendence , I have consulted with the two surviving members , Dr. Robinson and Mr. De la Rue , and , in agreement with their recommendation , have named the present Earl of Rosse as their associate . The year 1868 will be signalized by the occurrence of a total solar eclipse of almost the greatest possible duration , affording therefore more leisure than usual for such observations as can only be made during the brief interval of the totality . The total phase will be visible in India , but elsewhere only in countries practically unavailable . Recent observations on the spectra of the heavenly bodies render spectroscopic observations of the red protuberances and of the corona a matter of peculiar interest at the present time . The President and Council have therefore considered how far they might contribute to a full use of so rare an opportunity in regard to these more especially physical phenomena . Having already experienced , in the case of the pendulum experiments in India reported in my last year 's Address , the advantage of acting in concert with the distinguished officer who now holds the post of Superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey , Colonel Walker of the Royal Engineers , and having ascertained his readiness to charge himself with the practical arrangements which would be required for the observation of the eclipse , the President and Council determined on employing a portion of the Parliamentary grant placed at their disposal for the present year in the preparation of the necessary instruments , consisting of a telescope of five inches aperture , by Messrs. Cooke and Sons , mounted as a portable equatoreal with clock movement , and provided with a star spectroscope ; and as clouds might interfere with the observations with this instrument at the critical moment , they have added four direct spectroscopes for observing the general character of the spectra of the red protuberances and the corona , and have entrusted them to Colonel Walker , to be placed in the hands of different observers . It has happened fortunately that a son of Sir John Herschel , an assistant in the Trigonometrical Survey , was about to return to India from leave of absence in this country , and , being applied to , expressed his readiness , subject to the approval of Colonel Walker , to undertake any desired share in the observations , and to make himself acquainted with , and receive instruction in , the use of the instruments before his departure , as well as to take charge of their conveyance to India . This arrangement having received the cordial approval of Colonel Walker , has been duly proceeded with , and Lieutenant HIerschel with the instruments is now on his way to India . Mr. lIennessey , First Assistant on the Indian Trigonometrical Survey , having expressed in a letter to the President his wish to render available for scientific researches , not incompatible with his professional duties , his residence for great part of the year at the elevated station and in the clear atmosphere of Mussoorie ( 7000 feet above the sea ) , his offer , which had received the cordial sanction of Colonel Walker , has been embraced : advice and instructions for the observation of the terrestrial lines of the solar spectrunm , and for observations of the zodiacal light ( for which the situation is particularly favoura0ble ) and for other desirable inquiries have been sent to him ; and Lieutenant Herschel is taking out spectroscopes , prisms , actinometers , and other suitable instruments which the Society has provided for his use . The Society have been already apprised of the desire of the Government of i5Mauritius to establish in that colony a Magnetical Observatory , working with the instruments and adopting the methods of discussing the results as practised at Kew . Early in the Session a communication was received from the Colonial Office , conveying the Earl of Carnarvon 's request for the opinion of the Royal Society regarding the instruments to be employed in , and the plans for the building of , a new observatory , which should be both magnetical and meteorological . After full communication and discussion with Mr. Meldrum , Director of the XMauritius Observatory , who had arrived in England , a reply was returned to the Colonial Office particularising the remaining instruments still required for the complete equipment of such an observatory , together with plans for the buildings and estimates for the whole , submitted by Mr. Meldrum , and approved by the President and Council . The instruments have been prepared , verified , and practised with by Mr. Meldrum , at Kew , and are ready to proceed to their destination . The self-recording magnetical instruments prepared and verified at the Kew Observatory by the request of the Government of Victoria have been forwarded to their destination , and are now at work at 1Melbourne under the superintendence of Mr. Ellery . An application received in the course of the present year from the same colony for self-recording meteorological instruments on the pattern of those at Kew has been already conplied with in part , and will be so fully as soon as the present urgent demands for the British Land IMeteorological Observatories shall have been supplied . Since the informnation conveyed in my last year 's Address respecting the iMagnetical Observatory at Bombay , Mr. Chambers 's application for selfrecording instruments , similar to those at Kew , has been received at the India Office , accompanied by the approval and recommendation of the Bolmbay Government . IHappening to arrive about the time when Lord Cranbourne had referred the general subject of the Astronomical Observatories in India to the Astronomer Royal , the Magnetical Observatory at Bombay was included in the reference , the distinction between astronomical and magnetical observatories not being perhaps very clearly understood . Mr. Chambers 's application for efficient instruments seems , however , to have dropped out of consideration , and ( to use an ordinary term ) was " shelved . " A renewal of the application made through Sir Bartle Frere , the Governor of Bombay , caused a second reference to the Astronomer Royal , from Anzniversary Ableeling . whose official reply , printed by the Bombay Government , I extract the following passage:"I should certainly recommend that any new magnetic observatory be furnished with magnetic instruments on the pattern of those at Kew . I would propose that an answer of this tenor be given to the Superintendent of the Bombay Observatory , that the Secretary of State for India in Council , having taken the opinion of the Astronomer Royal , approves highly of his ( the Superintendent 's ) acting in concert with the Kew Observatory . " Still , possibly from inadvertence , Mr. Chambers 's application for the instruments required to enable him to obey the instruction of " acting inll concert with Kew " yet remains without a reply . In the meantime the cost of the observatory runs on , whilst the very valuable services for magnetical science , approved and recommended by the Astronomer Royal , and which Mr. Chambers , having been educated at Kew , is singularly qualified to carry into execution , are in abeyance for want of the necessary instrumental means to execute them , the whole cost of which would be under X400 . We may hope that this oversight will shortly be rectified . The publication in the last year of the verification and extension of La Caille 's Arc of the Meridian in Southern Africa , by Sir Thomas Maclear , Astronomer at the Cape of Good I-lope , announces the completion of a national work , pursued unremittingly for above thirty years , and establishing by its result a conclusion too important in its scientific interest to pass without recognition by the Royal Society . Our sole knowledge of the figure of the southern hemisphere rests on the are of the meridian measured by La Caille , and now remeasured and extended by Maclear . The original measurement , notwithstanding the well-known ability of the great astronomer under whose superintendence it was executed , has not commanded confidence . The degree inferred from it is far too great , and , if accepted , would lead to the conclusion that the dimensions of the two hemispheres are dissimilar . But La Caille 's triangles were observed with a quadrant , not with a circle , and were therefore liable to errors of eccentricity and of figure ; while the effects of local attraction , if recognized at all , were very imperfectly appreciated . These considerations induced Maclear , shortly after his appointment to the Cape Observatory , to plan the verification which he has now accomplished . Pursuing the still earlier inquiries of Sir George Everest , he succeeded , though with considerable difficulty , in recovering La Caille 's terminal stations ; and , aided by the advice and encouragement of Sir John Herschel ( then at the Cape ) and of the Astronomer Royal , he commenced the work of a remeasurement in 1836 . The proceedings were necessarily tedious ; the measurements of the base , of the triangles , and of the zenith distances were repeated to an extent and with precautions unpractised at the earlier period . The zenith distances were observed with the sector with which Bradley discovered the aberration of light and the nutation of the earth 's axis , entrusted to Maclear by the miralty ; and though made more fit for use in the field by improvements suggested by the Astronomer Royal , the transport of an instrument at once ponderous and delicate , through a wild and rugged country , was an undertaking of no ordinary difficulty ; but it was performed without injury . The terrestrial angles were taken with a 20-inch circle by Jones , and a smaller theodolite by Reichenbach , both of remarkable precision . The base , from which all the distances were derived , was measured with the compensation bars used in the Irish Triangulation . Thus , in respect to the means employed , this arc of the meridian may be regarded as inferior to none on record . A full account of the whole was completed in 1866 , and has been published by the Admiralty in two quarto volumes . It does not confirm the abnormal value obtained by La Caille , but shows a probable cause for the discordance . La Caille 's northern station was in a hollow surrounded by mountains , one of which , half a mile distant to the north , was a mass of rock 2000 feet high , and others , at distances somewhat greater , were still near enough to create disturbance . A station so situated was obviously ill suited to be a terminal station ; and the triangulation was extended across an immense plain of sand ( the Bushman 's Flat ) to a point without any visible source of local attraction . By this extension , and by a similar one to the south , Maclear 's arc has an amplitude nearly four times as great as that of La Caille , and is on this account , as well as on account of the greater accuracy in detail , far more deserving of confidence . The degree which is derived from it is 1133 feet shorter than that of La Caille ; and as La Caille 's is 1051 feet longer than that given by the spheroid , which , according to Airy , represents the average of northern arcs , it is evidently a near approximation to the truth . This is even more distinctly shown by the close agreement of the latitudes computed from the geodetic measurements with those given by the sector-that of the north extremity being 0"'4 in defect , that of the south extremity 0 " 5 in excess . The Philosophical Transactions of the past year contain an important memoir by Mr. Abel , F.R.S. , to which has been assigned the distinction of forming the Bakerian Lecture for the year . It is a most careful and exhaustive treatise upon the circumstances which influence the stability of gun-cotton . He has made numerous experiments , both in the laboratory on small quantities , and in store upon large quantities , of the material ; and some of his experiments have been carried on upon the same sample for three or four years . The results arrived at in these investigations show that gun-cotton , purified according to Von Lenk 's directions , may be kept either in the open air or in closed vessels , and may be exposed to diffused daylight for very long periods , without undergoing any change . The preservation of the material for between three and four years has been perfect . By prolonged exposure to sunlight , ordinary gun-cotton suffers a gradual decomposition , which is somewhat more rapid when the cotton is damp than when it is dry ; but , even under these circumstances , the change produced by several months of exposure is of a very trifling nature , and may be counteracted by very simple means , which in no way interfere with the essential qualities of the material . All ordinary products contain small quantities of organic ( azotized ) impurities , which are comparatively unstable . It is the presence of these impurities in ordinary gun-cotton which gives rise to the development of free acid when the substance is exposed to a high temperature ; and the acid thus generated may eventually exert a destructive action upon the pure portion of the mass ( or true gun-cotton ) , and thus establish a decomposition which is materially accelerated by heat . ir . Abel has , however , arrived at the important practical conclusion that this mischief can be averted by neutralizing the acid as it is liberated ; and this is readily effected by distributing through the finished gun-cotton a small quantity , say one per cent. , of carbonate of soda . By adopting this precaution , damp gun-cotton may be stored , closely packed , in large quantities , and may be exposed to a heat equal to 212 ? Fahrenheit in confined spaces for long periods , without undergoing any alteration . The introduction into the finished gun-cotton of one per cent. of carbonate of soda affords , therefore , security to the material against any destructive effects of the highest temperature to which it is likely to be exposed , even under very exceptional climatic conditions . Actual immersion in water is not necessary for the most perfect preservation of gun-cotton . The material , if only damp to the touch , does not sustain the smallest change even if closely packed in large quantities . If as much water as possible be expelled from wet gun-cotton by the centrifugal extractor , the cotton is obtained in a condition which , though only damp to the touch , is perfectly non-explosive . It is therefore in this condition that all reserve stores of the substance should be preserved , and that it should be transported to distant places . The proper proportion of the carbonate of soda may be conveniently introduced by being dissolved in the water by which the gun-cotton is wetted . It is in this immunity from danger in storage and in transport that properly prepared gun-cotton possesses so great an advantage over gunpowder . Mr. Abel has also elaborately investigated the effects of various kinds of defective preparation of gun-cotton , combined with systematically varied circumstances of exposure to heat , moisture , and light of the products so obtained . It is seen by these investigations that modifications in the processes of conversion and purification , which appear at first sight of a very trifling nature , exert most important influences on the composition and purity , and consequently on the stability , of the product . It is shown by Mr. Abel that to such causes are to be attributed the conclusions condemnatory of gun-cotton which had been drawn by foreign chemists of considerable note . The distrust , not unreasonably entertained at the time , of the stability of the material , was a principal cause of the desire on the part of Her Majesty 's Government to refer the subject of gun-cotton to a Conmmittee which should include some scientific members taken from the Royal Society . This great and primary question being now satisfactorily solved , the remaining secondary questions regarding the best foris oi modes of adaptation of this material to some of the varied exigeni es of the naval and military services , in which its employment might be preferable o that of gunpowder , may be regarded as more properly belonging ' to the executive professional officers of HIer Miajesty 's Navy and Army . I have the great satisfaction of stating , on the part of the Committee , that no injury to life or limb has taken place in the course of their experiments . At the Nottingham fleeting of the British Association , the sum of 100 was granted to a Committee for the purpose of exploring the Tertiary Plant-beds of North Greenland . The collections of fossil vegetable remains from the arctic regions which had been brought to this country and presented to various museums by Sir Leopold i'Clintock , Capt. Inglefield , and others , have all been sent to Prof. Oswald Ileer , of Zurich , so well known for his researches into the Tertiary Fossil Flora of Europe . The similar collections which were preserved in the museums of Denmark and Sweden had also been submitted to the same authority ; and the results of his investigation seem to show that North Greenland enjoyed , during part of the Tertiary epoch , a climate very much milder than that which is now experienced in those latitudes . The description of the fossils is in process of publication by Prof. fleer ; and in order to procure additional information on this very interesting subject , the grant was made by the Association . The Greenland Committee , finding that Mr. Edward WThymper , one of their members , was proceeding to Greenlland in the summer of 1867 , handed the entire sum over to him ; and findi.ng that additional funds would be requisite , they made application to the Royal Society , who gave -200 from the Government Grant Fund , placed at the disposal of the Society . Mr. Whymper has now returned from Greenland with a large and valuable collection of specimens . These will at once be subjected to examination ; and when this work has been efnected , a coapl ete series of specimens will be deposited in the British Museum , according to the conditions of the grant , as made by the British Association and by the President and Council of the Royal Society . I proceed to the award of the Medals . The Copley iAedal has been awarded to Karl Ernst von Baer of St. Petersburg , For . Aiemb . of the Royal Society , for his discoveries in Embryology and Comparative Anatomy , and for his contributions to the Philosophy of Zoology . Forty-one years ago it was believed by all the great authorities in anatomy and physiology that the embryos of man and of other L ammalia originated in quite a different manner from those of oviparous animals . As to the latter , everyday observation of fowls , snakes , frogs , and fishes had been , sufficient to demonstrate , even without special scientific investigation , that their young arose within eggs , and that these eggs were preformed within the body of the virgin femiale . Further , the researches of Fabricius , of HarveyT , of IHaller , of Caspar Friedrich WolfT , of Cruikshank , of )ollinger , of Pander , of Prevost and Dumas , aid of Dutrochet and Cuvier had traced back the embryos of the Ovipara to a very early stage , and had thrown much light upon the changes undergone by those of the iMammalia . But the earliest condition of the mammalian embryo was unknown . Haller 's authority was stillpredominant ; and Haller 's researches had enabled him to discover in the mammalian uterus , shortly after impregnation , nothing more than a semifluid substance , in which , it was imagined , the embryo appeared by a kind of crystallization . The origin of this semifluid embryonic matter was sought for in a mixture of the seminal fluid of the male with the contents of the remarkable vesicles long before discovered by De Graaf in the ovary of the female , and called after him the Graafian follicles . But in 1827 all such speculations were at once abolished , and the identity in mode of origin between the embryos of the MIammalia and those of other animals was demonstrated by a young Professor in the University of Kbnigsberg , whose unwearied patience , sagacity , and sharpsightedness had enabled him to trace back the foetus , step by step , to the minute egg , not a hundredth of an inch in diameter , to demonstrate that the Graafian follicle is simply the chamber in which that egg is contained , and to prove that the first step in mammalian generation , as in that of other animals , is the detachment of the egg from the organ of the parent in which it is developed . This capital discovery forms one of the grounds upon which the Copley MIedal is to-day awarded to the somretime Professor in IKnigsberg , but now , and for many years past , the honoured Academician of St. Petersburg , Karl Ernst von Baer . Von Baer 's great discovery was not the result of accident , but was the reward of long-continued and most laborious investigations into the development , not only of the chick and of the mammalian embryo , but of other animals . The first part of a great work entitled " c Ueber Entwickelungs . geschichte der Thiere . Beobachtungen und Reflexionen , " embodying some of the results of these inquiries , and mainly of the investigations into the development of the chick , appeared in 1828 ; the second part , in which the mammalia are chiefly treated of , was published in 1837 . It is impossible to overestimate the value of this remarkable book , or to doubt the great influence which it has exerted , and still exerts , upon the growth of a sound philosophy of Biology . At the time of its appearance there was nothing that could be compared with it , as a special monograph upon the formation of the chick , or as a treasury of accurately observed facts respecting the development of the VerteLrbata in general , or as an exposition of the significance of development and of the bearing of the study of embryology upon classification . And , as a whole , it may be safely said that it remains at the present day , though , surrounded by the splendid works of Rathke , Bischoff , Remak , Cost , and others , primnus inter pares . It is to Von Baer that we owe the great generalization that all develop . meant is a progress from the general to the special-a law which has its application in wide regions not contemplated by its author . It is to him that we are indebted for the truth that zoological affinity is the expression of similarity of development , and that the different great types of animal structure are the result of different modes of development . The authorship of the ' Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere , ' and of the 'Beitrage sir Kenntniss der niederen Thiere ' ( 1824-26 ) , would have sufficiently justified the award of the Copley Miedal to Von Baer had he not been the discoverer of the mammalian ovum . Besides these labours of primary importance , the energy , versatility , and wide learning of Von Baer have been shown in multitudinous other directions-in numerous memoirs on Comparative Anatomy , Systematic Zoology , and Zoological Distribution , in most valuable and original essays on Anthropology and Ethnology , and in scientific expeditions to different parts of the widespread Russian Empire , from Nowaja Zemlja to the Caspian . Von Baer was born in Esthonia in the year 1792 . His father was a gentleman of landed property and " Ritterschafts-H-lauptman " of Esthonia . Two years ago , on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the venerable Academician 's Doctorate , the nobility of Esthonia , headed by their present Ritterschafts-Hauptman , the Baron von der Pahlen , formed themselves into an association for the purpose of celebrating the occasion ; and as a memento of proceedings honourable alike to their eminent countryman and to themselves , published the autobiography which he wrote at their request with all the accessories of typographic luxury . Thirty-six years ago the Acadtmie des Sciences of Paris , at the instance of Humboldt , and on the report of Cuvier , awarded Von Baer a medal . In 1854 he was chosen a Foreign Member of the Royal Society . We may rejoice that it is not yet too late to offer the highest honour at the disposal of the Royal Society of London to a man who has so long been recognized on the continent as one of the great lights of biological science , who will take his place hereafter beside Cuvier , Wolff , and Harvey . PROFESSOR MILLER , I will request you , on the part of the Society , to transmit this MIedal to our venerated colleague , Dr. von Baer , and to express to him our hope that this testimonial of the very high esteem in which the labours of his life are held in England will be a welcome and valued addition to the honours which fitly crown his latter years . The Council have awarded a Royal Medal to Messrs. John Bennet Laws and Joseph Henry Gilbert for their researches in Agricultural Chemistry . 3aessrs . Laws 4 ' Gilbert have been engaged for the last twenty-four years in a systematic series of researches upon Agricultural Chemistry , with a view of determining , by exact experiments , the principles , chemical and physiological , which are involved in the general and fundamental processes of successful agriculture . These investigations have embraced:1 . Researches into the exhaustion of soils , including experiments on wheat , on barley , on turnips , on clover , and leguminous crops . 2 . Researches on the principles of rotation and fallow . 3 . On the mixed herbage of grass-land . 4 . On the process of vegetation generally , including researches upon the action of manures . 5 . On the origin of nitrogen in plants ( Phil. Trans. 1861 ) . 6 . Researches on the feeding and fattening of animals ( Phil. Trans. 1859 ) . It is difficult to give in a short compass the practical conclusions arrived at from a series of investigations upon a number of subjects each so complicated in its nature , so important in its object , and continued systematically over so protracted a period . At the time your medallists commenced their experiments it was generally supposed that certain saline bodies , or so-called mineral constituents , were essential to the growth and development of the plant , and that such substances must be furnished to it by the soil . The necessity of a certain quantity of nitrogen was also recognized ; but it was imagined , since wild plants could thrive without any artificial supply of nitrogen , that a sufficient amount of this element existed in the atmosphere ( in the form chiefly of salts of ammonia ) to render it unnecessary to take any steps for increasing this supply ; and it was supposed that the fertility of a soil might be maintained for an indefinite period if the different mineral constituents carried off by the crop were annually returned in due quantity as mineral manure to the soil . This mnineral-ash theory , as it was termed , was proposed by Liebig ; but it has been proved by Messrs. Laws & Gilbert to be erroneous , as it embraces a part only of the truth . The field experiments upon which this conclusion rests were commenced in 1843 . Fourteen acres , divided into about twenty plots , were devoted to experiments upon wheat , and seven acres , divided into about twenty-four plots , to experiments upon turnips . Subsequently similar experiments were made upon beans , clover , barley , and the mixed herbage of permanent meadow-land . The general plan of the field experiments consisted in selecting fields in a condition of agricultural exhaustion , that is , in a state in which a fresh supply of manure was needed to fit the soil for the growth of another crop . Upon this exhausted soil each of the most important crops in the rotation were grown , year after year , upon the same spot , both without manure and with many different descriptions of manure , each of which was , as a rule , applied year after year to the same plot . By this means it was possible to determine the point of relative exhaustion or excessive supply of any of the constituents of the manure . 178 Anniversary Meeting . [ Nov. 30 , Wheat , for example , was grown year after year upon the same land for twenty-four years ; turnips ( with an interval of three years ) for twentyfive years ; and in the experiments on rotation ( which comprised the " four course " of turnips , barley , leguminous crop [ or fallow ] , and wheat ) the last of the fifth " four course " rotation was completed , comprising twenty years in all . Parallel with the field experiments , records relating to the fall of rain , atmospheric pressure , temperature of the air , and of the dew-point were kept or collated , so as to enable the observers to ascertain the effects of the varying season upon the quantity and quality of the field produce . It soon became evident that much remained to be done in perfecting the methods of chemical analysis before comparative analyses could afford much assistance in determining ' the relative productiveness of different soils ; and to this object our medallists addressed themselves both with skill and success . The practical value of these experiments may be seen from the fact that , taking the results of twenty years , the annual average produce in bushels of wheat per acre without manure was 16- , with farmyard manure exactly double , and with artificial manures 353 bushels , the latter being considerably more than the average produce of Great Britain when wheat is grown in the ordinary course . The produce of wheat grown successively on the same plot without manure scarcely altered from year to year , whilst that of the turnips became reduced to nothing ; the effect of a manure of superphosphate being most marked upon the turnips , whilst the employment of salts of ammonia mixed with alkaline salts and phosphates was most suitable for wheat , although these are not the manures indicated by a simple analysis of the ashes of the two crops . The authors remark , " ( Indeed the whole tendency of agricultural investigation seems to show the fallacy of alone relying upon the knowledge of the composition of a crop , as directing to the constituents pioobably more especially required to be provided for it by manures ; and rather that the elucidation of agricultural principles must be looked for from a due consideration of Vegetable Physiology , as well as Chemistry , of the special functional peculiarities and resources of different plants , as well as their actual percentage composition . " The investigation into the feeding of animals was even more laborious ; but it was a necessary complement to the experiments upon the growth of crops . It was directed to the solution of the following among other important problems:1 . The amount of food consiumed , and its several constituents , in relation to the production of a given live weight , for different animals . 2 . The comparative development of the different organs in the fattening of animals , and their composition . 3 . The relation of the manure produced , both in quantity and quality , to the food consumed . 4 . The expenditure or loss , by respiration and exhalation of the animal , considered as a meat-producing and manure-making machine , It is impossible to go into detail in this portion of the inquiry , the principal results of which are given in a paper published in the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1 r ' It may be sufficient to sum up these remarks by stating that the various inquiries to which a brief reference has been made , have been conducted with a skill , perseverance , and success which have placed their authors , by general consent , at the head of those who have pursued this important branch of experimental inquiry . MR. LAWS and MR. GILBERT , Receive this Medal in testimony of the Royal Society 's recognition of your joint labours , and of their approval of the object to which those labours have been directed , -which , while not outstepping the wide limits of a Society devoted to the promotion of natural knowledge , is yet in an unusual degree connected with the supply of man 's primary wants . It will , I trust , be more especially prized by you as marking the Society 's high appreciation of the long devotion , the patient unbiased desire for truth , and the sound scientific manner of proceeding which have characterized your investigations . The Council have awarded a Royal Medal to Sir William Logan for his geological researches in Canada , and the construction of a geological map of that colony . Sir William Logan was early known to English geologists for very meritorious work in the Coal-fields of South Wales , which was highly approved at the time by the authorities of the English Geological Survey , and is understood to have furnished the model for similar surveys in other British Coal-fields . In 1843 he undertook the direction of the Geological Survey of his native country , Canada , instituted by the Provincial Goveirnment . The results of this survey have been published in Annual Reports ; and a large and important volume was published in 1863 , condensing the whole of the geological and palaeontological information which had been amassed by Sir William and the assistants who acted under his direction . Under difficulties of which British geologists acquainted with both countries affirm that little idea can be formed here , he has made clear the relations of all the formations of Canada to each other . These consist of Lower and Upper Laurentian rocks , IIuronian , numerous divisions of the Lower and Upper Silurian strata , and the Devonian series . Most of these he correlated as far as possible with the European series and with the subdivisions described by the American geologists of the United States . One of the most important services that Sir W. Logan has rendered to geological science was the discovery of the relations of the Laurentian rocks to each other and to the later formations . These Laturentian rocks had 1867 . ] PI-'iesident 's Add'clress . 179 been previously only called granite and gneiss , and vaguely confounded with granitic and gneissic rocks of Silurian age . Sir William first proved their . great antiquity by showing that they consist of strata which had been intensely disturbed and metamorphosed before the deposition of the oldest Silurian beds . Next , he showed that the Laurentian rocks consist of two series of metamorphic strata , and that the Upper Laurentian strata or.gneiss . lies quite unconformably on the Lower Laurentian masses . Thirdly , he made the important discovery of the Eozoon Canadense in the Limestone beds of the Lower Laurentian series . The great importance of this discovery becomes manifest when we consider the evidence of the enormous antiquity of the strata thus proved to be fossiliferous , compared with the Lingula-flags and Cambrian sarata , in which the oldest previously known fossils had been found . It has seriously modified the speculative opinions of many geologists and zoologists . PROFESSOR RAMSAY , I will beg you to transmit this Medal to S.r William Logan , in testimony of the appreciation by the Royal Society of his arduous labours in the accomplishment of the great work of the Geological Survey of Canada , of the critical skill and acumen which he has manifested in its course , and of the high scientific importance of the discoveries which have been established by his investigations . On the motion of Dr. Alderson , Coll. lReg . Med. Praeses , seconded by by Mr. Caesar Hawkins , it was resolved , - " That the thanks of the Society be returned to the President for his Address , and that he be requested to allow it to be printed . " The Statutes relating to the election of Council and Officers having been read , and Mr. Curling and 'Mr . Hog having been , with the consent of the Society , nominated Scrutators , the votes of the Fellows present were collected , and the following were declared duly elected as Council and Officers for the ensuing year : President.-Lieut.-General Edward Sabine , R.A. , D.C.L. , LL. D. Treasurer.-William Allen Miller , M.D. , LL. D. Secretaries{ William Sharpey , M.D. , LL. D. George Gabriel Stokes , Esq. , M.A. , D.C.L. , LL. D. Foreign Secretary.-Professor William Hallows Miller , M.A. , LL. D. Other Members of the Council.-Frederick Augustus Abel , Esq. ; William Benjamin Carpenter , M.D. ; Prof. A. Cayley , LL. D. ; J. Lockhart Clarke , Esq. ; John Evans , Esq. ; Capt. Douglas Galton , C.B. ; John Peter Gassiot , Esq. ; John Hall Gladstone , Esq. , Ph. D. ; Sir Rowland Hill , K.C.B. , D.C.L. ; William HIuggins , Esq. ; Prof. Thomas IHenry Huxley , Ph. D. ; Prof. John Phillips , M.A , , LL. D ; Prof. Andrew Crombie Ramsay , LL. D. ; Colonel William James Smythe , R.A. ; Lieut. Col. Alexander Strange ; Thomas Thomson , M.D. The thanks of the Society were voted to the Scrutators . 180 Anniversary Meetingy . Nov. 30 , Receipts and Payments of the Royal Society between December 1 , 1866 , and November 30 , 1867 . 0* Balance at Bank and on hand ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... A Annual Subscriptions , Admisssion Fees , and Compositions ... Rents ... ... ... ... ... . . ' ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . Dividends ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Ditto , Trust Funds ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . Sale of Transactions , Proceedings , &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Sale of Land at Acton ( 231 poles ) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Repayments ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ? s. d. 666 16 1647 16 0 253 80 1497 18 1 283 06 425 19 3 100 00 57 19 8 ? 4932 3 0 ? s. d. Salaries , Wages , and Pension ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 1031 10 0 Purchase of ? 600 Consols ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 567 00 The Scientific Catalogue ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 289 26 Books for the Library and Binding ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 250 19 Printing Transactions and Proceedings , Paper , Binding , Engraving , and Lithography ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1509 50 General Expenses ( as per Table subjoined ) ... ... ... ... ... ... 351 15 10 Rumford Medal Fund ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 136 16 3 ) Donation Fund ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 251 00 Wintringham Fund ... ... ... ... 3 ... ... . . 35 80 Copley Medal Fund ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4 15 5 437 17 8 F. A. Abel , Bakerian Lecture ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 400 Rev. T. S. Evans , Fairchild Lecture ... ... ... ... 2 19 0 Dr. Sanderson , Croonian Lecture ... ... ... ... ... 2 19 O0 4436 12 9 Balance at Bank ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 483 16 0 Balance of Catalogue Account ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 9 17 3 , , Petty Cash Account ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 1 17 0 ? 4932 30 WILLIAM ALLEN MILLER , Treasurer . Estates and Property of the Royal Society , including Trust Funds . Estate at Mablethorpe , Lincolnshire ( 55 A. 2 R. 2 P. ) , ? 126 Os . Od . per annum . Estate at Acton , Middlesex ( 34 A. 2 R. 27-1 P. ) , ? 109 10s . Od . per annum . Fee Farm near Lewes , Sussex , rent ? 19 4s . per annum . One-fifth of the clear rent of an estate at Lambeth Hill , from the College of Physicians , X ? 3 per annum . ? 14,000 Reduced 3 per Cent. Annnities . ? 29,569 15s . 7d . Consolidated Bank Annuities . ? 513 9s . 8d . New 21 per Cent. Stock-Bakerian and Copley Medal Fund . Scientific Relief Fund . Investments up to July 1865 , New 3 per Cent. Annuities ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 6052 17 8 ? 6052 17 8 ? s. d. Balance ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 213 14 10 Donation ... ... .5 ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 0 ... ... ... ... . . 50 Dividends ... ... ... ... ... ... . , ... ... ... . 178 11 2 ? 397 60 s. d. By Grants ... ... ... ... ... . 200 00 Balance ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 197 6 0 ? 397 60 Statement of Income and Expenditure ( apart from Trust Funds ) during the Year ending November 30 , 1867 . Annual Subscriptions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Admission Fees ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . Compositions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... R ents ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Dividends on Stock ( exclusive of Trust Funds ) ... ... ... . . on Stevenson Bequest ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Sale of Transactions , Proceedings , &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . Sale of Land at Acton ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Chemical Society , Tea Expenses ... ... ... ... 18 00 Linnean Society , Tea Expenses ... ... ... ... ... 14 0 Zoological Society , Tea Expenses ... ... ... ... 11 0 Geographical Society , Gas at Evening 848 Meetings ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... CambridgeLocal Examination Committee , Gas 500 Sundry Petty Receipts ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 115 ? s. d. 1099 16 0 160 00 388 00 253 80 997 3 10 500 14 3 425 19 3 100 00 43 00 14 19 8 Income available for the Year ending Nov. 30 , 1867 ... ... 3983 10 Expenditure in the Year ending Nov. 30 , 1867 ... ... ... ... 3431 15 1 Excess of Income over Expenditure in the Year ending N ov . 30 , 1867 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ? s. d. Salaries , Wages , and Pension ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1031 10 0 The Scientific Catalogue ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 289 26 Books for the Library ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 149 33 Binding ditto ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 100 18 6 Printing Transactions , Part II . 1866 , and 475 41 Part I. 1867 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Ditto Proceedings , Nos. 87-95 ... ... ... ... ... ... 320 13 9 Ditto Miscellaneous ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 63 14 11.1509 50 Paper for Transactions and Proceedings ... 278 16 0 Binding and Stitching ditto ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 77 18 6 Engraving and Lithography ... ... ... ... ... . . 292 17 9 ) Fittings , Cleaning , and Repairs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 51 16 1 Miscellaneous Expenses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 57 17 1 Coal , Lighting , &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 107 10 0 Tea Expenses ... ... ... ... ... . . 58 19 Fire Insurance ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 28 11 6 Taxes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 8 19 2 Advertising ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 11 96 Postage , Parcels , and Petty Charges ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 27 10 9 ? 551 5 11 ? 3431 15 1 WILLIAM ALLEN MILLER , Treasurer . Dr. Cr . Ir 0 The following Table shows the progress and present state of the Society with respect to the number of Fellows : Patron Iom~t2 12s . ~4 and Foreign . Total . a pounders . annually . annually . November 30 , 1866 . 5 49 302 3 267 626 Since elected ... ... +6 +10 +16 Since cdmpounded. . +2 -2 Since deceased ... . . -1 12 -1 -11 2--25 November 30 , 1867 . 5 48 298 2 264 617

112488

3701662

Observations on the Anatomy of the Thyroid Body in Man

183

188

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

George W. Callender

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0033

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112488

10.1098/rspl.1867.0033

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112488

Biology 3

Neurology

Biology

" ObseTvations on the Anatomy of the Thyroid Body in Man . " By GEo GE W. CALLENDERI , Lectu1rer on Anatonmy at St. Bartholoniiew 's Hospital . Commnunicated by JAMES PAGET , Esq. Received June 8 , 1867* . By examination of the thyroid body in the foetus , we learnl that it has from an early period , mzluch the same relations and appearances as belong , to it in childhood , and duLring the adult condition , and we observe those diversities of its parts which are exceptionally recognized during tble later periods of life . We may thus trace out the origin of such exceptional conditions , and notice , more especially , how the isthmus of Eustachius and the pyramid of Lalouette are connected with the formationi of the thyroid , and depend for their after characters upon ear'ly changes during development of size . As I have reason to believe that the formation of the thiyroid in mta may be fairly reexamined , I slhall ventuire to refer , in the first place , to some of the opinions advanced with regard to its earliest appearances . The late Mr. Grayyt has alluded to the views of -luschke , Arlnold , Bischoff , and Goodsir , respecting the development of this body . It is enough for my present purpose to state that Arniold considered the thyroid to be developed from the membranous air-tube , where the larynx is formed , whilst Goodsir thought that it originated in that portion of the meinbran-a intermedia of Reichert which remains in connexion with the anastomosing vessels between the first and secondl aortic arches , or carotid and subelavian arteries . At first , he states , no isthmus is observed ( in sheep ) , but presently lateral masses join across and in front of the base of the heart and root of the neck . Then the thyroid separates from the thymus , from which it differs in not being divided into lobules . Simon* has no reason for believing that its origin has any particular relation to that of the thymus . Undoubtedly , he adds , there is a period when it is impossible to say how much of the unshaped blastema of the neck belongs to one organi , how much to another , but so soon as the microscope can discover the first traces of their development , it likewise affords uniquestionable evidence of their distinctness , and shows each as separate in itself , and as peculiar in structure , as at any later period of growth . Handfield Jonest found in a foutal sheep two inches long that the thyroid presented the usual appearance ; it possessed an isthmus , and in a human fwotus of four months and a half , the isthmus appeared of the same standing as the lateral masses . The absence of an isthmus in an erntire class , that of birds , the observations of Gray on the formation of this body in the chick , and the suggestions of Meckel , Cruveilhier and others , countenance the supposition that the thyroid is developed from two lateral masses . There are no reliable observations respecting the development of the pyramid , but Haller and Arnold have hazarded the opinion that it is probably the duct of the thyroid during foetal life . In describing the following dissections , I may state that the specimens were examined as they came into my possession without selection , save for age , so that they may be assumed to represent very fairly the conditions commonly existing during fmetal life . In a human foetus , measuring in length eight-tenths of an inch ( between the seventh and eighth week ) , the thyroid is a body of a pale yellowish colour , lying across the front of the trachea , just below the mass out of which the cartilages of the larynx are being developed . It is closely connected with the trachea and with the lower edge of the larynx , either of which would be torn in endeavouring to remove it , but the thyroid is easily uncovered by stripping off the parts superficial to it , and has no connexion with these or with the thymus ( fig. 1)4 . Although consisting at this period of but one piece , the thyroid is deeply notched , and thus looks as though made up of three distinct lobes , one sometimes bifid , in the centre , and this is the smallest , and another on either side elongated and inclined upwards by the side of the larynx . Similar divisions are seen in a ftctus measuring two inches and eight-tenths in length ( fig. 2 ) ? , the thyroid consisting of three lobes , one being central , a second on the right side , measuring one-tenth of an inch from end to end , and a third on the left side , measuring one-fourteenth of an inch . Relations with the Thymnus . That the coiinexions of the thyroid are from the first with the larynx and trachea , rather than with the thymus , is rendered more probable by the appearances observed in the young of animals . In a foetal rabbit ( fig. 3)* , eight-tenths of an inch long , the thymus may be seen to consist of two lobulated masses , lying side by side just above the heart and its great vessels , broader at the base towards the thorax , diverging a little as they pass upwards , and ending in the root of the neck by a somewhat pointed extremity . The trachea in the middle line is surmounted by the larynx , but at its upper extremity is a minute elevation , contrasting by its pale colour with adjacent parts ; and connected with this are two divergent ridges , of the same pale colour , which embrace , horseshoe fashion , the lower portion of the larynx , tapering as they ascend , and resembling , so far as the mere look is concerned , the division of the trachea at its lower extremity into the two bronchi . In a fwetal pig ( fig. 4)t , one inch and two-tenths in length , the thyroid is notched below , thus acquiring , though somewhat indistinctly , a three-lobed appearance ; and here also , whilst firmly attached to the trachea , it is no way visibly in relation with the thymus . One cannot but be attracted by this connexion with the trachea , on which tube the thyroid ( even if it be not developed from the membranous air . tube ) buds and attains some little size , a formation reminding one of that of the lungs coming out from the front wall of the oesophagus , that is , from the trachea , and of the view of Mr. Simon , as afterwards expressed by the editors of Cuvier + respecting the thyroid , " C'est la fausse branchie , branchiole des poissolis . " Indeed , from its relationi to the air-tube during the early period of life , or in fish to the vertebral or hyoidal extremity of the gill , from its curious alternation with the supplementary gill of Broussonet ? , and from its structure ( K6lliker ) , it may be not inaptly referred to as a pseudo-lung rather than as an associate with the thymus and the so-called ductless glands . I may add that , in the human feetus , no distinct evidence of the thyroid appears to me to exist before the sixth week , up to which time it cannot , I believe , be isolated from the structures in the front of the neck ; it seems to come out from the blastema in the form of a mass in front of the trachea , which quickly acquires an imperfectly lobed condition , but I have not been able to distinguish at any period , during development of size , three completely distinct parts . The Isthmus . In the dissections already referred to , the presence of a middle portion , and its equal development with the lateral lobes , leads to the inference that this central part is present from the earliest period , and that the thyroid isthmus is not formed by a growinog together of two distinct sidepieces . Yet in the human foetus , at four moniths , Fleischmnann and Meckel say that tl-ey foundc , as they described them , two lateral lobes only ; and the hare , for example , has been written of as having but two distinct laterat masses , as also were the Cetacca until Professor Turner* explained that the thyroid of a well-grown male porpoise was a single mnss extending across the trachea , of which the median portion could hardly be described as an itntervening isthmus ; for in its supero-iniferior diameter it equalled that of the lateral portion . In addition , however , to the dissections already detailed , I have examined the thyroid in fetal hares , and have always fouind the middle portion equally developed with the side lobes , and bo , Unded by notches , which seem to define it from them ( fi , . 5 ) . With the growth of this famtus , as also in the youing of cats and of dogs , I have observed that the ceintral part appears to flatten and to lose the rounded lobular coniditioni , and sometimes it dicappears altogether . The Lobes . Whilst , however , three lobes are chiefly inidicated , lesser notches may be occasionally seen , and continue to be noticeable as the foetus grows , though they are very irregular and uncertain . Thus in a human fmetus , ti'ee inches and nine-tenths long , the left lobe ( fig. 6)t is divided into two portions by a deep fissure , one-half of it aseending to the left of the middle line in front Of the cricoid and thyroid cartilages , and there ale other notches faintly outliningt , a middlle lobe . In a fmetus four inches and three-tenths long , the middle lobe is bifid , a cleft dividing it above ; and in another fectus , four inches and six-tenths lonig , the enltire thyroid is very irregularly formed , broken inito seve-ral lobes , but still showing at its lower margin a division into three chief portions ( figs. 7 & 8 ) . Hlere also a process ascends , budding out from the left sidce , tapers almost to a point , and ends by being fixed to the under surface of the os hyoides . Omitting lesser varieties , I will describe the following . The thyroid froom a foetus eight inches and seven-tenths ; long ( fig. 10 ) ? , consists of two chief lobes , which meet , but are not united , in the nniddle line , being separated by a deep fissure . From the left lobe , just a'nterior to the lower angle of the thyroid cartilage , a small process projects upwards , and resembles the base of the process in either figure 6 or 7 , wanting the stalk-like continuation towards the os hyoides . The right lobe is somewhat irregular along its upper border ; but just where it reaches the middle line there is a lozenge-shaped piece of gland , more closely connected with the right than with the left lobe , from which iatter it is separated by a distinct fissure , a faintly marked lirne extending above for a short distance between it and the right lobe . This lozenge-shaped portion ascends , and is adherent to the lower notch in the middle line of the thyroid cartilage ; its extremities are pointed , and the lower one just falls short of the level of the inferior margin of the lateral masses . In another foetus ( fig. 1)* , the left lobe , three-tenths and a half of an inch in length , is irregularly and slightly notched . The right lobe , traced towards the middle line , shows scarce a sign of a middle portion ; but there is a small distinct mass adhering closely to it , and this narrowing rapidly , becomes over the thyroid a slender band , and can be traced upwards until it ends by adhering to the posterior inferior suLrface of the hyoid bone . The evidence obtained from these dissections goes to show that the thyroid is connected , in man , from a very early period with the upper portion of the air-tube . It does not consist , at all events after the seventh week , of distinct lateral masses , and the appearances it presents at that date are in favour of the middle portion being of equal standing with the rest . It is marked out , more or less distinctly , into three principal parts or lobes , but these are united at the seventh week of foetal life and form , save exceptionally , one thyroid body . The isthmus appears to consist of the smaller middle division uniting the other two , but there may be an absence of isthmus through failuire of this uniont , the middle portion joining the right or left lobe , and thus making one lateral portion larger than the other , a condition sometimes recognized in the adult ; or a small middle lobe , may remain distinct ( fig. 10 ) , and this , with the various irregularities observable in the lateral portions , may account for the partial and isolated outgrowths of this body in various forms of goitreT . The pyramid of Lalouette may be seen in figs. 6 , 7 , 8 , 10 , and 11 , where it is drawn as springing from the middle , the right and the left of the thyroid . It is very commonly met with in the foetus , and is clearly an outlying part of the body , of which the buds seen in figs. 7 and 10 are the simplest forms , and the cleft of the left lobe in fig. 6 , or the distinct process in fig. 8 , the larger development . Just as the cornua of the thyroid body are fixed by fibrous tissue to the wings of the hyoid bone , so also , as would be expected , any one of these processes is equally fixed to one of the adjacent cartilages , or , if prolonged upwards , to the os hyoides , as in fig. 11 . In the adult , the pyramid is less often met with than in the ftetusI found it in some form or other , in ten out of forty-two adult male subjects , in the foetus four times in eight . Thus it is probable that these outgrowths from the foetal thyroid often shrink and disappear with advancing years . 123456789 10 11 Explawntion of Figures . Fig. 1 . Thyroid from human foetus ( eight-tenths of an inch long ) , about three timtes the natural size . Fig. 2 . Thyroid from human foetus ( two inches and eight-tenths long ) , niatural size . Fig. 3 . Thyroid from feetal rabbit ( eight-tenths of an inch long ) , about three times the natural size . Fig. 4 . Thyroid from faetal pig ( one inch and two-tenths long ) , aboult three tillmes the natural size . Fig. 5 . Thyroid from foetal hare ( six inches long ) , natural size . Fig. 6 . Thyroid body from huLman faetus ( three inches and nine-tenths long ) . Fig. 7 . The same ( four inches and three-tenths long ) . Fig. 8 . The same ( four inches and six-tenths long ) . Fig. 9 . The same ( six inches and four-tenths long ) . Fig. 10 . The samiie ( eight inches and seven-tenths long ) . Fig 11 . The same ( twelve inches long ) . Figs. 6-11 are drawn , by measurement , the exact natural size .

112489

3701662

On Some Alterations in the Composition of Carbonate-Of-Lime Waters, depending on the Influence of Vegetation, Animal Life, and Season

189

195

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Robert Warington

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0034

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112489

10.1098/rspl.1867.0034

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112489

Chemistry 1

Chemistry 2

Chemistry

I. " On some Alterations in the Composition of Carbonate-ofLime Waters , depending on the influence of Vegetation , Animal Life , and Season . " By ROBERT WARINGTON , F.R.S. , F.C.S. Received October 19 , 1867 . In carrying out through a series of years the principles of the aquarium for sustaining animal life in a confined and limited portion of water through the medium of growing vegetation * , I had observed that , during the summer months of the year , a considerable deposit made its appearance on the leaves of the plants and the glass front of the containing vessel , which was found to consist of carbonate of lime in a crystalline condition . This deposit formed a nidus for the growth of confervoid vegetation , which , at certain seasons of the year , increased very rapidly . These observations were alluded to at one of the Friday-evening meetings of the Royal Institution , March 27 , 1857 , when portions of the deposit were exhibited , and its composition demonstrated by experiment . The formation of this deposit was then explained as arising from the fact that , as the summer season advances , and we have a longer continuance and also a greater intensity of the light of the sun , the absorption and consequent decomposition of carbonic acid by the plants is carried to a much greater extent , while the quantity of carbonic acid produced by the fish remains unchanged . The solvent of the carbonate of lime contained in the water being thus withdrawn , a deposit slowly takes place , incrusting the sides of the tank , particularly towards the light , where the confervoid growth , consequent upon it , accumulates in large quantities . In continuing these observations , my attention was particularly arrested by the steady increase of deposition , attendant upon the renewed activity of the leaves , during the spring ; and this determined me to ascertain by experiment the quantity of carbonate of lime existent in the water at fixed intervals during a long period of time . And inasmuch as the degrees of hardness , indicated by the measures of Clark 's soap-test , presented a very ready , accurate , and simple means of arriving at this result , that mode of estimation was adopted , care being taken to displace any uncombined carbonic acid by agitating the sample with atmospheric air prior to the addition of the test , as directed by Dr. Clark , the indications or degrees thus obtained representing the quantity of lime-salts contained in an imperial gallon of the sample ( 70'000 grains of distilled water ) in terms of carbonate of lime . In order that the nature of the experiment may be more clearly understood , it will perhaps be better for me , before stating the results thus obtained , to describe briefly the construction and arrangement of the aquarium , its position , and its contents . The tank consisted of a rectangular zinc framing , twenty inches long by thirteen broad , and twenty-one in depth , having slate cemented into it at the bottom and sides , and being glazed at the back and front . It was filled with water to the height of twelve inches , or a volume equal to ten gallons , and on the slate sides were cemented , at the water-line , ledges of rockwork composed of sandstone and tufaceous limestone from Matlock , on which were planted a few ferns , chiefly Trichomanes , for ornament . The bottom of the tank was covered , for about two inches , with a mixture of sandy loam and gravel , into which several plants of the Vallisneria spiralis , the vegetable member of the arrangement , were inserted . Some large fragments of rough rockwork , principally limestone , were also placed upright on the bottom to break up the stiff outline of the square framing , and give a pleasing effect to the eye . The animal branch of the circle consisted of four small crucian carp with a gold carp . Several freshwater mollusks , principally Planorbis corneus and Limneus palustris , were also introduced to act as scavengers and consume the decaying vegetation . The tank was loosely covered with a plate of glass , so as to allow of a free admission of the external ail , and at the same time keep out a great deal of the soot and dust of the London atmosphere and impede the too rapid evaporation of the water . As the Trichomanes were stated to delight in shade , a thin muslin blind was placed over the covering glass . The aquarium was located in a window-way having an eastern aspect , but , being surrounded within a few yards by the high walls of adjoining houses , the direct rays of the sun only reached it for about three hours in the morning during the months of June and July . It was established in January 1851 , and has not since been disturbed , except by occasional supplies of distilled or rain-water , to replace the loss in volume arising from evaporation . It had been my custom to weed out the excessive growth of the Vallisneria during the summer , and also to remove some of the flaky deposit of calcareous matter from the surface of the glass nearest the light ; but as I considered that such disturbances might interfere with the course of the investigation , these operations were discontinued . The results that have been obtained from this investigation during the years 1861 and 1862 are as follows:o { degrees of hardness , or grains of lime-salts , 1861 . March 13 ... . 26-2 per imperial gallon , in terms of carbonate of lime . May 1 ... . 19 5 , July 3 ... . 12-5 August 1 ... . 13-6 , Sept. 17 ... . 15-0 , , , Oct. 8 ... . 155 , > Nov. 12. . 18-0 , Dec. 9 ... .205 , , , 1862 . Jan. 8 ... . 235 , Feb. 8 ... .250 . March 3 ... . 23-0 , April 3 ... . 21'0 , May 2 ... . 19-0 , , June 4 ... . 16'5 , , July 4 ... . 14-0 , , August 5 ... . 12'0 Sept. 2 ... . 12.5 , , , The amount of calcareous matter dissolved will be seen to have steadily decreased during the spring and summer months , from its maximum in March 1861 and February 1862 to its minimum in July 1861 and August 1862 , and then to have increased as steadily during the autumn and winter months . Part of this hardness , however , unquestionably arose from the presence in the water of other salts of lime besides the carbonate . To determine how much was the next point for investigation . Portions of the water were taken on several occasions and boiled for a considerable time , filtered , and the volume restored to its original bulk with distilled water . On examining these portions with the soap-test , it was found that the hardness was lowered to 5'6 degrees , equivalent to 5'6 grains of carbonate of lime . But inasmuch as carbonate of lime is soluble in water to the extent of 24 grains in the imperial gallon-* , this will be reduced to 3'2 grains , which amount will therefore have to be deducted from each of the above results , in order to arrive at the true quantity of carbonate present in solution . The maximum and minimumr results will then stand thus : CaO , CO2 in the CaO , CO0 in the imperial gallon . imperial gallon . 1861 . Maximun m ... . 23'0 1862 . M aximum ... . . 21 8MI inimum ... . . 9'3 . Minimum ... ... 8'8 t Chemical Report on the Supply of Water to the Mletropolis , June 17 , 1851 , by Messrs. Grah am , Ivliller , [ and IXofiann ; and'Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society , vol. iv . p. 381 . T2 1867 . ] 191 The data thus obtained will help to elucidate several very important and interesting phenomena in respect to all the three elements of the arrangement the water , the fish , and the vegetation . 1 . The Vater . The importance of growing submerged vegetation in maintaining waters , rich in carbonate of lime , in a meliorated state by diminishing their hardness has been clearly demonstrated by the foregoing data ; and how necessary , therefore , it is that this association should be kept in view whenever a soft and healthful water is required for domestic purposes . Unfortunately this appears hitherto not to have been well understood , or at all events has been little attended to , since the very agent which has been provided naturally for effecting these beneficial results has been most commonly regarded as an evil , and studiously eradicated in all directions . These data will also explain the cause of the rapid growth of vegetation in well-waters rich in carbonic acid , when pumped into tanks or reservoirs and exposed to the full light of day . The plant-germs , naturally contained in the water or absorbed from the atmosphere , being supplied with an abundance of appropriate nourishment , rapidly vegetate , and the containing vessels , particularly during the summer months , soon become thickly coated with a dense confervoid growth . It will also follow that all fish , as generators of carbonic acid , should be excluded from waters flowing over carbonate-of-lime strata , and intended for the supply of towns &c. , as tending to increase their hardness . Of course the absence of calcareous matter would prevent such an effect taking place-a fact borne out by the well-known softness of springs and rivers flowing out of or over granite or sandstone rocks , even when thickly inhabited by the scaly tribe . 2 . The Fish . It is well known that water has the property of absorbing air from the surrounding atmosphere , and holding it in solution to the extent of from onefortieth to one-thirtieth of its volume , not , however , without somewhat changing the proportion of its constituents ; for when the absorbed air is abstracted from water it usually contains about thirty-two per cent. of oxygen gas , instead of twenty-one . This oxygen is converted by the respiration of the fish into carbonic acid , which is held dissolved by a still stronger affinity , the water being capable of retaining as much as its own volume of this gas in solution at the ordinary temperature and pressure of the atmosphere . In the above-described arrangement the carbonic acid thus produced is absorbed by hte submerged vegetation under the influence of the sun 's light ; the carbon is appropriated for its growth , while the oxygen is again liberated and helct in solution by the water , provided the evolution is not too rapid , an effect produced by too great an exposure to the sun 's light . When this is the case , much of the oxygen necessarily escapes into the air [ Dec. 5 , in a gaseous state and is lost . During the winter season , however , when the active functions of vegetation are to a great extent dormant , from the diminished quantity and intensity of the sun 's light , the amount of carbonic acid produced by the respiration of the fish is greater than the plants are capable of consuming , and the excess must necessarily accumulate in the water . Were the production of carbonic acid confined to a short period , the water would doubtless right itself after a time , the poisonous gas passing away and fresh atmospheric air being absorbed . As , however , the production of carbonic acid is constant , this ameliorating action can have little effect ; the water must remain always highly charged with carbonic acid . Here , then , its solvent action on the carbonate of lime , present in the rockwork and gravel , comes into play , and the hardness of the water is gradually increased in proportion as the light diminishes . Now , supposing for an instant that no carbonate of lime had been present in the arrangement , the question arises , what must then have ensued ? The fish would have continued to respire , " and would produce carbonic acid as before , which , remaining in a free state dissolved in the water , would unquestionably have had a most detrimental effect upon their health . Every one must have noticed the manner in which the golden carp confined in a globe of water , in which there is no growing vegetation to decompose the carbonic acid generated , or no limestone to combine with it , rise to the surface and continually gulp in the air required for their vital functions . Nothing whatever of this kind has ever been noticed in the aquarium under consideration , although the quantity of carbonic acid dissolved in the water has been at times very large . From the experiments of Bischof* , we glean that the carbonic acid contained in a saturated aqueous solution is entirely displaced by a current of atmospheric air passed through it for five minutes ; and also t that , by the same means , a solution of carbonate of lime , in water previously saturated with carbonic acid , will have all the excess of gas displaced in fifteen minutes , leaving the water with bicarbonate of lime in solution . It is in this form of combination that MIM . Peligot : and Poggiale ? consider the carbonate of lime to exist in the water of the Seine , and M. Bineau 11 in that of the Rhone , in which rivers they state there is no free carbonic acid . In the present investigation we shall therefore assume it to be in the same state of combination . We have , in the -series of experiments detailed above , an increase in the quantity of carbonate of lime held in solution , amounting to 14-2 grains in the imperial gallon , which would require nearly 6 , grains of carbonic acid gas to dissolve it . Besides this there is also the quantity already present in the water at its minimum , which amounts to nearly four grains more , or in all to about ten grains , equal to nearly cubic inches of that gas in the ten gallons of water , or more than -1-th its volume . The exact numbers will be seen in the following Table : CaO , CO2 in the gallon . CO2 . 1861 3faximum 23'0 grains , requiring 10'120 grains to form CaO , 2CO . '[3inimurn 93 , , , , 4 092 , , , , 186 fMlaximum 21'8 , , 9-592 , , , , , Minimum 8 8 , , , 3872 ... . Carbonic acid required to dissolve the increase 6 248 grains 13 269 cub. in . , , , , minimum 3-872 , , 8228 , 10-120 , , 21497 , , Yet , although the quantity of poisonous gas had been thus increased , we find no deleterious action on the health of the fish , no disturbance in the ordinary respiration , no gulping at the surface of the water for fresh air . It is quite evident , therefore , that the carbonic acid , by entering into combination with carbonate of lime , however weak that combination may be , is thereby rendered perfectly innocuous , and a wonderful provision is thus afforded for preventing this poisonous agent from becoming fatal to animal life . We turn now to the next member of our arrangement . 3 . The Vegetation . It will be seen from the foregoing numerical results that the maximum quantity of dissolved carbonate of lime , and consequently of carbonic acid , is found just before the period of the reviving energies of the plant 's growth , namely , the spring time of the year , when the days are lengthening and the sun 's light is continually increasing in strength ; the minimum quantity when this growth has attained its greatest exuberance , namely , when the summer months are past and the light is beginning to decrease in its intensity and the days to shorten . So exactly , indeed , are the energies of the plants regulated by the amount of light to which they are exposed , that a constant arrangement , such as that here described , affords an excellent indication of the variation of the seasons in different years , or might even be made a rough measure of the total amount of light from month to month . But while the demand for carbonic acid on the part of the plant varies in this manner with the seasons , the amount of that gas produced by the respiration of the fish is very nearly the same all through the year . Whence , then , does the plant obtain that additional quantity of food which its stimulated energies require during the spring and early summer months , and which its rapid and luxurious growth show to be readily supplied ? After what has been stated , I think the source must be apparent to every one-it is from the carbonic acid which has been gradually accumulated , and rendered innocuous to animal life from its being held in combination with carbonate of lime , in so marvellous a manner during the winter 194 [ Dec. 5 , months . Stored up , yet held in feeble combination , a combination so weak that the vital forces of the fresh-growing vegetation can easily overcome it , and resolve once more into carbonate of lime , carbon , and oxygen the bicarbonate of lime contained in the water ' . Thus beautifully are the necessary irregularities in the purifying action of the plant compensated and provided for , that the balance of existence between the animal and vegetable organisms be not disturbed or overthrown , and thus additional proof is furnished , if such were needed , of the wisdom of that creative power that has ordered all things to work together for good , and by endowing certain bodies with such seemingly minute and insignificant affinities , maintains the glorious harmony of the whole .

112490

3701662

Results of Observations of Atmospheric Electricity at Kew Observatory, and at Windsor, Nova Scotia. [Abstract]

195

196

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Joseph D. Everett

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112490

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112490

Meteorology

Tables

Meteorology

II . " Results of Observations of Atmospheric Electricity at Kew Observatory , and at Windsor , Nova Scotia . " By JOSEPH D. EVERETT , D.C.L. , F.R.S.E. , Assistant to the Professor of Mathematics in the University of Glasgow . Communicated by Sir WILLIAM TEHOMSON . Received October 14 , 1867 . ( Abstract . ) The paper commences with an account of the concluding observations taken by the author at Windsor , N.S. , of which the previous portion has already been published in the ' Proceedings , ' vols . xii . & xiv . It then goes on to describe the self-recording apparatus employed at Kew Observatory for the observation of atmospheric electricity , and the method of procedure employed in measuring and reducing the curves thus obtained , this portion of the work having been performed in the Physical Laboratory of the University of Glasgow . Tables are given showing the mean hourly values of the electrical potential for each month , and the mean monthly values are hence derived . These values for Kew are compared with the corresponding values for Windsor , N.S. , and remarkable differences are shown to exist between the curves , both diurnal and annual , for the two places . The hourly means at Kew for the mean of the year are represented by the following numbers:231 011 1h 21 311 4h 511 6h 7 1'91 196 1-92 1'93 1'95 2-08 2'29 2-58 2-86 8h 91 10"o 11 1 12 " 13 " 14 " 15l1 16h 2-96 2-93 2'74 2'42 2-12 1'86 1'68 1-58 1-54 17 " 18 " 1911 20 " 2111 22h 1-52 1-64 1-96 2-26 2-28 2-13 . These numbers indicate a principal maximum between 8 " and 9h , and a* The rapid growth of submnerged vegetation in rivers and waters containing a considerable amount of carbonate of lime must have been observed by all interested in the subject , in some cases obliging the cleansing of such streams three or four times during the year . 1867 . ] 195 secondary maximum between 20h and 21h . At Windsor , on the other hand , the mean potential about 9h was in every month , without exception , less than at the other principal times of observation , viz. about 21h and 14h . The following Table shows the ratio of the mean monthly to the mean annual potential for the whole series of observations at both places : Kew . June 1862 ... ... ... ... 770 June 1863 ... ... ... ... '681 July , , ... ... ... ... 773 July , , ... ... ... . *643 Aug. , , ... ... ... ... 836 Aug. , , ... ... ... ... 685 Sept. , , ... ... ... ... -845 Sept. , , ... ... ... ... .854 Oct. , , ... ... ... ... '981 Oct. , , ... ... ... ... 1.000 Nov. , , ... ... ... ... 1'600 Nov. , , ... ... ... . . 1-390 Dec. , , ... ... ... . . 1'188 Dec. , , ... ... ... . . 1-460 Jan. 1863 ... ... ... ... 1'033 Jan. 1864 ... ... ... 1-226 Feb. , , ... ... ... ... 1333 Feb. , , ... ... ... ... 1-263 March , , ... ... ... . 1-160 March , , ... ... ... ... 1-375 April ; , ... ... ... . . 920 April , , ... ... ... ... 831 May , , ... ... ... . . 672 May , , ... ... ... ... 549 Windsor , N.S. Oct. 1862 ... ... ... ... 832 Oct. 1863 ... ... ... ... 1'033 Nov. , , ... ... ... ... 766 Nov. , , ... ... ... ... '949 Dec. , , ... ... ... 1.010 Dec. , , ... ... ... . . 1'110 Jan. 1863 ... ... ... . . 1-057 Jan. 1864 ... ... ... ... 1-125 Feb. , , . 432 Feb. , , ... ... ... ... ? March , , ... ... ... ... 1'396 March , , ... ... ... ... 1416 April , , ... ... ... ... 1023 April , , ... ... ... ... 1 026 May , , ... ... ... ... 796 May , ... ... ... ... 985 June , , ... ... ... . . -720 June , ... ... ... . . '799 July , , ... ... ... ... 755 July , , ... ... ... ... -885 Aug. , , ... ... ... ... 952 Aug. , , ... ... ... ..(862 ) Sept. , , ... ... ... ... 985 The last step in the reductions consisted in expressing the variations , both diurnal and annual , at Kew , and the annual variations at Windsor , by the first two terms of an harmonic series . In the case of the diurnal variations at Kew , the amplitudes of the two terms were nearly equal , but the epoch was much more uniform in its values ( whether in comparing one year with the other or in comparing one month with another in the same year ) for the second term than for the first . In the case of the annual variations , the amplitude of the second term at Kew was almost inappreiable , while at Windsor it was greater than that of the first term .

112491

3701662

On the Orders and Genera of Quadratic Forms Containing More than Three Indeterminates

197

208

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

H. J. Stephen Smith

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0036

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112491

10.1098/rspl.1867.0036

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112491

Formulae

Paleontology

Mathematics

III . " On the Orders and Genera of Quadratic Forms containing more than three Indeterminates . " By H. J. STEPHEN SMITH , M.A. , F.R.S. , Savilian Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford.-Second Notice . Received October 30 , 1867 . The principles upon which quadratic forms are distributed into orders and genera have been indicated in a former notice ( Proceedings of the Royal Society , vol. xiii . p. 199 ) . Some further results relating to the same subject are contained in the present communication . I. The Definition of the Orders and Genera . Retaining , with some exceptions to which we shall now direct attention , the notation and nomenclature of the former notice , we represent by fa primitive quadratic form containing n indeterminates , of which the matrix is 11 j ; 11 byf , / , f ... .the fundamental concomitants off1 , of which the last is the contravariant . The matrices of these concomitants are the matrices derived from the matrix off , so that the first coefficients off2 , f , ... 2X2 3X3 in--1 X -lfn_ , , are respectively the determinants Ai , j| , I..,3. . Ai , j l , takein with their proper signs . The discriminant of fl , i. e. the determinant of the matrix IAi I , which is supposed to be different from zero , and which is to be taken with its proper sign , is represented by v7 , . The greatest common divisors of the minors of the orders n--1 , n-2 , ... 2 , 1 in the same matrix are denoted by Vnp VnV2 , V , of which the last is a unit ; we shall presently attribute signs to each of these greatest common divisors . The quotients Un .7n-1 , n- . Vn2 , 2 Vn-1 Vn-2 Vn-2 Vn-3 V1 1 which are always integral , we represent by I_ , In _ , ... I , ; so that Vk , Vk-i The numbers I1 , I,. . I , _ 1 are the first , second , ... . last invariants of the form f , and remain unchanged when/ f is transformed by any substitution of which the determinant is unity and the coefficients integral numbers . Forms which have the same invariants have of course the same discriminant ; but ( if the number of indeterminates is greater than two ) forms which have the same discriminant do not necessarily have the same invariants ; for example , the quaternary forms x21 + x2 + 2x,2 6x2 , 2+ x2 ++3 12 2 have the same diserminant 12 , but their invariants I1 , I2 , 13 are respectively 1 , 2 , 3 , and 1 , 1 , 12 . As forms which have the same discriminant , but different invariants , do not necessarily have any close relation to one another , we shall not employ the discriminant in the classification of qua197 1867 . ] but we shall regard the infinite number of forms , which have the same invariants , as corresponding , in the general theory , to the infinite number of forms which have the same determinant , in the theory of binary quadratic forms . If the index of inertia of the form f is k , i. e. if f1 can be transformed by a substitution of which the coefficients are real into a sum of l positive and n-k negative squares , we attribute to the invariant Ik the sign - , and to every other invariant the sign + . Thus the numbers V1 , V2 ... . Va are allpositive ; Vk+l , Vi+2 , . V. . are alternately negative and positive , so that the discriminant V , , is of the same sign as ( -)n-k , as it ought to be . This convention with respect to the signs of the invariants will enable us to comprehend in the same formulae the theory of the generic characters of forms of any index of inertia . We shall , however , suppose that the index of inertia is at least 1 , i. e. we shall exclude negative definite forms . The invariants of a positive definite form are all positive ; and the index of inertia of any indefinite form , of which the invariants are given , is always indicated by the ordinal index of its negative invariant . We shall represent by D the product --1 x -I , X -I X ... , the last factor being -I_ , , or -I , _ according as n is even or uneven . Iff Oi=-fi the forms 01 , 02 , 03,. . , _nare the primitive concomitants , and the last the primitive contravariant , of f , or 0 , ; each one of them is either uneven , i. e. properly primitive , or even , i. e. improperly primitive . Two forms , which have the same invariants , are said to belong to the same order when the corresponding primitive concomitants of the two forms are alike uneven or alike even . When the invariants are all uneven , and the number of the indeterminates is also uneven , there is but one order , none of the primitive concomitants being in this case even . Again , when the invariants are all uneven , and the number n of the indeterminates is even , there is either one order or two , according as D_ -1 , or =+1 , mod 4 ; for in both cases there is an order in which all the primitive concomitants are uneven , and in the latter case , besides this uneven order , there is an even order , in which these forms are alternately even and uneven , the two extreme forms 0~ and 0n_1 being even . In the general case , when the invariants have any values even or uneven , if Ii is even , 0i cannot be even ; again , if Ii is one of a sequence of an even number of uneven invariants , preceded and followed by even invariants , 0i cannot be even . But if there be a sequence of an uneven number of uneven invariants Ii , i+P. . Ii+2j , preceded and followed by even invariants , the sequence of primitive concomitants i , i+p ... Oi+2j are all uneven if 0 . is uneven , and are alternately even and uneven if 0i is even ; a sequence of forms or invariants may consist of a single form or invariant . We attribute the value 0 to the symbols Io and I , , the value 1 to the symbols 00 and 0 , ; thus the invariant I1 198 [ Dec. 5 , is always to be regarded as preceded by an even invariant , and In_l as followed by an even invariant ; similarly the forms 06 and 8 , _ , are to be regarded as respectively preceded and followed by uneven forms . Two even forms cannot be consecutive in the series 0. . O. , _ The preceding observations enable us to assign all the orders which may exist for any given invariants ; if the series of invariants I , 1 ... I. . , I_ present w different sequences each consisting of an uneven number of uneven invariants , preceded and followed by even invariants , there are 2 ' assignable orders . These orders , in general , all exist ; there are , however , the following exceptions to this statement:(1 ) If , the number of indeterminates being even and equal to 2v , D is uneven , there is an assignable order in which the concomitants 01 , 02. . 0f , _ are alternately even and uneven . But , as has been already said , this order does not exist if D =-1- , mod 4 ; and , if the invariants are all squares , it does not exist , even if D= 1 , mod 4 , unless the equation v ( v ) k(k--1 ) ( - ) 2 =(-1 ) 2 ( in which k is the index of inertia ) is also satisfied . ( 2 ) If , the number of indeterminates being uneven and equal to 2v 1 , D is uneven , and I21 even , there is again an assignable order in which the concomitants 0 ... 02 are alternately even and uneven . But , when I2v is the double of a square , and the other invariants are squares , this order does not exist unless the equation ( --1)(L2-1 ) = ( 1 ) k(-k ) ( in which k is still the index of inertia ) is satisfied . The reciprocal case ( that obtained by changing Is and s0 into I , _ , , and 0n- , , for every value of s from 0 to n ) presents a similar exception , which it is not necessary to enunciate separately . The generic characters of the form 0 , or , more properly of the system of concomitant forms 1 , 02 ) ... 0 , _ , , so far as they depend on uneven primes dividing the invariants , have been already defined in the former notice , and the definition need not be repeated here . These characters we shall term the principal generic characters of the system . When the invariants and primitive concomitants are all uneven , the principal characters are the only generic characters , with the exception of a certain character , which we shall define hereafter , and of which the value is not independent of the principal characters . In other cases , the forms of the concomitant system may acquire generic characters with respect to 4 or 8 : these we shall term supplementary . What supplementary characters exist in any given case may always be ascertained by applying the following rules . In their enunciation we represent by Ii the greatest uneven divisor of Ii taken with the same sign as Ii , by / Pi the exponent of the highest power of 2 contained in IJ , increased by 1 if one of the two forms j_1 , 0 l , is even , and by 2 if both those forms are even ; we suppose 0 < i < n. 199 : 0.-I I. If p , i2 , O , has the character ( 1)2 oi-II . If ? i 3 , Oi , in addition to the character ( -1 ) 2 , has also the chasi-1 racter(-1 ) s ? III . If / -= 1 , and also pi : > 2 , pi+l 2 , 0i ( which , as well as Oi_ and Oi+l , is necessarily uneven ) has the character oi-1 oi-1 s-1i ( -1 ) 8 or(-)W-according as ( -l1 )~ , i_l-1 ) + 2(i+--1 ) = ( _-1)i ( +1 ) , or =(1)(I'j-1 ) . It will be observed that ( by I ) the forms Oi-_ and Oi-l have the characOi_-1-1 0i+1 -1 ters ( -1 ) 2 and(-l ) 2 . IV . If p , = 0 , and also t , i-l 2 , til > 2 , Oi , if uneven , has the characOi-i ter ( -1 ) , or no character at all , according as ( -1 ) 2(Oi-12)+(0i+-i=(_ ) ? ( I)-1 ) or ( l)2(I+l ) No even concomitant has any supplementary character . But if 0 . is an even concomitant , the uneven forms preceding and following it have , by I , the characters i_-1-1 Oi+4l-1 ( -1 ) 2 , and(-1 ) 2 ? These characters are not independent but are connected by the equation ( -_1)2( ? i-l-)+ ( i+l-l)=(l1 ) ( I+l ) . Thus if Ii , Ii+l , . Ii+ 2 is a sequence of an uneven number of uneven invariants preceded and followed by even invariants , and corresponding to a sequence of alternately even and uneven concomitants 0 , Oi1 ... Oi+2j the character , mod 4 , of every uneven form of this sequence , and of the next following form Oi+2+ , , , is determined by the character of the form Oi_1 . We have , in fact , if s= 1 , 2 , ... j +1 , 4~ ( 0Q * ) s121IixJi+2 x * lowing definition is requisite in order to explain the nature of these simultaneous characters . If I an , is a matrix of the type n-1 x n , of which the determinants are not all zero , and if mk represent the value acquired by Ok , when we attribute to the indeterminates of that form the values of the determinants i=l , 2,..k ; j= , 2,..n , taken in the same order in which the determinants of any k horizontal rows of the matrix Ix { l are taken in forming the matrix of 0 , , the numbers mn , m , ... mn_I are said to be simultaneously represented by the forms 0 , 2s *. . _on-l . Let 0i+1 ... Oi+i , be a sequence of i ' uneven concomitants , i+l ' P1i+2 , ... ? i+if being 0 , or 1 , but pi and ii+i , +l being greater than 1 ; the uneven numbers simultaneously represented by i+p , Oi+2 , ... Oi+i , are all such as to render the unit s=i+i ' s=i+i ' s=i-+ti ' 02_ . i ( ^-l)(0Si-l ) X ; +(Ifl)(0~1 ) S , sJ ( _ , > , =.(-1"l ) $:s+l x(-i)s=i+i ~~~(-1 ) i+ X ( _ l)s_=+1 8X(l)i+ 8 ( which we shall symbolize by 4 , ( i , i ' ) ) , equal to + 1 , or else are all such as to render that unit equal to --1 . We therefore attribute to the sequence of forms Oi+ ... Oi+i , the simultaneous character 4 , ( i , i')=+I , or , ( i , i ' ) =1 , according as the former or latter of those equations is satisfied . If i'= , the sequence consists of but one form , so that the character 4 ( i , i ' ) ceases to be a simultaneous character ; in fact , if / i+ , =1 , it coincides with the supplementary character attributable to O , by III . ; if pi+ = ? 0 , it either becomes nugatory ( i. e. identically equal to +1 , irrespective of the value of mi+1 ) , or it coincides with the supplementary character of Oi+ , , according as that form ( by IV . ) has not or has a supplementary character . The complex of all the particular characters ( principal , supplementary , and simultaneous ) constitutes the complete character of the system of concomitants 01 , 02 , . 0-1 Not every complete generic character , assignable a priori , corresponds to actually existing forms , but only such characters as satisfy a certain condition of possibility . This condition is expressed by the equation s=n-l of X ( O , n-I)x II -+1 , ... . ( A ) in which , if Os is an even form , we understand by the symbol ) the quadratic character with respect to I , of the half of any number , prime to I , , which is represented by 0 , . The unit b ( 0 , n1 ) is formed in the same 1867 . ] 201 way as the unit 4 , ( i , i ' ) : we may omit , however , from the exponent of --1 in its expression every term into which an even form enters ; if , for example , 0Q is an even form , that exponent contains the terms..2 222 and no other term into which UO enters ; but p/ =O , and the coefficient of ; ( 0sl ) is even ; so that Os disappears from the expression of the unit - ) ( 0 , n-l ) . It will thus be seen that the equation ( A ) involves only generic characters ( principal , supplementary , or simultaneous ) of the concomitant system : that equation therefore expresses a relation which the complete character must satisfy . In using these formulae , we must attend to the significations which we have assigned to the symbols To , I , . oo , and 0 , . Thus 0--1 00o-L ( -1)-2 =l=(--1 ) 8 , P > 3 , etc. We shall conclude this part of our subject with the two theorems:(i ) Every gen us , of which the character satisfies the condition of possibility , actually exists . ( ii ) Two forms , of the same invariarts , of the same order , and of the same genus are transformable , each into the other , by rational linear substitutions of which the determinants are units , and in which the denominators of the coefficients are prime to any given number . The first of these theorems shows that the condition of possibility is sufficient as well as necessary ; the second establishes the completeness of the enumeration of ordinal and generic characters . II . Determination of the Weight of a given Genus of Definite Forms . It has been shown by Gauss , in the digression on ternary forms in the fifth section of the Disquisitiones Arithmetice , ' that the solution of the problems " to obtain all the representations of a given binary form , or of a given number , by a given ternary form , " depends on the solution of the problem " to determine whether two given ternary forms are equivalent , and , if they are , to obtain all the transformations of either of them into the other . " Similarly the solution of the problem " to obtain all the representations of a given quadratic form of i indeterminates ( i= 1 , 2 , ... n--1 ) by a given form of n indeterminates " depends on the solution of the problem of equivalence for quadratic forms of n indeterminates . The following proposition is here . of primary importance:"If the foi 'm ? , ofn-i indeterminates and of the invariants 1 , , I , ... 1T , _ , ,3 MI _ , , is capable of primiitive representation by the form 00 , of n indeterminates , and of the invariants , , , _ I2_ then -L^-_ X n_-2 ( where n-.2 is the primitive contravariant of is ) is a quadratic residue of M. " [ Dec. 5 , The converse is true , subject to certain limitations:"If M is prime to I , ,_ , and not negative except when I , ,_ is negative , and if -I , _1 x _-2 , is a quadratic residue of M , % , is capable of primitive representation by i. " " If , in addition , M is prime to I , _-2 there is always either one or two genera of forms of the invariants ( Ii , 12,. . M I_-2 ) capable of primitive representation by forms of a given genus of the invariants ( Ii , I2 , . I , _ , , Ii ) , ; and if there are two genera capable of such representation , they are of different orders . " These theorems are especially useful in the theory of definite forms , to which , for the remainder of this paper , we shall confine our attention . In the case of such forms we understand by the weight of a form the reciprocal of the number of its positive automorphics , by the weight of a class the weight of any form representing the class ; the weight of a genus , or order , is the sum of the weights of the classes contained in the genus or order ; the weight of a representation of a number by a form is the weight of the representing form ; the weight of a representation of a form by a form is the product of the weights of the representing and represented forms . Let r denote a system of forms , representatives of a given genus of the invariants 11 , 2,. . I , J_ ; let M be a number divisible by p different uneven primes , none of which divide any of the invariants , and let M be uneven or unevenly even , according as the contravariants of the forms P are uneven or even ; we then have the theorem"The sum of the weights of the representations of M by the contravariants of the forms r , is 24 , times the weight of the single genus , or the two genera , of invariants I1 , 2 ... AMI-_ , , which admit of representation by the forms T. " The method which this theorem may serve to indicate supplies a solution of the problem " to determine the weight of a given genus of definite forms of n indeterminates , and of the invariants I 1 , 1. . I , _ , ... ' We shall represent the weight of the given genus by the formula s=2A W= v 2+i X Il . x(B ) x B2 ? ? 1xH If s(n-s ) s8=-1 uwhen n is uneven and equal to 2 ) , + 1 , and by the formula S =1 gr 1\ m / v when n is even and equal to 2 ; and we shall consider separately the factors of which these formulae are composed . 00 ( i ) In the infinite series ( )1 ( which enters into the expression of W only when the number of indeterminates is even ) D still represents the product ( --1)YIXI3x. . X 2-1 , and the summation extends to all uneven values of m , which are prime to D , from 1 to oo . The sum of this infinite series can in every case be obtained in a finite form by the methods employed by Dirichlet ( in the 21st volume of Crelle 's Journal ) and by Cauchy ( in the 17th volume of the Memoires de l'Academie des Sciences , p. 679 ) . As the result of the summation does not seem to have been given , we shall present it here in one of many various forms which it may assume . Let D , represent the quotient obtained by dividing D by its greatest square divisor ; let q be any uneven prime dividing D , but ot D , , and letYV=-D=-I , the sign of summation extending to all not D1 , and let V=~7\ go/ mi values of m prime to 2D1 ; we then have the equation I V1 . D\ 1II Ini-3 xY . To obtain the value of V , let A represent the positive value of D , , so that A=D , when v is even , and A=--D when v is uneven . Also let.2o+ 12 + I. 22cf1 . 11 . 2 , --3.3 . 11 . 42 +(l ) H. 2c1 ~(^ )= 22-1+n2I--1 222 , ,4r " h. 2a2.fl-- , 2.rl.2(7v-1 It X2 < r-4+ . f+(f)\Y I. 2wc1 o2 fl.2-4 . ff._1 l4.3 2..T 2o-2p2-3 ' where p1 , / 3 , ... are the fractions of Bernoulli , so that Fk(x ) is the function s8=--I which , when x is an integral number , is equivalent to the sum 1 s. s=1 Then , if e=(-1l)(^"2 ) , or ( -1)"(V+ ) , according as v is even or uneven , the value of eV is ( 1 ) when D1 -1 , mod 4 , , x I\ xxI Fv-l( ( 2 ) in every other case , 2V-1 1 Xs4 I v-l4S A the summation I extending to every integral value of s inferior to A and nt 4A prime to A , the summation extending to every integral value of s inferior to 4A , and prime to 4A . The formula ( 1 ) is inapplicable when A=D= 1 ; but in this case v is even , and the sum of the series 1S1 is known . 7rv mY , s.=n-i ? s(n-s ) ( ii ) The factor IH I requires no explanation ; it is rational s=_ when n is uneven , and is a multiple of VA when n is even . ( iii ) The factor B , , is determined by the equations B2.v=iP XX-1 X PX X *..2-3 ) B2+-1= X13X x. 2AVx x , where 0 , / 3,. . are again the fractions of Bernoulli , so that f3- , -ia etc. ( iv ) The factors ( i ) and ( ii ) depend only on the invariants and on the number of the indeterminates , the factor ( iii ) only on the number of indeterminates . These factors are therefore the same for all genera of the invariants 1 , I2 , ... In . But the two remaining factors involve , or may involve , certain of the generic characters , and are therefore not always the same for all genera . In the factor II . X( ) the sign of multiplication extends to every uneven prime < , dividing any one or more of the invariants I , , I2 , ... . In-1 : it will suffice therefore to define the function X(s ) , which depends on only one of those primes . Let i1 , i2 , ... be the indices of all the invariants which are divisible by a ; let these indices be arranged in order of magnitude , beginning with 0 and ending with n ( because Io and In may be considered as divisible by . ) . The positive differences i , +l--is we shall term intervals . By the moiety of any whole number a we understand 2a when a is even , 4 ( a1 ) when a is uneven . Let Ks be the moiety of the interval isl+-i , s ; when that interval is even , let the barred symbol Ks represent the product ( 1l)KsIjl+ x I+ ... x I_l+i + and let r(Ks)=1+Q DS XOi')l . Lastly , let a(h ) represent the s=7h/ 1\ product I l(-l 2 ) ; let a be the moiety of n-I , and / u the number of the invariants I , , I2 , ... In , , which are divisible by B. Then X(a ) is the integral function of e , defined by the equation x( )= x n. r( ) ) when n is uneven , and by the equation x( ) Sx-( ) x.r()x 1_-(C 1I when n is even . If D is divisible by , the symbol ( ) is zero . In both formulae the sign of multiplication 1I extends to every value of Ks or i- ; the value +1 is , as before , to be attributed to the symbols 0o and 0 , , ( v ) Each factor X(a ) of the product 11 . X(3 ) thus depends on an uneven prime 8 dividing the invariants , on the indices of the invariants divisible by 8 , on the principal generic characters with respect to 8 , and on the quadratic characters with respect to a of the invariants not divisible by a. The remaining factor 4n may be said to depend on the relation of the concomitants and invariants to the prime 2 and its powers . The determination of this factor presents no theoretical difficulty ; but on account of the multiplicity of the cases to be considered , we shall confine ourselves in this place to the two cases in which the invariants are all uneven . ( A ) When the invariants are all uneven , and the given genus is of an uneven order , let S , , represent the unit ( --1)7h ( 0 , n--1 ) , where +(0 , n-1 ) is the simultaneous character of the given genus , and h is determined by the equation 4h=(I1i)(12+ 1 ) + ( I2l)(II3 + 1 ) + ( Il3)(121+ 1 ) +(2I~)(111315+ )+ ... . +( ... In-4 In_--1)( ... . In_-3 In-1+ 1 ) . The value of ; , , then is ( 1 ) if n=4A , 2 1[22+ ( -l ) ] , or 1 , according as D=l , or -1 , mod 4 ; ( 2 ) if n=4X+2 , [ 2022A+ ( )A^J , , or 1 according as D)- , or _--1 , mod 4 ; ( 3 ) if z= 4X+1 , [ 22^02+ ( -1 ) ^ ] ; l22x ( 4 ) if n=4X+3 , 1D-22 , +12 + ( I1)X 2 ( B ) When the invariants are all uneven , and the given genus of an even order , so that n =2 v is even , the value of , , is 2XX 1-2 f\ It is easy to apply these general formule to particular examples ; but our imperfect knowledge of quadratic forms containing many indeterminates , renders it practically impossible to test the results by any independent process . The demonstrations are simple in principle , but require attention to a great number of details with respect to which it is very easy to fall 206 [ Dec. 5 , into error . As soon as they can be put into a convenient form , they shall be submitted to the Royal Society . Eisenstein has observed that , when the number of indeterminates does not surpass eight , there is but one class of quadratic forms of the discriminant 1 , but that , when the number of indeterminates surpasses eight , there is always more than one such class . This observation is in accordance with our general formulae , except that they imply the existence of an improperly primitive class of eight indeterminates and of the dis criminant 1 . The theorems which have been given by Jacobi , Eisenstein , and recentl3 in great profusion by I. Liouville , relating to the representation of numbers by four squares and other simple quadratic forms , appear to be deducible by a uniform method from the principles indicated in this paper . So also are the theorems relating to the representation of numbers by six and eight squares , which are implicitly contained in the developments given by Jacobi in the 'Fundamenta Nova . ' As the series of theorems relating to the representation of numbers by sums of squares ceases , for the reason assigned by Eisenstein , when the number of squares surpasses eight , it is of some importance to complete it . The only cases which have not been fully considered are those of five and seven squares . The principal theorems relating to the case of five squares have indeed been given by Eisenstein ( Crelle 's Journal , vol. xxxv . p. 368 ) ; but he has considered only those numbers which are not divisible by any square . We shall here complete his enunciation of those theorems , and shall add the corresponding theorems for the case of seven squares . We attend only to primitive representations . Let A represent a number not divisible by any square , a2 an uneven square , a any exponent . By s(4 a2A ) , 4(4a2A ) , we denote the number of representations of 4a & 2A by five and seven squares respectively ; by Q5(42A2Q ) , Q7(4a-2A ) , we represent the products 5x25Mxn [ l -()-2 X ) the sign of multiplication In extending to every prime dividing El , but not dividing A ; we then have the formulae ( A ) for five squares . ( 1 ) If Ai- , mod 4 , 5(4^ " ) = 0,15(42A ) X ( 7 X 4)(s- ) , where , if A l , mod 8 , ? 7-12 ; if A-5 , mod 8 , 1==28 or 20 , according as ( 1=0 , or:- > 0 . If , however , A=I , we are to replace ? , XE by 2 . ( 2 ) In every other case , 4A/ A\ a , ( 40i2A ) =Q((4lA ) X1Xh ( )s(s--4D ) , where r=1 , or 2 , according as a=0 , or a > O. ( B ) for seven squares . ( 1 ) If A-3 , mod 4 , 47(4C%2AA ) = Q(4 )A 1X s(-A)(2s-A ) , where , =30 , if a=0 , A-3 , mod 8 ; x== X 37 , if a=0 , A 7 , mod 8 ; r= ? X 140 , if a > 0 . ( 2 ) In every other case , 4A/ --A\ ( 42A)= Q 2(4a AXXA ( --(s(-2A)(s-4A ) , where ? = ? , or y5 , according as a= 0 , or a > O. A 4A The sums , and 2 in these formulia are easily reduced ( by distinguish1 1 ing different linear forms of the number A ) to others more readily calculated ( see the note of Eiseiistein , to which we have already referred ) ; but in the present notice we have preferred to retain them in the form in which they first present themselves . We shall conclude this paper by calling attention to a class of theorems which have a certain resemblance to the important results established by M. Kronecker for binary quadratic forms . Let ~ F4(M ) Let 44 represent the weight of the quaternary classes of the invariants [ 1 , 1 , M ] ; I Fl . ( the weight of the senary classes of the invariants [ 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 , M ] , then 2. . 1)-d+ F4(M ) + 2F , ( M -12 ) + 2 , ( M22 ) ... =( 1 ) 2 F , ( 2M ) + 2F , ( 2M12 ) + 2F(2M-22 ) + ... = d3 . In the first of these formula M is any unevenly even number , or any number -3 , mod 4 ; in the second M is any uneven number : the series in both are to be continued as long as the numbers M-s2 , or 2M--s2 , are positive ; d is any uneven divisor of M. The origin of these formulme ( which may serve as examples of many others ) is exactly analogous to that which M. Kronecker has pointed out as characteristic of the more elementary of the two classes into which his formulae are naturally divided . Whether , for forms of four and six indeterminates , similar formulae exist comparable to the less elementary formulae of M. Kronecker , and whether , for forms containing more than six indeterminates , such formulae exist at all , are questions well worthy of the attention of arithmeticians . 208 [ Dec. 5 ,

112492

3701662

On the Special Action of the Pancreas on Fat and Starch

209

213

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Horace Dobell

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0037

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112492

10.1098/rspl.1867.0037

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112492

Physiology

Chemistry 2

Physiology

I. " On the Special Action of the Pancreas on Fat and Starch . " By HORACE DOBELL , M.D. &c. , Physician to the Royal Hospital for Diseases of the Chest &c. Communicated by E. FRANKLAND , F.R.S. Received September 5 , 1867 . I have been engaged for several years in experimenting with the secretion of the pancreas . The inquiry of which I now make known the results has reference especially to the mode of action of the pancreas upon fats-a point which has been the subject of investigation by various physiologists ever since the discovery of the influence of the pancreatic fluid on the absorption of fat by Claude Bernard , nearly twenty years ago . In the chemical parts of my experiments I owe much to the efficient aid of my friend Mr. Julius Schweitzer , and to the energy and perseverance with which he carried out my suggestions under many difficulties . The objects of my investigations have been as follows:1 . To discover the exact character and nature of the influence exerted by the pancreas upon fats . 2 . To discover a means of obtaining and preserving the active principles of the pancreas in a form suitable for experiment in the laboratory , and for administration as a remedial agent . 3 . To discover the effects of the adminiistration of the active principles of the pancreas as a remedial agent in certain wasting diseases , and to test , by an experimentis crucis , the truth of a conclusion on this subject , at which I had previously arrived by a process of inductive research . I shall not occupy the valuable time of the Society by narrating the many more or less unsuccessful experiments , but restrict myself to a concise record of those attended with success . Experiments were made with the pancreas of several different animals , but that of the pig was selected for the experiments of which I am about to give the results , as being nearest in the character of its functions to that of the human subject . In order to ascertain the normal reaction of the pancreatic juice , and 209 whether this is altered by the length of time that has elapsed since the last meal , the fillowing experiment was made with the assistance of Mr. Schweitzer and of Mr. IHarris of Calne , who kindly placed his extensive pig-killing establishment at our service for the purpose . On March 22 , 1866 , forty pigs were killed , and the pancreas of each examined immediately after death ; the killing7 and examination were so rapidly conducted , that the pancreas was in each case examined while warm from the body ; and the killing and examination of the forty pigs in succession occupied less than an hour . The pigs were killed ten at a time . The first ten had been fed two hours before they were killed , the second ten five hours , the third ten nine hours , and the fourth ten had not been fed for two days . The pancreas in each group presented the same characters in size , colour , and reaction . Each pancreas was cut through so as to lay open the principal duct , but in no case was there any fluid in the duct . Litmuspaper was applied to the interior of the duct and to the divided glandcells , and on being pressed sufficiently against the tissues to absorb moisture , the paper was in each case reddened where it was moistened . This acid reaction was not found in the fat and muscles of the animaal . At my request , Dr. Collins , of Albert Terrace , Regent 's Park , examined the reaction of the pancreas in a series of cases at the moment when all the digestive organs were under active excitement . He gave the pigs a good and relishing lmeal , and while they were eating it , divided the spinal marrow in the neck , so as to destroy sensation in the body . The pigs were then immediately cut open , the pancreas removed , and its reaction examined . On August 3rd he wrote me , " As you requested , I have tried a series of experiments upon the pancreas , parotid , and sublingual glands . The two latter have a decidedly acid reaction , but the pancreas I am not quite so certain about ; in one batch of pigs killed in Buckinghamshire it was alkaline , but in another lot in Hertfordshire it was acid . " The reaction of the pancreas is always acid when it reaches the laboratory for experiment as quickly as possible after removal from the animal . This we have proved in many hundrels of instances . To discover the influence of the pancreas upon fat , the fresh pancreas of the pig , freed from all adhering blood and other extraneous matters , was cut into small pieces , bruised , and mixed with lard ; and to this mixture water was gradually added . In the bruised condition the pancreas had an acid reaction . By stirring this mixture of pancreas , lard , and water , the fatty character disappeared , a thick , white , creamy fluid being formed , which , on standing , solidified into a firm pasty mass . This mass had also an acid reaction . In order to free it from the debris of pancreas , it was pressed through muslin , and a uniform smooth creamy emulsion remained . This emulsion rapidly putrefied , but remained a permanrent emulsion until putrefaction set in . the Pancreas on Fat and Starch . The following are the microscopical characters presented by pure lard before mixture with pancreas , and by this emulsion , which I call " crude emulsion:"-1 . " Lard " ( pure).-Aggregations of ordinary acicular crystals of margarine . No oil-globules . No water . 2 . " Crude emulsion."-A tolerably uniform granular mass with separate acicular crystals of margarine , oil-globules , and water abundantly distributed throughout the mass . In some places the crystals are aggregated as in No. 1 . The granules range from the to 1-TW of an inch in diameter . This mixture of fat and water differs from all other mixtures or chemical combinations of fat and water in the following particulars . When the " crude emulsion " is put into ether , the ether separates it into two strataa . An ethereal stratum above containing the fat . b. A watery stratum below . When the upper stratum ( a ) ( ethereal solution of fat ) is drawn off and the ether evaporated by a cautiously regulated heat , a pure crystalline fat remains which I call " pancreatized fat . " This pancreatized fat has no tendency to putrefy , and will keep for an indefinite period . It presents the following characters under the microscope:3 . " Pancreatized fat " ( lard ) consists of minute separate acicular crystals of margarine and fine granular matter uniformly distributed . The special character is the complete loss of aggregation of the crystals . This " pancreatized fat " retains the property of mixing or combining with water , and forming a thick , smooth , creamy emulsion , that it possessed in the form of " crude emulsion " before solution in ether . The emulsion formed by mixture of " pancreatized fat " with water I call " purified pancreatic emulsion . " It has , like the crude emulsion , an acid reaction , and will keep for a very long time , and presents the following microscopical characters:4 . " Purified emulsion " ( No. 3 , spirit andwater).-As nearly as possible the same as No. 2 ; the separate crystals more uniformly distributed , and fewer aggregations of them . No globules* . On analysis of the lower watery stratum ( b ) resulting from the separation of the fat of the crude emulsion by ether , it is found to contain no glycerine . On analysis of the pancreatized fat ( 3 ) obtained by evaporating the ether from stratum a , it is found that 100 parts of the pancreatized fat are saponified by 54 parts of oxide of lead , and yield 146'25 parts of leadplaster , and 6'75 parts of glycerine . It is also found that every 100 parts of lard used in making the crude emulsion produce 106'5 parts of pancreatized fat , the increase of 6-5 parts being solely due to absorption of water , as proved by heating the pancreatized fat , when the water separates , and the pancreatized fat is reconverted into ordinary lard . In all the foregoing respects the pancreatic emulsion of fat differs entirely from all other kinds of emulsion of fatty matter , whether chemical or mechanical . All other emulsions of fat are destroyed by ether , the fat being restored at once to its original condition . The influence exerted by the pancreas upon fats , therefore , appears to operate by breaking up the aggregation of the crystals of the fat and altering its hydration . It alters the molecular condition of the fat , mingling it with water in such a way that even ether cannot separate the fat from the water . A permanent emulsion is thus formed ready to mix with a larger quantity of water whenever it may be added . The pancreas , therefore , in acting upon fat , does not decompose it into fatty acid and glycerine , the absence of the glycerine from the watery stratum ( b ) , and the presence of the glycerine in the pancreatized fat of the ethereal stratum ( a ) , having been demonstrated . Action of the pancreas upon starch.-It is well known that , in addition to the influence of the pancreas upon fat , it has the power of converting starch into glycose by simple mixture . This property remains to a certain extent after the pancreas has exhausted its property of acting upon fat . The quantity of pancreas which before mixture with fat will convert about eight parts of starch into glycose , after saturation with fat will still convert about two parts of starch into glycose . Second object.-To discover a means of preserving the active principles of the pancreas in a form suitable for experiment in the laboratory , and for administration as a remedial agent . The properties of the pancreas can be extracted from the tissue of the gland by means of water . This watery fluid putrefies very rapidly . It has an acid reaction , a deep yellow colour , coagulates largely by boiling , leaving the colour of the fluid unaltered . It may be precipitated by leadsolution , and decomposed again by sulphuretted hydrogen . When this watery fluid is evaporated , it forms a syrupy extract , which is highly hygroscopic and very difficult to dry . With great care and trouble , however , it may be dried . For general purposes , the drying is greatly facilitated by adding a dry absorbing-powder , such as powdered malt . For experimental purposes , it may be used in its pure undried state of syrupy extract , but must in that case be used fresh . In the dry state , either pure or mixed with malt-dust , it may be kept good for an indefinite length of time , if protected from moisture in a well-closed bottle . This extract of the pancreas , containing the active principles of the pancreas in the highest degree of efficiency , whether fluid or powdered , I call " pancreatine . " This term is used only for convenience ' sake , and must in no way be understood to signify that the property possessed by it is single . All attempts to isolate the several properties of the pancreas into separate [ Dec. 12 , products have failed , no one of such products having been found to possess in perfection the property of acting upon fat in the manner described in this paper as peculiar to the pancreas . By the term " pancreatine , " then , I desire to represent the entire properties of the pancreas extracted in a convenient form for keeping , for experiment , and for administration as a remedial agent . One part of the pure pancreatine dried , without mixture with malt-dust , will digest at least sixteen parts of lard , and enable it to form a thick creamy emulsion , with about 100 parts of water . The emulsion thus formed presents in every respect the characters and qualities of the emulsion produced by the fresh pancreas already described . In this way therefore the active principles of the pancreas may be obtained and preserved in a form suitable for experiment in the laboratory and for administration as a remedial agent . The third object of my investigations has especially occupied my attention in a long series of experiments at the Royal Hospital for Diseases of the Chest . Full details of these and of the results obtained have been published from time to time , during the last four years , in the medical journals ; I shall not , therefore , occupy the time of the Society with any account of them in this paper .

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On a Supposed Connexion between the Amount of Rainfall and the Changes of the Moon

213

214

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. H. N. Hennessey

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0038

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112493

10.1098/rspl.1867.0038

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112493

Meteorology

Tables

Meteorology

II . " On a supposed Connexion between the Amount of Rainfall and the Changes of the Moon , " being an extract of a Letter from J. H. N. HENNESSEY , Esq. , First Assistant on the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India , to General SABINE , R.A. , Pres. R.S. Communicated by the President . Received November 7 , 1867 . Allow me now to say a few words in connexion with the enclosed paper . There appears to prevail a belief , more or less popular , to the effect that more rain falls at " the changes of the moon " than on the intermediate days of a lunation . As I happened to possess a recwd of the rainfall at the office of the Superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of Mussoorie , extending over thirteen consecutive years , I obtained Colonel Walker 's permission to make use of the register , in connexion with this popular belief . The results tabulated have been obtained by employing an average daily fall as the means for comparing the fall at " the changes " with that at intermediate intervals . The method of calculation adopted is explained in the footnote to the Table . The annual average result may be stated thus:inch . At " the changes " of the moon the meanz daily fall of rain is. . 0'466 Between " the changes " of the moon the mean daily fall is ... . 0 525 213 which is in opposition to the popular belief on the subject . I enclose the Table , on the chance of its proving sufficietl ntl interesting to be noticed . Average daily fall of rain between successive quarters and at each quarter of the moon from 1st of May to 31st of October of each year , measured at the Office of the Superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India . The office stands in Mussoorie , on the most southern range of the Himalaya Mountains , lat. N. 30§ 28 ' , long . E. of Greenwich 78§ 7 ' ; height above mean sea-level 6500 feet . Average Daily Fall . Total Fall Year . from May 1 to Oc ) to @* to ) 3 ) ) toO 00 to ))3 inch . inch . inch . inch . inch . inch . inch . inch . inches . 1854 . 64 . 644 -374 -813 176 -630 '096 -512 '621 100-72 1855 ... . . -456 -204 -360 -918 -311 l356 -753 -733 85-85 1856 ... . 732 *745 -703 -237 -397 -588 -347 -340 93-28 1857 ... ... '280 -319 -794 1-013 '521 -136 -368 -606 88-27 1858 . * ... . -402 -448 -485 -298 -518 -157 '705 -373 84-61 1859 ... ... -665 -263 -253 -642 -306 -253 -570 -583 78-31 1860 -. . 356 -228 -430 -719 -564 -205 -301 '073 65-81 1861 ... 685 '678 1-014 -372 1 332 -287 -577 -855 141-16 1862 -611 -620 -513 *651 -364 -852 -645 -530 93-91 1863 ... ... 348 342 -862 -932 -511 -595 -291 -546 93-03 1864 ... ... -762 -409 -545 -292 -394 -328 -237 -352 82-19 1865 ... . 543 *235 -276 -120 -443 -526 -518 -785 76-37 1866 ... . . -135 -360 -402 -580 -636 -809 -452 -483 81-15 Means of -509.402 -573 -535 -533 -399 *483 -529 89-589 columns J4 General mean of @ ) 0 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 0466 inch . General mean of ) to @ , ? to ) , D to O , O to ) ... ... 0-525 , Note.-The rainfall during the preceding twenty-four hours was measured daily at mean noon . Suppose m , , m m , , m. , m , n m6 , m , m , n to denote nine such consecutive measurements of daily rainfall , registered at Mussoorie mean noon , respectively on the Ist , 2nd ... 9th of the month , and that the moon entered her first quarter at an hour nearer to noon of the 1st than to the preceding or succeeding noons . In this case the arithmetical mean of mn and m2 has been entered in column ) as the average daily fall at the first quarter . Similarly , if full moon occurred nearest to noon of the 8th , the quantity m 8+ has been reckoned as the average daily fall at full moon ; and m+ 4+5 -7 represents the avera daily fall from D to 0 . The foregoing Table has been prepared under these conditions by Baboo Dwarkanath Dutt , Computer to the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India , 214 [ Dec. 12 ,

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Researches Conducted for the Medical Department of the Privy Council at the Pathological Laboratory of St. Thomas's Hospital. [Abstract]

215

220

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. L. W. Thudichum

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112494

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112494

Chemistry 2

Biography

Chemistry

III . " Researches conducted for the Medical Department of the Privy Council at the Pathological Laboratory of St. Thomas 's Hospital . " By J. L. W. TIiUDICHUr , M.D. Communicated by JOHN SIAMON , Esq. , Medical Officer of the Privy Council . First Series.-The Chemical Nature and Composition , Combinations , and Metamorphoses of the Colouring-matters of Bile . Received November 14 , 1867 . ( Abstract . ) I. On Cholophaeine or Bilirubine and its Compounds . Sect. 1 . The paper commences with a short historical retrospect on the literatureof the subject under consideration , in which the researches of Berzelius , Scherer , Hein , Marchand , Heintz , Maly , and Stadeler are mentioned . Sect. 2 . The author then describes the mode of obtaining a red colouringmatter from ox-gallstones . These concretions have to be extracted with water , alcohol , ether , dilute hydrochloric acid , and ultimately , after repeated extraction with boiling alcohol and ether , with chloroform . This agent dissolves bili'ubine or cholophceine , and deposits it , on concentration and the addition of absolute alcohol , in an amorphous condition , or in a crystallized state . Sect. 3 . The crystals are dark brown , and have a splendid blue lustre . They are rhombic plates , as represented by a drawing in outline taken from a specimen magnified about twenty times . The amorphous or only crystalline modification is a powder of a splendid red , nearly orange-colour . Sect. 4 . The elementary analysis of several specimens yielded results which led to the formula C9 H , N 02 . Sect. 5 . Bilirubine dissolves in ammonia , but does not form any permanent compound with it . Its combinations with fixed caustic alkalies are insoluble in an excess of lye . The neutral alkali solution , mostly the one in ammonia , yields neutral salts with monodynamic metals , half-acid salts with didynamic ones . The neutral monohydcrated cholophceinate of silver , C , H1 , Ag NO3 , Ag=37'5 per cent. , is a reddish-brown precipitate , which does not lose the atom of water at 110 ? C. As a hydrated silver-salt it is anomalous ; but a few other animal products , such as hippuric acid , are known also to form such hydrated silver-salts . By means of this compound , the formula of bilirubine , or cholophaeine , above given , is shown to express its atomic weight . The basic anhydrous cholopheinate of silver , C , H , Ag , NO2 , Ag =57'29 per cent. , is obtained from an alkaline solution of cholophaeinc and silver nitrate in ammonia , by cautiously reducifig the amount of free alkali by means of nitric acid . The compound is analogous to a lead-salt , C9 HT P-b NO , described lower down . The neutral cholophceinate of barium is precipitated from an alkaline solution , and has the composition C H1 , ,2 Ba N , 0 , , Ba=27'56 per cent. The half-acid cholopheeinate or sesquicholophceinate is C27 H2 , Ba N3 08 , Ba=-2075 per cent. , and precipitated by neutral Ba salts from a neutral solution in ammonia . The differences between these salts were established in all their details by analyses , the means of which compare with theory as follows : Neutral salt . Ialf-acid salt . Atom . W. 477 . Atom . W. 660 . Theory . Found . Theory . Found . C ... ... ... ... 43-46 44-58 49'09 50-63 h1 ... ... ... ... 4-02 3-98 4'39 4*37 Ba ... ... ... . 256 27-55 20-75 20-66 The discovery of these salts was of particular importance , as they led to the discovery of similar calcium compounds , and thereby to important theoretical developments . The neutral calcium-salt , The half-acid calcium-salt , C18 1-H Ca N2 o. C27 H129 Ca N3 0 Atom . W. 400 . Atom . W. 563 . Theory . Found . Theory . Found . C ... ... ... . 54 53-86 57'54 60-37 ... ... ... . 5 4-90 5'15 5-74 a ... ... . . 10 10-17 710 6-91 The calcium compound , on the basis of which Stideler had assumed C16 H118 N2 03 to be the atomic formula of bilirubine , had yielded him ( one analysis ) 91 per cent. of calcium oxide , therefore less calcium than was found in the analysis of the half-acid salt , or 6-5 per cent. There is no doubt that Stddeler had this half-acid compound before him . He unfortunately obtained the most unstable and uncertain of all the compounds of bilirubine , and mistook it for a neutral salt , abandoning his former correct analysis and formula of free bilirubine . With Stadeler 's last formula of bilirubine fall the formule of all other substances described by him under the names of biliverdite , biliprasin , bilifuscine , and bilihumine . The half-acid cholophceinate of zinc , C27 H29 Zn N3 O , , with 11 05 per cent. of Zn , and the neutral cholophaceinate of lead , C18 H20 Pb N20 , Pb=36-50 per cent. , were also obtained . Basic cholophceinate of lead is analogous to the basic silver-salt , as in it two atoms of hydrogen are replaced by one didynamic atom of lead . Formula=C H7P-b NO2 , -Pb=56'25 per cent. Some copper compounds were also obtained . A new reaction for cholopheine is given . It consists in dissolving the dry powder in fuming sulphuric acid . A splendid green is at once produced . The substance is not biliverdine , but a product which , when isolated , contains an atom of water more than bilirubine , and is C9 IIn NO3 , and is named cholothalline by the author . Cholothalline colours wool of a fast green , indestructible by acid , discharged by ammonia . Cholophoeine also yields a blue-coloured substance by treatment with nitric acid ( cholocyanine ) , of which the peculiar spectrum was determined . A great number of green , blue , violet , and red bodies can be produced by appropriate agents , which , if they could be obtained on a large scale , might find technical application . II . On Biliverdine or Cholochlorine and its Compounds . Sect. 1 treats of the mode of obtaining biliverdine . Cholophaeine is dissolved in carbonate of potassium , and warmed while a current of air is passed through it . When the solution is green , it is precipitated with hydrochloric acid . The precipitated biliverdine is easily soluble in alcohol . Sect. 2 describes the physical properties of biliverdine , as a non-crystalline splendidly green substance , the solution of which gives no particular absorption phenomena in the spectrum . Sect 3 gives the elementary analyses and theory of biliverdine , which led to the formula C , HJ NO2 . Thus it was shown that it originated from cholophaeine by the addition of oxygen and subsequent subtraction of carbonic acid . C9 H , NO2+20=-8 HN O+ CO , . Sect. 4 . treats of the compounds of biliverdine . The calcium-salt was not obtained pure . The barium-salt appeared to be G2 , II,7 Ba N3 , O , and was precipitated by baryta-water from an alcoholic solution of biliverdine . It consequently consisted of one atom of the neutral salt with an atom of biliverdine and one of water . Lead and copper compounds were also obtained . No insoluble silver-salt could be obtained . The addition of oxide of silver to an alcoholic solution caused a reaction , consisting in an oxidation of the biliverdine . A new reaction for biliverdine is stated . When dissolved in alcoholic ammonia , and boiled with an ammoniacal solution of silver nitrate , silver is deposited , and on addition of an acid a splendid purple matter is produced ( bilipurpine ) . Of these new substances and others the author hopes to treat in future communications . Chlorine and other substitution-products are also mentioned . The foregoing contributions will make the chemistry of the bile in the main complete . Human bile contains cholophleine , but most commonly by the side of it bilifuscine , a brown substance to be treated of hereafter . Second Series.-The Chemical Nature and Composition , Combinations and Metamorphoses of the Colouring-matter of the Urine . 1 . On Uromelanine , a product of decomposition of Urochroome . In the Hastings Prize Essay for 1864 the author described a substance to which he gave the name of Uromelanine , on account of its origin and black colour . Ile now.describes the method of obtaining it from putrid urine as well as fresh , and a method of purification by which it is obtained of uniform composition and in a pseudo-crystalline condition . IHe has prepared twelve specimens by various processes , and analyzed many of them , as well as a great number of their compounds , with various metals . These preparations are marked respectively as in the following list : Prize Essay preparations . Compounds . By boiling with 1H2 804:A. . I. From fresh urine . Elementary analyses . Neutral . Ba salt ( Ur2 -Ba ) , Zn salt ( Ur , Zn2 ) , Pb salt ( Ur3 Pb , ) . A. II . From fresh urine . Ag salt ( Ur Ag ) , -Ba salt ( Ur4 -Ba ) . By addition of 11 , SOQ , no boiling : A. III . From putrid urine . Ag salt ( Ur Ag ) , Ba salt ( Ur4 -Ba ) , Ca salt ( Ur , Ca3 ) . Preparations made for the present research . By boiling with H , 80:B . I. B. II . Two elementary analyses . B. III . Before boiling with II , S0:C . I. After boiling : C. II . Six elementary analyses . Before boiling : D. I. Two N determinations . N= 13 58 per cent. Ag salt ( Ur2 Ag ) , Ca salt ( Ur3 Ca ) and ( Ur2 Ca3 ) , Zinc-salt ( Ur , Zn ) . After boiling with 11H 80:-D . II . D. III . D. IV . Two N determinations . N= 12'40 per cent. Ag salt ( Ur3 Ago ) , Ba salt ( Ur2 Ba ) and Zinc-salt ( Ur , Zn ) . Synopsis of Uromelanates obtained with the foregoing preparations . Silver-salts . Preparation . r Ag . Ag . found . ( A. 1 . ) , ( A. III . ) . 11 13-38 per cent. ( D. I. ) ... ... ... . 23 18-57 ( D. IV . ) ... ... . . 35 19-7,7 Barium-salts . Ur -Ba . Ba found . ( D. IV . ) ... ... . . 52 7-20 per cent. ( A. I. ) , ( D. IV . ) 21 8-34 ( A. I ) , ( A. III . ) . 43 13,28 , Calcium-salts . Ur Ca. Ca found . ( D. I. ) ... ... ... 52 2-03 per cent. ( A. II . ) ... ... ... . 43 4.35 ( D. I. ) ... ... ... 23 7-27 Zinc-salts . Ur Zn . Zn found . ( D. I. ) ... ... ... . 31 2-82 per cent. ( A.I. ) ... ... ... . 52 3-54 , , ( D. IV . ) ... ... . . 21 442 Lead-salt . Ur + Pb . Pb found . ( A. I. ) ... ... ... . 32 15-70 per cent. The analyses of ( A. I. ) , ( A. 1II . ) , ( D. I. ) , ( D. IV . ) , and of the twothirds basic silver-salt ( Ur3 Ag5 ) determined uromelanine to be C3 , H1 N , 10 , . Theory of atoms . Per cent. Found , mean . C3G ... ... . . 432 58-93 57-21 H43 ... ... . . 43 5'86 5-74 N ... ... ... ... 98 1336 12-'8 01o ... ... ... . 160 2185 24'17 733 100.00 100-00 The normal silver-salt is CG I-14 Ag N7 09 , and is therefore Ur+Ag -H1 0 . One atom of water leaves Ur when Ag enters , besides H. The half-basic silver-salt shows no loss of water . The two-thirds basic silver-salt , Ur3 Ag5 , is an exceedingly well-defined compound . Its formula is C , , , H Ag5 N21 0O . Required in 100 . Found . G ... ... . . 47-40 46-90 I ... ... . 4.53 4-77 Ag ... ... . 75 19777 N ... ... . 10-75 10'36 0 ... . 17'57 18'20 100-00 100-00 The other nine salts mentioned in the synopsis have all been analyzed . They support each other 's theory , and the details of their description must be seen in the main paper . Uromelanine is a product of decomposition of the yellow-coloured ingredient of the urine , urochrome . Its atomic weight ( 733 ) is higher than that of any other product of decomposition of animal or organic matter ; it contains neither sulphur nor iron . While the analyses of 219 cholophmeine and biliverdine have shown that they have no apparent relation to hematine , as was formerly supposed , the analyses of uromelanine have made it probable that this substance is a derivative of the coloured part of the blood , cruorine or hematocrystalline , not , however , of hematine , for the atomic weight of hematine is apparently smaller than that of uromelanine . But crystallized cruorine has an atomic weight of about 13,000 ( -Fe=0'45 per cent. ) . From such a body urochrome , including as it does uromelanine , uropittine , omicholine , and perhaps other matters ( to be described in future communications ) , might be derived with an atomic weight of perhaps 1500 , being itself near that of albumen ( 1612 ) , but unable to derive from it . The author thinks it possible that the quantity of blood-disintegration might be measured by determining the amount of uromelanine obtainable from given quantities of urine excreted in given times . In any case uromelanine is one of the most remarkable substances in the whole domain of organic and animal chemistry , and the further study of its metamorphoses cannot fail to yield highly interesting results .

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The Bakerian Lecture: Researches on Vanadium.--Part I. [Abstract]

220

228

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Henry E. Roscoe

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112495

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112495

Chemistry 2

Thermodynamics

Chemistry

I. Introduction . Amongst the physical properties which point out the general relationship and classification of chemical compounds , none has so deservedly obtained the confidence of chemists as isomorphism . The vanadium compounds have , however , proved a remarkable and unexplained exception to the conclusions which generally follow from well ascertained identity of crystalline form . Rammelsberg , and afterwards , more completely , Schabus , pointed out the fact that the mineral vanadinite from several localities ( a compound of lead vanadate and lead chloride ) is isomorphous with apatite , pyromorphite , and mimetesite , minerals consisting of calcium phosphatochloride , lead phosphato-chloride , and lead arsenato-chloride . The crystalline form of all these minerals is an hexagonal prism , terminated by 6-sided pyramids . So far indeed has the isomorphism of these [ Dec. 19 , 220 compounds been traced , that in many specimens these minerals have been found to crystallize together in all proportions ; and Heddle describes a crystal in his possession , the upper half of which consists of vanadinite and the lower half of pyromorphite . Our knowledge concerning the chemical composition of the oxides of vanadium is derived from the accurate analytical results of Berzelius , to whose celebrated research ( 1831 ) on vanadium we are indebted for almost all we know of this metal and its compounds . From these experiments , more or less completely confirmed by Schafarik and Czudnowicz , it appears that the formula of vanadic acid is VO3 . Hence it is evident that we have here to do with either a case of dissimilarly constituted substances acting as isomorphous bodies and crystallizing together , or else the conclusions of Berzelius are mistaken , and the true formula of vanadic acid is V205 , corresponding to phosphorus and arsenic pentoxides . The first of these alternatives has been properly accepted by most chemists as the only present solution of the difficulty , inasmuch as the definite experimental data given by Berzelius render the assumption of any other formula but VO3 for vanadic acid perfectly gratuitous in the absence of experiments proving these data to be erroneous . Berzelius based his conclusions on the following experiments , viz. ( 1 ) the constant loss of weight which vanadic acid undergoes on reduction in hydrogen at a red heat ; ( 2 ) the action of chlorine on this reduced oxide , when a volatile chloride is formed and a residue of vanadic acid remains , which is found to be exactly one-third of the quantity originally taken for reduction in hydrogen . Hence Berzelius concludes that the number of atoms of oxygen in the oxide is to that in the acid in the proportion of 1 to 3 ; so that ( assuming the lowest oxide to contain one atom of oxygen ) the acid contains three atoms of oxygen , a result which he finds borne out by its capacity of saturation . The question whether the acid contains one or two atoms of metal Berzelius decides in favour of the former view , by finding that no compound corresponding to the alums is formed when vanadic acid is brought together with sulphuric acid and potash . The analyses of the volatile chloride made both by Berzelius and Schafarik confirm this conclusion , and place beyond all doubt the fact that , if the atomic weight of vanadium be taken to be 68'5 and 0=8 , the formula of vanadic acid is VO3 , that of the oxide prepared by reduction VO , and that of the chloride YC13 . In the present communication the author , whilst confirming these fundamental results in every particular , still arrives at a totally different conclusion from Berzenlus respecting the constitution of vanadic acid and all the other vanadium compounds ; for he proves that the true formula of vanadic acid is Y2O , , when O= 16 , and the true atomic weight of vanadium Y= 51 2 , inasmuch as the substance supposed to be vanadium is not the metal but an oxide , with an atomic weight of 67'2 , nearly that of Berzelius 's metal , whilst the supposed terchloride is an oxychloride . The following are the grounds upon which these conclusions are based ; the experimental proofs are contained in the memoir:(1 ) An oxide of vanadium exists having the atomic weight 67'2 ( that of the metal of Berzelius ) . tIence vanadic acid contains more than three atoms of oxygen , ( 2 ) The following vanadium oxides have been obtained , both in the dry and wet way , and their composition determined:(1 ) VO % , vanadium monoxide , or vanadyl = 67'2 ( 2 ) V , O , , vanadium sesquioxide ( Berzelius 's suboxide ) , , 150'4 ( 3 ) VO2 , vanadium dioxide , , 83'2 ( 4 ) V205 , vanadium pentoxide ( vanadic acid ) , , 182'4 ( 3 ) The so-called terchloride of vanadium , VCI , ( V= 67'2 ) , contains oxygen ; it is an oxychloride having the formula VOCI , ( V-=512 ) ; it may be called vanadyl trichloride , or vanadium oxytrichloride , and corresponds to POCI , , phosphoryl trichloride . ( 4 ) Three other solid oxychlorides exist , having the composition ( lst ) VOCI , , vanadyl dichloride , or vanadium oxydichloride . ( 2nd ) VOC1 , vanadyl monochloride , or vanadium oxymonochloride . ( 3rd ) V , O , C1 , divanadyl monochloride . ( 5 ) All the native vanadates are tribasic . ( 6 ) Vanadium pentoxide fused with sodium carbonate displaces three molecules of carbon dioxide , showing that normal or ortho-sodium vanadate is tribasic , the formula of this salt being Na , VO4 . ( 7 ) The so-called monovanadates are salts corresponding to the monobasic phosphates , and may be termed metavanadates ; thus , NaVO , , NHYVO , , Ba2VO , . The so-called bivanadates are anhydro-salts , similar in constitution to the anhydro-salts of chromic and boric acids . ( 8 ) Vanadium nitride has been prepared , which , on analysis , was shown to contain 51'2 parts by weight of vanadium to 14 parts of nitrogen . All the reactions according to which vanadic acid was supposed ( Berzelius , IRammelsberg , Schafarik ) to contain three atoms of oxygen with an atomic weight V=67 2 , can equally well be explained when V , O , ( VY=51 2 ) is taken to represent the composition of this substance . That this is the case is seen from the following : Berzelius 's formule . New formula . ( V=68-5 . 0=8 . ) ( v=51-2 . 0--16 . ) ( 1 ) VO , + H,2 = VO + 1202 V +2H1 , =V +2 ( 120 ) ( 2 ) 3 ( VO)+ C , =v3 +2 ( VC1 , ) 3 ( V2O)+ 6C1 , = V,0 +4 ( VOCI ) * It is possible that the molecular formulx of these substances ( VOiVO , ) , as well as those of the solid oxychlorides , may be a multiple of the above . Further experiilent must decide whether or not these oxides , like the corresponding nitrogen compounds , are an exception to the law of even atomicities , 222 [ Dec. 19 , II . Occurrence and Preparation of the Vanadium Compounds . The sources of vanadium have hitherto yielded the compounds of this metal in extremely small quantities , and consequently our knowledge of the substance is but limited . The attention of the author was drawn to the occurrence of vanadium in some of the copper-bearing beds of the Lower Keuper Sandstone of the Trias , worked at Alderley Edge and Mottram St. Andrews , in Cheshire . He obtained a large quantity of a lime precipitate , containing nearly 2 per cent. of vanadium , obtained in working up a poor cobalt-ore from Mottramn in a mine now closed . The precipitate , containing mainly arsenic , iron , lead , copper , vanadium , and lime , with sulphuric and phosphoric acids , was first well furnaced with ground coal , to drive off the greater portion of the arsenic , and then roasted with one-quarter of its weight of soda-ash , so as to convert the vanadium into a soluble vanadate , and on lixiviation arsenic and the heavy metals were completely thrown down by sulphuretted hydrogen . The deep-blue solution was neutralized by ammonia , the precipitated vanadium oxide dried and oxidized by nitric acid , and the crude vanadium pentoxide thus obtained boiled ouf with a saturated solution of ammonium carbonate . The slightly soluble ammonium vanadate was washed and recrystallized . In order to prepare purevanadium pentoxide from this salt it was roasted , and the powder thus obtained suspended in water into which ammonia gas was passed . The dissolved arnmonium vanadate was separated by filtration from a residue containing silica , phosphates , &c. The pentoxide obtained by heating this salt was free from phosphorus . A second method of preparing the pure vanadium pentoxide consists in decomposing the pure oxychloride in water , and freeing the pentoxide from any traces of silica by exposure to hydrofluoric-acid gas . Great difficulty was experienced in obtaining vanadium free from phosphorus ; all the native vanadates contain large quantities of phosphorus . The action of traces of this substance upon vanadium pentoxide is remarkable ; 1 per cent. of phosphoric acid renders crystalline vanadium pentoxide black and amorphous , whilst the presence of the merest trace altogether prevents the reduction of the pentoxide in hydrogen . 1II . Atomic TWeight determination of Vanadium by reduction of Vanadium Pentoxide in Hlydrogen . This method was the one originally employed by Berzelius . It is perfectly reliable , and yields accurate results when carried out with care and due regard to the necessary precautions , which are detailed in the memoir . In drying the pure hydrogen gas only sulphuric acid can be used , as phosphorus pentoxide used in the last drying-tube was found invariably to be carried over into the boat containing the substance ; and the presence of a trace of phosphoric acid renders the complete reduction to sesquioxide impossible . 1867 . ] 223 The formula of vanadium pentoxide being V20 , , and that of the oxide obtained by reduction being V203 , the atomic weight of the metal is found from the equation 8 ( 5b-3a ) a-b where a=the weight of vanadium pentoxide taken , and b= , , , , sesquioxide obtained . In each of the determinations a weight of not less than 5 grammes of substance was operated on . Weight of vanadium Weight of vanadium Atomic weight Nos. pentoxide taken . sesquioxide obtained . of vanadium . 1 ... ... . 77397 ... . . 6-3827 ... ... 51-26 2 ... ... . . 6-5819 ... ... 5-4296 ... ... 51-39 3 ... ... . . 5-1895 ... . 4-2819 ... ... 51-48 4 ... ... . 5 0450 ... ... 41614 ... ... 5135 Hence the mean atomic weight from these experiments is 51'37 , with a mean error of + 0'066 . Berzelius 's number , calculated according to the above equation , is 52'55 . The difference is probably owing to the fact that his vanadium contained a trace of phosphorus , which prevented the complete reduction . IV . The Vanadium Oxides . ( 1 ) Vanadium monoxide , or vanadyl ... ... ... ... VO or Y2 , O ( 2 ) , , sesquioxide ( Berzelius 's suboxide). . V , O3 or VYO-O ( 3 ) , , dioxide ( Berzelius 's vanadic oxide). . VO2 or V202+O , ( 4 ) , , pentoxide ( vanadic acid ) ... ... ... . Y,20 or V202+03 ( 1 ) Vanadium M1onoxide , YO0=67'2 . In its power of uniting with oxygen vanadium surpasses uranium , as observed by Peligot ; and as this oxide is found to enter into many of its compounds , the name Vanadyl may appropriately be given to it . Vanadium monoxide is a grey powder possessing a metallic lustre , and is obtained by passing the vapour of vanadyl trichloride , mixed with excess of hydrogen , through a combustion-tube containing red-hot carbon . This oxide may be prepared in solution by the action of nascent hydrogen , evolved by metallic zinc , cadmium , or sodium amalgam , upon a solution of vanadic acid in sulphuric acid . After passing through all shades of blue and green , the liquid attains a permanent lavender tint , and contains the vanadium in solution as monoxide . This compound absorbs oxygen with such avidity as to bleach indigo and other vegetable colouringmatters as quickly as chlorine , and far more powerfully than any other known reducing agent . The degree of oxidation of the dissolved vanadium was estimated by a standard solution of permanganate , which had been 224 [ Dec. 19 , proved to give accurate results with a vanadium oxide of known composition , the point of maximum oxidation being obtained when the solution became pink . According to this method , 100 parts of vanadium pentoxide were shown to have lost 26 53 per cent. of oxygen on reduction with zinc ; the percentage loss from V20 , to V,20 is 26 3 . When the neutral lavender-coloured solution of a monoxide salt is allowed to stand exposed to the air for a few seconds , the colour changes to a deep chocolate-brown from absorption of oxygen ; indeed this reaction for oxygen is as delicate as that of an alkaline pyrogallate . If air be passed through the acid lavenderscoloured solution of vanadous sulphate , oxygen is absorbed , and the liquid assumes a permanent blue colour , and the vanadium is contained in solution as dioxide . If the free acid contained in the lavender solution be neutralized by zinc , the liquid on exposure to air attains a permanent brown tint , which , on addition of acids , becomes green , and the solution contains sesquioxide . ( 2 ) Vanadium Sesquioxide , YVO , =150'4 ( Berzelius 's suboxide).-Obtained as a black powder by reducing vanadium pentoxide in hydrogen at red heat . When exposed warm to the air it glows , absorbs oxygen , and passes into the highest oxide . At the ordinary atmospheric temperature it slowly absorbs oxygen , and is converted into dioxide . Vanadium sesquioxide is insoluble in acids , but may be obtained in solution by the reducing action of nascent hydrogen evolved from metallic magnesium upon a solution of vanadic acid in sulphuric acid . The changes of colour observed in the case of the monoxide solutions do not continue beyond the green , and the liquid contains vanadium in solution as sesquioxide . 100 parts of vanadium pentoxide were found to lose , on reduction with magnesium , 17'7 per cent. of oxygen ; the loss on reduction to V203 is 17'5 per cent. Solutions of vanadium sesquioxide can also be obtained by partial oxidation of the lavender-coloured solution containing monoxide . Chlorine attacks the sesquioxide in the manner first pointed out by Berzelius according to the formula 3 ( V23)+ 6C1= V , O +4 ( VOCl3 ) . ( 3 ) Vanadium Dioxide , VOa= 83'2 ( the vanadic oxide of Berzelius).--This oxide was obtained by Berzelius by precipitation from its salts . It may also be prepared in the form of blue shining crystals by allowing the sesquioxide to absorb oxygen at ordinary temperatures . It is contained in solutions , having a bright blue colour , prepared by the action of moderate reducing agents , such as sulphur dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen , oxalic acid , &c. , upon vanadic acid in solution . 100 parts of vanadium pentoxide were found to lose , on reduction with the two first-named agents , 9'03 per cent. ; the loss on reduction to VO2 is 8'75 . Solutions containing the dioxide are obtained by passing air through acid solutions of the monoxide until a permanent blue colour is attained . ( 4 ) Vanadium Pentoxide , VY20 ( vanadic acid= 182'4 ) , -The properties of this oxide and its compounds are considered only so far as is necessary for the elucidation of the true atomic weight of the metal . 1867 . ] 225 Constitution of the so-called Monovanadates.-The analyses of Berzelius serve to point out , when the new atomic weight is adopted , that these compounds prove to be metavanadates ; thus]3erzelius 's formule . ( V=68-5 . 0=8 . ) Ammonia salt ... ... ... ... . . NH3VO3 , +HO Barium , , ... ... ... ... . BaOYO3 New formulae . ( V=51-2 . 0=16 . Ba=137 . ) Ammonium metavanadate ... ..N YO , r4N } 2VO Barium metavanadate ... ... ... ... . BaY,06 or 2y } 04 The bivanadates are anhydro-salts having the composition 2(NaYO ) , -V20o , or perhaps Na4,20 , + 3VY , O. Berzelius 's analysis of this ammonium salt was carefully confirmed , experiment showing that the salt yielded 77'75 per cent. of vanadium pentoxide , theory requiring 77'82 per cent. The bivanadates analyzed by Von Hauer prove to be anhydro-salts , analogous to certain chromates and borates , and possessing the composition 2(NaVO , )+V,0 , . The normal or ortho-vanadates are tribasic ; the sodium salt is Na , VO4 , or Na O ; this is shown by the fact that vanadium pentoxide ( V , O , ) , when fused with sodium carbonate , displaces 3 molecules of carbon dioxide . It is the author 's intention to investigate the composition of the vanadates at a future time . V. Vanadium Oxychlorides , and Second Atomic W`eight determination of the MIeetal . ( 1 ) Vanadium Oxytrichloride , or Vanadyl Trichloride , VOClI.-Molecular weight 173'2 . The fact that the lemon-coloured liquid chloride of vanadium prepared by the action of chlorine upon the sesquioxide ( Berzelius ) contains oxygen , contrary to the statements of previous experimenters , was ascertained ( 1 ) by obtaining carbon dioxide from the decomposition of the vapour of the oxychloride passing over red-hot charcoal , ( 2 ) by the production of magnesia by the action of magnesium , ( 3 ) by the formation of caustic soda by the action of sodium , ( 4 ) by the formation of vanadium sesquioxide when the vapour of the oxychloride was passed with pure hydrogen through a heated tube . The specific gravity of vanadyl trichloride was found to be 1 841 at 14 ? '5 , and its vapour-density 88-2 ( I1= 1 ) , or 6 108 ( air= 1 ) , and its boilingpoint 1267 under 767'0 millims. ( determined on 100 grammes of substance ) . Vanadyl trichloride , most carefilly purified , was analyzed many times with every precaution , the chlorine being estimated both by Gay-Lussac 's pro226 [ Dec. 19 , cess and by ordinary weight analysis . Nine volumetric analyses gave 61 306 per cent. of chlorine ; seven gravimetric determinations gave 61'241 per cent. From these numbers an atomic weight of 51 0.5 for vanadium is obtained . The meanof 51 '05 and 51 37 , the number which the reduction experiments yielded , viz. 51 '21 , is taken as the true atomic weightof vanadium . The vanadium in this chloride was determined as pentoxide . The result of the analyses is as follows : Calculated . Found . V= 51-2 ... ... 2955 ... ... 29-58 Cl-= 106-11 ... ... 61'24 ... ... 61-27 0= 16'0 ... ... 921 ... ... 173-31 100-00 ( 2 ) Vanadium Oxydichloride , or Vanadyl Dichloride , YOC12= 137-9.This substance is a light green crystalline solid body , obtained by the action of zinc on the trichloride at 400 ? in sealed tubes . It has a specific gravity of 2'88 , is insoluble in water , but deliquesces on long exposure to air , and dissolves easily in acids . Analysis gave Calculated . Found . V ... ... ... ... 37 13 ... ... 37-58 C12 ... ... ... . . 51-27 ... . . 5073 0 ... ... ... ... 11-60 100-00 ( 3 ) Vanadium Oxymonoehloride , or Vanadyl Monochloride , VOCI= 102-57 . This body is a brown , light , powdery solid , formed by the action of hydrogen upon vanadyl trichloride at a red heat . It is insoluble in water , but readily soluble in acids . Analysis gave Calculated . Found . V ... ... ... ... 49-96 ... 5021 Cl ... ... ... ... 34-45 ... ... 34-53 ... ... ... ... 15 59 ... ... 100-00 ( 4 ) Divanadyl Monochloride , V , O2Cl = 169-8 . This oxychloride is also formed by the action of hydrogen at a red heat on VOCI , . It can readily be separated from the foregoing compound , as it is a heavy ; shining , metallic powder , resembling mosaic gold " in its appearance . Analysis gave Calculated . Found . VI ... ... ... ... 60-37 ... ... 61-69 Cl ... ... ... ... 18-82 ... ... 18-93 02 ... ... ... ... 2081 ... ... 100-00 I. Vanadium Nitrides . ( 1 ) Vanadium Mononitride , VN=65 2.-A greyish powder unalterable in the air , obtained by heating the ammonium oxychloride to whiteness in a current of ammonia . Both vanadium and nitrogen were directly estimated , with the following results : Calculated . Found . Vanadium ... ... . . 78 6 ... ... 77'8 Nitrogen ... ... . 21 4 ... ... 20-2 ( 2 ) Vanadium Dinitride , VN2=79'2.-A black powder obtained by Uhrlaub on heating the ammonium oxychloride to a moderate temperature . The vanadium was estimated by Uhrlaub , but he did not understand the constitution of the substance , as he assumed the atomic weight of the metal to be 68'5 , and did not estimate the nitrogen . The vanadium nitrides not only demonstrate with absolute certainty the true atomic weight of the metal , but they also serve as the starting-point from which to commence the study of the metal itself , as well as an entirely new class of bodies , viz. the compounds of vanadium with chlorine and the other halogens . The author hopes to describe these interesting substances in the next communication .

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On the Conditions for the Existence of Three Equal Roots, or of Two Pairs of Equal Roots of a Binary Quartic or Quintic. [Abstract]

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229

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

A. Cayley

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112496

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112496

Formulae

Biography

Mathematics

I. " On the Conditions for the existence of Three Equal Roots , or of Two Pairs of Equal Roots of a Binary Quartic or Quintic . " By A. CAYLEY , F.R.S. Received November 26 , 1867 . ( Abstract . ) In considering the conditions for the existence of given systems of equalities between the roots of an equation , we obtain some very interesting examples of the composition of relations . A relation is either onefold , expressed by a single equation U= 0 , or it is , say , k-fold , expressed by a system of k or more equations . Of course , as regards onefold relations , the theory of the composition is well known : the relation UV=0 is a relation compounded of the relations U=O , V=0O ; that is , it is a relation satisfied if , and not satisfied unless one or the other of the two component relations is satisfied . The like notion of composition applies to relations in general ; viz. , the compound relation is a relation satisfied if , and not not satisfied unless one or the other of the two component relations is satisfied . The author purposely refrains at present from any further discussion of the theory of composition . The conditions for the existence of given systems of equalities between the roots of an equation furnish instances of such composition ; in fact , if we express that the function ( *aXx , y)n , and its first-derived function in regard to x , or , what is the same thing , the first-derived functions in regard to x , y respectively , have a common quadric factor , we obtain between the coefficients a certain twofold relation , which implies either that the equation ( *3x , y)'-=O has three equal roots , or else that it has two pairs of equal roots ; that is , the relation in question is satisfied if , and it is not satisfied unless there is satisfied either the relation for the existence of three equal roots , or else the relation for the existence of two pairs of equal roots ; or the relation for the quadric factor is compounded of the last-mentioned two relations . The relation for the quadric factor , for any value whatever of n , is at once seen to be expressible by means of an oblong matrix , giving rise to a series of determinants which are each to be put =0 ; the relation for three equal roots and that for two pairs of equal roots in the particular cases n=4 and n=5 , are given in the author 's " Memoir on the Conditions for the existence of given Systems of Equalities between the roots of an Equation , " Phil. Trans. t. cxlvii . ( 1857 ) , pp. 727-731 ; and he proposes in the present Memoir to exhibit , for the cases in question n=4 and n =5 , the connexion between the compound relation for the quadric factor and the component relations for the three equal roots and for the two pairs of equal roots respectively .

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The Caudal Heart of the Eel a Lymphatic Heart.--Effect of the Force with Which the Lymph-Stream Is Propelled Therefrom on the Flow of Blood in the Vein into Which the Heart Opens.--Explanation of the Appearance of Blood Propelled in Successive Drops, as If from the Heart, along the Caudal Vein.--Influence Which the Force of the Lymph-Stream from the Heart Exerts in Accelerating and Promoting the Flow of Blood in the Caudal Vein. [Abstract]

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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Thomas Wharton Jones

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112497

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112497

Biology 2

Neurology

Biology

II . " The Caudal Heart of the Eel a Lymphatic Heart.-Effect of the force with which the lymph-stream is propelled therefrom on the flow of blood in the Vein into which the heart opens . -Explanation of the appearance of blood propelled in successive drops , as if from the heart , along the Caudal Vein.-Influence which the force of the lymph-stream from the heart exerts in accelerating and promoting the flow of blood in the Caudal Vein . " By THOMAS W JARTON JONES , F.R.S. , Professor of Ophthalmic Medicine and Surgery in University Colcege , London , Ophthalmic Surgeon to the Hospital , &c. Received November 26 , 1867 . ( Abstract . ) To explain the true nature of the phenomenon of drops of blood propelled in rapid succession , as if from the caudal heart , along the caudal vein , to prove thereby that the caudal heart belongs , not to the bloodvascular system , but to the lymphatic system , and to inquire into the influence which the force of the lymph-stream from the caudal heart exerts in accelerating and promoting the flow of blood in the caudal vein , constitute the object of this paper . The great caudal vein of the eel is formed by the junction of two trunks , a larger and a smaller . It is into the smaller trunk , near its junction with the larger , that the caudal heart opens . At the opening , there is a valve which prevents regurgitation of the lymph back from the vein into the heart . When by the contraction of the heart the lymph is propelled into the vein , the flow of blood from that vessel into the great caudal trunk is interrupted by the force of the lymph-stream . From the place where the heart opens into the vein to the junction of the latter with the caudal trunk , colourless lymph thus replaces red blood ; whilst in the caudal trunk itself , the lymph , still under the influence of the heart 's force , so far displaces the blood as to flow in a colourless stream on one side of the vessel for some distance , distinct from and unmingled with the bloodstream from the lower part of the vein and its lateral branches . During the diastole of the heart , the stream of lymph into the vein intermitting , the flow of blood from that vessel into the great trunk of the caudal vein again takes place . No sooner , however , has a small quantity of blood entered than , systole of the heart ensuing , the stream of lymph thereby propelled into the vein , drives the small quantity of blood before it into the great caudal venous trunk , whilst it at the same time arrests , as before , the flow of blood into the great caudal vein from its tributary vessel . Through the medium of the stream of lymph propelled into the great caudal vein at each stroke of the caudal heart , an impetus is communicated to the column of blood in that vessel , which we can see has the effect of accelerating and promoting its onward flow to the blood-heart of the animal . We thus see that the caudal heart of the eel is a lymphatic heart , its function being to receive lymph on the one hand , and to propel it into the great vein of the tail on the other , but that , besides this function , it at the same time performs the secondary one of accelerating and promoting the flow of the blood in the great caudal vein in its course back to the blood-heart . So far as the author has been able to ascertain , no one has hitherto given a correct explanation of the phenomenon of small drops of blood propelled in rapid succession , as if from the caudal heart , along the caudcal vein . Without first showing that these small drops of red blood are not propelled from the caudal heart , and without showing that it is colourless lymph alone which is really propelled therefron , no one could be warranted in dissenting from Dr. Marshall Hall , the discoverer of the caudal heart , in his opinion as to the nature of the organ , viz. that it is an auxiliary bloodheart , or in pronouncing it , how correctly soever , to be a lymphatic heart .

112498

3701662

Notices of Some Parts of the Surface of the Moon, Illustrated by Drawings. [Abstract]

231

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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Phillips

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112498

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112498

Geography

Astronomy

Geography

( Abstract . ) My first serious attempts to portray the aspect of the moon were made with the noblest instrument of modern times , the great telescope of Lord Rosse , in 1852 . The mirror was not in adjustment , so that the axes of the incident and reflected pencils of light were inclined at a very sensible angle . This being met by a large reduction of the working area of the mirror , the performance was found to be excellent . I have never seen some parts of the moon so well as on that occasion . But when I came to represent what was seen , the difficulty of transferring from the blaze of the picture to the dimly lighted paper , on a high exposed station , with little power of arranging the drawing-apparatus , was found to be insuperable , and the effect was altogether disheartening . It was like setting down things ex memoria , to give the rude general meaning , not like an accurate and critical copy . I present as a specimen of this memorial a sketch of the great crater of Gassendi ( No. 1 ) . I next mounted , in my garden at York , a small but fine telescope of Cooke only 2'4 inches in the aperture ; and , aware of the nature of the difficulty whichTbeset me at Birr Castle , I gave it an equatorial mounting , without , however , a clock movement . The whole was adapted to a large solid stone pillar in the open air . It was not possible , with - ? j of the light of the Rosse mirror , to see so well ; but it was easy to represent far better what one saw , with a conveniently placed board to hold the draw ing-paper , a well-arranged light , and no necessity of changing position . I made in this manner the drawing of Gassendi which is marked No. 2 , My next attempt was made in the same situation with a fine telescope by Cooke , of 64-inch aperture and 11 feet sidereal focus , mounted equatorially , in the old English mode , and carried by clockwork . With this excellent arrangement I was enabled to use photography very successfully , and to obtain selenographs 2 inches across in 5s of time . The drawing of Gassendi , No. 3 , was made with this instrument ( 1853 ) . From these experiments the conclusion was obvious:-that for obtaining good drawings of the moon , convenient mounting was actually more important than great optical power ; and that for such a purpose it was desirable to increase in every way the comfort of the observer , and furnish him with special arrangements for his own position and the placing of his drawing-board and light . Having been called to reside in Oxford ( 1853-54 ) , my plan for continual work on the moon was entirely cut through ; it was impossible to mount a large instrument near my dwelling till ( in 1860 ) the ground was arranged about the museum , so as to give me the requisite space and security close to the house which had been appointed for me by the University . I then arranged with Mr. Cooke for a new telescope of 6 inches aperture , to be protected in a well-planned observatory , the construction of which was aided by the Royal Society . I now propose to give a short notice of some of the results of my work with this instrument , in connexion with remarks on the most advisable course to be followed by other surveyors of the moon . In making drawings of ring-mountains on different parts of the moon 's disk , the artist will be much aided by a projection of the mountain-border on the scale intended , from a few measures , with its proper figure due to the latitude and longitude . Eye-drafts not thus controlled are apt to become absurd , by the heedless substitution of an ideal circle for a real ellipse . Thus I have seen Gassendi forgetfully represented by more than one skilful artist . Even with the advantage of such a projection ( of which I give an example for Gassendi , No , 5 ) very considerable difficulties occur . One is the variation of outline caused by the displacement of the boundary of light and shade-first when the incidence of light varies through different angles of elevation of the sun , and next when the moon 's position causes her to receive the light at the point observed on a different lunar azimuth . Even on so great a ring as Copernicus the variation of the outline as given by different artists is remarkable-hardly any one agreeing with what is really the most accurate drawing of all , that by P. Secchi ; and that represents , not a simple ring , but a seven-angled outline . Dates must always be annexed to the figures ; and as it is rarely possible to complete a good drawing of a large crater , except in two or three lunations or more , it becomes very essential that a bold free sketch be made of the moon 's shadows to control the special work . ( No. 6 is given as an example . ) [ Jan. 16 , Strictly speaking , there should be at least three drawings of a ringmountain-in morning light , at midday , and in evening . It would be better to have five drawings , one at sunrise and another at sunset being added to the three already named . It will be found most convenient to make the drawings within two hours of the moon 's meridian passage . Shadows thrown from objects on the moon have exactly the same character as those observable on the earth . They are all margined by the penumbra due to the sun 's diametral aspect ; this is always traceable except very near to the object ; but in consequence of the smaller diameter and more rapid curvature of the moon 's surface , the penumbral space is narrower . At the boundary of light and shade , on a broad grey level tract , the penumbral space is about nine miles broad , quite undefined , of course , but perfectly sensible in the general effect , and worthy of special attention while endeavouring to trace the minute ridges ( of gravel ? ) or smooth banks ( of sand ? ) , which make some of these surfaces resemble the postglacial plains of North Germany , or central Ireland , or the southern parts of the United States , which within a thousand centuries may have been deserted by the sea . To the same cause is due the curious and transitory extension of halflights over some portions of the interior of craters , while other neighbouring portions have the full light . The effect is occasionally to produce half-tints on particular portions of terraces within the crater , as in the case of Theophilus , of which I present two drawings , one showing this peculiarity in the morning light , the other not . The central mountains of that great crater are high enough to throw long shadows ; and these , as they catch upon other peaks or spread , softening with distance , over the surrounding plains , present far greater variety of shadow-tones than might be expected on a globe deficient , as the moon really appears to be , of both air and water . The different parts of the moon 's surface reflect light very unequally ; the dark parts have several degrees of darkness , the light parts several degrees of light . On the same level , as nearly as can be judged , under the same illumination , neighbouring parts are not only unequally reflective , but their light seems to be of different tints . Within the large area of Gassendi , under various angles of illumination , but more conspicuously when the angle of incidence deviates least from verticality , patches of the surface appear distinctly marked out by difference of tint , without shadow . It is well known that in this particular photography has disclosed curious and unexpected differences of the light , which were not apparent , or not so obvious , to the eye . Reflecting telescopes seem to be indicated as most suited for direct observation of differences of the kind of light on the moon . The surface of the moon is hardly anywhere really smooth , hardly any where so smootIh as may be supposed to be now the bed of a broad sea on our globe . By watching carefully the curved penumbral boundary of light and shade-as it passes over ridge and hollow , rift and plain , -broad swells , 1868 . ] minute puckerings , and small monticules appear and disappear in almost every part . In several of the maria , minute angular cup-craters about half a mile across are frequent ; and on several of the exterior slopes of the crater-rings are seen pits , ridges , fissures , and rude craters , something like the sloping surfaces of Etna . Copernicus is a good example of this common occurrence . It appears extremely desirable that the details of this magnificent mountain should be carefully reexamined on the basis of Secchi 's fine drawing , for the purpose , amongst others , of determining exactly how many of the bosses and ridges bear cup-hillocks ; for many inequalities , which in feeble telescopes have but the indistinct character of being heaped up , appear distinctly crateriform with superior optical power * . On the very crest of a ring-mountain it is rare to find a cup-crater ; quite common to find them in the interior , especially towards the middle , and , in several cases , exactly central . But it happens often that the central mountain-mass of a large crater , such as Gassendi and Theophilus , is of a different structure . In the former a complicated digitated mass of elevated land appeared to me for a long time to be entirely devoid of any small craters ; by continued scrutiny at last I see on one of the masses a distinct depression . The area in Gassendi reminded me of the volcanic region of Auvergne , in which , with many crater-formed mountains , occur also the Puy de Dome , Puy Sarcoui , Puy Chopin , and others which are heaps of a peculiar trachyte not excavated at the top , while the others are formed of ashes and lava-streams and are all crateriform . The central masses of Theophilus ( Nos. 7 , 8 , and 9 ) are very lofty and grandly fissured from the the middle outwards , with long excurrent buttresses on one side , and many rival peaks separating deep hollows , anc catching the light on their small apparently not excavated tops . This is like the upheaved volcanic region of Mont d'Or , with its radiating valleys , wide in the central part , and contracted to gorges toward the outside of the district . The Vesuvian volcanic system , including the Phlegraean fields , exhibits , in all respects but magnitude , remarkable analogy with parts of the moon studded with craters of all magnitudes , as those adjoining M3ount Maurolycus , engraved for comparison by M3r . Scrope in his admirable treatise on Volcanos ( p. 232 ) . It is probable that many of the differences which appear on comparing lunar ring-mountains may be understood as the effects of long elapsed time , degrading some craters before others were set up , and turning regular cones and cavities into confused luminous mounds . It would much augment our confidence in the possible history of the moon which these differences seem to indicate , if we could believe it to have ever been under the influence of atmospheric vicissitude as well as changes of interior pressure . That the latter cause has been in great activity at some early period of the moon 's history is not only evident , by the many sharply cut fis* See " Comparative Remarks on Ga-ssendi and Copernicus , " Poy . Soc. Proc. for 1856 , p. 74 . 234 [ Jan. 16 , sures which range like great faults in our earthly strata for five , ten ' twenty , and sixty miles , but is conspicuously proved by the great broken ridges of mountains which , under the names of Alps , Apennines , and Riphaean chains , make themselves known as axes of upward movement , while so many of the craters near them speak of local depression . I have not been able to discover in these great ridges any such marks of successive stratification , or even such concatenation of the crests , as might suggest symmetrical and anticlinal axes . The surface is , indeed , as rough and irregularly broken as that of the Alps and Pyrenees , and marked by as extraordinary transverse rents , of which one , in the Alpine range near Plato , is a well-known example . Must we suppose these mountains to have undergone the same vicissitudes as the mountain-chains of our globe -great vertical displacement , many violent fractures , thousands of ages of rain and rivers , snow and glacial grinding ? If so , where are the channels of rivers , the long sweeps of the valleys , the deltas , the sandbanks , the strata caused by such enormous waste ? If the broad grey tracts were once seas , as analogy may lead us to expect , and we look upon the dried beds , ought we not to expect some further mark of the former residence of water there than the long narrow undulations to which attention has already been called as resembling the escars of Ireland ? In any.further attempts of my own to contribute facts toward the survey of the moon , now again taken in hand by the Britishi Association , I shall probably select for careful work some particular features , such as the mountains in the midst of a large crater , the bosses and cup-like hills on the outward slopes of such a crater , the rents in moulntain-ridges , and the low winding banks which appear on the broad grey tracts . But , for those who desire to perform a work of high value , I would earnestly recommend a strict reexamination of every element in the great picture of Copernicus , for which we are indebted to the Roman Astronomer . The paper was accompanied by twelve drawings , which were exhibited to the Society , and of which the following is a list : No. 1 . Sketch of Gassendi taken in 1852 , at Birr Castle , with the great telescope of Lord Rosse . No. 2 . Sketch taken in 1852 , at York , with an achromatic by Cooke , of 2'4 inches aperture . No. 3 . Sketch taken in 1853 , at York , with an achromatic by Cooke , of 61 inches aperture . ( Morning . ) No. 4 . Sketch taken in 1862 , at Oxford , with an achromatic by Cooke , of 6 inches aperture . ( Evelring . ) No. 5 . Working plan of Gassendi and scale . No. . Free-hand sketches to illustrate the mode of working for general effect . Oxford , 1864 . No. 7 . Theophilus , Cyrillus , and Catharina , taken at Oxford in 1862 . This is about the third attempt . 1868 . ] the Surface of the Moon . 235 No. 8 . Theophilus , reexamined in 1863 . This is the most complete drawing which I can make with my 6-inch . I intended to repeat the whole group . No. 9 . The central mountain-group of Theophilus on a large scale . 1863 . No. 10 . Posidonius , early morning . 1863 . ( Unfinished . ) No. 11 . Posidonius , nearer to midday . 1863 . ( Unfinished . ) No. 12 . Aristarchus and Herodotus . This is about the sixth drawing , and exhibits in Aristarchus a double crater-wall , the inner one being sharp and interrupted ; a deep narrow fissure separates the two walls . The interior surface is more moulded than in any drawings yet published . Herodotus , the dark crater , is merely sketched to give the course of the seeming valley which conducts from it to the seeming delta .

112499

3701662

Contributions towards Determining the Weight of the Brain in the Different Races of Man. [Abstract]

236

241

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Joseph Barnard Davis

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112499

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112499

Biology 1

Tables

Biology

I. c " Contributions towards determining the Weight of the Brain in the different Races of Man . " By JOSEPI BARNARD DAVIS , M.D. &c. Communicated by Prof. JOHN MARSHALL . Received November 30 , 1867 . ( Abstract . ) It would naturally be expected that great attention had been directed to the human brain , the organ of mental manifestation . Still little has been done to ascertain its relative magnitude in the different races of mankind . Opportunities for examining exotic brains are rare , and it is only by gauging the internal capacities of human skulls , and deducing the weight of the brain , that data can be obtained . The inferiority of this method is not so clear as has been assumed , since we are able to fix upon an unchangeable substance of definite specific gravity for the purpose of this gauging , whereby we compensate for the variable condition of the brain , depending upon disease and other causes , and the immediate occasion of death . The great difficulty hitherto has been to decide upon a definite allowance , or scale of allowance for other matters besides brain which always fill up the cavity of the skull , in different proportions at different ages , &c. In the present investigations it has been considered most advisable to fix upon a definite , and at the same time proportionate , rule for compensating for these fluids and membranes . And , after much inquiry , that rule has been laid down as a general tare of 15 per cent. on the capacity af the skull . In former inquiries of this kind by Prof. Tiedemann and Prof. Morton , this allowance has been entirely or almost entirely overlooked , by which means their extended observations really refer to the internal capacities of human skulls , and not to the weights of the brain , as they supposed . No 286 rJan . 23 , doubt internal capacities themselves become a legitimate means of comparison . Synostotic and artificially deformed skulls are mostly included , for the reason specified , that their internal capacities are usually not materially interfered with . Morton also failed to distinguish the sexes , and his Tables give no indication how many of the skulls were those of men and how many those of women . When we recollect the great normal diversity in the size of the brain in the two sexes in any given race , this omission becomes of serious importance . In the series of skulls now examined , this diversity in the weight of the brain in the two sexes extends from less than 10 per cent. to something more than 12per cent. ; so that Prof. Welcker 's datum of 10 per cent. is tolerably correct . In our measurements the sexes are marked , and adult examples only included . All the crania have been carefully and as uniformly as possible filled with dry Calais sand of a definite specific weight , which has been afterwards weighed and then reduced to its equivalent in cerebral matter of 1040 specific gravity , after the deduction of the 15 per cent. The observations on the weight of the brain in all the races have been arranged in seven Tables , corresponding very nearly to the races of the great divisions of the globe . The results show that Prof. Tiedemann was misled when he hastily assumed that , inasmuch as a certain size and mass of brain was an essential condition for the exercise of the faculties of the mind , all human races are furnished therewith in an equal degree . One important object has always been kept in view-namely , a careful comparison of the calculated observations of the Tables with the actual determinations of those who have weighed the brains of different races , as far as such determinations have extended . This has been done with the view of comparing and correcting our results . It would be difficult to give any intelligible abstract of the Tables which accompany the memoir . Of the notes to these Tables some short account may be given here . Dr. Peacock and other excellent and careful observers pretty nearly coincide in the conclusion that the brain of Englishmen , on the average , is about 49 oz. av . in weight , or 1389 grammes . Dr. Robert Boyd , in his memoir in the Philosophical Transactions , states as the result of his vast experience , that the adult male brain among the insane varied from 48 17 oz. to 43'87 oz. ; among the insane women from 44'55 oz. to 40'55 oz. ; whilst in the sane adults the averages varied in the men from 48-20 oz. to 45-34 oz. , and among the women from 43'70 oz. to 39'77 oz. It thus appears that Dr. Boyd 's investigations bring out an average brain-weight among the English of , speaking roundly , about 5 oz. less than Dr. Peacock 's means , and rather more than 3 oz. less than our means . Dr. Thurnam , who examined and weighed the brains of 257 insane men and 213 insane women , agrees in his results with Dr. Boyd , being still rather below the averages 1868 . ] 237 obtained by the latter . The general result of our Table is an average brain-weight for the English of 47'50 oz. , or 1346 grms. , which agrees tolerably well with the conclusions deduced by all these observers , being a mean term . The mean derived from the 16 French skulls is 45 47 oz. , or 1280 grins.that is , 66 grms. less than the English . The general result of an extended series of measurements by Prof. Broca of 357 French crania , those of men and women undistinguished , when subjected to our rule , gives a mean of 44'58 oz. , or 1263 grms.-that is , 17 gris . below our deduced average . The skulls of Italians , of Lapps , and of Swedes agree in giving a brainweight closely coinciding with that of the English . Those of the Frisians and Dutch come into the same category . In the 15 German skulls ( it should be observed that 13 are those of men ) the average brain-weight exceeds that of the English . It is 50'28 oz. , or 1425 grms. , an excessive weight . This probably follows from the unusual size of these German skulls , as well as in some degree from the great predominance of men 's skulls ; for Prof. Husehke , who weighed upwards of 60 brains of Germans , two-thirds being those of men , found the mean weight to be no more than 1384 grins . Prof. Rudolph Wagner also tested by the balance 31 brains of Germans , the larger half being those of men , and obtained a mean of only 1300 grnms . , itself a sufficiently large weight . In the investigations of Prof. Welcker , who employed 30 adult normal skulls of men and 30 of women , the mean brain-weight of the series rises only to 42-83 oz. , or 1214 grms. This seems to be conclusive that our specimens are large skulls , and that the size of the German brain has been somewhat overrated . The result of further investigation will probably be to correct these discrepancies . In entering upon the decidedly brachycephalic races of Europe , it must be noted that we have for our examination the skulls of men only , and those in small numbers , which will prevent any accurate comparison with the rest of the series . The mean brain-weioht of two male Poles is 47'14 oz. , or 1336 grms. That deduced from Dr. A. XWeisbach 's gauging of 25 skulls of young Polish men , when subjected to our rule , is 47'2 oz. , or 1338 grms. , a result almost identical with that from our observations . The Gipsies of Wallachia present a marked diminution of brain-weight when compared with the unumangos and other races of that region . The mean of 6 male ltumango skulls is 45'97 oz. , or 1303 grmns . ; that of two male Gipsies is 43'93 oz. , or 1245 grms. Although it has reference merely to the collection of skulls upon which these observations have been made , the order in which the different European races range themselves , beginning with the heaviest brain-weights and proceeding to the lightest , is given in the memoir . The general mean of the European series is 46-87 oz. , or 1328 grins . In entering upon the ASIATIC RACEs , we are at once struck with the small brain-weights of the people at the commencement of the Table , the [ Jan. 23 , 238 Fedahs of Ceylon and the Hindoos . The mean obtained from 35 crania of males of Hindoo Tribes is 44'22 oz. , or 1253 grms. ; that from those of 31 females 39'99 oz. , or 1133 grms. , -which yields a mean of the two sexes of 42'11 oz. , or 1193 grms. A reference to Dr. Morton 's observations shows that his series , when properly calculated by our rule , give a still lower mean , viz. 41'74 oz. , or 1183 grms. The skulls of Mussulmen afford a slightly increased average of brainweight over those of iHindoos . This perhaps might have been anticipated . The two skulls of male Khonds , one of the unquestioned aboriginal races of India , show a brain-weight of 37'87 oz. , or 1073 grms. As we ascend the Himalayan Slope we reach races who have a somewhat increased volumle of brain . The Lepchas , Bodos , and Bhotias range about 46 oz. And when we reach what have been called the Indo-Chinese races , the brain-weight becomes again more considerable . The mean of the Siamese is 47'14 oz. , or 1336 grms. , that of the Chinese 47'00 oz. , or 1332 grms. , and that of the Burmese 47'S87 oz. , or 1357 grins . Of the races of Japan only two crania of true Japanese have been obtained ; but of the aboriginal Aminos , of the Island of Yesso , the brainweight , as deduced from four skulls , is 45'83 oz. , or 1299 grins . The general average of the Asiatic Table shows a diminution , when compared with that of the European . The numbers are , for the latter , 46'87 oz. , or 1]328 grins . , and for the former , 44'62 oz. , or 1266 grms. , which is a diminution of more than two ounces , or 62 grms. At the commencement of the AFRICAN RACES we encounter the Berbers and the Guanches , the former inhabitants of Teneriffe . These are people with rather small brains . The general mean amounts to 43'49 oz. , or 1233 grmins . Of the Continental people , the Negroes of Tribes unknown give a slightly increased brain-weight of 44-08 oz. , or 1249 grms. The Dahomans rise to a mean of 46'34oz . , or 1313 grms. , and the Bakeles , a warlike tribe on the Equator , to an equally high brain-weight . A brain of an adult Negro , weighed by Dr. Peacock , was found to weigh 45'50 oz. , or 1289 grms. Another , examined by Dr. Edmond Simon , was found to weigh , with the membranes , 1226 grms. In passing to the more Southern portions of the African continent we find the races much contrasted in respect of their brain-weights . The Kafir skulls , seven-eighths-of which are those of men , present a mean of 48'16 oz. , or 1365 grins . , whilst that of the small Bushmans reaches only to 39 70 oz. , or 1125 grins . In Prof. Marshall 's valuable and elaborate account of the Brain of a Bushwoman in the Philosophical Transactions , there is a careful calculation of the original weight of the brain , which , by means of experiment upon human brains subjected to the action of spirits of wine , he was able to restore to its original weight ; and he decided this to have been 30'75 oz. , or 875 grms. Prof. Marshall afterwards gauged the capacity of the skull by filling it with water , which he has given..te found it to be 60'64 cubic inches . With this capacity given , it is easy to determine that the weight of the brain would have been 31*01 oz. according to our rule . Prof. Marshall 's calculation very closely approximates to this , viz. 30'75 oz. , or only a quarter of an ounce different . This case , in which the brain-weight was restored and the skull was also gauged , seems to be a good instance for testing the accuracy of our method ; and the result appears to prove that it may be relied upon with much confidence . The general mean of our African Races is less than that of European Races , -a result which is not in agreement with Tiedemann 's conclusions . It is rather more than two and a half ounces less than our European mean . In passing to the AMERICAN RACES we have placed first the Esquimaux of the whole Arctic Circle . They present the large general mean brainweight of 46'56 oz. , or 1319 grms. A series of mostly individual skulls belonging to different Amnerican Tribes affords a general mean of 46'23 oz. , or 1310 grms. With these may be compared the 164 skulls of the " Barbarous Tribes " of Morton 's American Family . When the mean cubic contents of these are reduced to our terms , with the observance of our rule , they produce a brain-weight of 42'84 oz. , or 1214 grms. , which is less than our mean by something more than three ozs . When we arrive at the Caribs , former inhabitants of the Antilles , there is a considerable falling off ; they descend to 42*32 oz. , or 1199 grms. Among South American Tribes , the Amincas , or ancient inhabitants of the plain of Bogota , afford a mean brain-weight of 44'20 oz. , or 1253 grms. This is about the average until we reach the warlike Araucanians . Of these , six skulls , five of which are those of men , and one of them also a megalocephalic skull , ascend to a mean brain-weight of 48'02 oz. , or 1361 grms. The average of the whole of the American races reaches 44'73 oz. , or 1268 grms. , which is 2'14 oz. , or 60 grms. less than that of the European races . It also comes so near to the general mean of the Asiatic and African races as to produce the impression that the whole must be regarded as pretty nearly equal . The AUSTRALIAN RACES belong to two families the Australians proper , and the Tasmanians ; and they are remarkable among humana races as possessing the smallest brains . The mean brain-weight among the former is 41 38 oz. , or 1173 grms. , and among the more robust Tasmianians 42'25 oz. , or 1197 grms. The mean of the two families when combined reaches to 41'81 oz. , or 1185 grms. This is a brain-weight one-ninth less than that of the general average of Europeans . The last great section into which we have divided human races is that of OCEANIC RACES . It includes the aboriginal inhabitants of all the Islands , both of the North and the South Pacific Oceans . When we arrive at this section we seem as if we were returning in some measure to the large brain-weights of Europeans . [ Jan. 23 , The eight skulls of 2lalays ( six of men and two of women ) afford the highest mean of any of the Oceanic Races , viz. 47'07 oz. , or 1334 grms. For such a bold and enterprising race , who have pushed their migrations , chiefly for commercial purposes , over almost the whole Ocean , such a rich cerebral endowment might have been in some measure expected . The collection which has afforded the materials for this Memoir is rich in crania from the Dutch dominions in the East-Indian Archipelago . These are distinguished for a tolerably high average of brain-weight . And this is not much diminished when we reach the aboriginal inhabitants of the Polynesian Islands and Western Pacific . In conclusion , it is believed that this investigation has contributed much more than any former one to define and to discriminate the brain-weights of different human races . Hence it is hoped that it will be accepted as a valid contribution to a most important subject .

112500

3701662

Description of a Hand Spectrum-Telescope

241

243

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William Huggins

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0045

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112500

10.1098/rspl.1867.0045

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112500

Optics

Astronomy

Optics

II . " Description of a Hand Spectrum-Telescope . " By WILLIAM HUGGINS , F.R.S. Received December 19 , 1867 . The instrument described in this paper was contrived in the summer of 1866 , for the purpose of observing the spectra of meteors and their trains . The special suitability of this apparatus , as a hand-spectroscope , for the examination of the spectra of the lights which may be seen about the sun during the total solar eclipse of next year , induces me to offer a description of it to the Royal Society . The apparatus consists essentially of a direct-vision prism placed in front of a small achromatic telescope . The achromatic object-glass marked a is 12 inch in diameter , and has a focal length of about 10 inches . The eyepiece ( b ) consists of two plano-convex lenses . As a large field of view is of great importance , especially for its use as a meteor-spectroscope , the field-lens is made of nearly the same diameter as the object-glass . The imperfect definition at the margin of the field is not of much practical importance , as the spectra can be brought for examination into the centre of the field . The fieldlens is fixed in a sliding tube , which permits the distance between the two lenses of the eyepiece to be altered ; in this way the magnifying-power of the instrument may be varied within certain limits at pleasure . Before the object-glass is fixed a direct-vision prism ( c ) , consisting of one prism of dense flint glass , and two prisms of crown glass . The field of view of my apparatus embraces an area of sky of about 7 ? in diameter . The spectrum of a bright star has an apparent length of nearly 3 ? . The spectrum of the Great Nebula in Orion appears as two bright lines , one of them broad , crossed by a faint continuous spectrum . The magnifying-power of the telescope is insufficient to show the three distinct lines of which the spectrum of the nebula consists . The continuous spectrum is due to the stars of the trapezium , and the other fainter stars scattered over the nebula . For the purpose of testing the efficiency of this instrument as a meteorspectroscope , I observed the spectra of fireworks seen from a distance of about three miles . The bright lines of the metals contained in the fireworks were seen with great distinctness . I was able to recognize sodium , magnesium , strontium , copper , and some other metals . Unfortunately I was prevented from making the use of the instrument which I had intended at the display of meteors in November 1866 . I have , however , great confidence in the suitability of the apparatus for the prismatic observation of meteors and their trains . As the instrument is not provided with a slit , it is applicable only to bright objects of small size , or to objects so distant as to subtend but a very small angle . It is obvious that if the object has a diameter smaller in one direction than in any other , as would usually be the case with the trains of meteors , the instrument should be rotated to take advantage of the form of the object . The most favourable position will be when the smallest diameter of the object is perpendicular to the height of the prisms . In this way I have seen the lines of Fraunhofer in the spectrum of the moon when a very narrow crescent . In the case of objects which appear as points , a small breadth may be given to the spectrum by a cylindrical lens fitted in a little cap which slips over the eye-lens , and is placed next to the eye . As some of the advantages which this instrument possesses over an ordinary spectroscope , or over a prism held before the eye , may be stated the comparatively large amount of light which the object-glass collects , the great facility for instantly pointing the instrument to the object desired , which the large field of view affords , and in some cases the magnifying-power of the instrument . It may perhaps be mentioned that secret signals might be conveyed at night by means of the temporary introduction of certain suitable substances , as preparations of lithium , copper , strontiumz , &c. , into the flame of a lamp giving a continuous spectrum ; the presence of the bright lines due to these substances would not be perceived except by an observer provided with a spectrum-telescope , to whom they might convey information in accordance with a previous arrangement . This little instrument , held in the hand and directed to the place of the sun during its eclipse in 1868 , might enable an observer , who was not provided with larger apparatus , to give an answer to the important question whether the bright prominences are self-luminous or reflect solar light . At least it would be possible for him to determine the general character of the spectrum of a bright prominence so far as to learn whether it is continuous or consists of bright lines . On account of the low magnifying-power of the instrument , the red prominence would appear sufficiently small to permit of bright lines being distinguished on its spectrum , if such should exist . The instrument should be previously focused by the observer on the moon , or some distant object . Should a portion of the sun 's limb be visible , the instrument must be rotated until the spectrum of the little projecting prominence appears in a direction parallel to that of the spectrum of the sun 's limb , and is not overlapped by it . Perhaps a diaphragm across the field of view and cutting off about one-third of it would be an advantage , as the spectrum of the sun 's limb might be concealed behind it . The eye , relieved in this way from the bright solar spectrum , would be in a more favourable state to examine the fainter spectrum of the red prominence . Four of these instruments , made by Mr. Browning , have been sent out by the Royal Society to India , to be placed in the hands of observers stationed at different places along the central line of the eclipse . This instrument would be specially suitable for use at sea . Postscript.--Mr . Browning has recently suggested a method of diminishing the apparent velocity of meteors by the use of a concave cylindrical lens placed with its axis perpendicular to the direction of their motion . This mode of observing may be applied to the spectrum-telescope by substituting , when required , a plano-convex cylindrical lens for the eye-lens of the eyepiece . If this lens be placed with its axis parallel to the height of the compound prism before the object-glass , and if the telescope be held in a position such that the direction in which the light of the meteor is dispersed is perpendicular to that of its motion , the spectrum of the meteor will be magnified , as when the ordinary eye-lens is employed , but the apparent velocity of the meteor will be less by an amount equal to the magnifying-power of the eye-lens .

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3701662

Remarks upon Archaopteryx lithographica

243

248

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

T. H. Huxley

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6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0046

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112501

10.1098/rspl.1867.0046

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112501

Anatomy 2

Biology 2

Anatomy

I. " Remarks upon Archeopteryx lithographica . " By Prof. T. H. HUXLEY , LL. D. , F.R.S. Received January 1 , 1868 . The unique specimen of Archzeopteryx lithograpMica ( von Meyer ) which at present adorns the collection of fossils in the British Museum , is undoubtedly one of the most interesting relics of the extinct fauna of longpast ages ; and the correct interpretation of the fossil is of proportional importance . Hence I do not hesitate to trouble the Royal Society with 243 the following remarks , which are , in part , intended to rectify certain errors which appear to me to be contained in the description of the fossil in the Philosophical Transactions for 1863 * . It is obviously impossible to compare the bones of one animal satisfactorily with those of another , unless it is clearly settled that such is the dorsal and such the ventral aspect of a vertebra , and that such a bone of the limbarches , or limbs , belongs to the left , and such another to the right side . Identical animals may seem to be quite different , if the bones of the same limbs are compared under the impression that they belong to opposite sides ; and very different bones may appear to be similar , if those of opposite sides are placed in juxtaposition . The following citations , and the remarks with which I accompany them , however , will show that these indispensable conditions of comparison have not been complied with in the memoir to which I refer . 1 . " The moiety ( Plate I. ) containing the greater number of the petrified bones exhibits such proportion of the skeleton from the inferior or ventral aspect " ( 1 . c. p. 34 ) . I propose to show , on the contrary , that the fossilized animal presents , in general , its dorsal aspect to the eye , though one of the most conspicuous bones may have been so twisted round as to exhibit its ventral face . 2 . The demonstration that the bones of the Arciceopteryx are thus wrongly interpreted , may be best commenced by showing that what is called " right femur ( 65 ) , tibia ( 66 ) , and bones of the foot ( 68 , i , ii , iii , iv ) , " 1 . c. p. 35 , are respectively the left femur , left tibia , and bones of the left foot . That such is the case is very easily proved by the circumstance that ( as is very properly pointed out in the memoir ) the second toe of the foot in question is that which lies uppermost , while the plantar surface of the foot is turned outwards , and its dorsal aspect towards the vertebral column . If the limb in question were , as the describer of the fossil supposes , the right leg , it would obviously be impossible to place the foot in its present position , unless the numbers of the phalanges in its toes were the reverse of what is observed in Birds ; that is to say , the uppermost toe , that which has three phalanges , must also be the outermost . Nevertheless the describer of the fossil justly lays great stress upon the fact that the toes have the same number of phalanges as in birds . As a matter of fact , this is quite true ; but it would not be true if we were to assume with him that the limb in question is the right leg . 3 . Certain parts of the fossil which lie upon the opposite side of the spine to the so-called " right leg " are named , at p. 34 of the memoir cited , " Portion of the left os innominatum , showing part of the ilium ( 62 ) and ischium ( 63 ) , with the acetabulum ( a ) . " i , " On the Arceheopteryx of Von Meyer , with a description of the Fossil Remains of a Long-tailed Species , from the lithographic stone of Solenhlofen . " By Professor Owen , F.R.S. &c. [ Jan. 30 , A full description of this mass of bone as " the left os innominatum , including the anterior two-thirds of the ilium , and the anterior half , or more , of the coalesced ischium , " is given at p. 39 ; and at p. 40 I find , " The inferior or central * face [ of the sacrum ] , as in the case of the slightly dislocated left innominatum , is towards the observer . " There is no doubt on any side , that the end of the bone in question which at present is directed forwards is its true anterior end , and that the edge which is turned towards the spinal column is the true dorsal edge . The question is , whether the face of the bone which is exposed is its outer ( or dorsal ) or its inner ( or ventral ) face . In the former case it must needs be a right ilium , in the latter a left ilium . That it is the outer face of the bone which lies uppermost appears to me to be demonstrated(a ) By the fact that the iliac margin of the acetabulum is prominent , and that the adjacent surface of this ilium rises to this margin . I am not aware that any vertebrate animal exists in which the acetabulum lies at the bottom of a funnel-shaped depression , such as would be the case in Arch & eopteryx if the bone in dispute were the left os innominatum seen from the inner side . ( b ) By the fact that a small portion of what appears to be an innominate bone can be descried in close relation with the proximal end of what has just been shown to be the left femur ; while the right femur ( called left in the memoir ) , though dislocated , is not very far from the bone under discussion . ( c ) By the further consideration , that if this were not the right os innominatum , it would be as curiously unlike the corresponding bone of a bird in the form of its surface as it resembles it in all other respects . 4 . The bone marked 51f is named " left scapula " ( 1 . c. p. 34 ) , and that marked 51 " right scapula " ( 1 . c. p. 35 ) ; and a full description of these bones , as such , is given at pp. 36 and 37 of the memoir cited . Nevertheless I venture to affirm that 51t is the right scapula and not the left ; for it will not be denied that the anterior or glenoidal end of the bone , as it now lies , is directed forwards , its posterior or vertebral end backwards , and its glenoidal articular surface outwards and forwards : it would be quite impossible to put a left scapula of similar construction into this position . Further , the glenoidal end of this scapula remains in connexion with what is obviously the glenoidal ( or humeral ) end of the right coracoid ( marked c in Plate I. ) . The author of the memoir , indeed , gives a different interpretation of the osseous projection thus marked ( 1 . c. p. 37):"The prominence beyond the left scapula ( Plate I. 51 ' ) suggested at first view the humeral end of the coracoid , but I believe it to be part of the humerus corresponding with the tuberosity on the ulnar side of the sessile semioval head , overarching the pneumatic foramen in the bird . " " Central " in the original . The word appears to have been substituted by an error of the press for " ventral , " And this view is pictorially embodied in the restoration of the humerus of Archeopteryx given in Plate II . fig. 1 . But a most distinct line of matrix separates the humerus from the prominence in question , in which may be seen , with great clearness , the glenoidal facet of the coracoid , as well as the excavation of the exterior surface of the bone which is characteristic of the glenoidal , or humeral , end of the coracoid in birds and pterodactyles . I think , then , there can be no question that the parts marked 51 ' and c in Plate I. of the memoir cited are the right scapula and the glenoidal end of the right coracoid , and not , as the author affirms , the left scapula and a tuberosity of the humerus . 5 . Even apart from the fact that the humerus marked 53 ' lies in almost undisturbed relation with the right pectoral arch , it is obviously a right humerus . On no other supposition can the relative position of the deltoid ridge and of the various contours of the bone be accounted for . Nevertheless this is called " proximal half of left humerus ( 53 ' ) , entire , and part of the distal half " at p. 34 of the memoir cited . It is probably needless to pursue this part of the inquiry any further . As the so-called right leg turns out to be the left , the so-called left os innominatum the right , and the so-called left scapula and wing-bones to be those of the opposite side of the body , the necessity of a corresponding rectification for the other limb-bones needs no evidence . 6 . As both the hind limbs and one-half of the pelvis have just such positions as they would readily assume if the hinder part of the animal 's body lay upon its ventral face , it is highly improbable ( to say the least ) that the caudal and posterior trunk-vertebrm should have turned round so as to present their ventral aspect to the eye , as they do according to the memoir ( 1 . c. p. 44 ) . But I apprehend that evidence can be found in the vertebrae themselves sufficient to prove that their dorsal and not their ventral faces are turned towards the eye . In several of the best-preserved of these vertebrae , in fact , ( and Plate I. imperfectly shows this , ) the remains of two small articular poocesses are distinctly visible at each end of the vertebra . The superior surface of each articular process is raised into a low longitudinal ridge ; and the posterior pair of processes lie at the sides of a narrow , parallel-sided plate of bone , which projects beyond the posterior edge of the vertebra , and is received between the anterior articular processes of the vertebra which succeeds it . A low linear longitudinal elevation occupies the place of spinous process . If my interpretation of these appearances is correct , it is clear that the caudal vertebrae ( as was to be expected ) turn their dorsal faces to the eye . 7 . One important and extremely conspicuous bone , the furculum ( if it be such ) , undoubtedly turns its ventral surface to the eye ; and I cannot but suspect that it is the botueversement of this bone which has led to that reversal of the proper nomenclature of the other bones which , could it be sustained , would leave ArchAeopteryx without a parallel in the vertebrate subkingdom . When the specimen of Archceopteryx is once put into its right position , many points of its structure acquire an intelligibility which they lose to those who accept the interpretations given in the memoir . The so-called right foot , for example , which , as a right foot , is like nothing in nature , becomes strikingly ornithic as a left foot , from the backward direction of the hallux and the apparent anchylosis of the metatarsal bones . The distal ends of the second and third metatarsals appear to me , however , to be separated for a much greater distance , proportionately to the length of the metatarsus , than in any existing birds , except the Penguins . The femur is more slender and more curved in proportion to its length than in any recent bird with which I am acquainted . The representation of the bone in fig. 1 of Plate III . is inaccurate , as may be seen by comparing it with that given in Plate I. The small size of the cnemial crest of the tibia is also very remarkable . The right innominate bone is imperfectly represented in Plate I. of the memoir cited . Its anterior end is not , as it there appears to be , abruptly truncated : there is an elevation in the region which would be occupied by the prominence against which the base of the great trochanter works , and which is so characteristic of birds . The greater part of the ischium is not represented ; and the sacrosciatic space certainly has not the form which it is represented to have . The references o to the " obturator foramen , " and 63 , to the " ischium " ( 1 . c. p. 40 ) , are unintelligible to me . The ischium can be traced back for 4 of an inch from the acetabulum ; and so much of it as is preserved remains narrow throughout this extent , and is convex upwards , but concave downwards or towards the matrix . The ventral edge of the ischium appears to be entire throughout this extent ; but the posterior moiety of its dorsal edge is somewhat rough and angular . It is therefore very probable that the ischium expanded behind the sacrosciatic notch and united with the ilium , as it very generally does in carinate birds . It is very desirable that this part of the skeleton of Archeeopteryx should be figured again . The scapula has a distinct clavicular process , as in carinate birds ; and it seems to be pretty clear that the scapula had that twofold angulation upon the coracoid which is characteristic of the Carinatce . The glenoidal end of the coracoid is unlike the corresponding part of that bone in any of the Ratite ; but it is more like that of a Pterodactyle than that of any carinate bird which I have met with . It is less prominent ( and the counterpart shows that this shortness is not the result of fracture ) than in any recent bird , provided with a strong furculum , with which I am acquainted . In fact , in its form , and strength relatively to the shoulder , girdle , the so-called " furculum " appears to me to be the greatest osteological difficulty presented by Archxeopteryx . I prefer waiting for the 247 light which will be afforded by another specimen to the indulgence of any speculation regarding this bone ; in the meanwhile , I by no means wish to deny that appearances are strongly in favour of the interpretation which has been put upon it . In conclusion , I may remark that I am unaware of the existence of any " law of correlation " which will enable us to infer that the mouth of this animal was devoid of lips , and was a toothless beak . The soft tortoises ( Trionyx ) have fleshy lips as well as horny beaks ; the Chelonia in general have horny beaks , though they possess no feathers to preen ; and Rhamphorhynchus combined both beak and teeth , though it was equally devoid of feathers . If , when the head of Archceopteryx is discovered , its jaws contain teeth , it will not the more , to my mind , cease to be a bird , than turtles cease to be reptiles because they have beaks . All birds have a tarso-metatarsus , a pelvis , and feathers , such , in principle , as those possessed by Archeopteryx . No known reptile , recent or fossil , combines these three characters , or presents feathers , or possesses a completely ornithic tarsometatarsus , or pelvis . Compsognathus comes nearest in the tarsal region , Megalosaurts and Iguanodon in the pelvis . But , so far as the specimen enables me to judge , I am disposed to think that , in many respects , Archeopteerys is more remote from the boundary-line between birds and reptiles than some living Ratite are .

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Account of Experiments on Torsion and Flexure for the Determination of Rigidities. [Abstract]

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248

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Joseph D. Everett

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6.0.4

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112502

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112502

Biography

Measurement

Biography

II . " Account of Experiments on Torsion and Flexure for the Determination of Rigidities . " By JOSEPH D. EVERETT , D.C.L. , Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen 's College , Belfast . Communicated by Sir WILLIAM THOMSON . Received January 13 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) This paper describes a continuation of experiments related in two former papers , read February 22 , 1866 , and February 7 , 1867 , the substances operated on in the new series being wrought iron , cast iron , and copper , and the mode of procedure being the same as in the latter of the two preceding series . The results obtained , along with those published in the former papers , are given below , the figures I. , II . , III . indicating the paper in which the results are deduced . The values of M , n , and 7c are in millions of grammes weight per square centimetre . M , IZSk , o , Youg 's Resistance to Poisson 's Specific modulus . Rigidity . compression . ratio . gravity . Glass , flint , I ... ... 614-3 2442 423-0 -258 2-942 Do . II . 585-1 239-0 353-3 -229 2-935 Brass , drawn , II ... . 1094-8 372-9 5701 ( ? ) -469 8471 Steel , cast , II ... ... . 2179-3 834-1 1875-6 -310 7-849 Iron , wroaght , III . 1999-4 783-8 1484-1 ' 275 7-677 Iron , cast , III ... ... . 1374 542-3 982-2 -267 7'235 Copper , drawnII . 1255 85 4556 1716-4 -378 8-843 [ Jan. 30 . 248

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Comparison of Magnetic Disturbances Recorded by the Self-Registering Magnetometers at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, with Magnetic Disturbances Deduced from the Corresponding Terrestrial Galvanic Currents Recorded by the Self-Registering Galvanometers of the Royal Observatory. [Abstract]

249

251

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

George Biddell Airy

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112503

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112503

Meteorology

Electricity

Meteorology

" Comparison of Magnetic Disturbances recorded by the Self-registering Magnetometers at the Royal Observatory , Greenwich , with Magnetic Disturbances deduced from the corresponding Terrestrial Galvanic Currents recorded by the Self-registering Galvanometers of the Royal Observatory . " By GEORGE BIDDELL AIRY , Astronomer Royal . Received December 20 , 1867 . ( Abstract . ) The author , after adverting to the origin of this branch of science , as commencing ( with himself ) in communications with Messrs. Edwin and Latimer Clark , but more particularly with Mr. Charles V. Walker , and alluding to the important labours of Mr. W. H. Barlow , Mr. Walker , and Dr. Lamont , proceeds to give the official history of the establishment of the wires and other apparatus necessary for its prosecution at the Royal Observatory . In 1860 and 1861 , the author submitted to the Board of Visitors of the Royal Observatory proposals for extending wires from the Royal Observatory in two directions nearly at right angles , -on the second occasion , specifying Croydon and Dartford as terminal points . The Board in 1861 recommended this to the Admiralty , who immediately gave their sanction . The author then applied to the Directors of the SouthEastern Railway for permission to place his wires on their poles , which was granted , at a merely nominal rent . All the wires and labour in mounting them were provided by the Railway Company at cost price , and the insulators were furnished by Messrs. Silver without profit . The wires communicate with the earth at both ends of each by solder-attachment to water-pipes . The author then describes the apparatus made by Mr. Simms for the record of the currents . For each wire the current acts on a galvanometer whose needle-carrier also supports a small plane mirror ; and , by proper adjustment of cylindrical lenses , neat spots of light are formed upon a rotating ebonite cylinder , covered with photographic paper and made to revolve ( by clockwork ) in twenty-four hours . With angular motion of the galvanometer , the spot of light moves . The zero of measure is obtained by interrupting the wire-circuit . The zero of time is obtained by interrupting the light and observing the corresponding clock-time . Other adjustments have received great attention . Many delays occurred in the establishment of the apparatus , and finally from the discovery that the earth-currents were very much stronger than had been anticipated . From 1865 , April 18 , it has been continuously in use , in the same form as at present . The author then gives the theory , algebraical and numerical , for inferring , from the magnitude of the galvanic currents observed in two known directions , the magnitude of the galvanic currents in the north and west directions . And , proceeding from these by the known law , that when a current from the graphite or copper pole of a battery passes under a needle , it forces the austral element to the right ( as referred to the currentcourse ) , he infers the magnitude of the magnetic force in the north and west directions . The numerical expression contains four unequal constant factors , by which the photographic ordinates must be multiplied . The author explains that , for his own preliminary examination , he used four proportional compasses , constructed expressly for this purpose by Mr. Simms , and thus formed the ordinates of the new Miagnetic-Force Curves without any use of numbers whatever . But for the more detailed work to be done by young assistants , he judged it better to measure the ordinates by scales with graduations of different value , and to add the results , thus forming numerical values of the magnetic ordinates . The resulting scale being arbitrary , it was so adapted that the largest ordinates were not very different from the largest ordinates of the curves given by the Horizontal-Force Magnetometer . The curves given by the Declination Magnetometer were adapted to the scale of the HorizontalForce Magnetometer . In the large diagrams exhibited to the Society , the curves representing the North Force as shown by the Horizontal-Force Magnetometer , and the North Force as inferred from the Galvanometers , are brought into juxtaposition , and the curves representing the West Force as shown by the Declination Magnetometer , and as inferred from the Galvanometers , are brought into juxtaposition , for seventeen days in 1865 , 1866 , and 1867 . And the general agreement between the curves of the two classes , especially for the North Force , is so remarkable that the author expresses his undoubting belief that the irregularities of magnetic force are caused by the galvanic currents . At the same time he indicates some discordances which require further examination . One of these is , that the disturbance inferred from the galvanic currents usually ( but not always ) precedes that recorded by the magnetometers . Another is , that the North Force ap-pears , from the galvanic currents , to be increased ( whereas , in magnetic storms , it is usually found to be diminished ) . There are other points of smaller importance . The author suggests as possible that these discordances may arise from the circumstance that the Observatory is at the end of each of the wires ; and therefore the galvanic current which is recorded , being that which covers a space whose centre is several miles from the Observatory , may not correspond to the magnetic forces which are observed at the Observatory . And he submits for consideration whether it may not be desirable to try two shorter wires , the two ends of each wire making connexion with the earth on opposite sides of the Observatory , and the register of each being made , at the Observatory , near the middle of its length .

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On the Mysteries of Numbers Alluded to by Fermat.--Second Communication. [Abstract]

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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Frederick Pollock

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/112504

Formulae

Tables

Mathematics

I. " On the Mysteries of Numbers alluded to by Fermat."-Second Communication . By the Right lion . Sir FREDERICK POLLOCK , Bart. , F.R.S. Received January 14,1868 . ( Abstract . ) This paper is not adapted to be read in extenso ; so much of it is connected with mere calculation , so much more of it requires continual reference to diagrams , that no adequate knowledge of its contents would be acquired by merely hearing it read aloud ; but a statement has been prepared of what it contains which will give a general view of the result . The properties ascribed to all odd numbers , in addition to those contained in Fermat 's theorem , are these:-lst . The algebraic sum of the roots in some form of the 4 squares which compose the number will equal 1 , 3 , 5 , 7 , &c. ( every odd number which it is large enough to produce ) ; 2ndly , the difference between some 2 of the roots will be any odd or even number whatever , subject to the same limitation . 1357 9 The series 1 , 3 , 7 , 13 , &c. ( n , n , n , n+l ) will give 1 , 3 , 5 , &c. as the sum 246 8 of the roots of its terms ; and each term is the smallest that will give that 13 57 amount . So 1 , 5 , 13 , 25 , &c. is the series whose terms are the smallest that 48 12 16 give the odd numbers as a difference of the roots , and 1 , 3 , 9 , 19 , &c. that 26 10 give the even numbers . And these are the three series that compose The Square ( the subject of the last paper ) when the 1st term is 1 ; and they are the cause of its properties . A portion of the paper is devoted to an investigation of the change effected in the sum of the squares , by a change in the roots . If 2 roots differ by n , they may be represented by a and a+ n ; and if the smaller be diminished by 1 , and the larger increased by I , the sum of the squares is increased by 2n+2 ; if n=0 , the difference is 2 ; and it becomes 4 , 6 , 8 , &c. as n becomes 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , &c. On the other hand , if the smaller root be increased and the larger diminished by 1 , the sum of the squares becomes less by 2n-2 . 2A A similar property belongs to all polygonal numbers ; in the trigonal the increase is ... ... ... ... . . n+ 1 , in the square it is ... ... ... . 2n + 2 , in the pentagonal ... ... ... . 3n+ 3 , and in the m-gonal ... ... ... . n+m . When the reverse operation takes place and the sum of the squares is diminished , the + ( plus ) in the above expressions becomes(minus ) . There are some other modes mentioned also in dealing with the roots so as to increase the sum of the squares by 2 , although there be not two of the roots which are equal . A proof is offered , by means of a supplemental square decreasing as the other increases , that if every number up to 2n 1 has the properties of odd numbers above enumerated , then the number 2n +3 will also possess them ; and if this be so , then every subsequent odd number will likewise possess them . This is a mode of proof not unfrequent in mathematical:investigations : it cannot be abbreviated ; but it may be useful to state that the proof chiefly arises from this , that if one term of a series corresponds with the law of it , then every term will do so , and in all the series but two there will be one term obedient to the law which renders all the rest so ; the other two series are treated differently . It is shown that if a term , in the series 1 , 3 , 7 , &c. , whose terms ( represented in the roots of the 4 squares of which they are the sum ) will be n , n , n ( n+ 1 ) be increased by 2 , the roots being altered in the manner described above , the operation may be carried on till one of the terms becomes zero ( 0 ) ; but the next term in the series will be reached before that occurs . Then the next term may be taken as the beginning of another similar operation , and may go on till another term is reached , and so on without end . In this way the 4 squares into which any odd numbers may be divided will be obtained ; and if every odd number is divisible into 4 squares , every even number will be so likewise . The next subject is considered the most material and important in the paper , because it connects Lagrange 's proof of the square numbers with The Square ( the subject of the last paper ) . Euler thought that no assistance could be derived from the proof of Lagrange as to the other branches of the theorem ( see Euler , ' Opuscula Analytica , ' vol. ii . p. 4 ) . But if every odd number is composed of 4 squares or less , then a number of the form 4n+ 2 must be composed of 2 , 3 , or 4 squares , and in any of these cases n ( any number ) will be equal to 4 trigonal numbers , which is shown in the paper . The expression a'+a +6 ' has been proved in a former paper of the author to be a general expression for any 2 trigonal numbers ; and if any number is composed of 4 trig , onal numbers or less , a'+ a+ b2+ m +m + nwill represent any number whatever , odd or even , and 2a + 2a + 2b 2m + 2 ' 2im + 2n2 will represent any even number . This connects Lagrange 's proof of the squares with T/ he Square , which is the subject of the last paper ; and if a series be composed of squares and double trigonal numbers beginning with nothing , and having differences 2 , 2 , 4 , 4 , 6 , 6 , 25 8 , 8 , &c. , the series will be 2 , 4 , 8 , 12 , 18 , &c. , and any even number will be made with some 4 terms of the series . Now The Square , the subject of the last paper , has a property not noticed in the former paper , viz. that the first term of The Square , supposing it to be of the form 4n+3 , will be increased in descending down the principal diagonal into the sum of the squares of the roots n , n+ 1 , n+ 1 , n+ 1 , into which the number itself may be divided ; and if the form of the number be 4n +1 , a term which is the sum of the roots n , n , n , n+ 1 ( into which 4n+ 1 may be divided ) would appear in the diagonal next below the principal diagonal ; and as every odd number is of the form of either 4n2+3 , or 4n+ 1 , this applies to every possible odd number , and each of these numbers is a term in the series already mentioned , 1 , 3 , 7 , 13 , &c. , and which may be increased by any even number by means of the series 2b2 , 2a2+ 2a , and so on . This , it is shown in the paper , may be so altered as to correspond with the index of some number in the principal diagonal of the square , or the one below it , and will therefore ascend to the first term in The Square , and give the sum of its roots equal to 1 ; and therefore ( 4n 3-1 ) divided by 2 will be composed of 3 trigonal numbers , and in the other case ( 4n+1--1 ) is divided by 2 ; that is , every odd and every even number is composed of 3 trigonal numbers . If this be so , Fermat 's theorem of the trigonal numbers is proved from the case of the squares , which ( it is believed ) has not been done before ; but this leads to other conclusions , which are shown in the paper . If 1 be the first term of The Square , every term in it will have its roots of the squares that compose it of the form + 1 , a , 6 , 6 , and the term itself will be composed of two trigonal numbers ; but if each of these be made the first term of a square , every odd number will be found in some of the resulting squares ; and it is shown that every odd number not only is of the form 1 -2a2 + 2a 2b2 2n2-+ 2m 2n2 , but also of the form 1 +2a2 +2a + 2b2 2 2m2 + 2m , or 1 2a2 + 2a + 2b2 + 2n2 ; so that , with rerespect to every odd number , two of the squares that compose it may be equal , and also two may have their roots differing by 1 . There remains one other matter to be mentioned , viz. a certain remarkable relation which all the polygonal numbers bear to each other , and which forms a connexion that runs through them all , from which it would seem to follow that a solution of the theorem as to one would be a solution as to all the rest ( except the first ) . This relation arises in the square numbers by a property of the gradation series , already in part alluded to , viz. , as to the odd numbers , by which the interval between any two terms can be filled up , all the terms having , as to the odd numbers , the sum of the roots of the squares that compose them equal to the sum of the roots of the first term ; but the intervals , as to the even numbers , may be also filled up by making the sum of the roots one less than that of the roots of the odd numbers ( see the Table in Diagram No. 3 , which is thus constructed ) . A term in the gradation series is assumed ( in this case 73 ) ; its roots are 4 , 4 , 4 , 5 ; and the roots of all the odd numbers alluded to by Fermat . 1868 . ] 253 between that and the next term are found by the processes mentioned in the former part of this paper . The roots of the even numbers are then obtained by an analogous process ; and these are used as bases or roots of the polygonal numbers , which are placed in columns , with their sums , as appears in the Table ( see Diagram No. 4 for the mode in which the polygonal numbers are formed ) . It will be observed that the sum of the roots or bases is 17 ; but if they be used to form trigonal numbers , the increment of the sum of the resulting trigonal numbers above the sum of the roots or bases is 28 , and so on of the rest , each successive column increasing by the same number , viz. 28 . If the roots or bases be n , n , n , n1 ( that is , a term in the gradation series ) , the increment of the sums of the successive columns will be 2n2 n , a trigonal number . Again , in the trigonal numbers the difference between the sums of the first and second term is 0 ; in the square numbers it is 1 ; in the pentagonal numbers 2 ; in the hexagonal numbers 3 ; in the heptagonal numbers 4 ; but in all of them the difference between the second and third terms is 1 , and this continues throughout . The difference between the third and fourth , the fifth and sixth , the seventh and eighth , &c. , increases by 1 in each column ; but the difference between the second and third , the fourth and fifth , the sixth and seventh , &c. , is always 1 in each column ; and the result is that , by adding 1 in the pentagonal column , by adding 1 , or 1.1 in the hexagonal , by adding 1 , or 1.1 , or 1.1.1 in the heptagonal , every number , odd or even , can be made by not exceeding four square numbers , or five pentagonal numbers , or , &c. , as clearly appears by the Table . This corresponds with what was discovered by Cauchy , published at the end of Legendre 's 'Theorie des Nombres , ' viz. that four only of each class of numbers is necessary ; the rest may be supplied by 1 repeated as often as necessary . But I must not omit to say that , although all the odd numbers are sufficiently obedient , there is one class of even numbers quite refractory , viz. the powers of 2 . They may be easily expressed in squares , pentagonal numbers , &c. , but they cannot be brought within the rule that otherwise prevails .

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Compounds Isomeric with the Sulphocyanic Ethers.--I. On the Mustard Oil of the Ethyl Series

254

258

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

A. W. Hofmann

fla

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0050

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112505

10.1098/rspl.1867.0050

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112505

Chemistry 2

Biography

Chemistry

II . Compounds Isomeric with the Sulphocyanic Ethers.-I . On the Mustard Oil of the Ethyl Series . " By A. W. HOFMANN , LL. D. , F.R.S. The results of my researches on the chloroform-derivatives of the primary monamines , which , as I have shown , are isomeric with the nitriles , could not fail to direct my attention to allied groups of bodies , with the view of discovering similar isomerisms . In a note communicated to the Royal Society some months ago , I expressed the expectations which even then appeared to be justified in the following manner:- " In conclusion , I may be permitted to announce as very probable the existence of a series of bodies isomeric with the sulphocyanides . Already M. Cloiz has shown that the action of chloride of cyanogen on ethylate of potassium gives rise to the formation of an ethylic cyanate possessing properties absolutely different from those belonging to the cyanate discovered by M. Wurtz . On comparing , on the other hand , the properties of the methylic and ethylic sulphocyanides with those of the sulphocyanides of allyl and phenyl , it can scarcely be doubted that we have here the representatives of two groups entirely different , and that the terms of the methyland ethyl-series which correspond to oil of mustard , and to the sulphocyanide of phenyl , still remain to be discovered . Experiments with which I am now engaged will show whether these bodies cannot be obtained by the action of the iodides of methyl and ethyl on sulphocyanide of silver . " These experiments I have since concluded , but the hopes which I expressed have not been realized . Dry sulphocyanide of silver is much less easily attacked by the alcohol-iodides than the cyanide . The mixture , in consequence of the formation of iodide of silver , rapidly turns yellow , but the reaction is not completed without protracted digestion in the waterbath ; on submitting theproduct of the reactionto distillation , thewell-known sulphocyanic ethers , discovered by M. Cahours , are obtained . The experirent was performed both in the ethyland the amyl-series ; the ethers thus produced , when compared with the compounds prepared by distilling sulphocyanide of potassium with sulphethylates or sulphamylates , exhibited the same odour , the same boiling-point , and in general the same chemical deportment . The failure of these experiments could not , however , shake my belief in the existence of two series of bodies of the composition of the sulphocyanic ethers . It was only necessary to find the method of producing the new isomers . I was fortunate enough almost at the very outset to trace the right track , and I beg leave to submit to the Royal Society some of the facts established even now by my experiments . These experiments are intimately connected with some of my older observations . More than twenty years ago , when studying the action of bisulphide of carbon on aniline , I discovered a finely crystallized body , which in succession has been designated as Sulphocarbanilide , Diphenylsulphocarbamide , and sulphuretted diphenylurea . About ten years later* , this compound again passed through my hands . I then found that , when submitted to the action of anhydrous phosphoric acid , stlphocarbanilide was converted by the loss of 1 mol . of aniline into sulphocyanide of phenyl . The phenyl-compound has the peculiar pungent odour of the ethereal oil of black mustard ; like the latter it possesses the faculty of fixing the ammonias-so much so , indeed , that I did not hesitate to describe the new compound as the mustard oil of the phenyl series . I almost wonder now that the experiments performed in the phenyl series , and soon afterwards also in the naphthyl series , were not even then extended to the ethylic compounds and their homologues the more so since the study of the action of bisulphide of carbon upon amylamine and ethylamine had , so to say , supplied me with the material for the inquiry . When contemplated in the light of the recent observations , these experiments acquired an increased interest ; for I could no longer doubt that the reaction , which had yielded me the sulphocyanide of phenyl , when appropriately applied to the derivatives of methylic , ethylic , and amylic alcohols , would put me into possession of the compounds isomeric with the sulphocyanic ethers which I was anxious to procure . Experiment has not failed to confirm my anticipations . Experiments in the Ethyl series . The general character of the action of bisulphide of carbon upon ethylamine I had examined when more minutely investigating the behaviour of amylamine under the influence of the bisulphide* . I have resumed the inquiry , which has furnished me the following results:-On adding bisulphide of carbon to an alcoholic solution of ethylamine , the liquid becomes more or less heated , according to the concentration of the solution . The liquid turns neutral , and yields on evaporation an oily compound , which after some time solidifies into a mass of splendid tabular crystals . This compound fuses at 103 ? , and then retains the liquid condition even when cooled to the ordinary temperature . When gently heated , the salt is volatilized , partly , at all events , without decomposition . These crystals are the ethylamine-salt of ethyl-sulphocarbamic acid . 2 [ 2a }N ]+ cs= ( CS ( CA ) HN i s1 L H2 NC+CS=[ H 2HN]ns The salt is readily soluble both in water and in alcohol . Addition of soda disengages ethylamine , giving rise to the formation of ethylsulphocarbamate of sodium . Hydrochloric acid decomposes the salt with separation of the acid , which collects in oily drops on the surface of the liquid , gradually solidifying to a mass of fatty crystals . Excess of hydrochloric acid dissolves these crystals , bisulphide of carbon being evolved , and a salt of ethylamine remaining behind . Under the protracted influence of heat ethylsulphocarbamate of ethylamine is thoroughly decomposed . Even at the temperature of boiling water , torrents of sulphuretted hydrogen are disengaged ; the transformation is rapidly accomplished when the alcoholic solution is heated under pressure to 110 ? or 120 ? . On evaporating the alcoholic liquid after the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen has ceased , an oily liquid remains behind , which also crystallizes after some time . These crystals fuse at 77 ? ; they are likewise soluble in alcohol , *Proc . of the Roy . Soc. vol. ix . p. 591 ( 1860 ) . but differ from the ethylsulphocarbamate by their insolubility in water . Hydrochloric acid dissolves them ; the solution yields , with perchloride of platinum , a light-yellow precipitate . The new substance is diethylsulphocarbamide or sulphuretted diethylurea , the formation of which is represented by the following equation:[(C s ) " ( C2H~ ) uIN ] I si N2.S ) " [ ( 0211 ) iH2N ] , H}HS+ ( C2HI)2 } N2 On gently heating a mixture of diethylsulphocarbamide with anhydrous phosphoric acid , pungent vapours are evolved , which are condensed to a yellowish liquid possessing in a remarkable manner the odour of mustard oil . When rectified , this liquid becomes colourless ; it boils constantly at 134 ? , and has the same composition as the sulphocyanide of ethyl which is formed by the action of a metallic sulphocyanide upon sulphethylate of potassium . The new substance is formed by the separation from the diethylsulphocarbamide of one molecule of ethylamine , which unites with the phosphoric acid . ( C Sj ' ( ) ( cS)/ ( I , )2 N2= 25 N+ N. ( C2 J}2 } ( C215 ) } In its properties , the new compound essentially differs from the known sulphocyanic ethylether . The boiling-point of the latter is 147 ? ; the new substance therefore boils 13 ? lower than the old one . The powerfully irritating odour of the new ether is absolutely different from that of the ordinary sulphocyanic ether , which , though by no means agreeable , exerts no marked action either upon nose or eyes . By far the most characteristic feature of the new compound , however , is the facility with which it acts upon ammonia and its derivatives . Dissolved in alcoholic ammonia and digested for a few hours at 100 ? , the ether is converted into ethylsullApocarbamide or sul2lhiuretted ethyl-urea . ( C S ) " ( C S ) " ( 015 ) }N --1113N = ( C211 ) 11 N2 ; with methylamine a mixed urea is formed , ( C Sy ( C i , )3 ( S)"N ( C ) ) } N+ H N= ( C 1 ) ( C-H ) N2 . )H H 2J Ethylamine produces the diethylated compound which has served in the preparation of the ether ; aniline , lastly , gives rise to the formation of a mixed urea of the fatty and aromatic series , ItCS }CH ( CSI } ( C S ) } gjN IOG ^^N ( CJ T ) N+ IN=(c T()( N2 . C21 1H H~ All these diamines are very crystalline ; they are weak bases which dissolve in acids , and furnish , with perchloride of platinum , yellow crystalline precipitates . The faculty of combining with the ammonias , it will be remembered , is altogether deficient in the ordinary sulphocyanic ethers . On the other hand , it belongs to sulphocyanide of allyl , or mustard oil . In fact the new compound is in the ethyl-series what mustard oil is in the allyl-series . I have on this occasion again perused the beautiful memoir of Professor Will on mustard oil , the indications of which have served me as a guide in my experiments . So far as these experiments go , the parallelism of the ethyland allyl-body is complete . For the present I must be satisfied to have indicated the formation and the principal properties of the new compound isomeric with sulphocyanide of ethyl . In a subsequent paper I propose to communicate to the Royal Society the results of a comparative study to which I have submitted the old and the new sulphocyanide , together with the conclusions elicited by these researches as to the different atomic construction of the two substances . In conclusion , I may be permitted to state that methylamine and amylamine , when subjected to the same treatment , have furnished me the analogous mustard terms of the methyland amyl-group ; the properties of these substances I have not yet more minutely investigated .

112507

3701662

On the Resistance of the Air to the Motion of Elongated Projectiles Having Variously Formed Heads. [Abstract]

261

263

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

F. Bashforth

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6.0.4

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/112507

Fluid Dynamics

Measurement

Fluid Dynamics

II . " On the Resistance of the Air to the Motion of Elongated Projectiles having variously formed Heads . " By the Rev. F. BASHFORTH , B.D. , Professor of Applied Mathematics to the Advanced Class of Artillery Officers , Woolwich . Communicated by Professor STOKES , Sec. R.S. Received January 30 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) These experiments were undertaken with a view to determine the resistance of the air to some forms of heads of elongated shot which were likely to be of practical use . The chronograph used was the one described in the Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution for August 1866* , which was constructed on the plan of the Greenwich instrument . Ten screens were placed in a line at intervals of 150 feet , the first being 75 feet from the gun . The following were the forms of the heads , and ten shot of each kind were prepared:(1 ) Hemispherical ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . solid . ( 2 ) Hemispheroidal ( axes as 1 : 2 ) ... ... ... ..solid . ( 3 ) Ogival ( struck with a radius =1 diameter). . solid . ( 4 ) Ogival ( struck with a radius =2 diameters). . solid . ( 5 ) Ogival ( 1 diameter ) ... ... ... ... ... hollow . ( 6 ) Ogival ( 2 diameters ) ... ... ... ... ... ... . . hollow . ( 3 ) and ( 5 ) as well as ( 4 ) and ( 6 ) had respectively the same external forms , but the solid were nearly double the weight of the hollow shot . The gun used was a 40-pounder M.L. , and the diameter of the shot was 4*7 inches . It was found , as in the trial experiments of 1865 , that , if s be the space described in time t after passing the first screen , then , approximately , t= as + bs2 , from which it follows that , if v be the velocity at time t , a+2b8s and the retarding force ---2bv3 If V denote the velocity when s=0 , then v=1 , aX Published separately by Bell and Dmldy , 1866 . and 1 v= . V+ 2bs All the hollow shot were fired , giving eighteen out of twenty successful shots . Only a part of the solid shot prepared were fired ; and they did not give nearly such good results as the hollow shot , probably in consequence of the superior angular velocity of the hollow shot-because , as a 5-lb . charge was used throughout , the lighter shot had a higher initial velocity , and consequently a higher corresponding angular velocity . Tables are given showing for every round:-(1 ) the experimental determination of the time of passing each screen , supposing the first screen to be passed when t=0 ; ( 2 ) the velocities at the middle points between successive screens ; ( 3 ) the weights of the shot ; and ( 4 ) the numerical values of 612 , where 1 150 feet , the distance between the screens . And assuming that , for a given form of head , the resistance of the air varies as the square of the diameter , the mean values of 26 have been adopted for shot weighing W lbs. , and having a diameter of d inches , or 2R feet . When a body is moving in a straight line under the action of a force which varies as the cube of the velocity , it appears that the actual velocity v ' at the middle of any space 2st is such that , if another body moved over the same space 2s ' with a uniform velocity vt , it would describe it in the same time as the first-named body . For the time t ' would 2s ' + 6(2s ' ) ' , uniform velocity 2s ' 2s ' _1 t ' I__ + 2bs ' 2s ' +b ( 2s')2 +2s the actual velocity at the distance s ' . M. Helie , in his 'Traite de Balistique ' ( 1865 ) , adopted , for elongated projectiles , a law for the resistance of the air which varied as the velocity cubed . The law was deduced from some experiments made at Gavre , when a great number of velocities ( v ' , v"t ) of shot fired with various charges were measured at two points x metres apart . The mean values of v ' and vt were taken and substituted in the formula v " -v ; and it was found that this was approximately constant , and consequently that the resistance varied as the ( velocity)3 . The French measures and weights have been converted into English measures for M. Helie 's best experiment , in order to facilitate comparisons with my own experiments . The contents of M. Helie 's work were quite unknown to me for several months after my report on the above experiments had been given in . For an ogival-headed shot struck with a radius of two diameters M. I-Helie 's value of 23 is IV2 d2 26=-000036 =W 000000062 WW while my experiments for the same form of head , but with much higher velocities , give 2b6=000060W =000000104 W There is reason to expect that my value of b will require a small reduction for the low velocities used in M. Helie 's experiments ; but it is extremely improbable that it can be reduced to M. Helie 's value . It will thus appear that M. Helie and I agree in adopting a law of the resistance of the air , but that we have followed quite independent methods in experimenting , and have arrived at different numerical results .

112508

3701662

On the Resistance of the Air to Rifled Projectiles. [Abstract]

263

266

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. A. Longridge

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6.0.4

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112508

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112508

Fluid Dynamics

Measurement

Fluid Dynamics

I. " On the Resistance of the Air to Rifled Projectiles . " By J. A. LONGRIDGE , C.E. Communicated by C. MANBY , Esq. Received February 13 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) The introduction of elongated rifled projectiles having rendered it necessary to reconsider the laws of resistance which had been deduced by Robins , Hutton , and more recent authors , such an investigation is the object of this paper . It is first shown that Hutton 's law , R= av + ~b2 , if applied to the results obtained by the Special Armstrong and Whitworth Committee , 1866 , leads to the following equation , ,6r < fV-1015'4 ' -= 1620 logo - : where V is the initial velocity , v the residual velocity at the distance x from the gun . In like manner it is shown that the law adopted by Piobert , R= Av ' + By3 , leads to the equation x=2197 l1ogo V--994 V } L9 v{ ' ' and the law I= Av + Bv ' to the equation -rQ rV2---958850 v~ } =2668 logo V.-9588 ''v -9,588 0 V2 j These equations all fail by x becoming infinite when v-l 1015 , 994 , and 979 respectively . It is , however , observed that , in the assumption of the law of the resistance , the higher the power of velocity the longer does the corresponding equation give rational results ; and by assuming R=avP with the same data , the following equation was obtained , = log'23-618 V'787 1 8-7.7 ( -v ) 5 which gives consistent results for all values of v. The value of p here is 8 747 , which would give the resistance varying nearly as the ninth power of the velocity . This result led the author of the paper to doubt the accuracy of the experiments , and to seek for further and more correct data , which were obtained from a minute ( No. 23,351 ) of the Ordnance Select Committee , dated 21st September 1867 , containing the results of experiments showing the loss of velocity of two projectiles , one of 8'818 lbs. , and the other of 251 lbs. , in passing through certain given distances with given initial velocities , varying from about 1500 feet to 600 feet per second . From these results a diagram was constructed , and for each projectile an equation was found which agreed tolerably well with the experimental results . The form of the equation assumed was ( x)+a ) v= C ; and the resulting equation was for the small shot ( x+665 ) v2 ' =log-1 10-1473853 , and for the large shot ( v+ 2032 ) v --=og-1 12-6696158 , the maximum error being about 1 . per cent. of the velocity . Introducing into these equations the diameter and weight of the respective projectiles , and taking the index n =25 , the values of C were found to be , small shot , C=log-1 10'7295585 d large shot , C=logl- ' 107454405 d2 the mean being C=log-1 107375745 d , ? and the resulting general equation ( xlog"1 10-7375745.W ) d2l . 10 V+J j1 NV =1 = -Jlog 10'7375745 . The maximum error in velocity , as calculated by this formula , was for the small shot 1 per cent. , and for the large shot 2-per cent. From the above equation the resistance per square inch of sectional area is found , E== log'1 13-0154756 ' from which the following Table is constructed , the third column showing the resistance , as calculated by Hutton 's formula : Table of Resistances to a Rifled Projectile . Velocity , Resistance , in Huttn , Velocity , Resistance , in in tt , p " 11ti{utton , feet per lbs. , per square p8 feet per lbs. , per square pu218 . second . inch . p 218 second . inch . 1500 18-89 18'94 700 0-613 3.12 1400 13'87 16-23 600 0-306 2-20 1300 9'94 13-67 500 0-135 1-49 1200 6-92 11-29 400 0'0494 0-93 1100 3-722 9-14 300 0-01354 0-52 1000 3-052 7-24 200 0-00218 0-23 900 1'900 5-61 100 0-0000965 0-556 800 1 118 4-24 It is next shown that the hypothesis of the great increase of resistance at velocities exceeding 1100 feet per second being due to the vacuum behind the projectile is untenable , because the actual resistance at 1300 feet per second is only 9-94 lbs. per square inch , whilst , according to that hypothesis , the back resistance alone would be 15 lbs. per square inch . It is suggested that the true reason of the great increase of resistance may be found in the fact that a wave-impulse cannot be propagated at a greater velocity than 1100 feet per second , and that consequently a great condensation of air must take place in front of the projectile at all velocities exceeding this , and the resisting force of such condensed air will increase at a greater rate than indicated by Mariotte 's law , owing to the evolution of heat due to the condensation . A comparison is then instituted between the resistances as ascertained by the above law and those given by Hutton 's formula . It is stated that in experiments made on May 17th , 1867 , the small shot weighing 8-8 lbs. , moving with a mean velocity of 986 feet per second , lost 58 ' feet of velocity in a distance of 900 feet . The time of flight being -96 of a second , the resisting force must have been nearly twice the weight of the shot , or more accurately 17'2 lbs. Now , according to the formula given in this paper , the resistance is found to be 17'75 lbs. , whilst Hutton 's formula gives a resistance of 46 ? lbs. Having thus obtained a law which gives , with considerable accuracy , the residual velocity at any point of the flight , the corresponding equation to the trajectory is deduced for low degrees of elevation when the length of the arc differs very slightly from the horizontal distance , or ds=dx nearly ; and the following is the resulting equation:r 2(n+1 ) n+2 n 2(n+1 ) y=x.tan+A . 2n- ) an +-a n x-n ( +a ) where A=n- , and c and a are the constants , and n the index in the 2 n-2 Cn general equation ( X + a ) v=C . Examples of the application of this are given , showing the calculated elevation for the 12-pounder muzzle-loading Armstrong gun for ranges of 2855 yards and 4719 yards , the gun being 17 feet above the planes . The calculated elevations were 6 ? ? 56 ' and 14 ? ? 6 ' , the actual elevations being 7 ? and 15 ? respectively . It is not intended to claim more than approximate accuracy for the formulae in this paper . The general formula has been shown to be derived by taking mean values of n and c , whereas the actual results would indicate that the value of n increases with the diameter of the projectile ; and it is shown in a note that the values of n which agree best with experiment are , for the small shot n=2'4 , for the large shot n-4 , corresponding to the following resistances , small shot R=4'4 , large shot R=v6 . Whether in reality the index does increase with the diameter of the shot must be left to be determined by more extended experiments ; meantime it may be assumed that the general formula in this paper represents with tolerable accuracy the law of resistance and the loss of velocity of projectiles varying from 8'8 lbs. to 251 lbs. in weight , from 3 inches to 9 inches in diameter , and . from 1500 to 600 feet per second in velocity .

112509

3701662

On the Theory of Probability, Applied to Random Straight Lines. [Abstract]

266

269

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

M. W. Crofton

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6.0.4

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/112509

Formulae

Fluid Dynamics

Mathematics

II . " On the Theory of Probability , applied to Random Straight Lines . " By M. W. CROFTON , B.A. , of the Royal Military Academy , Woolwich , late Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Queen 's University , Ireland . Communicated by Prof. SYLVESTER . Received February 5 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) This paper relates to the Theory of Local Probability-that is , the application of Probability to geometrical magnitude . This inquiry seems to have been originated by the great naturalist Buffon , in a celebrated problem proposed and solved by him . Though the subject has been more than once touched upon by Laplace , yet the remarkable depth and beauty of this new Calculus seem to have been little suspected till within the last 266 [ Feb. 27 , few years , when the attention of several English mathematicians has been directed to it , and results of a most singular character have been obtained . The problems on Local Probability which have been hitherto treated relate almost exclusively to points taken at random . The object of the present paper is to show how the Theory of Probability is to be applied to straight lines whose position is unknown , or , in other words , which are taken at random . The author commences by showing that when a straight line is drawn at random in an indefinite plane , or , in other words , when we take one out of an infinite assemblage of lines all drawn at random in the plane , the true mathematical conception of this assemblage is as follows : Conceive the plane ruled with an infinity of parallels at a constant infinitesimal distance ( 3p ) asunder ; then imagine this system of parallels turned through an infinitesimal angle ( & 0 ) ; then through a second equal angle , and so on , till the parallels return to their original direction ; the plane will thus be covered with an infinite number of systems of parallels , running in every possible direction . If an infinite plane be covered in this manner with straight lines , and we draw any closed convex contour on the plane , and then imagine all the lines effaced from the plane , except those which meet this contour , we shall have a clear conception of the system of random lines which meet the given contour . By applying mathematical calculation to this system , the following important principle is proved : The measure of the number of random lines which meet a given closed convex contour is L , the length of the contour . If the contour be non-convex , or be not closed , the measure will be the length of an endless string passing round it and tightly enveloping it . Hence , given any closed convex contour of length L , and any other of length 1 , lying wholly within the former , the probability that a line drawn at random to meet L shall also meet 1 , is P=I The following propositions are then established : If the contour I lie wholly outside L , then , if X be the length of an endless band tightly enveloping the two contours and crossing between them , and Y the length of another endless band also enveloping both , but not crossing between them , the probability that a random line meeting L shall also meet 1 , is X-Y -P LL Again , if the contour I should intersect L ( whether in two or more points ) , then , if Y be an endless band tightly enveloping both , L+l-Y P--L 267 A closed convex boundary of any form , of length L , encloses an area 0 : if two random straight lines intersect it , the probability of their intersection lying within it is 27rn The probability of their intersection lying within any given area , w , which is enclosed within Q , is 2ww -L2 . A more difficult question would be to determine the probability in the case where o is external to & 2 . These fundamental results , it will be observed , are of great generality . The author proceeds to apply them to the solution of various problems relating to random straight lines ; in fact any such problem of probability may be reduced by the principles above laid down to a question of pure mathematical calculation . What will probably be considered among the most curious results contained in this paper are the collateral applications of the theory to the integral calculus . Several integrals of a singular character are obtained , some of which it seems very difficult to prove by any known method . One or two of these are subjoined , with indications of the methods used in establishing their truth . If a given convex boundary be intersected by a system of random lines , as above described , every pair of lines will meet in a point ; and these points of intersection will be scattered all over the plane , some within the boundary , some without . Those within will evidently be distributed with uniform density over the area ; but it becomes a question for those outside , to determine the law according to which their density varies ; and it is proved in this paper that the density of the intersections of a system of random lines crossing a given area , for any external point P , is proportional to 0-sin 0 , where 0 is the apparent angular magnitude of the area from P. Hence the number of external intersections is represented by ff(0-sin 0 ) dS ; now the number of internal will be wrf , and the whole number LL2 . Hence If li be any plane area , enclosed by a convex boundary of length L , and 0 the angle which it subtends at any external point ( x , y ) , then f ( Osin 0 ) dxdy= 27r , the integral extending over the whole external sir :face of the plane* . By conceiving an infinite system of random lines covering an infinite plane , and a second system , all of which meet a given boundary in that plane , and then fixing our attention on the intersections of the former system with the latter , we find the density here proportional to 0 ; and the following theorem is deduced from this consideration : Given any convex boundary ( whose apparent magnitude is called 0 ) , let there be an external boundary surrounding it , such that any tangent to the inner cuts off a constant area from the outer , then ff Odxdy-=D , the integral extending over the whole annulus between them , 1 being the difference of the areas of the parts into which the annulus is divided by any tangent to the inner . For instance , we may take two similar concentric ellipses . If both the inner and outer boundaries are of any convex forms whatever , the above expression is still true , provided D mean the average value of the difference of areas as the tangent revolves by uniform angular displacements . If we consider a plane covered with random lines , and then divide them into two systems , one crossing a given boundary , the other all outside it , the density of the points in which the former system cut the latter will be proportional to sin 0 ; and this leads to the next theorem . If an endless string ( of length Y ) be passed round a given convex boundary ( of length L ) , and the string be kept stretched by the point of a pencil , which thus traces out an external boundary , then if 0 be the apparent magnitude of the given boundary at any point ( x , y ) , we shall have ffsin Odxdy=L ( Y-L ) , the integral extending over the annular space between the boundaries . A remarkable instance of this is an ellipse , the outer curve being , as is well known , a confocal ellipse . Some other applications of the theory to integration are then given . It is important to notice that these applications , though having arisen from researches on probability , rest on a basis wholly independent of that theory . The apparatus of equidistant parallels revolving by infinitesimal angular displacements , which has been here employed , is a purely geometrical conception ; and the proofs of these integrals can be presented in a strict mathematical form . A reticulation composed of two systems of parallels crossing at a finite angle has already been employed by Cauchy , Liouville , and Eisenstein as a method in the theory of numbers and elliptic functions . The reticulation used above is a more delicate and complicated one , consisting , not of two , but of an infinite number of systems of parallels . There remains a more difficult but deeply interesting inquiry , scarcely touched upon in this paper-namely , the extension of the above results to the cases of straight lines , and of planes , taken at random in space .

112510

3701662

On Governors

270

283

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. Clerk Maxwell

fla

6.0.4

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proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112510

10.1098/rspl.1867.0055

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112510

Fluid Dynamics

Measurement

Fluid Dynamics

I. " On Governors . " By J. CLERK MAXWELL , M.A. , F.R.SS . L. & E. Received Feb. 20 , 1868 . AG overnor is a part of a machine by means of which the velocity of the machine is kept nearly uniform , notwithstanding variations in the drivingpower or the resistance . 270 [ Mar. 5 , Most governors depend on the centrifugal force of a piece connected with a shaft of the machine . When the velocity increases , this force increases , and either increases the pressure of the piece against a surface or moves the piece , and so acts on a break or a valve . In one class of regulators of machinery , which we may call moderators * , the resistance is increased by a quantity depending on the velocity . Thus in some pieces of clockwork the moderator consists of a conical pendulum revolving within a circular case . When the velocity increases , the ball of the pendulum presses against the inside of the case , and the friction checks the increase of velocity . In Watt 's governor for steam-engines the arms open outwards , and so contract the aperture of the steam-valve . In a water-break invented by Professor J. Thomson , when the velocity is increased , water is centrifugally pumped up , and overflows with a great velocity , and the work is spent in lifting and communicating this velocity to the water . In all these contrivances an increase of driving-power produces an increase of velocity , though a much smaller increase than would be produced without the moderator . But if the part acted on by centrifugal force , instead of acting directly on the machine , sets in motion a contrivance which continually increases the resistance as long as the velocity is above its normal value , and reverses its action when the velocity is below that value , the governor will bring the velocity to the same normal value whatever variation ( within the working limits of the machine ) be made in the driving-power or the resistance . I propose at present , without entering into any details of mechanism , to direct the attention of engineers and mathematicians to the dynamical theory of such governors . It will be seen that the motion of a machine with its governor consists in general of a uniform motion , combined with a disturbance which may be expressed as the sum of several component motions . These components may be of four different kinds:1 . The disturbance may continually increase . 2 . It may continually diminish . 3 . It may be an oscillation of continually increasing amplitude . 4 . It may be an oscillation of continually decreasing amplitude . The first and third cases are evidently inconsistent with the stability of the motion ; and the second and fourth alone are admissible in a good governor . This condition is mathematically equivalent to the condition that all the possible roots , and all the possible parts of the impossible roots , of a certain equation shall be negative . I have not been able completely to determine these conditions for equae See Mr. C. W. Siemens " On Uniform Rotation , " Phil. Trans. 1866 , p. 657 . 2 c tions of a higher degree than the third ; but I hope that the subject will obtain the attention of mathematicians . The actual motions corresponding to these impossible roots are not generally taken notice of by the inventors of such machines , who naturally confine their attention to the way in which it is designed to act ; and this is generally expressed by the real root of the equation . If , by altering the adjustments of the machine , its governing power is continually increased , there is generally a limit at which the disturbance , instead of subsiding more rapidly , becomes an oscillating and jerking motion , increasing in violence till it reaches the limit of action of the governor . This takes place when the possible part of one of the impossible roots becomes positive . The mathematical investigation of the motion may be rendered practically useful by pointing out the remedy for these disturbances . This has been actually done in the case of a governor constructed by Mir . Fleeming Jenkin , with adjustments , by which the regulating power of the governor could be altered . By altering these adjustments the regulation could be made more and more rapid , till at last a dancing motion of the governor , accompanied with a jerking motion of the main shaft , showed that an alteration had taken place among the impossible roots of the equation . I shall consider three kinds of governors , corresponding to the three kinds of moderators already referred to . In the first kind , the centrifugal piece hos a constant distance from the axis of motion , but its pressure on a surface on which it rubs varies when the velocity varies . In the moderator this friction is itself the retarding force . In the governzor this surface is made moveable about the axis , and the friction tends to move it ; and this motion is made to act on a break to retard the machine . A constant force acts on the moveable wheel in the opposite direction to that of the friction , which takes off the break when the friction is less than a given quantity . Mr. Jenkin 's governor is on this principle . It has the advantage that the centrifugal piece does not change its position , and that its pressure is always the same function of the velocity . It has the disadvantage that the normal velocity depends in some degree on the coefficient of sliding friction between two surfaces which cannot be kept always in the same condition . In the second kind of governor , the centrifugal piece is free to move further from the axis , but is restrained by a force the intensity of which varies with the position of the centrifugal piece in such a way that , if the velocity of rotation has the normal value , the centrifugal piece will be in equilibrium in every position . If the velocity is greater or less than the normal velocity , the centrifugal piece will fly out or fall in without any limit except the limits of motion of the piece . But a break is arranged so that it is made more or less powerful according to the distance of the centrifugal piece from the axis , and thus the oscillations of the centrifilgal piece are restrained within narrow limits . 272 [ Mar. 5 , Governors have been constructed on this principle by Sir W. Thomson and by 1[ . Foucault . In the first , the force restraining the centrifugal piece is that of a spring acting between a point of the centrifugal piece and a fixed point at a considerable distance , and the break is a friction-break worked by the reaction of the spring on the fixed point . In M. Foucault 's arrangement , the force acting on the centrifugal piece is the weight of the balls acting downward , and an upward force produced by weights acting on a combination of levers and tending to raise the balls . The resultant vertical force on the balls is proportional to their depth below the centre of motion , which ensures a constant normal velocity . The break is : in the first place , the variable friction between the combination of levers and the ring on the shaft on which the force is made to act ; and , in the second place , a centrifugal air-fan through which more or less air is allowed to pass , according to the position of the levers . Both these causes tend to regulate the velocity according to the same law . The governors designed by the Astronomer Royal on Mr. Siemens 's principle for the chronograph and equatorial of Greenwich Observatory depend on nearly similar conditions . The centrifilgal piece is here a long conical pendulum , not far removed from the vertical , and it is prevented from deviating much from a fixed angle by the driving-force being rendered nearly constant by means of a differential system . The break of the pendulum consists of a fan which dips into a liquid more or less , according to the angle of the pendulum with the vertical . The break of the principal shaft is worked by the differential apparatus ; and the smoothness of motion of the principal shaft is ensured by connecting it with a fly-wheel . In the third kind of governor a liquid is pumped up and thrown out over the sides of a revolving cup . In the governor on this principle , described by Mr. C. W. Siemens , the cup is connected with its axis by a screw and a spring , in such a way that if the axis gets ahead of the cup the cup is lowered and more liquid is pumped up . If this adjustment can be made perfect , the normal velocity of the cup will remain the same through a considerable range of driving-power . It appears from the investigations that the oscillations in the motion must be checked by some force resisting the motion of oscillation . This may be done in some cases by connecting the oscillating body with a body hanging in a viscous liquid , so that the oscillations cause the body to rise and fall in the liquid . To check the variations of motion in a revolving shaft , a vessel filled with viscous liquid may be attached to the shaft . It will have no effect on uniform rotation , but will check periodic alterations of speed . Similar effects are produced by the viscosity of the lubricating matter in the sliding parts of the machine , and by other unavoidable resistances ; so that it is not always necessary to introduce special contrivances to check oscillations . 1868 . ] 273 I shall call all such resistances , if approximately proportional to the velocity , by the name of " viscosity , " whatever be their true origin . In several contrivances a differential system of wheelwork is introduced between the machine and the governor , so that the driving-power acting on the governor is nearly constant . I have pointed out that , under certain conditions , the sudden disturbances of the machine do not act through the differential system on the governor , or vice versa . When these conditions are fulfilled , the equations of motion are not only simple , but the motion itself is not liable to disturbances depending on the mutual action of the machine and the governor . Distinction between Moderators and Governors . In regulators of the first kind , let P be the driving-power and R the resistance , both estimated as if applied to a given axis of the machine . Let dx V be the normal velocity , estimated for the same axis , and dt the actual velocity , and let M be the moment of inertia of the whole machine reduced to the given axis . Let the governor be so arranged as to increase the resistance or diminish the driving-power by a quantity F dt -V , then the equation of motion will be d ( d dxt-P-R F dx _ dt ... ..dt When the machine has obtained its final rate the first term vanishes , and dx P--R dt F ... ... . . ( 2 ) Hence , if P is increased or R diminished , the velocity will be permanently increased . Regulators of this kind , as Mr. Siemens l has observed , should be called moderators rather than governors . In the second kind of regulator , the force F ( -V ) , instead of being applied directly to the machine , is applied to an independent moving piece , B , which continually increases the resistance , or diminishes the drivingpower , by a quantity depending on the whole motion of B. , . If y represents the whole motion of B , the equation of motion of B is B die -F x-V ( 3 dt ( dt dt )* ( 3 ) and that of M/ dX1_1r\ / dv dt ( P-R-F(t+G ... ... ( 4 ) where G is the resistance applied by B when B moves through one unit of space . " 1On Uniform Rotation , " Phil. Trans. 1866 , p. 657 . [ Mar. 5 , 274 We can integrate the first of these equations at once , and we find B=d F(x-Vt ) ; ... ... ... ( 5 ) so that if the governor B has come to rest x=Vt , and not only is the velocity of the machine equal to the normal velocity , but the position of the machine is the same as if no disturbance of the driving-power or resistance had taken place . Jenkin 's Governor . In a governor of this kind , invented by Mr. Fleeming Jenkin , and used in electrical experiments , a centrifugal piece revolves on the principal axis , and is kept always at a constant angle by an appendage which slides on the edge of a loose wheel , B , which works on the same axis . The pressure on the edge of this wheel would be proportional to the square of the velocity ; but a constant portion of this pressure is taken off by a spring which acts on the centrifugal piece . The force acting on B to turn it round is therefore F4dxl Cl and if we remember that the velocity varies within very narrow limits , we may write the expression Fdt where F is a new constant , and VI is the lowest limit of velocity within which the governor will act . Since this force necessarily acts on B in the positive direction , and since it is necessary that the break should be taken off as well as put on , a weight W is applied to B , tending to turn it in the negative direction ; and , for a reason to be afterwards explained , this weight is made to hang in a viscous liquid , so as to bring it to rest quickly . The equation of motion of B may then be written B=F ( -v ) -Y -w. . ( 6 ) dt2\t V dt . where Y is a coefficient depending on the viscosity of the liquid and on other resistances varying with the velocity , and W is the constant weight . Integrating this equation with respect to t , we find B y-F ( x-Vt)-Yy-Wt ... ... . ( 7 ) If B has come to rest , we have ( v +y* ... ... ... ( 8 ) or the position of the machine is affected by that of the governor , but the final velocity is constant , and VI+.=V , ... ... ... ... . ( 9 ) where V is the normal velocity . 1868 . ] 275 The equation of motion of the machine itself is d2x d'v dt2 =P-n)-G ... . . ( 10 ) This must be combined with equation ( 7 ) to determine the motion of the whole apparatus . The solution is of the form =A enlt A2e A3el+3t ... . . ( 11 ) where n , , n2 , are the roots of the cubic equation MBn3+ ( MY FB)n2 +FYn +FG= 0 . ( 12 ) If n be a pair of roots of this equation of the form a+ / 1 b , then the part of x corresponding to these roots will be of the form eat cos ( bt +3 ) . If a is a negative quantity , this will indicate an oscillation the amplitude of which continually decreases . If a is zero , the amplitude will remain constant , and if a is positive , the amplitude will continually increase . One root of the equation ( 12 ) is evidently a real negative quantity . The condition that the real part of the other roots should be negative is ( F Y\Y Gu ( ]s--B=a positive quantity . This is the condition of stability of the motion . If it is not fulfilled there will be a dancing motion of the governor , which will increase till it is as great as the limits of motion of the governor . To ensure this stability , the value of Y must be made sufficiently great , as compared with G , by placing the weight W in a viscous liquid if the viscosity of the lubricating materials at the axle is not sufficient . To determine the value of F , put the break out of gear , and fix the moveable wheel ; then , if V and V ' be the velocities when the driving-power is P and P ' , P-P ' F= . V-V ' To determine G , let the governor act , and let y and y ' be the positions of the break when the driving-power is P and P ' , then P-P , y-y General Theo ry of Chrooneoetric Centrifugal Pieces . Sir I. Thomnson 's and 1i . Foucault 's Governors.-Let A be the moment of inertia of a revolving apparatus , and 0 the angle of revolution . The equation of motion is cl(A~0 ) L , ... ... .* ( 1 ) where L is the moment of the applied force round the axis . 276 [ Mar. 5 , Now , let A be a function of another variable 0 ( the divergence of the centrifugal piece ) , and let the kinetic energy of the whole be 1 A-2 IB22 'dtl 2 Ddt ) where B may also be a function of % , if the centrifugal piece is complex . If we also assume that P , the potential energy of the apparatus , is a function of p , then the force tending to diminish Q , arising from the action cdP of gravity , springs , &c. , will be dThe whole energy , kinetic and potential , is IA Fi -2 4B + =f.O ... ... ( 2 ) Differentiating with respect to t , we find do ( 10o a~ ~ . A IdA ' ( 3 ) d(hl dA . CIO I dB ? 1270 lpX A1 d20 Ed Pd ? dt 2 Wo dt| 2c dt doJ T clt dPt dt dt2 l ( 3 dt dt ( dq , dt dt / ' whence we have , by eliminating L , ( dq ) 1I d1 dB d ( 4dP 'dt[ 'dt)~~~~d^ ~d '2^ ' ~t\ ~~dj > ' ( 4 ) d-t Wtj =2 a~ at -4 . The first two terms on the right-hand side indicate a force tending to increase ( , depending on the squares of the velocities of the main shaft and of the centrifugal piece . The force indicated by these terms may be called the centrifugal force . If the apparatus is so arranged that P=A2 + const . , ... . ( 5 ) where w is a constant velocity , the equation becomes d( d+\ d_ da_2 2A 1d ( 6 ) dt dt t ) 2 do dtt 1 ) J2 dt\ ... . . ( 6t In this case the value of q cannot remain constant unless the angular velocity is equal to o. A shaft with a centrifugal piece arranged on this principle has only one velocity of rotation without disturbance . If there be a small disturbance , the equations for the disturbances 0 and ? may be written dt2 + dt '. . ( 7 ) Bd dA dO ( 8 ) The period d dt dA The period of such small disturbances is do ( AB)-i revolutions of the 1868 . ] 277 shaft . They will neither increase nor diminish if there are no other terms in the equations . To convert this apparatus into a governor , let us assume viscosities X and Y in the motions of the main shaft and the centrifugal piece , and a dA resistance Go applied to the main shaft . Putting w=K , the equations become A d20 dO K dp + dt +X dtK +Gd L ... ... . ( 9 ) dt2 dt dt =0.(10 ) The condition of stability of the motion indicated by these equations is that all the possible roots , or parts of roots , of the cubic equation AB + ( AY+BX)Z+ ( XY + K ) + GK= ... . ( 11 ) shall be negative ; and this condition is ( +j ) ( XY+ K2 ) > GK ... ... . ( 12 ) ( X Y ? ) ( XY ? K32 ) > GI.(12 ) Combination of Governors.-If the break of Thomson 's governor is applied to a moveable wheel , as in Jenkin 's governor , and if this wheel works a steam-valve , or a more powerful break , we have to consider the motion of three pieces . Without entering into the calculation of the general equations of motion of these pieces , we may confine ourselves to the case of small disturbances , and write the equations d20 do + dq A ~t++X~ K +Tq+JJ , =P-R , B ! 8 ! Y 1K =0 , ( 13 ) dt2 dt dt Bd-+Y--Kd = , ( 3 ) dt2+ JZd T o , where 0 , ( , / are the angles of disturbance of the main shaft , the centrifugal arm , and the moveable wheel respectively , A , B , C their moments of inertia , X , Y , Z the viscosity of their connexions , K is what was formerly denoted by d , a and T and J are the powers of Thomson 's and Jenkin 's breaks respectively . The resulting equation in n is of the form An2 +Xn Kn +T J -K Bn +Y 0 =0 , . ( 14 ) 0 -T Cn2 +Zn or , x 4 Z+ ( +B )]n +4 n K++ K-+Z T.+ . ( 1 5 ) ABC+ / XYZ + KTC + KZ KTZ KTJ +n 2 1ABBC +nBC + 0BC J 278 [ Mar. 5 , I have not succeeded in determining completely the conditions of stability of the motion from this equation ; but I have found two necessary conditions , which are in fact the conditions of stability of the two governors taken separately . If we write the equation n5+pn4-qn3+rn2+sn+t , ... ... ( 16 ) then , in order that the possible parts of all the roots shall be negative , it is necessary that q > r and ps > t * ... ... ( 17 ) I am not able to show that these conditions are sufficient . This compound governor has been constructed and used . On the Motion of a Liquid in a Tube revolving about a Vertical Axis . Mr. C. W. Siemens 's Liquid Governor.-Let p be the density of the fluid , k the section of the tube at a point whose distance from the origin measured along the tube is s , r , 0 , z the coordinates of this point referred to axes fixed with respect to the tube , Q the volume of liquid which passes through any section in unit of time . Also let the following integrals , taken over the whole tube , be fpkr2ds=A , fp ? 2dO-B , p-ds=C , ... . . ( ) the lower end of the tube being in the axis of motion . Let q be the angle of position of the tube about the vertical axis , then the moment of momentum of the liquid in the tube is H=A d+B..Q ... ... ( 2 ) The moment of momentum of the liquid thrown out of the tube in unit of time is dH ' or dW2Qd_p+rZQ2 ? . ( 3 ) dH =PQ + Q+pQCos a , ... ... ( 3 ) where r is the radius at the orifice , k its section , and a the angle between the direction of the tube there and the direction of motion . The energy of motion of the fluid in the tube is W=I A+ BQ+ q ... ... . ( 4 ) The energy of the fluid which escapes in unit of time is t-gQa+(h^Z)+_pr2Q rp cs Qt+ Q3. . ( 5 ) The work done by the prime mover in turning the shaft in unit of time is Ld_ / d fd dHI'\ dt dt\ dt+ dt ** ... ( 6 ) The work spent on the liquid in unit of time is dW dW ' ~dt dt ' 1868 . ] 279 Equating this to the work done , we obtain the equations of motion d2+ dQ dt Ad +B-et Q++P kcos aQ2 L ... ... ( 7 ) -dt2 +t Q2+ )-C P l=o0 . ( 8 ) These equations apply to a tube of given section throughout . If the fluid is in open channels , the values of A and C will depend on the depth to which the channels are filled at each point , and that of k will depend on the depth at the overflow . In the governor described by Mr. C. W. Siemens in the paper already referred to , the discharge is practically limited by the depth of the fluid at the brim of the cup . The resultant force at the brim isf= V/ g ' + 2 ' . If the brim is perfectly horizontal , the overflow will be proportional to ax ( where x is the depth at the brim ) , and the mean square of the velocity relative to the brim will be proportional to x , or to QS . If the breadth of overflow at the surface is proportional to xZ , where x is the height above the lowest point of overflow , then Q will vary as xa+ " , and the mean square of the velocity of overflow relative to the cup as x or as 1I If n= -- , then the overflow and the mean square of the velocity are both proportional to x. From the second equation we find for the mean square of velocity =_ 2( dt dt2* the spring which determines S is also arranged so that Q1 =2-^.2.Q , ... ... . . * ( 14 ) the equation will become , if 2y-=( r2 , 0-r2(t-- ) )+ r dt )*d* ) ( 15 ) which shows that the velocity of rotation and of overflow cannot be constant unless the velocity of rotation is w. The condition about the overflow is probably difficult to obtain accurately in practice ; but very good results have been obtained within a considerable range of driving-power by a proper adjustment of the spring . If the rim is uniform , there will be a maximum velocity for a certain drivingpower . This seems to be verified by the results given at p. 667 of Mr. Siemens 's paper . If the flow of the fluid were limited by a hole , there would be a minimum velocity instead of a maximum . The differential equation which determines the nature of small disturbances is in general of the fourth order , but may be reduced to the third by a proper choice of the value of the mean overflow . Theory of Differential Gearing . In some contrivances the main shaft is connected with the governor by a wheel or system of wheels which are capable of rotation round an axis , which is itself also capable of rotation about the axis of the main shaft . These two axes may be at right angles , as in the ordinary system of differential bevel wheels ; or they may be parallel , as in several contrivances adapted to clockwork . Let 4 and 7 represent the angular position about each of these axes respectively , 0 that of the main shaft , and f that of the governor ; then 0 and q are linear functions of 4 and -q , and the motion of any point of the system can be expressed in terms either of 4 and r or of 0 and p. Let the velocity of a particle whose mass is m resolved in the direction of xbe dx d4 do dt dt ... . with similar expressions for the other coordinate directions , putting suffixes 2 and 3 to denote the values of p and q for these directions . Then Lagrange 's equation of motion becomes z , a--I d2--xm+ g ay+ d2 =0. . ( 2 ) where X and H are the forces tending to increase $ and n respectively , no force being supposed to be applied at any other point . Now putting Sx=P 4+ q ... ... ( 3 ) and d2X d24 d , -P1dt+q^ the equation becomes ( as-2 4d smp2 ? )^ ( :gmq2d2rf= ; ( 5 ) ( m2d 4--2mp 2 dt2 WP r(H-9mS2dt2 Wdt2 ) and since 8 and br are independent , the coefficient of each must be zero . If we now put z(mp2 ) =L , 2(mpq)=M , Z(mq2)=N,. . ( 6 ) where jP2=P1 P2+ p22 ' p2q=P1q +2 , q2 p+23 , and q2=q2 + q22+ q2 the equations of motion will be d245 d"2 ( =Ldt+M , ... ..(7 ) H =M CP4 +N d2r2 H-Md8dt)+N ... ... ( 8 ) If the apparatus is so arranged that M=0 , then the two motions will be independent of each other ; and the motions indicated by X and X will be about conjugate axes-that is , about axes such that the rotation round one of them does not tend to produce a force about the other . Now let 0 be the driving-power of the shaft on the differential system , and < 4 that of the differential system on the governor ; then the equation of motion becomes 0e0++ ( -L d2-Md + +(H-g-Ndg2 0 ; ( 9 ) and if 4.=P0.+..(10 ) q=R 0+S B , and if we put L ' =LP + 2MPR +NR2 , M'=LPQ+M(PS +QR)+NRS , ... ( 11 ) N'=LQ2 + 2MQS + NS , the equations of motion in 0 and 0 will be o+ P+ QH=L ' d2 +M ' d)1 dt2 dt2 qE + RSH=-M ' do + N ' d " . ? J dt2 dt- ' J If M'=-0 , then the motions in 0 and p will be independent of each other . If M is also 0 , then we have the relation LPQ+NRS=O ; ... . ( 13 ) and if this is fulfilled , the disturbances of the motion in 0 will have no effect on the motion in rp . The teeth of the differential system in gear with the main shaft and the governor respectively will then correspond to the centres of percussion and rotation of a simple body , and this relation will be mutual . 282 [ Mar. 5 , In such differential systems a constant force , H , sufficient to keep the governor in a proper state of efficiency , is applied to the axis ? q , and the motion of this axis is made to work a valve or a break on the main shaft of the machine . X in this case is merely the friction about the axis of 4 . If the moments of inertia of the different parts of the system are so arranged that M'= 0 , then the disturbance produced by a blow or a jerk on the machine will act instantaneously on the valve , but will not communicate any impulse to the governor .

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Proceedings of the Council of the Royal Society with Reference to the Undertaking of Certain Physical Observations in India

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/112511

Astronomy

Biography

Astronomy

II . " Proceedings of the Council of the Royal Society with reference to the undertaking of certain Physical Observations in India . " Communicated to the Society by direction of the President . On the 13th of February 1866 , J. S. N. Ilennessey , Esq. , First Assistant on the Trigonometrical Survey of India , addressed a letter to the President , in which , after explaining the nature of the calls upon his time occasioned by his professional duties , he offered to devote any portion of his leisure to such scientific experiments as the President might direct . He stated that he was resident at Mussoorie from May to October , residing at Dehra during the remainder of the year , from which place , however , he would be able to visit Mussoorie occasionally . , such as once a week . Mussoorie is a hill-station or town , at an altitude above the sea-level of about 6700 feet , in lat. 30§ 28'N . , and long . 78§ 10 ' E. With reference to the climate of this place he observes , " In September the skies begin to clear , and from September 15 to about December 15 there prevails at Mussoorie a clearness of atmosphere such as I have never known in my wanderings . I mention this period in particular ; but at all times , when the sky is clear of clouds , the intensity of the heavenly bodies is something exquisite . I have seen Venus distinctly at midday with my unaided eye . It is this wonderful transparency of atmosphere to which I would draw particular attention . " This letter was read to the Council on the 28th of June , and was ordered to be printed , and the President was requested to communicate it to such men of science as he might see fit , with the view of obtaining suggestions with reference thereto . The President accordirngly communicated the letter to several scientific men , accompanied by a request that they would favour him with suggestions as to observations which it might seem to them desirable that Mr. Hennessey should be requested to take up . Answers were received during the recess ; and on the 11th of October a Committee was appointed to draw up a report upon Mr. Ilennessey 's letter , giving specific indications as to the observations in meteorology and with the spectroscope which it might be desirable to make . Before the Committee presented their report another subject of great scientific interest presented itself in connexion with India . On the 17th of August in the present year will occur a total solar eclipse of nearly the greatest possible duration . This eclipse will be visible in India , but elsewhere only in parts of the earth which are comparatively unicivilized or difficult of access . The subject was accordingly taken into consideration by the Committee ; and both objects are embraced in their report , which is here appended . " Report of the Conmmittee on Mr. Hennessey 's Letter concernng Astronomical Observations in India . cIn making a selection of subjects to which they suggest that Mr. Ilennessey 's attention might advantageously be directed , the Committee have bornie in mind that that gentleman 's professional duties necessarily occupy the greater part of his time and attention . They have therefore abstained from recommending researches which , though desirable in themselves , would require for their successful prosecution that the observer should devote his maini attention to them , or which , though less laborious , are of such a nature as to admit of being equally well carried on elsewhere . " § 1 . The determination of the order of brightness of the fixed stars by the mnethod of sequences , as described by Sir John Herschel in his Cape Observations , is one for which the extraordinary clearnless of atmosphere described by Mr. Helnnessey offers peculiar advantages , and which , losing absolutely nothing in value by being taken up in a disconnected mianniier , is eminently suitable for leisure hours . It requires the use of a good star map , but no apparatus . The peculiar clearness of atmosphere at Mussooric does not , it is true , extend over a very large part of the year ; but by making observations sometimes in the early part of the night , sometimes towards morning , a large part of the heavens might be brought under scrutiny without inicluding stars too near the horizon to give trustworthy results more especially as favourable nights might occasionally occur at other times of the year . The time at which the comparison of two stars was made should always be noted , in order to render it possible subsequently to make a correction for zenith-distance . " When numerous observations takeen on different occasions have been compared , should any particular star be found to exhibit unusual discrepancies , giving rise to the suspicioIn that it might be a periodic star , such star would nlaturally claim special attentioni , and should be frequently observed in comparison with a few selected stars near it in brightness , with a view to test its periodicity-and in case of colnfirmation to determine the period , and maximum and minimum brightness . " ' § 2 . It would be well if Mr. HIennessey would also watch the zodiacal light , after suniset about the months of April and May , and before sunrise at the opposite time of year , with a view to defining its form and extent , and also noticing anything which may be held to indicate whether it be lenticular or annular . cc A rough spectroscopic observation of the object , if the light be not too feeble to allow of it , might be valuiable , and an examinationi of the light for polarization with a double-image prism . " § 3 . The climate of Mussoorie would make actinometric observations at that place especially interesting . ( On account of the fragility of the well-known instrument invented by Sir John Eerschel , it is proposed to employ the actilnometer of Mr. Hodgkinison . At least two instruments should be provided , which would allow of simultaneous observations at different altitudes being taken when the services of a second observer could be obtained . It seems desirable , as suggested by Mr. iHodgkinison , that an actinometer should be preserved at Kew , to furnish a fixed though arbitrary scale for reference , and that the instruments sent out should be compared before departure with the Kew standard , and their coefficients of reduction to the Kew scale determined . " § 4 . Much attention has recently been bestowed on the atmospheric lines of the solar spectrum ; and it appears to be pretty well established that they are , partly at least , due to absorption by watery vapour . The extreme clearness of atmosphere at M1ussoorie would seem to render this a desirable subject of investigationi at that place , provided a clear view of the sun can be obtained , either at rising or at setting , down to the horizon , or at least to a very low altitude ; and such the Committee are informed is the case . " For this purpose the observer should be provided with a spectroscope of similar power to that with which Fraunhofer 's or Kirchhoff 's excellent map of the spectrum was constructed . It is proposed to take the latter as a basis on which to work , but that the observer should confine his attention , at least in the first instanlce , to the region extending from the extreme red to the line E. The spectrum should first be observed when the sun is high , and compared with Kirchhoff 's map . Should any lines represented in the map not be found , and slhould the want not be due to inferior spectroscopic power , ( which may be judged of by comparing neig , hbouring linies of similar strength with their represenitation in the map , ) such missing lines should be lnoted as linies probably atmospheric included in the map . Then the spectrum should be observed at low altitudes of the sun , and the lines seen in addition to those in the inap measured and drawn . Differential measures referring the additional lines to those represented in the map would be sufficient . Anv remarkable inicrease of breadth of a linle , too great to be accounted for merely as a result of decreasinr illumination , and proved by direct observation , by weakening the light when the sun is high , not to be referable to that cause , should also be noted . The lines in the map which were missed when the sun was high should n1ow he sought for ; for if really atmospheric they would be sure now to come out strotngly , unless indeed they were produced by exceptionlal atmosplheric conditions . The time at which the drawings were madle sliould also be noted , from which the slun 's altitudle could afterwards be calculated if desired ; and the hygrometric condition of the air tat the time , the direction of the wind , the character of the clouds , and any electr ic discharges which might occur should be mentioned . " In this way we should gradually obtain from independent observation a map of the purely terrestrial lines . In the construction of the map much must be left to the discretion of the observer , as the appearance changes rapidly with the varying altitude of the sun . When constructed , the map ought to be repeatedly compared with the object , with a view to determine whether the system of atmospheric lines be single , or consist of two or more systems superposed . Should two gases possessing the power of definite absorption be present , as it is not likely that they would occur in the same proportion on different occasions , and under different conditions of weather , the complex character of the atmospheric system , if it be complex , would thus probably be in time revealed . The map should also be compared with the mtiap drawrn by Sir David Brewster and Dr. Gladstone , from observations made in Englanid and Scotland ( Philosophical Transactions for 1860 ) . 5 . In connexion with the offer made by Mr. HIennessey , the Committee have had under their consideration the subject of the total solar eclipse of riext year , which will be visible in India . As it will be long before equal facilities for observing the phenomnena of the totality recur , it seems desirable not to lose this opportunity of making some physical observations on the phenomenon , which at the present time are of great interest . Above all , the character of the spectrum of the red protuberances may be expected to throw great light on their nature ; and it is therefore important to be prepared with an instrument for observing their spectrum , and that of the corona . It is also important that fresh observations should be made on the polarization of the light of these objects . " In order that a sufficient apparent breadth may be given to the red protuberances to permit of the convenient observation of any lines by which their spectrum may be crossed , it is necessary to use a tolerably high magnifying-power ; and in order that this may be done with the least possible loss of light , a corresponding aperture is required in the telescope to be employed . M'iessrs . Cooke and Sons have on hand a fne telescope of 5 inches aperture , mounted as a portable equatorial , furnihsled with clock movement , which iucy be obtained for a moderate sum ; and the Committee recommend that this instrument be puirchased , with such part of the inounting as is required for the observations contemplated , and be provided with a star-spectroecope . They understand that Lieutenant Herschel , who is now in this country , and is going out to India in the course of a few moniths , would be willing to undertake the observations , subject to the approval of Colonel Walker , the Director of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India . But as clouds might interfere with the observations by the large instrtumenit at the critical moment , the Comumittee think it desirable that three or four direct spectroscopes , by which the general character of the spectrum might be observed , should be entrusted to ColoInel Walker to be placed in the hands of observers at different stations . " The observation of the polarization would also require the use of a telescope , which , however , may be of much smaller size , such as 2 inlches aperture , and will therefore be comparatively inexpensive . " The Committee estimate that the whole cost of the inistruments they have recommended , for the use both of AMr . I-lennessey and of those gentlemen who mayuidertake the observations of the eclipse , will be under ? 300 . " This Report was presented to the Council on the 20th of June , 1867 . The Council aclopted the report and requested the Committee to take the requisite steps for carrying , oult their recommendations . They further resolved that application be made to the Government-grant Committee for a sum of not exceeding ? 300 to defray the expenses , and that the Treasurer be authorized to make such advances within that sum as might in the meantime be required to enable the Committee to proceed with the work . Mr. Huggins kindly undertook to superinitelnd the colnstruction of the instriuments , and to give instruction in the use of the star-spectroscope to the observer who might be selected to observe the spectrum of the red protuber'ances ; and it is mainly owing to Mr. I-lugginis 's zeal in the cause that the instruments have all been got ready within the limited time allowed . The following instructions were drawn up for the guidance of the observers who might be en-trusted with the observations which it was intended to make on the occasion of the total solar eclipse:_ Instrutctions respecting certain observations to be nacle in India on the occasion of the Total Solar Eclipse of 1868 , by mneains of Instrutments sent out by the Royal Society . " ? I. Special Olbects of the Observations proposed to be made . According to modern opinion , the photospbere of the sun consists of a shell of liquid or solid particles , conistantly forming by condensation in the outer layers of the intensely heated gaseous matter of the sun . When nearly the whole of the light from the solar photosphere is screened off by the moon during a total solar eclipse , two other , feebler sources of light without the sun1R 's photosphere usually show themselves . Olle of these is in the form of an irregularly bright halo suirrouinding the sun , and is known as the Corona . The other source of light usually presents itself as small tonguie-slhaped flamiies more or less coloured , wihich apparently issue forth from the solalr photosphere . " C The special object of the observationis suggested is to determine , as far as may be possible , the physical niature of the ' Corona ' and of the 'Reclames . ' " To obtain this informationi it is proposed to analyze the light from . these sources for polarizationi , and especially to observe its prismatic spectrutm in both cases . 2D " If these objects are visible by reflecting to us the light of the photosphere , their spectra would be idenitical , or nearly so , with the normal solar spectrum . If , however , either the 'corona ' or the ' red flames ' are selfluminous . a supposition which appears not improbable in the case of the red flames , some informationi as to their co01stitution may be expected to be given to us by the prism . " ? II . Descrziption oJfInstruments sent out by the Royal Society . " The telescope provided for the spectrum-observations has any objectglass of five inches aperture . The telescope is mounted on a portable equatorial stand , with circles for declinationi and R. A. , divided on silver . The stand can be adjusted to any latitude ; and the whole instrumenit packs inlto three boxes for convenience in travelling . " The telescope has a very perfect driving-clock , the rate of which is maintained uniform by means of a form of p)endulum governor recenltly invented by Mr. Cooke , by whom the whole instrument has been specially constructed for these observationis . A Barlow lens is fitted to the telescope for the purpose of increasing the size of the image formed by the object-glass . The finder is wired in a special manner , and has a diagonal eyepiece for convenience in looking from it to the small telescope of the spectrum-apparatus attached to the equatorial telescope . " The spectroscope , constructed by Messrs. Simms , has one prism of dense flint glass , with a reflecting angle of 60 ? . The instruimenit is furnished with a micrometer-screw for measuring the position in the spectrum of any lines observed . There is also provided a photographed scale illuminated by a small lamp , which can be seen . by reflectioni from the second surface of the prism . The positionis of lines in the spectra observed can be read by ineans of the reflected image of the divisions of this scale . " The slit of the instrument is so constructed that both jaws open equally . A cylindrical lens is provided for the observationl of stellar spectra . The instrument is furniished with a prism and mirror , by means of which the spectra of terrestrial flames can be compared directly with the spectra of the objects to which the telescope is directed . " Four portable hand spectrurm-telescopes are provided , by means of which it will be possible to determinie the general character of the spectra of the lights seen about the stuni at the time of the eclipse . " For the purpose of anialyzing the light of the 'corona ' and 'red flames ' for polarization , a seconid telescope has been procured , of three incehes aperture . This instrument has altitude and azimuth motions on a portable tripod stand . It is furnishied with three eyepieces , magnifying 27 , 41 , and 98 diameters . By a suitable arrangement of adapters , either of the following analyzers can instantly be used either in connexion with eyepiece 27 diameters or eyepiece 41 diameters . " The first analyzer consists of a double-image prism , and a plate of quiartz cut perpendicularly to the axis . When polarized light is pieseiut in the object viewed , both images become strongly coloured with complementary tints . " The second analyzer is formed of a Nicol 's prism and as stem of quartz cut obliquely , known as Savart 's polariscope . " It is almost certain that the light from the objects will be polarized in a plane passing through the radius of the sun , if at till ; and arranigements may be made accordingly . Nevertheless , if time permits , are ough determination of the plane of polarization , in case the light should prove to be more or less polarized , would be desirable . The plane may be determined roughly by the first analyzer by noticing the azimuth of the analyzer when either image ( specifyig which ) assumes the 'tint of passage ' ( a purple in which blue and red are equally balanced ) , more accurately by the second , by observing the azimuth at which the bands disappear , and stating whether on turning in a given direction from this Fosition the bands seen are black-centred or white-cenitred , or , which is better , wheln the polarization is but slight , by observing the azimuth at which the bands are most vivid , and stating the character ( black or white ) of the cenitral band . " ? III . Instructions as to the general mnethod of the observations to be made . " i. In order that the observer may acquire the niecessary familiarity with the use of the spectroscope , it is recomnm-iended that he apply himself as far as his other engagements may permit , during the time after his arrival in India until the period of the eclipse , to a prismatic examination of the brightest of the Southerni Nebule . " The instruments sent out by the Royal Society are in every respect suitable and convenient for these observations . The determination of the character of the spectra of the more brilliant of the Southern Nebulme would be a service for science of very great value . " It is recommenlded that the observer provide himself with a list of , say , from fifty to a hundred of the brightest of the Nebulae the distanice of which from the north pole prevents an advantageous study of them in the latitude of En , gland . From this list the observer would select each night the Nebulae which , at the time of observation , were situated near the rmeridian . The equatorial mouniting , with its finely divided circles , would make the finding of the Nebulme a task of no difficuLlty . " The observer should first make a diagram and general description of the nebula as it appears in the telescope . The object should next be examined with the spectroscope added to the telescope . The telescope should then be moved so as to bring in succession upon the slit the different parts of the nebula . The wire arranged for that purpose in the finder would enable the observer to determine with accuracy the part of the nebula under examiniation . " At the commencement of the observation the slit shotuld be widely open , and the observer should then make it as narrow as the light of the object would permit . In this way the character of the spectrum of each portion of the nebula could be recorded in connexion with the description of its appearanice which had been already made . If the spectrum should be discontinuous , the positions of the bright lines should be measured by the micrometer-screw , or by the reflected scale . It is recommended that the screw should be used in preference to the scale whenever it is found practicable to do so . " For the purpose of obtaining the value of the micrometer-screw and of the scale , measures should be frequently taken of the principal lines of Fraunhofer . These measures should be taken as near the time when the observations are to be made as possible . As a precaution against any accidental displacemeent of any part of the instrument , at the timie of observing the nebulae , a reading should be takeni of the sodium line ( D of Fraunhofer ) by means of a small alcohol lamp placed before the objectglass of the telescope . " A series of observations of the prinicipal Southern Nebulm would be of very great value in the present state of our knowledge , and would certainly repay the entire cost of the instru-ment , should bad weather , or some unforeseen accident render the primary object , the investigation of the sun , inmpossible . " The observer should also practise himself with observing the spectrum of the moon , and of a cloud brightly illuminated by the moon , in order to become familiar with the appearance of spectra which are continuous , except so far as they may be interrupted by dark lines , and which come from objects rather deficient in illumination . " i. InstrLuctions for the spectrum-observations of the eclipse . " The equatorial telescope should be previously put up accurately in position , within a suitable temporary hut or observatory . The clockworkl is to be adjusted to sun 's apparent motion . The Barlow lens is to be employed , and placed within the focus at a distanee sufficient to double , or nearly so , the diameter of the sun 's image . " C Great care must be taken that the finder is in perfect adjustment , so that the spectrum of any object brouight upon the point of the indicating wire may with certainty be visible when the eye is placed to the little telescope of the spectrum-apparatus . " It will be well for the observer to decide previously whether he intends to make use of the mnicrometer > screw , or of the illulminated scale . Still he is requested to have the small lamp lighted , and both methods of measuiring in proper order , so that either couLld be available instantly during the duration of the totality . " During the progress of the eclipse , both.a before and after the totality , the observer is to take measures of the lines of Fratunhofer , with the micrometer , and also with the scale . " The measures obtained of the eclipse , and which heave been made in the interval betweein the two sets of observationis of the solar linies , can thus be referred to them , and the positionis on the spectrum of the lines accurately determined relatively to the lines of Fraunhofer . " The finder is provided with a diagonial eyepiece , over which a wedge of dark glass is made to slide . " The observer is expected to watch the progress of the eclipse in the finder , moving the wedge of glass as the light of the suni dlimiinislhes . " As soon as he perceives a 'red prominence , ' by meanis of the very efficient arrangements provided in the instrument , he is to bring the red prominence upon the point of the indicating wire . The observer will then see the spectrum of the ' red flame ' . in the little telescope of the spectroscope . " At the commencement of the observations the lowest eyepiece should be used , and the slit should not be too narrow . The observer is first to record the general character of the spectrum , whether conitinuous or discontinuous . " Then the principal lines , whether dark or bright , are to be measured with as much care as the very limited time will permit . " As the spectrum of the red prominenice is compound , and contains the spectrum of the light of the portioni of corona before it ( possibly also to some extent of the coronia behinid it ) , suifficient time must be left to move the instrument so as to bring upon the slit a part of the corona where it is brightest . " The character of the spectrumn must be in . a similar manner exam.ined , and any linies present measured . " Of course , if there should be found time to do so , it would be desirable that several red prominences should be examined , and also light from different parts of the corona . The observer , however , is stron , gly recommended to make as complete an anialysis as possible of the 'red flame ' first selected . " The observer is requested to selnd in full all the details of the observations as they were taken down at the time . A Clerk will be required to write downl the results at the moment from the dictation of the observel . " iii . The use of the portable hand spectrum-telescopes will be obvious . The observer h-ias only to direct the instrument to the sun at the moment of totality . The instrum'ient should be previously focused to suit the observer , upon the inoon or some distalnt object . The light of the corona and red flames will be dispersed inito its component colours . It will be easily detected whether the spectra of the corona and of the red flames are continuous , or consist of bright lines . The four instruments should be placed in the hands of observers stationled at different places along , or nearly alon- , the central line of the eclipse . " iv . Observations for polarized li ght in the corona and 'red flarmes . ' " A distinct ob)server is required for these observations . I'le shotuld be familiar with the telescope and its motions . " A small observing-hut , or temporary place of shelter , would be probably necessary . It is recommenided that the eyepiece magnifying twenty-seven diameters be used . " The observer should fix upon the eye-end of the telescope a disk of cardboard some 12 or 15 inches diameter , which , near the edge , may be roughly divided by a few large figures , which cani be easily read in the feeble light which prevails dtiring the totality . To the small tubes carrying the analyzing prisms a lonu index of card should be attached . In this way the plane of polarization may be read off notwithstanding the feebleness of the light . " With a dark glass the observer is to watch the progress of the eclipse until the whole of the sun is obscured . The dark glass is then to be removed , and the corona and red flames observed for traces of polarized light . " There are two analyzers provided . " The observer is to use first the double-image prism and plate of quartz . A slight degree of polarization will show itself by a differenice of colour in the two images . " An attempt slhould then be made to determine approximately the plane in which the light is polarized . " If polarization is detected in the 'corona , ' or in any prominence of large extent , the second analyzer may probably be employed with advantage . This consists of a Nicol 's prism and a compound plate of quartz , showing Savart 's bands . By means of these bainds , the plane of polarization of the light analyzed may be easily obtained . " The observation of the spectra of the coronia and red protuberances being one of considerable delicacy , it was highly desirable that the observer should have some previous trairling in this country , while , on the other hand , to send such an observer on purpose would involve considerable expenise . It fortunately happened that Lieut. J. I-Ierschel was at the time in this counitry , and was about to return to India in November 1867 , to resume his duties in colnnexion with the great Trigonometrical Survey of that counitry . Mr. LHerscliel took a livelv initerest in the subject , and at once , on being applied to , undertook the observations which were to be made with the large telescope fturnished with the spectroscope , subject to the approval of Colonel 'Walker , Director of the Survey . This approval was readily given , as will appear from the following letter : Colonel Walker to General Sabine , August 17th . " IDebra Done , vi.a Bombay , :17th Angust , 1867 . " MY DEAR SIR , -I have to acknlowledge your letter of the 30th June , forwaarding a copy of the Report of the Comm-ittee appointed by the Presidenit and Counicil of the Royal Society , to take into consideration Mr. HTennessey 's letter of the 13th February , 1866 . " learn with satisfaction that the President and Council have deecded on purehasing a telescope equatorially mounted , and furnished with clockmovement and a star spectroscope , to be employed in a close examination of the physical phenomena which may be observable during the solar eclipse of next year also that other instruments are to be provided , to enable Mr. Helnnessey to undertake the researches which he is willing to devote himself to in hiis brief intervals of leisure from the professional duties which necessarily occupy the greater part of his time and attention . " I am glad to find that my assistant , Lieuternant I-erschel , has placed him.self in communication with the Committee , and will receive the fullest instruction as to the employment of the itnstruments . " It will be a pleasure to me to do all in my power to carry out your wishes . I expect little or no difficulty in the practical arrangements regardiD g the eclipse ; for it will fortunatelv happen during the recess season , when our officers can be more easily spared from their professional duties than at any other time of the year . " I remaini , with sincere regard , faitlifully yours , ( Sigtned ) " J. C. WALKER . " The instruments , both those for Mr. I-Iennessey and those inteinded to be used on the occasion of the total solar eclipse , were ready in time to be senit out under the care of AMr . Herschel ; and the following letter to the Secretary , recently received from him , announces their safe arrival : " K Bangalore , Jan. 23rd , 1868 . " DEAR SIR , -I fear I have hardly donie right in delaying so long to inform you of the safe arrival of the instruime nts entrusted to me by the Rloyal Society . " My present occupations absolutely forbid my elndeavouring to enter into details ; and it is only from a strong feeling that at least so much shotuld be said that I sit down to write at all , at a time when scarcely a moment is my own . " I have made myself tolerably familiar with the equatorial and spectroscope , and with the appearance of solar , lunar , and stellar spectra , and on one or two occasionis have attempted to obtain a view of a niebular spectr-um-with tolerable success I believe ; but hitherto , whatever time and opportunity , and , I may add , energy , have been available , have been devoted to preliminary examinationi and manipulation rather than actual ernployment of the instrumental means . In some respects this has beenl very necessary , as the parts , never having been employed together , were not at first capable of being connected , &c. The next two months will be fully occupied by the work in which I am now taking a part the measurement of a Base-linie ; and I cannot devote more than an occasionial half hour to the employment of the Society 's instri ments . " After that , however , I shall have more leisure ; and havingo full permission to regard the eclipse-observations as a principal subject of attention , I shall have nlo excuse for not prosecutino preliminary arrangeinents , and for not forwarding fuller information of my success or otherwise . 11 I am , Sir , yours very truly , " 1 J. IIERSCIHEL . "

112512

3701662

Notes on the Chemical Geology of the Gold-Fields of California. [Abstract]

294

299

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. Arthur Phillips

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112512

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112512

Geography

Chemistry 2

Geography

I. " Notes on the Chemical Geology of the Gold-fields of California . " By J. ARTHUR PHILLIPS . ComumLLnicated by Prof. A. C. RAMSAY . Received Februalry 22 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) Roclks of the Gold-Regions of California.-The great sedimentary n1etallic belt of California lies on the westeril slope of the Sierra Nevada , beginning in the neighbourhood of the Trejou Pass , and extending througKh the state to its northern limit . In conisequeence , however , of various local circumstances , different portions of this band are of very uiequal imporltance as gold-producing districts . TIhe slates of the auriferotus belt have been shown by Professor Whitniey to belong , for a great extenit , to the Jtrassic period , although the occurrence of numerous Triassic fossils in the gold-bearing rocks of Plumas County and elsewhere renders it more than probable that no inconside.able portion of the slates in the heart of the gold region are of that age . The rock constituting the principal mass of the Sierra Nevada is a granite containing only a small proportion of quanrtz , and in which but one species of felspar ( oligoclas- ) is generally found . Lying between the band of metamorphic slates and the great central mass of granite forming the more elevatel portionis of the chain , ale fournd various crystalline rocks , such as syenites , diorites , and porphyries . Quart Veins.-The matrix or gangue of the auriferous veins of Califorinia is invariably quartz , which is genierally crystalline in its structure , or paritially vitreous and semitransparent . In the majority of cases the quartz constituting an auriferous -veinstone is ribbonied in . such a wav as to form a succession of layers paraliel with the walls of the lode itself ; and some one or more of these laminD are not unfrequently far more productive than all the others . In sorme instances these parallel bands are separated from each other by a thini layer of quartz , slightly differing , either in colour or structuir- , from that forming the sea-i is themselves ; or they may be only distinguished by a differenice of colour of two adjoining mnembers of the series . Ila many cases , however , laminr . of the enclosing slates divide the vein into distinct bands ; aild in such instances it will be observed that the thickness of the interposed frag , ments of slate is sometimes not greater thant that of a sheet of the thinnest paper . Cavities or druses containing crystals of quartz occur in all the auriferous veins of the coun-try ; and a certain amount of crystallization mrlay also not unfrequently be remarked along the lines of junction of the several bands of which a vein is composed . In addition to ordinary quartz , in a more or less crystalline form , amorphous hydrated silica , or semiopal , and chalcedony are occasionally mllet with : in some instances the opal is interfoliated between layers of true quartz , and is sufficiently auriferous to repay the expenses of treatmenit . The metallic minerals eiiclosed in the gan:gue of auriferous veins are ordinary iron pyrites , blende , and galena , and , less frequenitly , arsenical pyrites , magnetic and copper pyrites , and cinlnabar . These sulphides invariably contain gold ; and veins in which some one or more of them does not occur , in considerable amounts , are not regularly and lastilngly productive . Near the surface the iron pyrites and other sulphides become decomposed by the action of air and the percolation of meteoric water through the mass , staining the quartz of a red or brown colotur , and leaving the goli in a free state . Under such circumstances numerous cubical moulds of iron pyrites are found in the veinstolie ; and although this mineral has beeni entirely removed by chemical action , the cavities left contain finely divided gold , obviously liberated by the d-ecomposition of pyrites . Beneath the line of natural drainiage of the counitry the sulphides remain unidecomposed ; but if rock containing pyrites be placed in nitric acid the snilphide becomes dissolved , and finely divided , crystalline , or filiform gold will partially occupy the resulting c(avities . In one of the detrital beds in the vicinity of the villago of Volcano in the Ciounty of Amador , and elsewhere , distinictly marked quartz veilns may be observed cutting through the gravel , and evidently formied by the action of water holding silica in solution . Attention has also beenl recenitly directedl to bands of auriferous slate founid in the copper-bearin0 belt west of the main gold-belt of the State and in the foot hills of the Sierra . In this locality the gold , instead of being obtainedl from a well-defined vein , chiefly composed of ordinary quartz , is enclosed in a band of siliceous slaty rock , exteniding north-west and south-east , and dipping in coniformity with the other strata of the district . The number of fluid-cavities conitained in the veinstones of the auriferonus lodes of California is seen under the microscope to be exceedilngly limited ; and in or 1er to obt in sections affording good examples , even of small size , it is necessary to select such bands as may be more than ordiniarily crvs talline , or to operate on thinl fragmuents of crystals sometimes founid lining the initerior of drusy cavities . In the more opaque and generally most auriferous portions of veins , the cavities are numerous but exceedingly snmall , and are often so opaque , apparently relndered so by being internally coated with a lining of clay , that no vacuities can be distinguished . Out of more than fifty sections of veinstone examinied , only some six or seven were found to contain fluid-cavities of sufficient size to admit of any attempt at accurate measurement by means of ordiniary appliances ; but in all cases there appeared to be considerable differences in the relative dimensions of the vacuities and the enclosing cavities , and the temperatures at which they severally became filled were consequenitly ascertained by direct experiment . In every instance they were found to require very different degrees of heat to become full , since in the same specimens some of the vacuities disappeared at 180 ? Fahr. , others filled at temperatures slightly above that of boiling water , whilst many , though much reduced in size , remained perfectly visible at 365 ' Fahr. Alluvial Deposits.-Although a very large amount of the gold annually obtained was no doubt originally derived from auriferous veins , not more than about one-third of the precious metal collected is procured directly from that souirce . The larger proportion of the gold now brought into the market is derived from alluvial diggings , in which it is separated by washing from the clay , sand , and gravel with which it is associated . This gold-bearing drift belongs to at least two distinct geological epochs , both comparatively modern-although the latter period is distinctly separated from the earlier , its materials being chiefly derived from the disintegration and redistribution of the older deposits . In California the more ancient deposits or " deep placers " are referable to a river-system different from that which now exists , flowing at a higher level , and frequentlv nearly at right angles to the direction of the main valleys of the present period . The deep placers are in many localities covered by a thick capping of lava ; and the eruiptive matter covering them often occurs in the form of basaltic columns , beneath which are found the layers of sand , gravel , and boulders with which the gold is associated . The wood which occurs in these gravel-beds is either beautifully silicifieed , or is replaced by iron pyrites . In the more clayey strata of these deposits leaf-beds and impressions of leaves are not unfrequentlv found ; and an examination of these made by Dr. Newberry authorizes the conclusion that the auriferous deposits lving beneath the lava are of tertiary age , and that they probably belong to the later Pliocene epochli Water-worn gold is disseminated throughout the whole mass of these deposits , not , however , with uniformity , but always in greater abundance near the bottom , and more particularly in direct contact with the " bed rock , " which is invariably grooved and worn by the action of water . The materials of which these deep placers are composed are frequently consolidated into a sort of hard concrete , by being firmly bounid together by crystallinie iron pyrites ; and sometimes this cementing material consists either of carboonate of lime or silica . The silica is rarely met with in a crystalline form ; but near Kenebeck Hill a ca-vity , resulting from the junction of several pebbles , was found completely lined with well-defined crystals of quartz . These did not show , under the microscope , the usuial fluidcavities of quartz of the ordinary quartz veins of the country . Where the cementing material of the conglomerate chiefly cornsists of pyrites , the enclosed trunks of trees are usually replaced by that mineral , although , of two pieces of wood lying in close proximity to each other , one may have become silicified , whilst the other is replaced by iron pyrites . The assay of several specimens of the cementing pyrites showed that it invariably contained a certain but very variable amount of gold . In order to ascertain whether this exists in the form of water-worn grains mechanically enclosed within the sulphide , or in the form of spongy , crystalline , and filamentary particles , simiilar to those met with in the pyrites of auriferous veins , various samples were dissolved in nitric acid , and the residues afterwards subjected to microscopical examination . In this way granules of the precious metal , which had evidently been worn by the action of water , were detected , whilst others appeared not to have been subjected to such attrition . Mr. Ulrich states that in the gold-drifts of Australia pyrites is often found replacing roots and driftwood , and that samples have , on assay , yielded from a few pennyweights to several ounces of gold per ton . Hot Springsq.-Hot and boiling springs are exceedingly numerous throughout Californiia ; and considerable accumulations of sulphur , together with evidences of extensive solfatara actionl , are met with in different sections of the State . The most remarkable instance on the Pacific coast of the actual growtb , on a large scale , and at the present time , of mineral veins is probably that afforded by the boiling springs in Steamnboat Valley , about seven miles north-west of the great Comstock silver veirn in the State of Nevada . These springs are situated at a height of about 5000 feet above the level of the sea , at the foot of the eastern declivity of the Sierra Nevada . The rock in this locality presents several straight and parallel fissures , either giving out heated water or simply ejecting steam . The first group of crevices comprises five longitudinial springs extending in a straight line , and parallel to each other , for a distance of above 3000 feet . These fissures are partially filled by a siliceous incrustation , which is being constaiitly deposited on the sides , whilst a lonigitudinial central crevice allows of the escape of boiling water or steam . On the most eastern of these lines of fracture are five active centres of eruption , from which boiling water is sometimes ejected by the force of steam to a height of from 8 to 10 feet . These waters are alkaline , and contain , in acldition to carbonate of soda , the sulphate of that base , together xxith chloride of sodiuim . There is also everywhere an escape of carbonic acid , whilst from some places sulphuretted hydrogen is also evolved . These products , on arriving at the surface , give rise to the depositioni of sulphur , silica , and allhydrous oxide of iron . The silica and oxide of iron form semicrystalline bands parallel with the walls of the fissures ; and spongy deposits accumu-late around some of the points of most active emergence . At a considerable distance to the west of those above described , a fissuire having the same origin is observed ; but this is nio longer traversed by currents of hot water , although it still gives off steanm and carbonic acid at various points throughout its extent . At its northern extremity a cenitral fissure still remains open ; but in other localities it is , for the most part , obstructed by siliceous concretious . This siliceous rock is metalliferous , and , in addition to oxide of iron and maniganese , contains iron and copper py-^ rites . A{ . Laur states that he also discovered metallic gold in this deposit . The rock enclosing the veins of Steamboat springs is granite , which in their vicinity is much decomposed , being often reduced to a cavernous skeleton of silica containing a few scales of mica . Alkcaline Lakes.-Ini that portion of California lying on the east of the Sierra Nevada are Monio Lake and Owen 's Lake , both cornsiderable sheets of water , highly impregnated with alkaline salts . Owen 's Lake lies in lat. 36'20 " south , long . 1180 west from Greenwich , and is about twenty miles in length and eight in width . The waters of this lake have a specific gravity of 1.076 , and contain 7128 24 grs. of solid matter per gallon . The salts held in solution are chiefly carbonate and sulphate of soda , with chloride of sodium ; but potash , silica , and phosphoric acid are also present . The incrustations , which at certaini seasons of the year are found to the extent of many hundreds of tonls , consist of a white sponigy effloresceeice , and are , as will be seen from the results of the analysis given in the paper , chiefly composed of carbonate of soda , mixed with a little chloride of sodiuim and sulphate of soda . General deductions.-The author remarks that , in the present state of our knowledge , theresults of a careful examination of the gold-regions of the Pacific coast would appear to lead to the following conclusionis : v a. Quartz veins have generally been produced by the slow deposition from aqueous solutions of silica on the surfaces of the enclosing fissures . 6 . From the general parallelism with its walls of the planies of any fragments of the enclosing rock which may have become imbedded in a vein , it is to be inferred that they were mechanically removed by the growth of the several layers to which they adhered , and that a subsequent deposition of quartz took place between them and the rock from which they had become detached . In this way were introduced the masses of rock known as " horses.j " e. The formation of quartz veins is due to hydrothermal agencies , of which evidences are still to be founid in the hot springs and recent metalliferous veins met with in various parts of the Pacific coast . d. From the variable temperatures at which the vacuities in their fluidcavities become filled , it may be inferred that they are the result of an intermittent action , and that the fissures were sometimes traversed by currents of hot water , whilst at others they gave off aqueous vapour or gaseous exhalations . This is precisely what is now taking place at Steamboat springs , where the formationi of a veini is in progress , and from which currents of boiling water are often poured forth , whilst at other times the fissures give off currents of steam and heated gases only . e. That gold may be deposited from the same solutions which give rise to the formation of the enclosing quartz , appears evident from the presence of that metal in pyrites enclosed in siliceous incrustations , as well as from the fact of large quantities of gold having been found in the interior of the stems of trees , which in deep diggings are often converted into pyrites . f. The constant presence of iron pyrites in auriferous veins , and when so occurring its invariably containing a certain amount of gold , suggests the probability of this sulphide beingin some way necessarily connected with the solvent by which the precious metal was held in solution . It has been shown that finely divided gold is soluble in the sesquichloride of iron and , more sparingly , in the sesquisulphate of that metal . It is also well known that iron pvrites sometimes results from the action of reducing agents on the sulphates of that metal . If therefore sulphate of iron , in a solution containing gold , should become transformed by the action of a reducing agent into pyrites , the gold , at the same time being reduced to the metallic state , would probably be found enclosed in the resulting crystals of that mineral . g. The silica and other substances forming the cementing material of the ancient auiriferous river-beds have probably been slowly deposited at a low temperature . The connexion existing between the decomposition of granite by the agency of boiling springs , the existence of alkaline plains , and the formationo f lakes containing variouis salts of soda and potash , is too obvious to require comment .

112513

3701662

Third Supplementary Paper on the Calculation of the Numerical Value of Euler's Constant

299

300

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William Shanks

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0058

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112513

10.1098/rspl.1867.0058

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112513

Tables

Formulae

Tables

IL , " Third Supplementary Paper on the Calculationi of the Numerical Value of Euler 's Constant . " By WILLIAM SHANKS . Communicated by the Rev. B. PRICE . Received February 29 , 1868 . When n=5000 , we have 23v* E=-57721 56649 01532 86060 65120 90082 40243 10421 5933.5 93995 35988 05773 14949 71379 78029 07030 ( last term is +Bii 22 . 5002 Comparing the values of E obtained from taking n-500 , 1000 , 2000 ( given in former papers ) , and 5000 ( giveil in this ) , and assuming that the increase in the several values of E obtainable from taking n higher nuLmbers will be nearly constant , we may conjecture that the valtue of the 60th decimal last found in E will be increased I by taking n-5000 . 4 ; the 59th place will be increased 1 by taking n=5000 . 4 " ; in like manner the 58th decimal will be increased 1 by taking n=5000.4100 , and the 57th also I when n=5000 . 41000 . It is certain , however , that when n is very large we may , numerically speaking , express E pretty nearly by Sn-loge n ; and indeed when n becomes infinite , the formula E= Snlogen- , + 2_n 2 . n2 becomes E Snloge n , as giveln by Professor Price in his ' Infinitesimal Calculus . ' In the value of E last found , then , we deem it probable that at least 56 decimals will remain unchanged , whatever high values be given to n.

112514

3701662

Transformation of the Aromatic Monamines into Acids Richer in Carbon.--II. On Menaphthoxylic Acid, the Naphthaline-Term Corresponding to Benzoic Acid

300

306

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

A. W. Hofmann

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0059

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112514

10.1098/rspl.1867.0059

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112514

Chemistry 2

Thermodynamics

Chemistry

I. " Transformationi of the Aromatic Monamines into Acids richer in Carbon.-II . On Menaplithoxylic Acid , the Naphthalineterm correspondingo to Benzoic Acid . " By A. W. HOFMANN , LL. D. , F.R.S. Received Marchl 4 , 1868 . In a paper communicated to the PRoyal Society* about a year ago , I pcinted out the existence of an acid holding to lnaphthaline the same relations which obtain between benzoic acid and the hydrocarbon benzole . I have since prepared this compound on a somewhat larger scale , and I beg now to submit to the Royal Society some of the results which I have obtained in its examination . The material used in preparing the new acid is naphthytlanine , the mon* Proceedings of the Royal Society , vol. xv . p. 335 . amine of the naphthyl series . This substance , preseniting an exclusively scientific interest but a few years ago , is now produced on an industrial scale . It is more especially a beautifully crystallized yellow colouringmatter ( Manchestery ellow ) , the dinitronaphthylic acid , discovered and first employed as a dye by Dr. Martius , which is largely manufactured from naphthylamine . The base occurring in commerce is far from being pure . It is generally met with as a brown fused mass , containing more or less resinous matter and , more particularly , a considerable amount of naphthaline . The purification of the commercial product presents some difficulties ; still tolerable crystals may be obtained by crystallization from petroleum . For the object I had in view it was unnecessary to purify the naphthylanmine of commerce . The base was mixed with powdered oxalic acid in such proportions as to produce the primary oxalate with an excess of free oxalic acid . Four parts of naphthylamine and five parts of crystallized oxalic acid were found to yield very satisfactory results . The operation had to be performed upon rather a large scale . After some trials , a cyanide-ofpotassium pot , provided with a cover and bent tube , proved to be the most convenient apparatus for distilling the mixture . At the commencement of the operation water and naphthaline were evolved ; soon , however , an oily liquid appeared , solidifying on cooling , and consisting , of a mixture of naphthylformamide , naphthyloxamide , oxalate of naphthylamine , naphthylamine , and naphthaline . This distillate was transferred to one of the large twonecked stolie-ware bottles which are used for condensing nitric acid , mixed with concentrated hydrochloric acid , and submitted to the action of a powerful current of steam , care being taken to condense the steam by a spiral surrounded with water . Together with the water large quantities of a darkbrown , almost opaque oil , heavier than water , were thus obtained . For this oil , which a more minute examination proved to be the compound I was endeavouring to prepare , I propose , in accordance with its composition , the name of cyanide of naphthyl . It still contained appreciable quantities of naphthaline . In the main , however , the reaction had taken place exactly in the same manner as in the case of aniline and toluidine , the deportment of which I have described in my previous paper* . In the first place , the primary oxalate of naphthylamine had been converted into naphtylformamide , ( C )'22 +f ( io~ 117 ] 0 1101 H2 2H0N= C0O0H7 N+ H20 + C02 , which , losing one molecule of water , had in the second stage of the operation furnished cyanide of naphthyl , CHO CIO 117 N= CIOH7CN +H 20 . I The purification of the crude product preselnted no difficulty . The oil was separated from the water by ether , and , after the ether ha(d been evaporated , submitted to distillation . Between 218 ? and 220( the therrniometer became stationary ; the fraction distilling at that temperature solidified on cooling , and exhibited the boiling-point , fusing-point , and the other properties of naphthaline . The thermometer then rose rapidly to 2900 , and the whole liquid had distilled before the thermometer reached 3000 . The liquid distilling between 290 ? and 300 ? was of a light-yellow colour , and of a peculiar aromatic odour ; after standing for twenty-four hours in a cold room , it likewise solidified to a crystalline mass . Oni immersion in a frigorific mixture , solidification immnediately took place ; once solidified , the compound no loniger liquefied at the ordinary temperature . The new compound thus obtained is easily soluble in alcohol ; the crystals which on evaporation separate from this soluition are absolutely pure . Oni adding water to the alcoholic solution the body separates as an oil , which after a few momenits solidifies to a confused mass of crystals . These crystals fuse at 3305 ; fused and resolidified , the substance is heavier than water ; its boiling-point is 296 ? ? 5 ( corr . ) . The new compound represents in the naphthyl-series the benzonitrile in the benzoic series . Its composition , as has already been pointed out in the equation exhibiting its formation , is represented by the formula C , l H7 N. On dissolving the nitrile in an alcoholic solution of soda , comparatively little ammoniia is disengaged ; but addition of water to the solution shows at once that the nitrile has undergone transformation . The crystals which are precipitated are far less fusible and soluble than the nitrile . By one or two recrystallizations from boiling alcohol they are obtained in a state of perfect purity . Thus prepared they are fine white iieedles , fusing at 2440 ( corr . ) , and subliming at a high temperature . Analysis has proved these crystals to have the composition C1l H1 NO = C1l 117 N+ i120 , thus showing that they are the amide corresponding to the nitrile , from which they are derived by the accession of 1 molecule of water . I have mentioned that the transformation of the nitrile into the amide is attended by an evolution of ammonia . This evolution is obviously due to the further change of the amide . Assimilating a second molecule of water , this substanice gives rise to the formation of an ammoniumsalt , C02 119NO + H12 == Cil HI N0 2= C0l H7 ( 114 N ) 02 , which in its tuirn is converted into the sodium compound with evolution of ammonia . Indeed , on adding hydrochloric acid to the alkaline solution , an abundant precipitate of a beautifully crystalline acid is obtained , the properties of which strongly resemble those of benzoic acid . It is scarcely necessary to state that the difficultly soluble amide , when submitted to the protracted action of boiling soda , is ultimately entirely converted into the new acid . Of the three substances mentioned , the acid is by far the most interesting , forming as it does the starting-point of a new group of compounds , the number and variety of which can scarcely be inferior to that of benzoic acid . It thus became desirable to prepare the acid on a larger scale . For this purpose it was not necessary to employ the nitrile or the amide in a state of perfect purity . The crude nitrile had simply to be boiled for some time with alcoholic soda , care being taken to conidense the vapours , so as not to lose any nitrile by evaporation . When ammonia was no longer evolved the alcohol was boiled off , and the alkalilne liquid filtered after cooling , whereby small quantities of naphthylamine were separated . The brown liquid , when decomposed by hydrochloric acid , furnished an abundant curdy precipitate , consisting of the new acid . It was washed with cold water and recrystallized partly from boiling water ( in which it is very sparingly soluble ) , partly from hot alcohol ( by which it is copiously dissolved ) . Thus purified , the new acid presents itself in the form of white needles , which fuse at 1600 C. Fused and resolidified , the new compound is heavier than water . When heated beyond its fusing-point the new acid sublimes . The boiling-point is considerably above 300 ? . The acid is nearly inodorous and tasteless ; when heated it feebly evolves the odour of naphthaline ; its vapour , like that of benzoic acid , irritates the respiratory organs . The solutions of this acid have a distinct action upon litmus-paper , and decompose with facility ( more especially on heating ) the alkaline carbonates . In accordance with a principle of nomenclature which I proposed some time ago , I will designate the new acid by the name menaphthoxylic or naphthaline-carboxylic acid . In this case the amide receives the name menaphthoxylamide , the nitrile that of menaphthenylnitrile . I may be permitted briefly to mention some of the observations which , in studying the new compound , I have already been able to collect . It has been stated that the nitrile fixes water with facility . It could not be doubtful that in like mannier it would also combine with sulphuretted hydrogen . Indeed , when dissolved in alcoholic sulphide of ammonium , and exposed for some hours to a temperature of 100 ? , the nitrile absorbs one molecule of hydrosulphuric acid , being converted into a beautifully crystalline body , easily soluble in alcohol , which fuses at 126 ? , and has the composition C01119NS =C 1117N + H12S . This substance is menaphthosulphylamide , corresponding to thiobenzamide , the sulphuretted derivative of benzonitrile discovered by M. Cahours . I have examined menaphthoxylic acid somiewhat in detail . Like benzoic acid , to which it has a strongly marked family resemiblance , it is a monobasic acid . The silver-salt is a white , scarcely crystalline precipitate , nearly insoluble in water , which is obtained when the ammonium-salt is decomposed by nitrate of silver . Its composition is Cil H7 Ag O.2 The bariumand calcium-salts are crystalline compounds , difficultly soluble in water , easily obtained by double decomposition , and purified by crystallization from boiling water . The barium-salt forms white needles which , when dried in vacuo , exhibit the composition C11 H7 Ba"0 ? 2 }+ 4 H2 0 . At 1100 the salt loses its water . The calcium-salt also crystallizes in needles . The analysis of the vacuumdry salt led to the formula c11 1T7 Car ' 02 +2 H2 0 . At 1 100 the salt becomes anhydrous . The copper-salt and the lead-salt are respectively green and white precipitates . Highly characteristic is the deportment of the acid when it is submitted to the action of caustic baryta . Faithful to the traditions of benzoic acid , menaphthoxylic acid splits into carbonic acid and naphthaline , C0 11802 = CHS + CO2 . The naphthaline thus obtained possesses the fusing-point , and the properties in general of the hydrocarbon formed in the distillation of coal . Menaphthoxalate of calcium , when submitted to the action of heat , yields an aromatic distillate which gradually solidifies to a crystalline mass , probably the ketone of the series . Nitric acid gives rise to the formation of a beautiful nitro-acid ; when boiled with very concentrated acid , menaphthoxylic acid is transformed into a difficultly soluble crystalline compound which is no louger acid . Some experimenits on the chloride corresponding to the acid , and some of the derivatives of the chloride , may still be briefly here recorded . On mixing four parts of menaphthoxylic acid ( fused and powdered after solidification ) with five parts of pentachloride of phosphorus , the two compounds begin to act upon each other at the common temperature . The mixture becomes liquid , and disengages , when gently heated , abundant quantities of hydrochloric acid and oxychloride of phosphorus . The boiling-point of the liquid rapidly rises to 3000 What distils between 296 ? and 298 ? is the pure chloride of menaphthoxylic acid , the boiling-point of which is pretty accurately 297 ? ? 5 . Menaphthoxylic chloride is a liquid at the common , a solid at low temperature ; it has the composition Cl , H7 0 CI , and exhibits the deportment of the aromatic chlorides in general . When exposed to the atmosphere it absorbs moisture , being gradually transformed into menaphthoxylic and hydrochloric acids . Addition of water produces this effect instantaneously . In contactwith ammonia the chloride is converted into menaphthoxylamide , with all the properties of the compound genierated by the action of alcoholic soda upon the nitrile . The action of aniline upon the chloride gives rise to the formation of menaphthoxylphenylamide , Cil 11 7O C171113 = 06 1 N. HJ white crystals , insoluble in water , readily soluble in alcohol , easily purified by crystallization . Their fusing-point is 160 ? . When aniline is replaced by naphthylamine , the corresponding naphthylated compound , nzenaphtkoxylnaphthylamide , is produced , C111170 ] C21 H115 NO= C10 7 N , crystalline powder , insoluble in water and benzole , difficultly soluble in alcohol . It fuises at 244 ' ( corr . ) . On treating menaphthoxvlic chloride with absolute alcohol , the ethylether of menaphthoxylic acid is formed , 013 112 2 -flH7O }O , aromatic liquid , insoluble in water , boiling at 309 ? ( corr . ) . I have also prepared the anhydride of menaphthoxylic acid by submitting , according to Gerhardt 's method , the chloride to the action of a menaphthoxylate . For this purpose the calcium-salt , dried at 1100 , was mixed with an equivalent quantity of the chloride , and maintained for some time at 1400 ; it is insoluble in water , difficultly soluble in alcohol , and easily soluble in ether and beuzol . In conclusion , I beg to express my thanks to Mr. Cornelius O'Sullivan for the zealous assistance which he has given me in performing these experiments . Since in my first communication to the Royal Society I pointed out the existence of menaphthoxylic acid , this substance has been produced by another reaction which appears to be more advantageous than the process described in the preceding paper . By distilling a sulpbonaphthylate with cyanide of potassium , M. V. lIerz* has obtained an oil possessing the composition and the properties of the cyanide of naphthyl as obtained by treating naphthylamine with oxalic acid , 017KSO0 + KCN = K2503 ? ? 17 C N. As far as I can judge from the statements published by M. Merz , I con* Zeitschrift fiir Chemie , 1868 , p. 133 . cider the two substances identical . Treated with hydrate of potassium , this nitrile is converted into an acid which M. Merz describes under the name of naphthaline-carboxylic acid . The opinion expressed by this chemist , that his acid might be identical with the one observed by myself , I am inclined to adopt , although there are still some few discrepancies in our observations to be elucidated . M. Merz states that the fusing-point of his acid is at 140 ? , whilst the acid examined by inyself fuises at 1600 . In order to remove , if possible , this discrepancy , I have , since I saw Mi . Merz 's paper , again and repeatedly taken the fusing-point of menaphthoxylic acid , but always with the same result . Possibly the fusingpoint of the acid prepared by means of a sulphonaphthylate may be found somewhat higher when the compound is carefully purified by repeated crystallization from alcohol .

112515

3701662

On the Relation of Form and Dimensions to Weight of Material in the Construction of Iron-Clad Ships. [Abstract]

306

310

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

E. J. Reed

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112515

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112515

Measurement

Tables

Measurement

II . " On the Relation of Form and Dimensions to Weight of Material in the Construction of Iron-clad Ships . " By E. J. REED , Chief Constructor of the Navy . Communicated by Prof. G. G. STOKES , Sec. R.S. Received March 3 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) The object of the Paper is to show that the proportion of length to breadth in a ship , and the form of her water-lines , should be made in a very great degree dependent upon the weight of the material of which her hull is to be constructed-that an armour-plated ship , for example , should be made of very different proportions and form from those of a ship without armour , and that as the extent and thickness of the armour to be carried by a ship are increased the proportions of length to breadth should be diminished , and the water-lines increased in fulness . It is highly desirable that this subject should receive the attention of men of science , not only because it bears most directly upon both the cost and the efficiency of future iron-clad fleets , but also because it opens up a theoretical question which has hitherto , I believe , received absolutely no consideration from scientific writers upon the forms and resistances of ships , viz. the manner in which the weight of the material composing the hull should influence the form . Prior to the design of the 'Bellerophon , ' the forms of ships were determined in complete disregard of this consideration ; and even the most recent works upon the subject incite the naval architect to aim always at approaching the form of least resistance . The investigations given in the Paper show , however , that the adoption of a form of least resistance , or of small comparative resistance , may , in fact , lead to a lavish outlay upon our ships , and to a great sacrifice of efficiency ; while , on the other hand , the adoption of a form of greater resistance would contribute in certain classes of ships to greater economy and to superior efficiency . 306 [ Mar. 19 , In order to indicate clearly , but approximately only , the purpose in view , the author first considers the hypothetical cases of a long and a shorter ship , both of which are prismatic in a vertical sense . The length of the long ship is seven times its breadth , and its horizontal sections consist of two triangles set base to base ; the length of the short ship is five times its breath , the middle portion being parallel for two-fifths of the length , and the ends being wedge-shaped . It is assumed also that at a speed of 14 knots the long ship will give a constant of 600 , and the short ship a constant of 500 in the Admiralty formula , speed 3X mid . section indicated horse-power The draught of water is in each case 25 feet , and the total depth 50 feet . It is taken for granted that the form of the long ship has been found satisfactory for a ship of such scantlings that we may consider her built of iron of a uniform thickness of 6 inches , the top and bottom being weightless . Now , let it be required to design a ship of equal speed , draught of water , and depth , but of such increased scantlings ( whether of hull proper or of armour ) that the weight shall be equivalent to a uniform thickness of 12 inches of iron , the top and bottom being weightless as before . First , the new ship has the proportions of the long ship given to her ; and secondly , those of the shorter ship . In each case the engines are supposed to develope seven times their nominal horse-power , and to weigh ( with boilers , water , &c. ) 1 ton per nominal H.P. The coal-supply in each case equals the weight of the engines , so that both ships will steam the same distance at the same speed . But as the equipment of the smaller ship will be less weighty than that of the larger ship , we will require the larger ship to carry 2000 tons , and the smaller 1500 tons additional weights . Assuming the breadth extreme in each case to be the unknown , we can , from the Admiralty formula given above , deduce an expression for the Indicated Horse-Power ; thence , under the assumed conditions , the weights of engines and coals can be found ; and these being added to the weights of hull ( calculated on the assumption that the sides are of 12-inch iron ) , and to the weights carried , give an expression for the total displacement , in tons , of each ship . Another expression is found for this displacement by finding the weight of water displaced . The two expressions are equated , and a quadratic equation is formed , from which the breadth extreme is determined ; and from it all the other values can be found . The accompanying Table shows the results obtained by this method for the two classes of ships:307 1868 . ] Shorter ship . Length extreme ... ... ... ... . . 581 feet . 342 feet . Breadth ... ... ... ... . . 83 , 68 , , Nominal horse-power ... ... ... . 1350 H.P. 1337 H.P. Indicated ... ... ... ... . 9450 , 9359 , , Weight of hull ... ... ... ... ... 12570 tons . 7576 tons . , , engines ... ... ... ... 1350 , , 1337 , , , coals ... ... ... ... . . 1350 , , 1337 , , , , carried ... ... ... ... 2000 , 1500 , , Total displacement ... ... ... ... 17270 , 11750 , It will therefore be seen that , by adopting the proportions and form of the shorter ship , a ship of the required scantlings and speed will be obtained on a length of 342 feet and a breadth of 681 feet ; whereas if the proportions of the long ship are adopted , the ship , although of the same scantlings and speed only , will require to be 581 feet long and 83 feet broad , the steam-power in both cases being as nearly as possible the same . Considerations of this character , worked out more fully , led the designer of the 'Bellerophon ' to depart so considerably from the form and proportions of the 'Warrior . ' The next part of the investigation is based upon the official reports of the measured mile trials of the 'Minotaur ' and ' Bellerophon ' when fully rigged , and upon calculations made from the drawings of those ships . It is assumed that a prismatic vessel having the same mean draught as each of these ships , and having the same form and dimensions as the mean horizontal section ( which equals the mean displacement in cubic feet , divided by the mean draught of water ) , will give the same constant as the ship herself , at the assumed speed of 14 knots , which , as nearly as possible , equals the speed obtained by both the ' Minotaur ' and 'Bellerophon ' on the measured mile . For each ship the weight of the armour and backing is supposed to be uniformly distributed over vertical prismatic sides of the dimensions of the armoured sides ; and the weight of hull is similarly distributed over vertical prismatic sides of the dimensions below water of the mean horizontal section , and above water of the armoured side . The actual weights carried by the ships are thus transferred to what may be termed representative prismatic vessels , having the same constant of performance as the ships . The detailed calculations in the Paper show that the weight per square foot of the material in the hulls of the two ships , when distributed over the sides of the representative prismatic vessels , is very nearly the same for both ; and the same holds with respect to the weight per square foot of armour and backing . The 'Minotaur ' is rather heavier in both respects ; but , for the reasons given in the Paper , the means of the values found for the two ships are taken , and are found to be Weight per square foot of hull = 152 ton . , , , , , , armour and backing =ll ton . The questions next considered are these : presuming it to be necessar [ Mar. 19 , 308 to build another ship , which shall also steam 14 knots , carry the same proportionate supply of coal to engine-power and proportionate quantities of stores , but shall have her armour and backing of double the weight of armour and backing of the 'Bellerophon ' and ' Minotaur , ' then ( 1 ) what will be the size , engine-power , and cost of the new ship of the ' Minotaur ' type , and having the same mean draught and depth of armour ? and ( 2 ) what will be the size , engine-power , &c. , if built on the 'Bellerophon ' type , and having her mean draught and depth of armour ? -this condition implying , of course , that the same constants of performance as before will be realized in each case . On account of the great disproportion in size between the two types of ship , it is obvious that the smaller one will require much less weight of equipment . It is assumed , therefore , that the additional weights of the smaller ship ( exclusive of engines , boilers , and coals ) amount to 700 tons , and those of the larger ship to 1000 tons . The developed power of the engines , proportionate supply of coal , and the weight of engines &c. are taken exactly the same as in the hypothetical case first given . By proceeding with the investigation for each case in a way similar to that sketched for the hypothetical ships , only treating the breadth extreme of the mean horizontal sections of the new ships as the unknown , the following results are obtained . The new ship of the ' Minotaur ' type which fulfils the required conditions will be nearly 490 feet long , 721 feet breadth extreme , and have a total displacement of 14,253 tons ; while the new ship of the 'Bellerophon ' type will be 380 feet long , 71 feet breadth extreme , and have a total displacement of 10,950 tons . It thus becomes obvious that a correction is needed in the weight per square foot of hull in the new ship of the ' Minotaur ' type , as her length has been so greatly increased : it is considered that an increase of at least 10 per cent. is required ; and this is the allowance made . On the other hand , the new ship of the 'Bellerophon ' type is still shorter than the ' Minotaur ' herself , and the displacement is not much greater than the actual displacement of the ' Minotaur ; so that no correction is needed in her weight per square foot of hull . When the correction has been made for the new ship of the ' Minotaur ' type , the final results in round numbers are as follows for the two classes of ship : New ship of [ New ship of 'Minotaur ' type . ' Bellerophon'type . Length ... ... ... ... ... . . 510 feet . 380 feet . Breadth ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 75 , , 71 Tonnage ... ... ... ... ... ... 13770 tons . 8620 tons . Nominal horse-power ... ... ... . 1080 H.P. 1080 H.P. Indicated ... ... .560 , , 7560 , , Weight of hull ... 7100 tons . 4460 tons . , , armour and backing . 5190 , , 3630 , , , engines and coals ... . 2160 , , 2160 , , , stores carried ... .1000 , , 700 , Displacement ... ... ... ... 15450 , , 10950 , 2F Taking the cost per ton at ? 55 ( which is the average cost per ton of tonnage for the hulls of armour-clad ships ) , the saving made by adopting the new ship of the 'Bellerophon ' type would amount to ? 283,250 , or considerably more than a quarter of a million sterling . It must also be considered that the ship of the 'Bellerophon ' type would cost less for maintenance and repair , and be much handier in action . The last investigation in the Paper is purely theoretical , and consists of a determination of the dimensions which would be required in two ships of which the horizontal sections are curves of sines , and which are prismatic vertically , if they were built with the same weight per square foot of hull ( say 1 ton ) as the 'Bellerophon , ' but carried twice the weight of armour per square foot ( say -ton ) . In these cases the bottom is taken to have weight as well as the sides ; the speed for both is 14 knots , the draught of water is 25 feet , and the depth of the armoured side 24 feet . One of the ships is seven times her breadth in length , and the other is five times . Professor Rankine 's rule for the calculation of horse-power and speed is employed ; and the same conditions of engines &c. are assumed as have been indicated previously . The larger ship carries 1350 tons additional weights , and the smaller 900 tons . The results obtained for these ships are as follows , when expressed in round numbers : Larger ship . Smaller ship . Length ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 585 feet . 425 feet . Breadth ... ... ... ... ... ... . 84 , 85 , Nominal horse-power ... ... ... . 1267 H.P. 980 H.P. Indicated , , ... ... . . 8890 , , 6860 , Weight of hull ... ... ... ... ... . 7586 tons . 5540 tons . , , armour and backing. . 6124 , , 4470 , , , engines and coals ... . 2540 , , 1960 , , , carried ... ... ... 1350 , , 900 , Displacement ... ... ... ... ... . 17600 , , 12870 , These results are very different in detail from those obtained in the cases based on the actual trials of the 'Bellerophon ' and 'IMinotaur . ' The 2000 I-I.P . which is needed by the larger ship above the power required by the smaller ship , is principally due to the difference between the immersed surfaces of the two ships , and is spent in overcoming friction . The immersed midship sections , it will be remarked , only differ by a very small amount . This last investigation serves to show that , the theoretical best form of ship being taken , and the most recent rule being applied in the calculations , the speed of 14 knots can be obtained in the short type of ship at a surprisingly less cost and size than the long type requires ; and this result agrees with that of the preceding investigation based on actual trials , 310 Mr. Reed on Iron-clad Ships . [ Mar. 19 ,

112516

3701662

On the Amount and Changes of the Polar Magnetism at Certain Positions in Her Majesty's Iron-Built and Armour-Plated Ship 'Northumberland.' [Abstract]

311

312

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Frederick John Evans

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6.0.4

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112516

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112516

Meteorology

Measurement

Meteorology

" On the Amount and Changes of the Polar Magnetism at certain positions in Her Majesty 's Iron-built and Armour-plated Ship ' Northumberland . ' " By FREDERICK JOHN EVANS , F.R.S. , Staff-Captain R.N. , in charge of the Admiralty Magnetic Department . Communicated with the sanction of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty . Received March 5 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) The 'Northumberland ' is a ship of 6621 tons , built at Millwall , River Thames ; head N. 392 ? E. magnetic , and completed with the armour-plates in the same direction : the launch was effected on 17th April 1866 ; she then lay for eight months in the Victoria Docks , head S. 22 ? W. magnetic , or in a direction nearly opposite to that occupied in building . From January to March 1867 she lay at Sheerness swinging to wind and tide : the ship was then removed to Devonport and placed in dry dock , head S. 84 ? E. magnetic , where she has remained till the present time . Observations of deviation and horizontal and vertical force were made at the standard compass ( elevated 8 ; feet from the iron deck , and 172 feet distant from the stern ) , the poop- , and two steering-compasses ( starboard and port ) , the latter being on the quarter-deck below the poop-compass , the group being placed near the steering-wheel , 52 feet from the stern , and each compass 4 feet above its own deck . The polar force at each compass was originally directed to the part of the ship which was south in building ; it diminished in the Victoria Docks , showed a tendency to return to its original value at Sheerness ; and finally a large force to starboard was developed by the position of the ship in dock for the lengthened period at Devonport . Tables are appended giving the magnetic coefficients for each compass from time to time , extending from 17th April 1866 to 10th December 1867 . The results show that the greater part of the polar magnetism was caused by the subpermanent magnetism of the whole mass of the ship , due to her position in building and afterwards : this polar force was so great as to require correction by magnets in addition to the usual tabular corrections . The 'Northumberland ' was the subject of a singular attempt to " depolarize " her , by the Patentee of a process " for an improved method of correcting the deviation of compasses in iron ships"* . The attempt was made-first , on the 4th August 1866 , in Victoria Docks , by moving electromagnets over the external plates of the ship , but without effect ; next at Sheerness , in January 1867-a similar process without effect ; then by applying electromagnets to the beams of the poop-deck , in immediate proximity to the poopand two steering-compasses , and with considerable effect , as a powerful north pole of a subpermanent quality was developed in the centre of those beams ( about 5 feet abaft the compasses ) , producing a repulsive force on the poopand steering-compasses amounting nearly to two-thirds of the earth 's force . By this the semicircular deviation of the poop and port steering-compasses was reduced to I of its original amount , returning , however , in the course of a year ( eleven months ) , as determined by observations made in June , August , and December 1867 , to 3 of its original amount . The deviation of the starboard steering-compass was altered slightly in amount , and largely in direction ; but is now , in common with that of the two compasses just named , gradually returning to its original state . The deviation of the standard compass was not affected by the operations in the slightest degree . The " heeling " deviation of the poop-compass was affected in nearly the same way as its semicircular deviation : the " heeling " deviation of the starboard steering-compass was increased ; but the increase , like the decrease of the poop-compass , was fast disappearing in December 1867 , The correction by the " depolarizing " or " demagnetizing " process was therefore both imperfect and transient , and productive of more injury than benefit ; in consequence of which the author has submitted to the Admiralty that no so-called " depolarization " should be allowed within 20 feet of any compass placed for the navigation of the ship .

112517

3701662

Report of the Committee on the Melbourne Telescope to the President and Council of the Royal Society

313

316

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112517

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112517

Astronomy

Biography

Astronomy

" Report of the Comimittee on the Melbourne Telescope to the President and Council of the Royal Society . " Communicated by the President . The Committee were informed by Mr. Grubb at the close of last year that the telescope was ready for their final examination ; but the bad weather which has prevailed in Ireland ever since precluded all trials of its optical power till February 17 , when they met at Mr. Grubb 's works in Rathmnines Road . 1 . The telescope was not finished at the time named in the contract ; but the Committee have ascertained that the delay arose solely from unfavourable weather , which not only impeded the actual work of polishing , but for weeks together made it impossible to test the figure of the specula . They considered that it was far more important to send out a perfect instrument than to keep the exact time . 2 . The Committee , after minutely and carefully studying the mechanical details of the equatorial , have come unanimously to the conclusion that it is a masterpiece of engineering . Its movements are surprisingly smooth and steady ; it can be moved to any portion of the sky , even if it have to be reversed from one side of its pier to the other , in less than a minute by two operators and with very little exertion . The clock is smooth and equable in its action , it is very powerful , and quite equal to its work . Great change of rate , as from sidereal to luinar time , is effected by an ingenious piece of differential gearing ; small changes are made by a cam adjustment ; moreover it rings seconds , for the double object of comparing its rate with a chroniometer and to assist the observer in his observations . 3 . The Committee are strongly impressed by the great convenienice to the observer of the arrangements of the hour and polar-distance circles , the facility of controlling their adjustment , and the easy access to the eyepiece . 4 . The stability of the tube was severely tested , both in respect of its general stiffness and its power of resisting torsionl , such as might be produced by the weight of the small speculum whenl the telescope is off the meridian ; and the results were highly satisfactory . 5 . In large reflecting telescopes it is usual to make provision for keeping a given diameter of the great speculum always in a vertical plane . When they are equatorially mounted , this is done by rotating the tube in its cradle . Here the tube does not turn ; but there is a special arrangement of hoop-suspension , by which , whatever diameter may be vertical , it is supported in a uniform and symmetrical manner . The system of trian gular levers at the back of the great speculum is also colntrived so as to prevent them from exerting any pressure which might distort it . This is a matter of the highest importance , and the attention of the Committee was specially directed to it . They examined it most carefully , putting the telescope in various positions of ARE and P. D. on each side of the meridian , both by , day and niight , and could not find any sign of Jlexure or any dis , lortion of the image in any of these changes . 6 . In order to test the optical power of the second speculum B ( the first onie , A , had been tried and approved by a member of the Committee on October 12 last ) , the telescope was directed to the following objects : In the daytime Venus and a Aindromeclm ; at niight ( which fortunately was clear and steady ) Castor , the Great Nebuila of Orioni , 4 Orionis , y Andromedule , Uranus , 1 Messier , 37 Messier , 46 Messier , and 5.1 Messier , from which it will be seen that both the light-collectingand defining powers of the inistruiment were fairly tried . The powers used were 220 ( the lowest which can take in the enitire pencil ) , 350 , and 450 , all negatives . Of course onie would not propose such ann instrument for the measurement of close doubole stars , work for which telescopes such as those of Poulkova and Ilarvard are possilbly better fitted ; but the Commiittee found that the ligit even of large stars was collected into sm:aall , lbard , and perfectly circular disks , free from rays ; and though some d , iffused light* surrounded them , it was exactly concentric with the central disks . The 5th and 6th stars of the Trapezium of Orion were not only plainly seen , but were very bright ; < Orioniis was well shown , and the companion of y Andromedw , was clearly dlvided with the powers of 350 and 450 , and the different tilnts of the components were evident . Uranus was Nwell seen , but was surrounded by such a multitude of very minute sta-rs that , without access to the tables of his satellites , it was impossible to know whether any of them were seenu . 37 Al . was broken into a heap of stars so large and brilliant that it quite lost the character of a cluster . The planetary Nebula in 46 M. brought out most strikingly the lightcollecting power of this telescope ; for it ( which in most telescopes appears as a faint disk ) was revealed as a ring , bright even on the dazzling ground of the surrounding stars , which here were as brilliant as the components of the Pleiades appear in ordinary inistruments . With respect to the Nebulae , it is needless to say more than that Lord Rosse considers its performanice in bringing out the details of the Orion Nebula , 1 Ml . ( the Crab ) , and 51 M. ( the Great Spiral ) , quite satisfactory . 7 . The Committee had no opportunity of testing the spectroscope on The cause of this diffused light has since been discovered and removed . t On the 19th of Februiary , however , the Committee had the advantage of the presenice of Mr. Lassell in the examination of Urantus amnong other objects with Speculni A , tand , guiided by his famliliarity with that object , they were enabled to make oiut stars , the positions of which , with great probability , corresponided to the places of the two most distant , and one of the nearest satellites . stellar or nebular spectra ; but they have tried it on solar and electric ones , and consider that it will be very effective , from the solidity of its structure , and its large dispersion combined with a small deviation . 8 . The balance of the grant , which will probably be absorbed by the expense of packing the instrument for removal , was not sufficient to justify the Conimittee in ordering a photographic apparatus which should be worthy of the telescope ; but some trials have been made with a " makeshift affair , " which confirm them in their opinion that it is most important to turn to accoulnt the photographic power of this magnificent instrument , not only for the moon , but for the planets and the sun . On two or three occasions Castor and the moon were takeln with this temporary apparatus as to the star , its components impressed their images in good measurable disks in times varying from two to eight seconds ; with respect to the moon , on February 1 , when she was seven days old , and the air good , a remarkably hard and slharp picture , full of minute details , was obtained , which exhibits so strongly the great photographic power of the instrument , that they would regard it as a serious loss to science if this was not most -fully brought into action . This is the more desirable because lunar and solar photography would utilize . a considerable portion of time , during which the observing of nebulue is impossible . After full inquiry , the Committee find that the cost of the necessary apparatus for this work , including a micrometer for measuiring distances and positions on the photographs ( like that described in the Philosophical Transactions , 1862 , p. 373 ) , could be provided for a sum not exceeding ? 400 ; and they earnestly hope that so valuable an addition may be made . They have been given to understand that the Melbourne Governnenit have resolved on putting a roof over the instrument , but that they thilnk it can be more economically constructed there than here . In this case it occurs to the Committee that the second form of roof described in Dr. Robinson 's letter miaht be pre . , ferable to the more complex one there recommended ; and as it would be less costly , the . difference would more than cover the expense of the photographic apparatus . In this hope they have directed Mr. Grubb to prepare a detailed plan of that apparatus and of the second form of roof . The Committee conclude by stating that they have no hesitation in declaring that the instrument is perfectly fit for the work for which it was destined . They therefore consider that Mr. Grubb has fulfilled his contract , and have directed him to lose no time in preparing thenecessary cases and packing it for M elbourne . They have also instlructed him to ensure it against the risk of fire during its stay . The Comumittee feel bound to say that M r. Gruibb has put a most liberal construction on the terms of his contract ; and after their minute examination of the excellence of the telescope , and the amount and perfection of the machinery connected with it and its manufacture , they are convinced that Mr. Gruibb has been more influenced by the desire of producing a perfect instrument than by any prospect of pecuniary advaantage , and can scarcely realize the possibility of giving so much for the sum 2G namied in the contrraet , especially when it is considered that special works had to be erected for the purpose of constructing the telescope . ROSSE , T. R. ROBINsON , D.D. Feb. 19 , 1868 . WARREN DE LA RUE . P.S. March 7th , 1868.-I would stronigly recommend that the photographic apparatus should be fitted to the telescope before it leaves Ireland . WARREN DE . LA RUrE .

112518

3701662

On the Geographical and Geological Relations of the Fauna and Flora of Palestine. [Abstract]

316

319

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Henry Baker Tristram

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6.0.4

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112518

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112518

Geography

Biography

Geography

I. " 'On the Geographical and Geological Relations of the Fauna and Flora of Palestine . " By the Rev. HIENRY BAKER TRIsTRAI , M.A. , F.G.S. Communicated by P. L. SCLATER , M.A. Received March 10 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) A detailed examination of the fauna and flora exhibits results remarkably in accordance with the views expressed by Mr. Sclater and IDr . Gunther on the geographical distribution of species . Palestirne forms an extreme southern province of the Palearctic region . In every class , however , there are a group of peculiar forms , which cannot be explainied simply by the fact of Palestine impinging closely on the Ethiopian , and more distantly on the Ildian region , but which require a reference to the geological history of the country . The results of the examination of the collections made in 1864 by the expedition assisted by the Royal Society , may be tabulated thus : Indian , including Tota . Palnarctic . Eth-iopianl . those which are Peculiar . also Ethiopian . Marnmalia ... ... 82 41 30* 13 7 Aves ... ... ... . 326 258 36t 14 27 Reptilia ... 48 25 13$ 2 4 ? Pisces , fluviatile ... 17 133 10l Mollusca.146 48 82 81 Flora , general ... . . 963 ? T Flora , Dead-Sea basin ( Phaneroga-mic). . 113 27 71* " 26 3 Several of the Ethiopiaii Mammalia are sedentary forms , and seem to point to an earlier settlement than across the recent deserts . There is lno trace of any immigration from the Indian region . Of the peculiar species , Hyrax syriacus belongs to an exclusively Ethiopian and isolated type , yet is specifically different from its congeners , which are all most sedentary in their habits . The Avifauna is very -rich in number of species , most unequally distributed . The Ethiopian . and Indian types are almost exclusively confined to the Dead-Sea basin , excepting only the desert forms . There are several Indian species , as KCetupa ceylonensis , which have no affinities with any Ethiopian forms . Of the peculiar species , besides several modifications of well-known Palaearctic forms , there are eleven , belonging to as many different Ethiopian and Indiani genera . Tllree of these are decidedly Indian in their affinities . The Avifaunia of the Dead-Sea basin is decidedly distinct and typical , sometimes Indian , more generally Ethiopian in its character . In the Reptilia there is a less prominent intrusion of Ethiopian types , there being a general similarity to the Egyptian herpetological fauna , which must be classed withini the Palearetic region . The Indiani is present in Daboia xanthina ; and the affinities of a new genus Rhynchocalanius are rather obscure . Snakes in particular are more limited to the original locality of the individuals , and the groups , like the individuals , are more stationary . The fiuviatile ichthyological fauna is much more distinlct , though the number of species is small . In its consideration we confine ourselves to the Jordan and its tributaries , in . which are three Nilotic fishes , three others extending eastward in Asia , six to other rivers of Syria , and four peculiar , bearing a strong affiniity to the s)ecies and genera ( as Chromis and Hemichlromis ) of tropical Eastern Africa . Of the Mollusca , most of the peculiar species have no geographical signification . The Pulmonifera have developed in groups , which are modifications of desert types in the south , and of Mediterranean forms on the coast . Variation in this class appears rapidly to follow segregation , as showni by the Jordanic species . The fluviatile mollusca are much more distinct , and indicate a very ancient separation from any adjacent district . Similar inferences may be drawn from the examination of the Arachnida , Lepidoptera , Hemiptera , and Orthoptera , as well as from the Rhizopod fauna , which is similar to that of the Indian Ocean . ( The examination of the Coleoptera is not yet completed . ) The flora of Palestine is , on the coastline and highlands , simply a reproduction of that of the Eastern Mediterranean . That of the Jordan valley is most distinct . Of 113 species by the Dead Sea , only 27 are European , and these chiefly weeds of world-wide distribution . In this area the flora is almost exclusively Ethiopian , consisting largely of species extending from the Caniaries to India . Thus in the Dead-Sea basin , all area of but a few square mniles , we find a series of forms of life in all classes , differing from those of the surrounding region , to which they do not extend , and having Ethiopian and , more strictly , Indian affiniities . The basin is depressed 1300 feet below the sealevel ; and as zonies of elevation corresponid to parallels of latitude , so here a zone of depression represents the fauna and flora of a low latitude . If the flora were 2representative , this law , that climatal zonies of life are nlutually repeated and represented by elevationi or depression and latitude , wo 1 uld account for their existenice . But we have a transported flora ; this lnegatives the idea of an independent origin on the spot . The theory of migration , under presentt conditiois , is refuited by the coexistence of peculiar and unique forms , with others niow found in regions widely apart . Of these , the physical character , and the phenomerna of their present distribution , presel-t insuperable obstacles to their migration under existinq geological conditionis . Their existence must be mainily due to dispersioai before the isolation of the area ; this must have been after the close of the Eocene period ) to which belong the most recent superficial deposits of Southern Palestine . There are no beds synchroniizing with the miocenie deposits of Sicily , & e. it must have bad a fauna and flora conitemporaieous with the miocene flora of Germanly . There is geological evidence that since the Eocene period the Jordan fissure has had no conniexion with the Red Sea or Mediterranean . There are subsequent vast marl deposits of the Dead Sea when it was at a higher level , but they are wholly unfossiliferous . The dimnaution of the waters may , for reasonis given , be fixed about the close of the tertiary epoch . We have also evidence of the extension of the glacial period thus far south , as in the moraines of Lebanion . Still the lake existed before the glacial epochl in its present form , when there was an unusually warner climate , and the more anltique Ethiopian fauna and flora had a more northerly extension . This would be contemporanieous with the miocene continlent of Atlantis , and the Asturian flora of South-west Ireland . Palestine would them be East African . Afterwards the glacial inroad would destroy the mass of preexisting life , excepting the few species most tenacious of existence which sulrvive in the still comparatively warm depression of the Jordan valley , which thus became a tropical " outlier , " analogous to the boreal marine outliers of our own seas . The Inidianl types a'ire explained by the former coritiniuous imliocene continent from Indiaito Africa . The peculiar species may either yet be fouid iii Arabia , or , if not , may be descenldaints of species which inhabited the country with a limited range , or may be variationls stereotyped by isolation . The peculiar fishes of the Jordan are most important , dating probably from the earliest period after the elevation of the lanld . The genera of the peculiar species are exclusively Africale , while the species are rep)resentative rather than identical . 'VV n-ay explain this by the iniocene chain of freshwater lakes , extending from Galilee to the Nyaniza , Nyassa , and Zambesi , when an ichthyological fauna was developed suited to the warm conditions that prevailed , part of which survives in the Jordan . During the glacial period the temperature of Lebanon must have been similar to the present Alps , as the existing mammals and birds on the summits are identical with those of the Pyrenees and the Alps ; not so the glacial flora , of which almost every trace has been lost . But the flora had not the same powers of vertical migration with the fauna , of which , however , the Elk , Red Deer , and Reindeer , found in the bone-caverns , have long since perished . During the present period the Mediterranean forms have overspread the whole country , excepting the mountain-tops at any elevation of 9000 feet , and the Jordan depression . These two exceptions cani be best explained by the fact that the traces of the glacial iniroad are not yet wholly obliterated , and that the preceding warm period has left its yet stronger mark in the uniique tropical " outlier " of the Dead-Sea basin , analogous to the boreal outliers of our mountain-tops , the concave depression in the one being the complement of the coinvex elevation in the other .

112519

3701662

New Researches on the Dispersion of the Optic Axes in Harmotome and W\#xF6;hlerite, Proving These Minerals to Belong to the Clinorhombic (Oblique) System. [Abstract]

319

321

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

M. A. L. O. Des Cloiseaux

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112519

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112519

Optics

Fluid Dynamics

Optics

II . " New Researches on the Dispersion of the Optic Axes in Harmotome and Wohlerite , proving these Minerals to belong to the Clinorhombic ( Oblique ) System . " By M. A. L. 0 . DES CLOISEAUX . Communicated by Prof. W. H. MILLER , For . Sec. R.S. Received March 12 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) We are already acquainted with a considerable number of crystals , natural as well as artificial , the forms of which have only been determined with precision by the examination of their optical properties as doubly refracting bodies . Harmotome and W6hlerite furnish two fresh examples of this ; and they afford all the more important proof of the necessity of appealing to these properties , inasmuch as the crystals of these substances would appear certainly to be derived from a right rhombic prism , so long as we consider only the apparent symmetry of their external forms , or the orientation of the plane containing their optic axes . The different sorts of dispersion which these axes might be capable of presenting are so feeble , and so difficult of appreciation on account of the slight transparency of Wohlerite , and the complex structure of the crystals of Harmotome , that the determination of these dispersions has hitherto been too incomplete to allow of any conclusion being drawn as to the crystalline type they might otherwise serve to characterize . It was a remark of M. Axel Gadolin that induced the author to resume the attentive study of the phenomena of dispersion , first in H-armotome , and then in W6hlerite , and as a consequence to modify the crystallographic type to which these minerals have been in general referred . 319 ilarmotomne . Several years ago the author showed that simple crystals of Harmotome did not exist , and that those of Strontian in Scotland ( Morvenite ) , considered as such , prevented , in fact , a twinning formed by the interpenetration of two principal individuals . The particular orientation of the plane of the optic axes in each of the crystals of which the least complicated of such groups are composed had led him to refer their crystalline form to a right rhombic prism of 124§ 47 ' ; and he had been induced to look on this prism as presenting a peculiar sort of hemihedrism , or rather hemimorphism , such that only one-half of the fundamental rhombic octahedron existed , that namely formed of four faces parallel two and two , and lying in the same zone . More recently , in studying the modifications which heat induces in the position of the optic axes and of their plane , he observed a phenomenon less compatible with the hypothesis of a primitive rhombic form ; but the slight transparency of the plates on which he operated , the wide separation of the optic axes , which rendered the examination of the two systems of rings almost impossible in air , and finally the almost complete absence of dispersion , led him to regard the observed result as an apparent anomaly , attributable to the highly complex structure of the crystals . Desirous of verifying the truth of a suggestion communicated to him by M. Gadolin in June 1867 , the author had some new plates cut normal to the acute , positive bisectrix from very transparent crystals of the Scotch Morvenite , and he has been able to establish the existence of a very decided twisted dispersion . In consequence of the smaller mutual inclination of the optic axes in these than in the former plates , the author was also able to satisfy himself directly that the displacement impressed by heat on the plane containing these axes is a rotary one , quite analogous to that which he had shown to exist in borax and IHeulandite . It is therefore now beyond doubt that the crystalline type of Harmotome is the oblique rhombic prism , and the author has corrected the crystallographic description of the mineral accordingly . WoTlerite . In his 'Manual of Mineralogy , ' the author had described the crystals of W6hlerite as derivable from a prism of very nearly 90 ? . From the point of view from which a consideration of the orientation of their optic axes had induced him to regard them , they appeared to offer a certain number of homohedral forms associated with forms that were hemihedral or hemimorphic , analogous to those that he had drawn attention to in Ilarmotome . Having proved that the latter mineral belongs to the clinorhombic system , he endeavoured to ascertain whether this was not also the case with Wohlerite , all the forms of which would in that event be homohedral . But in this case a study of the different varieties of dispersion is rendered difficult by the yellow colour , and by the imperfect transparency presented by the substance even when in very thin plates . Besides this , contrary to what is found in Harmotome , while the dispersion belonging to the optic axes is very distinct , the horizontal and twisted dispersions , which should be sought for in plates normal to the two bisectrices , are , on the contrary , but slightly evident . However , on examining in oil some thin plates placed so as to have the plane of their optic axes horizontal and perpendicular to the plane of polarization , the author observed in the plates normal to the obtuse , positive bisectrix , some faint blue and red fringes , dispersed in contrary directions above and below the bars which traverse the two systems of rings , indicating the existence of an appreciable twisted dispersion . In the plates normal to the acute , negative bisectrix , the transverse bar of each system is bordered on one side by a very pale blue , and on the opposite side by an equally pale yellow , the horizontal dispersion being thus feebly indicated . The crystals of Wohlerite ought , then , to be referred to an oblique rhombic prism , in which the plane of symmetry is normal to the plane which contains their optic axes . The primitive form which it seems most convenient to choose is a prism with an angle of very nearly 90 ? , which presents a cleavage , easy though interrupted , parallel to its plane of symmetry , and cleavages which are more difficult in the directions of the lateral faces m and of the plane h ' which is parallel to the horizontal diagonals of the base . The author then describes in detail the crystalline form of WShlerite as thus corrected .

112520

3701662

On the Law of the Resistance of the Air to Rifled Projectiles. [Abstract]

321

322

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Charles W. Merrifield

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112520

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112520

Tables

Fluid Dynamics

Tables

III . " c On the Law of the Resistance of the Air to Rifled Projectiles . " By CHARLES W. MERRIFIELD , F.R.S. , Principal of the Royal School of Naval Architecture . Received March 19 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) At the beginning of this month Lieut.-Col. H. R. Halford applied to the author to obtain for him the law of atmospheric resistance resulting from his experiments in shooting with Metford 's match-rifle , a small bore with increasing pitch . Col. Halford had determined by experiment the elevations required for the ranges 100 , 200 , &c. up to 1100 yards , each determination being derived from a very large number of shots ; and the table of experimental elevations , corresponding to these various ranges , formed the datum furnished to the author . As all the trajectories were very low , the greatest elevation amounting to only 2§ 35 ' 30 " , the author assumed , as a sufficiently close approximation , that the vertical motion was determined solely by the force of gravity , and that the effect of the resistance of the air on the velocity was the same as if the projectile had moved strictly in a horizontal line . Consequently the depression of the point in which the target is struck , below the initial tangent to the path , becomes a measure of the time of flight , according to the usual law of falling bodies ; and the mean horizontal velocity being thus known for a series of different ranges , we call calculate the mean velocity for every 100 yards of a long range , and thence determine the resistance . The author commenced his calculations from an assumed velocity of 1360 feet per second , in accordance with the results obtained at short ranges , and assumed for trial a resistance varying as the square of the velocity , but found that this law did not fit the results at all . A resistauce varying as the cube of the velocity was then tried , and found very nearly to agree with the results of observation ; and the agreement became , we may say , perfect , when the assumed initial velocity was slightly corrected . As the calculations and experiments were all made Without any notion of the resulting law , and without any knowledge of the work already done by Professor H1lie and Professor Bashforth , they afford a remarkable confirmation of the results obtained by those gentlemen . This is the more worthy of notice , as their data belong to pieces of large calibrei and the author 's to small arms .

112521

3701662

Remarks on the Great Nebula in Orion

322

329

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. Lassell

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0066

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112521

10.1098/rspl.1867.0066

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112521

Astronomy

Biography

Astronomy

IV . " Remarks on the Great Nebula in Orion . " In a Letter addressed to Prof. G. G. STOKES , Sec. R.S. By W. LASSELL , F.R.S. 1-e ceiveed February 28 , 1868 . I have beeni so much initerested by the perusal of Lord Oxmantown 's observations and drawing of the Great Nebula in Orion , published in the present volume of the 'Transactions , ' that I venture to offer you a few remarks upon them the more readily , as I may be supposed to be somewhat familiar with that object , thoug-h observed with less advantage of optical power . On comparing the present drawing with my own1 , madle with the fourfeet equatorial during my late sojourni at Malta , I find that of the 93 niew stars in Lord Oxmaitowni 's list , there are , I believe , only 24 within the more limited area of my drawing . A good maniy of these have escaped my notice , while , on the other hand , I have cletected several which I do not find in the presenit Catalogue . The following are instanices of a few : Three stars north-preceding No. 119 ; four stars about the hypothlenuse of the liearly right-angled triangle formed by the stars 47 , 52 , and 53 ; two stars in the triangle formed by 30 , 32 , and 35 ; a delicate point about 20 " from 104 , with several others . Somne of these I have so repeatedly and certainly seem , that I wonder not to find them here . The explanation of this discrepancy may possibly in some instlances be found in variability , bu1t must , I think , be rather sought for in the inifluenice which the state of atmosphere has on such delicate objects , whYenl the highest combinations of light and power are brought to bear upon them . As this is a nebuIla of great extent , it is possible , and indeed probable , that there may be some spots on which the concentrated attention of any single observer has not beeni given unider the most favourable circumstances . In my own observations , the question of resolvability appeared always an interesting one to settle , and therefore I gave quite as much attention to the detection of stars as to the tracing of the nebula . The present drawing embracing much more of the extenit of this nebula than mine ( if not , indeed , the whole of it ) , I any able to compare mine with it only in part ; but , so far as my limits extelnd , the representations are generally very coincident . In some parts there is a greater hardness than I have seein ; but it is scarcely possible to convey a tue inpression of the -form of the convolutions of the nebula without intensifying them in some degree . I recognized in my own observations more of the spiral or scrolllike character of the nebula about the stars 51 and 57 , first pointed out , I believe , by Mr. Bond , than I find in this drawing . In an engraving sent to me by Mr. Bond in 1863 , in which photography had , as I utnderstood , been emnployed , this scroll-like appearance is strongly marked . On the question of a real charnge of form of the nebtula , lno positive conclusion can , I think , as yet be arrived at ; but as we have probably now.reached much more nearly to the practical limit of optical power in our telescopes , future observations may be expected to b)e much more comparable with existing drawings than these are with those formerly made . The evidence of r esolvability seems to me to be rather on the negative side-my own deductions from what I have seen have been always in that directioni ; and such of the present observations as apparenitly look the other way are , I consider , too vague and wanting in precision and certainty , to establish it positively . [ Receivocl April 17 , 1868 . ] In the account of my observations in Malta with the four-foot equatorial , published in the 36th volume of the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society , there is but a slight reference to the Great Nebula of Orion ; the immediate reason for which was , that the drawing I had made was on too large a scale for appearing therein as an engraving , and I was ulnlwilling to subject it to a reduction of size . Moreover , as Lord Oxmantown 's elaborate descriptioni and drawings of this incomparable object have recenitly appeared in the Transactions of the Royal Society , and as the subject may be presumed to be a very interesting one , I beg leave to request of the Society their acceptance of my original drawing ( forwarded this day ) , which contains the sum of all I have been able to make out ( bolth of the details of the nebula and of the stars therein ) with the above telescope dt iring may three-years ' residen1ce in the Island of MDlalta . I also subjoin from my Journial the folloWing few notes relative to some of the more interesting stars . The fifth star of the trapezium is reddish , and has a pretty broad and not very brilliant disk , -much larger than that of the sixth , which is more brilliant , and whiter . Yet the first impression of the fifth on the eye is more forcible than that of the sixth . Adopting Herschel 's niuimibers , 57 is much less bright than 51 . The star marked 11 is nearly as bright as 57 ; but the two stars south-following II are the smallest points visible . Of the delicate pair preceding s of the trapezium , the following star is the brightest . The minute stars preceding and north-following 93 , were undoubtedly verified ; but there seemed a want of precision in the image of the latter ( if one may so speak of such a faint thing ) which suggested the idea of its being double . Herschel 's 78 , 82 , and 91 have on no occasionl been recognized ; a star , however , bas been seen as laid down in the drawing , a very little southfollowing the place of 78 . In the drawing , Herschel 's numbers are adopted throughout ; and for convenience of reference and identification , they are attached in minute figures to each star . Its scale , as given at the foot , is 1 00"= 1 194 inch . All the stars which have been certainly and repeatedly seen are inserted , and , I believe , no others . Some attempt at indication of respective magnitude has been made in depicting the stars , but their estimated magnitudes are more precisely given in the margins , right and left of the pictuire . They are , however , more fully laid down in the following Catalogue of the stars contained in the map , the places being principally taken from Liaponov 's measures . A good many of the stars , however , I have independently measured , and though my mealns for this especial purpose were probably inferior to those of M. Liaponov , I have added a list of my measures for comparison or identification . W. LASSELL . Ray Lodge , April 1868 . Catalogue . L. =Tiaaponov . LI . = Lassell . S. =Struve . H. =Herschel . h. 78 , 82 , 90 , 91 , and ( V. ) not seen..agniDistance from . Designation and Authority tude . for P ? lace . I2 preceding I047 171 S. 9 975 12 N. h. 5 L. 12-5 943 333 S. 13 938 408 N. place un certain . 8-5 927 676 N. h.6 II6 13'5 926 657 ' 8 . I3 5 922 310 S. h. 8 L. 8 920 823 S. h1 7 f. I13 906 55 8 . 9 888 8i6 S. h.9 I. I25 870 630 S. 125 862 653 S. 9 849 241 S. h. io L. I25 843 439 9 82g94 S. h1.11 Hf . I2 823 46I S. h. IS S. 9 769 64 N. h1.2 Lz I 2 . 7749 69 S. 11h.3 LII 729 73 8 . h. I4 L. 105 722 525 S. h. i6 L. 11-5 7 i8 S1 . 13 710 5I8 N. place un certain . 13'5 708 4.94 N. place unicertain . I ? ? 703 46 8 . h. 17 c. 13 696 634 N. place un certain . 14 ~~69~i 657 N. ? ? 9 686 253 S. h. i8 L. 13-5 67I 487 N place un certain . 1 35 654 718 S. II-5 ~647 15 N. h1 . 19 L. II 631 31 8 . h.2zi L : I3 5 626 697 S. 12 6io 538 S. h1 . 227 I3 ~~594 768 S8 . I3 579 7694 S13 567 412z 8 . I0 561 786 N. h1.25 H. I2 549 647 N. h.28 II . IO 547 1036 S. h.29 H. 9 546 7I S. h.27 L. I0 5544 208 S. h. 6L 12 531 32 N. h- . 30 L. z2-5 508 178 N. I 8-5 493 289 N. h. 32 L. I3'5 478 747 N. 13 477 5442 S. 105 466 io8 S. h. 3 3IL . 13 462 756 N. 13 462 , i4 N. ? I2z5 459 963 S. 13-5 4-53 82 8 . 6 4532 659 S. h. 34 L. 125 preceding 424 844 S. Catalogue ( continued ) . MagniDistance from 0 . Designation and Authority tude . for Place . I35 preceding 40 ? ? 72,7 N. 8-5 398 273 N. h. 35 . I2 384 46 S. h36 L. 13 5 382 115 S. 9 357 592 S. h. 37 L. I3 5 3I2 5I0 N. h. 39 H. 7-5 311 424 S. h.4o L. 10 306 5 N. h. 38 . I2 292 498 S. h. 43 L. 12 290 693 N. h-4'2 H. 12 282 31 S. h. 4I L. 12 247 i6 N. h. 44 I. 9 243 117 S. h. 45 L. 13 222 824 N. 13 22I 471 N. h. 46 H. 13 207 589 S. 13 206 889 S. I2 197 400 . h. 47 1 . 13 184 335 S. 14 184 805 N. 9 184 909 N. I. L. 13 178 379 S. 951 75 51 N. h48 I. 14 I 68 303 S. 6-5 I163 666 N. hl 49 L. 10-5 16o II9 S. h. 50 L. I2.5 '59 238 S. '3'5 II6 749 S. I I.5 107 396 S. h. 52 L. 14 10o 15 S. 8 95 272 S. li.53IL 13 90 513 S ? h 55 12 88 177 S. h. 5c IL 825 85 24 S. h. 5 S. II 79 387 N. h. 56 L. 13'5 75 157 S. I I-5 65 89I S. ? h. 58 I3 5 57 511 S. 13-5 57 23 S h. 57 S. ? ? 135 55 434 5 . 13 49 786 S. 115 37 453 S. h. 62 L. 10-5 34 966 S. h59 H. 12 34 769 S h.6o H. 13 26 993 S. 12 22 947 S. 14 I7 '8 N. 14 . 12 Ig N. II 10 12 N. h. 64=E . L. 12 9 949 S. h. 63 798 N. h. 65=A . I. 13-5 9 504 N. h. 66 12.5 7 28 S. IL . S. 85 i6 N. h. 67=B. . 14 0 35 5 . ? nebulous patch . 45 preceding oo h. 69z=C . I II*5 following 32S h. h 7I=-F . Catalogue ( continued ) . iMagniDitnefo . Designationi and Authority tudcle , Distance from 0 . for Place . 95 following 3 953 S. h.74 L. 956 98 N. h.70 L. I4 7 I0 5 . 13-5 8 107 N. IIT . S. 14 5 II 47 N. ? ? 6 12 7 N. h. 73z-D . L 14 i6 596 S. I9 8 S. ? I3 5 20 575 8 . 13 21 968 8 . 125 21 39 N7 S. 7II 25 407 N. li.79 T. I3 5 28 48 N. II-5 30 172 N. I. 76 T. 115 34 433 N. h.83 I. II5 36 I65 N. h. SoT . I2 54 146 N. h. 84. . 12.5 57 196 S. ? , . SI S. I3 58 856 S. 8-5 6I 85x N. h.85 T. 9 62 I00 N. h.87 7 . 9.5 63 674 N. h. 86 . I2 69 24 8 . h.88 T. 135 70 200 8 . 14 74 430 8 . ? II 74 854 N. I13 5 76 467 S. I4 77 96 S. I35 78 27 S. I2 Si 173 N. 11 . 89 T. 14 88 109 5 . ? ? 5 98 94 . h.g3 9i . 12 I02 673 S. i.92 IT . 13 102 742 N. 10 117 442 S. . 95 . 14 117 79 5 . 13 122 743 N. h. 94 12 I26 8I4 N. h , 97 13 I39 734 N. h. 96 133 140 427 S. 10 142 494 N. 13 , 102 L. I0 146 612 N. 1I . 99 I0-5 146 884 N. h. 98 II 149 134 S. 1 . 100 . 10.5 149 251 h. 103 . 6 150 96 S. 11.io Ti . 14 i6o 782 N. 14 170 i85 S. I4 5 178 95 S. 8-5 I8 174 S. h.I04 L0 . I1 i85 693 ' . 11 . 105 H. II*5 202 824 N. l. 107 II . II 208 567 S. h.I06 Ti . 14'5 209 130 5 . 14 21Z 59 S. 13 214 273 N. I 109 TL . 5fOllowing 217 445 N. h. io8 i Ctttalogute ( continued ) . MagniDistance fom o. Designation and Authority tude . for Place . 12.5 n-f . h. I08 14'5 folloWing 22 3 427 S. only seen z4th Nov. i 864 75 225 I10 S. h. . iio . 8 230 582 5 . hL . II . 237 x6i S. ? nebu lous knot I3 5 242 340 S. 10-5 2 465 S i. 112 II . I35 246 406 S ' 1 2.5 272 870 N. ? ? 14 280 474 N. 8 281 669 N. h.3 Ti , 14-5 285 460 N. 13'5 286 345 S. 12.5 299 129 N. h. II4 If . 14 312 650 S. ? ? 13 313 850 S , ? h. 115 13 5 3I6 878 N. I2 319 184 S. IV . Li . 13'5 340 882 N. 13-5 following 344 366 N. 11 . II6 13'5 var . 359 243 S. I2z5 360 624 N. I I5 362 213 S. h.II7 1 . I2 var . 369 69I N. h.x8 H. II following 369 846 N. b.9 H. 9-5 370 I96 N. b. I20 10 385 284 S. h. i3 Li . 125 385 742 Sh.122 Iz . 9'5 387 588 N. h. 124 L. XI.5 409 778 S. h. 125 . 13 417 I8z N. 417 669 N. ? ? 105 417 753 N ... II 418 514 S. h. i6 Ti . 13 437 6I7 N. I2z5 453 334 N. h.128 5 . 10 459 393 N. hl . 12 T. 13 504 714 S. h. I31 I0 505 1015 S. li.132 H. 8 51I 303 8 . h. 133 T. I2 514 418 N. h. 30 13 518 499 N. '3 532 319 S. . L134 HI35 following 563 i85 S. 6 dup . 574 85I 8 . h. 135 T. I4'5 593 33 S. ? ? 13-5 597 96 S. 75 6z8 64 N. l. I36 L. I10 641 984 S. b. I38 H 14 656 25 N. I12 666 364 N. h. I37 Ll . 12 784 z67 N. h. 14I H. 10-5 797 254 S. 1i 142 T. 14 877 83I 8 . 5'5 following 889 916 I. L. 143 _ i. Remeasurement of some of the Stars of the above Catactogue . Stars SouLtl of 0 Orionis . Stars South ( continued ) . h. 17 preceding 70z 7 4z 8 h. 54 preceding 8 57 1L751 I8 683 7 2441I 6z 39 449 3z6 536 z 207-6 88 followi ng 66 7 24 4 27 543 3 71-8 9I I8 53 8 33 4633 31 i36 93 963 93 Z 36 3~827 9o6 95 1I39 440 5 37 35 53 5833 3 103 150.1 248 1 40 3172z 420-9 101 i5r5 972z 4I 270'6 36 f 04 7587 170 ? 5 43 290g5 483 ' III 227I 591 45 24I8 117 ? 9 1 Ii2 39 6 457 47 I92z6 397 8 II7 359'5 213z 50 I63-6 I I6 7 123 380'4 284 4 52 1055 398 3 126 4i2'6 503 553 91*4 273-1 133 507'301-7 51 prececling 84 z zi38 142 following 78 36 254 9 Stars North of 0 Orionis . Stars Northl ( continued ) . h. 12 preceding 776-8 h ? 5 h. 86 following 63 -4 669 o I9 639-9 10Z 87 61i 99-8 32 498 286-4 1 99 14588 6IIz34 400'2 2 70'4 IO2 I44-6 48850 38 304.0 o0o ! o09 2144 272 8 44 z46-8 8-6 1o8 z IO07 440-3 48 172-9 5021I 113 277 7 658-9 49 i6vz 663 9 I2O 367 3 195 3 56 prececldng 86 r 380-4 124 38 48 584-7 70 following 9-0 96-6 129 459 0 387 975 Z~42 41,5 3j6 6z5-5 65'7 76 32 I663 137 following 666 I 363 9 79 following zI20 400 ? 4

112522

3701662

Observations on the Development of the Semilunar Valves of the Aorta and Pulmonary Artery of the Heart of the Chick. [Abstract]

329

335

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Morris Tonge

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112522

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112522

Neurology

Biology 2

Neurology

1 . " ' Observations on the Development of the Semilunar Valves of the Aorta and Pulmonary Artery of the I-Heart of the Chick . " By MORlRlS TONGE , 1.A . , M.D. Comlimunicated by Dr. BEALE . Received March 24 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) KWlliker is the only embryological author in whom I have found any information about the development of the semilunar valves of the aorta and pulmonarv artery , and I have not been able to discover any observations later than his . After speaking of the formation of the aorta and pulmonary artery by the division of the truncus arteriosus inito two vessels , this being , as is well known , the large single arterial trunk conveying the blood from the rudimentary ventricle into the branchial arteries , he says@ , " Simultanaeously with the division the semilunar valves also become developed , and I saw them already present in both arteries in an embryo of the seventh week . They are , however , at first nothing but horizontally projecting crescentic growths of the middle and of the epithelial coats by which the lumen t at this spot receives the form of a three-rayed star . At what time they first become visible as distinct pockets I have not yet inivestigated . " The division of the truncus arteriosus is described by Rathke as occurring in birds and mammalia by the formation on its interior of two oppositely situated longitudinal ridges , which then grow together throughout its whole extent and completely divide the vessel into two lateral halves , one representing the commencement of the aorta , and the other that of the pulmonary artery . Though the semilunar valves are said by K6lliker , and quite correctly , to develope simultaneously with the division , he gives no information about the manner in which they are connected with it , or the part of the vessel in which they originiate , and nowhere are any drawings given of them in their rudimentary state . I was hence led to conclude that very little was known about this point , and to make the observations the results of which are here recorded . They seem to me valuable , as throwing light on some of the congenital malformations of this part of the heart . They were made during 1865 , 1866 , and 1867 , on the embryos of the common fowl , and I have had no opportunity of investigating human or other mammalian embryos with reference to this point . But from the great likeness between the hearts of birds , mammalia , and man at different periods of their developmenit , it seems pretty certain that the arterial semilunar valves in man and mammalia generally must pass through the same stages of development as those of the bird , which , in the fully developed state , quite resemble them . The eggs were incubated by artificial heat , and the hearts of more than fifty emnbryos , at various stages of development , were examined . The embryos were prepared by immersing them , immediately on their removal from the egg , in strong alcohol . By this the large vessels were obtained distended with blood and hardened . They were afterwards rendered transparent by soaking them in strong glycerine , in which they were dissected * K6lliker , ' Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen , ' pp. 404 , 405 ( 1861 ) . II have left this word untranslated because no single English word exactly expresses its meaning . It is obviously the bright area of the interior of a transverse section of the vessel held up to the light . The bounidary of the bright area shows the form of the vascular cainal at this point , and examined by strong transmitted light , and were afterwards mounted in glycerine jelly . The new facts observed demonstrate(1 ) The manner in which the truncus arteriosus divides into two vessels , which is different from that commonly supposed to occur . ( 2 ) The close connexion between this process of division , and the formation of the semilunar valves of the aorta and pulmonary artery , and their place of origin and mode of development . The following is a brief account of the mannier in which the division of the truncus artei-iosus takes place . It should be said that about the third day of incubation , just before the division begins , the somewhat spirally twisted truncus arteriosus is everywhere smooth , and free from ridges on its interior , and ends abruptly in the three pairs of branchial arteries which then exist . These are the third , fourth , and fifth pair . There is no valvular apparatus at its branchial end , but next the ventricle the deficiency of valves seems to be supplied by a considerable development of the elastic wall of the truncus arteriosus on its two opposite sides , so that the ventricular aperture , which is at first circular , becomes slit-shaped . The two lips of the slit seem to prevent in great measure the reflux of blood inito the ventricle , before the semilunar valves are sufficiently developed to do so . The division of the vessel commences about the 106th hour of incubation , at rather less than one-fifth of the whole period of incubation , which is 21 days . It begins at the branchial end of the truncus arteriosus by the extension into it of a planle septum growing horizontally downwards into the vessel from the terminal arterial wall between the openings of the fourth and fifth pair of branchial arteries . Its lower margin is forked , so that it extends further along the sides than along the centre of the vessel , and it is inclinied a little obliquely across the vessel , sloping downwards frormi left to right . The little channel in front of this septum leads to the third and fourth pair of branchial arteries , and is the rudimentary aorta ; the channel behind it leads to the fifth pair of branchial arteries , and is the rudimentary pulmonary artery . At the same time , or slightly before this , the canal of the vessel just below the septum becomes constricted by the formation(1 ) On its anterior and left surface , of two flattened prominences , separated by a groove . These are the rudiments of the anterior semilunar valve of each artery . ( 2 ) Oni its anterior and right surface , of a flattene(d ridge , extending obliquely across the vessel nearly opposite to the anterior valve rudiments , afterwards becoming prominent and pyramidal in the cenitre , and extending graduially down the posterior surface of the vessel . The right and left ends of this ridge are the rudiments of the inner semilunar valves of each artery . As these growths enilarge , the forked septum grows downwards into the artery , twisting gradually from left to right , its left leg passing between and separating the anterior semilunar valve rudiments , and its right leg growing into the central portion of the oblique ridge on the posterior surface , now becoming promninent and pyramidal , and separating from each other the rudiments of the inner valves . Between the outer and inner semiluinar valves in each artery there is a vacant space left on the wall of the vessel , from which the outer semilunar valve in each artery afterwards glrows out , the outer valves appearing later than the others . The division of the trincuLs arteriosus proceeds by the gradual growth downwards of the forked septum along the course of the ridge on the posterior surface , which gradnally becomies more prominent , the right leg of the fork , which proceeds along it , being always a little in advance of the other . The anterior or left leg of the fork corresponds with the rioht margin of the anterior aortic valve , and terminates almost immediately on the anterior surface , no ridge being formed along the anterior surface as there is along the posterior . As the forked septum between the aorta and pulmonary artery grows down the vessel , the semiluinar valves gradually become more developed , and the rudimxents of the outer valves appear . They appear soon after the 11 7th hour of incubiationi , by which time the aorta and pulmonary artery are separated for some little distancee . During these chanlges the aperture into the ventricle has become a rectangular slit , passing horizonitally backwards and to the right , and having a left-hand and a right-hand lip , the left-hand lip sloping from before backwards and upwards into the artery , and joining the lower end of the ridge that has been gradually forming on the posterior surface of the vessel . As the division proceeds the ends of each lip of the ventricular slit disappear , and the central poi'tions , especially of the left-hand lip , become more prominent . By this a channel is left in front and towards the left , and behind and to the rig3ht . By the time the division has deseended to the ventricular aperture , the original right-hand leg of the forked septumn has wound round to the centre of the left-hanid lip of the slit , the left-hand leg to the centre of the right-hand lip , so that the aortic channel has passed from front to back , and the pulmonary chaninel from back to front , the anterior portion of the ventricular slit thus becoming thiie root of the pulmonary artery , and the posterior portion the root of the aorta . The septuim of the ventricles has beea gradu-tally forming duiring the process of division of the truneus arteriosus , and by the time the division and valves have descended nearly to the base of the ventricles , there remains rnerelv an oval aperture in the upper portion uniting the ventricular cavities . It form-is a sholrt canal with a left venitricular border and a right venitricular border . The arterial infundibula are finally separated from each other by the union of the lower half of this right ventricular border with the lower border of the forked arterial septum . The anterior portion of the right ventricular border is continlued upwards and forwards into the termination of the original right leg of the fork in the central part of the left-hand lip of the ventricular slit , while the posterior portion passes off slantingly upwards and forwards as a ridge , which forms the termination of the original left leg of the fork in the central part of the right-hand lip of the slit . Thus a twisted , hourglass-shaped aperture connects the arterial infuindibula , by whose closure the pulmonary infundibulum and root of the pulmonary artery become separated from the root of the aorta and the canal of the aperture in the septum , which then becomes the aortic infundibulum . This process is completed about the end of the eighth day . The separation of the vessels does not become visible externally till it has advaniced a considerable distance down the truncus arteriosus , and the semilunar valves are considerably developed . The division of the truncus arteriosus into the aorta and pulmonary artery does not therefore take place by the formation of two oppositely situated longitudinal ridges , and their subsequent growth together , but occurs , as above described , by the extension into it of a plane septum from between the fourth and fifth pair of branchial arteries , and which twists down the vessel along the line of a single thick pyramidal ridge which forms graduially on its posterior aspect . The formation of the semilunar valves is very closely coninected with the process of division of the truncus arteriosus , and the following are the new facts arrived at with respect to their origin and development 1 . It is a remarkable fact that the rudiments of the semilunar valves first appear on the interior of the truncus arteriosus at a considerable distancefrom the heart , near the termination of the truncus arteriosus in the branchial arteries , and not near the heart , as onie might have been led to expect . 2 . It is also very remarkable that the rudiments of the anterior and inner semilunar -valves of each artery make their appearalnce before the partition , which has already begun to separate the aorta from the pulmonary artlery , has quite descended to that part of the truncus arteriosus in which these valves originate . 3 . The rudiments of the anterior semilunar valves of the aorta and pulmonary artery are the first to appear , those of the inner valve of each artery the niext , and those of the outer valves the last . The development of the last valve to appear remains behind that of the others throughout . 4 . The anterior valve-rudiments appear close together , rather on the right side of the anterior surface of the trmncus arteriosus , about the 106th hour'of incubation , simultaneously with the commencement of the divisionl , and a short distance below it , and opposite the commencement of the ridge which forms on the posterior surface of the vessel , and which appears about the same time . 5 . The rudiment of the inner valve of each artery grows from the corresponding side of the ridge which forms gradually on the posterior surface of the vessel , a little later than the anterior valves . 6 . The rudiment of the outer valve in each artery arises from that part of the inside of the wall of the truncus arteriosus left vacalnt between the outer margirns of the rudiments of the anterior and innler valves soon after the 117th hour of incubation . It arises level with the other valves , when the aorta and pulmnonary artery are already separated from each other for some little distance , and therefore a little nearer to the heart than the other valves , though still at a considerable distance from it . 7 . The anterior valve-rudiments commence as transverse thickenings of the interior of the vessel , sloping off above and below into the general surface of the vessel , and are separated by a slight groove . 8 . The ilnner and outer valves first appear as simple pyramidal thickenings of the vascular wall . 9 . All the semilunar valves are solid at first . 10 . The anterior and inner valves consist of one single segment for each valve . 11 . The outer valve is at first a single pyramidal eminence . It may remain single , or become deeply notched and develope into two valves , or even more . 12 . By the time the third valve in each vessel has appeared , the form of the valves has become more defined . They then have the shape of a short crystal of triple phosphate 13 , its flat surface being attached , its edge projecting into the vessel , and its ends sloping off upwards and outwards above , and downwards and outwards below . The valves are more developed in the direction of their length than transversely , and their course down the wall of the vessel is parallel to that which the axis of its canal afterwards assumes . 13 . About the 144th hour of incubation they are ( though still solid and at some distance from the heart ) sufficiently developed to close the canal of the vessel pretty completely , and to prevenit much reflux of blood into its undivided portion . 14 . By this time the valvular function of the two lips of the opening into the ventricle has become abolished . 15 . The valves are further developed by the hollowing out of the solid pyramid above and near the wall of the vessel , while they grow in other directions . 16 . The pocketing of each valve commences in each in the order of its appearance , and begins in the anterior and inner valves of each artery about the time that their bases have descended to the level of the bases of the ventricles , i. e. at the 147th hour of incubation , and is distinct in these valves at the 16'th hour . The pocketing of the outer valves is not distinct till much later . Abouit the time that it commences , the valves have assumed nearly their final positions with respect to the base of the heart , and the aperture of coinmtmnication between the arterial infundibula is nearly closed up . 17 . After the complete separation of the aortic and pulmonary infundibula from each other , the further changes in the semilunar valves consist principally in increase in size and diminution in thickness , so that they become more and more menibranous , part passu , with the growth of the other parts of the heart . In the description given above of the division of the truncus arteriosus , it has been shown that the aperture in the septum of the ventricles does not close up entirely as is commonly supposed , but finally developes into the aortic infundibula . The fifth vascular arch on each side gives off the branch to the lulng of that side , and becomes ultimately the corresponding branch of the pulmonary artery , according to the view long ago propounded by Von Baer . In conclusion I must thank several kinid friends for assistance received from them during the preparation of this paper , which I here beg leave to acknowledge . In particular Dr. Beale , who has given me much valuable advice throughout ; the Rev. George Kernpson and my cousin Mr. Charles Paddison , who seait me abundant supplies of fresh eggs ; and Dr. Cavley , who kindly revised the translations from the German authors referred to .

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3701662

On the Phenomena Observed to Attend the Propulsion of Lymph from One of the Lymphatic Hearts into a Vein in the Frog. [Abstract]

335

336

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Thomas Wharton Jones

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6.0.4

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112523

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112523

Neurology

Biology 2

Neurology

II . " On the Phenomena observed to attend the propulsion of Lymph from one of the Lymphatic Hearts into a Vein in the Frog . " By THoMAs WHARTON JONES , F.R.S. , Professor of Ophthalmic Medicine and Surgery in University College , &c. Received March 28 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) An anremic frog , killed , as regards sensation and voluntary motion , without stoppage of the circulation , by plunging into water at 110 ? or 120 ? Fahr. , was laid open , and the posterior part of the anterior lymphatic heart of one side , in the niche behind and below the extremity of the large transverse process of the third vertebra , brought into view . By the removal of the skin of the back from over the scapular region , the part of the heart mentioned admitted of examination by transmitted light under a simple microscope- the lens P-inch focus . It was seen that when the lymphatic heart contracted , a stream of lymph was propelled from it into a vein at its posterior border , and swept before it the blood in that vessel , whilst the flow from behind was arrested . As soon , however , as diastole of the lymphatic heart supervened , the flow of blood from behind became reResearches on Solar Physics . established , and drove the lymph onward in its turn . Systole of the heart now again ensuing , the lymph-stream propelled into the vein swept forward the blood in that vessel as before , whilst the flow of blood from behind was arrested ; and so the same series of phenomena was repeated . It was thus seen that the phenomena attending the propulsion of lymph from the anterior lymphatic hearts of the frog into the veins at their posterior border , with which they communicate by a valvular opening , are essentially similar to those attending the propulsion of the lymph from the caudal heart of the eel into the caudal vein . The vein at the posterior border of the heart , after receiving the lymph , turned behind the large transverse process of the third vertebra , and passed forwards along the inner to the anterior border of the heart , where it inosculated with the large blackish vein which runs up on the side of the neck . This large blackish vein was described by Professor Johannes Miiller as issuing from the heart ; but the author has not found it to do so . It is merely in close connexion , so that it is dragged backwards by communication of the movement of the heart in contracting , and recoils forwards into its previous position when diastole takes place .

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3701662

Researches on Solar Physics. Heliographical Positions and Areas of Sun-Spots Observed with the Kew Photoheliograph during the Years 1862 and 1863. [Abstract]

336

336

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Warren De la Rue|Balfour Stewart|Benjamin Loewy

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6.0.4

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/112524

Meteorology

Biography

Meteorology

III . " Researches on Solar Physics . Heliographical Positions and Areas of Sun-spots observed with the Kew Photoheliograph during the years 1862 and 1863 . " By WARREN DE LA RUE , Ph. D. , F.R.S. , F.R.A.S. , BALFOUR STEWART , LL. D. , F.R.S. , F.R.A.S. ( Superintendent of the Kew Observatory ) , and BENJAMIN LOEWY , F.R.A.S. Received March 31 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) In this paper the sun-pictures taken by the Kew photoheliograph for the years 1862 and 1863 are discussed ; the heliographic latitude and longitude of every spot is given , and the area of each group on each day when it was observed is expressed in millionth parts of the sun 's whole hemisphereal area . The Kew photoheliograph itself , as well as the instrument invented by Mr. De la Rue for measuring sun-pictures , have been already described by Mr. De la Rue in the Bakerian Lecture for 1862 . These descriptions are not therefore repeated in this paper ; but , on the other hand , the method by which the heliographic position of spots is deduced from the measurements made is given at considerable length . The results of succeeding years , and their final discussion with reference to the sun 's elements , will be published hereafter . 336 [ Apr. 30 ,

112525

3701662

The Specific Heat of Mixtures of Alcohol and Water. [Abstract]

337

338

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

A. Dupr\#xE9;|F. J. M. Page

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6.0.4

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112525

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112525

Thermodynamics

Measurement

Thermodynamics

IV . " The Specific Heat of Mixtures of Alcohol and Water . " By A. DUPRE , Ph. D. , Lecturer on Chemistry at the Westminster Hospital , and F. J. M. PAGE . Communicated by C. BROOKE , M.A. Received March 26 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) The authors have examined a number of mixtures of alcohol and water . They show that the specific heat of these mixtures , up to an alcoholic strength of about 36 per cent. , is higher than the specific heat of water itself . Two methods were employed for estimating the specific heat exactly opposite in principle . The first consisted in heating a metallic weight to a certain temperature in a steam-oven , similar to that employed by Regnault in his researches , and then plunging it into the liquid the specific heat of which is to be estimated . The rise in the temperature of equal quantities of different liquids produced by the introduction of the same weight , heated to the same temperature , is inversely proportional to the specific heat of such liquids . Two weights and several calorimeters of different sizes were used . One of the weights was made of brass and weighed 246'49 grms. , the other was of copper gilt weighing 614'49 grms. Both weights were made in the form of stout rings , and in the inner cylindrical opening of each a small fanwheel was inserted . These rings , after being heated and let down into the calorimeter , were attached to a strand of worsted , and held freely suspended in the liquid of the calorimeter . The worsted had previously been twisted , and when now allowed to untwist it causes a rapid rotation of the ring . The fan-wheel fixed inside the ring thereby produces a current , which , passing through the ring , not only serves to mix the liquid thoroughly , but also considerably facilitates the rapid cooling of the weight . The calorimeters , as usual , consisted of cylindrical vessels made of very thin polished brass , supported on stretched silk cords , and surrounded by a double cylinder of tin-plate to prevent , as far as possible , any gain or loss by radiation . The temperature of the liquid was taken by a small thermometer , having a bulb 60 millims. long and about 2'5 millims. diameter . Each degree was divided into twenty parts , and by means of a telescope 2-o of a degree could be read off . The authors give experiments which prove that the high specific heats observed are not due to evaporation caused by the introduction of the heated metals into the calorimeter . The second method used was that generally employed . A certain weight of the liquid , the specific heat of which is to be estimated , enclosed in a suitable vessel , is heated and then plunged , vessel and all , into a calorimeter containing a known weight of distilled water . The temperature of the calorimeter will rise , owing to the introduction of the heated liquid , and the elevations , in temperature produced by different liquids will , in this case , be directly proportional to their specific heats . The following Tables give the means of the various results obtained . Four series of experiments were made . In the first series the brass weight was employed ; it was heated to a temperature of about 98 ? C. In the second and third series the copper weight was used , heated to about 98 ? and 42 ? C. respectively . The fourth series was conducted in the ordinary manner . Specific heat of 5 per cent. spirit ... ... ... . . 10 per cent. spirit ... ... ... 20 per cent. spirit ... ... ... ... 30 per cent. spirit ... ... ... ... 36 per cent. spirit ... ... ... ... 43 per cent. spirit ... ... ... ... 83 per cent. spirit ... ... ... ... Series 1II ... ... 101-5 Series I. 103-55 Series II . 103-49 Series III . 103-83 Series IV . 103-71 Mean ... ... . . 103-64 Series I. 104-16 Series II . 104-27 Series IV . 104-49 Mean ... . . 104-30 Series II ... ... . 102-47 Series II ... ... 9990 Series II ... ... 97-59 Series II ... ... 65-88 The authors finally draw special attention to the circumstance that the specific heat of these mixtures not only rises in some cases ( up to an alcoholic strength of 36 per cent. ) above the specific heat of water , but is above the calculated mean specific heat up to an alcoholic strength of about 74-80 per cent. ; beyond which it seems slightly below the calculated mean according to the researches of Regnault and Kopp . The maximum elevation above the calculated mean coincides pretty closely with the point of maximum contraction .

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3701662

Researches on the Blood.--On the Action of Nitrites on the Blood. [Abstract]

339

342

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Arthur Gamgee

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6.0.4

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112526

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112526

Chemistry 2

Physiology

Chemistry

I. " Researches on the Blood.-On the Action of Nitrites on the Blood . " By ARTHUR GAMGEE , M.D. , F.R.S.E. , Assistant to the Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in . the University of Edinbnrgh . CommnLnicated by Prof. FRANKLAND , F.R.S. Received April 1 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) The paper commences with a statement of the facts with which we are at present acquainted , relating to the nature and character of the bloodcolouring-matter , and its relation to gases . I. The actioni of nitrites in modifying the colour and spectrum of blood is then described . Under the influence of nitrites , arterial blood assumies a chocolate coloration . Coincidentlv the bands of scarlet cruorine ( or oxidized hmamoglobin ) become very fainit , and an additional absorption band , occupying the same position as that of acid hbematin , appears . The addition of ammoniia to blood in which nitrites have induced the characteristic change of colour and spectrum , causes the red colour to returni and gives rise to a new spectrum in which the normal blood-bands are again better defined , but accompanied by a faint and rather undefined absorption band in the orange . It appears from the experiments of the cauthor that the change in optical properties induced by ammonia is not due to any decomposing action exerted upon the body formed under the influence of nitrites ; for on neutralizing the solution to which ammlonia has been added , the original spectrum is reproduced . When sulphide of ammoniuLmi , or a reducing-solution of iron is aclded to a blood solutioni which has been acted upon by nitrites , all effects of their action disappear , and the solution agaia possesses the spectrum of oxidized blood-colouring-matter , although precanYOL . XVI . tions have been taken to exclude atmospheric air . The continued action of the reducing-solution then leads to the reduction of the blood-colouringmatter , which when shaken with air again yields the perfectly normal spectrum of blood . It would therefore appear that when nitrites act upon the blood-colouring-matter they do not decowpose it , nor thrust out or remove the loose oxygen with which it is combined . II . The author then describes a series of experiments instituted with the object of determining whether blood which has been acted upon by nitrites has lost its power of combining with the atmospheric oxygen . The apparatus and methods used are described , and it is shown that the amount of oxygen which nitrite-blood absorbs is much smaller than that absorbed by normal blood . III . In the next series of experiments the author made use of carbonic oxide gas as a reagent to indicate whether after the action of nitrites the loose oxygen of the colouring-matter is still capable of expulsion by CO. With this object the blood was arterialized by agitation with air and treated with a solution of a nitrite . After some time it was brought in contact with a measured volume of pure carbonic oxide ; after being well agitated and allowed to remain in contact with it for some time , the gas was removed and analyzed . It was founid in these experimenits that , after the action of nitrites , the loose oxygen of the blood-colouring-matter ( which the observations mentioned under 1 . had been shown to be neither expelled nior taken possession of by the nitrite ) was so locked up as to be irremoveable by carbonic oxide . IV . The methods which have been employed by other observers for removing the gases from the blood are then examined , and the author describes the way in which he employed Sprengel 's mercurial aspirator to effect the object which he had in view . He shows that with this instrument and following his method , the gases of the blood may be separated by boiling in vacuo during twenty-five or thirty minutes . The gases of both lnormal blood and blood treated with nitrites were boiled out in vacuo , their amount estimated , and their composition determined . It is shown that when blood has been acted upon by a nitrite , the amount of oxygen which can be removed by ebullition in a very perfect vacuum is immensely diminished , the greatest difference being perceived when the nitrite had been in contact with the blood during the longest period of time . V. Although blood which has been acted upon by nitrites has , to a great extent , lost its power of absorbing oxygen , it still retains the property which normal blood possesses of ozonizing the atmospheric oxygen . Nitrite-blood reacts with guaiacum paper exactly like normal blood , and when added to a solution of peroxide of hydrogen , it causes an evolution of oxygen . VI . The changes in the optical properties of blood are shown to be due to the formation of compounds of the nitrite used with oxidized haemoglobin ; these compounds , with , the exception of that with nitrite of silver , present the same crystalline form , colour , and spectruim , whatever the nitrite which has been employed . The author has obtainied compoun:ds of heemoglobin with nitrite of sodium , potassium and silver , and with nitrite of amyl . The methods of preparing them are described , and the results of anialvsis given ; these show that the amounit of a nitrite which adds itself to oxidized hmemogrlobin varies considerably . haviniig stated the conclusions which he thinks may legitimately be drawni from his investigations , the author conieludes by making somue observations upon the relation which the compouinds of nitrites with h , mnoglobin bear to the previously known hbemoglobin compounds . We have hiitherto been acquainted with hxmoglobin itself , as well as with its 0 , CO , and N2 02 coinpouinds . These compounds are all isomorphous , and possess almost the same physical characters ; in each of them hbemoglobin free from ox ygen ( i. e. reduced hbemoglobin ) has apparently linked to it a molecule of 0 , CO , or N2 02 respectively , the stability of the compound being , least in the case of the 0 , and.greatest in that of theN2 02 compouiid . All these bodies , and preeminently the 0 compound , are examples of a class of boclies which stalnd , as it were , on the boundary line which separates chemnical from physical combination , being examples of the class to whielh the term " c molecular compounids " has been given . Like obher molecular comnpounds , their composition varies extraordinarily within certain linits , and is influlenced by circumstanices and conditions which have rno action on chemical compounds proper . That a body possessing such a very complicated molecular structure as hmmoglobin should present numerous poilnts of attachmenit , as it were , for the linking on of such active conadensed bodies as the n.itrites is not improbable ; nor is it remarkable that , as in the case of other combinations " of a molecular kind , " suich as the union of salts with their water of crystallization , of sugar with bases , of albumen with metallic oxides , of the compound ammonias with iodiine , the amount of the new and more simple body added to the hammoglobin should vary within wide limits . Simultaneously with the researches which the author has conducted on the action of nitrites on blood , those now being made by Iloppe Seyler * and Preyer t1 although discrepant in many particulars , seem . to show that hydrocyanic acid possesses , like nitrites , the power of linking itself to oxidized hmemoglobin , forming a body which is isomorplhois wit it , btit possessing a ; different absorption spectrum , and incapable of absorbing oxygen . This body appears not to possess the power of ozonizing the atmospheric oxygen , a fact which is straange , as , besides being possessed by the 0 com'i\feclicinisch-cheinisel.e Untersuichiingen . Zweiter Hleft , 1867 , Cyan w as , e:ostoffhcinoglobinverbindfhimgein , p. 201 . t Dio IJrsaclie cer Giftigleit defs C kankalliuimn iimlA cTeh , Bla.-LiuALe , rVOn W. Preyer . irehllow 's Archiv,.13d . xl , 21 Ift . Sept , J867 2 j.~ pound , this property is also possessed by the CO and N2 03 compounds of hoenioglobin , as well as by the nlitrite compounds of oxidized heemoglobin . It is probable that we may now find that a large number of condensed bodies have the property , like the nitrites , of forming combinations with the bloodcolouring-matter .

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3701662

Microscopical Characters of the Rhythmically Contractile Muscular Coat of the Veins of the Bat's Wing, of the Lymphatic Hearts of the Frog, and of the Caudal Heart of the Eel. In Three Parts.--Part I. Microscopical Characters of the Rhythmically Contractile Muscular Coat of the Veins of the Web of the Bat's Wing.--Part II. Microsopical characters of the rhythmically contractile Muscular Coat of the Lymphatic Hearts of the Frog.--Part III. Microscopical Characters of the Rhythmically Contractile Muscular Coat of the Caudal Heart of the Eel. [Abstract]

342

343

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Thomas Wharton Jones

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6.0.4

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112527

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112527

Biology 2

Biology 3

Biology

II . " c Microscopical characters of the rhythmically contractile gMuscular Coat of the Veins of the Bat 's Wing , of the Lymphatic Hearts of the Frog , and of the Caudal Heart of the Eel . In Three Parts.-Part I. Mlicroscopical characters of the rhythmically contractile Muscular Coat of the Veins of the Web of the Bat 's Wing . " By THOMAS WHARTON JONES , F.R.S. , Professor of Ophthalmic Medicine and Surgery in University College , &c. Received April 8 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) This is Part I. , of a series of three , of a paper on the microscopical characters of rhythmically contractile muscular tissue , other than that of the blood-heart . It comprises a reexamination of the microscopical characters of the rFythmically contractile muscular coat of the veins of the bat 's wing , and is offered by the author as Appendix No. 3 to his paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1852 , entitled " Discovery that the veins of the Bat 's Wing ( which are furnished with valves ) are endowed with rhythmical contractility , and that the onward flow of the blood is accelerated by each contraction . " This reexamination supplies additional details , illustrated by more correct figures , confirmatory of the author 's previous description of the microscopical characters of the muscular coat of the veins of the bat 's wing . The author examines also , by way of comparison , the tonically contractile muscular coat of the arteries , and points out that , though the fibrils of the muscular coat of the veins do not present transverse markings , they differ in their microscopical characters as much from the fibrils of the muscular coat of the arteries , as the transversely striped muscular fibrils of the bat 's heart do from them . He insists , therefore , in conclusion , that there are no grounds for an implied physiological form of the doctrine of isomerism , viz. similarity of structure , with different endowments . Part II . " Microscopical characters of the rhythmically contractile Muscular Coat of the Lymphatic Hearts of the Frog . " Received April 13 , 1868 . The author , in this second part of his paper , first calls attention to the fact that , on viewing the anterior lymphatic heart from the front , after dissecting down upon it from the back , he sometimes found its cavity filled with air or blood . The way by which the air or blood had entered 34 he considers to have been through the lymph-spaces opened into in the course of the dissection ; and the mode of entrance he considers to have been by suction during diastole of the heart . The sucking action , by which the heart thus draws air or blood into its cavity when the lymph-spaces are cut into , must operate , according to his view , as a means of promoting the flow of lymph in the natural state . After describing the mechanism of the process , the author examines the microscopical characters of the proper muscular tissue composing the wall of the lymphatic heart . The result of his observations on this point is , that the muscular tissue of the lymphatic hearts of the frog is similar to that of the veins of the bat 's wing , as regards both its granular semitransparent aspect and the breadth of its fibrillations , whilst it differs from the muscular tissue of the blood-heart of the animal in being destitute of transverse markings . Part III . " Microscopical characters of the rhythmically contractile Miuscular Coat of the Caudal Heart of the Eel . " Received April 21 , 1868 . The caudal heart of the eel lies in a kind of framework on the abdominal aspect of the extreme end of the vertebral column . The body of the last caudal vertebra forms the dorsal side of this framework , and a ridge of bone , extending along its concave abdominal aspect , must project into the caudal heart , partially dividing it into right and left compartments . The caudal heart of the eel would thus appear to represent the two caudal sinuses of certain other fishes run into one . From the manner in which the caudal heart is connected with the surrounding structures of the tail , its movements are communicated to them as described in the author 's paper , entitled c"The Caudal HI-eart of the Eel , a Lymphatic Heart , " &c. By the elastic recoil of the structures , on the other hand , the cavity of the heart is drawn into a state of dilatation ; and the result must be , as in the analogous case of the anterior lymphatic hearts of the frog , that lymph will be forced into the heart from the adjacent lymphatic vessels or spaces . The muscular fibres composing the walls of the caudal heart resemble in shape the sheathed primitive fasciculi of the muscles of the skeleton , but are only half as broad , and they are not transversely striped . They have a granular aspect , and on close examination are found to be a fasciculus of fibrils 1-Q of an inch broad , contained in a delicate structureless 10,000 sheath . These fibrils resemble the fibrils of the muscular coat of the veins of the bat 's wing , and of the muscular coat of the lymphatic hearts of the frog , and may be grouped , the author thinks , together with them under a common head , viz. unstriped rhythmically contractile muscular ibrils . 843

112528

3701662

On Waves in Liquids. [Abstract]

344

347

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. J. Macquorn Rankine

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6.0.4

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/112528

Fluid Dynamics

Geography

Fluid Dynamics

III . " On Waves in Liquids . " By W. J. MACQUORN RANKINE , C.E. , LL. D. , F.R.S. Received April 16 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) ( 1 ) Object of this Paper.-It has long been known that in an uniform canal filled with liquid , the speed of advance of a wave in which the horizontal component of the disturbance is uniform from surface to bottom is equal to the velocity acquired by a heavy body in falling through half the depth of the canal . But , so far as I know , it has not hitherto been pointed out that a similar law exists for waves transmitting a disturbance of any possible kind in a liquid of limited or unlimited depth , provided only that the upper surface of the liquid is a surface of uniform pressure . The object of this paper is to demonstrate that law , and to show some of its applications . ( 2 ) Velocity of Advance defined.-Throughout this investigation the velocity of advance of a wave will be defined to be the mean between the velocities with which the shape of the wave advances relatively to a surfaceparticle at the crest , and to a surface-particle in the trough respectively . In ordinary rolling waves the velocities of particles in those two positions are equal and contrary , so that the speed of advance as above defined is equal to the speed of advance of the wave relatively to the earth . A wave of translation in which the velocities of particles at the crest and hollow are not equal and contrary , may be regarded as produced by compounding the motion of a rolling wave with that of a current whose velocity is half the difference of the velocities of those particles . ( 3 ) Relation between hleight of wave and horizontal disturbance at the surface.-The followingrelation between the height of a wave and the horizontal disturbance of the surface-particles has already been proved and made use of by various authors ; and it is demonstrated here for convenience only . Let uand --u1 be the velocities of a surface-particle at the crest and trough of a wave respectively . Let a be the velocity of advance of the wave as defined in article 2 . Conceive a horizontal current with the uniform velocity -a to be combined with the actual wave-motion ; the resultant motion is that of an undulating current , presenting stationary waves in its course ; and the forces which act on the particles are not altered . The resultant velocity of a particle at the crest becomes -a+ u_ ; and the resultant velocity of a particle in the trough becomes ---u1 . Let the height from trough to crest be denoted by Az ; then , since the upper surface of the liquid is supposed to be a surface of uniform pressure , the principle of the conservation of energy gives the following equation : V2 { ( p + U-nr ( a-u)r}i z on ... .i . ( 1 2 ) ( 4 ) Virtual Depth of Uniform Horizontal Disturbance.-By the phrase " virtual depth of uniform horizontal disturbance , " or , for brevity 's sake , virtual depth , I propose to denote the depth in the liquid to which an uniform horizontal disturbance would have to extend , in order to make the amount of horizontal distZrbance equal to the actual amount . That is to say , conceive that a pair of vertical planes normal to the direction of advance , and each of the breadth unity , coincide at a given instant , one with the trough-line or farrow , and the other with the crest-line or ridge , which bound one of the slopes of a wave . We will suppose this to be the front slope , merely to fix the ideas ; for similar reasoning applied to the back slope leads to the same results . At a given depth Z below the surface , let -u't be the horizontal velocity with which particles are in the act of passing backwards through the plane of the trough , and + ut the velocity with which particles are passing forwards through the plane at the crest ; then the rate by volume at which liquid is passing into the space between those two planes is S u'dz+S u"dd ; the integrations extending from the surface to the bottom . Let k denote the virtual depth ; then k=ud . +_5u _d.e ( 2 ) 2u1 ( 5 ) Relation between Virtual Depth and Speed of Advance . In an indefinitely short interval of time dt , the volume of liquid which passes into the space between the two vertical planes mentioned in article 4 , is 2kcu1dt ; and in order to make room for that volume of liquid , the front slope of the wave must sweep in the same interval of time through an equal volume . But the volume swept through by the front of the wave is adtz ; so that , cancelling the common factor dt , we have the following equation : aAz= 2kcu ; but , according to equation ( 1 ) , As 1 ; which value being substituted in the above equation , gives 2aWul , 2k~T and therefore = ka , and a =V ; *. . ( 3 ) so that the velocity of advance of a wave ( defined as in article 2 ) is equal to that acquired by a body in falling through half the virtual depth ; and this is true for all possible waves in which the upper surface is a surface of uniform pressure . ( In article 6 of the paper , the speed of advance of a wave of translation is expressed by combining the speed of a rolling wave , / gk , with that of a supposed current , as stated in article 2 . 1868 . ] In articles 7 , 8 , and 9 the law which connects the speed of advance of a wave with the virtual depth is compared with the already known laws of the transmission of rolling waves in water of limited or unlimited depth . The principal results may be summed up as follows . Let T be the periodic time of a wave , in seconds ; h=-T2 the equivalent pendulum , that is , the height of the pendulum whose period is the same ; c= len ththe rolling 2r radius , being the radius of a circle whose circumference is equal to a wavelength ; u1 the greatest horizontal velocity , and w , the greatest vertical velocity of a surface-particle ; a the velocity of advance ; then V/ uu ^ ' ul 2and k= . C=.2 . ) ut1 ut ( 10 ) Oblique Advance of Forced Waves.-Let s be the velocity with which a floating solid body is driven horizontally ; the wave which that solid body pushes or drags along with it is forced to advance at the velocity s also ; while the virtual depth of disturbance , k , bears some relation to the depth of immersion and figure of the solid body . If the speed of advance corresponding to that depth , a= V-gk , is less than s , a pair of wave-ridges diverge obliquely from the path of the floating body towards opposite sides ; and the sine of the angle which each of those ridges makes with that path is a. Such is the mode of formation of the obliquely spreading waves which travel along with ships . When the velocity of the floating body is less than the speed of advance corresponding to the depth to which it disturbs the liquid in its immediate neighbourhood , it is probable that the virtual depth of disturbance of parts of the liquid beyond the immediate action of the floating body adjusts itself to the velocity , and assumes the value- . g 1 . Possibility of Obliquely Advancing Tidal Waves.-It is possible that instead of a depth less than the virtual depth corresponding to the speed of advance of a tidal wave , the ridge of that wave may place itself in a position oblique to the parallels of latitude , according to the principle stated in article 10 . It still remains to be ascertained , by the study of tidal observations , whether such phenomena take place in the tides of the ocean . 12 . Terminal Velocity of TVaves.-It is known that in deep water all waves left free from the action of disturbing forces tend ultimately to assume the condition of free rolling waves whose velocity of advance depends on See Watts , Rankine , Napier , and Barnes , ' On Ship-building , ' Division I. Article 156 , p. 79 . their periodic time , and is expressed by the equation a= 2- . This , then , may be called the terminal velocity of a wave of a given period . It follows that if a wave is raised through the disturbance produced by a solid body , that wave will at first travel with a speed depending on the virtual depth of the original disturbance ; but as it advances to a greater and greater distance from the disturbing body , the velocity of advance will gradually approximate to the terminal velocity corresponding to the periodic time , and the virtual depth will continually adjust itself to the changing velocity , and approximate gradually to the equivalent pendulum corresponding to the periodic time . Such is the cause of the forward curvature of the ridges of the obliquely diverging waves which follow a ship* .

112529

3701662

Scientific Exploration of Central Australia

347

364

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

G. Neumayer

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0074

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112529

10.1098/rspl.1867.0074

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112529

Biography

Geography

Biography

I. " Scientific Exploration of Central Australia . " By Dr. G. NE-UMAYER . ComnuiLinicated by the Presideut . Received April 20 , 1868 . If we look on a map of the Australian continent published ten years ago , we are struck by the immense expanse of land then unexplored ; we perceive at a glance that the south-eastern sea-board only of this great continient had them been examined with any degree of accuracy , and that very little was known to us respecting the character of its shores on the west and north-west . In two quarters only had the zeal and daring of the explorer succeeded in forcing a path towards the cenitral portions of this vast territory , Sturt having penetrated as far as 240 Southl and l38 ? East , and Gregory as far as 21 South and 1280 East . The nature of the country traversed by these two eminent explorers was such as to countenance the supposition , that the interior of Australia was little better than one vast desert , offering almost insuirmountable obstacles to exploration . The idea , originally advaniced by Oxley , that the greater part of the interior was occupied by vast inland lakes , was then abandoned ; and the theory just mentioned took its place . In such a state of utter uncertaintv as to the niature of the interior of a vast continent , it is but natural that various theories should be started ; and no doubt they will , in the end , help to keep up the spirit for rigorous examination and exploration , vet care must be taken that they do not , by the unfavoourable niature of their suppositionls , tend(I to discourage enterprise . From such a daniger we had a niarrow escape during the years following A. C. Gregory 's exploration of the interior , and his expedition in search of Dr. Leichhardt , as at that time it was generally believed that the arid plains and stony deserts met with in the east and south , and the sandy desert in the nlorth-west , were but the outskirts of a desert country unparalleled on our globe . Fortunately , however , for the progress of civilization and geographical knowledge , this unfavourable opinion as to the nature of the interior was not universally entertained . MIany men , well versed in terrestrial physics , especially with reference to the Australian continent , could not , from reasons based upon meteorological observationls made in the south-east , concur in the prevailing belief . They urged the possibility of tracts of fine country interspersing the so-called desert , and the necessity , in any case , of clearing up the mystery still surrounding this important geographical question ; and in this view they were stronigly supported by the improbability ( generally speaking ) of the existence of a desert country of such enormous extent and such a description in any part of the earth 's surface . It would be useless to enlter now upon the arguments for and against the various opinions set forth during that period of uncertainty , except that they might in some instances serve to put us on our guard againist advancing or accepting bold conjectureswhich may be put forward at any future time , and more particuIlarly in the special case we have to deal with in this paper . Suffice it to say , that the spirit of enterprise and the desire of increasing our geographical knowledge triumphed at last . The year 1860 gave a fresh impulse to Australian exploration , and will for ever be memorable as having inaugurated a new era in this respect . In the end of that year and the beginning of 1861 , Burke and Wills crossed the continent with comparative ease . It was now said by many of the adherents of the old desert doctrine , that Burke had merely hit upon a narrow strip of good country , which carried him across ; had he but deviated to the one side or the other of his path he must have failed in his attempt . But when M'Dougal Stuart three ti-Mes crossed and recrossed the continent in other parts , and the last time from shore to shore-when M'Kinlay made his way from South Australia , by wav of the Gulf of Carpentaria , to the coast of Queenslanid , driving before him a flock of sheep-when Walker and Landsborough had accomplished their journeys through the imaginary desert countrythe old opinioni could no longer be maintained , and the desert theory fell utterly inito discredit , at least as far as the easternl part of the continent is concerned . Since that time this once so much dreaded task has been several times successfully accomplished , so that we are now enabled to give a pretty accurate description of the features of the country forming the scene of these glorious achievements ; and as it will doubtless prove of material assistance to the complete understanding of the following exposition and plan , I may here be permnitted to give in a few words an outline of the main character of the grounid to the north of the parallel of latitude 260 , between the coast-ranges of Queensland and Stuart 's route through the centre , which emnbraces nearly the whole of the country discovered anci examined since 1860 . From the records of the various explorers , it would appear that the line which divides the waters flowing to the coast , and those flowiig to the interior , runs from 19 ? S. on Stuart 's track to 190 S. latitude on Lan'dsborough 's south-west expedition , in 1380 east longitude . According to Ir . M'Jntyre 's apparently reliable observations , this line would then pass through 22 ' S. in 141- ' E. , whilst JiVHKinlay places in the same locality the watershed between the Middleton and Mdller rivers , in a latituide but slightly differing from that just named ; and in Walker 's Diary we find it passing through 21- ' S. and 145 ' E. , where I find the highest elevation recorded by the latter explorer on his expedition in search of Burke and Wills . Mr. A. C. Gregory 's exploration places the conitinuLation of this line of watershed through the north-west in 13 ? S. and 1300 E. , whilst in the east it meets the main watershed between the Belyando and Thomson on the one side , and the Burdekin and Flinders on the other , in about 210 S. and 145- ? E. ( See accompanying map . ) The sweep of this line leads across a sandstone tableland of considerable elevation-in parts even as hiigh , if we may rely on the data hitherto collected respecting it , as 1900 or 2000 feet . On its coast side this tableland inlclines somewhat abruptly , whilst towards the interior it slopes more gently , thus affording a ready explanation of the marked difference existing between its river-systems , those flowing in the former direction passing through well-defieled valleys , while those in the latter direction run generally in shallow beds , and are consequently subject to excessive evaporation and inundation according to the season of the year . The general incline of the country from longitude 1450 to Stuart 's track in about 1350 is towards south-west , unitil reaching near the latter its lowest point , as we feel justified in concluding from the great number of hot springs on the route Stuart pursued when crossing the continient . This immense tract of land abourids in creeks and ill-defined water-courses . In many cases the dividing or separating ridges of sanidstone are ( probably from the effects of floods and weather ) broken up , and cover the surface , which them presents a desert-like appearalce , only here and there covered with a scanty vegetation , coinsisting mostly of Spinifex ( Triodia irritan , s ) . Very frequently , however , these ridges have succeeded in . resisting the destroying effects , and we then meet with valleys of good soil , covered with fine grass and gum forest ; which state of things , happily for the future of the Australian continent , seems to predominate , as we learn from the reports of explorers who passed through fine country after having once entered the tropic . These water-courses of the interior basin drain partly towards the Barcoo River ( Cooper 's Creek ) , partly towards the south , splitting up into innumerable little creeks and rills without any definite direction . As an example of the latter kind may be mentioned the Burke Creek , which at times causes immense inundations in the tract of country ilear 25 ' S.and 140 ' E. , as we learn from the reports of Burke , Wills , H1owitt , M'Kiinlay , and Gregory . To the south of this region the at one time so much dreaded " Stony Desert " seems to extend in the maanner indicated on our map ; and it certainly bears every appearance as if this region of sandstone was principally caused by the effects of the inundations and floods already referred to . For whereas it is very easy to trace this peculiar phenomenon to the south , it is hardly possible to define it exactly towards the north , which fact accords well with the explanation of its true origin just suggested . The careful researches of Mr. B. Ilassenstein* have tended to throw niew light upon this subject , and reduce the Stony Desert to its proper limits . We know now that the arid plains described by some explorers , which others had found well grassed and covered with an evein luxuriant vegetation , are the receptacles of the waters flowing from the north , and form the boundary of the Stony Desert ; we know moreover that extensive tracts of fine country are interspersed with strips of " stony desert " of a very limited extent . Such is the nature of the whole country , as far as we know it , from the meridiall of 1450 to Burke 's track . Of the country between the latter 's course and that of Stuart very little is known ; but it is not unreasonable to suppose that it will prove to be mostly of the same description as that already well known to us , as it forms only the lower part of the interior basini above described , the very bottom of which we have been made tolerably well acquainted with by Stuart 's exploration , which bears out that supposition . Furthier to the west , in the unknown coulntry between Stuart 's track and the west coast , the same sandstonie tableland probably rises again to the high ranoes which have been observed by the various explorers who have penetrated into the interior from the west , attaining in some parts any elevation of from three to four thousand feet above the ocealn . Therefore it is not at all unlikely that we shall find in the western half of the central basin in the main the same state of things which we have foiund to exist in the east , with but suich slight modifications as may be determ-ined by the configurationi and lay of the country in connexion with , the prevailing system of winds and contingent mneteorological phenomena . In order to complete the general descriptionl of this portioni of the Australian continent , we must call to mind the effect a tropical and subtropical sun must naturally exert upon a territory constituted as this inlterior tableland . During the tinme the sunl is north of the equator , in the winter months of the southerii hemisphere , the prevailing winds are from southeast all over the northern continent , with little and only occasional rain ; but on the sun 's approach , during October and November , the monsooni shifts to north-west , and brings on the rainy season , gradually advancing from south to north in the middle of December and January . At the end of this season , in February and March , and about the time precedinio the shifting back to south-east of the monsoon in April , the heavy fills of rain and the soaked state of the soil cause those imrieDnse floods which are Pottormanaiii , 1itth eilungonl , 1867 , p. 80 . recorded in the Journals of the various explorers ; and it is during this period that in the territory south of the Burke Creek and north of the Stony Desert , as we have already explained , great ravages are caused by inundation . Further to the south the meteorological phenomena of the northern portion of the continent pass gradually over to those prevailing in the south , namely that of two alternating currents of air , with winter rains and a short rainy seasoni in September and October . Great as have been the recent achievements with regard to the geographical knowledge of the continent , comparatively little has been done by any one of the exploring expeditions towards the advancement of science . Information calculated to throw light on the elevation of the interior or on its geological character flows very scanltily from the journals kept by the explorers ; and even the astronomical determinations of localities must , at least as far as longitude is concerned , be received with caution , as the means at their disposal , the comparatively small practice of most of the observers in determinations of this kind , and the very methods employed , would hardly admit of anything like a close approximation to the truth . Indeed we may safely assert that it would have been scarcely compatible with the general pioneering object of parties in the field since 1860 to have devoted more attention to matters of science , strictly speaking , than was sufficient to carry them through the difficulties they had to encounter . Perhaps it may not be considered out of place if I express here my deep regret , on this very grounid , for the untimely death of my young friend , W. J. Wills , the astronomer of Burke 's expedition ; for , had he but survived . his first feat , there can be but little doubt that his zeal for the advancement of science , and the knowledge he h-iad obtained during , the time he was on tl.e staff of the Observatory over which I them presided , would have enabled him to take the first place as a scientific explorer , whereas we can now only admire him for his courageous and enterprising spirit as a pioneer . This hope , however , is at an enid ; and up to the present time absolutely nlothling has been done towards the scientific examiniation of the vast interior of Australia-an examiniation of such immense importance for the advanicement of almost every branch of physical science , and for the development of the natural resources of this great country . It is with regard to this matter that I venture to address this Society , with the view of soliciting , its important assistanice in starting any expedition , having for its object the e.ploring of the western half of Australia ; and the scientific survey of the route across the entire continent . When the celebrated Australian explorer , Dr. Leichhardt , started on the expedition which was to be his last , he did so with the intentioni of crossing the continent from east to west , for the purpose of discovering the extenit of Sturt 's desert , and the character of the western and north-western coas and of observing the gradual chag , e in vegetable and animal life from onie side of the continent to the other@ " . It is now exactly twenty years * I{istory of Discovery and EExploration of Australia , by thoe Rev. J. E. T. Woods , vol. ii p. 518 . since this grand idea was conceived and attempted to be carried 6ut . The last news of Dr. Leichhardt is dated April the 3rd , 1848 . Subsequenit to this date nothing has been heard of him ; and deep mnystery still surIroullds his fate , notwithstanding the many efforts which have since been made ' originally to rescue the explorer and his party , and subsequiently , whe'n all hope of agaia seeing any of them alive was abandoned , to ascertaini the manner in which they perished , and the lecaluty where it occurred . No doubt , to 'Many it may have appeared premature on the parit of Dr. Leichlhiardt to have entered upon such ain undertaking at a time when so little was known of ' the niature of the initerior aRs to make it utterly impossible to lay down a route across the continent on any oth1er ground than-i that of mere conjecture . Circumstances , however , have since that time chaniged considerably ; at least one half of the continent has since been explored in such a way as to make us acquainted with the natulal resources an explorer may expect to meet with and turn to account , whilst even from the western coast numerous expeditions have tended to diminish the risk with which such any undertaking would be invested . And in directing the attention of this Society to Dr. Leichhardt 's idea , with the view of seeing it carried out , I do so withi the conviction that now the proper time has arrived for taking in hand an enterprise of such importanice for the future of the Australian cololnies , and especially for the advancement of science , and thereby manifesting alike our appreciation of the various interests at stake , and of the noble mind who risked all he had in their furtherance . In the execution of such a work , its scope may now be materially extended . Instead of a rough survey on a single line from north-east to south-west , with an apparatus which allowed of but a limited attention beino paid to strictly scientific matters , it is niow proposed to form a base-line for the various branches of science through the interior of a vast continent . That suchi a work can now no longer be regarded as impracticable or prenmature , and that its successful completion cannot be otherwise than replete with the greatest interest , I hope to be able to show in the course of this paper . After these introductory remarks , I shall proceed to detail the plain which I propose to follow in carrying out the exploration of the western half of the continent , and the scientific survey of the line of route to be followed in traversing the interior from the east shores of Queensland to Western Australia . It is proposed that the expedition be organized in Queensland , probably on the Burdekin , near Port Denison , in 200 south latituide . Fromn a point in 260 South aild about 1480 East it will strike out for a point in 241-South on Stuart 's track . So far the interior has to some extent been explored already , and it can be pricted with some degree of certainty , with what dlifficulties and with what facilities the expedition . will probably meet* . From this point , which I designate on the accompanying map by the letter B , the ori inal starting-point being A , to the south-western T f-ic greater part of the coutnctry bet-w'eeii th east coast and Burke 's frtic wlvill probably 1ha , ve been , taken up fo st squatteiug pulspe sea in a rely few years . extremity of the continent , nothing is known ; and in choosing a practicable route , we must be guided entirely by surmises as to the natuire of the country , based upon the supposition that we shall most probably h-iave to deal with a state of things in the west very similar to that already known to exist in the east . I shall , in the first place , however , lay down the eiitire course , and them enter upon my reasons for having done so . Prom point BI propose keeping nearly on the same parallel as far as point C , in longitude 1253 ` East ; from thence proceeding on the same neridian to a point in 27 ' South , and thence to a point D in 11 East alnl 31k South . Near the latter point , on our route to Pertb in WVestern Australia , we shall strike the SW%an River . The entire distance on that route is about 2649 mniles , of which 1080 conmprise the distance from A to B , and the remainder that from B to C and D , an allowance of 20 per cent. being made for curvature , which percentage must always be understood when reference to distance occurs in the course of this paper . As a close examination of the coautry traversed is the primary object of the expedition , it is proposed to accomplish it in thirteeni stages , so that fourteen separate depots will yave to be establisshed during its progress , each depot being intended to be retained only for such a the as will be requisite for the survey cand exploration of the surrounding country , and for the forrmationl and transport to the next . Froiu A to B the numlber of depots will be six , so that the average distance between two consecutive depots will be 216 miles , while from B to C and C to D there will be eight depots , with an average distance of 200 miles . On the map these depots are marked ; but it is evident that it is next to impossible to assign them their proper positions with any degree of accuracy , as these will depend so much upon circumstanices at present almost entirely unknlown to us . It is only for the line froma A to B that we are enabled to fix with any certainty the positions of such depots , as we are already acquairnted with some localities the nature of which will probably recommend them for such a purpose . Thus we should propose fixing depot No. 2 on the meridian of l450 and near Walker 's track , depot No. 3 on the Middleton River of M'Kinlay , depot No. 4 near the " fine open plains " of Burke and Wills , and depot No. 6 on Stuart 's track somewhere between the Fincke and Hugh rivers , in each of which cases the country is described as well grassed and provided with permanent water . For depot No. 6 , and depots 7 to 12 , we have no data whereby to guide us , until we again approach the regionis already explored from the west . As it is proposed from these various depots to strike out in different directions , they will have also to be selected with a view to enable these minor expeditions to yield the greatest possible amount of information with respect to the largest possible tracts of country . With reference to the time required for accomplishing the whole expe-dition in a manner co-mi-nensurate with the scientific objects of the undertaking , it may be said , that it is proposed to devote three years and six months to it , of which fftees months are taken up by the exa iinationi of the country between A and B , and twenty-seven months for the exploration and scientific survey of that part of the route withini the entirely unknowni region between points B and D. Now let us examine what prospects of success this would allow for the performance of the task proposed . The distance from the Burdekin to Stuart 's track may easily be travelled through , at the moderate rate of tenl miles a day , in 108 days , or three mnonths and a half , allowing , a time of stay in each of the several depots of nearly two months ( 1P9 ) . Forth route through the westerni country , the time has been increased at a rate proportioniate to the increased risk incurred and the care to be bestowed upon the explorations within its regions . The time requisite to travel over the line from B to D would be about five moniths and a half , which would allow of a period of stay in each of the depots of 2-4 months ; couinting , however , depot No. 6 twice , as it is proposed , for reasons presently to be explained , to prolong the stay at that point beyond the time generally allowed to the other depots . From this exposition , it is evident that ample opportunities are offered for anl exact study of the ground travelled over with referenice to the various branches of science to be included in the scope of the entire work , This will become still more apparent on the further unfolding of the details of the organization of the expedition . Dr. Leichbardt intended to t-ravel over nearly the same distance in about two years and a half , and that too without having also , as regards the eastern portioni of the Contineint , any information whiatever to guide him in his route ; and it was probably to some extenit owilig to the insufficiellcy of time allowed by him for the carrying through of such an extensive undertaking , and the consequent deficienlcy of provisions and outfit , that be failed in its accomplishmiient . The extent , moreover , of the scientific labours proposed to be undertaken on this occasion is something widely different from what exploers twenty years ago could att-mpt , and is such as would of itself alone justify an increase of time by twelve months . I shall now have to enuilmerate a few of the reasons promptingn me in proposing the route I have laid down in . the preceding pages . From what I have already said respecting , the character of the tropical and subtropical interior of Australia , it appears that the line of rouite from the Buidekin to the Fincke of Stuart passes , as far as known , through practicable coulitry , well watered and grassed , abounding in game of all kinds , and likewise well peopled with aboriginials . M1Te are on this route likely to meet with the most practicable country in the interior we propose to explore and examine , and shall probably shun entirely the so-called desert countrv , subject to destructive inundations . There is much likelihood that the unknown regions in the west bear in maniy respects a great lesemblance to the eastern half ; and I therefore feel inielinedl to believe that on the same parallel of latitude ( 230 S. ) we shall meet wi-ith no greater obstacles to progress than we are likely to eincounter in the east . Tiie ex.plorations of 'Jr . Gregory in the same latitude and in longitude 11 70 seem to corroborate this opinion , as the country appeared to him from that point towards the east to bear for many miles a promising appeararace . Observations made in other parts of the north-west littorale of Australia confirmn this view , and some of the rivers have been supposed to take their origin in high granite and trap ralnges three hundred miles from the coast . They would in this case be only four hundred miles from our point C , towards which the high western tableland , of which these raniges are probably the watershed , inielines until again reaching the lowest part near Stuart 's hot springs and the lake district forming the receptacle of the drainage fro-m the Barcoo River . The course proposed passes very nearly through the centre of the unknown interior , and offers therefore , as an inspection of the map will shovw , anl opportunity for exploring these unklnowni regions , and most likely also for tracing the limits of Mr. Gregory 's sandy deserts in the north-west . With reference to the south-west extremity , I accept for the greater part the suppositions thrown out by the Rev. J. E. T. Woods respecting its nature , first ably set forth in a letter addressed to the 'Melbourne Argus ' some years ago , and again repeated in his excellent work on Australiani explorationi ( vol. ii . p. 511 ) , from which we quote the following passage . Mr. Woods says , - " If the western end of the tableland be on an average two thousand feet high , there must be a drainage to the interior nearly equal to that which cauises so many rivers on the west coast . The watershed has never yet been crossed from the west side ; but one cannot help remarking that wherever it has been crossed elsewhere good land has been found . It is no evidence against the existence of a river that none are found on the south coast , especially in the Australian Bight , where it would be most likely to appear . Many places in the interior have aln extenisive drainage , which never reaches the sea . The Barcoo drains into Lake Eyre , which is the receptacle of maniy other streams . A stream from the west coast might empty itself into Lake Gairdner* . There must at any rate be some important drainage in connexion with that large sheet of water . " It is scarcely needful to add anything to the reasons here set forth for the necessity of the existenice of a large drainage area in the south-western extremity of the continent ; but it may perhaps be not out of place to recall to mind here that the Barcoo River ( Cooper 's Creek ) drains a territory or niearly nine degrecs of longitude and seven degrees of latitude before emptying itself inito Lakes Eyre and Gregory , forming , after its bifurcation near the locality where the final scenes of the Burke and Wills tragedy were enacted , any immense river delta , far exceeding any of the well-known deltas in the worlcl . If we now place a drainage system , in dimenlsions similar to that just spoken of , to the west of Lakes Eyre and Gairdner , it would in all probability be intersected by the course proposed through the western interior . An expeditioni , after having , onice struck such a river-system , would of course have to follow up the discovery ; and would , in its further course tow > vards south-west , have mainly to be It I rat'her feel inclined to believe that thoe receptacle spoken of is formecld by some lakes to the north of the Anstlalian Bight , yet undiscovered . According to the recent exploratio-n of M\ajor Warburton . guided by the watercourses , without however losing sight of its primary object . It is not unlikely that , by the time the proposed expeditionl would reach the country north of the Australian Bight , expeditions from Western Australia , and even from the recently opened harbour on the south coast ( Eucla ) , will have thrown new light upon this subject , thereby considerably facilitating this portion of the unidertaking . It has already been mentioned that at point B on Stuart 's track it is proposed to make a longer stay thaan in any of the other depots . The principal reason for so doing is to afford the expedition at that stage an opportunity of comrmunicating with the settled portion of South Australia , previous to entering on the unlknowrn territory to the south-west . A srmall party may be detached from the maiin body for the purpose of travelling to the nearest point of settlement , on which occasion collections and documents may be sent to Adelaide or Melbourne , as well as any iniformationi received which may be of imiportance for the progress of the expeditio , and chiefly such respecting the progress of exploratilon in Australia , havinn an imumediate bearing oln the problem at issuie . Such an expedition -may also present an opportunity of exchanging or making , up our complereMent of men and horses , replenishing stores , &c. Tlhat this does not present any serious difficulty in execution we know from Stuiart 's expeditions , who on an average travelled the distance from the Fiicke to Mount iMargaret * ( Ml'r . Jarvis 's station ) in twentv-four days . It is therefore fair to suppose that within ten weeks this party could proceed to the first settlements and return , after having accomplislhed its objects . In the preceding part of this paper I have laid down . the track I propose following , and have , I believe , succeeded in explaining the reasons which guiided me in doing so . I have avoided , however , alt matters of detail as to the branch expeditions , which are intended to be undertaken . on both sides of the main route , as such expeditions must to a great extent depend on the nature of the country to be explored , on which poirnt our knowledge is still very scanty . I shall now in a few words give an outlinle of the scientific objects of the expedition , and then proceed with some details respecting its organization and probable expense . An expedition passing through the centre of such a vast continent , tra-velling through 32 degrees of longitude and 12 degrees of latitude , cannot be otherwise considered than as productive of the most material advantages to the cause of science generally , provided the plan of its working , be such as accords with the present state of scientific inquiry , and the conduct of the whole be entrusted to competent halnds . It is frequently supposed that , in expeditions of this nature , it is expedient to confine the scientific researches and observations within the narrowest limits . Indeed , a rigorous scientific inquiry is frequ ently thought inicompatible with geographical discovery . This is a grievous mistake , and has invariably proved to be such whenever an expedition has takeni the field , in the organization of which Probably the stations are niow still further advanced towards the north. . proper attention hbacl been paid to the objects it had to serve . There is no doubt that the many unemuployed hours , even of those of the party generally and more exclusively engaged upon explorationl matters , :may , for the benefit of the well-being of the whole expedition , well be turned to account in assisting scientific inqluiry . On such principles the scientific plan of operations of thie proposed expedition , as detailed hereafter , ias been framed . It ineluLdes the following brainches 1 . Astronomical Science and Surveyinzg . In addlition to such operations as are absolutely liecessary foi the mapping of the country , it is proposed to organize a system of observations of the mooni , with a view to assist lonigitudinal determiniation . Such more accurate d.et-ermniiations of the geographical position may be carried out at the varlious depots above spoken of . 2 . Terrestrial Physics and AEeteorology.-Systematic registration of meteorological phenomena and terrestrial magnetisiu is likewise to be carried out at the depots , particularly with a view to assist barometrical measuremiients of elevations and magnetic observations in the field . If it should prove at all practicable , it would likewise be advisable to include in the general plan of working observations on the length of the pendulumn vibrating seconds . 3 . Geology , Paltontology , aznd lineralogy.-A geological sketch-map of the whole route across the conitinent is to be made , and palaeonitological specimens are to be collected . Special attention has to be paid to the mineral resources of the country travelled over . 4 . Botany.-Observations on the physiology and geographical distributioni of plants are to be included , and collections made . 5 . Zoology and Conmparative Anatomy , including Ethnology.-This branch is likewise to be attended to with a view to assist physiological studies , and to examine into the applicability of Darwin 's Theory on the Fauna of Auistralia , ancient and modern . Collections are to be made . Character and language of the aboriginals in the various parts of the continent are to be studied . 6 . Sketching and Photography.-These arts will be employed muore particularly for the purpose of representing the character of the various tracts of country passed through- , but will have likewise to assist the various branches , of science in the complete execution of their parts . I refrain from eintering into particulars respectiuig the general scheme of scientific work to be adhered to in the course of the expedition ; the more so as it is iintenlded that the authorities in the various scientific branches , both in England and(l in the colonies of Australia , slhould be consulted on this matter , and their cooperation and advice solicited . It is especially by the aicl of the scientific mien and institution , s in Auistralia , and their extenisive labours in the various branches of science , that I am led to hope for a great success in the seientific part of the work of the expeditioni , as these labours form an excellent base whereon to build and start from . Thus much , however , I may state , that it is to be made a rule that nothing be included in the plan of immediate investigation while in the field which may well be deferred withotut prejudicing the general objects of the expedition . This rule is to hold good for all scientific branches , and will also be made a guiding principle with referenice to the reduction and discussion of observations , the examining , of natural-history objects , and the collecting of specimens . At the present time , when mystery still surrouunds the fate of Dr. Leichibardt , I should consider myself open to just reproach were I to lay out the plan aid scope of an expedition through the interior of Australia without calling attention to this subject , and including , it among the duties of such any expedition to aid in clearing up that mystery . As remarked at the outset of this paper , twenty years have now elapsed since the utter disappearance of that great explorer , and there is now indeed scarcely any likelihood of rescuing any of his party alive . But the hope of even ascertaining the fate of that brave body of men should never be abandoned until the object be attained , though there can be no doubt that the chances of our doing so grow smaller from year to year , every fresh inuindation or coniflagration of large tracts of forest diminishing them considerably . The scientific survey entailed upon such an expedition as that proposed offers great facilities also for the promotion of a search after tr-aces of the missing explorers . In addition to which I consider it of extreme importance for such a purpose that the search should be instituted in the direction in . which the missing expedition intended to move , the more so as all efforts to cut Leichhardt 's probable route at right angles have hitherto provedl ineffectual . When we consider that the eastern portion of the Australian continent has been so frequently crossed and recrossed during the last six years without any imaterial informationi having been gained as to Leichhardt 's fate , we feel almost disposed to believe that he shaped his course from Upper Victoria and the Alice River , in a direction somewhat similar to that taken by r. Gregory on his expedition in , search of him , particularly as such an opinion is supported by such an authority on Australianl exploration as Mr. J. E. T. Woods in his recent work . According to his opinioni the explorer was compelled to follow the Barcoo , and may have perished in the country to the west of Lake Eyre and Stuart 's track . But we must not forget that such a course to the south-west would , with this indefatigable explorer , have been equiivalent to giving up his original plans respecting , the exploration-plans which , as far as we are acquainted with them through the Rev. Mr. Clarke of Sydney , and others intimately coinnected with him , would have carried hinl to the west , and even to the north of west . This opinion was also entertained by Mr. A. Gregory , who thought " that Leichhardt had left the Barcoo at its junctionl with the Alice , and , favoured by thunderstorms , penetrated the level desert country to the north-west , where , being unable to returni , they may have perished for want of water . " ( Expedition in Search of Dr. Leichhardt , ]8257-58 , page S. ) Such may be the case , but it may also be that they succeeded in forcing their way tbrough the counitry referred to by Gregory , and therefore the country between Stuart 's and Burke 's tr ack must be well examined withi a view to find traces of the party . Although it may at first sight appear difficult to conceive that Stuart could hay , e passed six times through the country which Leichhardt most probably crossed on his way to the west without observing any trail or mark of the latter 's course , nevertheless there is no improbability in such being the case ; and unremitting zeal should be displayed throughout the whole expeditionin endeavouring to lift the veil from off this sad tragedy . Should the expedition fail in finding the remains of the party in the east , they will have to search for them in the west and south-west extremity of the continent . Any expedition through the vast interior of Australia , with such an extended scheme of operations and so many important matters to attend to , should be organized on such a base as to give fuill guarantees for being able to accomplish its main objects , as well as to protect itself against attacks of the aboriginals and the destructive effects of unforeseen misfortunes . It is therefore proposed that the expedition shoiuld numlber twenty-five men . The following is the plan showing how the exploring , expedition proper is to be composed : Leader , assistatnt leader , storekeeper and overseer , saddler and tentmaker , blacksnmith and wheelwriight , twelve stockmen , and three aboriginfals . To these are to be added the following ' scientific men of the party:-l . Geologist and mineralogist ; 2 . Botanist and chief medical officer ; 3 . Zoologist , palmeontologist , and mnedical assistant ; 4 . Artist , photographer , and custos of collect , ions ; ,5 . Assistant for plh ; ysical science and observer . With reference to the organization of the party , so as to enisure a satisfactory cooperation of all concerned , it is proposed to adhere to the following principles : 1 . The scientific members of the expedition , with the exception of the leader and the assistant leader , do not form part of the exploring party proper , but are unader the leader 's supervision , and may be employed as may appear to him desirable for the advancement of the objects of the expedition . 2 . The exploring party proper consists of the leader as first officer , the assistanlt leader second officer , and the overseer third officer , two artisars , twelve stockmen , and three aboriginals . 3 . The exploring partv proper is to be dividedl into three bodies of men a. Depot _party.-Storekeeper and overseer , saddler and tenit-maker , three Men , and an aboriginal . To this party the assistant observer is to be attached . 6 . Field Party I.-Leader , blacksmith , four men , and an aboriginal . To this party any of the scientific m-en may be attached as best answering the purpose , care being , however , taken that one of the medical meni be included among them . c. Field Party II.-Assistant leader , five men , and an aboriginial . To this party &c. as above . 4 . The depot party remains in the depots which will successively be formed in the course of the expedition . It will chiefly be employed ill.keeping everything in repair and good order , in preparing , provisions , and propagating useful plants , The sick and conivalescent are likewise to be received inito it . Systematic registration of meteorological and magnetical phenomella is to be car'ried on by it under the imnmediate superintendence of the assistant observer . 5 . The field parties will be employed in such a manner that one will be examining the neighbourhood of the depot , say thirty miles round , while the other will undertake the larger excursions on both sides of the main route . In case of a removal of the depot in the direction of the main route , all parties will have to cooperate . It is proposed , moreover , to employ the field telegraph , as well for the promotion of the scientific objects as for the more satisfactory cooperation of the whole party engaged . The perfectioni to which ballooning has been brought by the zeal and energy of Mr. Glaisher makes it not unlikely that it may be employed with advantage in this expedition for the facilitation of the exploring and mapping of tracts of country otherwise barely accessible . For means of transport it is l)roposed to employ fifty horses and eight or ten camels , which latter animals have now been acclimatized in the colonies , and show a special fitness and adaptation for Australian exploring work . We may niow add a few words as to the probable amnount of expenditnre an expedition of this kind would involve , referring , however , for particulars to the appendix . The following is an abstract of the probable expense -1 . Expenses previous to the organization of the expedition X ? 880 00 2 . Ouitfit of the expeditionl , exclusive of provisions ... ... 2,980 00 3 . Salaries , wages , and contingencies for three years and six month . 17,675 00 Total expenditure . X ? 21,535 00 This estimate has bee i framed without regard to any expenses in connexioni with the publication of the results of the expedition . The sum may , at first sight , appear somewhat large ; but when we come to take into considerationi the objects which the expedition professes to advance-when we renember that , for the first time in the history of Australian exploration , the various governm-ieiits are to uniite in support of a uniform and wellplanned scllemne of exploration--when we consider that this sum is to be distributed over a period of three years and a half we caninot fail to perceive the moderate amotunt of the sum proposed to be expended . It is proposed that the expenditure for this great schenie of exploration of the vast interior of Australia , and the scientific researches contingent upon it , shall be borne by the mnother couatry in conjunction with the various Australian colonies . So sooni , therefore , as an arrangement to that effect may have beeni arrived at , trustees should be appointed , residing , in the colonies , who would act as a Committee of administration , such Committee to consist of not more than five mnembers . All funids would be placed at their disposal , and all money transactions in connexion with the expedition would be made under their supervision and subject to their approval . The objects of the expeditioni having been attained , and the time arrived when the same is to be broken up , the residue of the stock and storeshorses , camels , equipment , instruinents , provisions , &c. -would be handed over to the Committee of Trustees , to be disposed of as they might thinlk fit . All observations , journals , maps , natural-history collections , drawings , and photographs , without exception , would likewise be handed over to the Committee of Trustees on the completion of the expedition , in order that the same may be turned to account in furtherance of the interests of science , and of the various countries that have taken a part in this great undertaking . Members of the expedition would not be permitted to make private collections , and nonie of the results would be made public , unless by special authority of the Committee of Trustees . Such are the objects and leading principles of an expedition which I hope to be able in person to carry out ; and I trust it will not be deemed presumnptuous on my part if I add a few words in support of my clairns to be entrusted with the conduct of so noble an enterprise . I have been connected with Australia , with brief interruptions , ever since the year 1852 , and the greater part of that long interval of time has been employed by me in studying the physical character of that great continent . In 1858 I succeeded in establishing an Observatory at Melbournie for the advancement of our knowledge of terrestrial physics , and my labours and publications on the observations made up to the time of my resignation and retirement from that institution in 1863 , will in a very short time come to a conclusion . The magnetical and other observations collected during my travels through Victoria , part of New South Wales , and of South Australia , comprising an area of nine degrees of lonigitude and six deg.ees of latitude , are now in course of publicationi on belhalf of the colony of Victoria . As soon as this is 'acco mplished , I purpose again to devote my energies to further inquiries respecting the physical geography of Australia , but on this occasion likewise as any explorer . In this determination I am prompted by no other motives than the advailcenient of science , and any attachment towards a rising counitry-an attachment not uninatural , after a connexion extendding over a period of so many years . It is on these grounds that I solicit the powerful support of this Society in this great national undertakinc , , which , I am persuaded , will , if successfully carried out , conduce equally to the advancemenit of the interests of scienice and to the material welfare of Australia . MeIen nay differ as to the mode of proceeding in its execution ; but none , I presume , will venture to deny its importance , especi-ally with regard to the development of the natural resources of that immense area , in the interests of civilizationnone , I feel sure , will oppose it as being premature or inopportune . It would be presumptuous on my part were I to urge the importance of the opening up of the western interior for the successful settlement of Western and North-Western Australia , which at some fiuture time , and under certain contingenicies that might arise , would have a most important bearing on the security of the British possessions in India , For I am well aware that men , regarded as authorities in colonial policy , have long ago brought this subject under the consideration of the Governlment . Nor need I speak of the enilightenied spilit in which the various Governiments in Australia have ever shown themselves ready to assist the cause of exploration and scientific research . The imany and valuable contributions that science , in niearly every one of its branehes , has received from the colonies cannot fail to assure us of their assistance and cooperation in a systematic and scientific exploration of the unknown initerior rounLd which they are clustered . I feel confident there needs but an impulse from England , and the sanction of its highest scientific authorities , to secure for the undertaking a ready assent and streniuous support on the part of the people and the Govelrnments of Australia . APPEN DIX . A.--Annual lxjqenditiere of the Expedition . a. Salaries and wages for the maembers of the expedition proper . 1 . Leader , ananually ... ? 450 ttlO 00 Assistant leader , annually. . 350 00 Storekeeper and overseer , aiiniially 200 00 Saddler , tent-maker , &c. , monthly ? 12 144 00 Blacksmith , wheelwright . , m oltilvt 144 00 V288 00 2 . rTlwelve stockmenat ? 8 a month . ` ... ... 1 152 00 Tlhree aboriginals a-t 04-I a month 144 0 0 ? 1296 00 6 . Salaries for the scientific nen . Geologist , mineralogist ! , annually.300 00 Botanist and medical officer 300 00 Zoologist , palveontologist , mnedical cassistant 300 00 Artist and photograper . 300 00 ASsistant observer for physical scienice . 2 . 200 0 0 ? 1400 0 0 TOTAL SALARIES AND WAGES..1. . ? 1288 00 C. 2 1296 0 0 ... ... ... ... ... . . 1400 0 0 ? 3984 00 c. Expenditure for provisions , tobacco , &c. ? 866 00 And for wear and tear and repairs . 200 0 0 ? 1066 00 Total of the annual expenditure..1 03984 0 ? 5050 00 Total for three years and a half.17675 00 B.-Expenditure of the Expeditionfor Instrunments , Outft , exclutcsive of Provisions . 1 . Instruments-Astronomical t200 00 Physical and meteorological..250 00 Physiological and botanical..80 00 Surgical medicine-chest. . 60 00 Geological..40 00 Photographical ... 50 00 Packing and transport to Australia 60 0 0 ? 740 00 2 . Tools and implements , including rifles , revolvers , ammunition , rockets , blue lighits , horseshoes , &c. ? 400 00 3 . Tents , a boat , and a small iron vehicle..300 00 4 . Sad dlery , including thirty riding saddles and pack saddles , water bags , & c , ... . ? 440 00 5 . Live stock ; fifty horses at ? 20 each . ? 100O 00 Some sheep. . p. . 100 0 0 ? 1100 0 0 TOTAL OUJTFIT . 1 ? 740 00 2 ... ... . 400 ) 0O 3 . 300 00 4 ... ... ... 0 440 00 5 ... ... 1100 0 0 . ? 2980 00 C.-Eependittere duriny ann pvior to [ le Oryan zation of 1he Expedition . Expenses in Europe ... ? 100 00 Passage money for the officers to Australia ... 380 00 Probable expenditure prior to the organization . 400 00 Total . S80 00 GRAND TOTAL EXPENDITURE . A ... ? 17,675 00 B ... .2,980 00 C : e ee e. e* o* e* . 880 0 0 ? 21 535 0 0

112530

3701662

On Some New Derivatives of Acetone

364

367

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Maxwell Simpson

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0075

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112530

10.1098/rspl.1867.0075

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112530

Chemistry 2

Chemistry 1

Chemistry

II . " On some New Derivatives of Acetone . " By MtAXWELL SIMPSON , M.D. , F.R.S. Received April 18 , 1868 . The compounds which form the subject of the present paper came accidentally under my notice whilst I was engaged in an unsuccessful attempt to form leucic acid by a new synthesis . By saturating a mixture of acetone and absolute alcohol with dry hydrochloric acid gas , I had hoped to form a body having the composition C5 It OC1-C3 H6 O+ C2 IE O+ HIC =0 5 I1 OCl + H20 , and that this , when treated successivelywith cyanide of potassium and caustic potash , would have yielded the desired acid according to the following equations : C , HliOCl + KCy =C0 HI , , OCy + KCI , and C HI , OCy +K}+ ifI }o 41 K03 + 113 C , K,1Oy+ t } o0+ } o=C0 , I , KO , +Ni3 . By saturating the above mixture with hydrochloric acid , I obtained , it is true , a large quantity of a chlorinated oil ; but I could not ascertain whether it was the compound I expected or not , as I found it impossible to render it sufficiently pure for analysis . I therefore subjected it directly ( having simply washed it with a dilute solution of carbonate of soda ) to the action of the before-mentioned , reagents* . The results were altogether unexpected . I have since ascertained that the chlorinated oil can be obtained without the intervention of alcohol . I will now give a detailed accountof my experiments . Dry hydrochloric acid gas was passed to saturation into a quantity of pure acetone contained in a glass vessel surrounded with cold water . The product was set aside for ten or twelve days , and then well washed with a dilute solution of carbonate of soda . Equal weights of the oil thus formed and of pure cyanide of potassium were then introduced into a glass balloon together with a large quantity of alcohol . The balloon was attached to a reversed Liebig 's condenser , and subjected for about twelve hours to the temperature of a water-bath . At the expiration of this time its contents were , when quite cold , filtered , and the precipitate well washed with cold alcohol , and then with cold distilled water till the wash-water ceased to give a precipitate with nitrate of silver . A white powder was thus obtained which was insoluble in cold water and in cold alcohol . Boiling alcohol , however , dissolved it to a small extent , from which it crystallized on cooling in beautiful shining plates like naphthaline . These sublime at a high temperature ( about 300 ? C. ) , apparently without decomposition . It is a neutral body and contains nitrogen . It does not evolve ammonia when heated with an alcoholic solution of caustic potash . It is decomposed by nitrous acid , with the production of a compound having acid properties . The composition of this body I hope to be able to give in a future communication . I will now turn to the alcoholic solution filtered from the neutral body I have just described . This I introduced into a balloon together with some sticks of caustic potash . The balloon was then attached to a reversed Liebig 's condenser , and exposed to the temperature of a water-bath till ammonia had ceased to be evolved . When this was observed , the alcohol was distilled off and the residue dissolved in water . The solution was then neutralized with hydrochloric acid , filtered , evaporated considerably , and then treated with a large excess of the same acid . After standing for some time it became a mass of crystals . These were thrown upon a filter and washed with cold distilled water till the filtrate ceased to give a precipitate with nitrate of silver . The powder obtained in this way was readily purified by crystallizing from hot alcohol , and then from boiling water . From the latter solvent it separates in brilliant colourless prismatic needles , sometimes upwards of an inch in length . Dried at 100 ? C. , these gave the following numbers on analysis , which accord sufficiently well with the formula C , H3 NO3 : Theory . Per cent. I. IT . III . IV . C8 ... . 96 56-14 56-28 56-79 H113 ... . 13 7-60 7-97 8-21 N ... . 14 8'19 ... . 832 8-23 03 ... 48 28-07 171 100-00 I have also prepared and analyzed the silver-salt of this acid . The results I obtained confirmed the above formula . Experiment . Theory . Per cent. I. II . Mfetallic silver 1 38'84 38'98 38'70 ( C8 H2AgNO ) }38'84 3898 38.70 . The salt was obtained in beautiful mother-of-pearl plates by boiling a solution of the acid with an excess of freshly prepared oxide of silver . It is very soluble in water , and is not much affected by light . It does not suffer decomposition when dried at 100 ? C. The new compound has an acid reaction , and displaces carbonic acid from the soluble carbonates . It is insoluble in cold , pretty soluble in hot water and in cold alcohol , and sparingly soluble in ether . It melts at 171 ? C. The nitrogen appears to be retained with unusual force within the molecule of the new acid . It refuses to give it up in the form of ammonia when subjected to the action of an alcoholic solution of potash , a fact we have already learned from the manner of its formation . Neither can it be made to yield it up by exposing it to the action of nitrous gas . I have tried this gas upon a solution of the acid both in water and nitric acid . It dissolves in large quantity in strong hydrochloric acid , and , on standing , crystallizes out unaltered , not combining chemically with that body . The salts of thfs acid are , as a general rule , very soluble in water . The neutralized acid yields no precipitate with nitrate of silver , corrosive sublimate , or chloride of barium . It renders a solution of acetate of lead but slightly turbid , and communicates a red colour to perchloride of iron without precipitating it . The soda-salt is very soluble and does not crystallize well . It is prepared by neutralizing the acid with carbonate of soda . One molecule of the acid , assuming it to have the composition C , I11 , NO , , I found required exactly one molecule of pure and recently ignited carbonate of soda for complete neutralization . This experiment , and the composition of the silver-salt , render it highly probable that the acid is monobasic . A The mercury-salt crystallizes in beautiful pearly plates . It is prepared by boiling a solution of the acid with freshly precipitated oxide of mercury . It is a very soluble salt . * The salt which served for this analysis was made from a freshly prepared batch of the acid . 366 [ May 14 , When acetone is saturated with hydrochloric acid , several condensed compounds are formed , which remain in union with the acid . The question now arises , which of these compounds generate the acid we have just been studying ? and which the neutral body ? In the hope of determining this point , I prepared the two most important of these compounds in a state of purity , namely oxide of mesityle and phoron , and saturated them with hydrochloric acid gas . After the lapse of twelve hours the two saturated bodies were well washed with water , and treated separately with cyanide of potassium and caustic potash in the manner I have just described . The results were decisive . The mesityle compound yielded the acid , and the phoron compound the neutral body . The following equations will explain the formation of the acid : CG O+ 2 HC1 =C , H 12 OC12 , C0 H12 C012+ 2KCy= C , H12 OCy2 +2 KCl , and CG H1 , OCy+ K}+OJ OC8 = 12 KNO3+NII , . Potash-salt of new acid . It will be observed that only one of the cyanogen atoms is transformed into C OOK . The foregoing derivatives of acetone are , I think , in many respects very remarkable bodies . I therefore propose to submit them to a careful study . I propose also to ascertain whether or not the true aldehydes yield analogous bodies when treated in a similar manner .

112531

3701662

Researches on the Hydrocarbons of the Series C\lt;sub\gt;n\lt;/sub\gt; H\lt;sub\gt;2n+2\lt;/sub\gt;. No. IV

367

372

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

C. Schorlemmer

fla

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112531

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112531

Chemistry 2

Atomic Physics

Chemistry

III . " 'Researches on the Hydrocarbonls of the Series Cn H1 , ? +2.No . IV . " By C. SCHORLEMMER . Communicated by Prof. G. G. STOKuES . Received April 13 , 1868 . On the 2relation between Boilingpoint and Chemical Struicture . It is from researches published only during last year that we have obtained a more definite klnowledge of the chemical structure of some of the hydrocarbons of the above series , so that we are enabled to explain the mode in which the carbon atoms are uinited . This has been achieved by obtaining these hydrocarbonls by synthesis from other compounids , the structure of which is perfectly well known . Thus Frieclel and Ladenburg* prepa-red , by acting upon methylehlor[CH3 acetol , C{ CH3 , with zincethyl , the hydrocarbon C7 II1 , , which they call CI3 carbdimetliyldiethyl , and which has the structure CC Ci5 . Butlerow t lC 15 replbced in tertiary butyl alcohol the group -10 by hydrogen , and obtainied an isomer of diethyl to which he gives the nam-e trimetfi-Ylormen , 0 113 a cu3 . 1h Imy last communication . to the Society I described di-isopropyl and amylisopropyl , and poiined out their constiutioi 3 ' Fiirther , Erlenmeyer has shown that ainvl alcolhol an-id butyl alcohol florumed by fermlenltation h3ave the following ' structur et : Btityl alcoliol . Amiiyl alcolhol 0113 01-3 0H13 c 3.\ / K/ c 1 ? C011 CH 20 H c~~~ 12011T U-H2 UH These two compounds contain , therefore , the group isopropyl , C0(C01)2 , which also must be present in the hydrocarbons derived from these alcohols . All hydrocarbons of known structure may be arralnged in four groups ; the members of each group , which are liquids at the mean t6mperature of the air , exhibit a very regular increase in the boiling-point for each increase of CH1 , ist . group . Hydrocarbons in which each atom of carbonl is united with not more than two other carbon atoms , or in which the carbon iatoms are arranged in a single chain . T'o this group belong the three lowest members of the series C0l 1-12 , +2 , of which lno isomers e.xist , as w , ,ell as ' diethyl , 04 11 , hebexyihydride , C - , , , derived from suberic acid 1 , and heptylhydride , C7,111G from azelic acid ? . Ily reasolns for considering that the two last ones belong to this grouip are : ( 1 ) They boil at a hiigher temperature than their isomers of known structure ; and we fiuld that the simpler the mainier in , which the carbon atoms are combined , the hihler the boiling-point . Thus we have , Di-isopropyl boils at 58 ? C. Ethylbutyl boils at 62b C. 0113 073 0113 0113 Oil01 t ~~~~~~~if CI3 CEII-t 01.1 * Proc. Rov . Soc. vol. xvi . p. 34 . f Zeitsclrift ffir Cheroie , vol. iii . p. 11 7 . + Journ. Chem. Soc. N. S. , vol , ii . p. 260 . ? Proc. Roy . Soc. vol , xiv . p. 464 . Now hexylhydride boils at 690-5 C. , and the only structure more simple thaii ethylbutyl is the following , which mutst express that of hexylhydride , C1H3 CII CH2 0112 0112 CH 20 113 The same is the case in the hydrocarbons having the composition C7 H , i Carbdiinetlyldlietbl v. Etliylainyl . ITeptyllivddride , Boiling-point 860 . B3oilin ; 0-poiint 910 . Boiling-poin t1 000 5 . 0f13 ci03 c0-13 CII3 CII , ( \1-I I cl~~i 0I1 H13 0C-CH 3 CI ci.2 012 0112 I 013 012 I CE CII . CH3 C013 1132 CH 3 ( 2 ) The formationi of these hydrocarbons points out that they milust have a very simple constitution . The acids from which they are derived arctl obtained by the splitting up of comiipoulnds containing , a large number of carbonI atoms , and from these acids they ( hydrocarbonis ) are derived by a fulrther scparation of carbon The difference in the boiling-points of hexvlhydride and heptyllhydride is 31 ? C. Boiling-point . 0 CG 0 , I. . 69-5 C7I if ... . . 100 53 The hydrocarbon C.H01 , , founid in American petroleum appears to be i(lentical with that prepared from suberic acid . The higher specific gravity which the hexyilh dride from rock-oil shows , as observed by Cahours and Pelouze and by me , is occasionied by impurities . As I iave shortly mentioned in my last commnrnication , I have stuidied the action of nitric acid upon this hydrocarbon . On oxidizing in this way about 120 grms. , of which the boiling-Point was 67 ' to 695 and the specific gravity 0-6 709 , at 150 , about 10 grms. were left unattacked , which certainily must have been very pure . This remaining portion boiled at 70 ' , and had the specific gravity 0-6651 ] at 1 6'5 . The he-xy lby1Ddride which Erlenmeyer and WValnklyn prepared from mannite * also exhibits in its boiling-point and specific gravity a close agreement with the hydrocarbonl from suberic acid , and appears to be the same , Boiling-point . Spec. grav . C , ; IT1 from suberic acid 69 5 0-6617 at 17-5 , mannite . 68-70 0)6645 at 16 5 , , rock-oil ... ... 70 0-6651 at 16-5 2nd group . Hydrocarbons in which one atom of carbon is united with three others , or which contain the group isopropyl . -The members of this section are trimethylformen , amylhydiide , ethylbutyl , ethylamyl , and the bydrocarbon C8 , " '18 which I have prepared from the caprylalcohol , obtained from castor oil t. Trimethylformen boils at about 1Ia C. ; the other members are liquid at common temperature , and show the same difference in their boiling-points as those of the first group , namely 31 ? . Boiling-point . Observed . Calculated . CTI3 0113 CH3 Amylhydride , Cj62 12 300 300 CH 2 CIT CH3 CH3 CIT3 ci/ Ethylbutyl , C 114 01 62 610 011 CITCIT3 3/ CIT3 CX3 Etb ylaiiyl , . e Cd EI 01 C2 910 920 CHI2 011 CH2 CH 3 Boiling-point . Observed . Calculated . C013 CH03 K\/ CH 11 Octyihydride , 08 1T8 = 01112 ? 323 ( from caprylalcohol ) CH2 CH 2 CH03 3rd group . Hydrocarbons which contain the group isopropyl twice . The differenice in the boiling-points of the members of this groulp is 25 ? C. They are di-isopropyl , dibutyl , which , as I have shown , is identical with amylisopropyl , butylamyl , and diamyl . CH3 EK/ Di-isopropyl , 0y HI = HH 580 *580 / K C113 C0H3 ( Not known ) C0 II , , 830 C013 CH03 K/ C01 Dibutylamyl , }c H1 =2 109 108 ? 011 UH / K C013 C013 0113 011 , K/ rCH2 Butylamyl C. IT , 11,0 C{ 1320 1330 C2 013 UH 2 0113 OL1 3 0113 Boiling-poiint . Observed . Calculated . CH3 CH 3 CEo CIT CH,2 IDiamyl ... .C,0 11222 l580 l580 12 CHi2 CIT / \ . C:H3 CH3 4th group . Hiydrocarbons in which one atomn of carbon is combinied with four other carbonl atoms.-Of this group only one member is known , namely carbdiinethyldiethyl , which boils at 860 . It thus appears that from the boiling-point of a hvdrocarbon of the series C"H2n+2 conclusions may be drawn concerning its constitUtion , just as in the series of aromatic hvdrocarboris . Further researches must show whether the law which I have pointed out in this paper is a general one .

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3701662

Researches on the Hydrocarbons of the Series C\lt;sub\gt;n\lt;/sub\gt; H\lt;sub\gt;2n+2\lt;/sub\gt;.--No. V

372

376

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

C. Schorlemmer

fla

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112532

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112532

Chemistry 2

Agriculture

Chemistry

IV . " Researches on the Hydrocarbons of the Series C , H2n+2'No . V. " By C. SCHORLEMIMER . Commuunicated by Professor G. G. STOKES , Sec. R.S. Received May 7 , 1865 . Oidation Products . In a formev communicationt I have shortly described the action of different oxidizing agents upon some of the saturated hydrocarbons ; the following paper contains some further results which I have since then obtained . One of the most striking properties of these compounids is , that they are with the greatest difficulty acted upon by any oxidizing substanlce in the cold . Oni heating them , however , a reaction sets in , and either they are completely burnt up to carbonic dioxide and water , or other oxidation products besides those two are formed in comuparatively small quanltities ; thus chromic acid produces some acetic acid . Fuming nitric acid , which in the cold shows no action whatever , even if left in conitact with one of these hydrocarbons for moluths , acts rather violently on , gently heating ; acid of the specific gravity 14 acts in a similar way , and pr-oduces the same products , but the reaction is much less violent . The apparatus which I* Compare , about the boiling-points of the aronmatic hydrocarbons , the elaborate paper of Kopp in Annii . der Chem. utnd Pharm. vol. v. ( Supplemenr ) p. 315 . t Proceediings of the Poyal Society , vol. xvi . p. 38 , used consisted of a glass flask of about one litre capacity , the narrow neck of which was several feet in length , and surrounded by a wider tube through which cold water flowed . The hydrocarbons treated in this way were hexylhydride and octylhydride ( from petroleum ) , and diamyl . They were heated with the acid as long as red fumes were evolved ; the liquid left in the flask was then distilled in a retort , until the unaltered hydrocarbon together with the greater part of the diluted nitric acid had passed over . The syrupy residue was heated in a steam-bath as long as nitric acid vapours escaped . A thick syrupy mass was left , from which , on cooling , a crystallized acid was deposited ; on adding water these crystals dissolved , whilst a thick yellowish oil separated . This oil is insoluble in water , but somewhat soluble in the aqueous solution of the crystalline acid , which therefore cannot be obtained quite free from the oily substance by recrystallization only ; but this may be effected by washing the crystals with cold ether , which dissolves very little of them , whilst the oil itself is very soluble . The acid obtaiined from octylhydride and that from diamyl melted at 1800 C. , and showed all the characteristic reactions of succinic acid ; that from hexylhydrlide , from which I obtained only a very small quantity , could not be completely fireed from the yellow oil , and therefore did not show a definite melting-point ; it beg , an to fuse at about 1200 , and became perfectly liquid at 1500 ? ; it exhioited , however , all the reactions of succinic acid ; and the followingnalyses , although they do not agree very well , yet show that it was this compound . From the acids the calcium and the silver-salt were prepared by neu"Itralizing the aqueous solution with calcium carbonate and concentrating the filtered solution by boiling , when the salt separated in microscopic needles . Calciumr succinate obtained in this way has the formula C41E14CaO1+Il{ , 0 ; the qualntities of water and calcium found agree with this composition . The water was determined by drying the salt at 1800 C. , and the calcium by heating the dried salt over the blowpipe uintil the residue had a constant weight . Found Calculated for Acid from hexyl . C4.aO + H2 0 . hydride . Froin diamyl . H{20.e.eee 10-3 per cent. 9g4 per cent. 98 per cent. CaO ... ... ... . 32-2 333 326 To obtain the silver-salts , the solution of the calcium-salt was precipitated by silver-nitrate and the washed precipitate dried at 1200 , and the silver determiried by igniting . Fourid From hexylhydride . Calculated for From octvl From diamyl . C4IL{ A201 1 IT . hydride . Ag G6506 per cent. 62-3 p. c. 64d1 p. c. 64 6 p. c. 64 7p . c. The yellow oil which is formed besides succinic acid contains nitrogen ; it is not volatile , and decomposes on heating ; caustic potash converts it into a red resinous substance . It dissolves very easily in faming nitric acid ; on boiling this solution for some time the oil is converted irnto a white solid , which separates as crystalline powder on addition of water , and which crystallizes from alcohol in large flat needles . I did not obtain sufficient of this compound for a satisfactory analysis ; also the quantity of succinic acid obtained is always very small in comparison to the amount of hydrocarbon used , which is to the greatest part oxidized to water and carbonic dioxide . The distillate obtained after the oxidation contains , besides unaltered hydrocarbon and diluted nitric acid , also a small quanitity of fatty acids and of nitriles . I have only examiined those which were derived from diamvl . The liquiid was neutralized with sodium-carbonate , the diamyl separated and distilled ; after the hydrocarbon had passed over , the thermometer rose , and between 230 ? -235 ? a small quantity of a yellowish liquid passed over , which had the characteristic smell of the nitriles of the fatty acids . On heating it with an alcoholic potash solution , ammonia was giveni off . I tried to convert the potassium-salt thus obtained into the silver-salt , but obtained the latter only in small quantity and in an impure state , so that I could not analyze it . The boiling-point of the nitrile agrees with that calculated for caprinitrile , C , o E,0 N. The solutioni of the sodium-salts was evaporated , and the residue distilled with a small quantity of nitric acid ; the acid distillate , on which oily drops swam , smelt of valerianic acid . It was neutralized with ammnonia , and precipitated with silver-nitrate in three fractions . ( 1 ) Fraction contained 45 27 per cent. of silver . ( 2 ) , , 46 84 ( 3 ) 4.9 50 , Silver-cenanthylate contains 45-57 per cent. Agn , and silver-valerate 51-67 per cent. Ag . The fatty acids , which were formed by oxidizing diamyl with nitric acid , consisted therefore of cenanthylic , valerianic , and no doubt also caproic acids . I have further examined the products which are obtained by oxidizing the amyl acohol derived from petroleuLm . As I have shown in a former communication* , the amyl compounds obtained from fusel-oil appear to be identical with those from petroleuim , as they have the same specific gravity and the same boiling-points ; the only difference which I found is that the boiling-point of amylhydride is about 40 highter than that derived fiora the fermentation alcohol . The whole quantity of amyl alcohol which I had prepared from petroleum was only 3 grammes . As oxidizing mixture I used a soluition of two parts of potassiuim biehromate in ten parts of water , to which was added three parts of sulphblric acid . The alcohol was added to the cold liquid , and the reactioni moderated by suirrouniding the flask with cold water . As soon as the reaction was finished the liquid was distilled , and the acid distillate , which smelt strongly of valerianic acid , neutralized with sodium-carbonate ; a small quantity of a neutral oil remained undissolved , which was removed , and the solution of the sodium-salt evaporated to dryness . The residue was distilled with sulphuric acid , and from the distillate , on which an oily acid swam , a silver-salt prepared . ( 1 ) 0'3190 of this salt gave 0 1830 Ag . ( 2 ) 0-2408 of salt of another preparation gave 0 1358 Ag . Salt No. 1 contained , therefore , 57 3 per cent. Ag , and No. 2 56-4 per cent. Ag . This composition differs very much from silver-valerate , which containis 51.67 per cent. Ag ; yet the characteristic odour of the distillate leaves no doubt that a considerable quantity of valerianic acid was present , which must have been mixed with a lower member of the fatty acid series . I soon found that acetic acid was present ; for on distilling the residue in , the retort and collecting separately the last dlistillate , a liquid was obtained which smelt of acetic acid . It was converted into the silver-salt . 0 2340 of this salt gave 0-1485 Ag , or contained 63-46 per cent. Ag , whilst the calculated percentage is 64 67 per cent. Peddler has found that active amyl alcohol yields on oxidation-t , besides valerianic acid , a considerable quiantity of acetic acid* , the same products , therefore , as amyl alcohol from petroleum . The neutral oil above mentioned was treated again with the oxidizing mixture , which had hardly any action on it ill the cold ; it was therefore dried and distilled . The greatest portion boiled betweeni 97`-12020 , and distilled on rectification nearly wholly between 95 ? -100 . It had a pleasant fruity smell , and formed with hydrogen sodium-sulplhite a crystallilne compournd . The analysis yielded the following results:0'3080 substance gave 0 7740 CO2 and 0,3220 12 0 . a ... * . - ... . 685o H. . =1 . 96 O ... ... ... ... ws 19 99 100 0 The only simple formula which can be calculated from these numbers is C5 11O 0 , although the quantity of carboin is I per cenit . short ; probably it contained a little amylacetate ; the odour of it certainly resembled that of this ether , and , as the folloving calculated compositions of C , H110 0 and of amylacetate show , such1 an admixture would lower the percenltage of carbon . Calculated composition of C.o Hlo ? * C5 11l 0 C ... ... ... 69-77 64 61 ... ... ... . . 1163 1 077 O.1860 24 62 100 00 100 00 How this compound , which without doubt was an aceton , has beeil formed I am at a loss to understand . The very small quiantity of liquid boiling above 1200 consisted chiefly of amylvalerate ; at least it had the odour of this ether . I should have wished to be able to give more definite results , but the preparation of amyl alcohol from petroleum is difficult and requires a very lonig time . But as the oxidation-products of the different amyl alcohols are being at present investigated by differeint chemlists , I thought it would not be without interest to publish these incomplete results .

112533

3701662

On the Constitution of Capryl Alcohol from Castor-Oil

376

381

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

C. Schorlemmer

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6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0078

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112533

10.1098/rspl.1867.0078

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112533

Chemistry 2

Agriculture

Chemistry

V. " On the Constitutioni of Capryl Alcohol from Castor-oil . " By C. SCHORLEMMER . Colimmunicated by Prof. G. G. STOKIES , See . R.S. Received May 7 , 1868 . There is perhaps no other compound known which has been so often and so fully investigated by different chemists , and yet whose constitution is clouded in so much obscurity , as the alcohol which is obtained by distilling castor-oil soap with caustic alkalies . Fromn the time of its discovery until recently , this compound has been alterniately considered by one investigator to be capryl or octyl alcohol , and by another to colnsist of cenanthyl or heptyl alcohol . As a proof that it is capryl alcohol , Bouis states that , by the moderate action of nitric acid , a small quantity of caprylic acid is produced , the greater part of the alcohol , however , being oxidized to lower members of the fatty acid series* ; and Kolbe concludes , from the formation of these acids , that it is a secondary or isoalcohol , probably methyl-hexyl carbinol , CC 61-113 t. As I shall show in this paper , Kolbe 's view is correct ; by mode rate oxidation , the alcohol loses two atoms ofx hydrogen , and is convrerted into the corresponding acetonle , methyl cenanthol , the same compound which isgenerally obtained as a byep roduct in the preparation of the alcohol . The alcohol wWehi I used was prepared by distilling a mixture of castor-oil soap and caustic soda in a flask of thin copper-sheeting as quickly as possible . The distillate was repeatedly rectified over fused caustic potash , the portion boiling below 2000 C. only being collected . The alcohol was isolated from this liquid by tractional distillation ; its corrected boiling-point was 18 1 C. The portionis having a lower boiling-point consist of hydrocarbons , which combine with brominie , probably members of the olefine ceries , amongst which octylene , boiling at 1250 C. , preponderates . A considerable q aintity of liquid distilled above 1600 , the boiling-point remaining som-newhat constant at 1 700 C. Neither this fraction nior any other distillate contained an acetone , as none combined with hydrogell-sodium sulphite . According to Chapman , the liquid boiling at 170 ? consists chiefly of heptvl alcohol* . In order to isolate this alcohol , I acted upon the liquid boiling between 1609 i 730 with iodine and phosphorus . The product , subjected to fraction.al distillation , was found to consist of isoctyl iodide , boiling at 21 0 ? -2 1 i5 and of hydrocarbonis , distilling below 1600 ; the portion which came over between 160 ? and 210 ? was very small , and diminished after each further distillation . This shows that no heptyl alcohol was present , and that the original liquid boiling at 170 ? was a mixture of isoctyl alcohol and hydrocarbons , which could not be separated by simple fractioninug To obtaini the oxidation products of isoctyl alcohol , I acted upon it with a solution consisting of 3 parts of sulphuric acid , 2 parts of potassium bichromate , and 10 parts of water , the reaction being moderated by surrounding the vessel with cold water . As sooln as no further action was observed , the liquid was distilled . The distillate consisted of an aqueous liquid , which had a slight acid reaction , and a light oily fluid ; it was neutralized with sodium carbonate , and the oil treated again with the oxidizing mixture , which , however , had hardly anty action upon it in the cold . This oily liquid is miethyl cenantbol ; it has the characteristic odour of that compound , and when shaken with a concentrated solution of hydrogensodium sulphite , solidifies to a mass of pearly white crystals . These were dried between blottin , g-paper , and decomposed by a dilute solution of caustic soda . The oil which separated was dried over caleium chloride ; it distilled completely between I 70'-l 72 ' , the boiling-point of methyl oemnanthol being 171 ? e In order to oxidize this coimpound further , it had to be heated with the oxidizing mixture , when a slight evolution of carbon dioxide was observed . The acid distillate was neutralized with sodium carbonate , and the acetone unacted upon treated again as before . The different solutions of the sodium-salts were evaporated , and the solid residue decormposed by diluted sulphuric acid . Any oily acid separated , which , after drying , distilled at 1980-2000 , which is the boiling-point of caproic acid , the characteristic odour of which it also exhibited . To place beyonid doubt that it was really this compound , a portioni of it was lciitralized with : ammonia and precipitated by silver nitrate . A white curdy precipitate was obtained , which was nearly insoluble in cold water , and only slightly soluble in boiling water . It did not darken either by exposLure to the light or to a temperature of 100 ? . Fromr the hot saturated soluttion it separated as a crystalline powder ; nior couIld I obtain it in definite crystals by evaporating the solution in vacuo . ( 1 ) 0'2407 of this salt gave 0 1170 silver . ( 2 ) 0 3720 gave 0 1810 silver . ' Journ. Chlin . Soc. New Ser. vol. iii . p. 295 . Found Calculated for -C6 HI , Ag 02 II . 48X43 per cent. Ag . 48 & 60 per cent. 48-65 per cent. Another portion of the acid was converted into the barium-salt , which crystallized from a hot saturated solution in long needles , grouped in stars , the characteristic form of barium caproate . 0-2475 of the barium salt gave 1318 barium carbonate . Calculated for ( C 11 02)2 BaFound . 37.33 per cent. Ba . 37 40 per cent. I also prepared the ethyl compouind , which I found to boil at 160o ? 1620 ; the boiling-poirnt of ethyl caproate is , according to Fehliig , 1620 ' . Besides caproic acid , a large quantity of acetic acid was formed , which was isolated by distilling the aqueous liquid from which the caproic acid had been removed . With the first portion of the distillate , oily drops of caproic acid came over ; the latter portion- , which was collected separately , had the pure odour of acetic acid ; it was rectified twice , and the last portion collected , which was boiled with silver carbonate . Fromn the filtered solution silver acetate crystallized on cooling in characteristic long , flat lneedles . ( 1 ) 0 2140 of this silver-salt gave 0(1373 silver . ( 2 ) 05895 of the salt gave 0 3825 silver . Fouiid . Calculated for ---0213Ag 0IL IL . 64'68 per cent. Ag . 64-20 per cent. 64-88 per cent. These experiments prove that the capryl alcohol from castor-oil is a secondary or isoctyl alcohol to which , adopting the nomenclatuire CIT13 proposed by Kolbe t , the name methyl hexvl carbinol , C C6 113 LOH must be given . This alcohol yields , on oxidation , first , the corresponding acetone , methyl oeaianthol , C C3 13 which , under further oxidation , splits 0 up into caproic and acetic acid , exactly as the theory requires . Another question to be answered was , what is the structure of the group TIexyl C6 113 , contained in this isoalcohol ? The caproic acid conitained in fats and that prepared from amyl cyanide appear to be identical with that which I obtained ' . Now , according to Erlenimeyer , in the amyl compounds the carbon atoms are grouped in the following manner : * Ann. cler Chem.und Phario . vol. liii . p. 408 . t Ibid. vol. oxxxii . p. 103 . v Caproic acid deviates the ilane of the polarized light , whilst that from cocoa-nutCC C C , and this grouping must therefore also exist in caproic acid and in isoctyl alcohol . To obtain evidence respecting this question , I coniverted the alcohol into the corresponding hydride by a very simple mnethod , which is a general one , and by which , with the greatest ease , the corresponding hydrocarbon can be obtained from any alcohol . Tlle alcohol was first converted into the iodide , which was brought together with zinc turrnings and diluted hydrochloric acid in a flask which was surrounided with cold water . After a few hours the heavy layer of iodide had disappeared , and a light liquid swam on the top . This consisted almost entirely of the hydrocarbon C8 -1 , , ; traces of iodide and alcohol whicbh still adhered were removed by treating the liquid with sulphluric and nlitric acids , and by distilling it over sodium . The pure hydrocarboni boils constantly at 1240 C. , and has the specific gravity 9-7083 at 12'05 . 0-2870 of this liquid gave 0 8840 CO2 and 04150 I-120 . Calculated . Found . C8 96 8412 84 0 1118 18 15 8 16-1 114 1000 100b 1 As I have shown in my last communication to the Society , a hydrocarbon , having the formula,8 1118 and the boiling-point 123 ? , contains one carbon atom , which is comibined with 3 others , or the carboni atoms are grouped in a similar mianniier as in the anmyl compounds . The structure of isoctyl alcohol will therefore most probably be expressed by the following formula C11-3 Cl-I3\ / CC 1.1 CH~ C 112 CH2 CII 01-1 I cU3I oil is inactive . This physical difference is most probably caused by a different arrangement of tho miolecules , and not by a diffcrent grouping of the atoms in the molecule . By distilling sebacic acid with cauistic baryta , Rich * obtained the hydrocarbon Cs H,1 v which boiled at 127 ? . Rich , however , did not obtain this compound in a pure state . I prepared this hydrocarbonl in the same way , and found that the distillate is a mixture of different compounds , just as is the case when suberic and azelaic acids are distilled with barytat . The pure hydrocarboll , isolated from this mixture by means of strong acids and so on , boils at 1230-1250 , and has the same specific gravity as that from isotyl alcohol , viz. 0 7083 at 12 ? 05 . These two hydrocarbons appear , therefore , to be identical , and the carbon atomis in sebacic acid must also be arranged in a simnilar manner as in isoetyl alcohol . The secondary amyl and octyl alcohols may be coinsidered to he derived from the tertiary butyl alcohol , in a similar maniner as the hutyl and amyl alcohols formed by fermenitation from the seconidary propyl alcohol , viz. BoilingDifferpoinlt . eneC . Cl-I3 CI-3\ / Secondary propyl alcohol , 8424r CH3c 1-1 3~~ o-1\ . / Fermentationa butyl alcobol , C 1080 I Oil 240 CTT Fermentation amiyl alcohol , C 11320 2 C13 M_-3 Tertiary butyl alcohol , co 03 820 CY3 60 " Ann. der Chem. und Pharm. vol. cxv . p. 111 . t Dale , Journ. Chem. Soc. New Ser. vol. ii . p. 258 . 3BoilingDiffbrpoinlt . ce . Secondarr amyl alcohol ? CHI ios0 CII 3 240 CHI3 CII , CI CU2 Secondary octvl lcohol , CLI 1810 12 cEfO2 CHOIL CII 13 It is seen that the differe nc % in the boiling-points iia both series is about 240 for each increase of CH2 ; and fturther , that the boiling-point of a member of the first series is the same as the boiling-point of that meir ber of the second series which contains C-I2 more .

112534

3701662

Announcement of the Intention of the Swedish Government to Send out a New Polar Expedition

381

382

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

A. E. Nordenskiold

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6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0079

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112534

10.1098/rspl.1867.0079

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112534

Biography

Astronomy

Biography

VI . " Announcement of the intention of the Swedish Government to senid out a new Polar Expedition . " In a Letter addressed to the President , by Prof. A. E. NonDE NStiOLD . COMinnilicated by the President . Received May 14 , 1868 . Stockholm , T May 9 , 1868 . DEAR Sin , -Some days ago I had the pleasure of receiving yoUr kind letter of the 12th February , and the same clay I was informed that the sum necessary for a new Polar Expeditioni was fu rnished by some private gentle.inen of Gottenbtlrg . Since then this unidertaking has been embraced withi great interest by the Swedish Goverinment and the navy , who have granted the new expedition a strong and excellent screw-steamer , which will be supplied with provisions for a year . The main object of the expedition will be to penetrate northward from Spitzbergen ; but several naturalists will also accompany it . I hope the new undertaking , will be emibraced by you with the same interest as the former ones , though the measurement of an arc of meridian does not yet make the aim of our enterprise . But I think that during the expedition I shall be able to amend my omission of measuring the hill south of Fairhavcena , ' which surely will furnish an excellent datum for determining * Philosophical Tralisactions , 1824 , p. 290 . the rising of the land in this part of Spitzbergen . I shall also , where the rocks are hard enough for the purpose , bore along the shores as many watermarks as possible , to give in the future sure data for the settling of the same interesting question . If it were possible to obtain a good pendulum we also would make pen dulum observations , at least if the expeditioni remains in these regions during the winter . P.S. The expedition will start from Gotteniburg July the 1.5th .

112535

3701662

Further Observations on the Spectra of the Sun, and of Some of the Stars and Nebulae, with an Attempt to Determine Therefrom Whether These Bodies are Moving towards or from the Earth. [Abstract]

382

386

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William Huggins

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112535

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112535

Astronomy

Atomic Physics

Astronomy

VII . " Further Observations on the Spectra of the Sun , and of some of the Stars and Nebule , with an attempt to determine therefrom whether these Bodies are moving towards or from the Earth . " By WILLIAM HUGGINS , F.l.S. Received April 23 , 1868 , ( Abstract . ) ? I. Introduction . The author states that at the time of the publication of the " Observations on the Spectra of the Fixed Stars , " made jointly by himself and Dr. W. A. Miller , Treas . R.S. , they were fully aware that the direct comparisons of the bright lines of terrestrial substances with the dark lines in the spectra of the stars , which they had accomplished , were not only of value for the more immediate purpose for which they had been undertaken , namely , to obtain information of the chemical constitution of the invest . ing atmospheres of the stars , but that they might possibly serve to reveal something of the motions of the stars relatively to our system . If the stars were moving towards or from the earth , their motion , compounded with the earth 's motion , would alter to an observer on the earth the refrangibility of the light emitted by them , and consequently the lines of terrestrial substances would no longer coincide in position in the spectrum with the dark lines produced by the absorption of the vapours of the same substances existing in the stars . The method employed by them would certainly have revealed an alteration of refrangibility as great as that which separates the lines D. They had , therefore , proof that the stars which they had examined , among others Aldebaran , a Orionis , f3 Pegasi , Sirius , a Lyre , Capella , Arcturus , Castor , Pollux , were not moving with a velocity which would be indicated by such an amount of alteration of position in a line . Since , however , a change of refrangibility corresponding to that which separates the components of D would require a velocity of about 196 miles per second , it seemed to them premature to refer to this bearing of their observations . The earth 's motion , and that of the few stars of which the parallax has been ascertained , would make it probable that any alteration in position would not exceed a fraction of the change which would have been observed by them . 38 The author has since , for several years , devoted much time and labour to this investigation , and believes that he has obtained a satisfactory result , He refers to Doppler , who first suggested that the relative motion of the luminous object and the observer would cause an alteration of the wave-length of the light ; and to Ballot , Klinkerfues , Sonnche , Fizeau , and Secchi , who have written on the subject . The author is permitted to enrich his paper with a statement of the influence of the motions of the heavenly bodies on light , and of some experiments made in an analogous direction , which he received in June 1867 from Mr. J. C. Maxwell , F.I.S. It is shown that if the light of the star is due to the luminous vapour of sodium or any other element which gives rise to vibrations of definite period , or if the light of the star is absorbed by sodium-vapour , so as to be deficient in vibrations of a definite period , then the light , when it reaches the earth , will have an altered period of vibration , which is to the period of sodium as V+v is to V , when V is the velocity of light and v is the velocity of approach of the star to the earth . Equal velocities of separation or approach give equal changes of wave-length . ? II . Description of Apparatus . A new spectroscope is described , consisting in part of compound prisms , which gives a dispersive power equal to nearly seven prisms of 60 ? of dense flint glass . Various methods were employed for the purpose of ensuring perfect accuracy of relative position in the instrument between the star spectrum and the terrestrial spectrum to be compared with it . A new form of apparatus , which appears to be trustworthy in this respect , was contrived . Many of the observations were made with vacuum-tubes or electrodes of metal , placed before the object-glass of the telescope . ? III . Observations of Nebulce . The author states that he has examined satisfactorily the general characters of the spectra of about seventy nebulae . About one-third of these give a spectrum of bright lines ; all these spectra may be regarded as modifications of the typical form , consisting of three bright lines , described in his former papers . Some of these nebulme have been reexamined with the large spectroscope described in this paper , for the purpose of determining whether any of them were possessed of a motion that could be detected by a change of refrangibility , and whether the coincidence which had been observed of the first and the third line with a line of hydrogen and a line of nitrogen would be found to hold good when subjected to the test of a spreading out of the spectrum three or four times greater than that under which the former observations were made . The spectrum of the Great Nebula in Orion was very carefully examined by several different methods of comparison of its spectrum with the spectra of terrestrial substances . 383 he coincidence of the lines with those of hydrogen and nitrogen remained apparently perfect with any apparatus in which a difference in wave-length of 0'0460 millionth of a millimetre would have been detected . These results increase greatly the probability that these lines are emitted by nitrogen and hydrogen . It was found that when the intensity of the spectrum of nitrogen was diminished by removing the induction-spark in nitrogen to a greater distance from the slit , the whole spectrum disappeared with the exception of the double line , which agrees in position with the line in the nebulae , so that , under these circumstances , the spectrum of nitrogen resembled the monochromatic spectra of some nebulae . It is obvious that if the spectrum of hydrogen were greatly reduced in intensity , the strong line in the blue3 which corresponds to one of the lines of the nebular spectrum , would remain visible after the line in the red and the lines more refrangible than F had become too feeble to affect the eye . It is a question of much interest whether the few lines of the spectra of these nebule represent the whole of the light emitted by these bodies , or whether these lines are the strongest lines only of their spectra which have succeeded in reaching the earth . Since these nebulae are bodies which have a sensible diameter , and in all probability present a continuous luminous surface , we cannot suppose that any lines have been extinguished by the effect of the distance of the objects from us . If we had reason to believe that the other lines which present themselves in the spectra of nitrogen and hydrogen were quenched on their way to us , we should have to regard their disappearance as an indication of a power of extinction residing in cosmical space , similar to that which was suggested from theoretical considerations by Cheseaux , and was afterwards supported on other grounds by Olbers and the elder Struve . It is also shown that at the time of the observations this nebula was not receding from us with a velocity greater than 10 miles per second ; for this motion , added to the earth 's orbital velocity , would have caused a want of coincidence of the lines that could have been observed . If the nebula were approaching our system , its velocity might be as much as 20 or 25 miles per second , for part of its motion of approach would be masked by the effect of the motion of the earth in the contrary direction . ? IV . Observations of Stars . A detailed description is given of the comparisons of the line in Sirius corresponding to F , with a line of the hydrogen spectrum , and of the various precautions which were taken against error in this difficult and very delicate inquiry . The conclusions arrived at are:-that the substance in Sirius which produces the strong lines in the spectrum of that star is really hydrogenl ; further , that the aggregate result of the motions of the star and the earth in space , at the time the observations were made , 384 was to degrade the refrangibility of the dark line in Sirius by an amount of wave-length equal to 0'109 millionth of a millimetre . If the velocity of light be takez at 185,000 miles per second , and the wave-length of F at 486'50 millionths of a millimetre , the observed alteration in period of the line in Sirius will indicate a motion of recession between the earth and the star of 41'4 miles per second . At the time of observation , that part of the earth 's motion which was in the direction of the visual ray , was equal to a velocity of about 12 miles per second from the star . There remains unaccounted for a motion of recession from the earth amounting to 29'4 miles per second , Which we appear to be entitled to attribute to Sirius , Reference is made to the inequalities in the proper motion of Sirius ; and it is stated that at the present time the proper motion in Sirius in declination is less than its average amount by nearly the whole of that part of it which is variable , which circumstance may show that a part of the motion of the star is now in the direction of the visual ray . Independently of the variable part of its proper motion , the whole of the motion which can be directly observed by us is only that portion of its real motion which is at right angles to the visual ray . Now it is precisely the other portion of it , which we could scarcely hope to learn from ordinary observations , which is revealed to us by prismatic observations . By combining both methods of research , it may be possible to obtain some knowledge of the real motions of the brighter stars and nebulse . Observations and comparisons , similar to those on Sirius , have been made on a Canis Minoris , Castor , Betelgeux , Aldebaran , and some other stars . The author reserves the results until these objects have been reexamined . It is but seldom that the atmosphere is favourable for the successful prosecution of this very delicate research . ? V. Observations of the Sun . The author has observed the sun with three distinct objects in view '1 . He has sought to discover if the spectrum of the light from the less luminous part of the sun near the limb , differs in any respect from that of the light from the central parts of his disk . 2 . He hoped to obtain a view of the red prominences visible during a solar eclipse by reducing the light from our atmosphere by dispersion ; for , under these circumstances , if the red prominences give a spectrum of bright lines , these lines would remain but little diminished in brightness , and might become visible . His observations in these two directions have been hitherto unsuccessful . 3 . He proposed to seek to gain from an examination of the spectra of the umbra and penunmbra of solar spots , some information as to the nature of these phenomena . He has successfully applied the large spectroscope , already described , to the light from the umbra of a spot . 385 His observations are in accordance generally with those communicated by Mr. Lockyer to the Royal Society . The author describes the examination of a spot on April 15th , 1868 . He shows that about three-fourths of the apparent light of the umbra came from that region of the sun , and the remaining fourth from the intervening illuminated atmosphere of the earth . He observed an increase of width in most of the dark lines of the solar spectrum . The lines C and F , due to hydrogen , did not appear stronger in the spectrum of the umbra . No new lines were detected , nor were any of those of the normal solar spectrum observed to be wanting in the spectrum of the light from the umbra . No bright lines were seen . Some of the conditions of the solar surface are considered which the phenomena observed may be supposed to indicate . A cooler state of the heated vapours by which the lines of absorption are produced would diminish the radiation from the gas itself , and so leave more completely uncompensated the absorption by the gas of the light from behind it . Though in this way an apparent increased intensity of the dark lines would result , the observations seem to suggest a state of the vapours connected with tension and temperature in which their power of absorption for each line embraces an increased range of wavelength . Some of the conditions under which this state of things may be brought about are discussed . The absence of bright lines is not considered as conclusive of the complete absence of light in the umbra from luminous gas ; for if there existed in the spot or above it the same vapours in a cooler state , the light would be almost wholly absorbed , and the feebler emanations of the cooler vapour might not do more than render less intense the dark gaps produced by the vapours in the stronger light of all refrangibilities which is evidently present . What is the source of the light in the umbra which gives the continuous spectrum ? May the dense and intensely heated gases , which probably form the inner substance of the sun , emit , in some cases , lines so greatly expanded as to form , when numerous spectra are superposed , a sensibly continuous spectrum ? Dr. Balfour Stewart has suggested that , as gases possess a power of general absorption of light , a heated mass of gas , if sufficiently dense to be opaque or nearly so , would give a continuous spectrum as well as the spectrum of bright lines peculiar to it .

112536

3701662

On the Spectrum of Brorsen's Comet, 1868

386

389

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William Huggins

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0081

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112536

10.1098/rspl.1867.0081

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112536

Atomic Physics

Astronomy

Atomic Physics

VIII . ( " On the Spectrum of Brorsen 's Comet , 1868 . " By WILLIAM HIUGGINs , F.R.S. Received May 14 , 1868 . In January 1866 I communicated to the Royal Society the result of an examination of a small comet visible in the beginning of that year* . I:Proceedings of the Royal Society , vol. xv . p. 5 . 386 [ May 14 , examined the spectrum of another small and faint comet in May 1867 . The spectra of these objects , as far as their very feeble light permitted them to be observed , appeared to be very similar . In the case of each of these comets , the spectrum of the minute nucleus appeared to consist of a bright line between B and F , about the position of the double line of the spectrum of nitrogen , while the nebulosity surrounding the nucleus and forming the coma gave a spectrum which was apparently continuous . Unfavourable weather prevented me from obtaining an observation of Brorsen 's comet , at its present reappearance , before April 29 . Since that evening I have examined it on May 2 , 4 , 6 , 7 , 12 , 13. . As I have not noticed any change in its spectrum during this time , I will put together the results of my observations on different nights , in order to avoid the repetition which would occur if the observations were arranged in the order in which they were made . I tried various spectroscopes upon this object . The best views of its spectrum were obtained with a spectroscope of the form already described in my former papers* , and furnished with one prism of very dispersive flint glass , with a refracting angle of 60 ? . Some measures were taken with a similar spectroscope , with two prisms of 600 . The comet appears in the telescope as a nearly round nebulosity , in which the light increases rapidly towards the centre , where on some occasions I detected , I believe , a small stellar nucleus . Generally this minute nucleus was not to be distinguished from the bright central part of the comet . iI So ca r. II'."sor Z71 , o iCoo 3Zo00.Z OO . Xso eao 4.-tio 3 coo 9o , 1 -I , I 1Ir1 -I II suspected two or three bright points in the coma . May 7 , I perceived a small extension of the faint surrounding nebulosity in a direction opposite to the sun , so as to form a short tail . The spectrum of this comet consists for the most part of three bright bands . The length of the bands in the instrument shows that they are not due alone to the stellar nucleus , but are produced by the light of the brighter portions of the coma . I took some pains to learn the precise character of these luminous bands . When the slit was wide they resembled the expanded lines seen in some gases ; for example , the line F in the spectrum of hydrogen at the atmospheric pressure . As the slit was made narrow the two fainter bands , namely the one in the yellow and the one in the blue , appeared to fade out without becoming more defined . I was unable to resolve these bands into lines . In this respect they are very different from the bright lines of the nebulae , which become narrow as the slit is made narrow . The middle band , which is so much brighter than the others that it may be considered to represent probably three-fourths , or nearly so , of the whole of the light which we receive from the comet , appears to possess similar characters . In this nebulous band , however , I detected occasionally two bright lines , which appeared to be shorter than the band , and may be due to the nucleus itself . This suspicion seems to be strengthened by the circumstance that when by moving the telescope the image of the comet was made to pass before the slit , these brighter lines were only observed when the middle of the comet was upon the slit , while the nebulous band continued as long as any part of the comet , except its extreme margin , was upon the slit . Besides these three bright bands there was a very faint continuous spectrum . This spectrum is omitted in the diagram , as it could scarcely be represented without making it appear too strong relatively to the bright bands . The position in the spectrum of the bands was determined by micrometrical measures , and also by simultaneous comparison , of the bands with the bright lines of magnesium , sodium , hydrogen , and nitrogen . The brightest band , which is in the green part of the spectrum , is nearly in the position of the brightest line of the nebulae , which coincides with the double line of the spectrum of nitrogen ; but , as the diagram shows , the band in the comet is in a small degree less refrangible than the line of nitrogen . This difference of refrangibility cannot be attributed to the comet 's motion , since at the time the observations were made the comet was approaching the earth . The band in the blue is considerably more refrangible than F , and is nearly as refrangible as the group of bright lines in the air-spectrum , which have the numbers 2642 , 2669 in the map and tables of my paper " On the Spectra of the Chemical Elements " * . The least refrangible of the bands occurs in the yellow part of the spectrum , at about the distance from E of one-third of the interval which separates E from D. The spectrum of this comet resembles the diagram given by Donati of the spectrum of Comet I. , 1864* . The positions of the three bands seen by him appear to agree with those which the bright bands of this comet occupy . This comet ciffers remarkably from the two small comets which I examined in the much smaller relative proportion of the light which forms a continuous spectrum . In Brorsen 's comet , as it now appears , the bright middle part of the nebulosity seems to have a constitution analogous at least to that of the nucleus , and to be self-luminous ; in the other comets the coma , which surrounded a distinctly marked nucleus , gave a continuous spectrum . The three comets resemble each other in the circumstance that the light of the bright central part was emitted by the cometary matter , while the surrounding nebulosity reflected solar light . The telescopic observations of the heads of Donati 's comet and of other large comets have shown that the iuminous material is not at once driven off into the outer portions of the coma and the tail , but usually forms in front of the nucleus a dense luminous cloud , which for a time seems to be identical in the character of its light with that of the nucleus . It is , I believe , the outer portions only of the coma , which are frequently separated by dark spaces from the nucleus , and the tail , which the polariscope has shown to shine by reflected light . The positions of the bands in this comet would seem to indicate a chemical constitution different from that of the nebule , which give a spectrum of bright lines . It will be seen in the diagram that , though the brightest of the bands in the spectrum of the comet differs but little in position from the brightest line of the nebul-e , the other bands are found in parts of the spectrum widely removed from those in which the other lines of the nebula occur . The suggestion presents itself whether the broad , nebulous bands may not indicate conditions of temperature and molecular state different from those which occur in the gaseous nebulae . Pliicker has shown that nitrogen and some other substances give totally different spectra , under different conditions of temperature and tension . The spectrum of this comet , however , does not resemble the other spectrum of nitrogen , which Pliicker distinguishes as the spectrum of the first ordert .

112537

3701662

Memoir on Undevelopable Uniquadric Homographics. [Abstract]

389

398

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Martin Gardiner

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112537

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112537

Formulae

Biology 2

Mathematics

IX . " Memoir on 'Undevelopable Uniquadric Homographics . ' " By MARTIN GARDINEIR , C.E. Communicated by the Rev. R. ToWNsElND ) , F.R.S. Received April 13 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) In this paper the author 's method of investigation is purely geometrical throughout , its arrangement of details is systematic and natural , and it is divided into eight chapters , the first seven of which are preparatory to the consideration of the interesting problem discussed at length in the eighth , * Philosophical Transactions , 1864 , p. 158 . It Ibid. 18( ; 5 , p. 9 . 2N2 389 the direct , general , and complete solution of which is claimed to be given in it for the first time . Chapter I. , after some preliminary general properties , resulting immediately from the known properties of homographic systems of points on plane conics , treats more particularly of the simplest case of such systems on undevelopable quadrics , viz. of the case of systems in perspective , the several pairs of whose corresponding constituents possess manifestly the property of interchangeability ; shows that systems having three double points not in the same tangent plane to the quadric on which they lie are necessarily of that class , except only when they have a fourth double point not in the plane of the other three , in which case they altogether coincide ; and gives simple instances in which the problem , whose solution is the principal object of the memoir , is manifestly either " wholly or partially porismatic , " as he terms it . Chapter II . treats of systems whose several pairs of corresponding points are interchangeable but which are not in perspective ; shows that their several chords of connexion intersect the same two reciprocal lines with respect to the quadric on which they lie ; shows the relation between either system and the perspective of the other to any point on either of those lines , also the relation between either of two systems in perspective and the perspective of either to any point conjugate to their centre of perspective with respect to the surface ; and shows how to construct the two reciprocal lines from two pairs of corresponding points of the systems . Chapter III . treats of systems whose several pairs of corresponding points connect through a single common line , which have therefore an infinite number of double planes passing through that line ; shows that their several chords of connexion , besides intersecting the line , all touch a second quadric having double contact with the original , both at its two points of intersection with the line , and also at its two points of intersection with the reciprocal line ; proves a property of the cone enveloping either surface from any vertex taken arbitrarily on either line , shows the relation between either system and the perspective of the other to any point on either line ; and shows how to construct the two reciprocal lines from two pairs of corresponding points of the systems . Chapter IV . treats of systems having two of their four double planes non-tangential to the quadric on which they lie ; shows that the chords connecting their several pairs of corresponding points touch two cones enveloping the quadric along two planes colinear with and harmonically conjugate to each other with respect to the two non-tangential double planes ; proves that those touching along a plane section of either cone generate a skew quadric ; shows that the two homographic systems determined by the two correspondents in the two systems of a variable point on the quadric are of the class considered in the preceding chapter , having an infinite number of double planes passing through the line of intersection of the two non-tangential double planes of the original systems ; and shows the 390 [ May 14 , relation between either system and the perspective of the other to any point on that line of intersection . Chapter V. treats of systems having their four double planes all tangential to the quadric on which they lie , shows that the chords connecting their several pairs of corresponding points touch two other quadrics having quadruple contact with the original at the four double points of the systems , and gives various constructions for the determination of the four double points when the law connecting the several pairs of corresponding points of the systems is given or known . Chapter VI . gives various criteria for determining in certain cases to which of the preceding classes two homographic systems belong , where , as in the problem whose solution forms the principal object of the memoir , the law connecting the same pairs of corresponding points of the systems is given or known . Chapter VII . contains numerous theorems , several of much interest and originality , respecting open and closed polygons inscribed in undevelopable quadrics , whose sides pass in the same order of sequence through a common system of points in space , all deduced from the principles established in the preceding chapters , and several having direct reference to the interesting problem to be considered in the next and closing chapter . Chapter VIII.-Given an undevelopable quadric and n fixed points in to find the space ; first extremities of inscribable closed n'gons , or the locus of the first extremities when the inscription of the closed n'gons is porismatic . When the number n of given points is odd . Assume any three points a. , bl , cl in the surface , no two of which are on one generator , as first extremities , and proceed to inscribe 2n'gons . ( 1 ) If the three points be found to be first extremities of closed n'gons , then will the trace of their plane be the locus of first extremities of closed n'gons , the problem in such case being partially porismatic . ( 2 ) If the points are first extremities of closed 2n'gons , or if two of them be first extremities of closed 2n'gons and the third one a first extremity of a closed n'gon , or if one of the points be the first extremity of a closed 2n'gon , and the other two points first extremities of closed n'gons , then the line or lines forming the closing chords of the open n'gons composing the 2n'gon or 2n'gons ( as may be ) and the tangent plane or planes at the first extremity or extremities of the closed n'gon or n'gons ( as may be ) meet in one point p , the trace of whose polar plane R is the locus of first extremities of inscribable closed n'gons , the problem in such case being par . tially porismatic . ( 3 ) If two of the points be first extremities of closed n'gons and the third point the first extremity of an open 2n'gon , then the problem is nonporismatic , and the two closed n'gons are the only inscribable closed n'gons . Moreover the reciprocal of the line joining the first extremities of the two closed n'gons will pierce the quadric in points which are the first extremi- . 391 1868 . ] ties of inscribable closed 2n'gons ( real or imaginary according as the quadric S is ruled or convex ) . ( 4 ) If one of the three chosen points be the first extremity of an open 2n'gon ( no matter as to the other two points ) the problem is non-porismatic , and we can find the first extremities of the closed n'gons by either of the four following methods : First method.-Continue the 2n'gon until a 4n'gon be formed , and draw the plane P which contains the extremities of this 4n'gon and the point of junction of the two open 2n'gons composing it . Assume another point in the surface , not in the trace of the plane P , and , making it a first extremity , inscribe another 4n'gon ; and through the extremities of this 4n'gon and the point of junction of the two open 2n'gons composing it draw a plane Q. Then with the line xx of intersection of the planes P and Q pierce the quadric in the only points ( real or imaginary as may be ) which are first extremities of closed n'gons ; and the line ii reciprocal to xx will pierce the quadric in points ( real or imaginary as may be ) which are first extremities of closed 24'gons . Second mnethod.-By the additional inscription of another open n'gon convert the open 2n'gon into an open 3n'gon , and put A , B , C to represent the three open n'gons composing the open 3n'gon . Find the point of puncture of the line through the first extreimity of A and the final extremity of B with the tanngent-plane at the junction of A and B ; find the point of puncture of the line through the first extremity of B and the final extremity of C with the tangent-plane at the junction of B and C. Then will the line xx through the two points of puncture pierce the quadric in two points ( real or imaginary as nay be ) which are the first extremities of the only inscribable closed 'goins ; and the line ii , which is reciprocal to xx , will pierce in first extremities of closed 2n'gons . N.B. Wheni S is a hyperboloid of one sheet , and that the first extremities of the closed n'gons are real , then the first extremities of the closed 2n'gons are also real ; and it is evident there are two pairs of generators which are corresponding interchangeable lines in the homographic figiures in which the extreimities of the inscribable n'gons are pairs of corresponding points . It is moreover evident that when all the corresponding points of such figures are not interchangeable , these are the only pairs of interehangeable generators ; and we must not assume the first extremities of the 4n'gons or 3n'gons in these lines . Third mnethod.-Let o,1 o. , 03 , ... o be the n fixed points through which the sides must pass in order . Assume the constant homological ratio -1 for homological systems , and making o1 vertex and its polar plane axis , find the point a homological to the centre ao of the quadric ; assume o2 as vertex and its polar plane as axis , and find the point a2 homological to a , ; and proceed thus directly in order through the n points until arrived at the point , , . Assume o , ? as vertex and its polar plane as axis , and find the point a-- . homological to the 392 [ May 14 , centre a , of the quadric ; assume o , -I as vertex and its polar plane as axis , and find the point a--2 homological to a_l ; and proceed thus in reverse order through the rest of the n given points until arrived at the point a-n ( the points a , , a-n will be distinct ) . Draw the diametral plane Ao which bisects the chords parallel to the line a , a- , ( it will also bisect a , n oa_ ) ; assume any two points in the trace of this plane as first extremities , and inscribe two n'gons in the quadric ; through the point an and the final extremities of these n'gons draw the plane A , ; find the line of intersection ii of the planes A , , A , , and its reciprocal xx . Then will xx always pierce in the two points ( real or imaginary as may be ) which are the first extremities of the only inscribable closed n'gons ; and the line ii will pierce in first extremities of closed 2n'gons . Fourth method.-Find the points a-n and a , , as in last method ; assume any point ao in the surface as first extremity , and inscribe a n'gon whose last extremity we may represent by a , ; draw the plane D1 which contains the line a_ , , and the point a , ; draw the plane D2 which contains the 0 , ao and the point a , ; in the lines , aoc , ao a , find the points m , , m such that z-0 , ,m on )=4 DI + P2 a0in , 0 m,2 Va D1 . aO D2 and in the same lines find the points h , , h2 such that -n -1 11 _I % =_h2 / -a--n D , . D , , / 1 , Ao ho2\K D , . o , D Put j , Z , , to represent the homographic figures in which the first and final extremities of inscribable n'gons are corresponding points . Regard mn2 and hA as points in , , and find their correspondents mi , ha in 2I , ; draw the planes mnm2m3 , h1h2h3 , and find their line of intersection xx and its reciprocal ii . Then will the line xx pierce the quadric in the only points ( real or imaginary as may be ) which are first extremities of inscribable closed n'gons , and the line ii will pierce in first extremities of closed 2n'gons . Moreover the planes mm2m , hi h~nm are the only two double planes of the figures X , , , , which are non-tangential to the quadric . N.B. When the points a_ , , , , are coincident , the inscription of the closed n'gons is partially porismatic , and one of the two points which divide a-n , , and the diameter coincident with it harmonically is the point of concurrence of the closing chords of all inscribable open n'gons , and the polar plane of which passes through the other , &c. When the centre of the quadric is a double point , then according as all the closing chords are parallels or pass through the centre , so will the locus of the first extremities of the closed n'gons be the trace of a diametral plane or of a plane at infinity . Zlhen the number n of given points is even . Assume three points al , bj , c , on the surface , no two of which are on 1868 . ] 393 the same generator ; and , making them first extremities , proceed to inscribe 2n'gons . ( 1 ) If these assumed points be found to be first extremities of closed n'gons , the problem is fully porismatic , and every point in the surface will be the first extremity of an inscribable closed n'gon . ( 2 ) If two of the points be fouled to be first extremities of closed n'gons and the other not , then the line xx through these two points , and the line ii reciprocal to xx , pierce the quadric in four points ( the punctures made by ii being real or imaginary as may be ) which constitute the first extremities of all the inscribable closed n'gons . ( 3 ) If one of the points be the first extremity of a closed n'gon , and another of them be first extremity of a closed 2n'gon . Draw the closing chord of the two open n'gons composing the closed 2n'gon to pierce the tangentplane at the first extremity of the closed n'gon in the point p ; in the closing chord find the point pa which is conjugate to the point of puncture p ; through p and the first extremity of the closed n'gon draw the line xx , and find the line ii reciprocal to xx . Then will the lines xx and ii pierce the quadric in the four points which constitute the first extremities of all the inscribable closed n'gons . ( 4 ) If two of the assumed points be found to be first extremities of closed 2n'gons , we may find the first extremities of the inscribable closed n'gons by either of the four following methods : First method.-Draw the two closing chords of the open n'gons composing the 2n'gons ; and , if these chords intersect in a point p , draw the line xx which is polar of p in respect to the trace of the plane of the two chords ; find the line ii reciprocal to xx . Then will xx and ii pierce the quadric in the first extremities of the closed n'gons . But if the chords do not intersect , draw tangent-planes at their extremities ; find the two pairs of points ( one pair in each chord ) which divide these closing chords and the segments intercepted by the tangent-planes harmonically ; draw the line xx through the two of these points which divide the chords internally ; draw the line ii through the two points which divide the chords externally . Then will xx and ii be reciprocal lines piercing the quadric in four points which are first extremities of the inscribable closed n'gons . Second method.-Find a a , , b6b6 , cc , the closing chords of three open n'gons . If any two of these intersect , proceed as in the last method ; but if not , proceed as follows : In the chord ala , find the point m which corresponds to infinity ( on the same line ) in one of the homographic figures in which the extremities of all inscribable n'gons are corresponding interchangeable points ; in the same chord ala , find the two points x and i such that mx=mi= ^mal . ma2 ; through x draw the line xx which cuts the two non-planar chords blb , , c , c , ; through i draw the line ii which cuts the same two non-planar chords b , b , , clc2 . Then will xx and ii be reciprocal lines piercing the quadric in the four points which are the first extremities of closed n'gons . 394 [ May 14 , Third method.-Draw aa2,6 bib2 the closing chords of the open n'gons composing the closed 2n'gons . If these two lines intersect in a point p , draw the line xx through the points in ata2 , blb2 which are harmonic conjugates to p in respect to the segments aa , b66 find the line ii reciprocal to xx . Then will xx and ii pierce the quadric in the four points which are first extremities of closed n'gons . But if ala2 , blb2 do not intersect , then find the final extremity c2 of the n'gon having the point cl as first extremity ; and if the line , ee2 cuts either a1a2 or b6b2 , the lines xx and ii can be found in the manner just indicated . If c1c2 do not cut either of the lines aa2 , b6b2 , then find the points a , , a. in which a a2 pierces the planes b6b2c , b6b2c2 ; find the points 3 , P/ 2 in which b , b2 pierces the planes a1a2c1 , a1a2cA ; find the points hl , h2 which divide the segments a , a2 , a]a2 harmonically ; find the points kt , k2 which divide the segments b6b , , 31f2 harmonically ; through the two points h , , k1 , cutting ala , b1b2 internally , draw the line xx ; through the two points h2 , k2 , cutting aa,2 , b , b6 externally , draw the line ii . Then will xx and ii be reciprocal lines piercing the quadric in the four points which are first extremities of closed n'gons . Fourth method.-Put 2 , and 2 , , to represent the homographic figures in which the first and final extremities of all inscribable nz'gons are corresponding points ; find the point a , which corresponds in either of the figures 2 , 2 , to the centre ao of the quadric regarded as belonging to the other figure ; find the diameter dld2 which contains the points ao , c ; find the points p , q which divide the segments did2 and a , oa harmonically ; draw the plane P which is polar to the point p which lies outside the quadric ; find the point a2 which is final extremity of a n'gon whose first extremity is in the trace of the plane P ; draw xx the diameter of the trace of P which bisects a a2 ( the point a2 will be in the trace of P ) ; find the line ii reciprocal to xx . Then will xx and ii pierce in first extremities of the four inscribable closed n'gons . But if the centre a of the quadric be a double point of the figures . , , 2 , , , proceed as follows:-Inscribe any n'gon in the quadric , and draw the diameter xx which bisects its closing chord . Then will the diameter xx and its reciprocal at infinity pierce the quadric in the four points which are first extremities of closed n'gons . ( 5 ) When we can inscribe an open 2n'gon the problem is always nonporismatic , and we can find the lines xx , ii which pierce the quadric in first extremities of the four closed n'gons by either of the four following methods : First method.-Put 2 , and 2 , , to represent the homographic figures in which the first and final extremities of all inscribable n'gons are corresponding points . In the figures 2 , and 2I find the points o1 and o2 which are the correspondents of the centre o of the quadric regarded as belonging to the figures 2 , and I2 ; draw the diameter ror which bisects o , o , ; find the line r1o1r , in 2^ which corresponds to ror in I2 ; bind the line r'r ' reciprocal to r1lr ; through the centre o draw the diametral plane K which bisects all chords parallel to ror ; find the points p , p in which the reciprocal lines r1r , , 1868 . ] 395 rr'r pierce the plane K ; draw any plane P parallel to K , and through the points pu , p ' in which it cuts r , r , and 'r ' draw lines parallel to the diameter rr to pierce the plane K in points t , , ' ; through the centre o draw ( see 'Section of Ratio ' of Apollonius ) the two lines ox1x ' , oi , i ' so that P x : : P i ' : : i ' : : pi : P , , p ' ; through x , and xl draw lines parallel to rr to cut r , r1 and r'r ' in points x and x ; through i , and i ' draw lines parallel to rr to cut r1r ' and r'r ' in i and i. Then will the lines xx and ii be reciprocals piercing the quadric in the four points which are first extremities of the inscribable closed n'gons . Second method . In the closing chord c , c , of any inscribed open n'gon assume any point p , and for the moment regard it as n+-lth point of a series having the n fixed points as first n points ; choose four points b6 , r , , e1 , f in the surface so that no two of the five c , , b , dl , e , Jf lie on one generator ; find the final points b2 , d , , e2 , f. of inseribed ( n+ 1)'gons whose sides pass in order through the n+ I points , and which have b , , dl , el , f as first extremities . Then ( representing tangent-planes at points by capital letters of like names , and subscript numbers as the small ones representing the points of contact ) in the chord decld find the point d , such that d , ld _ d , lB . CqBl p2d2 d. , B2 c1l2 in the chord e , e.2 find the point e , such that e , e3 el , B. c , B , e2e3 e2B2 cBW29 in the chord f , f find the point f such that f,3_f , B , CIB,1 f2f3 f2B2 c'B2 ( the points d3 , e3 , f , must be so determined as that a realtangent-plane can pass through either of them ) ; draw the plane d , e,3f and it will touch the quadric in a point a , ; draw the line cla , , and find the point q in it which is conjugate to p. Now if we regard the n given fixed points and the point q as the n+1 points of a series , every point in the surface will be the first extremity of a closed 2(n+ l)'gon . Find ( by last case ) the two reciprocal lines yy , zz which pierce the quadric in first extremities of closed ( n+ l)'gons whose sides pass in order through these n+ 1 points ; find the linep'q ' reciprocal to pq ; draw the lines xx , ii , each of which cuts the four non-planar lines yy zz , pq , p'q ' . Then will xx and ii be reciprocal lines piercing in four points which are the first extremities of the inscribable closed n'gons . Third method.-On the closing chord c1c2 of any inscribed open n'gon assume any point p , and regard it for the moment as the n+ 1thl point of a series to which the n fixed points belong . Assume three points b , d , e , in the surface so that no two of the points c , , 6 , , dl , e1 are on one generator , and findl the final extremities b6 , cdL , e , of inscribed ^'gons having b6 , , re , as first extremities ; draw the tangent-plane ( C , at the point c , ; put DP , D. , 396 A[May 14 , E1 , E2 to represent the four planes dLb , , , d.2b2el , e1b , , e.2b2e respectively ; through the line of intersection of the planes D , , D , draw the plane P the distances of any point in which from DI and D , / have to each other the ratio of b-D , to -C- ; through the line of intersection of the planes E , , bD C1 E2 draw the plane Q which is such that the ratio of the distances of ally point in it from E1 and E , is the same as that of U--E to f,1 ; find the line of intersection mm of the planes P , Q ( this line mm will be a tangent to the quadric ) , and the point a , in which it touches the quadric ; in the line c1a , find the point q conjugate to p. Then if we regard the n given fixed points and the point q as n+ points of a series , any point in the surface will be first extremity of a closed 2(n+ l)'gon . Find , by the preceding case , the two reciprocal lines yy , zz which pierce the quadric in first extreni ties of closed ( n + 1)'gons whose sides pass in order through these nf 1 points ; find the line p'q ' reciprocal to pq ; draw the lines xx and ii each of which cuts the four non-planar lines yy , zzp , pq , ' . Then will xx and ii be reciprocals piercing in first extremities of the four inscribable closed n'gons . Fourth method.-The following method is applicable in all cases in which n is even . Omit temporarily the nth point on ' of the given n points , and find the line U which pierces the quadric in the two first extremities of inscribable closed ( n--l)'gons whose sides pass in order through the n--I poii.lts ; find the point q in the line U which is conjugate to the omitted nth pjoint o , ? . Then if we regard the n-1 given points and the point q as forming the n points of a new series , any point in the surface will be the first extremity of a closed 2n'gon . Find the two reciprocal lines yy , zz which pierce the quadric in first extremities of closed n'gons whose sides pass in order through the new series of n points ; find the line p'g ' reciprocal to o , q ; draw the lines xx , ii each of which cuts the four non-planar lines yy , zz , o.q , p'q ' . Then will the lines xx and ii be reciprocals piercing the quadric in first extremities of the four inscribable closed n'gons whose sides pass in order through the n given points . But if the inscription of the closed ( n-l )'gons be partially porismatic , and p the point of concurrence of the closing chords of the inscribable open ( nl)'gons , then will the line xx through o. and p , and the line ii reciprocal to xx pierce the quadric in the first extremities of the inscribable closed n'gons . N.B. And if o , be ill such case coincident with p , then the problem is fully porismatic , and every point in the surface is the first extremity of a closed n'gon . N.B. We may also observe that when the inscription of the closed ( n )'gons is non-porismatic , and that the point o , is situated in the line U , then , by conceiving q coincident with o , the lines yy , zz will be identical with xx and ii . I may observe that the general problem can be completely solved by 1868 . ] 397 " ' methods of reduction , " amongst which the following is perhaps the most obvious and simple : Let S be the quadric , and o ? o2 , O % , o4 , ... o the n given points . Put xx for the line through o , and o , . Instead of o2 and ol we can substitute the point p , in which the line xx is cut by the plane o , o4o , , and another point p , determinable in the same line xx . Then instead of the four planar points Pa , o8 , o , 0 we can ( see theorem 38 ) substitute two other points p , , p4 in the same plane ; and therefore instead of the series of n points , we can substitute the series of n2 points p1 , PS , P4 , OG , * o , and the inscribable ( n-2)'gons , closed and open as may be , whose sides pass in order through these points will have extremities identical with the extremities of inscribable n'gons . And thus step by step we can reduce the number of sides , until at length we find three points or four points , according as n is odd or even , such that the extremities of all inscribed 3'gons or 4'gons whose sides pass in order through such points are identical with extremities of inscribable n'gons whose sides pass through the original n points ; and therefore to solve the problem all we have to do is to inscribe the closed 3'gons or closed 4'gons as may be . And in respect to this method we may observe , ( 1 ) If any four consecutive points of any of the series be colinear and such as to render the inscription of closed 4'gons real , we may omit such points altogether from the series . ( 2 ) When n is odd , and that we reduce the problem to the inscription of closed 3'gons whose sides pass through three known points , then should such points be colinear or form a conjugate triad , the problem will be partially porismatic . ( 3 ) In the case in which n is odd , it is easy to perceive how the problem can be reduced to the drawing of a line through a known point to cut two reciprocal lines ( which point will be on one of the lines when the problem is partially porismatic ) . And when n is even , it is easy to see how the problem can be reduced to the drawing of the two lines which cut two pair of ( determinable ) reciprocal lines . ( 4 ) The following method of finding the line in the plane of four points which pierces in first extremities of closed 4'gons is obvious:-Let o , o , O8 , o4 be the four planar points . Find p the point of intersection of the lines 0o2o , o,04 ; in the line o1o , find the point m such that o~oQ , mp , and the pair of ( real or imaginary ) points in which o1 , o pierces the quadric , will form an involution ; in the line o o , find the point n such that the pairs of points 034 ' , pn , and the points in which o0o4 pieces the quadric , form an involution . Then will the line mn pierce in first extremities of closed 4'gors . 398 [ May 14 ,

112538

3701662

A Comparison of the Kew and Lisbon Magnetic Curves during the Magnetic Storm of February 20-25, 1866

399

403

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Senhor I. Brito Capello

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0083

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112538

10.1098/rspl.1867.0083

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112538

Meteorology

Tables

Meteorology

I. " 'A Comparison of the Kew and Lisbon Magnetic Curves during the Magnetic Storm of February 20-25 , 1866 . " By Senhor I. BRITO CAPELLO , of the Lisbon Observatory . Communicated by B. STEWART . Received April 18 , 1868 . During the 20th , 21st , 23rd , 24th , and 25th of February 1866 , large magnetic disturbances were recorded by the magnetographs at the Lisbon and Kew Observatories . As these indicate several appreciable deviations from the normal types , I trust a description of them may be not without interest to the Royal Society . Dr. Stewart , Director of the Kew Observatory , has kindly sent me copies of the Kew magnetic curves during these disturbances . In order thoroughly to ascertain the laws governing the forces which disturb the ordinary magnetic condition of the globe , we should reduce in a systematic manner , such as General Sabine has so ably pursued , the observations made at a number of stations , and then classify and discuss the valuable results so obtained . Nevertheless the present communication relative to the disturbances observed at two stations offers some interest , on account of the apparent variability of the forces which are in action during the same disturbance , and also the apparently variable relations between these forces at Lisbon and the same forces at Kew . In a former comparison made between the magnetic curves of Kew and Lisbon ( Proceedings of the Royal Society , No. 60 ) , it was established that at Lisbon , during disturbances , the vertical force and the declination curves were invariably opposed to each other , i. e. a concave wave of one of the curves always corresponded with a similar convex one in the other ; or , in other words , an augmentation of the vertical force agreed with an horizontal movement of the north pole of the bar towards the east , and a diminution of the same component to a movement of the north pole to the west . This general law applied both to the large and slow movements ( waves ) , and the short and rapid ones ( peaks and hollows ) . However , there were some very rare instances in which this law did not altogether hold good . In these cases , although the peaks and waves were reproduced in the two curves in inverted order , yet the whole of the one curve for some period did not assume the inverted form of the other curve . The periods of disturbance which are the objects of this discussion belong to these abnormal types . 1868 . ] 399 In the paper quoted above , the authors have also shown,1st . That all the small peaks in the Kew curves are simultaneously reproduced in the Lisbon curves in the same sense in the declination and bifilar , but in a contrary direction in the vertical force . 2nd . That , generally , all the waves of the declination and bifilar at Kew were reproduced in the corresponding Lisbon curves , sometimes more or less disfigured . 3rd . That in the generality of cases , with the exception of peaks and hollows , in which they are opposed , the vertical-force curves of the two stations do not resemble each other . Let us now see if these laws are confirmed in these disturbances . First Disturbance.-This series of disturbances commenced at Lisbon , February 20th 16"1 12 " ' G. M. T. , by a sudden increase of the declination , and an enormous diminution of the vertical force . The horizontal force likewise decreased rapidly , but 13"1 later ( 16 " 25 " ) : this is noteworthy . However , the three elements , and especially the horizontal force , had been somewhat disturbed since 1011 27 " G. M. T. It is noticeable , in the large diminution of vertical force , that although the curve in descending ran off the edge of the paper , we can fix the point of minimum ( approximately ) , which gives us a little more than 01 ( English units ) as the value of the disturbance . The increase in declination was nearly a degree ( 59''3 ) , and the diminution of horizontal force 0-052 English units . This last diminution commenced , as we have before stated , 13 " later than the other disturbances ; and the time of minimum is also 6"1 to 8 " ' after the corresponding points of declination and vertical force . In other respects the remaining waves of the horizontal force do not agree with those of the declination and vertical force . The Kew curves agree tolerably well with the Lisbon curves , up to the time of the large and rapid movements . Here it appears that the large movements of the three instruments were of the same nature as the Lisbon ones ; and it is very possible that the large variations were more considerable and rapid , since they failed to record their traces on the paper . These large movements seem to have begun in the three instruments at Kew at the same time ( 16 " ' 30 ' ) , at which time the Lisbon declination and vertical force had deviated to half their fill extent . The small peaks are reproduced at the two stations at the same absolute time , the two vertical forces being always in opposite directions . The first period of this disturbance seems , therefore , to be of the same nature in the two stations , i. e. the disturbing forces have acted on the three instruments in a similar manner . Second Distur~bance.-Let us now pass to the second period . The large movements have ceased , but the horizontal force remains too low , and in continual vibration . Towards 21 and 3 " of the 21st of February we may take as the recommencement of a second period , which terminated about 7 P. M. In the Lisbon declination we see at the beginning and end of this period two similar undulations , each about half an hour in duration , and almost regular . In the mid(he there are smaller waves , interrupted by peaks and hollows . The diminution of declination is not remarkable . In the vertical force we have the same waves in a contrary direction to the declination ; but the ascending branch is in one instance greater than the corresponding descent in the declination . A similar difference may be noticed in the last wave but one , by which it happens that the verticalforce curve shows an increase of force during two hours and a half , without a corresponding decrease of the declination . The horizontal force retained its position below the mean until 3 " 20 ' " , when it descended further till 411 ; then it ascended successively till 61 ' , where it stopped very nearly in its normal position . We will now discuss the Kew curves . The declination has been greatly disturbed by large deviations above and below its normal position , a general decrease of declination , however , taking place during more than three hours of great disturbance . The needle has oscillated 40 ' in arc , while the Lisbon oscillations have not exceeded 8 ' . Some movements seem to agree with Lisbon ones , others , on the contrary , disagree entirely ; and even in those movements which correspond , some differences of time are appreciable , which cannot be due to error in the time-scale . The vertical force at Kew increases rapidly from 211 3511 to 311 50"1 ; a period of fluctuations then follows up to 5h , after which the curve rapidly descends irregularly to the end . The Kew vertical-force curve only agrees with the Lisbon curve in the general aspect of the disturbances , the period of greatest increase lasting but 11 ' 15m , while at Lisbon it was 21 10'11 . It should be also remarked that the vertical force does not agree in the slightest with the horizontal force at Kew . The horizontal force at Kew seems to follow the inverse direction of that of Lisbon , and its general form resembles that of Lisbon inverted . After 51 30 " the waves appear to agree . Thus we see , in the same disturbance , two periods at an interval of some hours , which show their relations at the two stations to be of an entirely different nature . In the first period the three instruments agree ; in the second , the horizontal components differ , and all similarity is wanting in the vertical force and declination during the greater part of the total duration . A long calm period , 4611 in duration , followed these large disturbances ; during which the series of small peaks and hollows were reproduced in the three curves , chiefly in the morning ( 1 7h to 21h ) of the 21st and 22nd days . Third Disturbance.-Another disturbance commenced about 61 on the 401 23rd of February , which lasted up till 12 ' 30 " . The horizontal force was in motion from 3h 50m . The general appearance of this disturbance at Lisbon is a large decrease of declination and horizontal force , and an increase of vertical force for some hours . It is noteworthy that the waves in the Lisbon curves are clean and rounded in the declination and vertical force . The Kew curves show also fewer peaks and hollows than during the former disturbances . At Lisbon this general rule is found to exist : the declination disturbance is opposite in direction to the vertical force . The declination curve agrees very well with the Kew curve ; the variations of the latter are larger , as is usual . There is one remarkable circumstance , the first minimum ( 6h 33m ) happens 6 " or 7 " before Kew , the other maxima and minima agree , with the exception of very small differences , which may be attributed to the difficulty of determining precisely the extreme points of the Lisbon curve , on account of their roundness . The vertical-force curves show a general similarity , but the connexion between the different phases is not seen . It is remarkable that the general form of the Kew vertical-force curve has a great likeness to the Lisbon horizontal force , but in an inverted order , although the extreme opposite points of maxima and minima do not occur at the same time . The horizontal-force curves agree very well up to 8h ; after this time it is easily seen that the Kew curve agrees almost exactly with the Lisbon vertical force . Fourth Disturbance.-Two less important periods follow this period , which terminate about 15h on the 24th : after ten hours of comparative calm the magnets are again set in motion at Lisbon , by a deviation of the horizontal force and declination and a depression in the vertical force , about 1h 45M on the 25th . This disturbance is composed of three large waves , much agitated , and full of peaks and hollows , or serrated . At the first glance we see immediately that the general trait of the disturbance is identical at Kew and Lisbon , i. e. the different phases of the three instruments agree with one another . The Kew curve generally agrees with the Lisbon one , although several periods are more developed , particularly some waves between 5h 30m and 9 " more developed at Kew . The horizontal-force curves also agree ; but it must be remarked that the waves ( between 5h 30m and 91 ) , which are most developed at Kew in the declination , are less developed in the horizontal force than at Lisbon . The two vertical-force curves generally agree ; but the phases at Kew are in advance of those at Lisbon . The small peaks ( those which can be identified ) are inverted and simultaneous . It is also noteworthy that the first vertical-force movementt at Kew is opposite to that at Lisbon . The vertical-force Lisbon curve is greater in its movements than the declination , and consequently deviates from the general law . Thus we see that the same periods of certain disturbances are manifested very differently in two stations so near each other as Kew and Lisbon . The modification is the greatest , particularly in the periods which depart from the general rule at Lisbon , and are doubtless also abnormal at Kew . From the examples here quoted , it is evident that a great value would be attached to the curves from another intermediate station ; for the little vertical-force peaks and hollows , being opposed at Lisbon and Kew , it would be very interesting to see if these peaks would be wholly or nearly absent at some intermediate station . With a certain number of these magnetographs very discreetly placed , we may one day analyze the different forces acting on the needle in the different places on the earth-a manifest desirability .

112539

3701662

On Supersaturated Saline Solutions. [Abstract]

403

411

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Charles Tomlinson

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112539

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112539

Chemistry 2

Chemistry 1

Chemistry

II . " On Supersaturated Saline Solutions . " By CHARLES TOMLINSON , F.R.S. Received April 21 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) This memoiris divided into six parts . The first part contains a definition of the subject ; the second an historical sketch ; the third is on the action of nuclei in inducing crystallization , and the effect of low temperatures on a number of supersaturated solutions contained in chemically clean vessels ; the fourth is on the formation of a modified salt , as in the case of zinco-sulphate and sodic sulphate ; the fifth contains an inquiry as to whether anhydrous salts form supersaturated solutions ; and the sixth and last part is a summary with a classified list of the salts examined . 1 . Definition.-When water at a high temperature is saturated with a salt , and , on being left to cool in a closed vessel , retains in solution a larger auantity of the salt than it could take up at the reduced temperature , the solution is said to be supersaturated . 2 . History.-During many years the phenomena of supersaturation were studied with reference to solutions of Glauber 's salt . In 1809 , Ziz of Mayence* showed that the sudden crystallization of these solutions is not due to agitation ; that the vessels containing the solutions do not require to be hermetically sealed ; but if put under a bell-glass , or loosely covered as with a capsule , they can be preserved during a long time ; that solids brought into contact with the solutions act as nuclei and produce instant crystallization , but that such solids act best as nuclei when dry ; if wet or boiled up with the solution they become inactive . The most efficient nucleus is a crystal of the salt itself . Air , if artificially dried , ceases to be a nucleus . Three varieties of the sodic sulphate are noticed , i. e. the anhydrous and the ordinary 10-atom hydrate , and also a peculiar salt formed when supersaturated solutions in closed vessels are left to cool down . This X Schweigger , Journal , ' 1815 , vol. xv . 2o x salt , as it is termed , contains less water of crvstallization than the ordinary salt , and is more soluble . If the vessel in which it is formed be suddenly opened , or the mother-liquor touched with a nucleus , the motherliquor instantly solidifies into the 10-atom hydrate , and the x crystals become opaque , like the boiled white of an egg . In 1819 Gay-Lussac referred the state of supersaturation to the inertia of the saline molecules , the molecular condition of thesides of the vessel , and other causes . He also showed that solutions of soime other salts exhibit the phenomena of supersaturation . In 1832 the number of such salts was shown by Dr. Ogdent to be not less that twenty-one . In 1825 Faraday published some experiments on the supersaturated solutions of Glauber 's salt . Graham ? , Turner 1 , Ur , and others also contributed new facts ; but the most elaborate inquiry was by M. Lowel between the years 1850 and 1857 , the results of which are contained in six mnemoirs T. According to this writer , the ordinary I0-atom sodic sulphate increases in solubility from 32 ? to 93 ? '2 F. , at which latter temperature it begins to fuse in its water of crystallization , and to deposit the anhydrous salt . This salt follows an inverse order of solubility as compared with the 10-atom hydrate , its solubility diminishing as the temperature rises ; or , what is the same thing , from 218 ? , the boiling-point of a saturated solution , down to 64 ? the solubility increases ; but at 64 ? the solution undergoes a new molecular modification , and begins to form crystals of the 7-atom hydrate ( the x salt of Ziz ) . This salt is much more soluble at ordinary temperatures than the 10-atom hydrate , its maximum solubilitybeing at 80 ? '6 . Thus the sodic sulphate has three maxima of solubility ; viz. 93 ? '2 when it is under the molecular constitution of the 10-atom hydrate , 78 ? '8 to 80 ? '6 when it is under the molecular constitution of the 7-atom hydrate , and 62 ? '6 to 64 ? '4 when it is under the molecular constttitution of the anhydrous salt . At these three maxima the saturated solutions are about equally rich in salt . The 7-atom hydrate and the anhydrous salt can only maintain their molecular constitution when in contact with the mother-liquor in closed vessels , in which they are sheltered from the air and from other bodies that act upon them as nuclei . No sooner are they exposed to the air than they become opaque and warm , and assume the molecular constitution of the 10-atom hydrate as well as its solubility . Ilence the conclusion is that supersaturated solutions of the sodic sulphate are not really so , since they hold a salt of much greater solubility at ordinary temperatures than the normal 10-atom salt . Lowel extends his inquiry to sodic carbonate and magnesia sulphate , and endeavours to show that in their supersaturated solutions salts of a lower degree of hydration and of greater solubility than the normal salts are formed ; and his general conclusion is * Annals de Chimie et de Physique , 2nd ser. vol. xi . 1 Edirb . New Phil. Joura . + Quarterly Journal of Science , vol. xix . ? Trans. Roy . Soc. Edinb . I ! Elements of Chemistry . ? T Annals de Chimie ct de Physique , 3rd ser. vols . xxix . , xxxiii , xxxvii . , xliii . , xliv . , xlix . that all cases of supersaturation are in appearance only , and not in fact . As to the function of nuclei and the inner sides of the flasks in determining crystallization , he regards it as the effect of one of those mysterious contact actions known as catalytic , of which science has not yet been able to give a satisfactory explanation . Bodies that appear to be active in inducing crystallization are designated as catalytic or dynamic , while bodies that are apparently inactive are termed non-catalytic or adynamic . " It appears certain , " he says , " that but for the mysterious action which the air and other bodies exert on supersaturated solutions , we should obtain sulphate of soda only in the modified state ; that is , crystallized with seven equivalents of water , and possessing at ordinary temperatures of the air a much greater solubility than that of the normal 10-atom salt . " Later inquirers have endeavoured to explain the nature of the force exerted by nuclei in inducing crystallization under certain conditions , and their passivity under others . Gernez* tried no less than 220 solids , and of these he selected 39 that were active in inducing crystallization : 18 were insoluble ; these were carefully washed in distilled water , and dried out of contact with air . When dry they were found to be without action on the solutions they had previously caused to crystallize . The 21 soluble substances were purified by recrystallization , and they all became inactive . Hence it is concluded that sulphate of soda is the only nucleus for solutions of the same salt . That is to say , whenever a glass rod or other body acts as a nucleus , it is contaminated with minute portions of the salt itself , which cM . Gernez believes to exist in the air , not only of towns , but in the country , According to this view , the supersaturated solution of any other salt can only be crystallized by a saline nucleus of its own kind . But , as M. Jeannelt has pointed out , if this theory be true , we must have floating in the air specimens of all kinds of salts that form supersaturated solutions , and crystallize by the introduction of a solid nucleus ; whereas there are some such salts which cannot exist in the presence of the oxygen or of the ammonia of the air . M. Jeannel shows that a few drops of an ordinary solution of a salt will induce crystallization in a supersaturated solution of the same salt without contact of air . 3 . On the Action of Nuclei.-With respect to the action of nuclei on : saline supersaturated solutions generally , the author refers to a theory of his 4 which seems to account for the liberation of gases from their super , saturated solutions ( soda-water , seltzer-water , champagne , & c ) when a solid nucleus that had been exposed to the air is immersed in them ; while such nucleus becomes inactive if kept long in water , or passed through flame &c. , and dried or cooled out of contact with air . The action of , nuclei is referred to adhesion . Nuclei are active in inducing crystallization , or they are inactive , according to the state of chemical purity of their surfaces . In the case of a supersaturated saline solution , the sides of the vessel may act as nuclei , or any solid , and some liquid , bodies brought into contact with it . Now suppose the inner surface of the vessel to be made chemically clean , either by well washing it with strong sulphuric acid , or caustic alkali , or spirits of wine , or , as often happens , by boiling the saline solution in the vessel in which it is intended to be kept . In such cases there is perfect adhesion between the sides and the solution , and no salt will be liberated ; the sides may in fact be regarded as merely a continuation of the liquid itself , and no salt can be formed there any more than in the central parts of the liquid . But suppose the sides to be not chemically clean , to be more or less dirty in fact ; in such cases adhesion is diminished or destroyed , and the surface of the liquid next to such sides is virtually as free as its upper surface . Salt will be deposited there , other circumstances being favourable , really from want of adhesion between the side and the liquid that holds the salt in solution . Now apply this to the case of a so-called " adynamic , " " non-catalytic , " or " inactive " glass rod , or coin , or fragment of glass or of flint , &c. A glass rod placed in the solution does nothing more than form new sides , as it were , to the vessel , and its effect is merely that of the sides . If chemically clean , the rod will form no crystals about it , and hence it is " inactive " because its adhesion is perfect . If dirty , the surface of the solution in contact with it will be as free , or almost so , as the upper surface . It requires special means to produce a chemically clean surface ; and when produced , it is not easy to maintain it . A short exposure to the air , or a mere touch , will suffice to cover it with an organic film , or with motes or dust that prevent or lessen adhesion between it and the aqueous part of the solution , and apparently render an inactive solid active . When a glass rod &c. has been kept in water or passed through flame and dried , or cooled out of contact with the air , it is more or less chemically clean , and remains so while being sheltered . When Ziz found a knitting-needle active on one solution , and by passing it through the cork which confined a similar solution it became inactive , he simply made the wire chemically clean by the friction . Air is not a nucleus , and when it appears to act as such , it is simply as a carrier of some solid particle not chemically clean . Hence narrow-necked flasks when opened retain their solutions liquid longer than wide-necked ones , as the former are less likely to catch motes &c. from the air than the latter . Supersaturated solutions are best preserved by plugging the necks of the flasks &c. with cotton-wool , since in cooling down the air is filtered in passing through the plug , and motes and dust are thus kept back . Tubes made chemically clean by the action of strong sulphuric acid may be filled with a strong solution of sodic ' sulphate , and when cold the tubes may be placed in a freezing-mixture at 10 ? F. without any separation of the salt . Hence the author differs from iM . Liwel 's theory , which supposes a molecular change to take place when strong solutions of the salt are cooled down below 60 ? . Supersaturated solutions of various saltswere cooled down to various temperatures from 32 ? to 0 ? F. without crystallizing . Sodic acetate , for example , was kept for some hours at 14 ? , when on touching it with a wire it became solid , and the temperature rose to 104 ? . Sodic arseniate , sodic succinate , sodic borate , sodio-potassic tartrate , potash alum , and other saline solutions were treated in this way . Some of these solutions become viscid at a low temperature , and do not immediately crystallize on removing the cotton-wool plug . If they be touched , or the side of the flask scratched with a chemically clean wire , there is no action ; but if the wire be not chemically clean , the scratches immediately become chalky white by being covered with minute crystals of the salt , and the action then spreads until the solution becomes solid . Some salts that are not very soluble in water , such as the plumbic acetate , form highly charged supersaturated solutions , and retain their liquid state below ordinary atmospheric temperatures . When at a certain point they suddenly solidify . Other solutions merely deposit the excess of salt above the condition of supersaturation , leaving the mother-liquor saturated ; the cupric sulphate is an example of this . The memoir contains a number of details respecting the action of nuclei , whether derived from the air , from the flask , from the salt itself , from the filter , or the cotton-wool used in closing the vessels . If the solution touch the wool , crystallization immediately sets in ; or if the upper part of a chemically clean tube be touched with a finger slightly greasy before filtering into it the hot solution , the latter will cool down to the temperature of the air without crystallizing , nor will there be any effect if the tube be inclined so as to touch the clean portions of the inner surface ; but the moment the solution comes upon the edge of the finger-mark , crystallization sets in , and the solution becomes solid . Solutions not filtered that begin to crystallize at above 1000 in open vessels , or even in closed flasks , may by filtration be freed from nuclei , and so cooled down in the latter to low temperatures without any separation of the salt . 4 . On the formation of a modifed salt.-The readiness with which sodic sulphate parts with its water of crystallization , and two or three other considerations , make it more than probable that a solution of sodic sulphate at high temperatures is really a solution of the anhydrous salt . But M. Lowel supposes & that a supersaturated solution in cooling down below 60 ? assumes a new molecular constitution , viz. that of the more soluble 7-atom hydrate which it then holds in solution . The author gives an experiment to show that such cannot be the case , but that the solution continues to hold the anhydrous salt until a portion of it actually separates . If a boiling solution of two parts salt to one part water be filtered into vessels made chemically clean by being washed out with spirits of wine instead of sulphuric acid , and if these vessels , when cold , be placed in water at 32 ? , or from that to 40 ? , a few octohedral crystals of the anhydrous salt will be thrown down . The temperature will slightly rise ; and if the tube be now set aside in a moderately warm air , the anhydrous salt will enter into solution , forming a dense lower substratum , from which the 7-atom hydrate will be produced in small quantity , there not being suficient water present to form the ordinary 10-atom salt . The rest of the solution is still supersaturated , and if the plug be removed from the vessel , crystallization will set in from the surface and proceed rapidly downwards , carrying down enough water to convert the whole solution , as well as the 7-atom , into the 10-atom hydrate . This process may be conveniently watched in the case of the zinc sulphate . When a saturated solution of this salt cools down from the boilingpoint to about 70 ? , the monohydrated salt is thrown down in quantity , and , as the solution cools , a portion of this dissolves and a crop of acicular crystals is produced which readily melt down at about 100 ? . On removing the cotton-wool from the tube , crystallization sets in from the surface , and the ordinary 6-atom hydrate is produced . The author examines M. Lowel 's experiments on solutions of the sodic carbonate in which two modified hydrates are pointed out , viz. the 71H Oa and the 7H0 6 , which differ in solubility from each other and from the 10atom salt ; but as iBI . L6wel attaches great importance to the peculiar catalytic properties of the sides of his vessels in determining the formation of these salts , the author cannot help thinking that M. Lowel 's results were due to portions of the sides of his vessel , not chemically clean , acting as nuclei . In chemically clean vessels M. Lowel 's results have not been reproduced ; for on reducing the temperature to a certain point depending on the strength of the solution , the whole became suddenly solid , with a rise in temperature of 35 ? or 40 ? . M. Lowel also points out two modifications produced from supersaturated solutions of the magnesia sulphate . The author has placed boiling saturated solutions , when cold , in freezing-mixtures at 10 ? without producing any separation of the salt . The ammonia phosphate throws down from its supersaturated solution an anhydrous powder , which , again entering into solution , forms a dense lower stratum in which a modified transparent crystallized salt is formed in small quantity . The strontic nitrate also deposits an anhydrous salt in cooling down to about 62 ? ; but as this salt is not soluble in the solution , the modified salt is not formed . Some solutions on being cooled down in freezing-mixtures suddenly become solid ; others freeze and sometimes thaw again without any separation of the salt , as in the case of the cupric sulphate ; but if a boiling saturated solution of this salt be prepared with strict attention to chemical purity , it may be cooled down to near 0 ? F. without any separation of the salt . 5 . Anhydrous Salts.-The method adopted to ascertain whether an anhydrous salt forms a supersaturated solution was to make a solution of known strength , as indicated by some good Table of solubilities , raise it to the boiling-point , and then note whether salt began to be thrown down when the solution cooled down to the temperature indicated by the Table . For example , according to Poggiale 's Table , 100 parts of water at 158 ? will dissolve 129'6 of sodic nitrate . This is the same thing as 622'22 grains of the salt in 1 ounce water . Such a solution on cooling down from the boiling-point began to deposit salt at 160 ? . In like manner , according to Gay-Lussac 's Table , 100 parts of water at 150 ? F. contain 125 of potassic nitrate . A solution of 125 parts salt to 100 of water began to deposit salt at about 149 ? . The deposit first began to be made on the side nearest the window , or the coldest side , when the flask was suspended in air ; but if the flask were placed on metal , or any other good conductor , a ring of salt was first formed at the bottom , some 6 ? or 8 ? earlier than if the flask stood on a block of wood . It has been frequently stated that the potassic bichromate forms a supersaturated solution . According to Kremer , 200 of water at 140 ? F. dissolve 100 parts of the salt . Such a solution , on cooling from the boiling-point began to throw down crystalline flakes at 138 ? . The remarkable deepening in colour of this solution under the influence of heat is pointed out . Sal-ammoniac , potassic chlorate , and some other salts were also examined , the conclusion being that anhydrous salts do not form supersaturated solutions . 6 . Conclusion and Summary.-The author refers to the prevailing theory that supersaturation exists in appearance only and not in fact , since it is supposed to be the modified and more soluble salt that is in solution . If this were true , it ought to apply to all cases of supersaturation , and it has only been claimed in the case of a very few salts , and in them much importance has been attached to the active or the inactive condition of the sides of the vessels containing the solutions . The author , while admitting , in the case of a very few solutions , that a modified salt may be deposited , denies that it is due to any molecular change that takes place in the solution , either from reduction of temperature or any catalytic property of the sides of the vessel . His theory is that when these modified salts are formed , it is the anhydrous salt that is held in solution , a portion of which is thrown down as the temperature falls ; and this anhydrous deposit , entering again into solution , forms a dense substratum containing less water than the upper portions , so that when the modified salt forms in it , it is out of the reach of sufficient water to form the normal salt . When , on the contrary , under the influence of a nucleus , crystallization sets in from the surface , the normal salt is formed , and the crystals carry down sufficient water to convert the whole into the ordinary hydrated salt . As to the action of nuclei or the sides of the vessel , when chemically clean the solution adheres to them as a whole , and there is no separation of the salt ; when not chemically clean there is a stronger adhesion between the salt and the nucleus than between the salt and the solvent , and there is a separation of salt ; and the action of separation once begun , may be rapidly propagated throughout the whole solution . Boiling saturated solutions may be cooled down in chemically clean vessels and kept for any length of time , not because they undergo any molecular change or hold a salt of greater solubility than the normal salt in solution , but they retain their fluid form simply from the absence of a nucleus . The salts examined in this memoir are arranged into five groups according to their behaviour . I. Salts of which the supersaturated solutions remain liquid at low temperatures . Examples:-Sodic sulphate . Sodic acetate . Sodic arseniate . Sodic succinate . Sodic borate . Sodio-potassic tartrate . Potash alum . Magnesia sulphate . Baric acetate . Calcic chloride . Cupric sulphate . II . Salts of which the supersaturated solutions suddenly solidify at low temperatures . Examples:-Sodic carbonate . Sodic phosphate . Plumbic acetate . Sodic hyposulphite . Strontic chloride . III . Salts of which the supersaturated solutions deposit their excess of salt at low temperatures or under the action of a nucleus , leaving the motherliquor saturated . Examples:--Zinco-acetate . Cupric sulphate . Baric chloride . Potassic arseniate . Antimonio-potassic tartrate . Citric acid . IV . Salts of which the supersaturated solutions form modified salts of a lower degree of hydration . Examples:-Zinco-sulphate . Sodic sulphate . Magnesia sulphate . Ammonia phosphate . It will be seen that the sodic sulphate and the magnesia sulphate also occupy a place in Class I. V. Anhydrous salts examined in this memoir that do not form supersaturated solutions : Potassic nitrate . Potassic bichromate . Sal-ammoniac . Sodic nitrate . Potassic chlorate . Potassic ferrocyanide . Baric nitrate . Plumbic nitrate . Ammonium nitrate .

112540

3701662

On the Impact of Compressible Bodies, considered with Reference to the Theory of Pressure. [Abstract]

411

414

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

R. Moon

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112540

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112540

Fluid Dynamics

Biography

Fluid Dynamics

III . " On the Impact of Compressible Bodies , considered with reference to the Theory of Pressure . " By R. MooN , M.A. , Honorary Fellow of Queen 's College , Cambridge . Communicated by Prof. J. J. SYLVESTER . Received April 22 , 1868 . ( Abstract . ) Suppose that we have two rigid cylinders of equal dimensions , which have their axes in the same straight line ; suppose , also , that one of the cylinders is at rest while the other moves towards the first with the velocity V in a direction parallel to both the axes ; the consequence of the collision which under such circumstances must take place , will manifestly be that half the momentum of the moving cylinder will be withdrawn from it , and will be transferred to the cylinder which originally was at rest . The mode in which velocity or momentum will thus be collected from the different parts of the one cylinder , and distributed amongst those of the other , is obvious . Exactly the same amount will be withrawn from the velocity of each particle of the impinging cylinder , and exactly the same amount of velocity will be impressed on each particle of the cylinder struck . And the reason of this is equally obvious ; since , if such were not the case , the particles of each cylinder would contract-a supposition which is forbidden by the very definition of rigidity . But if , instead of being perfectly rigid , each cylinder is in the slightest degree compressible , a variation in the effect will occur . As before , momentum of finite amount will be transferred from the one cylinder to the other , but the mode of collection of the velocity withdrawn from the one , and the mode of distribution of that injected into the other , will no longer be the same as before . 411 In order that the moving cylinder may not be reduced to absolute rest by the collision , it is obvious that the cylinder originally at rest , or a portion of it , must be moved out of the way , so as to allow of the continuance , even in a modified degree , of the other 's motion ; and this can only be effected on the terms of a transference of velocity or momentum taking place from the one cylinder , or part of it , to the other cylinder , or part of it . But when the cylinders are compressible , we are freed from two conditions which obtain when the cylinders are rigid . In the first place , it is no longer necessary to suppose , neither should we be justified in assuming , that the velocity abstracted from each particle of the impinging cylinder , or transferred to each particle of the cylinder struck , is the same ; on the contrary , all experience tells us that , in bodies susceptible to compression , compression is always produced by collision ; in other words , that variation of velocity , in the parts about which the collision takes place , is the immediate and invariable concomitant of collision . In the second place , when the cylinders are compressible , it is no longer essential to suppose that the effect of the collision will be to withdraw velocity from every particle of the impinging cylinder , and to impart velocity to every particle of the cylinder struck . Undoubtedly such may be the case if the cylinders are short , if they are possessed of only a moderate degree of rigidity , and if the velocity before impact of the impinging cylinder is considerable . But if the cylinders be long , while the velocity of the impinging cylinder is of moderate amount , the contrary may occur . The condition that the cylinder originally at rest shall not oppose an immediate insurmountable barrier even to the modified motion of the other may , obviously , be sufficiently satisfied if a motion of contraction is imparted by the collision to a definite portion of the second cylinder . But when the cylinders are compressible , equally as when they are rigid , the collision must cause the instantaneous abstraction of velocity or momentum , either from the whole of the impinging cylinder , or from a definite part of it , and the instantaneous communication of the velocity so withdrawn , either to the whole of the cylinder struck , or to a definite part of it . We have hitherto assumed the velocity of each particle of the impinging cylinder to have been originally uniform . Let us now suppose , however , that immediately before impact a counter velocity of variable amount is impressed on the different parts of the impinging body , so that , at the instant of impact , before taking account of the effect of collision , the velocity at any point of the impinging body may be expressed by VV1 ; where V is constant , but V1 has the value zero at the surface of collision , and thence gradually increases as we recede towards the other extremity of the cylinder , so that V-V1 , which expresses the velocity of the impinging cylinder before impact , has its greatest value at the surface of collision , and diminishes as we recede therefrom . It is clear that , in the case we are now considering , the collective momentum abstracted from the impinging cylinder by the collision will be less , and finitely less , than that which was abstracted by the collision in the former case , in which the velocity of each particle of the impinging cylinder was supposed uniform and equal to V. For , if M be the momentum lost by collision when the velocity before impact is uniform and equal to V , it is clear that when the velocity before impact is represented by Y-V1 , the quantity V1 may be such that the momentum before impact may be finitely less than M ; from which it follows inevitably that the amount of momentum lost by collision in this latter case must be less than MV . Let us now vary the data by supposing that the velocity before impact increases instead of diminishes as we recede from the surface of collision ; so that at the moment of impact , before taking account of the effects of collision , the velocity at any point of the impinging cylinder is represented by V+V , instead of V-V , . It is clear that the momentum abstracted by the collision in this latter case will be greater , and finitely greater , than in the case where the velocity before impact is uniform and equal to V. Let the additional momentum abstracted in this case be M1 , the whole monmentum so abstracted being represented by f +1-M1 . Let us now make a final variation in the conditions of the problem , by supposing that at the moment of impact , and irrespective of the impact , a velocity equal and opposite to V is communicated to each particle of the impinging cylinder , so that at that instant , without taking account of any action of the one cylinder upon the other , the velocities of the two cylinders along their surfaces of contact will be equal , or , rather , will be alike zero ; at the same time that at every other point of the impiningi cylinder there will be a variable velocity V1 increasing in amount as we recede from the surface of contact . In estimating the effect of the cylinders being in contact under the circumstances last described , it is clear that the abstraction from each particle of the impinging body of the velocity V can only be regarded as preventing the transference to the second cylinder of so much of the momentum M +-M , as that velocity , if it had constituted the entire velocity before impact of the impinging body , would have given rise to , viz. M ; and that the momentum M , whose appearance in the expression M+ Ml is due to the fact of the first cylinder having been originally endowed with the variable velocity V , in addition to the constant velocity V , will still continue to be transmitted to the second cylinder from the first . We are thus led to this singular and , doubtless , pregnant conclusion , that in a continuous material system in which there is neither discontinuity of velocity nor discontinuity of density , all the consequences of collision may occur , viz. the instantaneous transmission of a finite amount of momentum from one part of the system to another , provided we have discontinuity in the tendency to compression in the different parts of the system . The author has endeavoured , in former communications to the Royal Society , to show that when the velocity in a fluid diminishes in the direction to which the motion tends , the slower particles will offer a resistance to the motion of the faster particles , which the received theory fails to take into account . The foregoing speculation goes to prove that the circumstance of the surfaces of contact of contiguous elements of the fluid having the same velocity , constitutes no objection to the reality of such resistance .

112541

3701662

On the Tides of Bombay and Kurrachee. [Abstract]

414

416

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William Parkes

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112541

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112541

Meteorology

Tables

Meteorology

IV . " On the Tides of Bombay and Kurrachee . " By WILLIAM PARKS , M.Inst . C.E. Communicated by G. B. AIRY , Astronomer Royal . Received May 5 , 1865 . ( Abstract . ) The object of this paper is to exhibit the phenomena of diurnal inequality in the tides on the coasts of India , and describe the mode adopted by the author for obtaining formulae based on astronomical elements for predicting them . It is accompanied by the following records of observations given in a diagram form : Kurrachee , 1857-8 , December to March . , , 1865 , March to August . 1867 , The whole year . Bombay 1867 , February to May . The height and times predicted by the author for 1867 , and published by the India Office , are given on the diagrams for that year , so that they may be compared with actual observation . The continuous curves of the height of the water taken at Bombay , at every ten minutes for the four months above named , are also given . By the rotation of the earth every meridian-line is brought twice a day under the influences which ultimately result in the well-known semidiurnal tidal movements-once when in the position nearest to the attracting body , and once when in that furthest from it . But the actual point in that meridian which is in the centre of those influences will be alternately north and south of the equator , to the extent of the declination of the attracting body . This alternation of the position of the centre of attraction from the northern to the southern hemisphere produces a diurnal tide , and that diurnal tide produces a diurnal inequality in the semidiurnal tide 414 [ May 28 , The character of the diurnal tide and the highly complex conditions under which its constantly varying solar and lunar component parts are combined are then traced . Being entirely dependent on the declinations of the sun and moon , the solar element vanishes twice a year , and the lunar element twice a month , each reappearing after the solar or lunar equinox , with its times of high and low water reversed . The diurnal tide produces a diurnal inequality in height and time of high and low water , affecting simultaneously respectively high-water time and low-water height , and high-water height and low-water time . In particular cases , the actual values of height and time of diurnal tide may be directly deduced from the values of diurnal inequality . From these it was found that diurnal tide follows the moon 's movements at a much shorter interval than semidiurnal , the retard of the former being from two to three hours only , while that of the latter is from thirty-four to thirtysix hours . The mode adopted for identifying the varying values of diurnal inequality with their physical causes was then explained . A hypothetical series of diurnal tides , based on the varying values of the declination of the sun and moon , was calculated , the necessary local constants being deduced fr6m the particular cases in which their values could be directly obtained . These hypothetical diurnal tides being combined with a series of semidiurnal tides deduced from the diagram of observations , the diurnal inequalities so obtained were compared with the actual diurnal inequalities . It was then found that a further element was wanting , which was approximately and provisionally obtained by the introduction of a second empirical diurnal lunar tide of twelve inches maximum half-range at Bombay , and six inches at Kurrachee . This tide was assumed , like the first and principal diurnal tide , to be dependent on the moon 's declination , but to vanish at intervals of two or three days , before the moon crossed the equator . The author expresses an opinion that this empirical correction might probably be superseded by one more consistent with physical causes , if more extended and more correct observations were subjected to investigation . Lastly , the comparison of calculated heights and times with the records of observations for four months at Bombay and eight months at Kurrachee were given . This showed that three calculated tides out of four were correct within three inches in height and fifteen minutes in time , the errors of the remainder ranging up to nine inches in height , and thirty minutes in time . Since receiving the observations made at Bombay and Kurrachee in the year 1867 the author has subjected them to another process for obtaining the actual times and heights of diurnal tide , which has been more successful than that described in the paper . The only data made use of were the diurnal inequalities in height at high and low water , the range of semidiurnal tide and the diurnal ine1868 . ] Bombay and Klurrachee . 415 quality in time , which were necessary to the previous process , being now altogether disregarded . The diurnal inequalities in height were obtained by measuring the widths of the brown spaces where they were crossed by the vertical lines representing noon on successive days . The two daily values thus obtained are respectively the sine and cosine of an angle which represents the difference in time between semidiurnal and diurnal tide . Dividing the low-water by the hiph-water value gives the cotangent of that angle , and thence the angle itself . Thus the time of actual diurnal tide ( first in relation to the time of semidiurnal low water , and then in relation to solar time ) was obtained . The actual range of diurnal tide was obtained by adding together the squares of the high-water and low-water values ( sine and cosine ) , and taking the square root of the sum . With these two series of results as ordinates , curves were drawn representing times and ranges of actual diurnal tide , which were thus presented in a convenient form for comparison with the diurnal tide which had been previously calculated . The comparison confirmed the previous conclusion that the tide based on the simple declination theory was insufficient , and the empirical correction which had been adopted seemed to provide an approximation to the required addition to it , both in time and height . But it appeared that a better coincidence in time would have been obtained by assuming the diurnal tide at Kurrachee to be forty minutes earlier . This supposition was tested by treating the observations of 1865 in a similar manner , and also by recalculating a , portion of the tides of 1867 with the earlier diurnal tide . In both cases the supposition was confirmed , a better agreement being obtained . On treating the Bombay observations in the same manner , a fair general coincidence with the calculated diurnal tides was found to exist ; but it was further found , on comparing together the Kurrachee and Bombay curves of actual diurnal tide ( thus for the first time recorded for the same period ) , that the times were nearly identical at the two ports , and the range at Bombay about one-tenth greater than that at Kurrachee . The tables for the four months over which the Bombay observations extend were recalculated with the diurnal tides which had been calculated for Kurrachee ( but made forty minutes earlier , and increased in range by one-tenth ) , and the result was quite as good as that shown by the original tables . This fact would seem to point to the possibility that the diurnal tide is a vertical undulation , acting simultaneously , or nearly so , over a large area . 416 [ May 28 ,

112542

3701662

Observations of the Spectra of Some of the Southern Nebulae

417

418

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Herschel

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1867.0087

proceedings