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112683

3701662

On the Lunar Atmospheric Tide at Melbourne

489

501

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

G. Neumayer

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1866.0113

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112683

10.1098/rspl.1866.0113

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112683

Meteorology

Tables

Meteorology

III . ' On the Lunar Atmospheric Tide at Melbourne . " By Dr. G. NEUMAYEIt , late Director of the Flagstaff Observatory , Mem. Acad. Leop . Communicated by Lieut.-Gen . SABINE , President . Received April 10 , 1867 . Anxious to assist the development of so interesting a branch of knowledge on the connexion of forces in nature as the influence our satellite exerts upon the earth 's atmosphere , I had made it a point to include investigations , tending to facilitate studies in this direction , in the plan of discussion of the observations made at the Flagstaff Observatory about to be published . Fully aware that a geographical position , such as that of Melbourne ( 37§ 48 ' 45t south lat. and 9h 391 " 538 east long . ) , affords but very few chances for arriving forthwith at a result which might be regarded as final , I thought it nevertheless of the highest importance to decide how 2s 2 489 far and to what an extent such small oscillations as those in question , and which for lower latitudes have already been proved to exist , would make themselves manifest , in spite of the great atmospheric disturbances of higher latitudes . The volume of discussions above referred to contains consequently the results of the reduction and classification of upwards of 43,500 hourly observations on pressure of air , registered during the period from the 1st of March 1858 to the 28th of February 1863 ; and in publishing these results I was chiefly guided by the conviction that it would hardly be compatible with the scope of such a work to enter upon a full discussion of the phenomena connected with the lunar influence on the barometer ; while a complete reduction and classification would make the observations apt to be taken up by any one interested in this matter for the purpose of being subjected to a rigorous examination and discussion . While engaged upon this task , I could not fail , however , to be struck by some very interesting facts which , though they are far from being reducible to definite laws , may serve to furnish some connecting links with respect to atmospheric tides , and to give evidence as to the possibility of proving their existence even in as high a latitude as that of Melbourne . A successful attempt at a complete solution of the problem may only be hoped for when a larger number of discussions on barometrical observations , collected at ectropical stations , will be at our command . Prior to entering upon the task proposed , it appears desirable to give a few particulars , requisite for a full understanding of the subjoined results . The geographical position of the Flagstaff Observatory was already mentioned , and it remains only to be added that the standard barometer was one of Newman 's construction , 0'400 inch in diameter , its cistern being 12017 feet above the mean level of the sea . A few facts respecting the oceanic tides gleaned from the Sailing Directions for Port Phillip , ' by Capt. Ferguson ( 1861 ) , may also find a place here . High water at full and change . and fall . and fall . hm Spring . Neap . hm ft. ft. On the beach at Pt. Lonsdale ... ... ... . . 11 25 74 In the midchannel between Pt. Lonsdale and Pt. Nepean ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 50 At the Lightship , West channel ... ... ... . 2 10 43 At the East end of South channel ... ... . . 2 25 43 At the Bird rock , Geelong ... ... ... ... . . 2 30 3-5 2'5 At Pt. Gellibrand and mouth of River Yarra 30 4-5 25 There is no necessity for entering more fully into a description of the method employed in freeing the barometrical observations from the regular diurnal fluctuation and arranging the remainders b-b according to lunar time , inasmuch as this method is quite identical with the one employed by all who have directed their attention to this subject , as General Sabine , Professor Kreil , and others . This much may be stated , however , that the reading of the barometer ( 6 ) , after being reduced to 32 ? , was invariably increased by 1 inch , in order that it may always exceed the mean pressure for the respective hour ( b ) , thereby avoiding negative results . This has certainly the disadvantage of not exhibiting at a glance the excess or defect of atmospheric pressure at any time ; on the other hand , there is no doubt that a mistake with regard to the algebraic sign of the remainders is not likely to occur . In the subsequent Tables it was made a rule to reduce the values b-b to their mean value for a month , year , or whatever other period of time they may refer to . The remainders b-b were derived , in the manner just pointed out , for every month throughout the period of five years for which the observations were continued . Then the means for every month and hour were taken , thus obtaining normal values for the several months ; a general mean for every month formed the basis to which those normal values were referred . The subjoined Table shows the result of this proceeding . The values of the above Table have been thrown into curves , and Plate I. shows the results . The actual mean values are indicated by dots ; a fulldrawn curve is made to pass through and between them in such a manner as to eliminate the greater irregularities . Some of those irregularities are so large as to cause the respective dots to be disconnected with the series to which they belong , and it became therefore necessary to indicate this connexion by slight dotted lines . On glancing over this series of curves we cannot fail to observe a great regularity , pointing at some cause common to all ; and as the remainders b-b have been arranged according to the moon 's hour-angle , we may justly look to the moon as the primary cause . But it is nevertheless true that those curves apparently point to some other influence , most likely due to the combined action of the sun and moon . The monthly curves for the several years of observation have also been drawn , though we refiain from adding the results here ; and the fact that they correspond in the main points with those shown on Plate I. , seems to justify our attaching particular weight to the evidence of the moon 's influence on our atmosphere , as conveyed to our minds by the above Tables . But prior to entering fully upon the various points bearing on the question at issue , we need to form of the monthly results quarterly and semiannual groups . If we call March , April , May the first , June , July , August the second , September , October , November the third , and December , January , February the fourth quarter , we obtain the quarterly means inserted in the following Table . It was furthermore considered serviceable to the purpose to group together those quarters in which the epochs of solstices and equinoxes respectively occur , under the collective names " solstitial and equinoctial quarters . " The semiannual periods comprise , as usually , the months from April to September , and those from October to March . The mean of all the various hourly values represents the mean lunar-diurnal variation in pressure of air for the year . 1st part.--From the -superior to the inferior passage . ( 1858-63 ) . ~ont ; ~s . h ! 1 h , h 4h 5h 6b 7h h h9h ' II h Months. . 5h6 . h. 9 . 7 9h . in . in . in . in . in . in . in . in . in . in . in . in . April ... ... +o'o0210 -0o'oo00290 o-000150 -ooo64 --oo648 +0o00130 +000030 +o'ooIz4 ? +000152 -0'00092 +0-00076 +000036 -May . +0'00085 o+000673 --o0o005 +0'00233 -0-00051 -0'00221 +0o00219 +0'00031 -0'00377 -ooo00011 +0'00551 +000097 June ... ... +0'00508 0'00168 -o'00052 -0'00296 -o00432 -o'oo8o8 -000592 -0'oo812 -0'0o696 -o0oo376 -0o00264 +o000224 July ... ... +0'002180'00320 -oo-00536 -0'0059g -o'oo4i2 --oooi6g +0-00036 +0070 +o'oo522 +o'oo7 +0007124 -'0-00014 BAugust.-..ooo7-13 +o'oo437 00035 --o'oo00o -o-ooo37 -o'oo03 -2577 August 0007 1+000437 -0-00203 -0-00097 +000225'+ 353 +000137 +-00035-000141 -000347 000371 -000277 September +0'00474 214 00 +o'ooozo 0oo00138 +0-00498 -+0'00552 --o0oo52 +o00ooo2 +0-00042 -0'00342 +000050 -000230 October ... -o-00403 --000025 -00497 -0-00595 -oo0025 -000047 +-0o016 0-00117 +000303 -0-00059 +000139 +0o-o00265 November b -0-000676 0-o0o612 + --oozo --o'ooI4 -000406 +0-00098 +000282 -0-'00028 +000380 { 000728 +o000176 . +000706 December o+0'00377 +0000257 +0-00457 -+o 'oo20 +00381 +0013I +0'00251 --0004.53 -00oo207 --0-01083 +0'00049 +0o00321 January -oo00178 -ooo568 -ooo3io --o000o68 +ooo +000324 -oo0026 +o'00ooo6 +000162 -0oo00644 --o0oo0032 +000152 February -0'0o465 +o00oo 0073 -0ooo00005 -oo00045 +000193 -0-00033 -0oo0145 -0 o00227 --000225 +o'00057 --000375 -0-00253 March ... .0-a00402 -0-00430 -0 o00290 +0'00024 +000124 +000156 +000516 +000966 000724 i+000536 -0'00108 --OO.008 2nd part.-Fromr the inferior to the superior passage . ( 1858-63 . ) ifMonths . 211 . 311. . h411 . 75 " . X68h i1 2Oh . j 20 h1 221 . 23h . in . in . in . in . i in . in . in . in . in . in . in . April ... ... j +0'00162 +o'ooIO6+0 00'ooi38 +-0'0230 +0'00094 +0'00252 +000096 -000082 -00340 -0-00296 -0'00444 +00oo30 May --0'00033 +0'00357 +0'00311 +'00Ioo --0'00329 --o00o331 -0-00443 --o00oo28 --o00441 -000767 -0-o00103 +0-00939 June ... ... o'oo36 +000222+00078 -o'oo +00248 --oo00102 -o+000218 +oooi68 o+000164 +000136 +0oo00732 +0-00844 July ... ... i0-000072j -00364 --o00134ooI34 +o0oo 4.I +00o'ocoi8 --0'00044 --ooo162 -0-o00300 -000278 +0-00074 +0'00522 +000oo284 Augusut --.0002o 5 -0-00371 -000209 +0ooo00009 --00137 -0ooI6 --0'00377 +o'ooi0029 +000509 +0'00383 -0 -00063 -+0'00035 Septemnber +o oooo8 +0'00058 +0-00190 -o'oooi2 +'000o02 +00oooo8 -0-00284 -0-00782 -ooo00502 -00290 --ooo0029 --000540 iOctober ... i -0oo 79 --o'ooo8r +o0oo243 +o'ooi08 +0'00177 -000063 '+000249 -0-00007 -000127 +0'o01033 +000057 --o00603c3 November +0 00720 +0-00412 +-o00284 +ooooo68 +000500oo +000250 -00034.o -o-ooi4o --o'ooz88 -0-o00910 --o01032 --ooIo0101 December -0-0oo07o -000705 -o'0oo00 -0-o00341 +000143 +o'oo289 -0-o00109 -0-oooo00029 +000oo97 +0011o4-3 January. . ooo00082 +000399 +0'00440 +0o00240 +oooi76 -000408 --00oo136 o+000242 +0'00358 -0-00ooo392 000116 -000394 February -00-o'oo4I1 -0ooo47 -o ' ooz27 -000ooI +-0002o75 +o00363 +o000473 +000o473 +000245 +000oo265 +o000225 +0-00097 March ... ... -00oo 226 +o0oooi6 +ooo86 --o000oo38 -0-00326 -0-ooo6o +0o00014 -0'00332 --o000292 +0-00028 -0'00214 -0o00388 1st part . From the superior to the inferior passage . ( 1858-63 . ) 2h . 3h1 4h . in . i. i. in . in . nn . I. Quarter -o0o00355 -0oo00055 -0-001848 -oocz000 I +o00o85 . 0oo004724 40o000952 --o002635 --0'003275 i-o'2o6 T , . -0-o'0020o 7 -00 -0-04 -0002290 -o00oo043 -0-o000530 IV . , , -0-00o870 -o00008I0 +0'000456 +0-000576 +oo002423 Equinoc , ) ot-co-o226 --ooooo66 -002o 00 -oo000563 -0-000205 Solstitial ) 010 00o 927 +0'0000oooo7 --0'089 -0-00I349 +O-Cooi8i Apr. to Sept , +0ooo368o 0+o0oo47o -0-001727 --O'-0460 -0-000317 Ot . to M -ar . -O-0029II -0'002174 0004244 -0000414 +0'000 332 Yer ... ... ... i+00039i -0-000346 -0-00o569 -0-00093 +0000ooooi4 51 . 6h . 71 . 81 . 9h . in . n. in . i in . i. +0o000z29 +0'002552 +0'003739 +c-ooi665 +o0o00445 -o0oz2075 -000oo395 --oo00202 I-0oIo048 -0-000015 +0-002010 +'ooo0997 +0-000303 +o-0024I7 1+o-oo0 090 +0o-00436 , -0-000417 -0'002234 -0-000917 -0'005584 -+00010841 +00-I 744 +-o001990 +0-0020Iz +0-001237 -0-o000319 1-o0ooogo6 -0-002z27 i-0-000982 -0-002799 ---000270 -0-000537 -0-000750 -0oo000830 1-0-000750 +o-ooo049 +0o'ooI4i2 +o-ooo652 +o'ooI896 i-0-000774 -+0000396 +o0ooo444 --o0000oooo42 000oo539 -00oo0756 1 Oh . I I1 . in . in . +0-00173z +00oooo72 +0-000298 +0-00022 I -000o42I 7 +0'002470 --0002524 +0000ooo7 6 +0o002944 +0-00129o -ooo00112 +-0'000248 +O'OOI277 -0'000273 +0-000592 +0-001849 +0-00094 +-oo000795 2nd part . From the inferior to the superior passage . ( 1858-63 . ) h I. 13hI I511 I6h 17h 1.h 19h20 . 2I 2211 . 23h . 11 h. , -I6-- . , __ in . in in . in . in . in . in . in . in . in . in . in . I. Quarter -0'000322 +o-00oo599 +o'ooi785 +0oo00645 -o-oo868 1-0-00046I -o'ooII8 1-0-002315 -o003575 -0003448 -o2oo535 +0o00oo27 II , , -0-000468 --00oo708 l+O-oOI465 o+ooo05 o-0000432 -oooio -o'ooIo68 --000ooooo0008 -OOI3I +001979 +0'003972 0-o003879 IIIL , , +o0OOI830 0o'oo z297 +0o'oo239o 1+o0000790 +o0ooz563 +oo.oo65o -o00ooI250 -00oo3097 -0-003057 --0000557 -o'00418o 3 -0.003583 T , . i -o'ooIi57 --oo001254 -oo002664 -0-001570 +O-OOOI49 -o0-00304 +-oooI583 +0'003329 1+ o0oo629 -0-000537 +o0oo4o09 J+o0oo543o Equinoc- . -+o'ooo723 f-O'00147 +o'oo002o2 -+oooo687 o 0000317 +o-oooo0064 -o'oO2zo -0-002737-0003347 oo02033 --0'003390 -o'ooi686 Solstitial . 1 -0-o00ooo 1-0'001781 -0-000599 -000ooo0782z +oooz9I -0-001162 +o-000258 +o0-00661 +0o-001474 +o-00072z +o-004041 +0-004655 Apr. to Sept. --oo000007 +0+o-00003 +o-001797 9+0000367 -o 0-000023 --0'000630 -001oo587 -o0ooI093 -0-001480 -0-00I267 4+0'000590 +0o004620 Oct. to Mar. -ooooo44 -o-ooo206 -0o'oo30I -0-000424 o-0669 -000043 o672 +0000876 -0-000354 -ooooo8 +8 -0-0006I4 Year ... . -0 ... .0ooooI9 -0'0o0090 +o +oco754 -0000o72 o000ooo329 j-0-oc0024 -0000451 -0-000512 -0o-092I -oo00063I 4+0000344 4+0-002009 ... ... 1I 005.._ . 7 ... 0 ... ... 00054 ... .05..0005 c The curves derived from the results of this Table are shown on Plate XI . , with the exception of the semiannual and annual curves which may be studied on Plate X. Glancing at the various curves thus resulting , we are first struck by the great conformity of some of them , whilst others present irregularities apparently quite irreconcilable with what we feel inclined to adopt as the law . There is , however , in all cases manifested a progressive change , evidently depending on the moon 's hour-angle in the first instance , calling for a rigorous examination . The semiannual curves of the lunar-diurnal variation of atmospheric pressure may be taken as representing the principal types of the various monthly curves . During the sun 's absence from the hemisphere ( in our case , when the sun 's declination is north ) , from April to September , the lunar variation reaches its maximum at about 23h 1 511 , or 45"1 prior to the moon 's upper transit , its minimum value occurring at 19h and a secondary one at 2 " , with a range of 0'00653 inch . The curves for the single months appertaining to this semiannual period exhibit , generally speaking , the same characteristics , though somewhat irregular , and showing , in some instances , deviations of considerable extent ; so , for instance , the curves for August and September . The summer semiannual curve ( while the sun 's declination is south ) exhibits an essentially different character , there being no strongly expressed maximum noticeable , whilst a decided minimum occurs at 01 30 " or 30 ; " past the moon 's upper passage , the maximal pressure taking place at 6 " , and a secondary one between 18 " and 19 ' . The amplitude of oscillation amounts to 0'00432 inch . But in this period of the year we notice a great difference in the lunar-diurnal variation of the barometer , when we examine the single months somewhat more closely ; thus , for instance , the curve for the month of December shows such characteristics as to cause it to be more like the curves for the winter period , and , on the other hand , we perceive that the curve for the month of November is exactly of the opposite character as that for December . The remaining four months show more or less irregularity , and make a greater or smaller approach towards the general type for the class under consideration . Although there is undoubtedly in all of these cases strong evidence of an influence of the moon on our atmosphere , I could not rest satisfied , considering that this evidence is seemingly of a somewhat conflicting nature . As already explained , the monthly values have , for the purpose of further inquiry , been combined into quarters , and the results for these quarters were again united in mean values , arranging the two quarters in which epochs of solstice occur , and the remaining two , comprising the equinoxes , respectively , in two groups . Thus we obtain six monthly mean values of the lunar-diurnal variation for the " solstitial and the equinoctial quarters . " I was prompted to adopt this course because of the great similarity of the curves for December and June in the one case , and of March and September in the other , though in by far less a degree . Tris similarity may best 4.:I 4 ... ~~ 4 . IIi i\ i 'I14 . , , I I. . I V+ -i ; ---~-~-~~~i~-..YI Ii iI A/ j"~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I ----rr rt--V-4.----rQ7*.44..4 4 - ? -i~ ~~ ~~~~~I.p./ _~ ~ 1..1 II tI ~~~~~~~-------j / I j-r`~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/ K 4..------- ? ... .-----(.-.J\ ; > 7..I & ... 7 . -.-Lj r 4 ... 1h if..1*---ii it ? ' ? :~ ~ ~~~~~~4..4- ? 1 t ? -C ? -m- ? /j~ ~~~~~~~~~ . / : 4 . / II 4 . 4.4 N ... ... .~ L-{------i 4 , h S. 4f41 -i 41C--ii ! i`--J..4 ; 3t-----~~~~~~~~~~~~~ i , LIj -e t ii --r----------i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i4 Pp I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 , L__ia~~~~~~~ . ____~~~ ~ 4--44f j--4~ . 4+ . i / , / , '-X i , i ~ -ai -~ I~-----I I. I ? * ' i I < +.C --- . - . -_ , I " - ! i / ! JIIi1i/ I I/ i ; :u / i ! i\ i il / , . I/ ' 7 7pp r 12 3 h./ -4h -l 1 16 ; h/ i pqh Siq L7 ' ? 1 212h ' 23h , '(__ I : Jq I-'|---.'---'}----.-----.-JIQarte _ ... .-^^ ---_="..__ ... ... _ FQizacrter ---i---.-------3----WOu ; ^-_ i----.--_ _ i--.'_.eaune > i i- ! 1_ -iW -SI -- . -----CeW part ( 01 m-eh h ' Z eh ; ' 3h 4h 57v h 7h . g g7 " , h ni ib 12'. . II+ _et ? A--_ C ? pper Tra-si & . be judged by the mean values for the respective two months , representing , as they do , in both cases a distinct oscillation with an amplitude of 0"'01722 for the solstices , and of 0"'01041 for the equinoxes . I may be allowed to refrain from adding here these mean values , suffice it to refer to the respective curves at the bottom of Plate II . For December and June we observe the maximium to occur at 2311 , the minimum at or shortly after 81 , while for September and March the maximum in the lunar-diurnal variation of pressure of air takes place at 7 " and the minimum at 19 " . The mean for the quarters ( each embracing six months ) show the same characteristics , though by far less in extent , the amplitude for the solstitial quarters being 0"'007454 , and that for the equinoctial quarters 0 " 006334 . There is another fact which requires to be pointed out , in order to throw further light upon the character of these oscillations ; namely , that they seem to bear a great resemblance for both hemispheres during the same semiannual period , if we are permitted to arrive at this conclusion by referring to Prof. Kreil 's discussions of his observations at Prague ( Versuch den Einfluss des Miondes auf den atmospherischen Zustand unserer Erde aus einjhhrigen Beobachtungen zu erkennen , 1841 ) . The semiannual curves of the lunar-diurnal variation of the barometer at Prague and Melbourne closely correspond during the months from April to September , and from October to March , which seems to point to some cause common to the whole globe in a similar manner , as we know it to be with respect to the extent of the rise of the oceanic tides at the time of the solstices and equinoxes . It would be premature to enter now upon any speculation with a view to bring the results of our observations in accordance with theory , there being still by far too few discussions on atmospheric tidal observations at our command . The yearly curve of the lunar-diurnal variation presents some peculiarly interesting features , differing in some respects from the results of similar inquiries instituted by General Sabine and Capt. C. M. Elliot with special regard to the lunar atmospheric tides at St. Helena and Singapore , although the plan of discussion was the same . The lunar horary variation of the barometer is as follows , " if we arrange the results in such manner that the hours are combined in which the moon is similarly situated in respect to the meridian " ( Sabine 's paper " On the Lunar Tides at St. Helena " ) : Iorary variation Mioon 's M 1oon 's distance from the obfrom the obdistance from the servations at I servations at from the meridian . At the hours following the At the hours preceding the th ours te hours ean . meridian . meridian passage . meridian passage . following the preceding C meridian the meridian passage . passage . 1oIh ih in . in . h in . in . in . in . in . h0{ oC00ooo39 0 ? 039 +0-00080 o { I }z ? +00002 sz 09oooz ? + Io -00057 oo o. . 10 ' + -000900070 I 1}0Z +i 000700140 2 -00033 Cozo09 + 'OOIZ } 2{4 00075 ) 041 zz + 000394 } ooo64 + 00014 + '00133 0+ 73 23 0055 21 600063 9 -0000 300 I5 0 00 I 'O000C7 I ooo63 -+ +§§ +o'o o69| 1}16+ -co3 + 300017 so oog 17z + 00051I + 006 oo4 6 15 , 1 } } --000 + 0009 45 5I6{6+ oo 4--6 } oooc 6+ 'oooAl c+ *0 + ooo6 + *ooo6z i6 § 4 6.00000 + 005 0 '000 ? 04.0o6z 6_ IS-04I 'o-o045 'Jr ' n both cases , at the hours following , and at those preceding the meridian passage , the minimum is decidedly at the 3ra hour , while the maximlun in the first series occurs at the Oth , and in the second at the 1st hour . At Singapore and St. Helena , both within the tropics , the lunardiurnal variation shows a maximum at the 0th and a minimum at the 6th hour . The discussions , based on observations made at Prague , and already referred to above , exhibit a greater conformity in respect to the lunar tides at Mielbourne than any of the tropical stations . This conformity is especially clearly expressed in the series for " the hours following the meridian passage " ( which series seems to present in each respective case the greatest reliability ) , and we observe that the minimum occurs at the 3rd and 4th , and the maximum at the 6th hour . But in turning Prof. Kreil 's labours in this direction to account , we must remember that they refer to a period of only one year , and cannot be considered as presenting great guarantees for decisive results , especially when considering that so high a latitude as 50§ 8 ' N. would rather have required a longer period of observation than is necessary to prove the existence and character of the lunar atmospheric tides within the tropics . So very few discussions on this topic being at our command , it is nevertheless of considerable interest to compare the results for Prague with those at St. Helena , Singapore , and Melbourne , as done in the following little Table : Mean of three Mean of two Mean of five Mean of one years at years at years at year at Singapore St. 1ielena Melbourne Prague ( +§ 19 ' ) . ( -5§ 57 ' ) . ( -37§ 48 ) . ( +500 8 ' hI in . in . in . in . ho -0ooo570 +o-oo365 +-o'o0o o'oooooo0 0Ii 4oo0075 'oo336 'ooI2I '00043 I2 4'00330 4 '00275 -.+ '00073 -'00o oI3'+ 0080 0oo015 ooooo -0 '00039 34 +'ooI45 'oiIo +'ooo6 + 'o00005 45 +'00035 + '00046 '00045 o00032 56 '00000 oooo + -ooc62 + 000ooo7 6 Mean ... ... 4oz26z2 i -O01843 + o'oc63I + 0ooo396 Mean . The decrease in extent of oscillation , as we recede from the equator , is clearly illustrated by the mean values of this Table . Speaking of the extent of the oscillations , it is of importance to add a few facts relative to the amplitude , as resulting from the monthly curves . We have seen , in the course of this exposition , that the amplitude for the semiannual periods from April to September , and from October to Marcl , is respectively 0"'00653 and 0"'00432 , which result will be materially altered in case we consider only the single months ; for inasmuch as the sense of oscillation varies considerably in the single months , constituting a semianlnual period , chiefly during summer , the combination of the hourly values of six months in one group must lecessarily tend to diminish , or even abolish in some cases , the lunar-diurnal variation . The mean amplitude of the lunar-diurnal variation of atmospheric pressure for the several months , as represented by the means of five years , is as follows : April 0-0069 Miay 0 0171 June 0-0165 Oct. '0091 Nov. 0-0311 Dec. -0222 Means for two months equi } 0080 2l 0 distant from the equinox July 0-0131 Aug. 0-0109 Sept. 0-0133 Jan. -0108 Feb. '0093 Mar. '0139 Means for two months equi- } 0199 0101 0136 distant from the equinox The semiannual means are , for the six winter months ( when the sun 's declination is north ) , 0"`0129 , and for the summer months ( when the sun 's declination is south ) O'l-0161 , and therefore the mean amplitude in lunardiurnal variation of the barometer is 0'"0 145 . There is evidently a great conformity in the change in extent of oscillation observable , when we examine the semiannual values of the above series . In April and October the amplitude reaches a minimum value , whilst in the months immediately following a maximum occurs . For both the equinoctial months the value in question is nearly alike , making at the same time the nearest approach to the annual mean . The months following the equinoxes exhibit the smallest range in lunar-diurnal variation of atmospheric , pressure , whilst those months preceding the solstices are to be considered as maxima with respect to the value at issue . With a view to ascertain whether the difference in the extent of the lunar atmospheric tide at the epochs of apogee and perigee may be proved to be perceptible in as high a latitude as 37§ 48 ' , I followed a course differing in some respects from the one proposed by General Sabine in his discussions of the St. Helena observations . We have seen that in the case under consideration the hours of the extremes in pressure are not marked in a like distinct manner as for places near the equator , and I thought it on this account preferable to abandon the adherence to certain hours of the lunar day in determining the range in the value b-b , simply adopting this range for the lunar day near the apogee or perigee , irrespective of any hour of maximum or minimum . In order to increase the number of comparisons , this range was determined in addition to the days of apogee and perigee for the day preceding and that following those epochs . The difference in the lunar-diurnal range in atmospheric pressure at the epochs of perigee ( Rp ) and apogee ( R " ) was consequently in each case derived from six days ' observation . Thus we obtained the following values for IRRI , which , however , cannot be immediately compared , in respect to the amount , with the corresponding values of the discussion on the St. Helena observations just referred to and arrived at by a different process . Lunar-diurnal range in Perigee minus lunar-diurnal range in Apogee . Months . Mean for 1858-59 . 1859-60 . i86o-6i . I86i-6z . i862-63 . I858-63 in . in . in . in . in . in . April ... ... ... ... ... ... +0'775 +o'I793 +0o'910 -0 0984 +0oIoIo +0o090i8 May ... ... ... ... ... ... 'II46 '2270 '0220 '0676 '1363 '03182 June ... ... ... ... ... . '025 '0376 + '0960 + '0380 '0837 '00248 July ... ... ... ... ... ... '79 '0786 0020 '0044 '0370 '01246 August ... ... ... ... ..'0148 + '0217 -'0750 'Io44 ? '0587 + '1I904 September ... ... ... .'o028 '0144 ? '1070 'oi8o '0417 +'1968 October ... ... ... ... ... oo004 + '1506 + '0400 '200o 6 1820 -z 'I5477 November ... ... ... ... '0287 '0320 oi6o + '0360 '0870 '00514 December ... ... . . 4 'I439 '0296 ? '0760 '1ooo + '0020 + '1I846 January ... ... ... ... ... '0097 '0083 '0805 + '0177 'o27o + '01452 February ... ... ... . '0815 '0570 'ooio '0727 + '05I '05224 March ... ... ... ... ... ... '0053 'I217 'c486 '0410 + 'oo60 + 'oo868 Means ... ... ... ... ... + '04418 + '02747 + '03605 '02808 + '00195 + '02746 Number perigee. . 13 13 14 I3 13 66 Sum . epochs of ogee ... I4 I3 I3 13 14 67 Sum . The mean value of + '02746 was derived with due regard to the number of epochs of apogee and perigee occurring in the whole period of observation , the total number of barometrical readings from which it was derived being 720 . There can hardly exist a doubt , after having examined the above results , that the lunar-diurnal range in pressure of air at the time of the perigee exceeds the one at the apogee , a fact which is also in strict accordance with theory . But it ought to be pointed out that during the months of May , June , and July the reverse seems to take place , as is manifested in every one of the five years of observation . Whether this bears any reference to the time of aphelion on the 3rd of July , and the time of the perihelion on the 2nd of January , we do not pretend to decide now ; suffice it to have directed the attention of those more immediately interested in inquiries of this nature to a matter replete with so much interest , but as yet , comparatively speaking , scantily examined . The mean range for the epochs of perigee and apogee is respectively 0 " 16327 and 0"'13581 , re . sulting a general mean range of 0"'149540 . A similar plan to that just described was pursued , in order to ascertain whether there existed any . perceptible difference in atmospheric pressure in the periods of syzygy and quadrature . The range of the atmospheric pressure during a lunar day was determined for days of full and change , and also for each of the epochs of quadrature separately , and furthermore for the day preceding and following each of the several epochs . Subsequently a mean value was derived by combining the daily range of the epochs of syzygy ( Rs ) and that for the epochs of quadrature ( Rq ) . Lunar-diurnal range in pressure of air . [ j i Mean for the Difference , Months . | Stl p ; ^W |il8 a epochs of Rl-Rq . Full New First epochs OLf R-qt moon . moon . quarter . quarter . g QuadraSyzygy ' . ture . in . in. . in . in . i. in . in . April ... ... ... o'1507 0 o1632 o 1723 0-1224 0o5695 0o'4760 +0'00935 May ... ... ... '131z '1730 I '669 1399 15210 '15340 '00130 June. . '1I25 '146 '1557 '1282 ' 12940 '14195 01255 July ... ... ... 1656 '31 1451 145 I4 4835 '12980 + '01855 August ... . . '532 1585 1 '095 '1872 '5585 '14835 + '00750 September . '2103 '1667 '1497 '2071 '18850 '1784 ? 0 -t '0ooo October ... . . '1597 '2038 '797 i '557 1 '1875 '16770 j'o1405 Novemnber ... '1318 '1582 1'I648 '22o 8 1'4500 * '19280 '04780 December '1907 '2191 '1226 'i8oo 20490 1 15130 +4 '05360 January ... ... 1729 '1287 151 2059 'I5080 '17885 'o80o5 February ... '1073 '0662 'I246 '1154 '08675 1O2000 '3325 'March ... ... ... '1262 '1509 1155 -1448 '13855 |'13015 +'00840 Means ... ... . . '1511 '15547 I'46561 *6oi6 '1 53242 '1 53360 'oooii8 The last column of this Table shows the difference R --Rq , so that plus denotes an excess of the lunar-diurnal range at the periods of syzygy , and minus an excess at the periods of quadrature . According to the above there is a decided minimum in the lunar-diurnal range at the time of the first quarter , while the last quarter seems to be the maximum , the time of the syzygy showing intermediate values . The general mean would indicate an excess , though very small , in favour of the epochs of the quadrature . On examining , however , the difference for the single months , we notice that the algebraic sign denotes for seven months an excess of the epochs of syzygy , and for five only the contrary ; further , that the greatest irregularity in respect to the signs and values prevails durings the months from November to February , when hot winds are most frequent , and the sudden changes in temperature , connected with these phenomena , cause the oscillations of the barometer to be much disturbed . The magnitude of the values during this period ought to induce us to receive them with caution , and to consider the eight remaining months separately . The general mean difference for the eight months , from March to October , both inclusive , . represents an excess in favour of the epochs of syzygy of 0'00676(2 inch , a value which most probably makes a near approach to truth . If we derive mean values of the lunar-diurnal range ror the several years of observation at the respective phases of the moon , we haveLiunar-cdiurnal range in pressure of air . Mean for the Years Full New I First Last epoch of Rs-~ moon . moon . quarter . quarter . -- ? II --~I II SyzyCgy . QuadraI in . in il . il . in . in . in . in . 1858-59 . o-16526 0'14492 0-14627 0-17259 0'I5506 O15943 -0'00437 1859-60 . -I3682 '14272 '1I5817 '15354 '13977 '5585 'OI608 1860-6I . *I4017 '16672 'I2792 'I4953 'I5344 '13872 -'01472 I861-62 . ' -12969 '15270 '14664 '19473 '14119 '17068 -'02949 1862-63 . 1 '18316 '17752 '14802 '13102 '*8034 'I3952 + '04082 Means ... ... 'I5i02 'I56916 145404 160282 " 53969 'I52843 + '00oo26 The final result of this Table shows an average excess of 0"'0011 26 in favour of the epochs of syzygy , hut an analysis of this value shows that for three years the excess is in favour of the epochs of quadrature , while but two years seem to confirm what we feel inclined to regard as the rule . So much we are able to assert , however , that the lunar-diurnal range in pressure of air at the time of the first quarter shows a minimum , and that near the last quarter and new moon a maximum in this range seems to make itself manifest . Although the evidence adduced in the case is not of such a positive nature as that produced when treating on the question of the increased pressure of air near the perigee , we feel nevertheless inclined to believe some similar relation to exist between the atmospheric tides and the moon 's phases , as we know to be the case with respect to the oceanic tides , and that a more rigorous inquiry into this question than we are able on the present occasion to institute , will ultimately yield a result in strict accordance with the theory of gravitation . Before concluding these researches I may be allowed to point out a fact corroborative of the result arrived at when speaking of the difference of atmospheric pressure near the epochs of syzygy and quadrature . The mean diurnal range resulting from the last inquiry amounts to 0 " ' 153301 ; but on the former occasion we found this range to be 0"'14954 . The excess of 0"'00376 , of which the lunar-diurnal range of the atmospheric pressure is larger , when derived from the epochs of the moon 's phases , than when obtaining it by the periods of perigee and apogee , must be attributed to the fact that in the latter case sixty-six periods of perigee were combined with sixty-seven periods of apogee , giving a fair average result ; while in the former forty-three epochs of perigee and but thirty-five of apogee happened to coincide with the several phases of the moon , tending in this way to raise the mean value of the lunar-diurnal range of the barometer above that average .

112684

3701662

On the Occlusion of Hydrogen Gas by Meteoric Iron

502

503

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Thomas Graham

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1866.0114

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112684

10.1098/rspl.1866.0114

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112684

Thermodynamics

Chemistry 2

Thermodynamics

IV . " On the Occlusion of Hydrogen Gas by 7Meteoric Iron . " By TIIHOMAS GRAHAMi , F.R.S. Received May 16 , 1867 . Some light may possibly be thrown upon the history of such metals found in nature as are of a soft colloid description , particularly native iron , platinum , and gold , by an investigation of the gases which they hold occluded , such gases being borrowed from the atmosphere in which the metallic mass last found itself in a state of ignition . The meteoric iron of Lenarto appeared to be well adapted for a trial . , This well-known iron is free from any stony admixture , and is remarkably pure and malleable . It was found by Wehrle to be of specific gravity 7'79 , and to consist ofIron ... ... ... ... ... 90-883 Nickel ... ... ... ... ... . . 8450 Cobalt ... ... ... ... ... ... 0665 Copper ... ... ... ... ... ... 0002 From a larger mass a strip of the Lenlarto iron 50 millimetres by 13 and 10 millimetres , was cut by a clean chisel . It weighed 45-2 grammes , and had the builk of 5'78 cubic centimetres . The strip was well washed by hot solution of potassa , and then repeatedly by hot distilled water , and dried . Such treatment of iron , it had been previously found , conduces in no way to the evolution of hydrogen gas when the metal is subsequently heated The Lenarto iron : was enclosed in a new porcelain tube , and the latter being attached to a Sprengel aspirator , a good vacuum was obtained in the cold . The tube being placed in a trough combustion furnace , was heated to redness by ignited charcoal . Gas came off rather freely , namelyIn 35 minutes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 538 cub. centims. In 100 minutes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 9-52 , In 20 minutes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 13 In 2 hours 35 minLutes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 165J , , The first portion of gas collected had a slight odour , but much less than that of the natural gases occluded by ordinary malleable iron . The gas burned like hydrogen . It did not contain a trace of carbonic acid , nor any hydrocarbon vapour absorbable by fuming sulphuric acid . The second portion of gas collected , consisting of 9-52 cub. centims. , gave by analysis-lydrogen ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 8-26 cub. centims ... ... . 8568 Carbonic oxide ... ... ... ... ... ... . 0-43 , ... . . 4'46 Nitrogen ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 095 , i ... . . 98'6 9'64 , , 100600 The Lenarto iron appears , therefore , to yield 2-85 times its volume of gas , of which 86 per cent. nearly is hydrogen . The proportion of carbonic oxide is so low as 4i per cent. The gas occluded by iron , from a carbonaceous fire , is very different , the prevailing gas then being carbonic oxide . For comparison a quantity of clean horseshoe nails was submitted to a similar distillation . The gas collected from 23 5 grammes of metal ( 3'01 cub. centims. ) wasIn 150 minutes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 540 cub. centirms . In 120 minutes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2-58 , , In 4 hours 30 minutes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7'98 , , The metal has given 2'66 times its volume of gas . The first portion collected appeared to contain of hydrogen 35 per cent. , of carbonic oxide 503 , of carbonic acid 7'7 , and of nitrogen 7 per cent. The latter portion collected gave more carbonic oxide ( 58 per cent. ) with less hydrogen ( 21 per cent. ) , no carbonic acid , the remiainder nitrogen . The predominance of carbonic oxide in its occluded gases appears to attest the telluric origin of iron . Hydrogen has been recognized in the spectrum-analysis of the light of the fixed stars , by Mfessrs . Huggins and Miller . The same gas constitutes , according to the wide researches of Father Secchi , the principal element of a numerous class of stars , of which a Lyre is the type . The iron of Lenarto has no doubt come from such an atmosphere , in which hydrogen greatly prevailed . This meteorite may be looked upon as holding imprisoned within it , and bearing to us hydrogen of the stars . It has been found difficult , on trial , to impregnate malleable iron with more than an equal volume of hydrogen , under the pressure of our atmosphere . Now the meteoric iron gave up about three times that amount , without being fully exhausted . The inference is that the meteorite has been extruded from a dense atmosphere of hydrogen gas , for which we must look beyond the light cometary matter floating about within the limits of the solar system .

112685

3701662

Further Observations on the Structure and Affinities of Eozoon Canadense

503

508

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William B. Carpenter

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1866.0115

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112685

10.1098/rspl.1866.0115

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112685

Paleontology

Geography

Paleontology

V. " Further Observations on the Structure and Affinities of Eozoon Canadense . " In a Letter to the President . By WILLIAM B. CAaPENTER , M.D. , F.R.S. , F.L.S. , F.G.S. Received May 9,1867 . University of London , May 9th , 1867 . When , on the 14th of December 1864 , I addressed you on the subject of the remarkable discovery which had been recently made in Canada , and submitted by Sir William Logan to myself for verification , of a fossil belonging to the Foraminiferal type , occurring in large masses in the Serpentine-limestones intercalated among Gneissic and other rocks in the Lower Laurentian formation , and therefore long anterior in Geological time to the earliest traces of life previously observed , no doubts had been expressed as to the organic nature of this body , which had received the designation Eozoon Canadense . The announcement was soon afterwards made , that the Serpentine Marble of Connemara , employed as an ornamental marble by builders under the name of " Irish Green , ' presented structural characters sufficiently allied to those of the Laurentian Serpentines of Canada , to justify its being referred to the same origin . An examination of numerous decalcified specimens of this rock led me to the conclusion , that although the evidences of its organic origin were by no means such as to justify , or even to suggest , such a doctrine , if the structure of the Canadian LEozoon had not been previously elucidated , yet that the very exact correspondence in size and mode of aggregation between the Serpentine-granules of the Connemara Marble and those of the ' acervuline ' portion of the Canadian , was sufficient to justify in behalf of the one the claim which had been freely conceded in regard to the other . In the following summnler , however , it was announced in the ' Reader ' ( June 10 , 1865 ) by Professors King and Rowney of Queen 's College , Galway , that having applied themselves to the study of the Serpentine Marble of Connemnara with a full belief in its organic origin , they had been gradually led to the conviction that its structure was the result of chemical and physical agencies alone , and that the same explanation was applicable to the supposed _Eozoon CaiZadense of the Laurentian Serpentines . This view was afterwards fully set forth in a Paper " On the so-called Eozoonal Rock , " read at the Geological Society on the 10th of January 1866 , and published ( with additions ) in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society for August 1866 . The following is their own Summary of their conclusions ( p. 215):- " It has been seen ( 1 ) that the ' chamber-casts ' or granules of serpentine are more or less simulated by chondrodite , coccolite , pargasite , &c. , also by the botryoidal configurations common in Permian Mlagnesian Limestone ; ( 2 ) that the ' intermediate skeleton1 ' is closely represented , both in chemical composition and other conditions , by the matrix of the above and other minerals ; ( 3 ) that the 'proper wall ' is structurally identical with the asbestiform layer which frequently invests the grains of chondroditethat , instead of belonging to the skeleton , as must be the case on the eozoonal view , it is altogether independent of that part , and forms , on the contrary , an integral portion of the serpentine constituting the 'chamber-casts , ' under the allomorphic form of chrysotile , and that perfectly genuine specimens of it , completely simulating casts of separated nummuline tubules , occur in true fissures of the serpentinegranules ; ( 4 ) that the 'canal-systenm ' is analogous to the iimbedded crystallizations of native silver and other similarly conditioned mineras , also to the coralloids imbedded in Permian Miagnesian Limestone ; that its typical Grenville form occurs as metaxite , a chemically identical mineral imbedded in saccharoidal calcite ; ( 5 ) that the type examples of ' casts of stolon-passages ' are isolated crystals apparently ofpyrosclerite . Furthermore , considering that there has been a complete failure to explain the characters of the so-called internal casts of the 'pseudopodial tbulles ' and o other ' passages ' on . ordinary mechanical or chemical infiltration , also bearing in mind the significant fact that the 'intermediate skeleton , ' in Irish and other varieties of eozoonal rock , contains modified examples of the ' definite shapes ' more or less resembling the crystalline aggregations and prismatic lumps in primary saccharoidatl marbles-that eozoonal structure is only folnd in metamorphic rocks belonging to widely separated geological systems , never in their unaltered sedimentary deposits , -taking all these points into consideration , also the arguments and other evidences contained in the present memoir , we feel the conclusion to be fully established , that every one of the specialities which have been diagnosed for Eoosoon Cazade , nse is solely and purely of crystalline origin : in short , we hold , withlout the least reservation , that from every available standing point-foraminiferal , mineralogical , chemical , and geological the opposite view has been shownv to be utterly untenable . " Considering that the Fo'ra.mhiniferal characters of Eozoon CGanadense had been unhesitatingly accepted by all those zoologists , Continental as well as British , whose special acquaintance with the group gave weight to their opinion , it miight have been . prudentt , as well as becoming , on the part of the Galway Professors , to express themselves somewhat less confidently in regard to its purely miineral origin . The case they made out would not have lost any of its real strength , if they had simply put forward their facts as affording valid grounds for questioning the received doctrine . And a way of escape would have been left for them , if the progress of research should happen to bring to light conclusive evidence on the other side . Although such conclusive evidence is now producible , it may be well for ime briefly to point out what I regard as the ffindamental fallacies in the argument of Professors King and . Rowney . In the first place , the Serpentine-MIarble of Connemara , on which their investigations had been chiefly conducted , is admitted by every one who has examined it to have undergone a considerable amlount of metamorphic change . To myself , as well as to Professors King and Rowney , the evidence which it presents of the operation of chemical and physical agencies is most obvious and conclusive ; whilst the evidence of its organic origin rests entirely on its partial analogy to the eozoonal rock of Canada . Hene an entire surrender might be made of the organic hypothesis as regards the Connemara marble , withou-t in the leastdegree invalidating the claim of the eozoonal rock of Canada to an organic origin . Bu-t , on the other hand , if the latter claim can be sustained , it may be fairly extended to the " Irish Green , " should the evidence of similarity be found sulicienit to justify such an extension ; since it must be admiitted by every Petrologist , that no amount of purely mineral arrangement in a Metamorphic rock can disprove its claiml to Organic origin , if that claim can be shown to be justified by distinct traces , in other parts of the same formation , of organisms adequate to its production . The Carboniferous Limestone , various members of the Oolitic and Cretaceous formations , and the Hippurite and Nuiummulitic Limestones , all exhibit in parts an entire absence of organic structure , which is yet so distinct elsewhere , as to justify the generalization that their materials have been originally separated from the ocean-waters by animal agency . And it is well known to those who have studied the changes which recent Coral-formations have undergone when upraised above the sea-level , that a complete conversion of a mass of Coral into a sub-crystalline Limestone not distinguishable from ordinary Carboniferous Limestone , may take place under circumstances in no way extraordinary . It is , therefore , upon the character of the Serpentine-Limestone of Canada , not upon the nature of the Connemara Marble , that the question of organic origin entirely turns ; and , as I have elsewhere shown in detail , the hypothesis of Professors King and Rowney altogether fails to account for the combination of phenomena which the former presents , whilst the accordance of that combination with the idea of its Organic origin ( a very moderate allowance being made for the effects of metamorphic change ) is such as to establish the same kind of probability in its favour , as that which we derive in the case of the Human origin of the " flint implements " from the cumulative evidence of their succession of fractured surfaces , or in the case of the chemical composition of the sun from the precise correspondence between certain dark lines in the solar spectrum and groups of bright lines produced in a dark spectrum by the combustion of certain known metals . I may stop to point out , however , that Professors King and Rowney do not attempt to offer any feasible explanation of the fundamental fact of the regular alternation of lamelle of Calcareous and Siliceous minerals , often amounting to fifty or more of each kind , extending through a great range of area ; nor of the fact that not only is this arrangement the same , though the siliceous mineral may be Serpentine in one place , Pyroxene in another , or Loganite in another , whilst the calcareous may be Calcite in one part , and Dolomite in another , -but that these variations may occur in one and the same specimen , the structural arrangement being continuous throughout . And in what they state of the peculiar lamella forming the proper wall of the chambers , which I have designated the " nummuline layer , " they have fallen into errors of fact so remarkable , that I can only account for them by the belief that when their paper was written they knew this layer only by decalcified specimens , and had never seen it in thin transparent sections . For they describe it as composed of parallel fibres of chrysotile packed together without any intermediate substyance ; whereas I have distinctly proved that the siliceous fibres are im* Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society , August , 1866 . bedded in a calcareous matrix ; which I therefore feel justified in regarding as a finely tubulated Nummuline shell , of which the tubuli that were originally occupied by pseudopodia have been permeated by siliceous infiltration . So , again , while asserting that by no conceivable process could the animal substance originally occupying these tubuli have been replaced by siliceous minerals , they have entirely ignored the fact stated by me , that this very replacement has taken place in recent specimlens in my possession , -a fact on the basis of which the reconstruction of the animal of Eozoon proposed by Dr. Dawson and myself securely rests . The question may now , I believe , be regarded as conclusively settled by the recent discovery , in a sedimentary limestone of the Lower Laurentian formation at Tudor in Canada , of a specimen of Eozoon presenting characters that cannot , in the opinion of the most experienced Palmeontologists and Mineralogists , be accounted for on any other hypothesis than that of its organic origin . For in the first place , the occurrence of a calcareous framework or skeleton in a matrix of sedimentary limestone , which also fills up its interspaces , altogether excludes the hypothesis that this framework might be the product of any kind of pseudomorphic arrangement produced by the separation of calcareous and siliceous minerals from a solution containing both . And , secondly , this specimen exhibits that which had not previously been distinctly seen in any other , viz. , a distinctly limited contour , formed by the curving downwards and closing-in of the septa , in a manner as perfect and characteristic as the closing-in of the successive chambers of any polythalalnous shell . I believe that no Paleonttologist familiarwith Palmozoic fossils would have hesitated to pronounce this specimen a Fossil Coral allied to Stromnatopora , if it had occurred in a Silurian Limestone . That this specimen , though differing greatly in appearance from the ordinary serpentinous Eozoon , really represents that organism , is shown not merely by the general arrangement of the calcareous lamellc , but by their minute structure . This , it is true , is far less characteristically seen in thin sections microscopically examined , than it is in the specimens whose cavities have been filled up by Serpentine ; the texture of which is often so marvellously little changed , as to have all the appearance of recent shell-substance . But the alteration which the shelly layers have iundergone in this specimen , is precisely paralleled by that which I have been accustomed to find in the best-preserved specimens of other organic structures contained in the more ancient Limestones . And there are still distinctly-recognizable traces of the canal-system imper . fectly injected with black substance , which correspond with those of the ordinary Serpentinous Bozoon . For the imperfection of the specimen in this respect , however , full compensation is made in the perfect preservation of the canal-system int B imall fragment of Eosoon long since obsurved by Dr , . Uawson in a crystallille lim-estone at Madoc . This specimein having been placed in my hands by Sir William Logan , with permission to treat it in any way that should enable e to make a thorough , examine ation of it , I have sueceeede i in ning i it most complete and beautinful examples of the canalsystem , presenting varieties o ' size and distribution exactly parallelto those with which I am . fat2miliar in tnle Serpentine-specimens . Now as there is noti in the M adoc , any more ltan in the udo specimen , any such coiibination of different mineral s has a been supposed by Professors King and lBowney to 1have given origin to.the arborescent forms of the canalsystemn of Eozoonl ( which they have likened to moss-agate or crystallized silver ) , there can be no longer any reasonable ground for disputing the essential similarity of this canarl-sstem to that first described by iyself in alcarGi.ncc~ , with rwhich it v:a"s originally compared by Dr. Dawson : ' . The extension of the inquiry into the character of the Serpentine limlestones intercalated among ' the G-neissic and other rocks of Laurentian age in various parts of Europe , has brought to light such numerous examples of eozoonal structure , more or less distinctly preserved , as to afford strong grounds for the conclusion t , , at this org anism was very generally diffused at that epoch , and performed emulc the same part in raising up solid structu1es i ; the waters of t. eo cea on , that the Coralforming Zoopbytes perfoir at ' the presnt ime . I had lmyself examined before the close of 1865 specimiens of Ophilcaicite fraoms Coslha Lipa in Boh.emi and n tfro tih e elhigo r hoou d ( o a in w i.ch an eozoonal structuree was dis tinctly traceabele ; nd carly in 1.866 a more extended selies was a transmitted to inm th'iol:h Sir C. Lyvell from Dr. Giimbel , the G-overnment GeologTis of Bavaria 'A ii en wich I was able to trace a continuous gradatioon 0fou0 specimenss . in whiGicll the eozo , onlal str-uctre was dlistint , to Otliers inchl if i i ; ever existed , it had been completely obscured by1 subsel , quen'ti- , etamoerphis.in . The re sultsi of a very car eful and conmplete exami'niatlcn of th lie )plicaleites of Bavatria by Dr. Giimbel himlself has been colmmunict ; e to t3e c-..o Academy of MI unic ? at . Apearances of the saime char , elof , e are e presented by a seri-s of specimenus of t Se rpetitinous limestones friLom t4 h iie I pii litve ss of Scandinaviia , kindly transmi -ted to m ) by Prof Lr ovn . i vei.nCure to hope that tei forcgoi.g r , , o , f t.e present aspect ofthlis subject will be of interest to tvohe Fellows of the Eoyal Society . I say the pei et , as-pe , e iea . se se e ll 'rongly cnc v in ed tl'ta we are at ipresent oilly at te beginni:g ou f o ' i olede of tahis 'nd oth ancie-t types of F oramin-ifera1 structure ; and that careful search . in promising loealities will bring to light many wondcleris now lS-ying unsuspected in the vast atggregiate of pre-SiurPian strata , ''A full description of thflse ; spcimens by Dr. Dlawsoin with a notice of their stratigraphical position by Sir illiamn Loggan , has been read at the Geological Society on the 8th of 3May , 1867 . t " Ueber das V orkoammen von Eozoon im ostbaverischen Ur-gebirge ; " aus d. jit ; zirigsd bei.r dc , Ac , tad , d , W. in Miimolien . 1866 , i ; 1 ,

112686

3701662

On the Intimate Structure of the Brain.--Second Series. [Abstract]

509

510

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. Lockhart Clarke

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112686

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112686

Neurology

Biography

Neurology

1 On the Intimate Structure of the Brain , . 509 May 23 , 1867 . Lieut.-General SABIINE , President , in the Chair . The following communications were read':I . " Oni the Intimate Structure of the Brain."-Second Series . By J. IOCKHIART CLARKE , Esq. , F.R.S. Received May 1 , 1867 . ( Abstract . ) Abstracts of a considerable portion of this paper have been already published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society for June 18 , 1857 , and June 20 , 1861 , under the title of " Notes of Researches on the Intimate Structure of the Brain . " After adding several new facts , and giving further explanations on the subject of the vmedulla oblongata , the author gives a full description of the morphological changes by which the auditory and other centres are developed out of elements of the spinal cord . The auditory centres consist of an outer and an ilnner nucleus . The outer nucleus is developed from the grey substance of the posterior pyramid and restiform body of the medulla . The imler nucleus Parises between the posterior pyramid ald the nucleus of the eighth cerebral nerve . From both these nuclei the oste-rior divisionl of the auditory nerve talks its origin . The n ; zterior division cnsists of two portios . e pT incipal portion penetrates the medulla beneath the restiform body , and running along the outer side of the caput connuv , or grey tubercle , enters both the outer and inner nucleus . The other portion of the nerve runs backward along the upper border of the restiform body , which it accompanies over the superior pedlaunle of the cerebelhlum to the inferior vermiform process . The outer auditory nucleus , consisting of the grey substance of the posterior pyramid and restiforin body , is ultimately thrown backAw-ard into the cerebellum , part of it arching over the fourth ventricle to the opposite side , while the rest extiends outward to the corpus dentatum of the cerebellum . It would not be possible to give an abstract of the -elumerous details of structure and the complic ; ated connexions of differen ' piart described in the paper . The following fawts , however , may be mentioned . The roots of the facital no , lre are shown i to have a very remarkable course and very complicated connexions with surrounding parts . On reaching thefatsciczeuls teres they bend downward in the form of a loop , the lower arm of which is connected with the motor nucleus of the trigeminus and with the upper olivary body , as well as with their own special nuclei . The longituilinal portion of this loop forms the column which Stilling mistook for what he calls the " constant root of the trigeminus , " and which Schroeder van der Ieolk mistool for one of the stria ? medullares . The upper olivary bodies ( which were first pointed out by the author in 1857 , and subsequently described by Schroeder van der 1Kolk ) and the trapezium are further investigated in a comparison between those of man , the orang outang , and different orders of mamnmals . The structure of the entire medulla oblongata in the monkey is likewise compared with that of man . The paper concludes with the physiological and pathological application of its contents .

112687

3701662

On Pyrophosphoric Acid with the Pyro- and Tetra-Phosphoric Amides

510

516

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. H. Gladstone

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1866.0117

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112687

10.1098/rspl.1866.0117

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112687

Chemistry 2

Agriculture

Chemistry

II . " On Pyrophosphoric Acid with the Pyroand Tetra-phosphoric Amides . " By J. H. GLADSTONE , Ph. D. , F.R.S. Received May 9 , 1867 . From time to time I have communicated to the Chemical Society descriptions of certain bodies which are best viewed as amides of pyrophosphoric acid ; and in pursuing the inquiry I have recently obtained some fresh results , and a new class of compounds . I propose continuing to send the details to the Chemical Society , but I may be permitted to submit to the Royal Society a condensed account of the main facts arrived at in the whole investigation , and a theory of the formation of these substances . PyrophiospJhoric acid is , in the notation now generally adopted , P,2 11 0 , . 1n an examination of its ferric compounds , I found evidence of the existence , in solution , of the double salt P Na2 fe2 O7* A more remarkable fact is that the complete ferric salt , and several other pyrophosphates , can exisu in an allotropic condition . Thus pure PI fe , 0 , , prepared by double decomposition , dissolves readily in dilute sulphuric acid ; but on heating the solution it separates in a form which is almost insoluble in the acid . When these allotropic salts are decomposed , the acid produced appears to have the ordinary properties . It is a pyrophospiate wincw h is formed , wAhen oxychloride of phosphorus is attacked by a strong aqueous solution of an alkali . Pyrophosphoric acid exhibits a great tendency to form acid amnides . It is only necessary to neutralize it with ammonia to get a body which , when treated with a metallic salt not in excess , gives more or less of a pyropiosphli amte of ' the metal , thus:-P2 H 07 , +4NH-3 fe C=P , ( N12)f e , ,+H-10 0+3NII C1 . Pyrophosph ? Jzaic acid , P2 ( NXH2 ) HI O0 , may be also prepared by breaking down the higher amlides . It is similar in most of its properties to pyrophosphoric acid , but is tribasic . Its ferric salt has also an allotropic modification ; when heated with lan acid it becomes far less soluble in sulphuric acid , ferric chloride , or pyrophosphate of sodium . JPyrophowspo-diamiic acid , P9 ( NHI ) , HP 0 0 , is produced in a variety of f In order to avoid great complexity of forrmulme , VWiliamsoi 's Fricuam , fef18'(6 , heas been a.dopted . 510 ways , of which the most noteworthy are the action of ammonia on phosphoric anhydride , of ammonia and water on oxychloride of phosphorus , of alcohol or soluble bases on chlorophosphuret of nitrogen , as well as the breaking down of amides of more complicated structure . It is bibasic , and forms salts which are generally very soluble , like itself , in water and alcohol . Pyro2pkosiJho-triamic acid , P3 ( NIH2 ) HO , , is formed when oxychloride of phosphorus is saturated with ammonia at about 100 ? C. , and the resulting mass is treated with water , or when tetraphospho-pentazotic acid is exposed to the action of water for some time . It is nearly insoluble in water , and so are its combinations , even those with the alkaline metals . It readily decomposes most soluble salts , giving rise to compounds in which 1 , 2 , 3 , or 4 atoms of hydrogen are replaced . With slightly acid nitrate of silver it gives a white salt , P2 ( NHl)3 Ag O , ; with the ammoniacal nitrate a bright yellow salt , P2 N3 HI4 Ag3 04 . By the action of water on the compounds of ammonia with oxychloride of phosphorus , there are also produced some acid amides that belong to a higher series . Great difficulty was experienced in being certain of the purity of any specimen of these compounds ; hence some doubt may still rest on their ultimate composition . Tetrcaphosp7io-tetramic acid , P , ( NHI 2 ) H2 0 , , is a solid stable body , insoluble in alcohol , but soluble , in water , and combining readily with bases , the amount of hydrogen replaced appearing to vary from 1 to 6 atoms . Terammoniated Tetrcap1tosp3o-diamic acid,.P ( NHI2 ) N3a H13 011.-This is a viscid liquid , insoluble in alcohol , but very soluble in water . It forms a liquid combination with ammonia ; but metallic salts appear to break it up into a variety of compounds . By the action of heat , boiling water , strong acids , or alkaline carbonates , tetraphospho-tetramic acid may be produced from it . Among the bodies formed when it is heated per se is a white substance , insoluble , or nearly so , in cold water , having the ultimate composition PNIH 03 . This is at once transformed into pyrophospho-diamic acid by hot water , or dilute acids . 'Tetracphospho-pentazotic acid , P4 N , . I11 07 , is formed when oxychloride of phosphorus is fully saturated with ammonia , and the resulting mass is heated at about 230 ? C. , and washed with cold water . It is an insoluble body , capable of decomposing metallic salts . One atom of hydrogen is replaceable by potassium or ammolnium . When treated with slightly acidulated nitrate of silver , it gives a tetrazotic salt , P4 4N H4 Az2 0 , , which , when decomposed by mineral acids , yields tetraphospho-tetramic acid and other compounds . Amindated Oxychlorides of Ph7osplorus.--The oxychloride will absorb either 2 or 4 molecules of ammonia ; and there can be little doubt that the resulting white solids consist of chloride of ammonium mixed with P ( N , ) C01 0 in the one case , and P ( NH , )2 Cl 0 in the other , but I bhve never succeceded in seiSarating t1hem in a condit1n fit for analysis . 511 If either of these compounds be strongly heated , hydcroclloric acid , or chloride of ammonium , is given oJfi , and there relmains phospi/ onitryle , PNO . By the action of heat on the substances already d(escribed , other conmpounds may also be prepared , thus : Pyrophospho-nit ylic acid.--If pyrophospho-triamnate of potassium be heated at a dull redness , it loses two-thirds of its nitrogen as ammonia , leaving a fused mass , which is insoluble in water , but forms compounds when treated with silver or copper salts . These have the composition of pyrophospho-nitrylates , P2 N Ag O. If pyrophospho-triamic acid itself be similarly heated , it parts with one molecule of ammonia , and gives a body , P , Na , H1 0O , isomeri c with pyrophospho-nitrylate of ammonium , which is speedily resolved by damp air into pyrophosphamic acid and other compounds . The process adopted for the analysis of these acid amides was that of boiling them with strong hydrochloric acid . This converts them all into ammonia and ordinary phosphoric acid , which were determinied in the usual manner . 27ieoretical Constiituion . A dificulty in understlanding the formation of the bodies above described from oxychloride of phosphorus arises fifrom the fact , that they contain P. . or P ... , while the original phosphorus compournd contains but one atom of that element . The followi ' g considerations may furnish a probable explanation and reveal their true constitution . When a chloride and water act on one another , three different courses are open , each giving hydrochloric acid as one of the results . In the first case the chlorine combines with one of the atoms of hydrogen , while the remaining hydroxyl , HO , takes its place in the original conmpound , thus : P C13 +3 H1 0=3 H C1+ P H11 03 ( p)hosp ? horous acid ) . In the second case twro atoms of chlorine simultaneously attack the two atoms of hydrogen , and the liberated sihngle atom of oxygen takes their place , thus : P C1 +i O= 2-C1 P C13 ( oePC71horide of p10os2p , ors ) . In each of these ease s wne ]ma1 consider the new compound as formed on the same type as the original chloride , only the chlorine is differently replaced . 1 11 O0 In the one case P Cl becomes P 1I 0 , Cl 110 C1 I{ 011 C01 and in the other P C1 becomes P C10 . C ] 1 Cl B1ut there is a thirdI case in which the two atoms of hydrogen in water are attacked sinmultaneously by two ai ; oms of the chloride , and the result is that the oxygen is left in combination with two molecules of the substance originally combined with the chlorine . I-ere it is simplest to consider that it is the water type which is preserved . It is this third mode of action which explains the production of the compounds containing P , ... and P4 ... . If we act on oxychloride of phosphorus with water , a slow replacement of the chlorine takes place , each atomi decomposing a molecule of water , and the result isP C10+3t } 0=311 C+1PH 0O , C1 11 . 0 which is P 113 0 , , tribasic or ort7io-phos2pwric acid . If , however , we employ strong solutions of potash or ammonia , the result is totally different . AWe nowY obtain salts of an acid formed not on the type of the oxychloride , but on the type of the alkaline hydrate , or water . To explain this the reaction must be broken up into two stages , though it is not improbable that these may occur simultaneously in nature . These stages are2PC2130+ ( }01 O KC C+ PCI o+K 0= + Ci +P H( , 0)2 0 , PI 0 o ? ? 4I }o- ? Cl } jo , which is P2 111H 0 , pie rop7LosJhoioric acid . There still remains another mode of action , th]e replacement of 2 Cl in the oxychloride by 0 , and this may be expressed in the two following stages , P e13 0+2 I 0=2K Cl+P C1 0 O , PC10 0+ -t . } KO Cl+P ( C. 0 ) 0 0 , which is PK 03 , metlop'iospJiafc of potassium , ? . And this is actuaylly produced when the oxychloride is dropped on oxide of potassium , and a similar reaction takes place with dry sesquicarbonlate of ammonium . t2 ( H 0)~ ( ) }0 be its ati)2 onal reverting to pyrophosphoric acid , if ' . b its rationaal formul-a , it is easy enough to understa-nd that amides are readily formed , and to see how upon neutralizing it with a.lmm-onia , one molecule of 10 is apt to be replaced by N II , , giving ( N ) ( N i , 0 ) 0 ) 0 , the pyrophosphamate , instead of PN 0 ) 0 0 , the pyrophosate P ( N HI , 0 ) . 0p of ammnon.it : , m. Nor i it difficult to under-tand the formation of pyrophosphodiafmic 513 acid , when we start not with the oxychloride , but with the amidated oxychloride of phosphorus . The two stages , analogous to those given above for the formation of pyrophosphoric acid , will be 2P(NH)C0+ 0=211 +p ( H2 ) C1 0+ P(NIH2 ) C1 O +2H 0=2I C1+ P ( N H2 ) ( O ) O0 P ( N H1 ) 10 1J HJ ( N I ) ( H O)O which is P2 ( N H2 ) HI2 05 , pyrophlospho-diamic acid . The symmetry of this reaction would be lost were pyrophosphamic acid produced , and , indeed , it seems never to occur among the substances actually formed . But the pyro-diamic acid may be equally produced , if we start with the higher amidated oxychloride formed at a low temperature . In this case it is necessary to suppose that while two molecules of the phosphorus compound attack one molecule of water , two other molecules of water give rise to the usual replacement of H0 for N H1 . The two stages are precisely analogous to those given above , but are probably simultaneous , the reaction being favoured by the affinity of the hydro . chloric acid for the ammonia , 2P ( N H2)2C10 + r } } =21 C1 +P ( N 2)2 } 0 , P ( N ( ~ ? H -I ) ? } , P ( N12)20 2 O ? T}0=2NlH ? P(N H2 ) ( T 0)0 0P ( N 2)20 o ? } ( N II2 ) ( H 0 ) which , as before , is P2 ( N H2)2 2 H , , pyroptospho-diamic acid . The formation of pyrophospho-triamic acid is dependent on some alteration in the amidated oxychloride , when produced at a high temperature . As the nature of this change is unknown , it may be better not to speculate on the intermediate stages , but the result of the action on water would seem to be p ( N 12 ) ( T0 ) 0 ? } , or P ( N H ) H 04 . P ( N 12)20 2 If this be the true explanation of the manner in which the pyrophosphoric amides are formed , it will equally explain the formation of the tetraphosphoric compounds . It does not follow that when two molecules of the amidated oxychloride have attacked one of water to form P ( N 12 ) Cl 0 ) ( N 12 ) C1 } 0 , that is ? P2 ( N12)2 Cl2 03 ? , the remaining chlorine should be replaced by H 0 . The process of attacking both atoms of hydrogen in water may be repeated , thus2P , ( N H , ) , 0C1,0 } 0=2H 0+ P , ( N H2)2 Cl } which , when acted on by water in the usual way , gives pA ( N H1 ) C10l o01 2H10 2C1+ P ( N Hs ) , ( H o ) oj 0 P2 ( N H , ) , 1 01 , it P2 ( N B1i ( i 1 0 ) 0 , which is P ( N TH ) , I , 0 , 0 et1raphosp7lo-ttcramic ici(d . And this compound , like the pyro-diamic acid , may be prepared from the higher amidated oxychloride , and the process is capable of the same explanation . The three stages , probably simultaneous , are as follows:2P ( NH2 ) CIO+ O ? 0=2H Cl+P(0 + H ) or P ( NH O3 2P(NH2)C10+ } 1}H ? ? 2N(NH()2O 2 2P , ( NHI ) , O3+ H }o-2NH +P2(N } OH 3 a}O 2PPN ( N H2)0 0+ P2 ( NH2)3 0 +N H P , ( N H2)2 ( H 0 ) 03 P2 ( N H2)3 O OH T 2N P +(N 2 ) ( H 0)o 3 Jo which is P4 ( N H , )4 H2 , 0 , tetraphospho-tetramic acid . The tetraphosphoric acid , of which this is the fourth amide , must be P4 H O13 , a substance already known , at least in its salts , for it is Fleitmann and Henneberg 's phosphoric acid . On the view given above the rational formule of the four phosphoric acids may be thus expressed : Ortho-phosphoric acid ... ... ... P ( H 0)3 0 . Meta-phosphoric acid ... ... ... { PH 0 . Pyro-phosphoric acid ... ... ... P( 0 O ? P ( H 0)0 P(H O)20 P(HO ) ) J It is more difficult to assign satisfactory rational formulae to the two compounds containing P4 N ... . The fact that the atoms of nitrogen are uneven in number destroys the symmetry , and seems to point to their being products of decomposition of substances containing P4 NG ... . That they both belong to the tetraphosphoric series is evidenced by their giving rise easily to tetraphospho-tetramic acid . The reactions of the liquid P4 N H111 , 0 indicate that it is an acid ammonium salt , or is readily transformable into such . Hence I have called it terammoniated tetraphospho-diamic acid , and its formula will be P ( N( N 11 H ) ) o(N 0)0 P ( NH4O0 ) O0P ( N 1)1 3 ) )(11 0 , or P4 ( N 12)3 ( N )3 E ? 110 . P/ ( NH40)OJ ? The formation of a tetraphospho-tetramate from a salt of this structure would be analogous to the ready passage of pyrophosphate of ammonium into a pyrophosphamate . The acid P , N1 H9 07 , to which has been given the provisional name tetraphlospho-pentazotic acid , is perhaps derived from the decomposition of tetraphospho-hexamide , P4 ( N H1 )6 07 , which is the complete amide of tetraphosphoric acid , and is a very likely substance to be formed by 515 the action of water on P ( N '11i ) C10 that had been exposed to heat , and probably converted into P.2 ( N H1 ) , C12 02 . If this hexamide really exist , it is at once broken down by the freed hydrochloric acid , or by hydrate of potassium , thusP , ( N H , ) , 1 + ? ClN 1 , C1t+ P , N , H9 0 , , giving rise naturally to a monobasic acid . If we regard the compound resulting from the action of nitrate of silver on this acid as containing imidogen N H , instead of amidogen NH.2 , it gives a formula of great symmetry of structureP(NHI ) AgO } , or P , , ( N II ) , AP ( NH ) OJ and the salt would bear the name e of tetposotem ofsilver .

112688

3701662

Ovibos moschatus (Blainville). [Abstract]

516

517

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. Boyd Dawkins

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112688

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112688

Anatomy 2

Geography

Anatomy

III . " Ovibos mnoschatus ( Blainville ) . " By W. BOYD DAWK-INS , M.A. , F.G.S. Communicated by Prof. HUXLEY . Received May 9 , 1867 . ( Abstract . ) Ovibos c zoschatus , more commonly known as the musk-ox , has been described under different names by -naturalists as their opinions fluctuated concerning its affities with the ox , buffalo , or sheep . It is called the musk-ox by all the arctic explorers , Bos moschatus by Schreber , Zimmermann , Pennant , and Cuvier , musk-buffalo allied to the Bubalus Caffir of South Africa by Professor Owen , Ovib os oschatus by De Blainville , Desmnarest , Eichardson , and M. Lartet . That the latter four naturalists are right in the place they assign to it in the zoological scale , intermediate between Ovis and Bos , is proved both by the natural history and the osteology of the animal . The absence of a muffle and dewlap , the hairiness of the nostrils , the shortness of tail and smallness of car , and the possession of two teats only , separate the animal from Bos and connect it with Ovis , while the large size and long gestation of nine imonths diflerentiate it from the latter animal . Precisely the same evidence is afforded by its skeleton . In the skull , the tapering of the anterior portion , the prominence of the orbit , the verticality of the facial plate of the maxillary , the presence of a larmier , the squareness of the basisphenoid , the presence of the occipito-parietal suture o ! the coronal surface ; in the dentition , the sharpness of the costsm 1,2 , and 3 , and the absence of the accessory column from the inner interspace of the lobes of the upper teeth are amonig the chief ovine characters , and throughout the skeleton the same ovine tendency is manifested . With the exception of the great deyelopment of horns , there is no point in 516 [ ... May 23 , common between it and Buibalus Caffir . The encroachment of horncores or parietals differentiate it from the sheep . The animal ranges at the present day from Fort Churchill , lat. 600 ? , northwards as far as the arctic sea , and eastwards as far as Cape Bathurst , lat. 71 ? , living for the most part on the " barren grounds , " and never penetrating far into the woods . In geological times , however , it had a far greater range eastwards and southwards . In the pleistocene river-gravels lying on the solid ice in Eschscholtz Bay , in Russian America , it is found associated with the elk , reindeer , bison , horse , and mammoth . Traces of the animal ranging further to the east are afforded by the skull found on the banks of the Yena , in lat. 70 ? , long . 135 ? . Dr. Pallas 's discovery of two skulls on the banks of the Obi brings the animal still closer to the borders of Europe . All three skulls were found in the " Tundas , " or treeless " barren grounds " of Siberia , in the same series of gravels which afford such vast stores of fossil ivory . In Germany it has been found in three localities ; and in France ; in the valley of the Oise , it is associated with flint implements of the St. Acheul type , and with the uammoth and Eleplhas antigqzs . It has also been found in the reindeer caves of Perigord , under circumstances that prove beyond doubt that the animal was eaten by the reindeer folk . In England it has been found in three gravel-beds of late pleistocene age , near Maidenhead , at Freshford near Bat , h , and at Greenstreet-green near Broinley . In 1866 the author dug it out of the lower brickearth of Crayford in Kent , where it was associated with Rhzioeeros ]eqyar1tinus , sR . leptorhinus ( Owen ) , and Elephas antigqus . The skull in this latter case beloinged to a remarkably fine old male . Thus its present limited range in space contrasts most strongly with its wide range in pleistocene times through North Siberia and central Europe , north of a line passing through the Alps and Pyrenees . Its association with animals of a temperate or else southern zone is to be accounted for by its having been driven from its usual haunts by an unusually severe winter . The rarity of its remains proves that it was not so abundant as those animals which are associated with it in France , Germany , and Britain . Professor Leidy figures and describes two fossil skulls most closely allied to Ovibos mnosciatus , from Arkansas and Ohio , under the name of Boothzerum cavif'ons and B. bonbiffrons ; they are , however , most probably the male and female of the same species . They differ from Ovibos mnoschataus only in the direction of their horn-cores , and in their bases meeting and becoming fused on the coronal surface of the male skull . The horn-cores are supported both by the frontals and parietals . In other respects they present the same ovine affinities as Ovibos , and certainly belong to the same genus . 517 1867 . ]

112689

3701662

Variations in Human Myology Observed during the Winter Session of 1866-67 at King's College, London

518

546

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Wood

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1866.0119

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112689

10.1098/rspl.1866.0119

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112689

Anatomy 2

Nervous System

Anatomy

IV . " Variations in Human Myology observed during the Winter Session of 1866-67 at King 's College , London . " By JOHN WoOD , F.R.C.S. , Demonstrator of Anatomy ( with a Table and Seven Drawings ) . Comnnunicated by Dr. Sharpey . Received May 9 , 1867 . A largely increased number of abnlornmalities has been the result of a systematic observation of thirty-six subjects during the past winter session . This has been owing partly to the comprehensioni of one or two irregularities which are commonly referred to in systematic works on anatomy , -such as the coronoid origin of the flexor p)ollicis longus and the insertion of the exte tsor ossis qnetacarpipollicis , partly to the more productive results of a vigilanit superinitendence , an increased efficiency in the dissections . For much of this the author 's thanks are due to the able help of his assistan-ts , fIessrs . Perrin and Amsden , and the intelligenit zeal of -Lany of the anatomnical class . MIainly , nio doubt , the increase is owing to an absolutely larger numiber of abnormualities . The value of the observations to the author is , of course , much increased by his having personally and thoroughly examlined every specimen before notinag it down , and , if possessing sufficient interest or novelty , sketching it from the subject . The exact numerical results thus arrived at have , in almost all important particulars , confirmed , but in some mnodified , the conclusions as to frequency and coincidence given in the author 's former papers . What the author has termed the lines of variation , i. e. the particular muscles which are by far most commnonly affected , are nearly identical with those of last year , as will be found by comparing the coluimns of the appended Table with those of the former . Only a few different will be found in the columiins occupied by the sundry specimens . Out of the total number of 295 abniormalities of muscles in 34 subjects showing abnormalities ( as compared with 132 in 32 subjects of last year ) , we have in the head and nec/ k 11 inuscles affected with varieties , as compared with 10 of last year . In the arm we have 30 linies of muscular variation1 as compared with 26 ; while in the lcq we have 20 as compared with 14 in last year 's subjects . The increase will be seen to be disproportionately greater in the leg . In this part also is the absolute iluinber of the specimenis increased ; for while those in the bead and neck proper ( actin-g only on the parts or bones of the head , neckc , and spine ) are 15 as compared with 10 , and those of the arm 157 as compared with 83 , those of the leg are increased to 106 as compared with 39 . This raises the proportion of abnormalities in the leg to two-thirds of those in the armns , as compared with rather less than one-half lound last year . This seemiis to have some significance in beinag coinicident with an inierease in the numiber of female subjects to 12 , as colmipared with 4 in last year 's list . The author has remarked in former papers upon the apparent greater frequency of one variety in the foot , viz. " the abductor ossis metatarsi quinti " in the female subject . This increase is clearly maintained in the results of the present investigation , and apparently extends to some other muscles also . To economize time , space . and the difficulties of tabulation , the explanations necessary to understand the adjoined Table are taken , as before , in the order of the columns therein given The first three are appropriated to the muscular varieties of the Head and Neck , numbering 31 instances , viz. 24 in the 22 males , and 7 in the 12 females , affecting 15 different muscles . Of these , the cleido-occipital , trapezius , occipito-scapular , and levator anguli scapulae , amounting to 16 instances , are to be considered as belonging quite as much to the upper extrernity . This leaves 15 specimens affecting 11 muscles of the head and neck exclusively . 1 . Cleido-occipital.-By this name is signified a muscle usually about three-quarters of an inch wide , which , arising from the border of the clavicle outside the cleido-mastoid portion of the sterno-cleido-mastoideus , is placed parallel to the posterior border of the latter , and separated from it by a more or less wide areolar interval . It is distinguished from the cleido-mastoid proper by its insertion into the superior curved lilne of the occipital bone on the same plane as the fibres of the sternomastoid . It joins close up to the trapezius , with which its upper fibres are sometimes united . The true cleido-mastoid , on the other hand , is inserted deeper than the fibres of the sterno-mastoid into the mastoid portion of the temporal bone . It has been recognized as an occasional accessory portion of the sterno-cleido-mastoideus , by Meckel , Kelch , Scemmerring , and ilenle . In animals it forms an important part of the muscle called the Cephalo-humeral . There were in the 34 subjects examined no less than 12 specimens , all on both sides . In subject 21 it was very large , broad , and double , with a superficial slip of communication with the cleido-mastoid . Last session the proportion of specimens was strikingly similar , viz. one-third of the whole number of subjects . 2 . Omohyoid.-One of the five specimens of abiiormality in this muscle was found in the hinder belly arising from the whole length of the middle third of the clavicle covering the subelavian artery ( No. 17 ) . In the four others the anterior belly was implicated . In No. 6 it received a muscular slip from the sterno-hyoid . In No. 19 it contributed a large s]ip to the same muscle , the latter being double also at its origin , and giving off a muscular bundle to its fellow on the opposite side across the median line . In No. 20 the anterior belly was double , the posterior portion being attached by fascia to the stylo-hyoid muscle , which did not reach the hyoid bone . In No. 27 the anterior belly was triple , the middle portion becoming the normal insertion , the front one being inserted inito the cervical fascia , and the hinder one implanted into the upper horn of the thyroid cartilage . 3 . In one of the subjects ( No. 3 ) the whole of the fibres of origin of the Splenius colli were placed superficial to , instead of deeper than , those of the serratus posticus superior , which thus intervened between those of the lower parts of splenius capitis and colli , the origins of these latter being in other respects normal . In No. 28 was found a muscle which presenits what is possibly a further development of this displacement . The muscle was flat and ribandlike , three-quarters of an inch wide , attached above to the transverse process of the atlas behind the levator anguli scapulh , and between it and the splenius colli . Passing down and iilwards for about 6 inches , it ended at the spinous process of the first dorsal vertebra in a short flat tendon with diverging fibres , which passing beneath the rhomboideus minor , became blended with the deep surface of the upper fibres of origin of the rhomboideus.major half an inch from their attachment . Some of the fibres were lost on the tendon of the serratus posticus superior also . A muscle closely similar to this has been described by M11r . Macalister , of the Royal College of Surgeons of Dublin , in a paper published in the ' Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy ' ( April 1866 , vol. ixs . pl. v. ) under the name of the rlomba-axoid ( by misprint for atloid ) . In his case the muscle was connected , however , with the rhomboideus minor on its deep surface . In both instances the splenius colli was coexistent . A still more striking muscular anomaly , and possibly a further development of the same tendency , was seen in subject 20 ( fig. 1 ) . A distiiiet riband-shaped muscle , threequarters of an inch wide , a quarter of an inch thick , and 10 inches long ( a ) , was attached to the occipital bone , on a level with the splenius capitis ( b ) , directly under the line of junction of the trapezius ( c ) with the cleido-occipital muscle td ) , which was also present . Passing down and outwards , superficial to and obliquely across the splenii and covered by the trapezius , it was inserted by short tendinous fibres posterior and superficial to the insertions of the rhomboideus minor ( e ) and major ( f ) muscles into the border of the scapula opposite to the spine and upper part of the infraspinous fossa . Its fibres of insertion were more or less blended with those of the rhomboids . The author has named this muscle the Oceipito-scapular . It may be considered as a slip of connection from the origin of the trapezius ( c ) with the insertion of the levator anguli scapulve ( g ) , in the same manner as the levator clavicuiw1 may be considered as a muscle connecting the origin of the latter muscle with the insertion of the former , thus falling among a numerous class of abnormal human muscles as arranged by the author in his first paper upon the subject . Its action would evidently be to approximate the scapula to the occiput , assisting the levator anguli ; and to raise the head backwards , assisting the complexxus , spleniius , and trapezius . The author has not met with any menition of such a muscle in the authorities he has consulted . He has found the exact similitude of this muscle in the tame Rabbit . In this Fir . 1 . animal it is of like shape and proportionate size , and has an origin , insertion , and relations almost exactly the same . It is attached to the occiput close to the masFig . 2 . toido-occipital suture , opposite the interval between the cleido-mastoid and trapezius , and is connected below with / I the insertions of the rhomi r ' boids into the scapula . This curious concurrence is rendered the more re2 v markable by the additional presence in the fore leg of the same animal of a somewhat fan-shaped muscle , connccting the epilrochlea and the olecranon . As far as the author is aware , this is also unrecorded hitherto . It is entirely distinct from the inner head of the triceps , from which it is separated by the ulnar nerve . Across the nerve this small musele is placed superficially . The same muscle was found by the author in a human male subject ( No. 7 of the Table of last year 's series ) as a distinct muscular slip , arising from the back part of the epitroehlea , bridgiang over the ulnar nerve , and separated by it from the triceps above , and by a distinct areolar interval from the fascial arch which gives origin to the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle below . A sketch of this m-uscle is given in fig. 2 ( a ) . It may be called the " Aneoneut & epitrock ? an In two subjects were found abnormalities of the Trapezius ( Nos. 4 & 13 ) . The first was one of deficiency , the fibres of origin of the right muscle reaching only as low as the tenth dorsal spinie , and those of the left only to the eighth . In the other the insertion of the muscle opposite to the scapular spine gave off a strong aponeurotie slip down and outwards to the lower angle of the scapula . In a very muscular subject with many irregularities ( No. 11 ) was a c-arious arrangement connected with the fibres of the Platysina just below the chin . A superficial band of muscular fibres , an inch and a half wide , arose on both sides from the mastoid process and parotid fascia , and passed down and forwards , slightly narrowing and thickening , to unite with its fellow just below the point of the chin . It crossed the insertion of the masseter , the angle of the lower jaw , and the facial artery , superficial to the " risorius Santorini , " which was normal . Ielch has described this variety ( as seen in two subjects ) by the name of the Jusctlus qnenti accessorius ( Beitriige , xx . S. 30 ) . In one subject ( No. 5 ) the anterior belly of the Digastric wras double , the inner abnormal one being attached to the median raphe , but not decussating with its fellow . In a female ( No. 17 ) was found the curious muscular slip given in ' fig. 3 ( a ) , on the left side only . It is , called by the author the Myloglossus muscle . It arose tendinous from the inner border of the angle of the lower jaw , behind and below the internal pterygoid , spreading out down , inwards , and forwards , to be inserted into the fibres of the tongue , between the styloand h ; yo-glossus muscles ( b & e ) , joining especially the latter . The facial artery passed deeper than the muscle , and the border of the submaxillary glanid overlapped it . Hienle saw a cylindrical muscle arising from the same place and joining the posterior belly of the digastric ( Muskellehre , S. 112 ) . This is the nearest approach to the above muscle the author has found mentioned . The Stylo-pharyngeus was in one subject ( No. 19 ) found doubled on the right side . In another ( No. 26 ) the Scalenus medius arose by a thick band of fibres covering the intertransversalis from the transverse process of the atlas . In third ( No. 27 ) the Scalenws anticue received a large slip across the subelavian artery from the medius . In No. 30 the Levator anguli scapule sent a large slip of its fibres to join the insertion of the scalenus medius . Fig. 3 . These interchanges have been frequently observed in these muscles . In No. 32 was a well-marked specimen of the muscle named by the author in his previous papers the Supra-costal . It was attached below to the third rib in front of the serratus magnus , and above to the first rib and cervical fascia . In No. 33 it was a very distinct duplication of the Rectus capitis posticus major , like that described by Albinus and Sandifort , and by Douglas both in Man and the Dog . Twenty-one columns of the accompanying Table are occupied by the muscles of the upper extremity only . Twenty-six muscles are concerned . The instances number 158 , viz. 117 in the 22 males , and 41 in the 12 females . 4 . Pectoralis major.-The number and kind of abnormalities of this nuscle , as well as of the pectoralis minor , coincide almost exactly , with those of last year in nearly an equal number of subjects . In one ( No. 5 ) was a detached slip arising separately from the abdominal aponeurosis opposite the seventh costal cartilage , and crossing the axilla to be inserted into the tendon of , and fascia covering , the coraco-brachialis about an inch below the coracoid process . In another ( No. 6 ) a similar slip arose from the fifth rib connected with the lower fibres of the pectoralis major , and was inserted with the pectoralis minor into the coracoid process joining on to the coraco-brachialis . In No. 20 a separate slip arose from the abdominal aponeurosis at some distance from the rest of the muscle , and was inserted into the deep surface of its tendon at the upper border , connected with the " frenum suspensorium . " Such slips of the pectoralis major were noticed lorng ago by Sir Charles Bell ( Anatomy , p. 302 , 1829 ) . In No 32 a baind of fibres , about an inch broad , detached them , iselves from the lower border of the pectoralis major , and , curving gradually away from the rest down the arm , were inserted into a long roundish tendon about three-eighths of an inch wide , which crossed the brachial vessels and nerves obliquely down and inwards , and joined the internal brachial ligament about 2 inbches above the inner condyle . Altogether this was a fair specimene of the Choondro-epitrochlear muscle described and figured by the author in former papers as presenting a close resemblance to the musele so called in the Mxonkeys . It has been described also by Szemmerring , Caldani , Theile , Gruber , Cruveilhier , Henle , Hallett , Macwhinnie , and Macalister . In another subject ( No. 33 ) the clavicular fibres of the pectoralis major were uninterruptedly continuous with those of the deltoid , the cephalic vein passing through a foramen low down . Otto seems to have met with this peculiarity , which he describes as absence of the clavicular fibres of the deltoid ( Path . Anatom . 1830 , S. 249 ) . 5 . Pectoralis minor.-Four subjects were found ( Nos. 6 , 8 , 10 , & 13 ) to present an insertion of this muscle into the greater tuberosity of the humerus by a flat tendon usually uniting with that of the supra-spinatus , but in one case separately inserted , and grooving the upper surface of the coracoid process , where it was provided with a bursa . This arrangement was described in the author 's last paper as resembling the arrangement in the Mamnmalia . It has been nloticed by Meckel , ilarrison ( Dissector , ie p. 79 ) , by Benson ( Cyel . Anat . & Pliys . i. p. 359 ) , and by Macalister ( Journ. Anlat . & Phys. No. ii . May 1867 , p. 317 ) . In another ( No. 9 ) the upper fibres of the left pectoralis minor were inserted into a strong costo-coracoid membrane . Those on the right side had become developed into a separate slip of muscle nearly an inch wide , which was inserted into the lower border of the clavicle itself . This slip was connected below with the second rib , constituting an approach towards the formation of a Sterno-clavicular muscle , as described in the author 's last paper . 6 . Latissimus dorsi.-Five subjects were affected with varieties in the insertion of this muscle . In two females ( Nos. 17 & 24 ) the abnormality assunmed the more common form of " .Achselbogen , " viz. a short slip across the vessels and nerves to the insertion of the pectoralis major . In a male subject ( No. 8 ) the slip on the right side was connected in a pecuLliar way with the pectoralis minor , but , on the left , in the common form with the pectoralis major . The former consisted of a flat , vertically placed , muscular slip 1 inch broad , attached below to the upper edge of the tendon of the latissimus dorsi , and above to the lower border of the pectoralis minor about an inch from the coracoid process , covering partly theaxillary vessels and nerves . In Nos. 20 & 28 the tendon of the latissimus gave attachment to a strong , thick muscular slip , which , passing separately down the upper fourth of the arm , finally joined to long head of the triceps , presentinag the most marked approximation ( especially in the ig last subject ) to the Dorso-epitrochlear . muscle in the Orang and other Simiadawhich the author has hitherto found in the human subject . Both the subjects , were males , presenting respectively 16 V and 11 muscular variations . 7 . Biceps.-Five variations were presented by the originzs of this muscle . Two , a one male and one female ( Nos. 7 & 24 ) , showed on the left side the more common third head , arising from the humerus between the coraco-brachialis and brachialis , anticus . This was also present in the right arm of another male ( No. 27 ) . On the right arm of . No. 7 , and the left of No. 27 , the third head arose as a detached slip from the coracoid process , and , in one , from the capsular ligament also , forming a fusiform belly which joined the tendon of insertion separately at the part which gives off the semilunar fascia . In two others , both males ( Nos. 8 & 13 ) , the varieties were found connected with the insertions of the muscle . In the first it was found in the left arm only , and presented a most complicated arrangement ( fig. 4 ) . The origin of the muscle was normal . Just below the junction of the two heads , about the middle of the upper arm , the muscle divided into three fusiform bellies . The outer , which is largest ( a ) , presents the normal insertions into the radius and semilunar -fascia ( cut at b ) . The middle one ( c ) , the smallest , ends in a small rounded tendon , which , passing obliquely down and inwards between the semilunar fascia and the radial insertion , becomes lost on the supinator fascia and the burga of the radial tuberosity ( d ) . The inner division ( e ) , constituting the larger of the abnormal bellies , ends in a strong tendon which , at the elbow , divides into three slips , the outer joining the eoronoid insertioni of the brac1ialis anticus at its inner border ( g ) ; the mniddle once is implanted upon the deep or coronoid originof the _pronator radii teres ( f ) , and the inner , connected under the superficial miuseles with the coronoid origin of the flexor diqitorum sublimis . We have thus in this complicated arrangement four insertionis in additioni to the usual two . These are , moreover , connected with four other nluscles , viz , the brachialis anticus , the pronator radii teres , the flexor sublimnis digitorum , and the supinator brevis . In alnother subject also ( No. 13 ) , the biceps sent a slip to join the coronoid origin of the pronator radii teres . It was detached from the middle of the inner border of the muscle , as a band of muscular fibres provided with a separate tendon . In the right arm this joined with the semilunarfascia , and on the left with the pronator . S. Coraco-brachialis . In four instances this m-nusele presented a complete interva , l between its lower fibres implanted inlto the initernal internuscular septum and brachial ligament , and its upper fibres , inserted into the humierus . In on-e ( No. 27 ) its highest fibres were inserted into a fibrouis band , constituting an upward prolongation of the internal brachial ligament across the tendon of the latissimus dorsi and teres major , as described by iFenile . In all , the inusculo-cutaneous nerve passed between the twro portionis . In No. 30 the muscle was inserted inito the intermuscular septumi at quite the lower third of the arm . 9 . Braclialis anticus . In two subjects a slip of the o-uter fibres of this muscle was continued into those of the su6pinator longis . In one right arnm ( No. 26 ) it sent off over the brachial vessels and median nerve a slip of fascia to join the semilunar . In onie ( No. 31 ) it was deeply divided down the middle , the outer part seniding some fibres into the smtpinator longus , and others into the bicipitcdl semiilunar fascia . The first-mentioned peculiarity has beeii before described by the author , and the last has been noticed by Ilildebrandt , Scenmmerring , Theile , and TVlieckel , and was compared by the last-nanaed am4tomist to the arrangement in Birds . 10 . Flexor subtlimis digitorum v. perforatus . Out of nine instances of irregularities in this muscle two were specimens of deficiency . In one ( No. 5 ) the radial origill was enitirely absent , in another ( No. 18 ) the tendoln to the little finger was wanting . This has been noticed by Meekel , Theile , and Henle . In No. 9 , a muscular slip from the miiiddle of the _pronator radii teres joined the radial fibres of the sublimis . This has been noticed by Otto . In four subjects ( Nos. 6 , 8 , 21 , & 31 ) the origini of the flexor sublimis was variously differentiated . In the right arm of No. 6 , a separate muscle arising from the inn-er border of the coronoid process gave off the perforatus tenidon of the index . A separate coronoid or middle head is described iu maLny text-books as a normal arrangemenit for the flexor sublimis digitorzun . In almost every subject , however , the author has found that the fibres composing the superficial or condyloid head are conitinued untinterruptedly along the internal lateral ligament to the inniier margin of the coronoid process , which they occupy along nearly its whole length , and are frequently connected there with the coronoid tendon of the pronator radii teres . This part usually gives rise to the indicial tendon of the muscle . In the subject above imentioned it constituted a separate muscle . In addition to this , the most commoni coronoid attachment , however , there sometimes exists a strong flat tendon arising from the outer and lower border of the coronoid process and joining , not the conidyloid , but the radial origin of the muscle . In the sketches of the muscular anatomy of the limilbs of an adult feinale Orauig-utan dissected by the author , he finds that in this animal this flat coronoid tendon gives attachment not only to some of the fibres of the radial origin of the sublimis , but also to theJlexor carpi radialis , which arises both from it and from the obliquie line and outer border of the radius by a common aponeurosis with the sublimis . This arrangement has been observed by Mr. 3Mfacalister in the human arm ( op . cit. p. 12 ) . In the Orang , the four tendolns of the flexor sublimis are attached to separate muscles , the areolar intervals between which aIte very readily separable . That to the index lies deepest , and arises from the upper coronoid origini and lateral ligamenit . Those to the second and third fingers both arise from the oblique line and border of the radius , the latter being superficial and attached also to the condyle of the humerus , while the former is connected chiefly with the lower coronoid tendon , but having a separate slip also from the internial lateral liga , meant ; while the muscle to the little finger arises superficially from the coindyle of the humerus . In one of the above-mentioned varieties of the flexor sublimis ( No. 8 ) was a separate fusiform muscle to the little finger , arising from a tendinous intersection springing from the condyle of the humerus . In another ( No. 21 ) the tendons of the left index and little fingers both were connected with a digastric muscle with a tendinous intersection in the middle , arising from the condyle , internal lateral ligament and upper coronoid origin . This has been observed by Macalister in a femnale subject , with 1many other irregularities . Such a digastric portion has been recorded also by lfeekel ( Mu8kellehre , S. 536 ) . The same author describes a similar iintersection in the Loris ( Anat . Comp. 6 . p. 340 ) . In No. 31 all the tendons were provided with separate muscles , the first arising with a digastric formation from the condyle , internal lateral ligament and coronoid process ; the second from the radius and lower coronoid tendon ; the third from the condyle and internal lateral ligament ; and the fourth from the condyle only . In No. 10 was a tendinous slip from the superficial surface of the sublimis to the annular liganent , the palmaris longus being niormal . 11 . Flexor di9itorumn profunclus v. perforans . In four subjects ( Nos. 3 , 9 , 26 , & 34 ) some of the iudicial fibres of this muscle arose from the inner part of the front surface of the radius . In one ( No. 9 ) these were inserted into the side of the long tendon of a fusiform muscle , which ( arising with the coronoid origin of the flexor sublimis in connection with a similar one passing to the flexor longus pollicis ) passed under the annular ligament and divided into two , one to join the tendon of the flexor longus pollicis , and the other ( larger ) that of the index perforans . This arrangement , somewhat dissimilar to those formerly described by authors , is yet formed on the same plan or type of the connection betweeni the flexors of the thumb and index and the flexor subliinis . It forms a coalescence of the " Accessorius ad flexorem pollicis longum , " with the " A ccessorius ad flexorein digitorumn profundunm1 " of G-antzer . In No. 26 one half of the muscular fibres of the flexor longitspollicis were implanted upon the tendon of the index perfobrans . In the left arm of No. 6 was found a detached muscular slip from the outer part of the profttndus , ending in a tendon which joined that of the sublimnis perforatus of the index in the palm . It was in the right arm of the same subject that the detached perforatus muscle of the index before described was found . In three ( Nos. 10 , 28 , & 33 ) were found detached nnusculo-tendinous slips of the profundus in the fore arm of a like type . In No. 10 it was single , and gave part origin to the fourth lumbricalis . In No. 28 it was lost on the synovial sheath of the tendons in the palm , and in No. 33 it was connected both with this and with the first ltlumbricalis . This has been noticed by Sceinmerring , Theile , and ilenle . In six subjects were found a coronoid origin of the flexor pr7ofunclus , arising in common with the fibres of the flexor subliinis as a fusiform tapering muscle ending in a rounded tendon . In fouLr ( Nos. 7 , 9 , 13 , & 20 ) this tendon joined the perforating tendon of the index finiger ; in one ( No. 25 ) that of the middle finger : and in another ( No. 31 ) those of the ringand little fingers . This muscle is mentioned by Meckel , Scenimerring , Theile , Henle , and by Cowper and Macwhinnie . It was named by Gantzer the " Musculus accessorius ad flexorem profuLndum digitorumi . " In No. 9 , as before described , it received muscular fibres also from the radius . 12 . Flexor pollicis longus.-Ill twelve subjects this muscle also derived a separate fusiform mLisculo-tendinous origin from the coronoid process of the ulna . This has been noticed by Albinus , Otto , Scemmerrin-g , and _Meckel , and was called by Gantzer the " Accessorius ad fiexorem pollicis longum . " It is usually alluded to by text-book writers as an occasional origin , described by sonie from the outer , and by others from the inner side of the coronoid process . The proportion of its occurrence in thirty-six subjects is one-third . In only three was the origin at all separate from the coronoid fibres of the sublimis . It usually assumes the form of a tapering muscle , detaching itself from the indicial fibres of the sublimis , often in connection with the similar contribution to the flexor profundus , and elnding in a tendon more or less long , which joins that of the flexor pollicis longus . In three instances the junction took place below the middle of the arm . In a former paper the author described a , remarkable development and amalgamnation of these accessory origins of the flexor longus pollicis and profundus digitoruin in a Negro , resulting in a complete set of tendons to each of the fingers placed inltermediate to those of the subliinis and profundus . In the Dog , the coronoid origins constitute the chief bulk of the united flexors . In the Cat , Hedgehog , G-uinea-pig , Rabbit , and many other animals they form a great part of them . In No. 7 was a muscular , and in Nos. 8 , 20 , & 33 a tendinous connection of the tendons of the Flexor longus pollicis and Index perforans , constituting a more decided tendency to the complete union of these muscles found in the lower animals than even in the instances above-mentioned of the radial origin of the flexor profundus . This connection exists more or less completely in all theApes and IMionkeys , reaching its most peculiar development by the entire substitution of the flexor longus pollicis by a separated and entire flexor tndicis in the Orang-utan . It is evidently the homologous representative of the tendon of connection between the flexor lon qus hallucis andflexor longus digitorum in the foot . 13 . L]umbricales . In two subjects ( Nos. 3 & 5 ) the fourth lumbricalis on the right side was inserted inito the extensor apoiieurosis on the ulnar side of the ring-finger ( which was thus provided with two , acting in different directionis ) , instead of the little finger , which was destitute. . In Nos. 11 & 34 , in the right hand , and in No. 32 in both hands , the third lumbricalis was bifurcated , one being inserted into the ulnar side of the middle digit ( which was thus provided with one on each side ) , while the other was inserted into the usual place . In the left hand of No. 33 both the third and fourth lumbricalis were bifurcated , the middle and ring-fingers both having a lumbricalis on each side . These abnormalities have been described by Meckel , Theile , and Froment . According to the last-named author , the lumbricales are irregular in nearly half the number of subjects , the third being the most frequently bifurcated , and next , the fourth . In half , the author has found the irregularities on both sides ; when single , he has found the right and left to be in about equal proportions irregular . 14 . Flexor carpi radialis brevis v. profundus . In only two subjects has the author found this year the muscle described by him in previous papers under this name . Both were imperfect specimens , arising in a penniforni way from the radius outside the flexor longus pollicis , and inserted by a rounded tendon , which in one subject ( No. 32 ) was as large as that of the flexor pollicis itself , into that deep portion of the annular liga meant which is attached to the trapezoid and base of the miiddle metacarpal bone , secluLding the sheath of the flexor carpi radialis tendon . In one ( No. 20 ) the palmaris longus was normal . In the other it was represented by a small slip from the superficial surface of the flexor carpi 'radialis . AMr . Macalister of Dublin has communicated to the author the description of a complete specimen of this muscle inserted into the base of the -idle metacarpcal bone . It existed in the right arm only , and had its origin from the radius iinLternal , instead of external , to the flexor pollicis longus . I-e has also met with an instance of an incomplete muscle of this kiind inserted into the deep portion of the annular ligament- , also on the right arm . Apalmaris logzits was present in one of these cases , but not in the other . It is somewhat remalkable that in these two cases , as in all the eight cases observed by the author , this muscle has been found in the right arm only . It offers the best homologue in the arm to the tibialis postiens in the leg . 15 . JPalmaris lotgus.-Iu three subjects ( Nos. 5 , 24 , & 32 ) the normal palmaris was absent in both arms . It was also wanting in the right arm of No. 28 , and in the left of No. 27 . In three ( 5 , 27 , & 32 ) there was a feeble slip of tendon from the superficial muscular fibres of the flexor carpi radialis to the superficial surface of the middle portion of the palmar fascia , which seemed to supply its place . This relation between the two muscles is interesting in connection with the occurrence of a flexor carpi radialis brevis in one of these subjects ( 32 ) . In the left arm of one subject ( No. 28 ) both the tendon and muscular portions of the palmaris were doubled , the supernumerary one being smaller and placed internal and posterior to the other , and arising with the condyloid portion of the sublimis . Its tendon was spread out and lost on the fascia at the wrist , a little above the annular ligament . In the right arm of ainother ( No. 34 ) the tendon of an otherwise normal palmaris was doubled , both portions being inserted into the annular ligament and palmar fascia . In a third ( No. 8 , the subject of fig. 4 ) the belly of this muscle was inverted ( A ) and placed just above the wrist . 16 . Extensores carpi radiales . In nlo less than fifteen subjects these muscles presented the intervening muscle and tendon , named by the author the extensor crp i radialis internzedius . In six this muscle arose fleshy with the longior , and was inserted by a long tendon with , but distinct from , the brevior into the base of the third metacarpal boneIn four it arose with the belly of the brevior , and its tendon was distinctly inserted with that of the longior into the secon-d metacarpal . In one subject it was arranged in the first way on the left arm , and in the second on the right ; while in the remiiainling four it was double , e. g. there were two additional muscular bellies intervening between the longior and brevior , with long tendons crossing in exchange in opposite directions . In onie , these tendons were united and more or less blended as they crossed each other . Such an arrangement has been recorded by M-lacalister ( op . cit. p. 13 ) . In another ( No. 26 ) the left arin was provided with a single-bellied intermeditus with two tenidonls , one going to that of the longior , and the other to the insertion of the brevior . In another ( No. 14 ) the lon qior was , in addition , provided with two tendons by division . In two subjects ( Nos. 30 & 31 ) the tendon of the extensor carpi radialis brevior was inserted into the inner corner of the base of the second metacarpal bone as well as into the third . This was the case also in two of those which were provided with an extensor intermedius ( Nos. 29 & 32 ) . It is interesting as showing how an intermediate tendon and muscle may be formed by simple fission of the brevior . 17 . Extensor carpi ulnlaris . In two subjects ( Nos. 7 & 21 ) this muscle gave off a slip of its lower tendon to the extensor aponeurosis of the little finger . In one ( No. Ii ) the abductor minimi digiti arose partly from the tendoni , and was further provided with two other di . stinct origins-one from the pisiform bone , and the other from the upper border of the posterior annular ligament , evincing a tendency to the high origin described and figured in the author 's former papers , and previously recorded by Gunther , Mild , and Soemmmerring . 18 . Supinator longus . In three out of the four varieties found in this muscle , the tendon of insertion was double . In one ( No 8 , fig. 4 , i ) the lower insertion was the larger and normal one at the base of the radial styloid process , while the upper one was attached to the outer border of the radius three inches above , the radial nerve passing between them to the back of the band . In No. 34 the same arrangement was present in botb arms . In another ( No. 21 ) the radial nerve passed higher than both tendons . In one subject ( No. 28 ) the tendon was divided into three portions , the lowest and largest being inserted inlto the usual place , the upper one near the middle of the radius , and the intermediate one opposite the upper border of the pronator quadratus . The radial nerve passed between the two latter . 19 . Extenisor commrnis digitorum . In two subjects ( Nos. 8 & 28 ) the tendons of this muscle on the back of the hand were doubled ; in the first for each digit , and in the last for the middle and ringfingers only . In one ( No. 29 ) the tendon of the index only was doubled , one being connected by a lateral slip with that of the middle finger , as the latter was to that of the ring-finger , and this , -with that of the little finger . It so resulted that all the tendons were thus joined together , except one of the two tendons of the index . The indicator was normal , butt the extensor mininii digiti gave a tendon to the ringfinger . By means of these special tendons , the individual play of each finger was kept free . In one subject ( No. 21 ) there was found , in the left hand , a single fleshy slip of the muscle first described by the author as the E.Wtensor brevis digitorum mani 's , arising from the dorsal surface of the os magnum and unciforme , and passing to the extensor aponeurosis on the radial side of the micldle digit . In another ( No. 23 ) there were found , in both hands , two slips passing from the same bones and from the posterior carpal ligament , to the ulnar side of the middle and ringfingers , joining the extensor aponeurosis by separate , slender , flat tendons . 20 . Extensor minimni digiti . In nearly half the number of subjects was the tendon of this muscle doubled ( fig. 5 , e ) . In one ( No. 3 ) there were , further , two distinct muscular bellies . In two subjects ( Nos. 29 & 34 ) the additional tendon was inserted with the common extensor tendon into the ring-finger , as in the Orang , Apes , Monkeys , Rabbit , :Hedgehog , &c. In the Cat and Dog the third and second digits also are supplied by it . 21 . Extensor indicis and -Extensor mnedii digiti . In two subjects ( Nos. 8 & 27 ) the indicator was provided with a double tendoni , showing the first tendency to the formation of a special extensor of the middle finger , such as that found as a distinct muscle in the remarkable arrangement seen iu fig. 5 ( a ) . Both these are constant muscles in the Apes and Monkeys . 22 . Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis.-An increase in the number of tendons of this muscle was seen in 16 subjects out of 36 , i. e. , nearly half . In four the tendon was simply doubled , both being inserted into the base of the first metacarpalbone . In four others one of the two tendonis was inserted into the trapezium . In one ( No. 25 ) the tendon was triple , two being inserted into the metacarpal , and one into the trapeziuim . In seven instances the tendon sent off a slip which gave part origin to the fibres of the abductor pollicis brevis . These sometimnes formed a separate muscle . In four of these there were two tendons only , one inserted into the base of the metacarpal bone , and the other going to the abductor . In two ( Nos. 20 & 31 ) there were three tendons , one to the metacarpal bone , another to the trapezium'i , and the third to the abductor pollicis . Such an arrangement has been recorded by Mfacalister ( op . cit. p. 13 ) . In one ( No. 11 ) there were no less than four tendons , three of which were inserted into the middle of the shaft and base of the metacarpal bone , and one went to the abductor . In the last subject the extensor primi internodii pollicis was entirely absent , iniereasing the similarity in the arralngement of these muscles to that found in the Chimpanzee and Orang . In two other subjects ( Nos. 6 & 21 ) the muscular part of the extenisor primi was entirely blended with that of the extenlsor ossis metacarpi , though the tendon was separate and its insertion distinct , into the base of the first phalalnx of the thumb . 23 . Interossei mcandis.-Three specimens of the " Palmar interosseus of the thumb " of Henle were found . In two subjects ( Nos. 4 & 20 ) the first interosseous space was occupied by two muscles , one , the " Abductor indicis " of Albinus and the older anatomists , and the other the " Interosseus prior indicis " of that author ( the " Extenisor tertii internlodii indicis " of Douglas ( Myograph . Comp. p. 181 ) . 24 . Among the miiscellalneous specinmens in the upper extremity were found , in a female subject ( No. 3 ) , the muscle described by the author as the Extensor pollicis et indicis ( fig. 5 , b ) . Arising by a distinct penniform belly from the hinder surface of the ulna , interosseous ligaiiment and intermuscular septa between the extensor secundi interniodii pollicis Fig. 5 . and the extensor indicis , it ended in a strong rounded tendon , which , passing under those of the extensor communis , parallel with and outside those of the indicator and extensor medii digiti , divided in the groove of the annular ligament into two tendons . The outer of these joined that of the extensor secundi on the middle of the first phalanx of the thumb , to be inserted with it into the extreme phalanx , and the inner , smaller , was inserted separately into the base of thefirst phalanx of the index , outside of , and distinct fromii , the tendons of the comimon extensor and indicator proper . The author has found the same arrangement in the Vampire Bat , Dog , Cat , Hedgehog , and Rabbit . Meckel found it ir the Bear , Coati , and Beaver . In its insertion , this specimen difFers from those formerly described by the author by joining the tendon of the extensor secmsndi internodii pollicis . In the others it joined or substituted thatfof the extensor primi internodii which was present and normal in the subject of the woodcut ( fig. 5 ) . This arm presents an extraordinary instance of multiplication of these special extensor muscles of the hand . In a specimen of tne above muscle described by Macalister ( p. 4 ) , the indicial tendon joined that of the indicator , and was inserted into the second and third phalanges of the index . In one subject ( No. 11 ) the Extensor primi internodii pollicis was altogether wanting on both sides . A small tendinous looking ligament was attached to the styloid process of the radius and passed to the base of the first phalanx of the thumib , which seemed to represent the lower part of its tendon on both sides . It indicated an arrest of development in the muscular germ above , and was unattended by any evidence of diseased action , or any peculiarity in the muscular part of the extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis , usually so closely connected with this muscle . The occasional total absence of this muscle was noticedby 'Scmmerring and Mfeckel . In one subject ( No. 21 ) the extensor primi internodii pollicis was entirely blenided at its muscular portion with the extensor ossis metacarpi , its tendon becoming free at the styloid process of the radius . This has been observed by Theile . In two subjects ( Nos. 20 & 34 ) the tendon of the same muscle sent a large portion ( in the last the chief portion ) of its fibres to join that of the extensor secuizcni at the base of the unigual phalanix . Scemmerring has observed this peculiarity . Macalister found once in about nine subjects an opposite arrangement to this , viz. , the tendoni of the extensor secundi giving a slip to the base of the first phalanx . This has beeni also seen by the author in cases of absence of the extensor primi internodii . In one female subject ( No. 17 ) was found a large slip of the spinial fibres of the Infraspinatus passing superficially to the rest of the muscle and to the teres minor , to be inserted into the lowest part of the hinder border of the greater tuberosity . In a male subject ( No. 14 ) was found , in the right arm , a fine specimen of the detached portion of the subscapularis , which has been described by Professor Haughton under the namne of Infratspinatus secunzdus , and by Macalister under that of Subscapulo-humeral or capsular . It was quite detached from the subscapularis , arising from the border of the scapular as a flat muscular band , 1 inch wide , crossed the long head of the triceps , and becamne inserted inlto the neck of the humerus at the same place as the capsuilar ligament , overlapped a little by the . tenidon of the latissiinu cd orsi . This ninuscle h as beenl found by Haughton in the ilfaccucts veimestrhints and other Quadrumiana , and by Mlacalister in the IHorse , Seal , and other Mammalia . Iln No. 24 was found a L'ransversus Vnlanls , enltirely separate from the bulk of the fibres of the abduietor pollicis , and arisinlOg chiefly froom the nieck of the third mnetaLcarpal bonle and transverse ligament . , The remaining teni columins in the Table are occupied by abnormalities of the lower extremnity , affecting 23 muscles , and comprising 106 inistan-ces , viz. 74 in the 22 males , and 32 in the 12 females . 25 . Peroneus tertuius.-This musele presented varieties in no less than 14 subjects . In no less than five it was absent ; in three , on botl sides , viz. two males ( Nos. 24 & 28 ) and onie female ( No. 16 ) . In two other females ( Nos. 10 & 2 ? 1 ) it was totally absent on one side only , in one in the right , and in the other in the left leg , the representative in the other leg being in each case so small as to be of little account . In onie , inideed , it was a miiere , slender banid of fibrous tissue attached to the lower fibres of the exi-ensor cominiunis digitoruin . It may be said , them , that in one-fourth of the 12 femiiale sLubjects it was waniting , and in two only out of the 22 males . In two miiales ( Nos. 20 & 27 ) its tendon was doubled . In two other males ( Nos. 30 & 32 ) its tendon was inserted inito the base of the fourth as well as the fifth metatarsal bone . In four ( Nos. 3 , 8 , 11 , & 29 ) it sent forward a slip to join the exten-sor aponeurosis of the little too , in the way of the p)eroneuts quinti from the brevis . In all these four , except on the right leg of No. 8 , the true perones quinti from the brevis was coexistent . Both these varieties have beeni well known to anatomiists sinice _Meckel . In one ( No. 7 ) the slip was lost on the fascia covering the last dorsal interossous , and did not reach the toe . 26 . Peroneus quinti.-Iu 12 subjects ( or onie-third of the whole ) w as founid a representative tendon of this animal mLuscle more or less complete , connected with the tendon of the per onenes brevis , and leaving it just below the nialleolus . In three ( Nos. 2 , 16 , & 26 ) the slip was attached to the front enid of the fifth meltatarsal bone , and more or less blended with the dorsal injterosseous fascia-an arrangement which was naoticed by Meckel in sone suibjects uiprovided with a peronicus tertius . In1 all the nine other instaniees the tendon was more fully developedl , and joined in forming the extenisor cponeurosis of the little toe . In onie subject only ( No. 17 ) was it confilned to onae side . Three were found in the 12 femiiale subjects , and ninie in the 22 males , showing a larger proportion in the latter . 27 . Extensor p1rim ? i iternocdii 11h(7lucis 7oa ? nus . In nio less than 19 subjects , or more than onie hallf , was found , in both legs , a long tendon attached to the inner part of the base of the first phalanx of the great toe distiinct from that of the extensor brevis digitorumc . In three suabjects ( Nos. 9 , 17 , & 31 ) this tendon was provided with a well-developed Uanld distinct peinniform miiuscular belly , arisigo , from the fibula , and inter osseous ligament , and separatled by any areolar interval from that of the extensor longitvs or proprius Aalcinoj . Ina male subject ( No. 9 ) this nusele lay t first outside the extensor proprius , and was provided wAitll two tendons , the outer one joining the greet-toe tendon of the exteisor brevis , and the innler , crossing under that of the extensor propritus , wasinserted inito the nusual place on the inner border of the base of the _rst phalanx . In a felale ( No. 17 ) the muscle lay to the ininer side of the extensor proprius , its tendon subdividing in the same way , and going to the same destiniationis as the last speceilme , but the oider one erossing in this case under the extenisor proprim 's . In another femuale ( No. 31 ) the right leg was provided with-l a distinct inuscle of this kiid , with a single tendon joining that of the e xtensor brevis . In the left leg it was represented only by a slip of ten1don ] given from that of the extentsor proprints at the anLkle , and lyilg i-nside it along the foot to the first phalanx , where it was in-serted in the usual way . In the 1tothe7r subjects , the latter was the arrangem ent in both legs , the -muscular fibres , together with the upper part of the tenidon , being -united more or less with those of the ext-en2sor propriz-S . leckel remarks that the above abnormality is h-onmologouts to the ex'tensor primni intternodii pJollicis in the hand . It is also m-ienitioned by Smennmerring , Theile , and TIn a miiale suljeet ( 1No . 23 ) this tendoni to the base of the first phalanx of the lalluax was given off from the outter side of that of the tibialis anticus . This anomialy h-ad beeni previously fouled by the autbhor in two subjects ( also males ) , which were described and fignrvcld in his first paper oin the snbj et . IL . is not awa0e that . it 1i s beenl observod by any otlier anatomist . it is not to be confo , unded with the commnion insertiona of a slip of tlo tflbialis tenlidon into the base of thze first gnzetiatcrsai . bone . Durino the Iatst 8ess-ion a fl.o cx-L imple of this formation was secroL in , a stillbone male foetus , whiheli was not foun-id to present any other muscular varmocr . ILn aniother adulit male ( INo . 33 ) it ' was found in thie right lco-with the addit'ion of a seComnd slip of teondon from the exu1'enso ) proprius ; while in time leffleg , two slips came from that of the latter muiscle , the outer joining the tendo of the extensor breris cdiqitowmzcn , and thie inniier iniserted sepatrately illuo the base of the first plhalanx of the hiallux , as before secin in those ( Nos. 9 & 17 ) with complete miiuseular bellies . The forward prolongation from"I the ten-don of the tibialis entics to the hallux presents a eirious parallel on the inside to that of the quinti from the3 peroneuts brevis on the outside of the foot . A bleniding of the tibialis anticus with the long extensor of the great toe is said by tIeckel to be found in the Poraupin6 . Six out of the ninieteensubjects possessing a separate t-lendon to the base of the hallux were females ( one half of the whole number of subjects of this sex ) . These comprised two ouLt of the three complete specimenis . 28 . Extensor lon qus dicitorugn peclis.-Ini one subject ( No. 6 ) the innerinost tendoni of this muscle detached a separate slip to be inserted inito the has of the first phalanx of the second toe , producing an exact analogy to the arrangement in the great toe last described , and which also coexisted in the same subject . It is mentioned by leckel as homolog-ous to the indicaltor in manr , and as a-lso found in the Pig and Porcupine ( Anat . Comp. vi . pp. 429 & 432 ) . In aniother ( No. 9 ) a coinnecting slip from the iinnermost tendon of the long commoni extenisor joined at the base of the netatarsals with that of the extensor , proprius hallucis . A similar arrangem.ent is said by T eckel to be found in the Kangaroo and in the Rumninants . In one ( No. 11 ) the tenidonis of the seconid , third , and fourth toes arose by a separatoe , muscular belly fromll the outer tuberosity of the tibia and head Ifibulla ; that to the fifth toe coming from the fibres of the peronetus ter titus . This i- , founid , accordihmg to Meckel , in the Hyxnla , Bear , and other Carnivora , and also in the Kangaroo and some Rodenlts . In one subject ( No. 19 ) two small slips of tendol , from those of the two outerimost toes , were inserted into the shafts of the fourth and fifth metatarscds respectively . Tnis is similar to the arrangemiient found in the Sloths and Reptiles . In No. 23 there was a reduplication of the extensor tendoni of the little toe . In No. 26 the outermost tendon of the extensor lon_gus was connected with that of the ex tensor hrevis by a long slip arising fromii the former above the annuLlar ligament , and joining the latter on the dorsum of the foot . In two ( Nos. 32 & 33 ) the tendolls of the long extenisor were cachi provided with a separate muscular belly . In the forilier there was also a double tendon to the secoind toe . 29 . Extensor lrevis digitorum pecis . In onie subject ( No. 9 ) a tendillOUs slip from the second tenfldon of this muscle joinied that of therfirst clorsal iiiterosseus ; amId anlother from the third ten-don , that of the re8Co1cl dorsal interossens . In No. ll this connection existed with the Jest dorsal interosseus only . This evidence of connection between thiese muscles is interesting , in relationi to the occasional formation of any extensor lrevis digitori-imv in the hand , which the author has in former papers explained by posterion displacement and separation of the superulcial fibres of the dorsal interossei . In two ( Nos. 23 & 26 ) the tendons to the seconed toe were doubled . 210 . tlexor longu s diqitoruvi and Elex or acecssoriuts . In one subject ( a , female ) the first tendon of the formier mLiuscle was entirely wanthig , its place being supplied to the second toe by one from the lIexor hallucis , approaching the formation in somiie of the Apes . In No. 14 was found a fully developed seciinen of the flexor loncguis accessorius , arising from the lower thiird of the hiniider surface of the 2.x fibulla and the adjacent aponienrosis , as a distiniet muscle ending in a stout tendoni , which passed under the annular ligamuenit outside the vessels , and was joinied by the muscular fiblres of the " massa carnea Sylvii , " and by the tendons of the perforans in the middle of the sole . The fibres of its ten-doni passed exclusively to the the outer toes . In No. 15 the " muassa carnea " was replaced by a thick tendon attached to the intner border of the tuber calcis . At its junction with the outer telndon of origin , a small flat muscular belly was developed upon it . In the right foot of No. 24 , a tenidon from the outer hlead of any otherwise normal accessorius was joined to the superficial or peeforated telndo-n of the miiiddle toe , forming decussating fibres with others from the opposite side of the latter in the usual way . Three out of the four abnormlialities in these muscles were found in femuale subjects . The completelexor acCessoriius lon us was seen , however , in a male subject , as in the three inlstances described last year . 31 . Lumibricales pediis.-All the abnormalities in these muscles resilted from deficinciev . In two the fourtt was absent , one on the right side and one on the left . In onie the second was wanted on both sides . All were male subjects , 32 . Ple.ror brevis diyitorum.-All the varieties of this inuscle were also fromldeficiency . In all the seveni subjects affected , the tenldon to the little toe was absen:t , and , ill six out of seveni , on both sides . In one ( No. 3 ) its place was supplied by a smuall fusiforin slip of musele , arising from the outernmost tendoni of the flexor longus pegforcns . In anlother ( No. 4 ) the supplemerntary iwuscle arose by two slender fusiform bellies , one from the lonig flexor tenidon , and the other from the iinner tuberele of the calcis , deeper than the fibres of the flexor brevis digitorum . This , which the author looks upon as a transitional form to the arranigemenit found in No. 3 , and in the Apes and M1,1onkeys , was precisely like that given in the author 's paper of 1865 . In the rest of the subjects no substitute to the missing tendon was found , though possibly a f'eeble development may have escaped observation in soimie of them . Mfecliel has remarked on the fiequenit deficiency of this telndoni in the hunmal foot , and also that it is not always supplemented by the flexor perforaiis , comparing it to the usual deficiency of the flexor brevis in the _Monkeys , and its total disappearance in other Manlmalia . 33 . Abductor ossis qnetatarsi gtinti.-No less than 17 specimuenis of this miiuscle , arising separately from the outer tubercle of the calcanieum , and inserted into the tubercular base of the fifth metatarsal bone , were found in the 36 subjects ( very nearly one half ) . In three , subjects it was found on the right foot only , and in two , on the left only . In the other 12 it existed on both sides . Ten of the specimens were found in the 24 males , and seven in the 12 females , giving a preponderance of frequency in the latter sex . This preponderance in the female sex is still liore striking , if the cases givent in the author 's last paper are inchuded in the estimate ; 8 hlavini1g been founcl in thie 16 females ( or onie half ) , while only 16 were found in the 54 males ( not one-third ) . If this be establislhed by future observation , as well as the more frequent deficieuicy of the peroneus er/ tits in the samlel sex before alluded to , its bearing upoln the relative structural iniferiority of the sex will be curious , since both are animal peculiarities . iMr . Mlacalister states that he has found the abductoof the jiftit metatarsal honte existing(r as a distilnet muscle in . nine outi of e-vry twelve sulbjects . 11 No. 5 of the Table the mauscle was peculiar in arising from the in ? er tiiberele of the calcaneum by a large,.distinet , and triangular fleshv belly , anlid in beincg iniserted by a lon(g tendoni into the nieci or anterior part of the shaft , inistead of the tubercle of the fifth metatarsal bone . 34 . Out of 18 sunidry specimens of ablnormnalities in the lower extreinity , two were peculiarities of the tendon of thoe lFle"xor longus kcdltIucis . In oie , a female ( No. 8 ) , the usual slip of union . with the flexor longus digitorun was wanlting . In aniother female ( No. 6 ) the flexor longits hacliucis first receivedl a long slip from the flexor Comm1unwis , and then gavetwo separate tenidons to the secondcl and third toes . That to the second conistituted the only perforating tendon , the one from the coilimon flexor being waniting , while that to the third toe joinied at the base of the digit with a smiialler one fromithe comiimoin llexor . In two miiale subjects ( Nos. 5 & 21 ) the Plaow/ lacuris muscle and tenidoni were both . appareiitly blended with the outer head of the gastrocliemius . In No. 30 the Superior gemnel.us was wanting . In the right foot of No. 8 , a male subject remarkable for the number of its abnormalities , a considerable portion of the outer fibres of the Flexor brevis kalluois were detached from the rest , and inserted inlto the iinnier tubercle on the base of the first phalanix of the second toe . In the left foot of the samel e subject a still larger slip froma the fibres of the Adcductor hallutcis was detached to the same destination . This was also found as a less developed specimen in the left foot of No. 13 , also a male . Two specimens of these abnormalities , also in male subjects ( on1e of each kind ) , were described by the author in his paper of last year . They do not seem to have been before recorded by any anatomist , though apparently recurring in the proportion of about once in 18 or 20 subjects . A male subject ( No. 9 ) was remarkable for the presenice of the muscle described by Otto as the -Peroneus quartus ( Never seltelne Beobacht . S. 40 ) , arising from the lower fourth of the outer surface of the fibula below the peroneis brevis , and inserted by a distilnet tendoln into the outer side of the calcaneLimn , upon the tubercle between the peronieal grooves . Theile mentions that this muscle somiietimes replaces the peroneus brevis itself . In the case just described , both the peronieus longus and brevis were coexistent . A va riety of the same character , but inserted inlto the outer border of the cuboid , is record ( I by AMacalister ( op . cit. ) in . a subject having , no peroneus tertiats . One of the peroinei mullscles is , according to feckel , iniserted inito the cuboid in the Kangaroo . IL a male slubject ( No. 14 ) , the right Peroneus longits had a double tendoil , one inserted intO the internal cn1Lneiforii , aId the other into thebase of the first metatarsal . In a female ( INo . 15 ) the tenidoni of th:is iusole gave origini in the sole to the xoe , or and oponens m , nmzini dligiti , as well as to the thirdl plantar interossezte , as in the , vTalietuy figured in the3 authoir 's paper of 1865 . In an0othier femnale ( No. 16 ) the Peroneits brevis was , in both legs , provided with a donLiblo tendon , both in-iserted into the usiai place . The poronous tertius in the sa'mee subject was totally absent . In , the left , leg of a mtale ( No. 20 ) a slip of teiic on was detached from the outer border of the [ iTbialis anatimtns muscle to be imiplanted into the inner borcler of the anterior an ' , nl , are ligy unomiatn-d corsclfascia . Tin both legs of anLother male ( To . 29 ) a iore deoCided developmnenlt in this direction bad resuited in a distinet , flat , spreading inuscle , 3 iThebes long , arising from the outer surface of the tibia blelow and distinct fromU the fibres of the tibialis , and ending in a roumi , d tendon which was in3serted into the aninular ligament and dlorsal fascia1 below thoe malleolus . Such a musele was describe-d bDy the au-'thior in his paper of 18861 ninlder the name of the Eensorfascice corsalis_pedis , occurring on-1 both sides in a femnale snbject . In two subjects ( Nos. 22 84- ) a considerable portion of the mimzuer fibres oI the Peeliiees were found to pass across the front of the deep feoioral artery to becomrie inisertled with the upper fibres of the Addcetor Zonygms , an irregularity whilieh does not ' seem to have been litherto noted , A siinilar extenisiona of the origin of the adducto-r longus is seen in the M1armnot anmonig the P , odents , in the Rtatel of the Carnivora , and in the Alagot and Chimiipanizee amnong the Quadrumnana . No. 24 was found to possess a remaarkable development in both feet of a-n Opponens orflexor ossis vmetacarpi inhimzi cl7qili . In the right leg of a muscular fe-male subject ( No. 25 ) , the Biceps flexor crmtris was provided with a third head . This conisisted of an elonogated , ro-Lxnded , and fuciform i mnscle ( fig. 6 , a ) , 8 inches lonSg and three-quarters of an1 iilch wide , coinniected above by a rounided tenldonl , 2 inches lo-ng , with the strong fascia which covered the deep surface of gluteus acaxiinis ( b 6 , cut and turned asite in the fionure ) . Below , it was uniited by a tendon , 1 ineh long , with the isculal or lonlg head ( c ) , just above its junctioni with tue feioral head ( cl ) at the lo er third of the thigh . Any additional leiad to this muscle , ti ounli n:ot at all com11mlon , yet has been recorded by various writers , viz. by lieckel , from the upper part of the " linea aspera ; " by GrLLber , f:roin the inaternial conidyloid ridge of the femiur ; by Henle , from tle3 fascia lata near the upper end of the linea aspera ; and by Smemimerring and G-ailntzer , arilsing from the tuber ischii . Of these , the thhree former j oinied the femoral or short head , while in the instanoes given by the two last-naml , ed anlthors , the abnlormalc hieadl joinled th3 e isehial or long headl . All having g closely or identically similar origini to those heads of the mausele with which thoy afterwards res3pectively uLnited , may be considered as extenSions and separations of a portioni of the fibres of those heads of originl . Mfr . M1acalister men-tionis that in a miiale subjectl he found in both lcg , s a continuation of the tendinous isehial origins oL t'Uhis muscle over the surface of the great sacrosciatic ligament to the side of the sacrunm , but it does not appear that this constituted any approCach to a distinct head . But in the Specimen under consideration , the abnormiality is constituted by a distiniet muscular bundle , with all upper and a lower tenidon , the fibres of the former capable of being traced in those of thie deep gluiteal fascia for a considerable dista:nce . In the Dog the author has found the almost exact counterpart of this third head of the biceps feeor Cruris . it is a , deeply placed slender baud of muscular fibres , arising from the surface of the great sacro-sciatic ligament . It lies under the isehial originl , and becomiies iniserited in . ; to the fascia on the outside of the leg belo\v the main bulk of the widely-spread biceps proper . It is there connected also with a fibrous sheeath which invests the tendon of the p7antaris . In this aiimna1 this mnuselar slip seems to repr , esent the caudal and sac ral origin of the biceps in the Rodents , and other Mammalia . The homology between the abnlormnal third heads in the humiiani subject and the eaudal origini in animals was pointed out by Th-eile . In a muscular male subject was founid any abnormuality , in malny poiits resembling that described by G-antzer as the " Accessorius ad cealcaneum . " It was , however , very different , in its origin to these described by that author , alt'ihough identical in its form and insertion ( fig. 7 , a ) . A. long slenlEder tenidoin , very much resemabling that of the plaNtaNCCiS in its texture and appearance , was placed along the ininer side , of it , so as to presentu the appearance of a double plauitaris . This tendon was attached above to the uipper third of the hinder surface of the fibula , below the origini of the soleus ( b ) , and crossed obliquely the posterior tibial vessels , lml-uscles , and aponeurosis , towards the inniier malleolus . At the lower third of the leg , a flat , ovoid , tapering , musculir belly , 3 inches long and 1 inch wide , wa7-s developed upon it , and became implanted by a short-spreading tendonl upon1 the calcanleum , n11 frontand to the inn-e1er sicle of the tencdo-aell11is , about three-quarters of an . inch distant fromii it . From the lower partj of its outer border the muscle sent o1ff a tedmlidous slip , which joined the p)laitaris tendonl iu a maiass of fibroI-fatty tissue placed abov-e the bursa of the tendo-achillis . 1lyrtl has mentioned the occasional occurLrence of a musele Sollmewhl1at resembling this , as arising fromx1 the popliteal ( ? ) ftascia , or locer part of the f-ibula , and inserted inlto the calcis . This Ilenlle seems to conisider as an abnormal plantaris . In the case just described , ho-wer , el the size , shape , and positioni of the muscular belly , and the insertionl o0 thec lower tendoni so mulich resemble the muscle described by Ganltzer , and aleo that figTured by the autthor in his paper of 1864 , that he h-ias 1to hesitation in referring it to the same class , with a somewhat highlier origin , obtainied by differen-tiation of the more vertical fibres of the posterior tibial aponeurosis . It constitutes probably , however , a link with the pIladtais , similar to that which the lnusclo of the armii , which he1 has called the flexor CCOpi raclielis brevis , in some specimens formlls Awitli the pct9im)nis loncjzts . Fromll this poinIt of view , this abnormal imnuscle in the leg has a similar relationi to the tibialis posticus that the incomplete nuscle in the arm has to a con2p ) let Jlexoor of the middle vnetacaqpel bone , its homologue ; and it ocecupies a like intermediate relation to the soleus as the onie in the arm does to the flexor sublimbis . WYe shall finld hereini the mosSt probable solution of some of the difficulties of the homologies of these post-tibial muscles . In addition to the foreg , oinbg subjects , the author 1has had the advantage of descriptions and sketches of : muscular abnormalities affecting three SuLbjeCts onLt of eight , from his friened and former assistanlt Mr. Bellamy , demonistrator ii anatomy at Charing Cross Hospital . In one inmuscular ml1ale were founlld four abnortmalities , viz. in the right arm , a double pain.wris 7ion gus . The irregular one was placed internal to the otherl , with its muscular -fibres comrmencing just above the mziddle of the arm , amlnd conitinLued downv to the annular ligament , intO which and the palmiar fascia it wAs iniserted . In the same arm Awras found ta wAvell-developed extensor camqi radialis intermedius , arising distinctly betweeni the lon-gior and brevior by a fusiform belly , and iniserted by a lonlg t:enldonL into the posteriorannular lig am2ent , close to tlLe sheath for the outer extensors of the thulmul-b . This the author looks upon as a formation interm-ediate to comiiplete development of any extenlsor carpi r-cadiatlis accessoritts . A little fLurther extensioni forwards and outwards wotld1 have brought the inisertion of this multLSCle inito relation with the ori , in of the abductor pollicis brevis and the base of the first metacarpal . Oni the left arim of the saime subtject was a clevelopment in the same direction in . the low-er part of the arm . A separate mtuscle was formedl of those upper fibres of the extensor ossis qinetacarlpi pollicis , which so frequenltly give off a slip of tendcloni to the origin of the abductor pollicis . The muscle arose from the raditus and inlt , erosseous ligameent , ( uite distinctly from the extemisor ossis metacarpi , and was provided with a separate tencdoni , which , passing in the same sheath with thalt of the latter , subdlivided into two tendons , onie to be iniserted inlto the base of the first mlletacarpal , andi the other to join the otuter fibres of originl of the abductor pollicis brevis . If both the tendencies eviniced in this interesting conceurreniee had been combine ; ed in the samue arm , the result might have been the production of an entire extensor earpi radialis accessor ius , like that described by the author in former papers . In the left leg , of the samue subject was found a large and well-marked specimen of the accessorius ad calcaneumn of Gantzer , arising by a flat , bipenniform , muscular belly from the posterior tibial fascia below the tibial origin of the soleus , and inserted by a flat spreading tendon , which crossed obliquely the postmalleolar tendons into the os calcis in front of the tenwdo-achillis . From its outer border was given off a spreading , aponeurosis , which was attached to the hinder border of the outer malleolus , almost like that seem in figure 7 . In the left leg of a female subject was fournd the perforatus tendon of the little toe , arising from a separate triangularshaped muscle , which was attached to both the tubercles of the calcaneum between the superficial muscles and the accessorius , like that described in the author 's former papers . In the left armi of another muscular male subject two abnormalities were found , viz. a third head of the pronator radii teres , arising with the fibres of the brachialis anticus at the junction of the mniddle and lower thirds of the humerus . The median nerve and ulnar vessels passed between the abnormal and condyloid heads , and the radial artery came off high in the upper arm . No supra-condyloid process was found on the bone ( as described by Gruber in such a case ) , although carefully looked for . The other abnormality was a high muscular origin of the abductor minimi digiti , arising from the fascia covering the inner flexor muscles of the fore arin by a single penniform head , and joining partly with the normal abductor , and partly inserted by a separate tendcon into the base of the first phalanx of the little finger . The author is indebted also to Mr. J. Galtoin , of the Dreadnought Hospital , for some clever sketches of three abnormalities , one of a detached slip of the pectoralis major , arising from the anterior end of the fifth rib , and inserted behind the sternal fibres into the fascia covering the coracobrachialis , an inch or so below the coracoid process ; another , of an " accessorius adflexoremn pollicis longum " of Gantzer , the tendon of Awhich , after being first connected by a broad aponeurosis with the muscular belly of the flexor longus pollicis , was then divided into two slips , one of which joined the tendon of the last-named muscle , and the other the indicial tendon of the flexor profundus digitorum ( as in subject 9 previously described ) . The third was a small fusiform muscular slip , found on the deep surface of the flexor brevis Itallucis , arising by a pointed tendon from internal cuneiform bone , and inserted by another round tendon into the abductor and inner head of the flexor brevis hallucis , close to the sesamoid bone . It seems to represent the " interosseus palmaris volaris " of the hand . Out of 36 subjects dissected at King 's College during the Session , 34 have been found to present muscular abnormalities worthy of note . Four of these bad also noteworthy abnormalities of some of the arteries ; viz. No. 3 , having 10 muscular varieties in the head and arm , had also an irregularity of the third part of the subclavian : , whence a common trunk was given off for the posterior and suprascapular arteries . The itnternal mammary also gave off an accessory inferior thyroid . No. 7 , having 10 muscular abnormalities , of which 7 were in the head and arm , presented that remarkable irregularity the right subelavian given off from the descending aorta below the left-while the two carotids came off from a common trunk * . No. 20 , having 16 muscular abnormalities , 12 being found in the arm , had also a high origin of the radial artery . No. 27 , having 12 mIUseular abnormalities , of which 9 were in the arm , presented the left vertebral arising from the aortic arch , and the posteriorand supra-scapular coming by a commoni trunk from the second part of the subelavian . From the 31 cases contained in the adjoined Table , which were all examined and noted with the utrnost care and accuracy , a fair approximative idea may be deduced of the relative frequency of certain special instances in the two sexes ; on both sides of the body , or on one side only . The total number of muscular abnormalities noted in 36 subjects is 295 ( reckoning both sides as one ) , of which 221 , or about two-thirds , were found on both sides , and 74 , or about one-third , Onl onie side only ; the proportion on the right side only being 39 , and those on the left side only 35 , or nearly equal on either side . The individual abnormalities which exceed the above proportion on both sides are the cleido-occipital ; those of the pectoralis minor , coracobrachialis , brachialis anticus , extensor carpi ulnaris , and the interossei ; and the extensor imedii digiti in the ibpper extremity ; and the extensor longus primi internodii hallucis , and those of the extensor brevis digitorum pedis in the lower limb , all of which were found represented on both sides ; while the proportion of the abnormiialities of the latissiinus dorsi , the peroneus quinti , and the abductor ossis metatarsi quinti found on both sides was also greater thain that above given . Those instances of which the proportion on one side only was greater than the average , were found in the flexor sublimis and profundus digitorurn and lumbricales , and the more rare abnormality , the flexor carpi radialis brevis vel profnidus , all of which last were found in the right arm . Of the biceps flexor cubiti and the flexor longgus accessorius digitorum pedis nearly as maniy were found on one side only as on both . The total number of abnormalities founnd in the 24 males was 215 , and in the 12 females 81 , showing a greater proportionate frequency in the male sex of alinost as many more . Of this number , 15 are confined to the head , necic , and thorax ; 4 of which are in females , or rather less than the foregoing average . No less than 174 are connected with , and acting chiefly upon , the bones of the upper limb , 130 of which are in males , and 44 in females . This also is proportionately less in the feimale thaim the general average . Of the remaining 106 found in the lower li'mb 74 were in niale , and 32 in female subjects , proportionately a considerably greater average oln the side of the femnale . So far as these go , abniormalities of m1uscles appear to prepoliderate in the male , in the head , neclc , thorax , and arm , and , in the female , in the leg . In a inuch greater proportion than this on the male side were the special abnormalities of the cleido-o cipital , pectoralis major , biceps , coraco-brachialis , brachialis auiticus , flexor longus pollicis , lumbricales and interossei manus , flexor carpi radialis profundus , palmaris loigus , supinator longus , extensor communis and brevis digitorum , manus , and extensor carpi ultiaris in the upmper limb ; and the peroneus quinti , extenisor lonigus anlc brevis digitorutm , and lutmbricales pedis iil the lower . On the female side the most tangible preponderanice is found in the frequency of absence of the peroiieus tertius , and of the resence of the abductor ossis metatarsi quinti , the extensor carpi radialis intermneclius , and of the extensor longus prinii internodii hal'ucis . The Table shows as decidedly as that of last year , the general absence of correypo ; tdence in combication of the muscular abnormalities . Of the 14 subjects in which there are more thaui 10 variations , three only are females . Onie subject has 17 lmluscular abniormalities , of which 15 are coniiected with the armns , and 2 only with the legs . Two have 16 abnormalities ; in on-e of them 11 are connected with the arms ( including the cleido-occipital and the occipito-scapular given in fig , . 1 ) , 1 with the head , and 4 with the legs ; the other has 5 in the legs and 1 in the head and neck . Two imiales have each 13 abnormnalities ; in one 10 are connected with the arms , and 3 with the legs ; and in the other , 1 is found on the ribs , and 4 in the legs . Three subjects ( one of them a fenmale ) have 12 abnormalities , of which 7 belonig to the arms . One male has 11 , of which 8 belong to the arms . Two females have each 11 , of which 6 in one , and 5 in the other , belong to the arms ; and 4 in one , and 5 in the other , to the legs . Three subjects have 10 abniormalities , of which 4 , 6 , and 7 respectively are found in the arins ; one of these , a male , and another a female , have each 5 belonging to the legs . In 13 subjects 11o abnormalities are found in the head and neck . In 7 more , those which were found there acted equally on the bones of the upper limb . This leaves 14 in which the muscles of the head , neck , and thorax only were concerned . InI subject only , a female , were no abnormalities found in the arms , the only abnormal muscle discovered being the abductor ossis metatarsi quinti . In a male ( No. 4 ) 2 only were found in the arims , and 4 in the legs . In 5 subjects one variation only is found in the legs , the others being found chiefly in the arms . No levator claviculae , extensor carpi radialis accessorius , or sternalis muscles have this year been found . With the exception of these and five others , all that were recorded last year have beeii found also this year , with the addition of abnormalities in 10 other muscles . In the Table the figures which are placed at the end of the lines record the number of variations in each subject . Those at the bottom of each colum-nn express the number of variationis in each inuscle or muscles , the nam-es of which are found at the head of the coluinns . The ordinary Meetings of the Society were adjourned over Ascenlsion Pay and the Whitsuntide recess to Thursday , June 20 .

112690

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Obituary Notices of Fellows Deceased

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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112690

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112690

Biography

Geography

Biography

OBITUARY NOTICES OF FELLOWS DECEASED BETWEEN 30TH Nov. 1864 AND 30TH Nov. 1865 . JOHN GEORGE APPOLD died August 31 , 1865 . Mr. Appold was greatly distinguished as an amateur engineer , and for his success in the general application of chemical , physical , and mechanical principles for the purposes of mankind . I-e was born on the 14th of April , 1800 , at the factory of his father , Christian Appold , in Wilson Street , Finsbury . He was educated at an indifferent school in the vicinity , and at an early age was taken from his studies to assist his father , who was a fur-skin dyer of much celebrity . At the age of 22 his father gave him the business , when his far-seeing mind at once perceived that the power of steam might be advantageously introduced into his factory , and that if he was to hold the first place in his department of manufacture , he must rely upon a knowledge of chemistry and physics . For years he devoted himself to his factory with such succoss that he improved his art , and in some cases was the sole possessor of a knowledge of the means by which he carried out difficult processes . Through this superior skill he amassed in a few years a handsome fortune , by industry and talent alone , without resorting to speculation of any kind . From about the year 1844 he bestowed less time on his business , and was thus enabled to apply the knowledge which he had obtained therefrom to a wider range of subjects , whereby he gained the confidence and esteem of the leading engineers of the age . Mr. Appold was exceedingly modest and distrustful of his own powers , till he found that men of the highest reputation listened to him with respect and commendation , when , fortunately for the public , he became more confident in enforcing his own inventions . lie was somewhat irritable in manner , especially when wrongfully contradicted ; but was greatly beloved by his men , not only from the kindness of his heart , but from the confidence with which he inspired them when difficulties had to be overcome . He was married at the age of 25 to Miss Maria Illmann , who during the whole of his life sympathized with his train of thought , calmed his irritability , took the liveliest interest in all his projects , and by a devotion to his comfort and happiness contributed in no small degree to further the inventions which he has given to the world . Mr. Appold was not a man of extensive reading , and indeed he used books but little ; but he was a careful observer of facts , and his mind was well stored with accurate and exact data available for use . His inventions and processes were the result of pure thought . They were but little derived from the analogy of other methods in actual use , but were in great measure creations of his own mind . Mr. Appold 's chemical inventions were confined to his own business ; none of them have ever been published , some are still in the possession of the present proprietors of the factory , but others doubtless will be for ever lost . In applied electricity Mr. Appold pointed out difficulties in the use of that agent as a motive power for clocks , and attempted to prevent irregularity in their performance , but without , however , attaining the degree of perfection which his exact mind alone could tolerate . His great work in connexion with electricity is of a purely mechanical nature , as he devised a most efficient break to regulate the speed of laying electric cables at the bottom of the sea . From the great value of this apparatus the name of Appold will be ever associated with this department of engineering , as the successful laying of the Atlantic and other cables has in no small degree depended upon this invention , although others have subsequently made improvements upon it . This contrivance is an adaptation of a labourregulating machine , invented and patented by him some time previously , for use at prisons , so that the labour which every prisoner performs may be exactly apportioned to his strength . Hydraulic science was a particularly favourite subject with Mr. Appold . His centrifugal pump stands boldly forward as an invaluable instrument for raising large quantities of water to a moderate height . The construction of this pump was a special instance of an invention arrived at by thoughtful investigation . The experiments were made at considerable costto himself in his factory , and after accurately watching the results , he applied his mind to a right consideration of their bearing , and thus produced a pump which for its particular purposes surpasses every invention which preceded it . In the Great Exhibition of 1851 a centrifugal pump was exhibited , the merits of which are fully described in the Reports of the Jurors , and in the Exhibition of 1862 a much larger one was shown . The Appold centrifugal pump is largely used in Egypt and in the West Indies for the purposes of irrigation . It is also beneficially used for draining tracts of ground lying below the level of the natural outfall ; and Whittlesea Mere , and a great portion of the Bridgwater marshes were drained by its instrumentality . Mr. Appold also devised a pumrp for raising the thick viscid printing ink used for the Times ' newspaper , which apparatus has been employed for some time , and well illustrates his success in adapting his contrivances to the requirements of the case . His wonderful power of intelligent observation was well displayed during the attempts to launch the Great Eastern steamnship at Blackwall by means of hydraulic pumps , when his skilled eye detected that the labourers were working irregularly , and sometimes the labour which they apparently gave was a mere sham . He immediately communicated with Mr. Brunel , who gave him leave to fix a test upon each pump to show the work performed . This was highly appreciated by the great engineer . Mr. Appold was peculiarly happy in devising valves in connexion with large pumps , and many such now in use at the large waterworks were contrived by him . Hle also invented a valve for equalizing the flow of water , and thus ensuring the safety of persons using hydraulic lifts by a proper regulation of the speed , irrespective of variation of the weight by difference in the number of persons employing them . This valve is in common use at all the large hotels . A very pretty contrivance was invented by him for throwing air into water-pipes under great pressure . At the waterworks of the South Essex Company water is pumped 12 miles and raised 400 feet by the direct action of the engine . Under these circumstances the air in the air-vessel was absorbed by the water , and the use of an air-pump caused great heat from the compression of the air . On consideration of all the facts , he immediately contrived an injector , by which a suitable quantity of air was thrown into the air-vessel without the aid of any pump . He also devised a simple method to avoid the bursting of water-pipes in houses when the water is suddenly shut off at high pressures , and also to prevent the unpleasant noise which occurs under these circumstances . His contrivance consists in soldering a foot of pipe , closed at one end and full of air , vertically near the tap . This acts as an air-vessel , and perfectly prevents the noise or the risk of fracture of the pipe . The Appold overflow for cisterns is an ingenious application of scientific principles , by which cisterns can be filled with safety to a very short distance of their top . The overflow consists of a funnel-shaped pipe , contracted at the bottom and very large at the top . This is covered with an inverted metallic saucer , so that when the water flows fast the whole pipe is filled , and with the covering constitutes a siphon which powerfully sucks down the water . Mr. Appold also warmly advocated the use of siphons to carry water over an embankment instead of having culverts through the bank . For this purpose he recommended that one valve only should be used , and that it should be placed at the upper part of the siphon , so that facility of examination may be secured . Mr. Appold also suggested to Messrs. Easton and Amos the arrangement of air-pumps which are employed for the exhaustion of the siphons at Kings Lynn . Great as Mr. Appold was in his knowledge of hydraulic principles and in his application of them , he was no less fortunate in his successful appreciation of pneumatic science . He was a thorough master of ventilation , and that at a time when the principles of the art were but imperfectly known ; his own house was for years regarded as a model of perfection in that way , as fresh air of regulated temperature and moisture , and thoroughly screened from all impurities , was abundantly supplied by a series of most ingenious self-acting contrivances . The Appold motorhygrometer which Mrs. Appold presented to the royal Society , whereby a self-acting motive power was obtained under any desired condition of hygrometric moisture , is a very remarkable example of the skill with b which Mr. Appold devised the most delicate apparatus to meet any want . By the use of this instrument the flow of a small stream of water over a warm stove was regulated , and by this means one uniform hygrometric state of the atmosphere was ensured throughout the building . The bellows he applied to prevent the jar of slamming doors is an ingenious and effective apparatus ; and the Appold Pneumatic Valve , for preventing down draughts with very feeble currents , acts perfectly . Jlr . Appold 's mechanical contrivances were innumerable , and many of them distinguished by their extreme originality . Perhaps the most remarkable is the scrubber , devised to remove deposits from the inside of the water-pipes of a town . This has been used with perfect success at Torquay , but it is to be regretted that he never himself knew that his design answered its expectations . It was a question whether the main pipes of Torquay would not have to be removed , but the action of the scrubber was so perfect , that the deposit was entirely disintegrated and carried away with the flow of water . In his factory many remarkable devices existed . Pumps were curiously arranged to throw on and off as they were required ; and air was supplied to the steam-engine fire by self-regulating apparatus . Besides his more important contrivances he made some for mere amusement ; and every part of his house bore testimony to the fertility of his imagination and power of invention . Doors were made to open on approacli , and to shut after the person had passed through ; others locked themselves afterwards . HIe had contrivances also by which all the shutters of a room closed by the touch of a spring , and thus , when associated with the regulator of a gas-lamp , caused a change from daylight to gaslight , to the no small amusement of his visitors . All his numerous contrivances acted perfectly , even to the unimportant matter of his self-acting stable-gates , which when once adjusted , were so exact in their mechanism that they remained in use for years without requiring attention . Shortly before his death he was constructing an apparatus for measuring accurately the pitching and rolling of vessels at sea . Mr. Appold showed a knowledge of the laws of heat by constructing a thermometer of extreme delicacy for a range of a few degrees . It consisted of a thin plate of zinc and steel rivetted together , and suspended on a knifeedge , so that its bar was unequally balanced . This form of thermometer is difficult to manufacture , otherwise it would doubtless be in general use for sitting-rooms and greenhouses , as it indicates distinctly a variation of a tenth of a degree , which can be read across the room . IHe also constructed a motor thermometer to regulate the supply of gas to a stove according to the temperature of an apartment at a considerable distance , and this acted in the most efficient manner . One very curious application of physiological experiment Mr. Appold has left us in connexion with the Daguerreotype . In the early days of stereoscopic photography he conceived the idea that from the superposition in Wheatstone 's stereoscope of two images of the human countenance , one laughing and the other extremely serious , a normal state of countenance would be produced . Accordingly he had two such pictures made of himself , and the effect which is produced by regarding the two images through the stereoscope is so good , that his family and friends consider that it is by far the best likeness which remains , and expresses most accurately his natural condition of countenance . With but very slight knowledge of the use of figures , Mr. Appold had very considerable power of mental calculation . He made curious and extensive mental calculations which approximated very closely to the truth . In this way he astonished Stephenson and other engineers by suddenly stating how much he could by his own strength deflect the colossal bridge over the Menai Straits . Upon accurate measurement it was found that he really deflected it more than he stated , but then he said he used all his strength , and had been afraid of overstating his case . His mode of calculating appeared to be by a geometric series , continually halving or doubling , as the case required , from a known unit . During the last twenty years of his life he was always present when any great engineering work was being carried out . IHe was ever watchful and suggestive when difficulties arose , and contributed his share to the success of the undertaking . In this manner he exercised an important influence , and his loss will be keenly felt wherever new and difficult mechanical operations are attempted . We thus find that Mr. Appold was the author of inventions of great originality in various departments of practical science . It is interesting to know the manner in which he applied his mind for that purpose It was his habit when a difficulty arose , carefully to consider the exact result he required , and having satisfied himself upon that point , he would direct his attention to the simplest mode by which the end could be attained . With that view he would during the day bring together in his mind all the facts and principles relating to the case , and the solution of the problem usually occurred to him in the early morning after sleep . If the matter was difficult , he would be restless and uneasy during the night ; but after repose , when the brain had recovered from fatigue , and when in the quiet of the early morning no external influences distracted his attention , the resultant of all known scientific principles bearing upon the question presented itself to his mind . Mr. Appold 's inventions were essentially practical . They were not mere proposals or paper inventions ; and he ever sihowed that he was a man of action in bringing into successful operation his various designs . Great , however , as were his powers of thoughtful invention he was not distinguished in the study of the higher relations of the physical forces , and he left to others the task of propounding those noble generalizations of modern days which have done so much to simplify and dignify human knowledge ; but he affords a conspicuous example , in his own line , of the benefits that may be conferred on mankind by rightly directed thought , even when unaided by acquired learning . IHe followed the religion of his country , without associating himself with theological controversies ; and his numerous acts of charity and benevolence were bestowed with the utmost care that the giver should remain unknown . 3Mr . Appold was afflicted with a painful disease for the last few years of his life , which he bore with heroic fortitude . He was suddenly , however , seized with internal hemmorrhage at Clifton , when he met his death with that calm resignation which marks the true philosopher . To the honour of the inhabitants of the parish in which he lived , a monument has been erected by them to his memory in the Church of St. Leonard , Shoreditch . Hlis election into the Royal Society took place on the 2nd of June , 1853 . GEORGE BOOLE , by whose death mathematical science has suffered a. great loss , was born at Lincoln on the 2nd of November , 1815 . His father was a tradesman of very limited means , but held in high esteem by those who knew hinm . Having nothing to support his family but his daily toil , it was not to be expected that he could expend much on the education of his children ; yet they were not neglected . Being himself a man of thoughtful and studious habits , possessed of an active and ingenious mind , and attached to the pursuit of science , particularly of mathematics , he sought , to imbue his children with a love of learning , and employed his leisure hours in imparting to them the elements of education . His son1 George was sent first to the National School , and afterwards to a private Commnercial School , conducted by the late Mr. Thomas Bainbridge , Lincoln . From his father he received his principal instruction in the rudiments of mathematics , and from him also he inherited a taste for the construction and adaptation of optical instrumentrs . It was not , however , until a comparatively late period of his earlier studies that his special aptitude for mathematical investigations developed itself . His earlier ambition seems to have pointed to the attainment of proficiency in the ancient classical languages ; but his father being unable to assist him in overcoming the first difficulties of this course of study , he was indebted to a neighbouring bookseller ( Mr. William Brooke ) for instruction in the elements of Latin grammar . To the study of Latin he soon added that of Greek , without any external assistance , and for some years he devoured every Greek and Latin author that came within his reach . At the age of sixteen he became an assistant in a school at Doncaster ; subsequently he occupied a similar post at Wacddington , a village about four miles from Lincoln . In these situations , besides prosecuting his studies in the ancient classics , he cultivated an acquaintance with the best English authors , and began to read the German , French , and Italian languages , in all of which he ultimately attained singular proficiency . Two of his latest mathematical essays were written , one in German , and the other in French . As he had at this time a great wish to take orders in the church , he applied himself for two years to the study of patristic literature by way of preparation for the regular theological course . But the circumstances of his parents and some other difficulties hindered the accomplishment of this design . In his twentieth year he decided on opening a school on his own account in his native city . HIenceforward mathematics became his special study . His earliest papers , written , as he himself incidentally mentions , toward the close of the year 1838 , were prepared during his perusal of the ' Mlecanique Analytique , ' in the form of " Notes on Lagrange . " From these notes in the following year he made selections , and wrote out what appears to have been his first paper ( though not the first published ) , entitled " On certain Theorems in the Calculus of Variations , " wherein he proposed various improvements on methods of investigation employed by the illustrious French analyst . About the same time his attention was attracted to the transformation of homogeneous functions by linear substitutions , a problem which occupies a very conspicuous place in the writings of Lagrange , and which had also employed the powers of Laplace , Lebesque , Jacobi , and other distinguished continental mathematicians . The manner in which Boole dealt with this important problem showed him at once to be a man of most original and independent thought , and in the course of his investigations he was led to discoveries which may be regarded as the foundation of what has been called the Modern I-igher Algebra . His first published paper relates to this subject ; and although he afterwards greatly improved and extended his method of analysis , yet his original memoir , entitled " Researches on the Theory of Analytical Transformations , with a Special Application to the Reduction of the General Equation of the Second Order , " is interesting as showing how the subject first struck his mind . This memoir he communicated in 1839 to the Cambridge Mathematical Journal . Other papers in rapid succession followed . The generous assistance of the editor , the late ftr . Duncan F. Gregory , in correcting the imperfections of style which naturally resulted from his want of proper early training , Boole remembered with pleasure and thankfulness to the end of his life . IHis rising reputation led his friends to wish that he should enter himself at Cambridge . This project also he abandoned , and he continued to work amidst the interruptions and anxieties incident to the occupation of a schoolmaster . While applying the doctrine of the separation of symbols to the solution of differential equations with variable coefficients , Mr. Boole was led to devise a general mnethod in analysis . The work was too elaborate and weighty for the mathematical journal ; and he therefore , by the advice of iMr . Gregory , communicated a paper on the subject to this Society . For this paper , which was printed in the Transactions for 1844 , he received the Royal Medal . In the course of these speculations , and others of a like nature which grew out of them , IMr . Boole was led to consider the possibility of constructing a calculus of deductive reasoning . The severe discipline of his efforts to extend the powers of the analysis had given him not only a complete mastery over its mechanical processes , but also , what was of far greater advantage , a profound insight into its logical principles . In tracing out those principles he discovered that they admitted of an application to other objects of thought than number and quantity ; he found , in fact , that logical symbols in general conform to the same fundamental laws which govern the symbols of algebra in particular , while they are subject also to a certain special law . This discovery suggested a variety of inquiries which he seems at different periods to have pursued , but without any intention of publishing his views on the subject . In the spring of the year 1847 , however , his attention was drawn to the question then moved between SirW . JHamilton of Edinburgh and Professor De Morgan , and he " was induced by the interest which it inspired , to resume the almost forgotten thread of former inquiries . " His views were embodied in a remarkable essay , entitled " The Mathematical Analysis of Logic , " which in the autumn of the year was put on sale in Cambridge and London . Early in the following year ( 1848 ) he communicated to the Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal a paper on the " Calculus of Logic , " in which , after premising the notation and fundamental positions of his essay , he gave some flurther developments of his system . From this time forward he applied himself diligently to a course of study and reflection on psychological subjects , with a view to the production of a much more elaborate and exhaustive work than either of those above named . He felt that the inquiry was one of great importance , and that in labouring to perfect his theory he was rendering essential service to science . He meditated deeply on the nature and constitution of the human intellect . The most eminent authorities , both ancient and modern , were consulted ; opinions differing widely from each other , and often wholly opposed to his own , were carefully considered ; and whatever was likely to help him in the great work which he had undertaken , was eagerly sought . Mental science became his study ; mathematics were his recreation . So he has been heard to say ; and yet it is a remarkable fact , and one which serves to show the great power and genius of the man , that his most valuable and important mathematical works were produced after he had commenced his psychological investigations . In 1849 he was appointed to the Mathematical Chair in the newly formed Queen 's College at Cork ; and when the Queen 's Colleges of Belfast , Galway , and Cork were united so as to form the Queen 's University of Ireland , he was chosen one of the public examiners for degrees . These offices he filled with the highest reputation . In 1852 the University of Dublin conferred upon him the honorary title of LL. D. , in company with the late Judge Iargreave , " in consideration of their eminent services in the advancement of mathematical science . " Late in the year 1853 Dr. Boole brought to its close a labour on which he had bestowed a vast amount of profound and patient thought . His " C Mathematical Analysis of Logic " was written hastily , and on this account he afterwards regretted its publication ; but the work which he now gave to the world must be regarded as the most carefully matured of all his productions . It is entitled " An Investigation of the Laws of Thought , on which are founded the MVathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities . " The principle on which the investigation proceeds is essentially the same as that enunciated by the author in his earlier logical essays ; but , as he himself remarks , " its methods are more general , and its range of applications far wider . " 'his great work was published in 1854 . During the remaining ten years of his life he contributed to various scientific journals papers on Probabilites , on Partial Differential Equations , on the Comparison of Transcendents , and on other high mathematical subjects . He also produced two text-books , one on ' Differential Equations , ' and one on 'Finite Differences'-works which display a vast amount of original research as well as an extensive acquaintance with the writings of others , These have become class-books at Cambridge . In 1855 Dr. Boole was married to Miss Mary Everest , daughter of the late Rev. T. R. Everest , Rector of Wickwar , Gloucestershire , and niece of Colonel Sir George Everest , F.R.S. , lately deceased , as also of Dr. Ryall , the Vice-President and Professor of Greek in Queen 's College , Cork . The union was one of great mutual happiness , and was blessed with a family of five daughters . In 1857 Dr. Boole communicated to the Royal Society of Edinburgh a memoir " On the Application of the Theory of Probabilities to the Question of the Combination of Testimonies or Judgments . " For this purpose there was awarded to him the Keith Medal , the highest honour in the shape of prize which that Society has at its disposal . In June of the same year he was elected a Fellow of this Society . At the Oxford Commemoration in 1859 he received the honorary degree of D.C.L. Soon after the publication of his Treatise on Differential Equations , Professor Boole resolved that if a new edition of the work should be called for he would reconstruct it on a more extended scale . For several succeeding years his studies and researches were largely inspired and directed by this object , which , however , he did not live to accomplish . The treatise had been for some time out of print , and he was engaged in preparing a new and enlarged edition when he was suddenly struck by the hand of death . He had walked from his residence at Ballintemple to the College in Cork , a distance of little more than two miles , in a drenching rain , and lectured in his wet clothes . The result was a feverish cold , which soon fell upon his lungs and terminated fatally . lie died on the 8th of December , 1864 . Dr. Boole was a man of great goodness of heart . By those who knew him intimately he was regarded with a feeling akin to reverence . " Apart from his intellectual superiority , " says one of his colleagues , " there was shed around him an atmosphere of purity and moral elevation , which was felt by all who were admitted within its influence . And over all his gifts and graces there was thrown the charm of a true humility , and an apparent total unconsciousness of his own worth and wisdom . " Many illustrations might be given of the versatility of Boole 's talent , his love of poetry and music , his fine appreciation of the beauties of external nature , his profound reverence for truth , especially religious truth , and many other qualities of his intellect and heart which have not been so much as touched upon ; but the limits within which it is proper that this sketch should be contained forbid any elaborate estimate of his character . Boole 's mathematical researches have exercised a very considerable influence upon the study of the higher branches of the analysis , especially in this country . They have stimulated and directed the efforts of other investigators to an extent that is not perhaps generally known . Out of his theory of linear transformations has grown the more general theory of covariants ( due to Professor Cayley ) , with all its important geomletrical and other applications . By his invention of an algebra of non-commutative symbols , a great impulse has been given to the cultivation of the calculus of operations . His general method in analysis is the most powerful instrument which we possess for the integration of differential equations , whether total or partial . To Sir John Herschel is due the high praise of having first applied the method of the separation of symbols to the solution of linear differential equations with constant coefficients . But it was reserved for Duncan F. Gregory and Boole to set the logical principles of that method in a clear and satisfactory light ; and to Boole alone belongs the honour of having extended the theory to the solution of equations with variable coefficients . I-lis principal discoveries in this department will be found in his 'Differential Equations , ' and the Supplernentary volume ( edited by Mr. Isaac Todhunter ) , works which though primarily intended for elementary instruction , may be read with advantage by the advanced mathematical student . Other original investigations will be found in the same volumes , and more especially in those parts which relate to Riccati 's equation , to integrating factors , to singular solutions , to the inverse problems of geometry and optics , to partial differential equations , and to the projection of a surface on a plane . The calculus of logic , upon the invention of which Boole 's fame as a philosophical mathematician may be permitted to rest , is most fully developed in his ' Investigation of the Laws of Thought . ' The design of this work is-to use the author 's own words- " to investigate the fundamental laws of those operations of the mind by which reasoning is performed ; to give expression to them in the symbolical language of a Calculus , and upon this foundation to establish the science of logic , and construct its method ; to make that method itself the basis of a general method for the application of the mathematical doctrine of Probabilities ; and , finally , to collect from the various elements of truth , brought to view in the course of these inquiries , some probable intimations concerning the nature and constitution of the human mind . " Boole has left behind him a considerable quantity of logical manuscripts ; these will perhaps be published either in a separate form or in a new edition of the ' Laws of Thought . ' His works are his noblest monument , but his friends and admirers have raised other memorials . Of these we may mention in particular , a memorial window in the Cathedral at Lincoln , and another in the College Hall at Cork . The following is a list of Professor Boole 's papers printed in the Philosophical Transactions . " On a General Method in Analysis , " 1844 , pp. 225-282 . " On the Comparison of Transcendents , with certain applications to the Theory of Definite Integrals , " 1857 , pp. 745-803 . " On the Theory of Probabilities , " 1862 , pp. 225-252 . " On Simultaneous Differential Equations of the First Order in which the Number of the Variables exceeds by more than one the Number of the Equations , " 1862 , pp. 437454 . " On the Differential Equations of Dynamics . A Sequel to a paper on Simultaneous Differential Equations , " 1863 , pp. 485-501 . " On the Differential Equations which determine the form of the toots of Algebraic Equations , " 1864 , pp. 733-755 . SAMUEL HUNTER CHRISTIE was born in London on the 22nd of March , 1784 , and at a very early age showed the talent for mathematical pursuits which afterwards so highly distinguished him . He was entered at Trinity College , Cambridge , in 1801 , and , in his third year , obtained a scholarship . In 1805 he took his degree of Bachelor of Arts as Second Wrangler , having a severe struggle with Turton ( afterwards Bishop of Ely ) for the " Blue Riband " of the University , and being bracketed with him as Smith's-prizeman . In 1806 Mr. Christie was appointed Third Mathematical Master at the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich , and immediately devoted himself to the improvement of the mathematical studies at that College , and persevered in the work with much success , during his lengthened career of forty-eight years in the public service . In 1812 he established the system of competitive examinations , but was unable fully to carry out his views in this and in other respects until his advancement to the post of Professor of Matheinatics in 1838 . It is not too much to say that no two educational institutions could present a stronger contrast than the Royal Military Academy in 1806 , and the same College in 1854 when Mr. Christie resigned the Professor 's Chair ; and this change was in great measure due to his unflagging advocacy of an improved system . It is , however , in Mr. Christie 's labours as one of our more distinguished Fellows that the Society is principally interested . Our Transactions are enriched with a number of papers from his hand , and he took an important share in promoting the great advance in both theoretical and experimental knowledge of magnetical science , which received its impulse from the observations made during the Arctic voyages in 8181 and 1819 . The leading idea which runs through Mr. Christie 's theoretical discussions of his various experimental results , he first stated as an hypothetical law in a paper published in the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions for 1820 . In a paper read before the Royal Society in June 1824 , he gave an account of some of his experiments for the determination of the effects of temperature upon magnetic forces , and established a correction for temperature in the experimental determination of the magnetic intensity , which had been previously overlooked . Mr. Christie was the first to observe the effect of the slow rotation of iron in producing magnetic polarity , and , at his suggestion , the very interesting series of experiments which he originated , and which are given in detail in a paper published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1825 , were repeated by Lieutenant Foster , R.N. , during the expedition to the north-west coast of America in 1824 , under Captain Parry , with results even more striking than his own , owing to the diminished horizontal component of the magnetic force . In 1833 a paper by Mr. Christie upon the magneto-electric conduction of various metals was selected by the Council of the Royal Society as the Bakerian Lecture for the year . In this paper he shows , both experimentally and theoretically , that the conducting power of the several metals varies inversely as the length , and directly as the square of the diameter of the conducting wire , thus obeying the same law as that previously discovered by Sir Humphry Davy and Professor Cumming , in the cases of voltaic and thermo-electricity ; although his conclusion as to a difference in the order of their conducting powers could not now be maintained His important remark in this paper-that magneto-electricity cannot be developed at the same instant in every part of a system , and that the action on the remote parts of the wire cannot be absolutely simultaneous with that on the parts in the immediate neighbourhood of the magnetappears to have been almost prophetic , now that we are able to submit this vast velocity to a definite measurement , by timing the transmission of effect through a journey of three thousand miles . The effect of the solar rays upon the magnetic needle very early engagedMr . Christie 's attention , and he showed , by a series of experiments detailed in papers published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1826 and 1828 , that the direct effect of the solar rays is definite and not due to any mere calorific influence , He then also threw out the suggestion that terrestrial magnetism is probably derived from solar influence . On this idea he instituted a series of experiments to determine whether a source of heat applied to two substances of different conducting powers in uniform contact , like the earth and the atmosphere , would produce phenomena corresponding to the diurnal variation , as the source of heat was applied successively to different parts of the combined system . The results he obtained were in accordance with this supposition , but of course their validity as evidence is subject to the question of how far the actual conditions of the earth were truly represented in the ingenious experimental combination which he adopted . Mr. Christie appears to have been the first to make use of a torsion balance for the determination of the equivalents of magnetic forces ; he also devoted himself to the improvement of the construction of both the horizontal needle and the dipping-needle ; and he served constantly upon the " Compass Committee " formed to assist the Admiralty in bringing the Compasses of the Royal Navy into some accordance with the advanced knowledge of the day . In the Report of the British Association for 1833 , the portion which . refers to the then state of knowledge of the magnetism of the earth was drawn up by Mr. Christie , and he therein again maintained that not only the daily variation , but also the quasi-polarity of the earth is most probably due to the excitation by the solar heat , of electric currents at right angles , or nearly so , to the meridian ; and he suggests that the direction of these currents must be influenced by the form , extent , and direction of the continents and seas over which they pass , and also by the height , direction , and geological structure of chains of mountains . The Letter of Baron Humboldt in 1835 to H.R.H. the Duke of Sussex , P.R.S. , on the establishment of permanent magnetic observatories at widely separated stations within the British territories , was referred by H.R.H. the President , to Mr. Christie and Mr. Airy to report upon . Their report was read to the Royal Society in November 1836 ; and upon a further report to the same effect from the joint Committee of Physics and Meteorology in 1838 , the President and Council made a representation in favour of the measure to Her Majesty 's Government which was successful . In connexion with Mr. Christie'4 career as a teacher , it may be mentioned that he was the author of an ' Elementary Course of Mathematics ' for use in the Royal Military Academy . In 1837 Mr. Christie succeeded Mr. Children as one of the Secretaries of the Royal Society , and retained that office until 1854 , when he went to reside at Lausanne upon his retirement from the post of Professor of Mathematics at the Royal Military Academy . Ite was one of the Visitors of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich ; a VicePresident of the Royal Astronomical Society ; a Corresponding Member of the Academy of Sciences of Palermo , and a member of the Societe Philomathique of Paris . He died at Twickenham , where he had resided for some years , on the 24th of January , 1865 , having nearly completed his eighty-first year . Tile date of his election into the Society is January 12 , 1826 . The science of Pali ontology has sustained a great loss in the death of HIiUGH FALCONER , M.D. Born at Forres , in the north of Scotland , on the 29th of February , 1808 , he received his early education at the Grammar school of that town , and afterwards studied Arts at the University of King 's College , Aberdeen , and Mcedicine at the University of Edinburgh . From the former University he received the degree of A.M. ; and from the latter , in 1829 , the degree of M.D. As a boy , lie exhibited a decided taste for the study of natural objects , which he eagerly followed up in Edinburgh under the systematic tuition of Professors Grahami and Jameson . On visiting London in 1829 , he availed himself of the opportunity to assist the late Dr. Nathaniel Wallich in the distribution of his great Indian herbarium , and to study the collection of Indian fossil mammalia from the banks of the Irrawaddi , formed by Mr. John Crawfurd during his mission to Ava , and presented by him to the Geological Society . Both occupations proved of material service in his subsequent career , and in the latter instance it determined the labours to which he afterwards so zealously devoted himself . In 1830 Dr. Falconer proceeded to India as an Assistant-Surgeon in the II . E.I.C. Service , and arrived in Calcutta in September of that year . Here he at once undertook an examination of fossil bones from Ava , in the possession of the Asiatic Society of Bengal , and published a description of them , which at once gave him a recognized position in the roll of cultivators of science in India , and led to his being appointed in 1832 to succeed Dr. Royle as Superintendent of the Botanic Gardens of Snharunpoor , in the North-western Provinces . In the same year ( 1832 ) he made an excursion to the Sub-Himalayan range , and from the indication of a specimen in the collection of his friend and colleague , Captain , now Sir Proby T. Cautley , the real nature of which had been previously overlooked , he was led to discover vertebrate fossil remains in sitEu in the tertiary strata of the Sewalik I-ills . The search was speedily followed up with characteristic energy by Captain Cautley in the Kalowala Pass , by means of blasting , and resulted in the discovery of more perfect remains , including miocene mammalian genera . The finding , therefore , of the fossil fauna of the Sewalik Hills was not fortuitous , but a result led up to by researches suggested by previous special study , and followed out with a definite aim . Early in 1834 Dr. Falconer gave a brief account of the Sewalik Hills , describing their physical features and geological structure , and showing their relation to the Himalayahs ( Journ. Asiat . Soc. of Bengal , vol. iii . p. 182 ) . The name " Sewalik " had been vaguely applied before then by Rennell and others to the outer ridges of the true H-imalayahs , and the lower elevations towards the plains . Dr. Falconer restricted the term definitely to the flanking tertiary range , which is commonly separated from the Himalayahs by valleys or Doons . The proposed name was not favourably received at the time by geographical authorities in India ; but it is now universally adopted in geography and geology as a convenient and well-founded designation . On his first visit to the Sewalik Hills , Dr. Falconer concluded that they did not belong to the " New Red Sandstone , " to which they had been referred by Captain Herbert , but that they were of a tertiary age , and analogous to the Molasse of Switzerland . Thirty years of subsequent investigation by other geologists have not altered that determination , although our exact knowledge of the formation has been greatly extended . The researches thus begun were followed about the end of 1834 by the discovery by Lieutenants Baker and Durand of the great ossiferous deposit of the Sewaliks , near the valley of the Markunda , westward of the Jumna , and below Nahun . Captain Cautley and Dr. Falconer were immediately in the field , and by the joint labours of these four officers a subtropical mammalian fossil fauna was brought to light , unexampled for richness and extent in any other region then known . It included the earliest discovered fossil Quadrumana , an extraordinary number of Proboscidia belonging to Mastodon , Stegodon , and Elephas ; several extinct species of Rhinoceros ; Chalicotheriumn ; two new subgenera of tippopotamus , viz. iexaparotodon and Merycopotamus ; several species of Sus and Hippohlyus , and of Equus and Hippotherium ; the colossal ruminant Sivatheriun , together with fossil species of Camel , Giraffe , Cervts , Antilope , Capra , and new types of Bovidce ; Carnivora belonging to the new genera Sivalarctos and Enhydriodon , and also Machairodus , Felis , Iiycena , Canis , Gulo , Lutra , &c. ; among the Aves , species of Ostrich , Cranes , &c. Among the Reptilia , Monitors , and Crocodiles , of living and extinct species , the enormous tortoise , Colossochelys Atlas , with numerous species of Emys and Trionyx ; and among fossil Fish , Cyprinidce and Siluridce . The general facies of the extinct fauna exhibited a congregation of forms participating in European , African , and Asiatic types . Thrown suddenly upon such rich materials , the ordinary means resorted to by men of science for determining them by comparison were wanting . Of palreontological works or osteological collections in that remote quarter of India there were none . But Falconer was not the man to be baffled by such discouragements . He appealed to the living forms abounding in the surrounding forests , rivers , and swamps to supply the want . Skeletons of all kinds were prepared ; the extinct forms were compared with their nearest living analogues , and a series of memoirs by Dr. Falconer and Captain Cautley , descriptive of * ' Dr. Falconer 's first published memoir on the Quadrumana of the Sewalik Hills was dated November 24th , 1836 , and it was not until January 16th , 1837 , that M. Lartet 's memoir on the discovery of the jaw of an Ape in the tertiary freshwater formation of Simorre was presented to the French Academy of Sciences . the most remarkable of the newly discovered forms , appeared in the ' Asiatic Researches , ' the 'Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal , ' and in the ' Geological Transactions . ' The Sewalik explorations soon attracted notice in Europe , and in 1837 the Wollaston Medal , in duplicate , was awarded for their discoveries to Dr. Falconer and Capt. Cautley by the Geological Society . In 1834 a Commission was appointed by the Bengal Government to inquire into and report on the fitness of India for the growth of the teaplant of China . Acting on the information and advice supplied by Dr. Falconer ( Journ. Asiat . Soc. of Bengal , 1834 , iii . p. 182 ) , the Commission recommended a trial . The Government adopted the recommendation ; the plants were imported from China , and the experimental researches were placed under Falconer 's superintendence in sites selected by him . Tea culture has since then greatly extended in India , and the tea of Bengal bids fair to become one of the most important commercial exports from India , as Falconer long ago predicted . In 1837 Dr. Falconer was ordered to accompany Burnes 's second mission to Caubul , which preceded the Affghan war . Proceeding ' first westward to Kohat and the lower part of the valley of Bunguish , he examined the Trans-Indus portion of the Salt-range , and then made for Cashmleer , where he passed the winter and spring in examining the natural history of the valley , and in making extensive botanical collections . The following summer ( 1838 ) he crossed the mountains to Iskardo , in Bulkistan , and traced the Shiggar branch of the Indus to its source in the glacier , on the southern flank of the Mooztagh range . Having examined the great glaciers of Arindoh and of the Brahldoh valley , he then returned to India vid Cashmeer and the Punjab , towards the close of 1838 , to resume charge of his duties at Suharunpoor . H-is report of this expedition was at the time one of great interest anca importance . In this , as in many other scientific expeditions , Falconer 's health suffered greatly from the results of incessant exposure ; and in 1842 he was compelled to return to Europe on sick leave , bringing with him the natural history collections amassed by him during ten years of exploration of the Himalayahs , of the plains of India , and of the valley of Cashmeer . They amounted to eighty cases of dried plants , and about fifty large cases of fossil bones , together with geological specimens , illustrative of the Ilimalayan formations from the Indus to the Gogra , and from the plains of the Punjab across the mountains north to the Mooztagh range . This extensive collection of Indian fossils , together with the still larger collection presented by Capt. Cautley , now forms one of the distinguishing characteristics in the Paleontological Gallery of the Britislh Museum . From 1843 to 1847 Falconer remained in England . He occupied this time in publishing numerous memoirs on the geology and fossil remains of the Sewalilk Hills , which appeared in the Transactions of the Geological Society , and in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society , and of the Royal Asiatic Society . He also communicated several important papers on botanical subjects to the Linnean Society , of which may be specially mentioned that on Aucklandia Costus , the Cashmeer plant which yields the IKostos of the ancients ; and that on Narthex Assafoetide , which was the first determination of the plant , long contested among botanists , which yields the assafoetida of commerce . He had found it growing wild in the valley of Astore , one of the affluents of the Indus . But his main work at this time was the determination and illustration of the Indian Fossil collection presented by Captain Cautley and himself to the British Museum and to the East India Company . The bulk of the specimens were still imbedded in matrix . Sir Robert Peel 's Government gave a liberal grant to prepare the materials in the national museum for exhibition in the Palmeontological Gallery . Falconer was entrusted with the superintendence of the work , and rooms were assigned to him by the trustees in the British Museum . At his instance and under his superintendence a series of casts of the most remarkable of the Sewalik fossils was prepared and presented by the Court of Directors of the East India Company to the principal museums in Europe . Under the patronage of the Government and of the East India House an illustrated work was also brought out , entitled " Fauna Antiqua Sivalensis . " In less than three years there appeared nine parts of this work , each containing twelve folio plates , executed in a style rarely equalled and never surpassed . No fewer than 1123 specimens are figured in these plates ; and of many specimens three , four , or five different views are given . Besides the Sewalik fossils proper , the 'Fauna Antiqua ' includes illustrations of a very valuable and important series of mammalian remains from the pliocene deposits of the valley of the Nerbudda , together with illustrations of the miocene fauna of the Irrawaddi , and of Perim Island in the Gulf of Cambay . The letter-press of the work did not keep progress with the plates ; and at the close of 1847 , before the arrears could be brought up , Dr. Falconer was unfortunately compelled , by the expiration of his leave , to return to India , where he found it impossible to continue the work by correspondence at a distance from the specimens . It is hoped , however , that the manuscript notes and memoirs which he has left behind will form a complete key to this great work on Indian Palmeontology . On his return to India in 1848 , Dr. Falconer was appointed Superintendent of the Calcutta Botanic Garden , and Professor of Botany in the Medical College . In 1850 he was deputed to the Tenasserim Provinces to examine the teak forests , which were threatened with exhaustion from reckless felling and neglected conservation . His report , suggesting remedial measures , was published by the Bengal Government . In 1852 he published a memoir recommending the introduction into India of the quinine-yielding Cinchonas , and indicating the hilly regions in Bengal and the Neilgherries in Southern India as the most promising situations for experimental nur series . Some years afterwards the Cinchona was introduced from South America , and it is now thriving in India . In 1854 , assisted by his friend the late Mr. Henry WTalker , he undertook a ' Descriptive Catalogue of the Fossil Collections in the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal , ' which was published as a distinct work in 1859 . In the spring of 1855 he retired from the Indian service . On his return to England he resumed his palseontological researches , and in 1857 he communicated to the Geological Society two memoirs " On the Species of Mastodon and Elephant occurring in the Fossil state in England . " Besides attempting to discriminate with precision the three British fossil elephants , till then confounded under the name of Elephas prinmigenies , Dr. Falconer produced for the first time a Synoptical Table , showing the serial affinities of all the species of JProboscidia , fossil and livting , then known , of the former of which a large number had been either discovered or determined by himself . In the same year he published an account of the remarkable Purbeck mammalian genus 'Plagiaulax , ' discovered by Mr. Beckles near Swanage . In 1860 he communicated a memoir to the Geological Society " On the Ossiferous Caves of Gower , " explored or discovered by his friend Lieut.-Col. Wood . The existence of Eleplas antziuus and Rhizoceeros hemit-oeeus as members of the cave-fauna was then for the first time established , ald the age of that fauna precisely defined as posterior to the boulder-clay , or period of the glacial submergence of England . In 1862 Dr. Falconer communicated to the British Association at Cambridge an account of Elephas melitensis , the pigmy fossil elephant of Malta , discovered , with other extinct mammals , by his friend Captain Spratt , C.B. , in the ossiferous cave of Zebbug . This unexpected form presented the Proboscidia in a new light to naturalists . Further researches on the general questions concerning the same family appeared in a memoir published in the ' Natural History Review ' in 1863 . Among many notes and papers which never appeared during his life-time may be mentioned a most important mzemoir " On the European Pliocene and Post-pliocene species of mhinoceros , " which , it is hoped , will shortly be published . In this memoir it is shown that there are four distinct pliocene and post-pliocene species of Rhinoceros , three of which have long been confounded by Cuvier and other paleontologists under the name of , lepItorhinus . One of these , R. Ieptorhinus ( R. megarhinus of Christol . ) has no bony nasal septunm ; two , R. Etruscus ( Falc . ) and R. hemitechus ( Falc . ) , or R. leptorlhimus ( Owen ) , have a partial bony nasal septuim ; while the fourth , R. antiquitatis ( Blumb . ) or ? . tichorhinus ( Cuv . & Fisch . ) , has a complete bony nasal septum . While exploring the Himalayahs in his early days , Falconer 's attention had been closely directed to the physical features which distinguished them from mountain-ranges in temperate regions , and more especially to the general absence from their southern valleys of the great lakes so common in corresponding situations in the Alps . When the hypothesis of the excavation of lake-basins by glacial action was brought forward , he took a share in the discussion , and combated the view by an appeal to the contradictory evidence furnished by the Himalayahs , the lakes of Lombardy , and the Dead Sea . For nearly thirty years Dr. Falconer had been engaged more or less with the investigation of a subject which has lately occupied much of the attention both of men of science and of the educated classes generally , viz. the proofs of the remote antiquity of the human race . In 1833 , fossil bones procured from a great depth in the ancient alluvium of the valley of the Ganges in Hindostan were erroneously figured and published as human . The subject attracted much attention at the time in India . It was in 1835 , while the interest was still fresh , that Dr. Falconer and Captain Cautley discovered the remains of the gigantic miocene fossil tortoise of India , which by its colossal size realized the mythological conception of the tortoise which sustained the elephant and the world together on its back ( Geol . Trans. 2nd ser. vol. v. 1837 , p. 499 ) . In the same formations as the Colossochelys the remains were discovered of a smaller tortoise , identical with the existing Emys tectum . About the same time also several species of fossil Quadrumana were discovered in the Sewalik Hills , one of which was thought to have exceeded the Ourang-outang , while another was hardly distinguishable from the living " Hoonuman " monkey of the Hindoos . Coupling these facts with the occurrence of the camel , giraffe , horse , crocodiles , &c. in the Sewalik fauna , and with the further important fact that the plains of the valley of the Ganges had undergone no late submergence , and passed through no stage of glacial refrigeration , to interrupt the previous tranquil order of physical conditions , Dr. Falconer was so impressed with the conviction that the human race might have been early inhabitants of India , that he was constantly on the look out for the upturning of the relics of man , or of his works , from the miocene strata of the Sewalik Hills . In April 1844 he wrote thus to his friend Captain Cautley:-- " Joining the indication given by the Hindoo mythology with the determined fact of the little Emys tectum having survived from the fossil period down to the present day , I have put forward the opinion that the large tortoise may have survived also , and only become extinct within the human period . This is a most important matter in reference to the history of nan . " The same view was publicly announced at the Zoological Society and the British Association in 1844 . Ten years later Dr. Falconer resumed the subject in India , while investigating the fossil reilains of the Jumna . In May 1858 , having the same inquiry in view , he communicated a letter to the Council of the Geological Society , which suggested and led to the exploration of the Brixham cave , and the discovery in it of flint-implements of great antiquity associated with the bones of extinct animals . In conjunction with Professor Ramsay and Mr. Pengelly he drew up a report on the subject , which , communicated in the same year to the Councils of the Royal and Geological Societies , excited the interest of men of science in the case . Following up the saime object , c he immediately afterwards proceeded to Sicily to examine the ossiferous caves of that island , and there discovered the " Grotta di Maccagnore , " in which flint-implements of great antiquity were found adhering to the roofmatrix , mingled with remains of hyaenas now extinct in Europe . ( Quart . Journ. Geol . Soc. 1859 . ) Thus in 1859 the subject of the antiquity of the human race , which had previously been generally discredited by men of science , was launched upon fresh evidence . Since then it has been actively followed up by numerous inquirers , and Dr. Falconer himself was contemplating , and had indeed actually commenced , a work 'On Primeval Man . ' In 1863 he took an active share in the singularly perplexed discussion concerning the human jaw of Moulin-Quignon ; and in the conference of English and French men of science held in France , he expressed doubts as to the authenticity of the specimen , but in that guarded and cautious manner which was characteristic of him . In the spring of 1864 he published a notice on the remarkable works of art by " primeval man , " discovered by M/ essrs . Lartet and I-enry Christy in the ossiferous caves of the Dordogne ; and in September he accompanied his friend Mr. Busk to Gibraltar , to examine caves in which marvellously well-preserved remains of man and mammals of great antiquity had been discovered . A joint report of this expedition by himself and Mr. Busk was afterwards published . But his valuable life was drawing to a close . In January 1865 he was seized with a severe attack of acute rheumatism , from which he had formerly suffered in Cashmeer , and which on the 31st of the same month terminated fatally . At the time of his death Dr. Falconer was a Vice-President of the Royal Society , and Foreign Secretary of the Geological Society ; and as a proof of the high esteem in which he was held by his many friends , it maybe mentioned that the sum of nearly two thousand pounds has been collected for founding a Fellowship in Natural Science in the University of Edinburgh , to be called " The Falconer Fellowship , " and for the execution of a marble bust which has been presented to the Royal Society . From what has been said , it is obvious that Falconer did enough during his life-time to render his name as a paleonltologist immortal in science ; but the work which he published was only a fraction of what he accomplished . The amount of scientific knowledge which perished with him was very great , for he was cautious to a fault ; he always feared to commit himself to an opinion until he was sure that he was right ; and he died in the prime of life and in the fulness of his power . Lovers of science and those who knew him well can best appreciate his fearlessness of opposition when truth was to be evolved , his originality of observation and depth of thought , his penetrating and discriminating judgment , his extraordinary memory , the scrupulous care with which he ascribed to every man his due , and his honest and powerfil advocacy of that cause which his strong intellect led him to adopt : they also have occasion to deplore the death of a staid adviser , a genial companion , and a hearty friend . Vice-Admiral ROBERT FiTZROY , born at Ampton HTall , Suffolk , July 5 , 1805 , was youngest son of General Lord Charles FitzRoy by his second wife , Frances Anne , eldest daughter of the first Marquis of Londonderry . He entered the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth in 1818 ; and from 1819 to 1828 served on board the Owen Glendower , Ilind , Thetis , and Ganges in the Mediterranean and on the coasts of South America , and became flag-lieutenant at Rio Janeiro . In the year last mentioned , on the decease of Captain Stokes , who , under Captain King , had been employed in surveying the shores of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego , Lieutenant FitzRoy was selected by the commander-inchief on the station , for the command of the Beagle , one of the two vessels engaged in the survey . -IHe entered on his new duties with the zeal and conscientiousness which through life characterized his professional and official services . Of the importance of the task even a non-professional reader may judge by a comparison of the charts of the South American coasts published since 1826 , with those previously existing . Of the greater portion of the shores , from the La Plata on the east to the north of Peru on the west , especially the broken and intricate outlines of the lower latitudes , little was known , and that was imperfectly laid down on early charts in a way which has been aptly described as " confused . " The Chonos Archipelago was completely omitted , and the Spanish charts of Chiloe were twenty-five miles in error . In the winter of 1829 , while surveying the tortuous channels which ramify so bewilderingly in the rugged region to the rear of the Land of Desolation , Lieutenant FitzRoy discovered two large inland seas ( Otway Water and Skyring Water ) connected by a channel twelve miles in length , to which Captain King gave the name of FitzRoy Passage . During this exploration , Lieutenant FitzRoy with two boats was away from the ship thirty-two days , exposed to the rigours of a severe and stormy climate , yet no opportunity was lost of making observations and taking notes of remarkable objects . At the end of 1830 the two vessels returned to England , " having added charts of the south-western and southern shores of Tierra del Fuego , besides those of a multitude of interior sounds and passages , " to the results of the first two years of the survey . Among his specimens of natural history , Lieutenant FitzRoy brought four native Fuegians , and expended largely from his private resources in endeavouring to improve their condition . At the end of 1831 , the Beagle having been thoroughly re-equipped , was again commissioned withi Lieutenant FitzRoy as commander to relew the survey . On the voyage out a partial examination was made of the Abrolhos Bank , of which a brief account was read before the Royal Geographical Society and published in their Journal . Other papers from his pen are printed in the same periodical , in one of which he sums up in few words the results of the additional survey , accomplished with not less spirit and intelligence than the former . " Beginning , " he remarks , " ( with the right or southern bank of the wide river Plata , every mile of the coast thence to Cape Horn was closely surveyed , and laid down on a large scale . Each harbour and anchorage was planned ; thirty miles of the river Negro , and two hundred of the Santa Cruz , were examined and laid down , and a chart was made of the Falkland Islands ... . Westward of Cape Horn , as far as the parallel of 47 ? S. , little has been added to the results of the Beagle 's first voyage , because nearly enough was then done for the wants of vessels in those dreary regions . But between 47 ? and the river Guayaquil , the whole coasts of Chile and Peru have been surveyed ; no port or roadstead has been omitted . " During this survey ( in 1.834 ) Lieutenant FitzRoy was promoted to the rank of Captain . In 1835 , while he lay at Valdivia , the great earthquake took place , of which he has given a circumstantial and interesting account . The Beagle afterwards sailed for an examination of the Galapagos , and thence for England , touching at fourteen stations from Tahiti to the Azores to measure meridian distances , for which purpose a large number of chronometers had been placed on board . The vessel arrived at Greenwich in November 1836 , having , in the course of her lengthened cruise , circumel navigated the globe . Captain FitzRoy 's anxiety to make his work as complete as possible , led him to hire two vessels and purchase a third at his own cost to fill up the details of the survey , and include the Falkland Islands . This outlay , however , involved him in embarrassments which hampered him for many years . The Royal Geographical Society hastened to recognize his merits by awarding him their Gold Medal for 1836 , " for the zeal , energy , and liberality shown by him in the conduct of the survey ; " and , " acknowledging the importance of the mass of information " which he brought home , declared it to have been " perhaps not exceeded by any expedition since the time of Cook and of Flinders . " When we remember that Mr. Charles Darwin was on board the Beagle during the whole of her voyage , and there gathered the materials for his 'Journal and Remarks , ' and geological works since published , the expedition may , indeed , be regarded as memorable . A fuli account thereof , written by Captain FitzRoy , was published in three volumes in 1839 . In 1839 Captain FitzRoy was chosen an Elder Brother of the Trinity HI-ouse ; in 1841 he sat in the House of Commons as Member for North Durha m ; in 1814 he was appointed Acting Conservator of the Mersey ; and in the following year he went out to New Zealand as Governor , which post he held for three years . HIe was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1851 ; in 1854 he was placed at the head of the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade ; in 1857 he became Rear-Admiral , Vice-Admiral in 1863 , and in 1864 the Academy of Sciences of the Institute , Paris , elected him a Corresponding Member of their Section of Geography and Navigation . nI carrying out the duties of his appointment at the Board of Trade , Admiral FitzRoy displayed the earnestness which had always distinguished him . Indeed the severe attention he bestowed on the details of his fune . tion , the originating of storm-signals , the publication of ' Reports ' and the ' Weather Book , ' brought on a severe mental strain which eventually occasioned his death on the 30th of April , 1865 . The manner of his death was a shock felt far beyond the circle of his friends , and to them exceedingly painful . But they remember him as a man of kindly nature , courteous and considerate in no common degree , inspiring those who knew him best with affectionate attachment . The life of BENJAMIN GOMPERTZ is given at length in the ' Assurance Magazine ' for April 1866 , a journal in which original investigations on a branch of mathematical application make their first appearance , and which , therefore , must remain accessible to the scientific world . He was of a Dutch Jewish family , of which the original name was Cohen , and his father was a diamond merchant , whose means left several sons in affluence . He was born March 5 , 1779 . Ee had an early turn for mathematics , and at the age of eighteen became a member of the old Mathematical Society of Spitalfields , of which he was President when it merged in the Astronomical Society . The ordinary biographical details of his life are very simple . He married ( in 1810 ) the sister of Sir Moses Montefiore , so well known for his benevolent exertions : he had previously started in life on the Stock Exchange . The loss of his only son ( in 1823 ) occasioned his retirement from this pursuit , and produced a depression which made his fiiends anxious that he shou ! cl divert his mind by engaging again in business . They persuaded him to take the Actuaryship of the Alliance Office ; and common rumour statted that the office itself was founded by his friends to procure him employment . On his retirement in 1848 he continued to apply himself to mathematical subjects , even long after he had fallen into a state of bodily debility . ITe died on the 14th of July , 1866 . Mr. Gompertz 's writings , especially those on imaginary quantitites and on mortality , show decided inventive power , and that strong aspiration ater rigour which characterizes the old English school . Of this school he may be called the last . We do not except Lord Brougham , an older man and an older mathematician , who is still left to us : his early writings are of the mixed type ; they show that combination of the old English and the Continental which was made in Scotland before it was made in England . Mr. Gomipertz was the genuine disciple of the ' Ladies ' Diary , ' the ' Mathematical Companion , ' and that tribe of periodicals supported by all grades , from the man of buisiness to the artisan , which were read and written in by many n-athematicians of power to whom the Philosophical Transactions were unknown . i Mr. Gompertz contracted some marked peculiarities . He was the last of the fluionzis : to the day of his deathl he used the notation of Newton , and he held that respect for Newton 's imemory demanded this adherence , while at the same time he maintained the superiority of the system . He never would permit himself the abbreviations log x , sin x , &c. ; it was always logarithm of x , sine of x , &c. This , and some other consequences of isolated thought , in the mind of a man who was not thrown among his equals in power until he was an old student , will be looked at with interest . The thing by which Mr. Gompertz will always be remembered , is the discovery of the function which so nearly gives the law of human life , published in our 'Transactions . ' His recent developments of his own law are as yet sb judzice , but they show the continuance of youthful energy to a very late period . Those who know the state of the writer when his last papers were published , will wonder at the vigour of mind which remained untouched by bodily weakness . The law above mentioned stands alone as capable of physiological enunciation : tell a mathematician that it is " the power to oppose decay loses equal proportions in equal times , " add that the constants undergo nearly sudden changes , and he will be able to reestablish the whole theory . In the memoir to which we have alluded will be found a full account of MAr . Gompertz 's connexion with the Royal Astronomical Society and other Associations . He became a Fellow of this Society in 1819 . Sir BENJAMIIN tIEYWOOD , Bart. , born the 12th of December , 1793 , of an ancient Lancashire family , was the eldest son of Nathaniel Heywood , hanker in Manchester . His mother was the daughter of Thomas Percival , MBA . D , . , elected in 1765 , at the age of twenty-five , a Fellow of the Royal Society , and the author of ' Medical Ethics . ' After receiving a good school education , Benjamin Heywood completed his studies in the University of Glasgow , where he distinguished himself in the Logic Class of Professor Jardine , as well as in the Moral Philosophy Class of Professor Mlylne . In 1811 he entered on his hereditary calling the bank at Manchester . He married in 1816 the daughter of the late Thomas Robinson , Esq. Of this marriage , six sons and two daughters survive him . The Manchester Mechanics ' Institution was founded in 1824 by the active exertions of Mr. Heywood , who for twenty years held the office of President , and on his retirement from the presidential chair , the Directors , impressed with the suggestive and practical character of his addresses , collected and published them . Scientific pursuits were always encouraged in the Institution by Mr. I-eywood . In 1838 , after a conversation with Mr. Leonard Horner , F.R.S. , he recommended certificates of proficiency to be granted to meritorious students when they had completed an allotted course of study . This plan was subsequently adopted with benefit to the Institution . In 1831 a large majority of the inhabitants of Lancashire were greatly nterested in the Reform Bill , which conferred on many of their towns the right of representation in parliament . At the general election of that year , Mr. Heywood was chosen without opposition one of the members for the county of Lancaster to support the government measure of reform . His courtesy , integrity , and determined adherence to principle , gained for him general confidence , but parliamentary life did not suit his health , and on the dissolution of parliament , after the passing of the Reform Act in 1832 , he retired from the arduous duties of a public career . Statistics were always an interesting science to Mr. I-Ieywood . He earnestly supported the formation of the Manchester Statistical Society , conducted a valuable inquiry into the condition of the working classes in Manchester , and as one of the officers of the Statistical Section , presented the results of this investigation ( in 1834 ) at the Edinburgh AMeeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science . In 1838 , at the accession of Her Majesty Queen Victoria , Lord Melbourne being Prime Minister , lr . , I-Ieywood was created a baronet . In 1843 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society , and twice held the office of a Vice-President of the British Association , on the successive visits of that body to Manchester . He died on the 11th of August , 1865 . SIR WILLIAM JACKSON IIOOKER was born at Norwich on the 6th of July , 1785 . Hie was descended of a family which aforetime had given birth to men of eminence , and among them the author of the ' Ecclesiastical Polity . ' Born to affluence , and educated at a school of reputation , he as a young man was enabled to devote his life to science , without the need of following a special calling . Circumstances brought him early into relation with some distinguished naturalists , and among the rest Sir James Edward Smith , the most eminent British botanist of his day ; and the influence of this acquaintanceship combining with his own taste , no doubt , helped to decide his choice of a pursuit . In 1809 , through the encouragement of Sir Joseph Banks , to whom he had become known , young Hooker visited Iceland , which he extensively explored , making large collections in all branches of Natural History ; but these , together with all his notes and drawings , were totally lost on his way home , through the burning of the ship in which he was returning . His escape , by the opportune arrival of another vessel in mid-ocean , was almost miraculous . An account of it will be found in the modest narrative called ' Recollections of Iceland . ' In 1810-11 he made preparations for accompanying Sir Robert Brownrigg , who had been appointed Governor of Ceylon , to that island , then but little known to naturalists . With this design , he disposed of his estates , and invested the proceeds in securities , which were unfortunately inchosen , and afterwards much decreased in value . As an illustration of the zeal with which he prepared for his enterprise , the fact is recorded that he made pen-and-ink copies of the plates and descriptions of the entire manuscript series of IRoxburgh 's Indian plants , preserved in the India Hlouse . His plans , however , were frustrated by the intestine troubles in the island followed by the Candian war which soon afterwards broke out . In 1814 he made a botanizing expedition into France , Switzerland , and the north of Italy , which extended over a period of nine months , and in the course of which he became acquainted , at Paris and elsewhere , with the principal botanists of Europe ; thus laying the foundation of a scientific intercourse and correspondence which lasted until his death . In 1815 he married the eldest daughter of Mr. Dawson Turner , a banker in Yarmouth , and settled . at Halesworth , in Suffolk , where his house at once became the rendezvous of British and foreign botanists , and where he commenced the formation of that great Herbariumn which is now the finest in the world . Hi-s first botanical work was that on the British Jungermanniee , which was completed in 1816 . This , which is a model of skilffil microscopic dissection and accurate description , is illustrated by engravings after drawings by his own exquisite pencil . The ' Muscologia Britannica ' was published in conjunction with Dr , Traylor , in 1817 , and was followed by the c Musci Exotici . ' These and other works , added to an increasing home and foreign correspondence , fully occupied his time for the next five years of his life . Meanwhile his property had been rapidly deteriorating , and with an increasing family he found it necessary to look out for some remunerative scientific employment . He therefore accepted the Regius Professorship of Botany in the University of Glasgow , at that time vacant , and removed to that city in 1820 . His life at Glasgow was entirely devoted to botany ; he rose early , and went late to bed ; he visited but little , and devoted the whole powers of his mind and his pencil to his favourite science . He was a most popular lecturer , his class being sometimes attended by as many volunteers as collegians ; he encouraged his students in the pursuit , by taking them on excursions , by giving them rare plants from his duplicates , and by furnishing them with letters of introduction to all parts of the world when they went abroad . He kept up a close connexion with the authorities of the Admiralty , Treasury , Foreign , and Colonial Offices ; and it was mainly through his exertions that botanists were so frequently appointed to the various Government expeditions of that period . During the twenty years he resided at Glasg ; owY he published his ' Flora Scotica , ' in which the plants of a great part of the British Isles were for the first time arranged according to the natural method ; the Flora Exotica , ' and ( in conjunction with Dr. Greville ) the C Icones Filicum ; ' also the ' Botanical Miscellany , ' the ' Journal of Botany , ' the ' Icones Plan-tarum , ' the ' British Flora , ' the 'Botany of Ross 's , Parry 's , Franklin 's , Back 's , and other Arctic Expeditions ; ' the ' Flora Boreali-Americana , ' and ( in conjunction with Dr. Walker Arnott ) the 'Botany of Beechey 's Voyage , ' and various other works of standard authority . In 1826 ihe commenced the authorship of the ' Botanical Aagazine , ' which he carried on for nearly forty years . His Herbarium in the meantime was constantly receiving accessions , mailly owing to the indefatigable correspondence he kept up with all parts of the world , and to the number of trained Scotch medical students who , when seeking their fortunes in foreign countries , continued to send him plants , even up to the day of his death . During his residence in Glasgow he was twice offered knighthood , which he accepted from William the Fourth in the year 1836 ; this honour being bestowed on him in consideration of his scientific labours , and the great services he had rendered to botany . H-is connexion with Scotland as a Professor terminated in 1841 , when he was appointed to the Directorship of the Royal Gardens at Kew . It is worthy of being recorded that Sir William Hooker , who from the commencement of his botanical career felt a strong interest in Kew , had never abandoned the secret idea that the time might come when these Gardens should be made over to the nation , and become the head-quarters of botanical science for England , as well as its colonies and dependencies in all parts of the world , and that it might be his fortune to be a chief instrument in bringing about this end , and in rendering Kew an establishment worthy of the country . The idea of devoting the Gardens at Kew to this great national and scientific purpose had been keenly cherished by John Duke of Bedford , himself an ardent horticulturist . With that nobleman Sir William H-ooker was on terms of friendship and correspondence ; and the Duke did not fail to urge upon those in political power the fulfilment of what was with Sir William himself a favourite project . Upon the Duke 's death , his son , the late Duke of Bedford , zealously carried out his father 's wishes ; but it was upon the present Earl Russell , then Lord John , that the chief weight of the transaction fell ; and it is to him that the nation owes these magnificent gardens . In 1841 Mr. Aiton , for fifty years the Director of the Royal Gardens , resigned his post at Kew , and was succeeded by Sir William Hooker , who entered upon his duties in command of resources for the development of the Gardens , such as had never been combined in any other person . Single of purpose and straightforward in action , by his honest zeal , and singular tact in making his plans clear and obviously advantageous to the public , he at once won the confidence of that branch of the Government under which he worked . Another means which he at once brought to bear on the work in hand , was his extensive foreign and colonial correspondence , especially that with students whom he had imbued with a love of botany , and who , scattered over the most remote countries of the globe , gladly availed themselves of their opportunities of contributing to the scientific resources of the establishment . H-is views were further greatly facilitated by his friendly intercourse with the Foreign and Colonial Offices , the Admiralty , and the East India Company ; to all of whom he had been the means of rendering service , by his judicious recommendation of former pupils to posts in their employment , and by publishing the botanical results of the expeditions they sent out . Nor can we omit to mention here the late curator of the Royal Gardens , Mr. John Smith , an officer of unusual botanical and horticultural knowledge , by whom he was zealously seconded in all his plans . To describe the various improvements which have resulted in the present establishment , -including , as it does , a botanic garden of 75 acres , and a pleasure-ground or arboretum of 270 acres , three museums , stored with many thousand specimens of vegetable products , and a magnificent Library and Herbarium ( for the greater part the private property of Sir William ) , placed in the late King of Hanover 's house on one side of Kew Green , and adjoining the Gardens , -would rather be to give a history of the Gardens than to sketch the life of their Director ; it will suffice , therefore , to record the following dates of the more interesting events which have marked their progress . The first step was the opening of the Gardens to the public on weekdays , which followed immediately upon Sir William entering upon the Directorship . Rather more than 9000 persons visited them during the first year of their being thrown open , and the number has steadily increased . In 1864 the number of visitors amounted to 473,307 . About 1843 the Queen gra nted from the contiguous pleasure-ground an addition of 47 acres , including a piece of water , by the side of which the Palm stove was afterwards erected . In 1846 the Royal Kitchen and Forcing Gardens , which ran along the side of the Richmond-road , were added . Upon this piece of ground stood an old fruit-house , since memorable as the origin of the first Museum of Economic Botany that ever existed . Sir William requested that thi building might not be pulled down , but that it might be fitted up to receive specimens of vegetable products illustrative of the nature and uses of plants , and the whole thrown open to the public . Through the exertions of the indefatigable Director , aided by Mr. Smith , the Economic Collection has now become important and well known . In 1861 was commenced the large Temperate House in the pleasuregrounds , often called the Winter Garden ; the last building wanting to complete the establishment as representing horticulture . This beautiful building , which is not yet completed , was designed by Mr. Decirnus Burton , and is admirably adapted to its purpose ; the interior arrangement of the beds , and of the plants in them , which have been so much admired , is , however , wholly due to Sir William 's judgment and taste . It might be supposed that the twenty-four years spent at Kew in contriving and directing these public improvements , added to the daily correspondence and superintendence of the Gardens , would have left but little time and energy for scientific pursuits ; such , however , was far from being the case . By keeping up the active habits of his early life , Sir William was enabled to get through a greater amount of scientific work than any other botanist of his age . The ' British Flora , ' which has now reached the 12th edition , he made over to his successor in the Glasgow chair , Dr. Walker Arnott ; but his monthly 'Journal of Botany ' was recommenced ; first appearing as the ' London , ' and afterwards as the ' Kew Journal of Botany ; ' which together extended to seventeen annual volumes , and was enriched with papers of his own ; with letters from his correspondents in all parts of the world ; with reviews of botanical works ; with contributions on physiological , structural , and systenlatic botany ; and with notices of the progress of the science everywhere . With the exception of carrying on the ' Botanical Magazine , ' for the last fifteen years of his life most of his leisure was devoted to the study of Ferns , and on this subject he published two works of standard value , the fruit of great labour the 'Genera Filicum , ' with illustrations by the late Mr. Francis Bauer , and the 'Species Filicum , ' commenced in the year 1846 , and finished only last year . This work , which is in five volumes , and contains the only complete systermatic description of the vast tribe of plants to which it is devoted , would of itself have been sufficient to establish a botanical reputation , and is regarded as a standard authority upon the subject . During the last few years of his life , lie also published his 'Garden Ferns , ' ' Exotic Ferns , ' and 'British Ferns ; ' all beautifully illustrated , and with descriptions from his own pen . At the date of his death he was engaged upon a ' Synopsis Filicum , ' of which one number only has appeared . In connexion with the scientific labours of Sir William -looker , there are two names which should be prominently mentioned . The one is that of Lady I-ooker , who for forty years was his able amanuensis and assistant in literary work , and the other that of Mr. Walter Fitch , now one of the most distinguished botanical artists in Europe . Up to about 1835 , Sir William made the drawings for his works with his own hand ; but about that time he was fortunate in having the skill of this artist brought before him , whose talents he encouraged , and whose services he eventually secured for the illustration of his works . Most faithfully has Mr. Fitch seconded his early patron and friend in his labours . Of their extent some idea may be formed from the fact that Mr. Fitch has executed in the last thirty years upwards of 4000 drawings of plants , all of which have been published by Sir William . Of SirWilliam Hooker it may be said , that an almost unbounded liberality was one of his most promii:ent features ; and scientific Botany is more indebted to him than to any individual since Sir Joseph Banks , for the progress it has made within the last half century . In his dealings with the nation his conduct was as liberal as it was towards his fellow-botanists . For the first twelve years of his residence at Kew , his Hierbarium and Library were not only kept up at his own expense for the use and benefit of the Royal Gardens , but were open to every botanist who applied at his house to make use of them . To him we are indebted for the appointment not only of botanists but naturalists to the majority of the Government expeditions of discovery , survey , and research , which have been sent out during the last thirty years ; and it has been mainly through his energy that funds have been forthcoming from Government to meet the after expenses of publishing their results . To young botanists he was especially kind and helpful ; indeed there are few cultivators of this science in Europe or America who have not borne cordial testimlony to his generosity and encouragement . Amongst his latest efforts has been the inducing of the Home and Colonial Governments to grant the necessary funds for the publication of the Floras of their possessions ; and within the two last years of his life he prevailed upon Sir Charles Wood , the President of the Indian Board , in like manner to support the publication of the Flora of British India ; while , through the influence of his steady friend Earl lIussell , he has also procured a grant for the publication of the Flora of tropical Africa . Sir William was in person tall , athletic , and active ; in features remarkably good-looking , animated , and cheerful ; his conversation had the charm of intellectual cultivation and refinement , and he had a ready power of conveying clear information . As a scientific correspondent he was unrivalled ; promptly answering every letter with his own hand ; encouraging those who first addressed him , and stimulating those who flagged . Indeed he was wont to attribute his success in the creation of the National Gardens and the accompanying Museums to his habit of thanking every contributor at once , answering all their questions at whatever trouble , naming the plants they sent , and applying personally to residents in every part of the world for such plants or their products as he desired to have in the Gardenis . He was an LL. D. of Glasgow , D.C.L. of Oxford ; a Fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh , the Linnean , Antiquarian , Geographical , and other Societies ; a Knight of Hanover , Companion of the Legion of Honour , a Correspondent of the Academy of France , and a member of almost every other learned Academy in Europe and America . The date of his election into the Royal Society was January 9 , 1812 . HIe died at Kew on the 12th of August , 1865 , in the 81st year of his age , after a very short illness , of a complaint in the throat , then epidemic at that place . He leaves a widow , two married daughters , and one son , Dr. Joseph Dalton Hooker , F.R.S. , now Director of the Royal Gardens . JOHN LINDLEY was the son of a nurseryman of considerable ability , who was the author of a m1anual of horticulture . He was born at Catton , near Norwich , on the 5th of February , 1799 , and was educated at the Grammar School of Norwich under Dr. Valpy . He left school at the age of sixteen , and was employed for three or four years in his father 's nursery , devoting all his leisure time to the study of botany and horticulture with that remarkable energy and untiring perseverance which characterized his whole life . His father failing in business shortly before he came of age , young Lindley was thrown on his own resources , not only for his own support , but for the discharge of his father 's debts , which he took upon himself . Proceeding to London in 1819 , he obtained from Sir Joseph B-anks ( to whom he was introduced by Sir William ( then Mr. ) HIooker , his earliest scientific friend ) the position of his assistant librarian , and at this early age began the long series of works with which his name will be for ever identified by the publication of a translation of Richard 's ' Analyse du Fruit , ' made at Mr. Hooker 's house at Halesworth in Suffolk at one sitting , which , however , lasted two days and three nights . In 1822 Lindley became Garden Assistant Secretary to the IHorticultural Society , an appointment which influenced his whole career , as he remained connected with that Society , in one capacity or other , throughout his whole working life . The gardens at Chiswick were at that time in process of formation , and to their development he devoted all his energy . In 1826 he became sole Assistant Secretary , conducting , under the Honorary Secretaries Joseph Sabine , Bentham , Henderson , Gowen , and Royle , all the proceedings of that active Society , which has for so long a time taken a prominent part in advancing horticulture to the position it now holds in this country both as a science and an art . Not satisfied with these laborious duties , which would have tasked all the energies of a man of ordinary capacity for work , Lindley became in 1829 Professor of Botany in University College , an appointment which he held for upwards of thirty years . He was a remarkably exact , clear and impressive lecturer , possessed an admirable faculty of lucid exposition , and was most copious in illustration . He never read his lectures , but they were always carefully studied beforehand . Nor were these various occupations enough for his ever active mind . Thoroughly versed in the literature of Botany and its kindred sciences , he found time to prepare a series of general works on almost every branch of the science , all of great value , and many of them still standard books of reference in the hands of students . Beginning his career as a naturalist at the time when the natural system of Botany was acquiring its highest development in France , though known only to a few in England , where the Linnean system was still universally taught , Lindley brought all the weight of his teaching and all the force of his controversial powers to the support of the new system , and was , if not the leader , at least the most prominent advocate of a change now universal . His 'Synopsis of the British Flora , ' published in 1829 , was followed by an ' Introduction to the Natural System of Botany ' in 1830 , which passed through a second edition in 1836 , and took the form of The Vegetable Kingdom , ' probably the best known of all his works , in 1846 . To Medical Botany he contributed an excellent Flora Medica , to Palaeontology the well-known Fossil Flora , in which IMr . Hutton was his coadjutor , and to Horticultural Science a work on the Theory and Practice of Horticulture , which he himself regarded as perhaps his most important work , probably because it contained the greatest amount of original matter . To these general works must be added a long series of monographs and isolated descriptions of plants in a great many periodicals . From his position at the Horticultural Society he had the earliest opportunity of seeing novelties , and made it his business to describe all that camle before him . He edited for a long series of years the ' Botanical Register , ' a periodical devoted to figures and descriptions of new or rare plants of general interest , and contributed a large portion of many other serial works . IHis earliest monograph was that on Roses , published in 1820 in his twenty-first year . This was followed in 1821 by 'Collectanea Botanica , ' an illustrated work published at the expense of Mr. Cattley , an eminent amateur cultivator . Soon after he became connected with the Horticultural Society he began to devote himself specially to the study of Orchidee , a family the investi gation of which is extremely difficult unless from living plants , and which from the multiplicity of its forms and the minuteness and intricacy of its flowers , tasks to the utmost the powers of observation of the naturalist . With this family his name will be for ever associated , not only as the describer of a very great number of new genera and species , but as the author of a series of general works , the last of which , ' Folia Orchidacea , ' to the regret of all naturalists , was left unfinished at his death . It was with special reference to the important service he rendered to science by these great works that the Royal Medal of the Society was awarded to him in 1857 , though the value of his other labours was also duly recognized . Till he was past fifty , Dr. Lindley was wont to say that he never knew what it was to feel tired either in body or mind . His first illness was the result of his arduous duties as a juror of the Great Exhibition of 1851 , but a few months ' rest seemed to restore him to his usual health . Unfortunately , much against the wish of his family , he undertook the charge of the Colonial Department of the Exhibition of 1862 , and though constantly ailing he refused to abandon his post , and carried its duties successfully to a close . The effort was too great . His mental and physical powers received a shock from which they never recovered . HEe was compelled to relinquish all active employment , though his bodily health remained good till the 1st of November in 1865 , when he was carried off by apoplexy in his sixty-seventh year . The date of his election into the Royal Society is January 17 , 1828 . JOHN WILLTAM LUBBOCK was born March 26 , 1803 . His father , the second baronet of his name , was at the head of the banking and mercantile firm of Lubbock and Co. The son , though of a tender constitution , was partly educated at Eton , and was then placed under the care of Dr. ( afterwards Bishop ) Maltby . HIere he might have made progress in the classics , but his turn had been towards exact science from his earliest years . I-is father had intended him for Oxford , but , at his own earnest request , he was placed at Trinity College , Cambridge , in 1821 . The continental mathematics had been recently introduced into general study , and Mr. Lubbock , perceiving their superior power as means of investigation , spent his first long vacation at Paris , and became a confirmed follower of that school . Even in his own path , his reading was very much directed to the subjects of his subsequent career ; and he had no motive to seek university honours as a means of success in life . Accordingly , in the Tripos of 1825 , he obtained no higher place than that of first of the senior Optimes , though his power and reading as a mathematician were well known . This commencement was of a character which lasted . Sir John Lubbock was throughout life engaged in following up a special scientific pursuit , which was his main business as an investigator , as it had been his main study at the University . On leaving college he spent a short time in travelling , and on his return commenced a life of business as a partner in his father 's house , and a life of scientific inquiry . He joined the Astronomical Society in 1828 , and our Society in 1829 . In this year he was also a member of the committee for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge , on which he worked for many years . The establishment of the 'British Almanac ' in 1827 owed much to his superintendence ; and this work stimulated his attention to the theory of the tides . In the 'Companion ' for 1830 appears his first scientific writing , a descriptive memoir on the tides . It is the most precise account of the existing state of the subject ; its history has dates , and its explanations have formulae . Mr. Lubbock was the colleague of Whewell and others in calling attention to the necessity of observation of the tides . In 1834 the iRoyal Medal was awarded to him for his researches on the subject . In 1833 he married a daughter of Lieut.-Col. Hotham . He was the first Vice-Chancellor of the University of London , a Treasurer of the Great Exhibition of 1851 , a Visitor of the Greenwich Observatory , and a member of various scientific commissions . He was Treasurer and Vice-President of the Royal Society from 1830 to 1835 , and again from 1838 to 1845 . At his father 's death he was left the only working partner ; and his reign of sole management included the panics of 1847 and 1857 . His entrance into the house was marked by the panic of 1825 , in which the firm weathered with honour a run of unprecedented severity ; the severest competitive examination , says one of the journals , which a bank ever stood . Sir J. Lubbock never liked business , but he attended to it with perfect regularity . Hfis early mornings and evenings were devoted to science , but not without exciting remark . In the day which has gone by , a man of business , or a professional man , was required to abstain from everything useful in private life or ornamental in society . He might spend leisure in sporting , in cards , in smoking , in eating and drinking , or in talking politics ; but not in promoting science , nor in any unselfish addition to social pleasure . He might listen to music , but woe to the banker or the physician who should sing or play the violin in company . Sir J. Lubbock is one of an eminent band who have driven this paltry prejudice * It is necessary to explain to those who are not connected with Cambridge that this triple superlative , Firsi Senior ' Optime , means the head of the secocnd class of university honours . out of society . There is extant a letter of his ( Oct. 30 , 1840 ) to a business associate , who had remonstrated in the usual way . " There is , " he says , " one circumstance which gave me much pain in a letter you wrote to my late father some time since . You alluded to my position as Treasurer and Vice-President of the Royal Society ... But if by rising early and late taking rest , or if in hours which others devote to society or sports of the field , I choose to investigate questions in astronomy , or in any other science , I do not consider that any of the correspondents of the house are warranted in addressing to me any reproach . I submit these remarks to your friendly consideration . " After his father 's death he withdrew almost entirely from society , and resided at High Elms , in Kent . Here he showed that there was time left from the wants both of business and of science . -Ie was a farmer , and his southdowns and shorthorns ( in which Lord Althorp himself did not take more pride than he ) carried off many prizes . liHe planted choice shrubs and trees , especially conifers ; he kept up three village schools ; and he instructed his own children in mathematics . The old man of ( nothing but ) business might shake his head and say , Ah ! that house will never stand what it stood under old Sir John : but , nevertheless , it kept up both credit and confidence , and joined another old bank in 1860 . The firm of Robarts , Lubbock , and Co. has fully answered all expectations . By this junction Sir J. Lubbock had intended to give himself comparative leisure ; for fifteen years he had never been away from business for three consecutive days . The leisure was gained , but the power of using it was gone ; the work of two lives was a run upon the strength of one which ended in failure . He became a sufferer from gout , and the last five years of his life were marked by increasing debility . He died January 20 , 1865 , the immediate cause being valvular disease in the heart . He often said he had done his work and was quite ready to go . He leaves behind him the memory of an upright and benevolent man , utterly free from selfseeking , and devoted to high pursuits by high moral motives and strong intellectual impulses . Sir J. Lubbock 's researches in the lunar and planetary theories date from the year 1832 ; his separate work , ' On the Theory of theMoon and on the Perturbations of the Planets , ' was published , the principal portion , during the years 1834 to 1838 , but there are supplementary parts up to 1850 . In the lunar theory , as originally established by Clairaut , the true longitude of the moon is taken as the independent variable ; and Laplace was of opinion that , on account of the magnitude of the lunar inequalities , this was , in fact , the only safe course ; it was accordingly adopted by him in his own researches , and also in Damoiseau 's memoir , in the unpublished memoir of Carlini and Plana , and , in Plana 's great work on the lunar theory . The time or mean longitude of the moon , and the radius vector and latitude , are in the first instance obtained in terms of the true longitude of the moon , and then by reversion of series , the true longitude , the radius vector , and the latitude are expressed in terms of the time . But in the theories of Laplace and Datmoiseau , the coefficients of the several inequalities are presented in an unreduced form , involving denominators and auxiliary quantities , which it is assumed are to be calculated numerically , and by means of them the final numerical values of the coeffi . cients are obtained . In Plana 's work , on the contrary , the coefficients are presented completely developed in powers and products of e , e ' , y , n ( the excentricities of the two orbits , the tangent of the inclination , and the ratio of the mean motions ) with coefficients , which are , of course , absolutely determinate numbers . The results so presented constitute , to . the degree of approximation preserved , a complete algebraical solution of the problem ; they are determinate results , in no wise dependent for their truth on the convergency of the series , and they are of course absolutely independent of the particular process made use of for obtaining them . They are consequently results obtainable by the adoption of the time as the independent variable ; and this is , in fact , the course followed by Lubbock-viz . , taking the time as the independent variable , he obtains directly the expressions of the true longitude , latitude , and radius vector in terms of the time ; expressions strictly comparable with those of Plana , and which , but for the different significations of the e and y in the two theories , would be identical therewith . The advantage of Lubbock 's method is its directness ; the expressions for the solar coordinates are in both theories given in the first instance by the elliptical theory in terms of the time , and in Lubbock 's theory they are used in that form ; whereas , in the theory of Clairaut , they have to be transformed into functions of the true longitude of the moon , and the so transformed expressions are used in the calculation of the time and the radius vector and latitude of the moon in terms of the true longitude ; and there is , finally , the laborious reversion of series whereby the co-ordinates of the moon are expressed in terms of the time . The researches on the tides are not easily described . They consist in the main of the application of the existing theory to masses of observation . Sir J. Lubbock was the first who introduced to the fullest extent the plan of consolidating the results of all the observations : Laplace took chiefly those made at the times when the irregularity under investigation was near its maximum . A clear account of Lubbock 's mode of proceeding is given by Mir . Airy in his article on the tides ( ? ? 489-491 ) in the 'Encyclopsedia Metropolitana . ' We may mention that the man of business was in this matter a valuable colleague of the man of science Mr. rLubbock 's relations with the late Mr. Solly , Chairman of the London Dock Company , procured him access to the observations made at the docks through a golden number of years ( 1808-1826 ) . We should rather say , procured him the knowledge of the existence of the observations . Mr. Solly , we are sure from knowledge , would gladly have communicated his information to any inqui'rer ; anl the Board would have given hearty assent , But d many investigators might have passed a life in the subject without arriving at the fact that the observations existed . In a separate work on the heat of vapours and on refraction ( 1840 ) , the assumption is that the absolute heat of a gas may be represented by A+Bx ( temperature ) . A relation between pressure and temperature is then deduced , the constants of which:an be determined by joint observations of pressure and temperature . The observations of Arago and DIulong ( Mem. Inst. x. 231 ) , and of Ur ( Phil. Trans. 1818 ) , are thus satisfied . Employing the observations of Gay-Lussac ( Conn. des Temps , 1841 ) , he deduces a formula for the calculation of heights by barometrical observation , and then proceeds to the subject of refraction . In this matter , to a great extent , he follows Ivory . The investigation is nevertheless new and peculiar , and the conclusions are remarkable . The results of Lubbock 's theory and Bessel 's Tables are almost identical . Down to 650 of zenith distance the difference is not 0"'01 ; nor from thence to 87 ? does it ever amount to 1"'0 ; at 88 ? it is 4"'0 . It would require a very large number of observations to discriminate between them . It appears therefore that , from the assumption that the differences of absolute heat in a gas are directly proportional to the difference of temperature , Lubbock has built up a theory agreeing with observation , all his constants , with the exception of one , being determined independently of astronomical observations . His theory also gives a value of the horizontal refraction agreeing closely with the best determinations of that quantity . IHis atmosphere is a limited one of about twenty-two miles . About the year 1830 Mr. Lubbock , jointly with Mr. Drinkwater ( Bethune ) , wrote a tract of thirty-two pages on ' Probability ' in the Library of Useful Knowledge . This most excellent little work ranks as the earliest , and , its size considered , the best of the modern English introductions to the subject . Of late years it has become almost a rule , in citing this work , to insist on the authorship . A binder put fMr . De Morgan 's name on the outside of a large issue ; and though for more than fifteen years every channel of publicity , from the 'Times ' newspaper downwards , has been employed to correct the mistake , entire success has not yet been obtained . This work , though perfectly elementary , has that taste of the higher methods which those who are familiar with them can infuse into common algebra . Mr. Lubbock showed his familiarity with Laplace , before any one in Britain , by two papers in the Cambridge Transactions ( vol. iii . part 1 ) , on the calculation of annuities , and on comparison of tables . At the time of publication there was no actuary , except Mr. Benjamin Gompertz , who could have read them : the state of things is now different , and the papers have been reprinted in the Assurance Magazine ( vol. ix . ) . In the same volume is an illustration of the way in which the doctrine of probability applies in every subject . It is a paper contributed by Sir J. Lubbock , on the clearing of the London bankers . By observation it was ascertained that the daily difference at the clearinghouse , the money actually wanted to balance the demands of those who are to receive and those who are to pay , is only , one day with another , c29,000 . To meet daily contingencies , the banlks keep in the Bank of England balances which amount to from 2 to 3 millions . Sir J. Lubbock recommends that the clearing balance should be paid out of a common fund , which would put the banks so far in the position of being one concern , and would enable them to employ a large part of the sums they must now leave idle . The goodness of the advice is manifest . This paper , the last we believe of Sir J. Lubbock 's writings , begins with Atque equidem , extremo ni jam sub fine laborum Vela traham , et terris festinem advertere proram , & e. &c. , and ends with a similar prediction in English . For some years he had begun to feel that his end was approaching ; and though it turned out that his life was to be preserved to his family and his friends for a few years longer , the prophecy was but too well founded as to his scientific career . JOHN RICHARDSON was born on the 5thof November , 1787 , in Dumfries , of which town his father , Gabriel Richardson , was an influential and highly respected inhabitant . This gentleman was a Magistrate of the county and several times Provost of Dumfiies . A great philosophical poet has said , " The child is father of the man . " The sentiment , judging from what is recorded of young Richardson , is peculiarly appropriate to him . The influences by which he was surrounded in infancy were all of a happy kind , and well adapted to the development of those qualities for which in his varied and adventurous life he was distinguished . Some of these may be briefly adverted to . The rough sports and exercises of schoolboys tending to invigorate the frame , and in which he was preeminent for activity and enterprise , may have conduced to that bodily strength and power of endurance which served him so well in manhood , -so well , indeed , that even beyond the middle term of life he had been known to say he scarcely knew fatigue . Of the higher influences , those affecting the mind , the moral character , the chief , no doubt , were such as were exercised over him by his nearest relations : of these , his mother and maternal grandmother , women of notable worth and ability , may deserve the first mention , they being his earliest instructors . The latter lived at a charming spot , Rosebank , in the neighbourhood of the town . There as a schoolboy he was always glad to go on a holiday ; and there his love of the beautiful in nature appears to have been formed . Early he had been heard to express a hope that there , where he had so much enjoyment , he might , if spared , be able to retire and end his days . A great living example of high and fervid intellect cannot but affect the mind of youth . Such was Burns to him : Burnis was often at Mr. Richardson 's house , a welcome guest , both whilst he lived in Nithsdale and later in Dumfries , till his death in 1796 . It happened that his eldest son , Robert , a boy of great intellectual promise , and young Richardson , both of the same age , were entered at the grammar school on the same day , and it is remembered that the Poet on that occasion said playfully , " I I wonder which of the two will be the greatest man . " It was during his school-period that young Richardson first read the ' Faerie Queen , ' and it was of Burns that he borrowed the book . Half a century later he was present at the National Festival held in honour of the Poet in Edinburgh in 1859 ; and he then expressed the great pleasure he had in his recollections of him , particularising how on one of the Sunday evenings Burns , when at his father 's house , called his attention to some of the paraphrases in his Bible which he most admired , two of which he requested the boy to get by heart and repeat to him : of these , one was forgotten , the other was the 66th , beginning " How bright these glorious spirits shine . " Early he gave proof of a quick and precocious mind . He could read well , it is reported , at the age of four . He was then placed at a preparatory school , and two years later at the grammar school , taught by Mr. Gray , better known afterwards as a man of letters in Edinburgh , and one of the Masters there of the High School . This was in 1793 . In 1801 , when only fourteen , he was sent to the University of Edinburgh , where thus early he began his Medical Studies , which were continued during two years , and then , when only sixteen , he received the appointment of House Surgeon in the Infirmary of his native town , the duties of which he performed for nearly two years . He now returned to Edinburgh , and shortly after passed an examination before the College of Surgeons and received the diploma of Surgeon . In the following year , having just reached his eighteenth year , he entered the Royal Navy as Assistant Surgeon . The war at that time was raging in all its intensity , and promotion then rapidly rewarded merit . In a year he was advanced to a Surgeoncy . This was after he had been employed in a boat night attack , for which he had volunteered , on a French brig of war in the Tagus . During the remainder of the war his services were various-in the Baltic in the second expedition against Copenhagen , on the western coast of Africa , in the Mediterranean , on the western coast of Spain , in the North Sea , and again in the Baltic , on the coast of America , on the Canadian Lakes ; and lastly , during the short war with the United States in 1814 , he was present , attached to a marine battalion , at the taking of Cumberland Island and the town of St. Mary 's in Georgia . Shortly after the peace he retired on half-pay , and engaged in private practice at Leith , where ( in 1818 ) he married the second daughter of W. Stiven , Esq. , of that town . The leisure he had there , and the viciunity of Leith to Edinburgh , enabled him to continue his medical and other allied studies , of which Botany was especially a favourite . In 1817 he passed his examinations and took the degree of M.D. Two years later , when an expedition was fitted out by Government to explore by land the northern coast of America , under the command of Lieut. Franklin ' R.N. , he volunteered his services , and received the appointment of Surgeon and Naturalist to the party . This was the beginning of that career in which he so distinguished himself ; and it was also the beginning of that friendship with Sir John Franklin , of which , twenty-nine years afterwards , he gave such a chivalrous proof in taking the command , at his own request , of the overland expedition , at that time fitted out by the Government , to go in quest of the 'Erebus ' and 'Terror , ' the melancholy history of which ships , of their gallant crews , and heroical commander can never be forgotten . The account of the first Expedition , under the title of " Narrative of a Journey to the Polar Sea in the years 1819,1820 , 1821 , 1822 , " by Franklin , amply shows what an important part Richardson took in it : and the indebtedness of its commander to him for the manner in which he performed his duties and afforded his Chief assistance is most amply acknowledged . Apart from the varied , valuable , and curious information collected relative to regions and tribes of people before little known , much of the narrative , especially that pathetic portion descriptive of privations and sufferings , and that part contributed by Richardson relative to the stern duty of depriving a fellow creature of life , who , there was the strongest proof , had forfeited it by the murder of an officer of the party , with a further design on the lives of others , cannot be read without a feeling of emotion blended with admiration for what was endured and done . During the remainder of his long period of service as a Naval Medical Officer , terminating in his retirement in 1855 , he never was employed afloat . He had first charge of the Melville Hospital at Chatham , and afterwards , when promoted to the rank of Inspector of Naval Hospitals and Fleets , that of I-aslar Hospital . -lis position now was peculiarly favourable ; first , in affording facilities for prosecuting his studies-he was always a student-especially in natural history ; and secondly , as contributing to his comfort , and probably health ; for he was the victim of sea-sickness , a malady from which he had increase of suffering with advancing age , latterly even to the endangering of life . Always remarkable for industry and power of application , these qualities were strikingly displayed whilst in medical charge of each of those hospitals . His special duties were not a little onerous , yet by making the most of his time , he was able to contribute largely to the advancement of science in its natural history and geographical departments , of which his successive publications afford the best proof-those publications for which a Royal Medal was awarded him by the Council of this Society in 1856 , ten years after he had received the honour of Knighthood conferred on him by the Queen in acknowledgment of his distinguished service ; he had previously , V,. . in 1851 , had the honour conferred on him of Commander of the Bath . It would be out of place here to dilate on his professional attainments ; but it should not be passed over , as showing how he blended science and medicine , that to him chiefly the Medical Department of the Navy is indebted for the Museum which is established at I-aslar , and to which he largely contributed . If fortunate in his position , he was not less so in the estimation in which he was held by the authorities in power . I-lence , when Sir John Franklin had to prepare for his second expedition to the shores of the Polar Sea , he again received the appointment which he had in the first . In consequence moreover of the great confidence placed in him , he was entrusted with a separate and important charge , that of exploring the coast between the Mackenzie and Copper Mine rivers , and later , with the sole command of the party sent to the same region in quest of his friend on the occasion of Sir John Franklin 's last and fatal exploring enterprise . A just appreciation of what he accomplished in both instances can be formed only by the perusal of the two works in which these Expeditions are described ; one , " The Narrative of a second Expedition to the Shores of the Polar Sea in the years 1825 , 1826 , and 1827 ; " the other entitled " Arctic Searching Expedition : A Journal of a boat 's voyage through Rupert 's Land and the Arctic Sea in search of the Discovery Ships under the command of Sir John Franklin , with an Appendix on the Physical Geography of North America . " Both which works , one by Franklin , the other by Richardson , were published by authority . This second expedition , under the command of Sir John Franklin , affords a remarkable contrast to the first , -that so disastrous in its results as regards human suffering and loss of life , this so successful , at least in these relations and the amount of information obtained , -mainly owing to the better arrangements made for the provisioning and conveyance of the party , forewarned by the experience gained in the first ; during the whole time not a life was lost , nor was there any amount of privation experienced even temporarily endangering health* . In his last expedition in quest of his friend , in which greater difficulties and dangers were encountered than in the preceding , the same good fortune as to the preservation of health and life was experienced . The engaging in this undertaking by Richardson was , indeed , as before said , a chivalrous act and the strongest proof that could be given of devoted friendship . It should be remembered that he was then entering his sixtyfirst year , that he separated himself from a happy home and from children he tenderly loved , and this , let it not be forgotten , with the entire sanction of his wife , she fully entering into and appreciating his noble sense of duty . That the Government should have accepted his offered services was what might be expected ; for whom could theyhave selected for zeal and knowledge better qualified for the search ? -resting on the belief they had come to , that Franklin , according to his instructions , would , as was afterwards proved ( proved by the relics discovered , and as Richardson was confident ) , attempt the North-west Passage by Lancaster Sound-that passage which , after Franklin , was more happily accomplished first by Sir Robert M'Clure , and then by Sir Leopold M'Clintock--this the crowning reward of the vast efforts which for a series of years and at an enormous cost had been so heroically made , to the enduring credit of our country , for determining the great geographical problem of the Northwest Passage . The account of this search , as published in two volumes in 1851 , is , in accordance with its title of Journal , minute in details , and , from its minuteness , very instructive and deserving of study , abounding , as it does , in varied information in relation to the geology of the country passed through , its natural productions and inhabitants-a model , in brief , of the journal of a scientific traveller well trained by laborious experience , and of which the value must increase as the regions it treats of , especially the Lake Districts of Canada and the territory of the old Hudson 's Bay Company , become , as they deserve , more resorted to and colonized . On his return from this expedition he resumed his duties at Haslar Hospital , where he continued until he tendered his resignation in 1855 . He then retired with his family to the Lake District of Westmoreland , where , at Lancrigg , in Easedale , in the neighbourhood of Grasmere , -a spot surpassing even in beauty the longed for retreat , Rosebank , the aspiration of his boyish days , -he passed the remaining years of his life , which , when he was apparently in perfect health , was suddenly terminated , by what was inferred to have been apoplexy , on the 6th of June , 1865 , in his 77th year . He was buried in Grasmere churchyard , the burying-place of the greatest of the Lake Poets , Wordsworth . This period of his retirement , the complement of his distinguished career , was one of almost unchequered enjoyment , and would have been completely so , but for the loss of one of his children , his eldest daughter . Active as ever with unimpaired faculties , whilst he recreated himself with gardening , he devoted much of his time to his favourite pursuits , natural history , and latterly philology , for which he had always a predilection . Here he edited Yarrell 's 'British Fishes , ' the last edition , which he enriched with many additions ; and here he wrote his history of Arctic and Antarctic research , bearing the title of " The Polar Regions , " a work especially remarkable for erudition , candour , and mastery of the subject , and for undertaking which he was so eminently prepared and qualified by the experience he had gained in his three exploring expeditions . Though so occupied , he seemed always to have leisure and time at command ; he was always ready to give his professional aid to any of the poor people in the neighbourhood wanting medical advice ; and having been appointed a magistrate of the county , he performed the required duties in his habitual conscientious and zealous manner . If one quality more than another predominated in the well-balanced faculties of this excellent man , it was his modesty with freedom from pretension . This is strikingly displayed in words of his own , writtenl down , but never spoken , on the occasion of his receiving the Royal Medal awarded him , as already mentioned , in 1856 . We give them with the hope that they may serve as an incitement to others , who think humbly of themselves , to follow his example . " More than the usual period allotted to one generation has long passed away since , through the circumstance of my being appointed Surgeon to a small body of Arctic explorers , I had to travel over a country reaching from the great American lakes to the islands of the Arctic Sea , and embracing more than the fourth of the distance from the equator to the pole , which had never before been visited by a professed naturalist . I perceived at once the magnitude of the field , and comprehended at a glance that it was far beyond my grasp . The only previous training I had was the little natural science that I had learnt at my northern Alma Matter as a collateral branch of my medical education , but I thought that I could at least record what I saw ; and I determined so to do as intelligently as I could and without exaggeration , hoping in this way to furnish facts on which the leaders of science might reason , and thus promote the progress of Natural IIistory to the extent of my limited ability . This was the rule I followed during the eight years that I passed in those countries actually engaged in the several expeditions . " His concluding words , too , we are tempted to give , distinctive as they are of a quality of his illustrious friend , Sir John Franklin , which , with other gracious ones , gained him the regard of all who had the happiness of serving under him . " I cannot forbear adding one word to my thanks for the very high honour which I have appeared before you to receive-it is an expression of mournful regret that your late member , my old and dear friend and commanding officer in the Expeditions of Discovery , does not survive to witness this day . He would have rejoiced with unmixed satisfaction at your appreciation of my labours . From him I received every assistance in collecting specimens that was in his power to give ; his sympathy encouraged me , and his claims which , as commuanding officer , he might have to the reputation of whatever was done by one of his subordinates , he honourably and cheerfully ceded to him who did the work , in my case as in others . So that contributions were made to science , no personal interests were allowed to interfere . " Besides the works already mentioned , he was the author of the ' Fauna Boreali-Americana , ' of Zoological Appendices to the Voyages of Parry , Ross , and Back , of Zoological Reports and Contributions to the British Association for the Advancement of Science , of which Association he was an old member and a regular attendant at its meetings , and the article Ichthyology " in the last edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica . He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1825 ; he received the honorary degree of Doctor of Civil Law from the University of Dublin at the time of the Meeting of the British Association in that city in 1857 ; he was an honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh , and he belonged to many foreign Societies , European and American . HIe was three times married , first , as already related , to the daughter of Win . Stiven , Esq. , who died in 1831 ; secondly , to the only daughter of John Booth , Esq , , the niece of Sir John Franklin ; she died in 1845 , leaving him five children , of whom three are surviving , a daughter , married since his decease to Charles Reynolds , Esq. , and two sons , one , the eldest , a Captain in the Royal Artillery , the other a Lieutenant in the Royal Engineers ; thirdly , to the youngest daughter of Archibald Fletcher , Esq. , Advocate , of Edinburgh , in 1847 , his surviving widow , to whom the place of his retirement belonged , and where she still resides . The life of Admiral WILLIAM HENRY SMYTH comprises such a field of arduous labour and successful result , that we must confine ourselves to the merest synopsis . Forty years a member of our Society ( from June 15 , 1826 ) , and all that time engaged in works which brought high reputation , his connexion with the Society was confined for the most part to personal exertion on the Council . The benefits which he conferred on the naval service , on astronomy , on geography , and on archaeology , must be recorded in detail in more appropriate places than this record . He was born January 21 , 1788 . His father was an American loyalist , and a descendant of Captain John Smith , the colonizer of Virginia . He entered the Navy in 1805 , and was actively engaged until 1815 in the Indian seas , and on the coasts of Spain and Italy . Here he had his full share of adventure and of danger ; and it was during this first period that his love of surveying developed itself , and attracted the notice of the Admiralty . From 1817 to 1824 he was engaged in that great survey of the Mediterranean the greatest scientific survey ever planned and completed by one individual-which is now recorded in two hundred charts , and is the admiration of the naval world . By this unexampled result of intelligence and industry he won high reputation and the approbation of the Government , shown by grant of permission to accept a foreign order . This was the only public acknowledgement which he ever received , so far as we can learn . His naval career ended in 1824 ; but for many years he was employed in the completion of his charts . In 1828 he settled at Bedford , and from thence until 1842 , either at Bedford or Cardiff , he varied his pursuits by close attention to the astronomy of double stars and other extra-meridional pursuits . His well-known " Cycle " has done much to quicken a taste for astronomy among naval men . The last years of his life were passed near Aylesbury . His friend the late Dr. Lee had purchased his instruments , and had attached a small observatory to Iartwell House . Admiral Smyth 's residence , St. John 's Lodge , was within a short walk of this observatory ; and to the end of his life ( September 9 , 1865 ) he was engaged in occasional observation . Iis long list of scientific titles might be supported by as long a list of published works , independently of scientific memoirs . His books on Sicilv and Sardinia , his life of Captain Beaver , his accounts of his own cabinet of Roman coins and of that of the Duke of Northumberland , his works on the antiquities of Hartwell , his account of the Mediterranean , and others , are read with pleasure and profit . But perhaps the most remarkable , as the most professional and the most characteristic , is the long series of articles which he contributed to the United Service Journal . In this series , running over more than twenty years , he has discussed almost every possible nautical subject . He was eminently a collector ; and a Nautical Dictionary , of a very wide character , is now in the press under the care of a lady who was for fifty years his scientific colleague as well as his devoted wife . An extended account contained in the last annual report of the Royal Astronomical Society will render further detail unnecessary . We give a few words to the personal qualities of our subject . Admiral Smyth was one of those men who are the cement of all the associations to which they belong . His genial manners , and the full reliance which all placed on his good faith , his kindness , and his activity , did much to promote unity and , when such a thing arose , to prevent misunderstanding from becoming serious disagreement . The compound of the jolly seaman--no other word will do the educated scholar , and the kind-hearted gentleman , which appeared in Admiral Smyth is far beyond any character-painting but that of the dramatist or the novelist . A man is known by his associates ; and when persons of the most different dispositions and temperaments are united through life in pursuit of good objects , there must be a something which keeps them together ; and that something must contain benevolence of feeling in large measure . If the world were searched , it would hardly be possible to produce four specimens of mankind so very different as ]Francis Bailey , Richard Sheepshanks , John Lee , and William Henry Smyth , and it would be as difficult to produce four men who lived in more cordial intimacy and friendship broken only by death . JOHANN FRANZ ENCKE , For . Miemb . R.S. , was born on the 23rd of September , 1791 , at Hamburg , where his father was pastor of St. James 's Church . After passing through the Gymnasium of Hamburg , he entered the University of G6ttingen in the autumn of 1811 . Here he remained pursuing his studies under the direction of Gauss till the spring of 1813 , when his patriotism impelled him to take part in the war . He served in Hamburg till the place fell , and afterwards in Mliecklenburg , as SergeantMajor in the Horse Artillery of the Hanseatic Legion , in which he remained till June 1814 . He then resumed his studies in Gojttingen , but was again called away by the events of 1815 . He now entered the Prussian service , holding a commision as Second Lieutenant in the Artillery , and during the greater part of the time he remained in it was stationed in the fortress of Thorn . Ee quitted the Prussian service in March 1816 , and in the following July became assistant to von Lindenau in the Observatory of Seeberg . He was appointed Vice-Director of the Observatory in 1820 , and Director on the retirement of von Lindenau in July 1822 . His works on the transits of Venus of 1761 and 176.9 were published in 1822 and 1824 respectively . A supplement to the latter , rendered necessary by the discovery made by von Littrow , that Hell had tampered with the original observations made by himself at Wardhus , appeared in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy for 1835 . In 1819 he published his identification of the comets observed by Mechain and Messier on the 17th of January , 1 786 , by Miss Herschel on the 17th November , 1795 , by Pons on the 20th of October , 1805 , and again by Pons on the 26th of November , 1818 . This comet , to which Encke 's name has been given , having a periodic time of about 1207 days , was observed on the 3rd of June , 1822 , at Paramatta by Iiimker . The discussion of all the observations led Encke to the conclusion that the only way of reconciling them was by the supposition of a resisting medium by which the times of its revolutions are successively lessened . One of the Royal Medals of the Society for the year 1828 was awarded to him for this investigation . He had already ( in 1825 ) been elected a Foreign Member . In 1825 he was called to Berlin as Professor of Astronomy in the University and Director of the Observatory . In his hands the Berlin Ephemeris received many improvements , of which he gave an account in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy for 1827 . He superintended the publication of this work from the volume for 1830 to that for 1852 , when he was assisted by Professor Wolfers till the publication of the volume for 1863 , after which the latter became sole editor . The volumes contain numerous supplements by Encke on the perturbations of planets , the method of least squares , mechanical quadratures , the solution of numerical equations , the form and dimensions of the earth , and many papers on the correction of the errors of astronomical instruments . The Observatory , a tower dating from 1711 , being unsuitable for the reception of fixed instruments , and in a bad situation , at von I Humboldt 's suggestion a new Observatory was erected on a plan approved of by Encke ; and on the 11th of October , 1835 , he observed the position of Halley 's comet with the large equatoreal mounted in its place in the new Observatory . The observations made here were published in four quarto volumes between the years 1840 and 1857 . He is the author of upwards of one hundred separate works and memoirs dating from 1812 to 1860 . The latter are contained chiefly in the ' Zeitschrift ' of von Lindenau and Bohnenberger , von Zach 's 'Correspondance Astronomique , ' Bode 's and Encke 's 'Jahrbiicher , ' the 'Astronomische Nachrichten , ' and the 'Sitzungsberichte ' and 'Abhandlungen ' of the Berlin Academy . In 1859 he suffered from an apoplectic attack , brought on , it is supposed , by excessive mental exertion . He obtained leave of abscnce from the Observatory in the spring of 1 863 , and resigned his post as Director early in 1864 . He passed the remainder of his life in the midst of his family at Spandau . His judgment and memory remained unimpaired till within a few weeks of his end . I-e died on the 26th of August , 1865 . ADOLF THEODOR von KUPFFER , For . Memb. R.S. , was born at Mitau , in Courland , where his father was a merchant , on the 6th of January ( Old Style ) , 1799 . At the age of sixteen le e]ntered the University of Dorpat as a medical student , but remained there only a few months . In 1816 he entered the University of Berlin , also as a medical student , but the study of medicine becoming distasteful to him , he applied himself to the mathematical and physical sciences , and to mineralogy , under the direction of Weiss . In 1819 he went to the University of G6ttingen , and in 1820 to Paris , where he attended Haiiy 's lectures on Mineralogy . He established himself in St. Petersburg , where he lectured on mineralogy in the winter of 1821-1822 . In the spring of 1822 he was appointed Professor of Physics , Chemistry and Mineralogy in the University of Kasan , and at the same time commissioned to visit Paris for the purpose of procuring a collection of physical instruments . While there he competed successfully for a prize proposed by the Academy of Berlin for an essay on the measurement of the angles of crystals . In concert with Arago he planned a series of observations on the daily variation of the magnetic declination , and the disturbances of the declination , at Kasan . He entered upon the duties of his Professorship in June 1823 , devoting the time not occupied in teaching to crystallography and magnetism . In April 1828 he was sent on a scientific mission to the Ural , the results of which were published in 1834 . They consist mainly of geological observations , the discovery of new localities of some scarce minerals , and of many determinations of the temperature of the soil , made conjointly with Adolf Erman . Having been elected a member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences , he went to reside in St. Petersburg in August 1828 . Early in 1829 he suggested to the Academy the erection of a small magnetic observatory . The project was warmly supported by von Humboldt , who happened to be in St. Petersburg on his way to the Ural and Altai . It was approved of by the Academy , and the building commenced before the end of the year . In the summer of 1829 he was placed at the head of a scientific party engaged in exploring a part of the Caucasus near Mount Elbrus , into which no European had ever penetrated before , and where , for the protection of the travellers against the native tribes , they were accompanied by a strong escort of troops under the command of General Immanuel , the General in command of the Caucasus , who had planned the expedition . At this period he lectured at the School of Civil Engineering , the Piida . gogisehe Institut , and the Academy for Naval Officers , and was engaged in writing his ' Handbunch der rechlnaiden Krystallometrie , ' which appeared in 1831 . In 1835 , Count Cancrien , the Minister of Finance , at Kupffer 's suggestion , consented to the establishment of small magnetic observatories at Catherinenburg , Barnaul , Nertschinsk , Sitka , and Helsingfors , subsequently at Tifis and Moscow , and lastly at Pekin . The observations for the years 1835-1846 were published in the 'Annuaire magnetique et meteorologique du corps des Ingenieurs des mines de Russie . ' All these observatories were placed in 1843 under the direction of a central institution , the Physical Observatory of St. Petersburg , where the various observations were reduced and edited , and magnetical and meteorological instruments were kept for the use of members of scientific expeditions . Kupffer was placed at the head of this establishment , and ceased to lecture , in order that he might devote all his energies to the duties of his new office . The collected observations for the years 1847-1858 have been published in the ' Annals de l'Observatoire physique central de Russie . ' During the latter years of his life he was actively engaged in establishing telegraphic communication with foreign observatories , for the purpose of giving stormsignals at stations on the coasts of the Russian empire . In 1841 he edited an account of the labours of a Commission , of which he was a member , appointed to fix the standards of measure and weight of the Russian empire . Besides comparing the standards of Russia with those of many other countries , the commissioners redetermined the weight of a given volume of water , one of the most important constants of nature , with a precision , in all probability , hitherto unequalled . The first volume of his researches on the elasticity of metals ( Etude experimentale de la flexion et des oscillations transversales des lames elastiques ) was published in 1860 . The second volume , containing experiments on metals produced in the Russian furnaces , and the third , on the elasticity of torsion and rotatory oscillation , are , it is believed , still unpublished . He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1846 . A chill , caused by exposure to cold while superintending the erection of a self-recording anemometer on the roof of the Physical Observatory , brought on an attack of typhoid fever , of which he died on the 4th of June 1.865 .

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x Page On Furfuraniline and Furfurtoluidine . By John Stenhouse , LL. D. , F.R.S. 537 On Parasulphide of Phenyl and Parasulphobenzine . By John Stenhouse , LL. D. , F.R.S. , &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 542 On a Method of graphically representing the Dimensions and Proportions of the Teeth of Mammals . By George Busk , F.R.S ... ... ... ... ... . . 544 Note on the Spectra of Erbia and some other Earths . By Tilliam Huggins , LL. D. , F.R.S ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 546 On the Values of the Integrals Q , Q , Qn , dp , Qn , Q , n being Laplace 's CoJo efficients of the Orders n , n ' , with an application to the Theory of Radiation . By the Hon. J. W. Strutt , Fellow of Trinity College , Cambridge . 553 Note on the Construction of Thermopiles . By the Earl of Rosse , F.R.S. . 553 Index ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 557 Obituary Notices of Fellows deceased : Jean Victor Poncelet. . i Jean Victor Poncelet ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... i Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . ii M r. Robert Porrett ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... iv Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . vi General ThoiAas Perronet Thompson ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . xi Thomas Graham ... ... ... ... . . xvii Marie-Jean Pierre Flourens ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . xxvii Peter Mark Roget ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... xxv-iii ERRATA . Vol. xvi . page 346 , line 8 from bottom , for instead of a depth read in seas of a depth . , xvii . , , 345 , line8 from bottom , for AN=-157"156 read aN=+157"-156 . , , xviii . , , 207 , line 10 from bottom , before and after the words " Stream-lines generated by a Sphere , " del the marks of quotation . NOTICE TO BINDER . Plate II . to face p. 352 . Plate III . to face p. 359 .

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Errata: On the Corrections of Bouvard's Elements of Jupiter and Saturn (Paris, 1821)

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x Page On Furfuraniline and Furfurtoluidine . By John Stenhouse , LL. D. , F.R.S. 537 On Parasulphide of Phenyl and Parasulphobenzine . By John Stenhouse , LL. D. , F.R.S. , &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 542 On a Method of graphically representing the Dimensions and Proportions of the Teeth of Mammals . By George Busk , F.R.S ... ... ... ... ... . . 544 Note on the Spectra of Erbia and some other Earths . By Tilliam Huggins , LL. D. , F.R.S ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 546 On the Values of the Integrals Q , Q , Qn , dp , Qn , Q , n being Laplace 's CoJo efficients of the Orders n , n ' , with an application to the Theory of Radiation . By the Hon. J. W. Strutt , Fellow of Trinity College , Cambridge . 553 Note on the Construction of Thermopiles . By the Earl of Rosse , F.R.S. . 553 Index ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 557 Obituary Notices of Fellows deceased : Jean Victor Poncelet. . i Jean Victor Poncelet ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... i Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . ii M r. Robert Porrett ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... iv Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . vi General ThoiAas Perronet Thompson ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . xi Thomas Graham ... ... ... ... . . xvii Marie-Jean Pierre Flourens ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . xxvii Peter Mark Roget ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... xxv-iii ERRATA . Vol. xvi . page 346 , line 8 from bottom , for instead of a depth read in seas of a depth . , xvii . , , 345 , line8 from bottom , for AN=-157"156 read aN=+157"-156 . , , xviii . , , 207 , line 10 from bottom , before and after the words " Stream-lines generated by a Sphere , " del the marks of quotation . NOTICE TO BINDER . Plate II . to face p. 352 . Plate III . to face p. 359 .

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Errata: On the Mathematical Theory of Stream-Lines, Especially Those with Four Foci and Upwards. [Abstract]

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Atomic Physics

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x Page On Furfuraniline and Furfurtoluidine . By John Stenhouse , LL. D. , F.R.S. 537 On Parasulphide of Phenyl and Parasulphobenzine . By John Stenhouse , LL. D. , F.R.S. , &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 542 On a Method of graphically representing the Dimensions and Proportions of the Teeth of Mammals . By George Busk , F.R.S ... ... ... ... ... . . 544 Note on the Spectra of Erbia and some other Earths . By Tilliam Huggins , LL. D. , F.R.S ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 546 On the Values of the Integrals Q , Q , Qn , dp , Qn , Q , n being Laplace 's CoJo efficients of the Orders n , n ' , with an application to the Theory of Radiation . By the Hon. J. W. Strutt , Fellow of Trinity College , Cambridge . 553 Note on the Construction of Thermopiles . By the Earl of Rosse , F.R.S. . 553 Index ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 557 Obituary Notices of Fellows deceased : Jean Victor Poncelet. . i Jean Victor Poncelet ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... i Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . ii M r. Robert Porrett ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... iv Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . vi General ThoiAas Perronet Thompson ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . xi Thomas Graham ... ... ... ... . . xvii Marie-Jean Pierre Flourens ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . xxvii Peter Mark Roget ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... xxv-iii ERRATA . Vol. xvi . page 346 , line 8 from bottom , for instead of a depth read in seas of a depth . , xvii . , , 345 , line8 from bottom , for AN=-157"156 read aN=+157"-156 . , , xviii . , , 207 , line 10 from bottom , before and after the words " Stream-lines generated by a Sphere , " del the marks of quotation . NOTICE TO BINDER . Plate II . to face p. 352 . Plate III . to face p. 359 .

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On a Group of Varieties of the Muscles of the Human Neck, Shoulder, and Chest, with Their Transitional Forms and Homologies in the Mammalia. [Abstract]

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Biography

Anatomy

X. " On a Group of Varieties of the Muscles of the Human Neck , Shoulder , and Chest , with their transitional Forms and T-Iooologies in the Mammalia . " By JOHN WOOD , F.R.C.S. , Examiner in Anatomy at the University of London . Communicated by Dr. SHARPEY , Sec. R.S. Received June 17 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) THE muscular varieties described by the author in his paper comprise the occipito-scapular , the levator claviculce , and the cleido-occipital , among the muscles which elevate the scapulo-clavicular bone-arch ; the sterno-scapular , the sterno-clavicular , and the scapulo-clavicular , of those which depress it ; and the supracostal , placed upon the upper part of the thorax . The human occipito-scapular was first observed and described by him in the Proceedings of the Royal Society in 1867 . Since that time various developments of muscular slips connected with the splenii , levator anguli scapule , and serrati have been observed , and are described and figured as a series of varieties transitional from the occipito-scapular behind to the levator claviculie in front of the neck . The homology of the occipitoscapular with the levator scapulce minor vel posterior of Douglass , the rhomboideus capitis , rhomboide anterieur of Meckel , and the rhomboFde de la tgte of Cuvier , is traced in the different orders of the Mammalia , from direct observation , in the following animals , viz. the Bonnet-Monkey , the Hedgehog , Mole , Dog , Cat , Badger , Weasel , Rabbit , Guineapig , Norway Rat , and Squirrel , of which drawings from dissections accompanied the paper ; and also from various authorities in reference to a considerable number of other animals . The levator claviculce he described in reference to its animal homologies in his paper read before the Royal Society in 1864 ; he has found it in 6 out of 202 subjects . In the present paper the author gives an abstract of the observations of the older and modern anatomists referring to this muscle in the human subject under various names , and enters at length into its homologies in the Mammalia , as described by writers under its synonyms , the levator scapuce major vel anterior ( Douglass ) , omoou acromio-trachdeien ( Cuvier and Meckel ) , acromio-basilar ( Vicq d'Azyr ) , basio-humeralis ( Krause ) , Kopf-Arm-Muskel ( Peyer ) , claviotrace'lien ( Church ) , transverso-scapulaire ( Strauss-Diirckheim ) , omoatlanticus ( Haughton ) , and cervico-humeral ( Humphry ) , -illustrating them by drawings from his own dissections . He enters more fully into the discussion of the apparently anomalous composition of the muscle in the Rabbit , gives reasons and comparative illustrations from the Fallowdeer and Ass for considering the seeming doubling of the muscle to result from a peculiar development of the cleido-mastoid in apparent conjunction with it , and considers that the muscle which has gone under the last name in the Rabbit to be really a development of the cleido-occipital . The cleido-occipital he described in his paper published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society in June 1866 ; and he has found it since that time in 37 out of 102 subjects . In the present paper he quotes briefly the various anatomists who have described it as part of the sterno-cleido-mastoid or trapezius , and connects it homologically with the muscles which have been described in the claviculate mammalia as a second cleido-mastoid , and in the semiclaviculate as the trapezius clavicularis ( " portion cervicale " ) of that muscle , giving illustrations of its gradual or transitional forms of development from specimens that have come under his own observation , or which have been gathered from the writings of others , as far as to the formation of the compound cepialo-humeral or levator humeri muscle of the Rodents and Carnivora . The sterno-scapular muscle was first described as a variety in the human subject by the author in his paper published in the 'Proceedings ' in 1865 ; it had been previously described by various anatomists and by himself as a double subclavius , with an insertion into the scapula . In the present paper he briefly quotes these authorities , and shows the various developments of the muscle in animals . In connexion with it he describes a scapuloclavicular variety ( first observed by him as a human variety in 1865 ) , and compares it with the human abnormalities described by authors as varieties of the omo-hyoid . It is described by Cuvier as the " scapulo-clavien " in the Rat-mole of the Cape and in the Didelphis marsupialis , and has been found by the author in the Rabbit , Guineapig , Squirrel , and Norway Rat . He also describes the specimens he has found of the sternoeclavicular muscle , mentions the observers who have before seen it and recognized its homologies , and gives illustrations of its formation in the Rabbit , Guineapig , and other animals . The supra-costal muscle was first discovered and described and figured 2 [ June 17 , by the author in his paper published in the ' Proceedings ' in 1865 , and was again noted and recorded by him in 1867 ; it has also been observed in the human subject by Professor Turner and others , and is considered by the former to be the representative of the rectus thoracicus of animals The author , however , is of opinion that the muscle figured by Cuvier as the sterno-costal in animals is a better fitting homology , and gives in this paper illustrations from his own dissections in animals in support of this view .

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Results of the First Year's Performance of the Photographically Self-Recording Meteorological Instruments at the Central Observatory of the British System of Meteorological Observations

3

12

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Edward Sabine

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0003

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112697

10.1098/rspl.1869.0003

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112697

Meteorology

Biography

Meteorology

XI . " Results of the first year 's performance of the Photographically Self-recording Meteorological Instruments at the Central Observatory of the British System of Meteorological Observations . " By Lieut.-General EDWARD SABINE , R.A. , President . Received June 17 , 1869 . Before the Fellows of the Society disperse for the long vacation , I am desirous to bring under their notice the results of the first year 's performance ( January 1 to December 31 , 1868 ) of the photographically selfrecording meteorological instruments established at Kew , the Central Observatory of the British Meteorological System instituted by the Board of Trade and superintended by a Committee of Fellows of the Royal Society . The photograms , with tabulations carefully prepared from them , are transmitted monthly by Mr. Stewart , the Superintendent of the Kew Observatory , to Mr. Scott , the Director of the Meteorological Office in London , where the results are computed and embodied in Tables , of the nature of those which are now presented . The first of these Tables shows the Diurnal Fariation , or the values of the phenomena at each of the 24 hours , on the mean of the year . It exhibits 1st . The Temperature . 2nd . The Elasticity of the Aqueous Vapour . 3rd . The Barometric Pressure . 4th . The Pressure of the Dry Air . 5th . The Humidity . In meteorology and climatology much instruction may often be derived from tracing the modifying influences of diversities of situation ; and I have thought that these Tables might be made more acceptable and interesting to the Society , and the subject be advantageously illustrated , by the addition of corresponding results for two other stations , which are very nearly in the same geographical latitude as Kew , but are very differently situated in other respects , being in the interior of the European and Asiatic continent-thoroughly continental therefore , and as such contrastedwith our insular British stations . Nertchinsk and Barnaoul , both in Siberia , are two of the stations of the great Russian system of observatories , established by our late Foreign Member , Mr. A ; T. Kupffer , and ably superintended by him for several years until his decease . I had been assured by M. Kupffer that I might thoroughly rely on the observations made at these two stations ; and I have since acquired experimentally the fullest confirmation of this assurance in the case of Nertchinsk ( as regards the magnetical , and inferentially therefore also as regards the meteorological observations ) , by the very delicate and sufficient test adverted to in page 238 of Art . VI . in the Phil. Trans. for 1864 . Barnaoul is in lat. 53§ 20 ' , corresponding with the rough average of the latitudes of our British stations generally , and is 400 feet above the sea . Nertchinsk differs only 10 ' from the latitude of Kew , but has otherwise a marked feature of diversity in being at an elevation of 2230 feet , whilst Kew is only 34 feet above the sea-level . At Kew we have only as yet available the records of a single year , necessarily influenced by the natural irregularities which cause one year to differ from another . These irregularities are lessened , in the case of the Siberian stations , by combining in the present paper the results of two years of observation . I may now proceed to the Table of the Diurnal Variations , and to a brief notice of the most salient features presented by the comparative view of the phenomena of the three stations as shown in that Table . In discussing the diurnal variations of the meteorological elements , it is customary to commence with the temperature , regarding it as in a great degree the governing agent in regulating the phenomena of those other elements which are the subjects of the photographical registration . In the middle latitudes , with which alone we have at present to deal , the diurnal variation of the temperature is recognized as a single progression , having one ascending and one descending branch , the turning-points being a maximum at an early hour in the afternoon , and a minimum at a little before sunrise . We find this to be the order of the phenomena at the three stations under review , viz. a maximum between 2 and 3 hours , and a minimum between 16 and 17 hours ( 4 and 5 A.M. ) , the range between the extremes presenting , however , very marked differences , being 10 ? ' 7(Fahr . ) at Kew , 14 ? '0 at Barnaoul , and 17 ? '0 at Nertchinsk . It has been the practice for the last thirty years , at the principal European observatories , to regard the elastic force of the aqueous vapour as an important meteorological element , and to employ it in the separation of the barometric pressure into its two constituents , viz. the pressure of the dry air , and the elasticity of the aqueous vapour mingled therein- . In conformity with this practice , we may take the vapour tension next in the order of succession . It was remarked by Bessel , in the Astron. Nach . for 1838 ( No. 356 ) , that " since the invention of Daniell 's hygrometer and August 's psychrometer , we possess the means of ascertaining at all times with ease and sufficient exactness the quantity of aqueous vapour contained in the * In the publications of the British Colonial Observatories ( 1840--1847 ) this method was adopted in the meteorological reductions , being one of its earliest applications . 4 [ June 17 , atmosphere . " The most convenient mode of photographic investigation and record which presented itself , and was adopted at Kew , was by the employment of wet and dry thermometers ; the difference between the two thermometers admits of exact measurement , and supplies the element which is desired , the accuracy of the record being occasionally tested by comparison with the results obtained by Regnault 's " hygrometre a condensation"* . The gain of even two years of observation over a single year may be here at once seen by the greater regularity of the two years ' record at the Siberian stations . Taking these therefore in the first instance , we find that at both stations the elasticity of the vapour presents a single progression , having maxima about noon , and minima at 16 hours ( 4 A.M. ) . The difference in the amount of vapour at the two stations is due , of course , to the greater altitude of Nertchinsk . At Kew the progression is not quite so regular as where two years are combined ; the values at 21 , 22 , and 23 hours are high in comparison with the other hours , possibly owing to peculiarities in the weather of the particular year ; in other respects the progression is similar to that at Nertchinsk and Barnaoul , and the time of minimum is identical at the three stations , viz. at 16 hours . The higher elasticity of the vapour at Kew , in comparison with the two Siberian stations , is , of course , due to the higher temiperature at Kewt . In the case of the Barometer there are slight indications at each of the three stations of the existence of a double progression ; but in the middle latitudes a longer series of observation is clearly required to determine regular periods ( if such there are ) in a satisfactory manner . One conclusion is obvious , that in the latitudes of 51 ? and 53 ? the striking regularity and magnitude of the double period which prevail in the tropics do not subsist . The minimum of the dry air coincides at the three stations , as nearly as may be , with the warmest hour of the day ( 2 or 3 hours ) . There is also , at each of the three stations , an approximate maximum at or near the coldest hour . At Barnaoul and Nertchinsk the progression between the hours of minimum and maximum is uninterrupted ; at Kew it is obvious that a single year is not sufficient to justify conclusions in this respect . Regarding the Humidity , the minimum , or dryest hour of the 24 , is in all cases coincident with , or closely following upon , the warmest hour ; and the hour of greatest humidity that of the lowest temperature . Kew rlhere have been some few occasions in this , the first year at Kew , when the continuity of the trace from the wet thermometer failed , in consequence'of the freezing of the water by which its ball was wetted , or owing to other causes . Arrangements have now been made to meet these difficulties in continuous registration . t The Tables employed in the calculation of the values inserted in the columns of " Elastic Force of Vapour " and " Hunidity " have been the well-known Russian Tables , ' Tables Psychrom6triques et Barometriques a l'usage des Observatoires Meteorologiques de l'Empire de Russie . ' Very convenient Tables have.also been published by the Sm:ithsonian Institution , computed by Dr. Guyot . Two of the three stations of the present paper being Russian , it was deemed advisable to employ the Russian ' Tables Psychromitriques , &c. ' for the reduction of the results in the present paper . 6 [ June 17 , and Barnaoul have , on the mean , almost exactly the same degree of humidity , the greater amount of vapour at Kew being balanced , in its influence on the humidity , by the higher temperature . Nertchinsk is both the coldest and the driest . So far as the purposes of the Meteorological Committee can yet be considered as settled , it is their intention to combine the results of every five years of observation into a Table of Diurnal Variations , similar to that which is now presented for Kew for a single year . A second period of five years will yield a second Table ; and two such combined will form a tenyear Table , more satisfactory than either of its two component parts , but still open to correction by incorporation with subsequent periods of equal duration . The other six observatories of the system established by the British Government , viz. Aberdeen , Armagh , Falmouth , Glasgow , Stonyhurst , and Valencia* , have received their instruments , which had been prepared and verified at the Central Observatory ( Kew ) , where also those who were to work with them had received personal instruction in their use ; and on the completion of these and all other needful arrangements , the six observatories commenced on July 1 , 1868 , a continuous record corresponding in all respects to that at Kew . The photograms and the tabulations prepared from them at the several observatories are transmitted monthly to Kew , where they undergo careful examination , and revision if required ; and at the expiration of a second month they are sent , with the records prepared at Kew itself , to the Meteorological Office , where , under the direction of Mr. Scott , they are formed into Tables , and used for all meteorological purposes for which they may be available . The mode and extent in which the information thus obtained may be most suitably communicated to the public are not yet fully determined , but are receiving careful consideration . Table II . ( which occupies the next 5 or 6 pages ) exhibits the annual variations at the three stations , analogous to the diurnal variations shown in Table I. It is obvious that such Tables cannot but assist greatly in studying the climatological phenomena in different localities ; but a discussion of them would be premature until a wider observational basis is provided . It was the purpose of the Committee , approved by the Board of Trade , that there should have been an eighth meteorological station , viz. one in the north of Scotland . In the first estimate sent to the Treasury by the Board of Trade , the necessary cost of such a station was included ; but on the receipt of a letter from the Treasury to the Board of Trade , June 5 , 1867 , stating that " in the estimates for the current year My Lords are aware that they have proposed a less sum than had been estilmated for , and intend that the arrangements to be made by the Committee should be curtailed accordingly , " the meteorological station in the north of Scotland was in consequence curtailed . 7

112698

3701662

On the Connexion between Oppositely Disposed Currents of Air and the Weather Subsequently Experienced in the British Islands

12

15

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Robert H. Scott

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0005

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112698

10.1098/rspl.1869.0005

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112698

Meteorology

Geography

Meteorology

XII . " On the Connexion between oppositely disposed Currents of Air and the Weather subsequently experienced in the British Islands . " By ROBERT PI . SCOTT , MI . A. , Director of the Meteorological Office . Communicated by the President . Received June 17 , 1869 . In the number of the 'Proceedings of the Meteorological Society ' for February 1869 , there is a paper by Mr. Charles Meldrum , of the Mauritius , on the connexion between the rotation of the wind in the Southern Indian Ocean and the positions of oppositely directed air-currents . In this paper the author expresses his opinion that the tropical hurricanes of the Southern Indian Ocean invariably originate between two opposite streams of air . More than a year previous to the appearance of Mr. Meldrum 's paper my own attention had been drawn to the occurrence in these islands of some remarkable storms , which appeared to be connected with the previous existence at the earth 's surface of the two wind-currents , polar and equatorial , in close proximity to each other . The first occasion on which this was noticed by me was on January 22 , Humidity of the Air . BARNAOUL.-Humidity of the Air . 63 63 59 6o 8I 86 93 94 85 56 47 51 56 59 64 66 82 94 o. 60 60 56 58 79 86 93 94 84 55 455 55 6 63 6579 95 59 58 55 58 78 85 93 94 83 53 45 50 54 57 6z 62 79 95 2 . 58 57 50 577679 94 93 83 52 45 51 55 5662 63 7995 3 . 5857 52 '60 75 76 93 94 83 53 45 52 56 56 63 6480 96 4 6r 59 55 6z 7574 93 93 83 55 46 52 57 58 65 67 8 95 5 646560o667473 9493 85 57 48 53 6 63 69 69 82 94 6 . 70 71 7I 68 73 74 94 94 85 62 5 58 65 68 73 69 8495 7 7575 72 70 73 74 94 94 86 65 57 6472 737672 85 94 8 . 797975 7 7375 9494 87 68 62 687777787486 94 9 82 8 78 71 73 76 949588 70 65 74 80 80 76 8694 Io . 8 82 78 72 74 76 949588 7 68 7684 82778695 . 84 84 77 72 74 75 ' 94 9689 73 72 78 85 84 83 79 86 95 12 . 868579737474 949690 75 74 80 878684 80 86 96 I3 . 87 86 80 74 73 73 94 96 9 77 76 8 88 87 86 80 7 96 4 . 8888 8 747476 949692 79 78 83 90 8986 8 8796 5 . 89 88 82 767478 9596 92 80 80 84 91 9087 8 8895 I6 . 8989 82 7672 78 95 96 92 8 78 81 89 90 8882 8895 7 . 88 90 83 75 7477 9596 92 79 74 78 8689 88 82 8995 18 8689 82 787577 959792 76 7278 86 85 81 8996 19 . 798477787677 9597 9z 74 646977 8 82 8o8996 20 . 74 79 70 72 8I 79 95 97 91 66 58 62 70 76 78 76 88 96 21 . 70 73 67 68 8 82 959689 61 53 586369737386 95 22 . 66 67 631 64 8i 84 94 96 86 58 5 556o 62 67 71 84 95 23 . _.~~~~~ien 75S 75 7 691 76 78 94 95 88 67 61 661 72 74 76 74 85 95 1868 , when the atmospherical conditions over these islands were very remarkable ; easterly winds were prevalent over the central and northern portions of the area , while in France there were strong westerly gales . The channels of the currents were so close to each other that , while at Yarmouth there was a strong easterly wind , there was a westerly gale at Portsmouth . The contrast exhibited by the two currents as regards temperature was very marked , and a dense fog was experienced in London . Barometrical readings were very low over the region which separated the districts of the respective currents . Next day pressure rose very rapidly ; but this was only the precursor of an equally sudden diminution of its amount , and of the advent of the equatorial current which swept with great violence over these islands , producing a very serious southerly gale on the 24th of January . On the 8th of December last , conditions similar to those of January 22 were observed . Strong easterly winds were reported from Scarborough , while westerly winds of great force prevailed in the Channel and in France . This state of things was succeeded , after an interval of two days , by a southerly storm , the whole sequence of phenomena resembling very closely what had been noticed eleven months before . I Means In order to trace out this remarkable succession of occurrences , it was resolved to examine all the cases in which the polar and equatorial currents made their appearance at the surface of the ground within the area of the British Islands , and to record the phases of weather which ensued . As these currents flow in opposite directions , it is evident that they must move in channels approximatively parallel to each other , so that there are only two cases to be examined . I. The polar current flows in a latitude higher than the equatorial current . II . The polar current flows in a latitude lower than the equatorial current . The daily weather reports for a period of 27 months have been examined , and the result has been that 27 instances of case I. and 30 of case II . have been discovered . These instances are all enumerated in two tables , which are herewith submitted * . In accordance with the relation between the motion of the wind and the distribution of atmospherical pressure which has been laid down by Prof. Buys Ballot , viz. that barometrical readings are lower on the left-hand side of a current of air than on the right , we should expect to find that in case I. there would be a relative barometrical minimum , and in case II . a relative barometrical maximum between the currents . This supposition is found to be abundantly confirmed by the observations . As regards the weather subsequently experienced , Mr. Meldrum states that when the two currents , the N.W. monsoon and S.E. trade , are noticed simultaneously over the Indian Ocean , the channel of the latter lying on the southern edge of that of the former , i.e. in a latitude higher than it , the barometer between them is low and falling . Ultimately the reduction of pressure becomes greater at one point than at the others , and a centre of barometrical depression is formed , resulting eventually in a cyclone . In the instances which form the subject of the present paper , we have not been able to trace the actual genesis of a storm within the limits of our area of observation . MXost of our storms come on us from the Atlantic , and are apparently not formed in the immediate district from which our reports are derived . The result of the investigation appears , however , to show that whereas the conditions of case I. are indicative of considerable atmospherical disturbance , those of case II . seem to show that winds will probably be light for some days . Case I. The polar current flows in a latitude higher than the equatorial current . In other words , easterly winds prevail in the north , westerly in the south . Northerly and southerly winds are nearly entirely absent . Twenty-seven instances have been noticed of these conditions , and they IS are very generally followed after a brief interval by a serious barometrical depression , frequently resulting in a southerly gale . In 12 instances a southerly gale followed in 2 days . , 4 , , , , , , , 3 days . , , 6 , , fresh southerly winds , not a gale , followed . , , 2 , , a north-east gale followed . , , 2 , , a southerly gale set in at once . 1 , , no change of weather ensued . 27 These facts appear to show that the conditions of case I. indicate a deep-seated disturbance of the atmosphere . In almost every case they seem to point to the existence , or at least the formation , of a barometrical minimum over the Atlantic Ocean , which will probably advance to our coasts and result in a southerly storm . On only two occasions did the centre of the disturbance pass to the southward of these islands , viz. the two instances in which the north-easterly gale followed . Case II . The polar current flows in a latitude lower than the equatorial current . In other words , easterly winds prevail in the south , westerly in the north . Thirty instances have been noticed . In 11 instances no change of weather ensued . 7 , , The polar current completely displaced the equatorial current over these islands , and easterly winds set in . 7 , , This displacement was only partial , and north-westerly winds set in . 5 , , Southerly gales or fresh southerly winds followed , 30 It would appear from the foregoing that case II . is not , as a rule , indicative of the approach of a serious atmospherical disturbance , although such did occur in five instances ( one-sixth of the total number under consideration ) . In the great predominance of instances the weather either remained unchanged and calm , or else the polar current succeeded in displacing the equatorial more or less completely , and the winds which prevailed over these islands generally were from points between N.W. and E. It is obvious that , from the very limited area from which our observations are derived , we are at present unable to examine into the mutual action of the currents on each other ( unaffected by any influence exerted on the wind by inequalities in the earth 's surface , such as those produced by an irregular coast-line stretching out into the open sea ) , as has been done by Mr. Meldrum for the Indian Ocean ; but it is hoped that this commencement of an attempt to trace a connexion between successive conditions of weather may be deemed worthy of the notice of the Royal Society .

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3701662

On the Presence of Sulphocyanides in the Blood and Urine

16

22

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Arthur Leared

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0006

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112699

10.1098/rspl.1869.0006

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112699

Chemistry 2

Physiology

Chemistry

XIII . " On the presence of Sulphocyanides in the Blood and Urine . " By ARTHUR LEARED , M.D , R.I.A. , &c. Communicated by C. HANDTIELD JONES , M.B. Cantab . Received June 17 , 1869 . In the course of some investigations into the composition and uses of saliva , I was led to study one of its components , sulphocyanide of potassium , in relation to its presence and action in the system , in a way that has not hitherto been done . Treviranus , in 1814 , discovered that saliva became reddened by a persalt of iron in solution ; and the reaction was afterwards stated by Tiedemann and Gmelin to be due to the presence of sulphocyanide of potassium* . A strange difference of opinion has nevertheless prevailed on the subject . Thus the reaction has been supposed to be caused by a taint of the saliva from carious teeth ; whilst Bernard states that he found it took place only in the saliva of tobacco-smokers . It is unnecessary to produce here the arguments on both sides of the question ; the weight of authority is altogether in favour of the existence of the salt in saliva . By some of those , however , who have admitted that it is an ingredient of the secretion it has been regarded as a curiosity rather than as playing any part in the economy . I have made numerous experiments for the purpose of satisfying myself as to the constancy with which a sulplocyanide exists in human saliva . For this end a solution containing twenty grains of perchloride of iron in an ounce of distilled water was employed . Such a solution is of a lightyellow colour , but it acts better than the paler solution of the persulphate of iron . The mode of procedure was very simple . The saliva to be tested was ejected on a surface of white porcelain , or upon a piece of white paper , and a drop of the test-solution added . The colour which the saliva assumed was compared with a scale of four shades of red on paper , resembling those produced by the sulphocyanide of iron . These shades were labelled " very mark , " arked , " rked , faint , " " a trace , " and corresponded approximately with the colours struck by iron in solutions of suiphocyanide of potassium of the relative strength of o1 , , r , 1 ? x of a grain to the ounce of distilled water . Such a scale is appended herewith . An examination of the saliva of fifty persons taken consecutively , half being males and half females , and of ages ranging from under one year to 65 years , gave the following results : Very marked . Marked . Faint . A trace . None . 25 Males ... . 0 17 431 25 Females ... . 1 10 824 As regards the influence of age and other practical points , the numbers are insufficient for the deduction of trustworthy results . Some points , however , which it is unnecessary to prove by tabulation , were well borne out , and these are sufficient for the present purpose . It was established that in the saliva of the great majority of persons a red colour is struck with perchloride of iron . It was ascertained that the existence of carions teeth is not requisite for the production of this reaction , because it occurred in many instances in which all the teeth were sound . It was further ascertained that tobacco-smoking was not indispensable , because the colour was produced in many cases in which the individual never used tobacco . It was also remarked that in all the cases in which the absence of the sulpho-cyanide was noted , although no definite disease was apparent , the health was feeble , and that , on the other hand , a marked reaction with iron usually corresponded with the ordinary indications of sound health . To this subject I shall afterwards have occasion to return . It is probable that , by means of evaporation , a sulphocyanide would in every instance have been detected in the saliva . But for practical purposes it is assumed that when not discovered by the means described , it is not present . The particular base combined with the sulphocyanic acid in human saliva is a matter of little importance . It has lately been stated that it is not potassium , but sodium , which was long ago mentioned by Tiedemann and Gmelin as taking the place of potassium in the saliva of sheep . The soluble sulphocyanide which exists in the saliva cannot be regarded as an excretion , because it passes with the saliva into the stomach . Whatever its use or its ultimate destination , it seemed probable that a salt of so stable a nature was not decomposed in its passage through the system . This suggested that I should look for it in the urine . Iron , as is well known , yields a very characteristic test of the presence of sulphocyanides . One compound only which it forms , namely , that with meconic acid , is at all likely to be confounded with the sulphocyanide of iron . The great sensitiveness of this test also makes it peculiarly adapted for quantitative analysis , by means of colour . I found in my first experiments that when the urine of a person in whose saliva a sulphocyanide was abundant , was concentrated by evaporation , a reddish-brown colour was caused by the addition of perchloride of iron . But owing to the dark colour assumed by the concentrated urine , and the mode in which precipitation occurred , no reliance could be placed on this as a proof of the presence of a sulphocyanide in the urine . The step which then suggested itself was to decolorize the urine by means of animal charcoal . But it turned out , when this was effected , that the colourless liquid gave no reaction with the persalt of iron . The following experiment was then tried : A solution of one grain of sulphocyanide of potassium in an ounce of distilled water was filtered through animal charcoal . The filtrate was tested with the iron solution . There was no reaction whatever . It was plain from this that animal charcoal possesses the power either of separating sulphocyanides from their solutions or of decomposing them . Various other methods for separating the colouring-matter were now tried with more or less success . The most perfect of these , as regards the removal of colour , was the addition of a solution of sub-acetate of lead . But the use of this solution is open to the objection that acetate of iron , which is formed in testing for sulphocyanic acid , is itself red . It is true that the colour is not so intense as that which was actually formed in most cases ; and it was possible in estimating the amount of the essential colouring-agent present by an easy application of the colour-test to deduct the amount of colour due to the acetate of iron . A modification of the method employed by Professor Harley for separating the colouring-matter of the urine , for the purpose of obtaining urohmematin , proved on the whole the best . It consists in evaporating the urine in a water-bath to the consistence of thick syrup , treating with alcohol , and adding gradually milk of lime . The filtrate from this mixture was found to be of a light-yellow colour , closely resembling that of the iron solution . The ferric solution was added to this filtrate so long as precipitation of oxide of iron occurred . The liquid now assumed a reddish colour , varying in depth according to circumstances . The mixture was then filtered ; but it generally happened that , after standing some hours , a second filtration was necessary . The coloured fluid obtained by either of these methods from evaporated urine is of a bright red colour , exactly resembling that formed by an aqueous solution of sulphocyanide of potassium with perchloride of iron . In some respects the two solutions did not exactly agree . The colour of an aqueous solution of sulphocyanide of iron is only affected by mineral acids when in considerable excess . But the colour formed with iron in evaporated urine is easily destroyed by these acids . The colour of the pure solution is removed by perchloride of mercury , while that of the organic solution is not affected by the mercurial solution . It is well known that in certain cases the presence of organic matter in solution greatly modifies chemical action . The action of acids in the present instance was a question of degree . The colour was removed from the urinary solution by a small quantity of a mineral acid , and it was removed or impaired in case of a pure solution by a greater quantity of acid . The following observation throws light upon the action of perchloride of mercury in the respective solutions . Perchloride of mercury at once destroys the colour of an aqueous solution of sulphocyanide of iron . Blut ) as I have ascertained , if the solution has been previously boiled ( and boiling was employed in the case of the urinary solutions ) , the red colour is no longer destroyed by the mercurial solution . Since , then , these difficulties are capable of removal , the argument by the method of exclusion in favour of the red colour being due to sulphocyanide of iron appears conclusive . There is in fact no other source from which the red colour could proceed in the process by which the urine was decolorized by milk of lime . Some salt of sulphocyanic acid must , then , be admitted to be a component of the urine . For the detection of the salt it is only necessary to evaporate eight ounces of urine in a water-bath . If milk of lime be employed as the decolorizing agent which , for reasons already stated , is to be preferred , the urine should be concentrated to a thick syrup . In the present stage of my inquiries many details are purposely omitted , particularly those which refer to the quantitative determination of the sulphocyanide in many different samples of urine . I may mention , however , that I found the average quantity present in healthy urine to amount to about of a grain in sixteen ounces . Since , then , a sylphocyanide was found in the urine , and was previously known to exist in saliva , it was natural to look for it in other secretions . It was therefore sought for in a large quantity of cow 's milk , and in two ounces of human sweat , but with negative results . Two ounces of pure pus from a cyst on a man 's back were also examined , but no sulphocyanide was found . But as sulphocyanic acid was proved to exist in a secretion from which it may be presumed to enter the blood , and also in an excretion derived from the blood , it was to be expected that it would be found in the blood itself . The blood operated on was in every instance diluted with an equal part of distilled water . The mixture was then evaporated in a water-bath until the red colour was altogether lost , and brown coagula , with apparently little fluid , remained . The mass was strained through muslin by pressure of the fingers . The filtrate was then decolorized by one of the processes already described . Briefly stated , then , it was found that a sulpho-cyanide exists in the blood of man , and in that of the pig , fowl , turbot , salmon , and toad . I also found that when the serum of pig 's blood , procured as free from colour as possible and diliuted . with an equal portion of water , to prevent complete coagulation , was treated with a solution of perchloride of iron , it became red in a marked degree . This result has a special interest , because it was obtained without any previous chemical manipulation , and the presence of ' a sulphocyanide was thereby proved . And this curious circumstance was also ascertained . If a few drops of a weak solution of sulphocyanide of potassium be mixed with this reddened and diluted serum , and the iron solution is again added , no increase of colour is produced . This c2 1869 . ] in the Blood and Urine 19 shows that while the sulphocyanide naturally present in the serum is capable of combining with added iron , the serum possesses the power of preventing the formation of sulphocyanide of iron when both compounds are added and intermixed with it . An analogous masking of chemical action is described by Bernard . He found that when a solution of lactate of iron is mixed with serum , and a solution of cyanide of potassium is then added , prussian blue is not formed , as would be the case if the solutions were mixed in water instead of serum . I have not been able to decide positively whether the sulphocyanide is or is not confined to the serum . Analysis , after combustion , is unsuitable , because sulphocyanides are formed in the combustion of organic matter . But so far as I have been able to determine from the maceration of the clot in water , the sulphocyanides exist only in the serum . The foregoing facts point either to the presence of free sulphocyanic acid , or of sulphocyanide of potassium , or sodium , or of both , in the serum of the blood . This leads to the consideration of that much-vexed question , the cause of the red colour of the blood . So far as concerns exact colour , nothing more closely resembles blood than a solution of sulphocyanide of iron . This is primafacie evidence that red blood owes its colour to the iron compound . The iron is known to be localized in the globules . These are surrounded by a fluid containing sulphocyanic acid in a combination which easily yields the acid when required . Such is the theory at present suggested . I am not unaware of the difficulties in the way of its acceptance . The colour of haematin cannot , it is said , depend upon the iron it contains , because nearly the whole of the iron may be removed without affecting the colour of the hlematin'- . But it is not stated that all the iron is ever removed , and it may be that a very small proportion suffices for the formation of the colour , while the larger proportion of the metal is held in reserve in the globules in the same manner as sulphocyanic acid appears to be in the serum . Having found a sulphocyanide in the blood , it next occurred to me to look for it in the eggs of birds . It is natural to suppose that , since in the process of incubation red blood is formed , its assumed elements of colour would be found in the egg before incubation . This supposition proved correct . Fortunately the albumen of the hen 's egg affords a ready means of research . It is only necessary to mix it with an equal quantity of distilled water , by which complete coagulation by the iron solution is prevented . The albumen of a hen 's egg weighs about 300 grains , and this quantity was found to contain of a grain of sulphocyanic acid . The yolk was intimately mixed with water , then evaporated to dryness in the water-bath , and extracted with alcohol ; but no trace of the salt could be detected . It is probable , therefore , that the sulphocyanide exists exclusively in the * Elements of Chemistry . By W. Miller , M.D. , 3rd edit . p. 872 . albumen , which , as the process of vivification proceeds , enters into combination with iron , which originally exists in the yolk . The presence of a sulphocyanide in saliva must be referred to one of two sources . It is either an exclusive product of the secretion itself , or it previously exists in the blood and is extracted from it as a component of the saliva . The amount of sulphocyanide found in different analyses varies greatly ; my own results show only about half a grain in twenty ounces of saliva from a healthy subject . This nearly agrees with the observations of Bidder and Schmidt . Wright makes the quantity very much greater . If we take the estimate at only half a grain in twenty ounces of saliva , and reckon this to be the quantity of the secretion swallowed in twenty-four hours , the salt might be probably found in the blood and in the urine . If , however , my experiments have been rightly interpreted , it is certain that sulphocyanide of potassium or sodium is not a mere product of the salivary glands , We have seen that it is found in the blood of all orders of vertebrate animals , and we know that fish do not possess salivary organs . Assuming that it is extracted out of the blood , what is its use in the saliva ? Considering its composition , it seemed possible that it acted either as an antiseptic or else as an agent which prevented fermentation in the alimentary canal , and thus indirectly aided digestion . The conditions which favour the fermentation of saccharine matter , namely , acidity and the proper temperature , are constantly present in the stomach . Is sulphocyanide of potassium in saliva destined to check this fermentation , which , under favourable circumstances , may occur in less than an hour ? Carefully conducted experiments proved that it neither possesses the power of preventing ordinary fermentation nor that of checking it when already in action . We shall now see what is its action in preventing putrefaction . Two equal portions of roast mutton were placed , the one in water , and the other in the same quantity of a solution of sulphocyanide of potassium of the strength of 1 grain of the salt to 1 ounce of water . After some weeks the meat which had lain in water was found to be broken up into shreds , and was quite putrid ; that in the sulphocyanide solution was merely softened , and had a sour smell , but was not putrid . Sulphocyanide of potassium , therefore , possesses an antiseptic power ; but whether or not this property comes into operation in the alimentary canal is a question I cannot now decide . I have made many quantitative analyses to determine the amount of sulphocyanide eliminated with the urine in various diseases , including typhus , typhoid , and scarlet fever . Not to enter into details at present , it will be sufficient to state what the results showed with much uniformity . In all diseases in which wasting of the body was marked , the excretion in the urine of a sulpho cyanide , in common with some other substances , was unusually great . This increase of it in the urine was found to correspond with its decrease in , or more frequently its disappearance from , the saliva . This circumstance goes to prove that the salt is not formed by the saliva , but is an ingredient of the blood itself .

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3701662

On Some Elementary Principles in Animal Mechanics.--No. II

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24

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Samuel Haughton

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proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112700

10.1098/rspl.1869.0007

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112700

Nervous System

Measurement

Nervous System

XIV . " On some Elementary Principles in Animal Mechanics."No . II . By the Rev. SAMIUEL HAUGHTON , M.D. Dublin , D.CoL . Oxon . , Fellow of Trinity College , Dublin . Received June 14 , 1869 . In a former communication to the Royal Society on this subject ( Proceedings , 20th June 1867 ) , I endeavoured to establish the two following principles : I. That the force of a muscle is proportional to the area of its cross section . II . That the force of a muscle is proportional to the cross section of the tendon that conveys its influence to a distant point . The first of these principles is true under all circumstances , but the second requires to be modified somewhat in its statement . If the conditions as to friction of the tendons that convey the action of the muscles to a distant point be the same , then the force of the muscles will be proportional to the cross sections of the tendons ; but if the tendons be subjected to different amounts of friction , then the areas of their cross sections will cease to be proportional to the forces of the muscles , as represented by the areas of their cross sections . In my former paper ( No. I. ) , I selected , in illustration of principle II . , the long flexor tendons of the toes of the hea and other struthious birds , and showed that the cross sections of the muscles and tendons bore , approximately , a constant ratio to each other . Now , in the Struthionide , the conditions as to friction of the long flexor tendons of the toes are similar although different in each species , and hence it was easy to prove that the ratios of the cross sections of the muscles and tendons were nearly constant . When , however , muscles and tendons , variously conditioned as to friction , are compared together , the constancy of the ratio of their cross sections disappears , and undergoes a variation depending on the friction to which both muscles and tendons are exposed . In order to ascertain the proportion of the cross section ( or force ) of a muscle to the cross section ( or strength ) of its tendon in the human subject , I made the following observations on the right arm and hand of a well-developed male subject in the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland , in March 1868 . I first ascertained the specific gravities of the muscles and tendons , with the following results ; 33 , Muscles . Sp. gr. Biceps humeri ( long head ) ... ... ... ... ... . 1 050 Biceps humeri ... ... ... ... . 1 054 Brachialis ... ... ... ... ... . . 1 . -053 Mean ... ... ... . 1-0523 Tendons . Scapular tendon of biceps ... ... ... ... . . 1 -112 Radial tendon of biceps ... ... ... ... ... . . 1 119 Mean ... ... ... 1-1155 From these specific gravities it was easy to determine the cross section of either muscles or tendons , by weighing a known length of either one or other . In this manner the following Table was constructed : Cross sections of Muscles and Tendons in an Adult Human Vliale Subject . and Ratios of same . Cross section of Cross section of Ratio of cross Name of muscle . muscle , in tendon , in section of muscle square inches . square inches . to that of tendon . 1 . Biceps humeri ... ... ... ... ... 0.895 0'03I7 28'2 2 . Palmaris longus ... ... ... ... oI48 0'0050 26'4 3 . Ext. carp . rad . longr ... ... . 0584 0'0223 26'2 4 . Ext. carp . rad . brevr ... ... . 0-405 00o220 18-4 5 . Biceps humeri ( longhead ) 0'379 0oo022 18'o -6 . F1 . poll , longus ... ... ... . 0-228 900145 15'7 7 . F1 . carp . rad ... ... ... ... ... o234 O-OI55 15'8 . Ext. carp . uln ... ... ... ... ... . 0-2oI 0-0199 o 0-7 9 . Fl . dig . subl ... ... ... .6 ... . o-618 oo0665 9'3 10 . Fl . dig . prof ... ... ... ... ... . . 0-768 o-0928 8-3 11 . Ext. oss . met . poll ... ... ... . 0'223 0'0289 7-7 12 . Fl . carp . uln ... ... ... ... ... . 0182 0o0254 72 ' From the preceding Table , it appears that the ratio of the cross section of the muscles to that of the tendons may range from 7 to 28 , or be four times greater in one case than another . We may also see in general , that the tendons exposed to the greatest amount of friction have the smallest coefficients of cross section . Thus the radial tendon of the biceps has a coefficient of 28 2 , while the scapular tendon , which undergoes the friction of passing over the head of the humerus , has a coefficient of 180 . Again , the Ext. oss . met . poll . , whose tendon winds round the radius , and has the duty imposed upon it of binding down the tendons of the radial extensors of the wrist , has the coefficient of 7'7 , as compared with 26'2 and 18'4 , the coefficients of the comparatively free tendons of these extensors . As it might be objected that the relative cross sections of muscle and tendon , in a human subject that died a natural death , might be exceptional in character , from wasting during the last illness , I determined to test the question by experiment , and accordingly selected a fine Pyrenean Mastiff for the purpose , which I killed by strychnia , and dissected immediately after death , with the following results , which were obtained , as before , by noting the specific gravities of the muscles and tendons , and by weighing a measured length of each : Cross sections of Muscles and Tendons in a Pyrenean Mastiff and ratios of same . Cross section of Cross section of Ratio of cross Name of muscle . muscle , in tendon , in section of muscle square inches . square inches . to thatoftendon.t 1 . Gastrocnemius ... ... ... ... . 2631 0-0520 50-6 2 . Fl . carp . rad ... ... ... ... ... 0-283 00059 48-0 3 . Fl . dig . long ... ... ... ... ... . O'I95 0-0045 43'3 4 . Ext. carp . rad ... ... ... ... ... . 0632 o'oi6o 39'5 5 . Fl . carp . uln ... ... ... ... ... . 0-176 0-0056 31'4 6 . Fl . hall . long ... ... ... ... ... . o-680 0-0228 29-8 7 . Biceps humeri ... ... ... ... ... 0909 0'0449 20o2 8 . Fl . dig . subl ... ... ... ... ... . o'39 0-0251 12-7 9 . Fl . dig . prof ... ... ... ... ... . 0902 0-0830 Io-9 10 . Ext. carp . uln . oI8.I 0-0197 9'2 These results , obtained from measurements made upon a freshly killed animal , confirm those found from observation of the human subject , and prove that the ratio of the cross section of the muscle to that of its tendon depends upon the amount of friction experienced by the latter , the coefficient being greater in proportion as the friction is less . The following observations , made upon a Wallaby Kangaroo , confirm in a general way the preceding results : Cross sections of Muscles and Tendons in a Wallaby Kangaroo , and ratios of same . Cross section of Cross sect ion of Ratio of cross Name of muscle . muscle , in tendon , in section of muscle square inches . square inches . to that of tendon . 1 . Gastrocnemius ... ... ... ... . . I'313 0.0356 36'9 2 . Fl . long . dig ... ... ... ... ... 0354 o-oz46 14'4 It appears from the preceding investigation that the cross section of a muscle does not bear a constant ratio to the cross section of its tendon , unless the friction experienced by the muscle and tendon be also constant , and that there may even be a surplusage of strength in the tendon beyond what is absolutely necessary to resist the combined force of the muscle and friction . This surplusage , however , cannot be supposed to be large , if the principle of economy of material in nature be admitted .

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Researches on the Hydrocarbons of the Series C\lt;sub\gt;n\lt;/sub\gt; H\lt;sub\gt;2n+2\lt;/sub\gt;.--No. V. On Octyl Compounds

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29

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

C. Schorlemmer

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proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112701

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112701

Chemistry 2

Biology 2

Chemistry

XV . " Researches on the Hydrocarbons of the series C , H2 , n+2 . --No . V. On Octyl compounds . " By C. SCHORLEMMER . Communicated by Prof. STOKEs , Sec..IS . Received June 17 , 1869 . After I had found that the octylalcohol obtained by distilling castor oil with caustic soda , is methyl-hexyl carbinol , or a secondary alcohol* , it appeared to me of great interest to study the chemical structure of those alcohols which can be obtained from the different hydrocarbons of the formula C8 H8 , , the more so as Cahours and Pelouze assert that the derivatives of the octane contained in petroleum are identical with those derived from the castor-oil alcoholt , a statement which was afterwards confirmed by Chapmanl + . The hydrocarbons which I used for my experiments were hydride of octyl , or octane from petroleum , and the hydrocarbon of the same composition , which I obtained by acting upon iso-octyl iodide with zinc and hydrochloric acid . The two hydrocarbons , as well as their derivatives , resemble each other in their physical properties so much , that one would be inclined to consider them as identical ; their chemical properties , however , prove that they are only isomeric . ( 1 ) Derivatives of Octanefrom Petroleum . The boiling-point of this hydrocarbon is given differently by different observers between 116 ? and 120 ? ; according to my latest researches , it appears to boil a few degrees higher . After fractionating it for a very long time , the greater portion was found to boil between 120 ? and 125 ? ; it was now heated with nitric acid and again fractionated over sodium . A considerable portion distilled now at 119 ? -122 ? , but by far the largest quantity at 122 ? -125 ? . From this latter portion I prepared the octylchloride , a colourless liquid , which smells like oranges , and boils at 173 ? 176 ? . This chloride was heated up to 200 ? for several hours with concentrated acetic acid and potassium acetate . It was thus completely decomposed ; the chief product of the reaction consisted of octylene , besides that a much smaller quantity of octyl-acetate had been formed . This ether is a colourless liquid , boiling at 2000-2050 , and having a pleasant pear-like odour . It was converted into octyl-alcohol by heating it with an alcoholic solution of caustic potash . This alcohol , after being purified by washing it several times with water , and drying over fused potassium carbonate , was obtained as a colourless oily liquid , boiling at 180 ? -182 ? , and possessing exactly the odour of methyl-hexyl carbinol . The alcohol was oxidized by mixing it slowly with a cold solution of 2 parts of potassium dichromate and 3 parts of sulphuric acid in 10 parts of water , care being taken to avoid as much as possible any elevation of temperature during the reaction . As soon as a permanent brownish tinge showed that a slight excess of chromic acid was present , no more of the oxidising mixture was added . The liquid was shaken from time to time , and distilled after a few hours . The acid distillate was neutralized with sodium carbonate ; only a small quantity of an acid was formed ; the chief oxidation-product consisted of a neutral oil , having the odour of methyl-aeuanthol , and , like this compound , it formed with hydrogensodium sulphite a crystalline compound . The liquid having no constant boiling-point , and the quantity being only small , I did not analyze it , but oxidised it further by heating it with the chromic-acid solution . The acid distillate was neutralized with sodium carbonate , the solution of the sodium salts was evaporated and distilled with diluted sulphuric acid . An oily acid , distilled over the residue in the retort , contained a large quantity of acetic acid , which was obtained pure by several distillations ; from it silver acetate was prepared and analyzed . 0-3355 of this salt contained 0-2160 silver . Calculated for C2 13 Ag 02 . Found . 64*67 per cent. Ag . 64-38 per cent. The distillate , which contained the oily acid , was neutralized with an excess of barium carbonate , boiled and filtered . On evaporation , the barium salt separated in form of an amorphous skin ; it could not be obtained in the crystalline state ; I therefore dissolved it again in more water , and precipitated it fractionally with silver nitrate . 1st Precipitate. . 01535 gave 0'0754 silver . 2nd , ,. . 0-3718 , , 01798 , , Calculated for silver caproate , Foncld . C H11 Ag , . ( 1 ) ( 2 ) 48-43 per cent. Ag . 49'12 48-36 . In the liquid , from which the second precipitate had been filtered off , a further addition of silver nitrate did not give any more precipitate . On evaporating it , small granular crystals separated , the analysis of which showed that they consisted of impure silver acetate ; 0 5540 contained 0'3440 silver , or 63-23 per cent. Besides caproic and acetic acids , a small quantity of an acid having the composition of caprylic acid was formed . This acid was precipitated probably as a basic salt , together with the excess of barium-carbonate , used in neutralizing the oily acid ; it could not be extracted by boiling water . On dissolving the mixture of barium-salt in diluted nitric acid , oily drops separated . The liquid was distilled , the distillate neutralized with ammonia and precipitated with silver nitrate in two fractions , 1st Fraction. . 0*1344 contained 0-0566 silver . 2nd , ,. . 0'0465 , , 0'0203 , , 26 Found . Calculated for C8 H15 AgO2 ( 1 ) ( 2 ) 43'02 per cent. Ag . 42 11 per cent. 43'87 per cent. ( 2 ) Derivatives of Octane from Methyl-hexyl Carbinol . The alcohol obtained from castor oil is easily converted into its corresponding hydrocarbon by treating it first with iodine and phosphorus , and acting upon the iodide thus obtained with zinc and hydrochloric acid . I have already described this hydrocarbon in a former communication ; it boils constantly at 124 ? C. The octyl-chloride obtained from it has only a faint orange-like smell ; it boils at 174 ? -176 ? . Heated with concentrated acetic acid and potassium-acetate to 200 ? , it is decomposed after a few hours , octyl-acetate and octylene being formed in about equal quantities , whilst the chloride obtained from petroleum gave about three times more octylene than acetate . This acetate boils at 19'8 ? -202 ? , and has the same pear-like odour as that described above . The alcohol prepared from it by heating it with an alcoholic solution of caustic potash , had no constant boiling-point ; it distilled between 180 ? and 190 ? ; the greatest portion between 182 ? and 186 ? ; its odour is very much like that of methyl-hexyl carbinol . As I had only about 4 grammes , I could not subject it to fractional distillation . On oxidizing it with the chromic-acid solution , the greatest care was taken to avoid rise of temperature , the solution being added very slowly until a permanent brownish colour showed that a slight excess of chromic acid was present , the vessel being all the time surrounded by cold water . In order to have as decisive results as possible , I oxidised at the same time , and under exactly the same circumstances , 4 grammes of methyl-hexyl carbinol . The liquids were allowed to remain together for a day , and were frequently shaken , then distilled , and the distillate neutralized with sodium carbonate . The two results differed very widely ; methyl-hexyl carbinol was , as in my former experiments , converted into methyl-cenanthol , a small portion of which was oxidised further to acetic and caproic acids . The caproic acid was separated by repeated distillation from the acetic acid , and neutralized with ammonia . From this solution I purposed to prepare silver salts by fractional precipitation , but only one precipitate was obtained . 0 1113 of this salt contained 0 0536 silver . Calculated for C0 H11 Ag 02 . Found . 48'43 per cent. Ag . 48 16 per cent. Ag . The octylalcohol from the pure hydrocarbon yielded a large quantity of an oily acid , and a smaller portion of a neutral oil , but not a trace of acetic acid . The oily acid has the composition of caprylic acid ; it was analyzed as the silver salt , which was obtained by fractional precipitations . 1st Precipitate. . 0-3500 contained 0-1700 silver . 2nd , ,. . 0-3090 , , 0'1335 , , Found . Calculated for C8 Hli Ag 02 . I. IL . 43-02 per cent. 42-86 per cent. 43-20 per cent. The neutral oil had quite the properties of an acetone ; it gave a crystalline compound with hydrogen-sodium sulphite , and was not changed any further by the oxidising mixture in the cold ; but on heating them together , oxidation took place and fatty acids were formed , which appeared to be a mixture of propionic and valerianic acids ; of acetic acid not a trace could be detected . 1st Fraction of the silver salt. . 0'1325 gave 0-0675 silver . 2nd , , , ,,. . 0-2732 , , 01385 , , 3rd , , , , , ,. . 01562 , , 00780 , , Calculated for Found . Silver valerate . Silver caproate . I. II . III . 51'67 per cent. Ag . 48-43 per cent. Ag . 50-94 50-69 50-0 The percentage amount of silver contained in these salts corresponds better with that of valerate than that of caproate ; most probably a little caprylic acid was still present , which caused the amount of silver to be a little too small . The solution from which these silver salts had been precipitated gave on evaporation small granular crystals , having the composition of silver propionate . 0'1738 gave 0'1033 silver . Calculated for C H15 Ag 02 . Found . 59'67 per cent. Ag . 59'43 . per cent. From the results of my experiments I draw the following conclusions:(1 ) The octyl alcohol , obtained from the hydrocarbon C8 IH , , , occurring in American petroleum , consists chiefly of methyl-hexyl carbinol , C6 H , CH OH , and is therefore identical with the alcohol obtained C6 , H13 from castor oil . Not only the physical properties of the two and their derivatives agree* , but also their oxidation products are the same ; they both give methyl oenanthol or methyl-hexyl acetone , CH } CO , which , CO Hhi , by further oxidation , splits up into acetic and caproic acids . Besides this secondary alcohol , there is also formed a smaller quantity of a primary alcohol , as amongst the products of oxidation an acid containing eight atoms of carbon was found . ( 2 ) The hydrocarbon , C8 Hd , which is formed by replacing in methylhexyl carbinol the group hydroxyl HO by hydrogen , is different from that found in petroleum . It gives , by the proper reactions , a considerable quantity of a primary alcohol , and a smaller quantity of a secondary one ; the latter is not identical with methyl-hexyl carbinol , but consists most probably of ethyl-amyl carbinol , C2 ij CH OH , as , on oxidation , it yields valerianic and propionic acids . The primary alcohol appears to differ from the primary octyl alcohol , which has been found lately by Zincke in the seeds of Heracleum slpondylium* . The essential oil of these seeds consists chiefly of an octyl acetate , boiling at 2060-208 ? , and possessing an orange-like smell , whilst that which I obtained smells strongly of pears , and boils at 198 ? -202 ? . By oxydising his alcohol , Zincke obtained a caprylic acid , which solidified at 12 ? , whilst the acid which I got remained liquid at 0 ? . Zincke 's alcohol is most likely the normal alcohol , and that which I obtained an alcohol containing the group isopropylt . ( 3 ) On acting upon the hydrocarbons of the series CnE2s+2 with chlorine , a mixture of primary and secondary chlorides is formed . This is proved by the fact that the alcohols derived from these chlorides yield , on oxidation , besides an acid containing the same number of atoms of carbon as the alcohol , also acetones , or the characteristic oxidation products of secondary alcohols . Not only the above researches show this , but also my former experiments on the oxidation of amyl-alcohol prepared from the hydride , which gave , besides valerianic acid , also acetic acid and the acetone , C , Hilo 0$ . It is certainly very remarkable that the hydrocarbon from petroleum yields methyl-hexyl carbinol , whilst the hydrocarbon which is obtained from methyl-hexyl carbinol is not reconverted into this alcohol , but gives ethyl-amyl carbinol , and besides a primary alcohol . The further investigation of this subject is certainly of the highest theoretical interest ; but there is great difficulty in pursuing this research , as I have already observed , in consequence of the small yield of pure alcohol from large quantities of the hydrocarbons .

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3701662

On the Derivatives of Propane

29

32

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

C. Schorlemmer

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0009

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112702

10.1098/rspl.1869.0009

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112702

Chemistry 2

Thermodynamics

Chemistry

XVI . " On the Derivatives of Propane . " By C. SCHORLEMMER . Communicated by Prof. STOKES , Sec. R.S. Received June 17 , 1869 . The chief product obtained by the action of chlorine upon propane consists , as I have already stated in my last communication ? , of propylene dichloride ; besides this compound , we find in smaller quantities the normal propyl chloride and products richer in chlorine , which boil between * Zeitschrift fur Chemie , N. F. vol. v. p. 55 . t Proc. Roy . Soc. vol. xvi . p. 379 . 100 ? and 200 ? C. To obtain the latter in larger quantities , I took those portions of the substitution-products which boiled above 80 ? , and passed chlorine into them for several days , having them exposed to direct sunlight , as in diffused light hardly any action took place . By this means a liquid was obtained which boiled between 120 ? and 200 ? . Subjected to fractional distillation , the greater portion boiled between 150 ? and 160 ? , but it was found impossbile to isolate a compound having a constant boilingpoint . The reaction of this liquid , as well as the boiling-point and the analysis , show that it consists of trichlorhydrine , C3 H3 C13 , mixed with higher chlorinated products . 0'275 gave 0-8155 silver chloride . Calculated for C3 HE C1,3 Found . 72-20 per cent. Cl. 73-34 per cent. The reaction most characteristic of trichlorhydrine is that , on heating it with caustic potash , it decomposes into hydrochloric acid and epidichlorhydrine , C3 HI C1 , a liquid which boils at 100 ? , and which combines directly with bromine , forming the compound C3 I- , C12 Br2 , the boilingpoint of which is 220 ? . On heating the liquid , boiling between 150 ? and 160 ? , with powdered caustic potash , a violent reaction set in , and , besides water , a heavy oil distilled over , which possessed the somewhat garlic-like odour of epidichlorhydrine , and which boiled between 95 ? and 105 ? . The higher chlorinated products contained in the original liquid were destroyed by this reaction , carbonaceous matter being left with the potassium chloride in the retort . To the impure epidichlorydrine thus obtained bromine was added ; this combined with it with a hissing noise and evolution of heat . On distillation , the greater portion of the compound boiled at 2000-2200 ; the part boiling between 215 ? and 220 ? was analyzed . 0'1835 of this compound gave 0'4455 of a mixture of silver chloride and silver bromide . 0'2955 of this mixture left , on heating it in a current of hydrogen , 0-1928 silver . Calculated . Found.:C 36 13-28 HJ4 . 4 J-48 C2l 71 26-20 26-3 Br2 160 59-04 58-2 271 These experiments prove sufficiently that the liquid boiling between 150 ? and 160 ? contained a large proportion of trichlorhydrine . It is noteworthy to remark that the substitution-products of the primary propyl chloride are identical with those of the secondary chloride , as , according to Linnemann , on passing chlorine into isopropyl iodide , the products which are formed are ( 1 ) the secondary chloride , ( 2 ) probably propylene dichloride , and ( 3 ) trichlorhydrine . In my last communication I have already called attention to the different behaviour of ethane and propane under the action of chlorine . A further instance is the formation of trichlorhydrine , the chemical structure of which is most probably expressed by the formula C 11 Cl-C H Cl -C,2HCl , whilst by substituting 3 atoms of hydrogen by chlorine in ethane , the compound C H3-C3 is formed . The liquid from which I had separated the trichlorhydrine was again treated with chlorine in the direct sunlight for several days . On distilling it afterwards , it came over between 200 ? and 250 ? . The portion boiling between 200 ? and 205 ? solidified in the receiver as a white , crystalline mass . In order to remove from it an oily liquid which it contained , it was pressed between filter-paper and recrystallized repeatedly from alcohol . The analysis conducted to the formula C , H4 C14 . ( 1 ) 0'1462 gave 0'5460 silver chloride and 0-0035 silver . ( 2 ) 0-1282 gave 0-4051 silver chloride . Found . Calculated for C3 E14 C14 . I. II . 78-01 per cent. 78-02 per cent. 78-24 per cent. Tetrachlorpropane , as this compound may be called , crystallizes from a hot alcoholic solution in small needles , four or eight of which are generally grouped together , forming a regular star . Its smell strongly resembles that of camphor . Exposed to the air , it " volatilizes pretty quickly ; heated in a test-tube , it fuses , subliming rapidly at the same time . In a sealed capillary tube it melted at 177 ? -178 ? , and solidified again at 176 ? -175 ? . The liquid boiling between 2050 and 250 ? was very little acted upon by chlorine even in the brightest sunshine and presence of iodine ; also treatment with potassium chlorate and filming hydrochloric acid produced little effect , as , after acting upon it for several days , the liquid boiled again between 220 ? and 250 ? . The portion boiling between 243 ? and 250 ? was analyzed:0-1926 gave 016580 silver chloride and 0'0034 silver . Calculated for C3 Il2 C1 , . Found . 84-86 per cent. C1 . 85'04 per cent. This compound is therefore hexachlorpropane , C3 H1 C16 , a colourless , heavy liquid , which smells somewhat like camphor , and boils without ' decomposition at about 2500 . From these experiments it would appear that in propane we cannot replace by direct substitution more than six atoms of hydrogen by chlorine . This observation gains in interest by the fact that in sextane ( hexylhydride ) C6 H1 , , from petroleum also not more than six atoms of hydrogen * Annal . Che . Pharm , vol. cxxxvi . p. 48 , and vol , cxxxix , p. 17 . 831 Pelouze and Cahours* state that the last substitution-product of this hydrocarbon is the compound C6 H8 C1 . I repeated this experiment , and passed chlorine into pure sextane , first in the diffused and afterwards in the direct sunlight , as long as any action could be observed . Thus I obtained a heavy colourless liquid , which did not distil without decomposition , the analysis of which showed that it had the above composition . 0*1612 gave 0'4654 silver chloride and 0'0076 silver . Calculated for C6 H8 C1l . Found . 72'7 per cent. Cl. 72'8 per cent.

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On Holtenia, a Genus of Vitreous Sponges. [Abstract]

32

35

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Wyville Thomson

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112703

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112703

Paleontology

Geography

Paleontology

XVII . " On Holtenia , a Genus of Vitreous Sponges . " By WYVILLE THOMSON , LL. D. , F.R.S. , Professor of Natural Science in Queen 's College , Belfast . ( Abstract . ) During the deep-sea dredging cruise of H.M.S. 'Lightning ' in the autumn of the year 1868 , the dredge brought up , on the 6th of September , froio a depth of 530 fathoms , in lat. 59§ 36 ' N. , and long . 7§ 20 ' W. , about 20 miles beyond the 100-fathom line of the Coast Survey of Scotland , fine , grey , oozy mud , with forty or fifty entire examples of several species of siliceous sponges . The minimum temperature indicated by several registering thermometers was 47 ? '3 F. , the surface temperature for the several localities being 52 ? '5 F. The mud brought up consisted chiefly of minute amorphous particles of carbonate of lime , with a considerable proportion of living Globigerinca and other Foraminifera , and of the " coccoliths " and " coccospheres , " so characteristic of the chalk-mud of the warmer area of the Atlantic . The sponges belonged to four genera ; one of these was the genus Hyalonema , previously represented by the singular glass-rope sponges of Japan and the coast of Portugal , and the other three genera were new to science . One of these latter was the subject of the paper . Associated with the sponges were representatives , usually of a small size , of the Mollusca , the Crustacea and Annelides , the Echinodermata , and the Ccelenterata , with numerous large and remarkable rhizopods . Many of the higher invertebrates were brightly coloured and had eyes . Four nearly perfect specimens of the sponge described in the memoir were procured . IIOLTENIA , 1 . g.t:H . CARPIENTERI , n. sp. The body of the sponge is nearly globular or oval . Normal , and * Comptes Rendus , vol. liv . p. 1241 . '1 The genus is named in compliment to M. Holten , Governor of the Faroe Islands , and the species is dedicated to Dr. W. B. Carpenter , V.P.R.S. , with whom the author was associated in the conduct of the expedition , 32 [ June 17 , apparently full-grown specimens are from 91 to 1 ] in length , and from 7 " to 9 " wide . The outer wall consists of an open , somewhat irregular , but very elegant network , whose skeleton is made up of large separate siliceous spicules . These spicules are formed on the hexradiate stellate type ; but usually only five rays are developed , the sixth ray being represented by a tubercle . To form the framework of the external wall , the four secondary branches of the spicule spread on one plane , the surface of the sponge , while the fifth or azygous branch dips down into the sponge-substance . This arrangement of the spicules gives the outer surface of the sponge a distinctly stellate appearance , the centres of the stars being the point of radiation of the secondary branches of the spicules . These quinqueradiate spicules measure about 1 " 5tf from point to point of the crosslike secondary branches , and the length of the azygous arm is from 7.5"l to 1 " . Smaller stars , formed by the radiation of smaller spicules of the same class , occupy the spaces between the rays of the larger stars . The rays of each star bend irregularly , and meet the rays of the spicules forming the neighbouring stars . The rays of the different spicules thus run along for some distance parallel to one another , and are held together by a layer of elastic sarcode , which invests all the spicules and all their branches . Between the rays of the spicules , over the whole surface , the sarcode forms an ultimate and very delicate network , its meshes defining minute inhalent pores . At the top of the sponge there is a large osculum , about 3 " in diameter , which terminates a cylindrical cavity , which passes down vertically into the substance of the sponge to a depth of 5 " 5"'t . The walls of this oscular cavity are formed upon the same plan as the external wall of the sponge ; and the stars , which are even more conspicuous than those of the outer wall , are due to the same arrangement of spicules of the same form . The ultimate sarcode network is absent between the rays of the stars of the oscular surface . The sponge-substance , which is about 2 " in thickness between the oscular and the outer walls , is formed of a loose vacuolated arrangement of bands and rods of greyish consistent sarcode , containing minute disseminated granules and groups of granules of horny matter , and minute endoplasts . Towards the outer wall of the sponge the sarcode trabeculse are arranged more symmetrically , and at length they resolve themselves into distinct columns , which abut against and support the centres of the stars , leaving wide , open , anastomosing channels between them . The sarcode of the outer wall , and that of the wall of the oscular cavity , is loaded with minute spicules of two principal forms , quinqueradiate spicules with one ray prolonged and feathered , and minute amphidisci . Over the lower third of the body of the sponge , fascicles of enormously long delicate siliceous spicules pass out from the sarcode columns of the sponge-body in which they originate , through the outer wall , to be diffused to a distance of not less than half a metre in the mud in which the sponge lives buried ; and round the osculum and over the upper third of the sponge , sheaves of shorter more rigid spicules project , forming a kind of fringe . The author referred all the sponges which were found inhabiting the chalk-mud to the Order Porifera Vitrea , which he had defined in the 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History ' for February 1868 . This order is mainly characterized by the great variety and complexity of form of the spicules , which may apparently , with scarcely an exception , be referred to the hexradiate stellate type , a form of spicule which does not appear to occur in any other order of sponges . The genus Holtenia is nearly allied to Ilyalonema , and seems to resemble it in its mode of occurrence , Both genera live irmbedded in the soft upper layer of the chalkmud , in which they are supported , -Holtenia by a delicate maze of siliceous fibres , which spread round it in all directions , increasing its surface without materially increasing its weight , -Hyalonema by a more consistent coil of spicules , which penetrates the mud vertically and anchors itself in a firmer layer . It appeared to the author and to Dr. Carpenter , who had had their attention specially directed to this point as bearing upon the continuity and identity of some portions of the present calcareous deposits of the Atlantic with the cretaceous formation , that the vitreous sponges are more nearly allied to the Vent7riculites of the chalk than to any recent order of Porifera . They are inclined to ascribe the absence of silica in many ventriculites , and the absence of disseminated silica in the chalk generally , to some process , probably dialytic , subsequent to the deposit of the chalk , by which the silica has been removed and aggregated in amorphous masses , the chalk flints . The Vitreous Sponges along with the living Rhizopods and other Protozoa which enter largely into the composition of the upper layer of the chalkmud , appear to be nourished by the absorption through the external surface of their bodies of the assimilable organic matter which exists in appreciable quantity in all sea-water , and which is derived from the life and death of marine animals and plants , and in large quantity , from the water of tropical rivers . One principal function of this vast sheet of the lowest type of animal life , which probably extends over the whole of the warmer regions of the sea , may probably be to diminish the loss of organic matter by gradual decomposition , and to aid in maintaining in the ocean , the " balance of organic nature , "

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An Inquiry into the Variations of the Human Skull, Particularly in the Antero-Posterior Direction. [Abstract]

35

37

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Cleland

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112704

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112704

Anatomy 2

Biology 1

Anatomy

XVIII . " An Inquiry into the Variations of the Human Skull , particularly in the Antero-posterior Direction . " By JOHN CLELAND , M.D. , Professor of Anatomy and Physiology , Queen 's College , Galway . Communicated by Dr. ALLEN THOMSON . Received June 15 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) 1 . A method of notation is suggested by which material sufficient for the formation of a perfectly accurate diagram of a skull may be registered by means of a line or two of figures . This is accomplished by marking the vertical and horizontal distance of a number of points from the postauricular depression . 2 . The longest base-lines , from fronto-nasal suture to back of foramen magnum , are found in savage skulls . This base-line is distinctly longer in males than females ; and the proportion which the arch bears to the base-line is greater in children than in the adult . In the Irish , the baseline is short , and the arch extensive . 3 . The mesial base being considered in three parts , viz. length of foramen magnum , orbital length or profile distance of fronto-nasal suture from foramen opticum , and the foramino-optic line uniting the other lines together , it is found that the long base-line of savage skulls depends both on amount of orbital length and on long foramino-optic line . 4 . The angle at which the line of orbital length lies to the foramen magnum is distinguished as the cranial curvature . This angle in adult Europeans on an average exceeds 180 ? , and in negro and other savage types falls short of that amount . It is also less in infants than in adults , and greater in females than in males . But the variation of the angles at which the foramen magnum and orbital depth respectively lie to the foraminooptic line , is much greater than the variation in cranial curvature ; therefore the two angles mentioned are in a certain degree of mutual relation ; and according to their size , the base may be termed " steep " or " level . " The infant base is much more level than the adult male base ; the levelness of childhood sometimes persists in the female . 5 . The different regions of the arch do not grow equally . The parietal region reaches its greatest predominance in the last month of foetal life , and after birth the frontal region grows most rapidly , and the occipital region next most rapidly . There is no foundation whatever , so far as mesial measurements are concerned , for the supposition that the lower races of humanity have the forehead less developed than the more civilized nations . Neither is it the case that the forehead in the lower races slopes more backwards on the floor of the anterior cranial fossa than it does in others . 6 . The local prominence of different parts of the arch of the skull being measured by means of the angles joining lines passing from point to point in the arch , it is shown that the angles furnish a means of collecting various precise details with regard to national characteristics of form , from which important results may be expected if the plan be worked on an extensive scale . Flatness of the angle formed by lines from the extremities to the midpoint of the parietal arc is shown to be correlated with length of baseline . 7 . As age advances , " gravitation changes " take place , the base being driven in and the lateral wall bulging out , the forehead becoming more retreating , and the condyles flat . 8 . It is sought to be shown that if Dolichocephali and Brachycephali are to continue to be a natural and not an artificial division of skulls , the distinction must be based on the various characters pointed out by Retzius , and not on the mere amount of the " cephalic index . " The proportion of height to length , according to the writer , is more important than the proportion of breadth to length . He proposes that Hindoo skulls should be considered as belonging to a subdivision Brachycephali angustiores , and that the Germans should be considered as Dolichocephali latiores . 9 . The value of " radial " measurements from the postauricular depression is tested , and it is shown that a classification of some value may be based on them , but that they are defective in consequence of the variability of the position of the postauricular depression , in both vertical and horizontal direction , as compared with the front of the foramen magnum . That position varies in different races , and is affected by gravitation changes . 10 . The position of greatest breadth varies according to the time of life , and as the spaces adjacent to the mesial and lateral roof-ridges are well filled or ill filled ; and an hypothesis is advanced in explanation of this , and of the mesial ridge being prominent in savage skulls , although the ridge on the foetal skull disappears in childhood . 11 . Orthognathism and prognathism are shown to be concrete results of a variety of circumstances , some of them not connected with the anatomy of the face , as , for example , the degree of cranial curvature . The extent to which the face projects from underneath the skull must be measured by an angle contained between the fore part of the face and the floor of the anterior fossa only of the skull , the curves of the base of the skull further back having really nothing to do with the matter . This projection of the face is great in French skulls , considerable in Scotch , and small in Irish and German skulls . 12 . The facial angle is affected by the height of the ear above the foramen magnum , while prognathism is not . 13 . The condyles of the skull become more and more prominent in front from infancy to adult life , and thus tilt the skull more and more backwards . By this rotation balance is preserved , seeing that the fore part of the head and the face are the parts which proportionally increase in size as growth proceeds , and their increased proportion of weight is made up for by a greater amount being thrown behind the vertebral column . There is less tilting back in the female head than the male . 14 . This principle is shown to be most important in Artistic Anatomy . 15 . In the lower animals the cerebral curvature is of very different amount in different species , the most advanced animals having it greatest .

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Researches on Vanadium.--Part II. [Abstract]

37

42

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Henry E. Roscoe

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112705

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112705

Chemistry 2

Thermodynamics

Chemistry

XIX . " Researches on Vanadium."-Part II . By HENRY E. RoscoE , B.A. , Ph. D. , F.R.S. Received June 16 . Read June 17 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) On the Chlorides of Vanadium and Metallic Vanadium In the first part of these researches ( ' Bakerian Lecture , ' Phil. Trans. 1868 , pt . i. ) the author stated that the chlorides of vanadium , and probably also the metal itself , could be prepared from the mononitride , the only compound of vanadium not containing oxygen then known . The process for obtaining the mononitride described in the last communication was that adopted by Berzelius for preparing the substance which he conceived to be metal , but which in reality is mononitride . This method consists in the action of ammonia on the oxitri-chloride ; but it cannot be 37 employed for the preparation of large quantities of nitride , owing to the violence of the action and consequent loss of material . The author , seeking for a more economical method , found that if the ammonium metavanadate ( NH , V03 ) be heated for a sufficiently long time at a white heat in a current of dry ammonia , pure vanadium mononitride remains behind . Analysis of a sample thus prepared gave 79'6 per cent. of vanadium and 20*2 per cent. of nitrogen , theory requiring 78'6 and 21'4 per cent. respectively . The mononitride may likewise be directly prepared by igniting vanadium trioxide ( V 03O ) in a current of ammonia at a white heat in a platinum tube , and also by subjecting the dichloride to the same treatment . The Chlorides of Vanadium.-Three chlorides of vanadium have been prepared , viz.:Vanadium tetrachloride ... . VCI4 Vanadium trichloride ... . . VC13 Vanadium dichloride ... . . VC12 1 . Vanadium Tetrachloride VClI , molec . wt.=193'3 , V.D.=96-6 ( H= l).-This chloride is formed as a dark reddish brown volatile liquid , when metallic vanadium or the mononitride is burnt in excess of chlorine . The first method adopted for the preparation of this chloride was to pass dry chlorine over the mononitride heated to redness ; the whole of the nitride volatilizes and a reddish-brown liquid comes over . In one operation 44 grammes of the crude tetrachloride was thus prepared ; the liquid is purified by distillation first in a current of chlorine and then in a stream of carbonic acid gas . On fractionating , the liquid was found to boil at 154 ? C. ( corrected ) under 7601m of mercury . The second method depends upon a fact already noticed in the preceding communication , that the oxitrichloride ( VO Cl3 ) , prepared , according to the directions of Berzelius , by passing dry chlorine over a mixture of the trioxide and charcoal , possesses a port-wine colour instead of the canary-yellow tint of the pure substance . This dark colour is due to the formation of the tetrachloride of vanadium , and if the vapours of the oxitrichloride , together with excess of dry chlorine , be passed several times over a column of red-hot charcoal the whole of the oxygen of the oxichloride can be removed , and at last perfectly pure tetrachloride , boiling constantly at 154 ? is obtained . This reaction , it will be remembered , served first to demonstrate the existence of oxygen in the oxitrichloride . In each distillation of the tetrachloride a peach-blossom-coloured solid residue remained in the bulbs ; this substance is vanadium trichloride , and it slowly burns away in excess of chlorine when heated , forming tetrachloride , The composition of the tetrachloride was established by six well-agreeing analyses , made from several different preparations . The mean result is : Calculated . Found . V= 51-3 ... ... 26-54 ... . . 26-87 Cl4=142'0 ... . . 73'46 ... ... 7302 193-3 100-00 99-89 Owing to the facility with which the tetrachloride splits up into trichloride and chlorine a solid residue was left in the vapour-density bulb , 'and the density of the vapour ( at 219 ? ) was found by Dumas 's method to be 99-06 ( or 6-86 ) instead of 96-6 ( or 6-69 ) . By volatilising the liquid in a small bulb , and allowing the vapours to pass into a large bulb already heated above the boiling-point of the liquid this deposition of trichloride was avoided , and the density was found to be 96-6 or 6-69 at 205 ? , and 93'3 or 6 48 at 215 ? , the last determination indicating that a partial decomposition into VC13 and Cl had occurred . The specific gravity of the liquid tetrachloride at 0 ? is 1-8584 ; it does not solidify at 18 ? , nor does it at this or any higher temperature undergo change of properties on treatment with chlorine . It not only undergoes decomposition on boiling , but at the ordinary atmospheric temperatures it splits up into VC1l and C1 . Tubes in which the liquid tetrachloride had been sealed up have burst by the pressure of the evolved chlorine . Thrown into water , the tetrachloride is at once decomposed , yielding a blue solution identical in colour with the liquid obtained by the action of sulphurous or sulphydric acids on vanadic acid in solution , and containing a vanadous salt , derived from the tetroxide V.20 , . In order to prove that a vanadous salt is formed when the tetrachloride is thrown into water , the solution thus obtained was oxidized to vanadic acid by a standard permanganate solution . The calculated percentage of oxygen thus needed according to the formula 2VC14 +0+ 420 V205 + 8HC1 is 4-14 ; the percentage of oxygen found by experiment was 4-11 . The solution of the tetrachloride in water does not bleach ; but if the vapour be led into water a liquid is obtained which bleaches litmfus . Vanadium tetrachloride acts violently on dry alcohol and ether , forming deepcoloured liquids . The author is engaged upon the examination of this reaction . Bromine and vanadium tetrachloride , sealed up and heated together , do not combine ; on the contrary , trichloride is deposited . Hence it is clear that vanadium does not readily form a pentad compound with the chlorous elements . 2 . Vanadium Trichloride.--VCl= 157'8 . The trichloride is a solid body , crystallizing in splendid peach-blossom-coloured shining tables , closely resembling in appearance the crystal of chromium sesquichloride . It is non-volatile in hydrogen , and , when heated in the air , it decomposes , glowing with absorption of oxygen , and forming the pentoxide . Heated in hydrogen the trichloride first loses one atom of chlorine , forming the dichloride ( VCl2 ) , and afterwards , on exposure to a higher temperature , loses all its chlorine , leaving metallic vanadium as a grey lustrous powder . The trichloride is extremely hygroscopic , deliquescing on exposure to air to a brown liquid . The trichloride is best prepared by the quick decomposition of the tetrachloride at its boiling point , or by its slow decomposition at the ordinary temperature of the air . The crystalline powder obtained by either of these methods only requires freeing from adhering tetrachloride by drying in carbon dioxide at 160 ? in order to yield good analytical results . Calculated . Mean of 4 analyses . V= 51-3 ... ... 32'5 ... ... 32-57 C1,3 =106-5 ... ... 67-5 ... ... 67-42 157-8 100-0 99-99 The trichloride thrown into water does not at once dissolve ; but , as soon as the crystals get moistened , a brown solution is formed , which beconies green on addition of a drop of hydrochloric acid , and contains a hypovanadic salt in solution . This green tint is identical with that got by reducing a solution of vanadic acid in presence of magnesium . According to the equation 2VCl3+ 02+3HO=20V0 , +6HC1 the solution of the trichloride requires 10-14 per cent. of oxygen to bring it up to vanadic acid , whilst analysis showed that 10-1 per cent. was necessary . The specific gravity of the trichloride at 18 ? is 3-00 . 3 . Vanadium Dichloride VCI2= 122-3.-The dichloride is a solid crystallizing in fine bright apple-green micacious plates . It is prepared by passing the vapour of vanadium tetrachloride mixed with hydrogen through a glass tube heated to dull redness . If the heat be pushed further a blackish crystalline powder , consisting of a mixture of lower chloride and metal , is obtained . The dichloride , ^when strongly heated in hydrogen , loses all its chlorine , leaving vanadium in the metallic state in grey crystalline grains . Analysis gave : Calculated . Mean of 2 analyses , VC1= 51-3 ... ... 41-95 ... ... 42-16 Cl = 71-0 ... ... 58-05 ... . 57-88 122-3 100-00 100-00 Vanadium dichloride is extremely hygroscopic ; when thrown into water a violet-coloured solution is formed , identical in tint with the liquid containing a hypovanadous salt obtained by reducing vanadic acid in solution in presence of zincor sodium-amalgam ; and like this latter liquid , the solution of dichloride in water bleaches strongly by reduction . Oxidized by permanganate this liquid required 18-78 per cent. of oxygen ( on the dichloride taken ) to bring it up to vanadic acid , whereas the equation 2VCI , +O3+ 2H , O-V20+4HCl requires 19-6 per cent. The specific gravity of vanadium dichloride at 18 ? is 3'23 . Metallic Vanadium V=51-3.-Although from what we now know of the characters of vanadium it appeared unlikely that any compound containing oxygen would yield the metal by direct reduction , the author has repeated the experiments of other chemists on this subject , but without success . There is no doubt that the metal cannot be obtained by any of the processes described in the books . The only methods which promised possible results were:1 . The reduction of a vanadium chloride ( free from oxygen ) in hydrogen gas , either with or without sodium . 2 . The reduction of the mononitride at a white heat in hydrogen . The first of these methods has proved to be successful , whilst the second does not appear to yield metal , inasmuch as the nitride exposed for 3 hours in a platinum tube to the action of hydrogen at a white heat , lost only 8 per cent. , whereas it must lose 21'4 per cent. on conversion into metal . Notwithstanding the apparent simplicity of the method , the author has found it exceedingly difficult to obtain the metal perfectly free from oxygen . This arises from the fact that whilst vanadium is quite stable at the ordinary temperature , it absorbs oxygen with the greatest avidity at a red heat , and that therefore every trace of air and moisture must be excluded during the reduction . Another difficulty consists in the preparation of the solid chlorides in large quantity and free from oxygen or moisture , as also in the length of time needed to reduce these chlorides in hydogen , during which time unavoidable diffusion occurs and traces of oxygen enter the tube . Again , the reduction can only be effected in platinum boats placed in a porcelain tube , as the metal acts violently on glass and porcelain , and tubes of platinum are porous at a red heat . A description of the apparatus employed is then given , the main points being to guard against diffusion , and to introduce the powdered dichloride into the platinum boat in such a way that it shall not for an instant be exposed to moist air . After all precautions are taken the tube is heated to redness , torrents of hydrochloric acid come off , and the evolution of this gas continues for from 40 to 80 hours , according to the quantity of dichloride taken . After the evolution of any trace of hydrochloric acid has ceased to be perceptible , the tube is allowed to cool , and the boat is found to contain a light whitish grey-coloured powder , perfectly free from chlorine . Metallic vanadium thus prepared examined under the microscope reflects light powerfully , and is seen to consist of a brilliant shining crystalline metallic mass possessing a bright silver-white lustre . Vanadium does not oxidize or even tarnish in the air at the ordinary temperature ; nor does it absorb oxygen when heated in the air to 100 ? . It does not decompose water even at 1000 , and may be moistened with water and dried in vacuo without gaining weight . The metal is not fusible or volatile at a bright red heat in hydrogen ; the powdered metal thrown into a flame burns with the most brilliant scintillations . Heated quickly in oxygen it burns vividly , forming the pentoxide ; but slowly ignited in air it first glows to form a brown oxide ( possibly V,2 ) , and then again ab sorbs oxygen and glows with formation of the black trioxide and blue tetroxide till it at last attains its maximum degree of oxidation . The specific gravity of metallic vanadium at 15 ? is 5'5 . It is not soluble in either hot or cold hydrochloric acid ; strong sulphuric acid dissolves it on heating , giving a yellow solution ; hydrofluoric acid dissolves it slowly with evolution of hydrogen ; nitric acid of all strengths acts violently on the metal , evolving red nitrous fumes and yielding a blue solution ; fused with sodium hydroxide the metal dissolves with evolution of hydrogen , a vanadate being formed . One sample yielded on oxidation a percentage increase of 77'94 , whereas that calculated from metal to pentoxide is 77'98 . Another preparation gave a percentage increase of 70'8 , showing the presence of a small quantity of oxide . On treatment in a current of chlorine metallic vanadium burns and forms the reddish black tetrachloride ; heated in a current of pure nitrogen the mononitride is formed . The properties of the compounds of vanadium with silicon and platinum are then described in the memoir .

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On Paloeocoryne, a Genus of the Tubularine Hydrozoa from the Carboniferous Formation. [Abstract]

42

42

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

G. Martin Duncan|H. M. Jenkins

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112706

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112706

Paleontology

Geography

Paleontology

XX . " On Paleocoryne , a genus of the Tubularine Hydrozoa from the Carboniferous formation . " By Dr. G. MARTIN DUNCAN , F.R.S. , Sec. Geol . Soc. , and H. M. JENKINS , Esq. , F.G.S. Received June 14 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) Paleeocoryne is a new genus containing two species , and belongs to a new family of the Tubulaiidae . The forms described were discovered in the lower shales of the Ayrshire and Lanarkshire coal-field , and an examination of their structure determined them to belong to the Hydrozoa , and to be parasitic upon Fenestellae . The genus has some characters in common with Bimeria ( St. Wright ) , and the polypary is hard and ornamented . The discovery of the trophosome , and probably part of the gonosome of a tubularine Hydrozoon in the Palaeozoic strata brings the order into geological relation with the doubtful Sertularian Graptolites of the Silurian formation , and with the rare medusoids of the Solenhofen stones .

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3701662

Bakerian Lecture: On the Continuity of the Gaseous and Liquid States of Matter. [Abstract]

42

45

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Thomas Andrews

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112707

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112707

Thermodynamics

Fluid Dynamics

Thermodynamics

XXI . BAKERIAN LECTURE.- " On the Continuity of the Gaseous and Liquid States of Matter . " By THOMAS ANDREWS , M.D. , F.R.S. , &c. Received June 14 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) In 1863 the author announced , in a communication which Dr. Miller had the kindness to publish in the third edition of his ' Chemical Physics , ' that on partially liquefying carbonic acid by pressure , and gradually raising at the same time the temperature to about 88 ? Fahr. , the surface of de[Jurne 17 , 4 marcation between the liquid and gas became fainter , lost its curvature , and at last disappeared , the tube being then filled with a fluid which , from its optical and other properties , appeared to be perfectly homogeneous . The present paper contains the results of an investigation of this subject , which has occupied the author for several years . The temperature at which carbonic acid ceases to liquefy by pressure he designates the critical point , and he finds it to be 30 ? '92 C. Although liquefaction does not occur at temperatures a little above this point , a very great change of density is produced by slight alterations of pressure , and the flickering movements , also described in 1863 , come conspicuously into view . In this communication , the combined effects of heat and pressure upon carbonic acid at temperatures varying from 13 ? C. to 48 ? C. , and at pressures ranging from 48 to 109 atmospheres , are fully examined . Atl3 ? 'l C. , and under a pressure , as indicated approximately by the air manometer , of 48'89 atmospheres , carbonic acid , now just on the point of liquefying , is reduced to -4.of the volume it occupied under one atmosphere . A slight increase of pressure , amounting to 9of an atmosphere , which has to be applied to condense the first half of the liquid , is shown to arise from the presence of a trace of air ( -Titi part ) in the carbonic acid . After liquefaction , the volume of the carbonic acid , already reduced to about Tiof its original volume , continues to diminish as the pressure augments , and at a much greater rate than in the case of ordinary liquids . Similar results were obtained at the temperature of 21 ? '5 . A third series of experiments was made at 31 ? -1 , or 0 ? '2 above the critical point . In this case the volume of the carbonic acid diminished steadily with the pressure , till about 74 atmospheres were attained . After this , a rapid but not ( as in the case of liquefaction ) abrupt fall occurred , and the volume was diminished to one-half by an additional pressure of less than two atmospheres . Under a pressure of 75'4 atmospheres , the carbonic acid was reduced to ---T of its original volume under one atmosphere . Beyond this point it yielded very slowly to pressure . During the stage of rapid contraction there was no evidence at any time of liquefaction having occurred , or of two conditions of matter being present in the tube . Two other series of experiments were made , one at 32 ? '5 , the other at 350 ? 5 , with the same general results , except that the rapid fall became less marked as the temperature was higher . The experiments at 35 ? .5 were carried as far as 107 atmospheres , at which pressure the volume of carbonic acid was almost the same as that which it should have occupied if it had been derived directly from liquid carbonic acid , according to the law of the expansion of that body for heat . The last series of experiments was made at 48 ' 1 , and extended from 62*6 to 109'4 atmospheres of pressure . The results are very interesting , inasmuch as the rapid fall exhibited at lower temperatures has almost , if not altogether , disappeared , and the curve representing the changes of volume approximates closely to that of a gas following the law of Mariotte . The diminution of volume is at the same time much greater than if that law held good . The results just described are represented in a graphical form in the figure given below . Equal volumes of air and carbonic acid , measured at 0 ? C. and 760 millimetres , when compressed at the temperatures marked on each curve , undergo the changes of volume indicated by the form of the curve . The figures at the top and bottom indicate the approximate pres[June 17 , 44 sures in atmospheres ; the volumes of the gas and air are measured upwards from the dotted horizontal line . The author has exposed carbonic acid , without making precise measurements , to higher pressures than any of those mentioned , and has made it pass , without breach of continuity , from what is universally regarded as the gaseous to what is , in like manner , universally regarded as the liquid state . As a direct result of his experiments , he concludes that the gaseous and liquid states are only widely separated forms of the same condition of matter , and may be made to pass into one another by a series of gradations so gentle that the passage shall nowhere present any interruption or breach of continuity . From carbonic acid as a perfect gas , to carbonic acid as a perfect liquid , the transition may be accomplished by a continuous process , and the gas and liquid are only distant stages of a long series of continuous physical changes . Under certain conditions of temperature and pressure , carbonic acid finds itself , it is true , in a state of instability , and suddenly passes , without change of pressure or temperature , but with the evolution of heat , to the condition which , by the continuous process , can only be reached by a long and circuitous route . The author discusses the question , as to what is the condition or state of carbonic acid , when it passes at temperatures above 31 ? from the ordinary gaseous state down to the volume of the liquid , without giving any evidence during the process of the occurrence of liquefaction , and arrives at the conclusion that the answer to this question is to be found in the intimate relations which subsist between the gaseous and liquid states of matter . In the abrupt change which occurs when the gases are compressed to a certain volume at temperatures below the critical point , molecular forces are brought into play , which produce a sudden change of volume , and during this process it is easy to distinguish , by optical characters , the carbonic acid which has collapsed from that which has not changed its volume . But when the same change is effected by the continuous process , the carbonic acid passes through conditions which lie between the ordinary gaseous and ordinary liquid states , and which we have no valid grounds for referring to the one state rather than to the other . Nitrous oxide , hydrochloric acid , ammonia , sulphuric ether , sulphuret of carbon , all exhibited critical points when exposed under pressure to the required temperatures . The author proposes for the present arbitrary distinction between vapours and gases , to confine the term vapour to gaseous bodies at temperatures below their critical points , and which therefore can be liquefied by pressure , so that gas and liquid may exist in the same vessel in presence of one another . The possible continuity of the liquid and solid states is referred to as a problem of far greater difficulty than that which forms the subject of this communication , and as one which cannot be resolved without careful investigation . 1869 . ] 45

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The Physiological Action of Atropine, Digitaline, and Aconitine on the Heart and Blood-Vessels of the Frog. [Abstract]

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48

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Frederic B. Nunneley

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112708

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112708

Nervous System

Biology 2

Nervous System

XXII . " The Physiological Action of Atropine , Digitaline , and Aconitine on the Heart and Blood-vessels of the Frog . " By FREDERIC B. NUNNELEY , M.D. Lond. Communicated by Dr. BASTIAN . Received June 16 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) These experiments were undertaken with the view of determining more exactly the physiological action of atropine , digitaline , and aconitine on the heart and blood-vessels , by methods of experiment which have hitherto been little followed out . My experiments on atropine have led me to the conclusion that it exerts no action on the blood-vessels , a result which differs from that of Mr. Wharton Jones and of M. Meuriot . This opinion was adopted after a lengthened examination of the natural circulation in the frog 's web , and of the numerous spontaneous changes which it undergoes , and also of those which are the result of the slightest irritation . It is some of these changes which have , I think , been assigned by the observers just named to the special action of atropine . Different opinions have been entertained with regard to the action of digitaline on the heart ; the result of my observations is given below . Aconitine has also a very marked action on the heart , the opposite of that of digitaline ; its physiological effects are stated . In actually conducting the experiments , the general symptoms of a poisonous dose were first observed , so as to show the period at which the heart lost its vitality in relation to the rest of the body . Next , the visible effect produced on the heart , exposed in situ , was noted as regards the quality , frequency and rhythm of its contractions ; and also the alteration seen to occur in a heart removed from the body and immersed in a solution of the alkaloid . Lastly , the effect on the blood-vessels of the web , was examined with the aid of the microscope . The results obtained have been thrown into the form of conclusions . Atropine , digitaline , and aconitine do not produce any effect on the vessels of , or circulation in , the frog 's web , whether locally applied in the form of solution , or injected under the skin at a distant part , so as to influence the animal generally ; in the latter case , as they tend to impair or abolish the functions of the heart , the circulation necessarily undergoes secondary changes ; but these alterations do not occur until the heart is visibly affected . Atropine.-1 . A few minutes after a dose of about 0 gr. , the frog becomes quiet , sinks down on the plate containing it and makes ineffectual efforts to jump , the respiratory movements cease and it dies in from 1U to 3 hours . On exposing the heart , it is found beating , and the contractions continue for some hours . 2 . The action of atropine on the heart is neither considerable nor ener getic , a progressive weakening of its power being the most prominent visible effect . The heart continues to beat for some time after the manifestations of life in the rest of the animal have disappeared ; finally it slowly dies itself , the ventricle being left in a state of relaxation ; this occurs at the end of ten , twelve , or several more hours . 3 . The heart 's contraction gradually decreases in frequency and there is no primary acceleration . The rhythm of the heart 's action is not interfered with ; the auricles continue to beat for some time after the ventricle has ceased to do so . 4 . When the heart is removed from the body and immersed in a solution of sulphate of atropine , it ceases to contract in about the same time that a heart does placed in water ; its appearance does not undergo any change . 5 . The pupil of the frog 's eye is not dilated by atropine , either when locally applied or injected under the skin . 6 . The lymphatic hearts cease to contract long before the blood-heart . Digitaline.-l . After the injection of about -~l gr. under the skin , the frog at first jumps about , then becomes quiet , sinks down on the plate , cannot be easily roused and dies in about from twenty to forty minutes . Sometimes the frog has paroxysms of gasping movements , lasting from twenty to fifty seconds , in which it holds its mouth wide open , leaning on its fore paws . These attacks are paroxysmal , whilst the embarrassment of the heart is continuous . On opening the frog , the heart is found motionless and usually unirritable , the ventricle being small and pale . Where digitaline if put into the mouth it causes a great secretion of fluid ; in cats the salivation is very marked . 2 . Digitaline acts with great energy on the heart , throwing it into violent and disorderly contractions which quickly end in a cessation of movement . The first visible effect occurs a short time after the injection under the skin , and consists in a diminished range of the heart 's movements ; but the most marked alteration is a certain embarrassment and loss of smoothness in the heart 's contractions , as if there were a want of coordination in the contractions of the individual fibres . The ventricular systole presents a peculiar appearance and takes a longer time for its performance than in health ; it appears to travel along , squeezing the heart up , as it were , and forcing the blood into one spot , which becomes bright red and projecting ; at the same time there are prominent muscular bundles on the surface of the ventricle giving it an irregular motion . During diastole , the ventricle does not everywhere assume a red colour , but one or more irregular red spots appear as if it were so firmly contracted as only to permit the entrance of a small quantity of blood . These spots become smaller and smaller , until at last the ventricle is left very pale , strongly contracted and motionless , whilst the auricles are distended with blood . 3 . The frequency of the heart 's contractions is not increased , but is progressively diminished . 4 . The functions of the heart are abolished very early , voluntary power , as shown by the frog 's ability to jump about with its heart motionless and contracted , reflex acts and the contractility of the lymphatic hearts surviving the death of that organ . 5 . The rhythm of the heart 's contractions is but little interfered with until near the end , when they become irregular in frequency and force . 6 . Immersion of the heart , removed from the body , in a solution of digitaline causes the ventricle to become somewhat uneven in outline ; the contractions get weak and infrequent and at last cease , sooner by some minutes than in a heart placed in water ; the appearance of the ventricle when it has ceased to beat , presents little that is peculiar , except that it often looks uneven . Aconitine.-- . After the injection under the skin of about -k gr. the frog jumps about for a few minutes and then either sinks down on the plate , or else falls over on to its back , as if it had lost both muscular power and the ability to direct its movements ; in either case it dies in from twenty to forty minutes . If the dose is larger , the frog falls as if stunned , almost immediately after the injection ; from this state it partially revives , but dies at the end of a few minutes . On exposing the heart it is found beating , but rather feebly , and continues to do so for one or two hours . 2 . When the heart is exposed in situ , aconitine is seen to have a very distinct and powerful action upon it . Its contractile power is quickly impaired giving rise to a peculiar perversion of rhythm . The interval of relaxation of the ventricle is considerably lengthened , whilst the auricles go on contracting regularly , the consequence is that the ventricle becomes more and more distended with blood , at last a limited part of it contracts , this area of contraction increases with each systole until , in time , the blood is forced , at each contraction , to one part of the heart which projects as a nodule , in a short time the whole ventricle becomes involved in contraction and empties itself in the ordinary way ; soon after the ventricle again enters into a state of relaxation when the same series of acts is repeated . Finally , the ventricle is left large , dark and distended with blood , in a condition exactly contrary to that of a heart arrested by digitaline . 3 . When a heart is removed from the body and immersed in a solution of aconitine it ceases to beat a little sooner than one does placed in water , but presents nothing peculiar in its appearance . 4 . The frequency of the heart 's pulsation is increased by a few beats at first , but in a short time there is a progressive diminution . 5 . Although aconitine abolishes the functions of the heart in a comparatively short time , voluntary power , reflex acts and the contractility of the lymphatic hearts disappear some time before the blood-heart ceases to beat . The results obtained in about 170 experiments formed the basis for these conclusions . 48

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Fourth and Concluding Supplementary Paper on the Calculation of the Numerical Value of Euler's Constant

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49

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William Shanks

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0016

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112709

10.1098/rspl.1869.0016

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112709

Tables

Biography

Tables

XXIII . " Fourth and concluding Supplementary Paper on the Calculation of the Numerical Value of E-iler 's Constant . " By WILLIAM SHANKS . Communicated by Proofessor STOKES , Sec. R.S. Received June 14 , 1869 . When n= 10000 , we have + ~,1 -+I 1+2+S+ X ... . T* 9-78760 60360 44382 26417 84779 04851 60533 48592 62945 57772 17183 89460 97673 221+ Loge 100l 0+ ? _ 9'21039 03719 76182.73607 19658 18737 45683 04044 05954 51509 19041 33305 21764 185+ Result of " Bernoilli 's " =+ 00000 00008 33333 33250 00000 03968 25392 65873 02344 87732 37845 49617 88207 355 , &c. E= *57721 56649 01532 86060 65120 90082 40243 10421 59335 93995 35988 05773 64116 391 . On comparing the value of E when n is taken 10000 , with former values already given , we cannot but conclude that the limits assigned to the value of E in the Third Supplementary Paper have been confirmed , and that nothing more seems requisite as to the determining of the numerical value of this curious constant .

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On the Refraction-Equivalents of the Elements. [Abstract]

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51

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. H. Gladstone

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112710

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112710

Chemistry 2

Tables

Chemistry

XXIV . C On the Refraction-Equivalents of the Elements . " By J. H. GLADSTONE , Ph. D. , F.R.S. Received June 17 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) This paper is a continuation of the researches on refraction which have been already published by the author in conjunction with the Rev. T. Pelham Dale* . It is divided into two parts the data , and the deductions . The data , consist of the refraction-equivalents of some simple and many compound bodies , calculated from the indices observed by various chemists and physicists , or by the author himself ; together with a series of observations on about 150 salts in solution . The method of examining these , and the nature of the inference to be drawn from such experiments , have already been explained in the Proceedings of the Royal Society , 1868 , pp. 440444 . The deductions consist of a comparison of the evidence bearing on each elementary substance , beginning with carbon , hydrogen , and oxygen , which were in the first instance determined by Landolt . In the case of some elements all the means of calculation lead to the same number within probable errors of experiment ; but in the case of others two or more ; Phil. Trans , 1863 , p. 317 . different equivalents are indicated . Thus iron has one value in the ferrous and another in the ferric salts ; and the more highly oxidized compounds of sulphur , phosphorus , arsenic , and nitrogen give different numbers from those given by their simpler combinations . The refraction-equivalent of potassium is estimated from a variety of sources , and the number thus arrived at is employed for the calculation of the other metals that give soluble salts , and for the radicals with which they are combined . The following Table gives the general results of these deductions : Eilement . Atomic Ilefraction-equivalent . Specific refractive weight . energy . Aluminium ... . . Antimony ... ... ... Arsenic ... ... ... ... Barium ... ... ... ... Boron ... ... ... . Bromine ... ... ... ... Cadmium ... ... ... Caesium ... ... ... ... Calcium ... ... ... . . Carbon ... ... ... ... Cerium ... ... ... ... Chlorine ... ... ... . . Chromium ... ... ... Cobalt ... ... ... ... Copper ... ... ... ... Didymium ... ... ... Fluorine ... ... ... ... Gold ... ... ... ... ... Hydrogen ... ... ... Iodine ... ... ... ... Iron ... ... ... ... ... Lead ... ... ... ... ... Lithium ... ... ... ... Magnesium ... . . Manganese ... ... ... Mercury ... ... ... ... Nickel ... ... ... ... ... Nitrogen ... ... ... ... Oxygen ... ... ... ... Palladium ... ... ... Phosphorus ... ... Platinum ... ... ... Potassium ... ... ... Rhodium ... ... ... Rubidium ... ... ... Silicon ... ... ... ... Silver ... ... ... ... . . Sodium ... ... ... ... Strontium ... ... ... Sulphur ... ... ... ... Thallium ... ... ... Tin ... ... ... ... ... ... Titanium ... ... ... Vanadium ... ... . . Zinc ... ... ... ... ... Zirconium ... ... ... 27-4 122 75 137 11 80 112 133 40 12 92 35.5 52-2 58'8 63-4 96 19 197 1 127 56 207 7 24 55 200 58'8 14 16 106-5 31 197-4 39-1 104-4 85-4 28 108 23 87-5 32 204 118 50 51-2 65-2 89-6 8-4 245§ 15-4 ( other values ? ) 15'8 4-0 15-3 In dissolved salts 16-9 13'6 13-7§ 10-4 5'0 13-6§ 9-9 In dissolved salts 10-7 15-9 In chromates 23 § 10-8 11-6 12-8 § 1-4§ 24-0§ 1-3 In hydracids 3-5 24-5 In dissolved salts 27-2 12-0 In ferric salts 20-1 24-8 3-8 70 12-2 In permanganate 26-2 § 20-2§ 10-4 4-1 In high oxides 5-3 2-9 22-4 § 18-3 ( other values ? ) 26-0 8-1 24-2 § 14-0 7-5 ? In silicates 6-8 15-7§ 48 13-6 16-0 ( other values ? ) 21-6 § 19-2§ 25-5 § 25-3 § 10-2 210 ? 0-307 0-201 ? 0'205 0'115 0-364 0-191 or 0-211 0-121 0'103 ? 0-260 0-417 0-148 ? 0-279 or 0-301 0-305 or 0-441 ? 0-184 0'183 0-133 ? 0-073 ? 0-122§ 1-3 or 3-5,0-193 or 0-214 0-214 or 0-359 0-120 0-543 0-292 0-222 or 0-476 ? 0'101 ? 0-177 0-293 or 0-379 0'181 0-210 ? 0'590 0-132 0-207 0-232 ? 0-164 0-268 ? or 0-243 0-145 ? 0-209 0-155 0O500 0'106 ? 0-163 ? 0-510 ? 0-494 ? 0-156 0-234 ? The equivalents that have been deduced from only one compound , or of which the different determinations are not fairly accordant , are marked ? in the above Table . The specific refractive energy of a body is in some respects worthy of more consideration than the refraction-equivalent , since , being only the refractive index minus 1 divided by the density , it is a physical property independent of chemical theories as to the atomic weight . Among suggestive facts are noticed the extreme energy of hydrogen ; the existence of pairs of analogous elements having the same , or nearly the same , energy , -as bromine and iodine , arsenic and antimony , potassium and sodium , manganese and iron , nickel and cobalt ; and that among the metals capable of forming soluble salts there is some connexion between their power to saturate the affinities of other elements , and their power to retard the rays of light .

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On the Structure of the Cerebral Hemispheres. [Abstract]

51

59

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. H. Broadbent

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112711

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112711

Neurology

Biology 2

Neurology

XXV . " On the Structure of the Cerebral Hemispheres . " B3y W. H. BROADBENT , M.D. , Lecturer on Physiology at St. Mary 's Hospital Medical School , and Senior Assistant Physician to the Hospital , Physician to the Fever Hospital . Communicated by F. SIBSON , M.D. Received June 17 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) The object of the investigation has been twofold . First and chiefly , to endeavour to ascertain minutely the course of the fibres by which the convolutions of the hemisphere are connected with each other and with the crus and central ganglia . Secondly , to endeavour to ascertain whether there is a constant similarity between the corresponding sides of different brains as compared with the opposite sides of the same brain ; and should this be the case , to endeavour to trace the relation between any anatomical difference which might be discovered and such physiological difference as seems in the present state of our knowledge to be indicated by the association of loss of the faculty of language with disease of the left hemisphere rather than the right . The present communication relates almost exclusively to the first branch of the investigation , and the method pursued has been to harden the brain by prolonged immersion in strong spirit , by which the fibres are rendered perfectly distinct and fairly tenacious , so that with care and patience their course and arrangement may be accurately ascertained . Previous researches on the structure of the cerebrum have been mainly directed to the examination of the course and distribution of the fibres radiating from the crus and central ganglia , which have been assumed or supposed to occupy ultimately the axis of every convolution , the different convolutions being connected by fibres which crossed under the sulci from one to another . It is here shown that the commissural communication E2 51 between different parts of the hemisphere is much more extensiive than has hitherto been described , and that the fibres more commonly run longitudinally in the convolutions than cross from one to another , while large tracts of convolutions have no direct connexion with the crus , central ganglia , or corpus callosum . The preponderance of commissural over radiating fibres is indicated by a comparison of the sectional area of the latter as they issue from the central ganglia with the large surface of white matter displayed in the centrum ovale . The dissection by which this is shown in detail is begun on the under surface of the temporoor occipito-sphenoidal lobe . In this lobe the fibres are almost entirely longitudinal in their general direction . From near the apex fibres can be followed backwards in the two or three convolutions on the outer side of the gyrus uncinatus to near the centre of this surface of the lobe , where they end in the grey matter of a sort of lobule which I have ventured to call the collateral lobule . From the collateral lobule other fibres pass to the convolutions at the occipital extremity of the lobe , to convolutions on its outer side and to the calcarine end of the uncinate gyrus . These convolutions , comprising all those of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe except the gyrus uncinatus , the infra-marginal and parallel gyri , and the continuation of the two latter round the apex receive no fibres whatever from the crus , central ganglia or corpus callosum , but the ant . commissure spreads into them . Beneath these is a beautiful plane of fibres which forms the floor of the descending cornu of the lateral ventricle , except at the anterior end ; it forms the floor also of the ventricle at the entrance to the cornu , i. e. in the eminentia accessoria and of the posterior cornu ; but here fibres of the C. callosum are mingled with those of the plane spoken of . This plane is formed as follows : along the axis of the lobe , in the hollow left by the removal of the superficial convolutions , runs a band of fibres from the apex to the posterior extremity ; anteriorly this hand contains numerous fibres , but in passing backwards they spread out towards the inner border of the lobe into a continuous lamina , which rests upon the lining membrane of the ventricle and its cornua . Some of the fibres run in the upper wall of the calcarine fissure to the postero-parietal lobule , others form a layer in the lower wall of this fissure , i. e. in the calcarine division of the gyrus uncinatus . The G. uncinatus remains as an elevation along the inner side of the shallow valley resulting from the dissection described , little encroached upon by it ; its superficial fibres , however , must be removed to display the plane just mentioned . It encloses the cornu of the ventricle and the hippocampus , and is thus not a solid mass . Its fibres can be divided into two layers , a superficial set , the general direction of which is from the outer or collateral side anteriorly , backwards and inwards to the grey matter on its flat surface ; and a deeper set , the fibres of which at the anterior part of the gyrus occupy its entire width , in passing backwards they converge , and near the inner border have a twisted arrangement , the inner fibres passing 52 [ June 17 , beneath the outer to the grey matter of , the hippocampus and to the splenium C. callosi , the outer fibres crossing over and reaching the upper wall of the calcarine fissure , in which they pass to the posteroparietal lobule and to the callosal gyrus . The anterior enlarged extremity of the uncinate gyrus , sometimes called the uncinate lobule , is connected by bands of fibres with various parts ; it is very firmly adherent to the subjacent structures , and when torn away leaves a patch of exposed grey matter , which has been named the internal grey nucleus . This is about in the same transverse line with the C. albicans , a little to the outer side of the optic tract . By the removal of the uncinate lobule and gyrus fibres can be seen to pass from the apex of the lobe forwards in the fasciculus uncinatus , backwards and inwards along the roof of the cornu to the thalamus , and inwards to the grey nucleus . On further dissection , which will consist in tracing the fibres from the apex backwards to various parts , and in removing little by little more of the convolutions along the outer edge of the lobe , and in a careful investigation of the parts about the calearine fissure , the following appearances will be presented . Along the axis of the lobe a longitudinal ridge with a slight convexity outwards , prominent posteriorly , subsiding anteriorly . On its inner side , from behind forwards , first the posterior cornu : next the outer wall of the ventricle , where the cornua enter it ; this is formed by fibres curving directly backwards into the ridge from the thalamus ( also from crus and corpus striatum , but more deeply ) , they are crossed transversely , however , by a thin lamina of fibres from the under surface of the splenium , which bend down from the roof of the ventricle and then curve forwards in the ridge : next the posterior end of the thalamus , which bends forwards round the crus , and gives off forwards from a pointed extremity the optic tract and lamina of fibres on the outer side of this , which run above the roof of he cornu to the apex . Anteriorly this longitudinal ridge is continuous with the fasciculus uncinatus , and on its inner side are the internal grey nucleus , and more anteriorly the anterior perforated space between which the anterior commissure dips forwards and inwards in its canal . On the outer side of the ridge fibres may be seen to start at the edge of the lobe , run inwards to the ridge , and curve forwards in it , to leave it again on its outer or inner side , or to pass with it to the fasciculus uncinatus . A bundle of fibres taken up from the posterior part of the ridge would pass mainly to the thalamus ; but some would proceed forwards in the ridge , and either turn outwards to some part of the infra-marginal gyrus or apex , or inwards to the internal grey nucleus , or behind it . Others again go on in the F. uncinatus . Fibres taken from the middle part of the ridge , and traced backwards , would mostly curve outwards to some part of the outer edge of the lobe , 1869 . ] 53 but some would go to the tip ; followed forwards , they spread out into a thin fan , and pass to the various points already indicated . By repetition of this process the temporo-sphenoidal lobe will be exhausted , with the exception of a considerable lamina of fibres from the posterior part of the inframarginal gyrus , which passes backwards and inwards to the end of the fissure of Sylvius , round which it curves into the supramarginal gyrus , and another large band from the posterior end of the parallel gyrus , which curves upwards and turns forwards in the axis of the parietal lobe close behind the fibres which curve upwards from the corpus callosum to the margin of the longitudinal fissure . It should be added that large bands of fibres run obliquely backwards in the parallel gyrus to the bottom of the sulcus of the same name , under which they turn to the inframarginal gyrus . When these are removed , the deep parallel sulcus is converted into a deep narrow valley . The fasciculus uncinatus , in the dissection just described , has been seen to receive fibres from the occipital extremity of the hemisphere , and from various convolutions along its outer side , occipital , annectent , angular , parallel , and inframarginal ; fibres are traceable into it also from the internal grey nucleus , these mostly lying beneath those from the convolutions , and it is probable that a few fibres from the thalamus and splenium find their way into it . As it emerges from under the temporo-sphenoidal lobe to cross the entrance to the fissure of Sylvius , it receives a considerable contribution from the overhanging apex of this lobe , and some from the uncinate lobule . Its general direction is forwards ; but a superficial set of filrse mainly from the apex of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe , passes inward as well as forwards , and spreads out mainly to the edge of the longitudinal fissure , passing under the olfactory sulcus ; another lamina appears from beneath the edge of this , having a still more transverse direction , and its fibres go to the rostrum corporis callosi , and to the callosal gyrus , detaching the pointed origin of this convolution from the anterior perforated space . The fibres passing directly forwards spread out under the orbital convolutions to end in the grey matter around the edge of this lobule , some of the more superficial turning into one or two of the gyri at its posterior and outer margin . Deeper fibres run outwards as well as forwards , beneath the convolutions of the island of Reil to the posterior part of the inferior frontal gyrus ; this is a tract of considerable size . The convolutions of the orbitar lobule being entirely superficial to the radiating fibres of the fasciculus uncinatus , must be added to those on the under surface of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe as belonging to the class which have no direct central communications . To this class also must be added , with a reservation to be noted presently , the gyri operti of the island . The summit and the anterior convolutions rest upon the part of the F. uncinatus which passes to the outer corner of the orbitar lobule and the third frontal gyrus , and the fibres arising in the grey matter of this portion of the island curve forwards across the fissure to 54 [ June 17 , the same convolutions ; the corner of the orbital lobule in fact is carried away entirely by the fibres from the fasciculus and island . In the same way fibres starting in the remaining convolutions of the island cross the fissure and turn up in the supramarginal gyrus , leaving the outer surface of the C. striatum perfectly smooth , and converting the Sylvian fissure into a deep wide valley . The wall of the C. striatum thus exposed consists of a lamina of fibres , which radiate in all directions from a small patch of grey matter laid bare at the middle and highest point of the eminence this ganglion forms as seen from this aspect ; and it is possible that there may be here some sort of continuity or connexion between the grey matter of the C. striatum and the overlying part of the convolutions of the island . Except at this point , the convolutions are separated from the C. striatum by a very distinct plane of fibres . The gyri operti are thus connected mainly with the supramarginal gyrus and its continuation along the anterior wall of the fissure . Some fibres , however , pass from the grey matter of the overhanging inframarginal gyrus near the apex into the corresponding part of the island , and about the grey nucleus exposed at the summit of the C. striatum deep fibres from the posterior extremity of the hemisphere and from the F. uncinatus seem to join both the nucleus and the overlying grey matter of the island . The temporo-sphenoidal lobe having been gradually removed , and with it a great part of the occipital lobe , a stage of the dissection is reached at which the distribution of the fibres of the splenium C. callosi and the relations of the crus and central ganglia , as seen from the under aspect , may be conveniently described . On the inferior surface of the posterior extremity of the C. callosum is seen a transverse flattened elevation , which may be compared to the rostrum at the anterior extremity on a smaller scale and adherent to the body of the great commissure . It would thus be looked upon as a recurved part of the C. callosum . In the middle line it is adherent , but the fibres it sends transversely outwards leave the C. callosum proper , and bend downwards so as to cross the floor of the ventricle instead of the roof ; they pass to the hippocampus major and minor , which they contribute to form , and run across the eminentia accessoria , and along the floor of the posterior cornu . The hippocampus minor is formed by the projection into the posterior cornu of the bottom of the calcarine fissure ; but an incision through the bottom of the fissure into the cornu would not split up the hippocampus , but would leave it attached entire to the upper wall of the cornu . The fibres from the splenium , which contribute to the formation of the hippocampus minor , run longitudinally along it immediately beneath the lining membrane of the ventricle , and when reached by dissection from without present a delicate lamina in the form of a groove between two curved tracts passing backwards to the posterior extremity of the hemisphere , the upper from the C. callosum proper , the lower from its recurved process . 55 1869 . ] The hippocampus major may be briefly described as a curved groove or gutter " ( Gratiolet ) of fibres , the upper border of which is formed by the posterior pillar of the fornix , while the lower is concealed by the gyrus uncinatus , the grey matter of which folds over it into the groove , and after reaching the bottom bends up the other wall for a short distance , forming the plicated " C. fimbriatum , " or " Pli godcronne . " The outer surface of the case of fibres is smooth , and for the most part free in the descending cornu ; it adheres to the inferior wall formed by the plane of fibres previously described , but can easily be detached . The course of the fibres forming the case or groove is from the lower edge backwards and upwards round the convexity to the upper edge , where they pass into the pillar of the fornix , or where the hippocampus joins the splenium , into the recurved process . Further details are given in the paper itself . The fibres crossing the floor of the ventricle curve forward , apparently towards : the apex , but are too few to be followed absolutely to their termination . From the body of the C. callosum , at its posterior part , the fibres mostly radiate backwards and outwards into the cuneus and occipital lobe generally ; but a considerable number on the under surface bend from the roof of the ventricle down its outer wall , across the longitudinal fibres from the thalamus , &c. , and curve forwards in the ridge . A considerable proportion of these has been traced to the internal grey nucleus , others seem to pass forwards to the grey matter near the apex of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe . The relations of the crus and great central ganglia may be described as follows . The crus , as it plunges into the hemisphere , is encircled on its inferior aspect by the optic tract ; it then expands into a large fan of fibres , the edges of which are antero-posterior , the surfces obliquely upwards and inwards , and downwards and outwards . The two great ganglia , the C. striatum and thalamu s iav be said to sit astride the anterior and posterior edge respectively of the fan , each having an intraand extraventricular part , the C. striatum being much the larger , and situate above , as well as in front of the thalamus . When the optic tract is removed , the groove in which it rests is seen to present fibres having the same general direction round the crus ; they have been calied by Gratiolet " i 'anse du pedoncle , ' a term which may be translated by the expression " the collar of the crus . " The most conspicuous part of the collar consists of fibres from he thalamu.s , which curve forward round the crus to end in the tuber cinereum , or run up in the wall of the third ren:tricle to the velum interpositum , &c. Within this fibres are seen to turn forwards from the posterior border of both crust and tegment of the crus , to end in the C. striatum , and anteriorly a considerable mass of fibres from the tegmentum curves with a bold sweep round the edge of the crust , and passes backwards and outwards into this same ganglion . 56 [ June 17 , The extra-ventricular part of the thalamus is seen in the descending cornu curving round the crus . From its anterior pointed extyremity it is continued onwards by the optic tract , and it sends fibres ; -1 . Forwards in the collar of the crus . 2 . Forwards and outwards to the convolutions about the apex in a succession of laminte , the deeper fibres passing more outwards than the superficial sets , and emerging from under them along the outer edge of the roof of the cornu . 3 . From under the fibres which pass forwards , it sends backwards a large mass along the outer wall of the ventricle and posterior cornu to the occipital end of the hemrisphere . The extraventricular corpus striatum has been exposed on two sides ; it forms a very large mass , and has a large rounded anterior end , while posteriorly it narrows to a tail-like extremity . The outer aspect forms an elongated eminence , rising out of the Sylvian valley , highest at the centre , subsiding towards each end ; at the summit is the external grey nucleus , from which radiate fibres forwards , backwards , and outwards . Those passing forwards form a large bundle ; they spread out into a fan , and proceed mainly to the third frontal convolution ; those passing backwards accompany the fibres from the thalamus to the occipital extremity of the hemisphere ; those passing outwards with varying degrees of obliquity descend the wall of the ganglion to the Sylvian valley ; but instead of crossing it to the convolutions on the other side , as might be expected from the apparent continuity of the walls and floor , dip between the fibres of the floor , which are the radiating fibres of the crus issuing from the W. striatum , and pass to convolutions in the frontal lobe . A remarkable fact respecting the planes of radiating fibres which form the limiting wall of the C. striatum on this aspect is , that the fibres all seem to have their origin in the small patch of grey matter here called the external grey nucleus , and they come off clean from the mass of soft grey matter forming the body of the ganglion . On the under surface of the C. striatum , which is flat , are seen the internal grey nucleus and the anterior perforated space , between which the anterior commissure passes outwards and backwards from the ventricle in a distinct canal to emerge on this surface . The external grey nucleus also appears in the outer border , and is about in the same transverse line as the C. albicans and inlternal grey nucleus , from which last it is only separated by a narrow band of longitudinal fibres . Here again the planes of fibres , which form the limiting wall of the ganglion , en d in the grey nuclei , and seem to have no communicationl with the mass of soft grey matter they in close . The anterior edge of the fan-like expansion of the crus emerges from the large end of the C. striatum , and , properly speaking , divides the intra-ventricular C. striatum from the extra-ventricular division ; the anterior perforated space , being on the inner side of the radiating fibres , belongs to the former . Before the dissection of the fronto-parietal portion of the hemisphere is 1869 . ] 57 described , a brief account is given of the intraventricular thalamus and C. striatum . When the tsenia semicircularis is removed , and the edge of the C. striatum pushed back , large rounded cords of fibres are seen radiating outwards in all directions from the thalamus with the fibres of the crus , posteriorly slender flat bands of fibres curve backwards from the narrowing extremity of the C. striatum to dip down between them ( together with fibres apparently belonging to the tmenia ) ; they can be traced through the fan of radiating fibres to the extraventricular C. striatum . Anteriorly the soft grey matter of the C. striatum fills the spaces between the diverging cords ; but no distinct origin of fibres in the mass of grey matter is here met with . The plan of construction of the frontoparietal portion of the hemisphere seems to be as follows : The C. callosum divides into two main planes of fibres , one of which turns up to the margin of the great longitudinal fissure , the other passes onward to the supramarginal gyrus of the fissure of Sylvius . The radiating central fibres approach the under surface of these at the acute angle , and pass obliquely between them before the ascending and descending planes have well separated from each other , the central as well as the callosal fibres going mainly to the margins of the hemisphere . An angle is thus left along the axis of the frontal and parietal lobes , which is occupied by a vast longitudinal system of fibres , some of which have already been mentioned as entering this part of the hemisphere from the temporo-sphenoidal lobe . Large bands turn upwards and then forwards from the parallel and angular gyri , that from the parallel gyrus running forward close behind the ascending callosal lamina ; other fibres turn forwards from the annectent gyri , and more anteriorly from the posteroparietal lobule ; still furtherforwards some of these fibres coming from behind bend upwards , and end in the parietal convolutions ; while others start in the same gyri , and pass forwards , the principle of construction being apparently simple , but the details extremely intricate . At the decussation the central and callosal fibres are worn into a compact inextricable mass , and the difficulty of following the different sets is increased by the fact that the central fibres are not transverse in direction like those of the C. callosum , but mostly very oblique backwards or forwards , as may best be seen by examining the bands radiating under the C. striatum from the thalamus ; this necessitates corresponding obliquity in the fissures through which the central fibres penetrate the C. callosum . A few fibres from the under surface of the C. callosum turn inwards to the centres ; but the statement of Gratiolet that all the fibres of this commissure can be traced from the central radiations on one side to the convolutions on the other , is not confirmed . The detailed dissection of the parieto-frontal convolutions need not be given here . It will be sufficient to mention that the posteroparietal and 58 supramarginal lobules are connected by numerous bands of fibres , that the ascending parietal gyri have central and callosal fibres entering their extremities , the middle portion receiving comparatively few ; the first , however , sometimes called the ascending frontal gyrus , seems to have numerous fibres from the centres and C. callosum along its entire length . The second frontal convolution sends bands of fibres obliquely to the two others , and has fewer radiating fibres than they have . When it is removed , fibres can be traced transversely across the valley left from the first to the third . A few additional particulars are given respecting the arrangement and course of the fibres in the callosal and marginal gyri on the internal surface of the hemisphere , and the contrast between the thalamus and C. striatum as to structure and relations is pointed out , the thalamus sending large masses of fibres in every direction , chiefly with the radiating crus , the corpus striatum consisting of soft grey matter enclosed in fibrous planes which arise in the comparatively small grey nuclei , and have apparently no communication with the main body of the ganglion . The thalamus again does not seem to receive terminating ascending fibres , while both divisions of the crus give off numerous fibres , which are seen to end in the C. striatum . The differences in naked-eye appearances indicate differences in the relations between cells and fibres in the two ganglia , the exact nature of which can be ascertained only by the microscope .

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On the Rhizopodal Fauna of the Deep Sea. [Abstract]

59

62

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William B. Carpenter

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112712

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112712

Paleontology

Geography

Paleontology

XXVI . " On the Rhizopodal Fauna of the Deep Sea . " By WILLIAM B. CARPENTER , M.D. , V.P.R.S. Received June 17 ; 1869 . ( Abstract . ) The Author commences by referring to the knowledge of the Rhizopodal Fauna of the Deep Sea which has been gradually acquired by the examination of specimens of the bottom brought up by the Sounding-apparatus ; and states that whilst this method of investigation has made known the vast extent and diffusion of Foraminiferal life at great depths , -especially in the case of Globigerina-mud , which has been proved to cover a large part of the bottom of the North Atlantic Ocean , -it has not added any new Generic types to those discoverable in comparatively shallow waters . With the exception of a few forms , which , like Globigerina , find their most congenial home , and attain their greatest development , at great depths , the general rule has seemed to be that Foraminifera are progressively dwarfed in proportion to increase of depth , as they are by a change from a warmer to a colder climate ; those which are brought up from great depths in the Equatorial region bearing a much stronger resemblance to those of the colder-temperate , or even of the Arctic seas , than to the littoral forms of their own region . The Author then refers to the recent researches of Prof. Huxley upon 1869 . ] 59 the indefinite protoplasmic expansion which he names Bathybius , and which seems to extend itself over the ocean-bottom under great varieties of depth and temperature , as among the most important of the results obtained by the Sounding-apparatus . By the recent extension of Dredging-operations , however , to depths previously considered beyond their reach , very important additions have been made to the Foraminiferal Fauna of the Deep Sea . Several new generic types have been discovered , and new and remarkable varieties of types previously known have presented themselves . It is not a little curious that all the new types belong to the Family LITUOLIDA , -consisting of Foraminifera which do not form a calcareous shell , but construct a " test " by the agglutination of sand-grains , -which was first constituted as a distinct group in the author 's ' Introduction to the Study of the Foraminifera ' ( 1 862 ) . The first set of specimens described seems referable to the Genus Proteonina of Prof. Williamson ; but the test , instead of being composed ( as in his specimens ) of sand-grains , is constructed of spongespicules , cemented together with great regularity , so as to form tubes , which are either fusiform or cylindrical , being in the former case usually more or less curved , and in the latter generally straight . Of the genus Trochammina ( Parker and Jones ) , many examples were found of considerable size , resembling Nodosarians in their free moniliform growth , but having their tests constructed of sand-grains very firmly cemented together , with an intermxure of fragments of sponge-spicules , which give a hispid character to the surface.-T1he Genus Rtabdammiina of Prof. Sars is based on a species ( the R. abysso-ruls ) first obtained in his Son 's dredgings , of which the test is very regularly triradiate , sometimes quadriradiate , and is composed of sand-grains very regularly arranged , and firmly united by a ferruginous cement . Not only was this type represented by numerous specimens in the 'Lightning ' dredgings , but another yet more considerable collection was formed of irregularly radiating and branching tubes , which are composed of an admixture of sand-grains and spongespicules , united by ferruginous cement . These seem to originate in a " primordial chamber " of the same material , which extends itself into a tube that afterwards branches indefinitely . This type llmay be designated BI . irregularis.-Of the protean Genlas Lituola ( Lamarck ) , a large form was met with , which bears a strong resemblance to the L. Soldani of the Sienna Tertiaries . Its nearly cylindrical test is composed of sand-grains very loosely aggregated together , forming a thick wall ; and its cavity is divided by septa of the same material into a succession of chambers , arranged in rectilineal series , each having a central orifice prolonged into a short tube.-The Genus Astrorhiza , instituted a few years ago by Dr. 0 . Sandahl , was represented by a wide range of forms , referable to two principal types , the one an oblate spheroid , with irregular radiating prolongations , the other more resembling a stagts horn , with numerous digitations , passing into one another by insensible giadations . The composition of its thick arenaceous test is exactly the same as that of the test of the Lituola found on the same bottom ; but its cavity is undivided , and there is no proper orifice , the pseudopodial extensions having apparently found their way out between the sand-grains that formed the termination of the radiating extensions or digitations.-The Genus Saccamina ( Sars ) is characterized by a very regular spherical test , built up of large angular sandgrains strongly united by ferruginous cement , which are so arranged as to form a wall-surface well smoothed off externally , whilst its interior is roughened by their angular projections . The cavity is undivided , and is furnished with a single orifice , which is surrounded by a tubular prolongation of the test , giving to the whole the aspect of a globular flask . The family MILIOLIDA , consisting of Porcellanous-shelled Foraminifera , was represented at the depth of 530 fathoms by a Cornuspira foliacea of extraordinary size ; and at the depth of 650 fathoms by a series of Biloculine , of dimensions not elsewhere seen except in tropical or subtropical regions . Of the family GLOBIGERINIDA a considerable number of forms presented themselves ; but with the exception of the ordinary Globigerina and Orbu , lina , these were not remarkable either for number or size . The Globigerina-mud brought up in large masses by the Dredge , exhibited the same composition as had been previously determined by the examination of Soundings ; but it included a large amount of animal life of higher types , whilst it seemed everywhere permeated by the protoplasmic Bathybius of Huxley , as described in the Author 's " Preliminary Report . " The Globigerince vary enormously in size ; and the Author gives reason for the belief that this variation is not altogether the result of growth , but that many small as well as large individuals have ( speaking generally ) attained their full dimensions , lie describes the sarcodic body obtained by the decalcification of the shell ; and discusses the question whether ( as some suppose ) Or6ulina is the reproductive segment of Globigerina , as to which he inclines to a negative conclusion . He describes the curious manner in which the shells of Globigerince are worked-up into cases for Tubicolar Annelids ; of which cases several different types presented themselves , the Foraminiferal shells in some of them being combined with sponge-spicules.-A remarkably fine specimen of Textularia was met with alive , of which the porous shell was encased by sand-grains ; this being laid open by section showed the sarcodic body of an olive-greenish hue , corresponding with that of the Lituolce and Astrorzhize also found alive.-Several Rotaline types presented themselves sparingly in the Globigerina-mud , which are specially characteristic of the Cretaceous Formation . The family LAGENIDA was represented not merely by its smaller forms , but also by a large and beautifil living Cristellaria , that closely corresponds with one of the forms described by Fichtel and Moll from the Siennese Tertiaries , whilst even exceeding it in dimensions . These results conclusively show that reduction in the Size of Foraminifera cannot be attributed to increase of Pressure ; since the examples of Oornu . spira , Biloculina , and Cristellaria found at depths exceeding 500 fathoms , were far larger than any that are known to exist in the shallower waters of the colder temperate zone . But as these all occurred in the warm area , whose bottom-temperature indicates a movement of water from the Equatorial towards the Polar region , it is probable that their size is related to the temperature of their habitat , which is found to be in like relation to the general character of the Fauna of which they formed part . On the other hand , as we now know that the climate of the deepest parts of the ocean-bottom , even in Equatorial regions , has often ( if not universally ) Arctic coldness , the dwarfing of the abyssal Foraminifera of those regions is fully accounted for on the same principle . Besides these examples of new or remarkable forms of Foraminifera , the 'Lightning ' dredgings yielded some peculiar bodies , the examination of which would seem to throw light upon the obscure question of the mode of Reproduction in this group . One set of these are cysts , of various shapes and sizes , composed of sand-grains loosely aggregated , as in the tests of Lituola and Astrorhiza ; which , when broken open , are found to be filled with aggregations of minute yellow spherules , not enclosed in any distinct envelope . These are supposed by the Author to be reproductive gemmules formed by the segmentation of the sarcodic body of a Rhizopod , in the same manner as 'zoospores ' are formed in Protophytes by the segmentation of their endochrome . Of such segmentation he formerly described indications in the sarcodic body of Orbitolites ; and corresponding phenomena have been witnessed by Prof. Max Schulze . But in another set of cysts , of similar materials but of firmer structure , bodies are found having all the characters of ova , with embryos in various stages of development . In none of these , however , does the embryo present characters sufficiently distinctive to enable its nature to be determined ; and the hypothesis of the Foraminiferal origin of these bodies chiefly rests upon the conformity in the structure of the wall of the cysts with that of the tests of Lituola and Astrorhiza , and upon the improbability that such cysts should have been constructed by animals of any higher type .

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Spectroscopic Observations of the Solar Prominences

62

65

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Captain Herschel

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0020

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112713

10.1098/rspl.1869.0020

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112713

Optics

Astronomy

Optics

" Spectroscopic Observations of the Solar Prominences , being Extracts from a Letter addressed to Sir J. F.W. HERSCHEL , Bart. , F.R.S. , by Captain HERSCHEL , R.E. , dated 'Bangalore , June 12th and 15th , 1869* . " ' Communicated by Sir J. HERSCHEL . Received July 19 , 1869 . I have too little time to devote to lengthy descriptions , and so I send you a sketch of what I saw this morning ( fig. 1 ) . I have seen many such views during the last month , but none so distinct in outline as to-day more by token I have been waiting many days for sunshine since I brought my apparatus to its present state . I can only devote a single morning hour to it ( before breakfast ) , but I make a little advance every day . The dark band across is a slit-image corresponding to C ( aperture about 1 ' ) . Through the slit , as through a screen , is seen the monochromatic image of the " chroFig . 1 . mosphere , " a continuous envelope , which may be seen of nearly the same width everywhere . I estimate it at 20 " to 30 " . Through the slit comes also a segment of the true limb , whose light is scattered up and down . It is wanting in C-light , and therefore within the C-image of the slit is seen a dark segment of the sun 's limb , an inversion which nothing but " luminology " can enable one to understand . There are two classes of solar cloud* represented here ; viz. the fleecy and the well defined : in both cases I have taken the liberty of seeing round the corner ( so to speak ) , and giving the whole form as it might be seen by slightly pressing on the tube . With this exception , and a like one due to my having ( to avoid confusion ) retained a slightly stronger definition in the central parts than one actually obtains when so much of the limb is seen , there is , I believe , no exaggerationt . The whole picture , of course , is to be supposed seen on a background of pretty strong solar spectrum ; and the vertical streaky light is to be supposed just short of dazzling-as strong , in fact , as the eye can bear without losing its power of distinguishing relative intensities . A large group of spots ( of which more anon ) was visible just within the limb yesterday , but was not traceable to-day ; it must have gone off near those horns . The universality of the hydrogen envelope , now beyond dispute , would account satisfactorily for the dark C and F lines in solar light ; and one might well rest content there ; but the i ( bright ) line is as persistent in this envelope as a and P ( C and F ) ; yet there is no trace of any absorptionline , corresponding to a , in the solar light . The discrepancy between fact and theory covers something radical . What that may he remains to be discovered . [ The position of B is 1015 3 ( K ) '8 . ] On the 10th I remarked ( and observed till perfectly certain ) that the Cline on the disk varied sensibly in strength ; and at one place , which , I believe , corresponded to the penumbra of a spot-group , near the limb there was a total absence of the line , and a strong suspicion of a reversal ( fig. 2 ) . Fig. 2 . Faculae were noticed round about , / especially between the group and limb ; but there was nothing of the kind visible where the hiatus in ... .7 ... .the C-line seemed to indicate . The / hiatus extended , as did also the suspected bright part within the spotsp . ( a ) . The observation was repeated on __ the 11 lth ( yesterday ) with the same result , except that the brig , t part of the line was not noticed . To-day ( the 12th ) the spot was round the corner . On no other spot examined was anything so decided seen , but the suppression of the dark line has been more than suspected elsewhere . sLastly , I detected to-day , and put beyoncl doubt , that the bright accumulations on the disk ( which I believe are the so-called " factrie " ) give a continuous spectrum ! I first noticed that every now and then there were bright streaks up and down the spectrum as the slit passed over the disk ( or vice versad ) . It is no easy . thing in general to identify certainly the exact source of light whose spectrum you see ; but in one case I had a spot near the limb , and one of these luminous streaks between the two ; so , knowing the direction of the slit , it was easy , on removing the spectroscope , to determine precisely from what point of the disk the light in question emanated . In this case it was clear that it proceeded from a facula in that region . I do not pretend to speculate on the constitution of the sun 's surface , but here are three facts which require explanation:(1 ) A luminous line in the envelope corresponds with no visible line of absorption in the solar spectrum . ( 2 ) The absorption is absent in an ( apparently ) penumbral region , ( 3 ) The facula spectrum is an intensified solar spectrum . June 15th . A Number of ' Scientific Opinion ' has just been lent me , in which I see a oticeof apaper , " A fourth communication by Mr. N , Lockyer " to the Royal Society . It tells me ( what I might have expected ) that I am just two months behind in all that I am seeing . I-owever that may be , the 64 sights themselves are so beautiful and interesting that no other incentive is needed . This morning I showed a magnificent prominence upwards of 3 ' in height ; and she testifies that my sketches do not do them justice . The instrument I am now using is the Royal Society 's spectroscope as fitted up for the eclipse ; but I have increased the dispersion nearly threefold by inserting four compound prisms ( extracted from the hand-spectroscopes ) . These amount to 7 inches of glass and sixteen surfaces ; so you may imagine that there is some loss of light and definition . I have also had to shorten the focal distance ( and therefore diminish the magnifyingpower ) by interposing a hand-telescope 's object-glass-an additional obstruction and complication . I lost a great deal of fine weather ( of which I get very little now ) while trying to perfect this arrangement . I can still further increase the dispersion ( without much loss of definition for monochromatic light ) by turning the main prism , and so departing from the position of minimum deviation . But this is a resource which I keep to go on with when I tire of the advantage I have gained already . The long train of compound prisms ( as at present arranged ) unfortunately bars me from the violet end of the spectrum . This is unfortunate , as it would be in the highest degree interesting to compare the a and y images . Some day I shall get impatient , pull the whole affair to pieces , and arrange afresh with this object . As it is , I have to be very chary of quitting beaten ground , as we boast of no instrument-makers here ! I wish I had time to write fully and connectedly on the subject . It is only necessary to put people on the track . It is one easily followed , and will amply repay any expenditure in arranging prisms to get a maximum dispersion , for there is any amount of light .

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3701662

Some Experiments with the Great Induction Coil at the Royal Polytechnic

65

72

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Henry Pepper

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0021

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112714

10.1098/rspl.1869.0021

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112714

Electricity

Chemistry 1

Electricity

XXVII . " Some Experiments with the Great Inductionl Coil at the Royal Polytechnic . " By JOHN HENRY PEPPER , F.C.S. , Assoc. Ilnst . C.E. Communicated by J. P. GASSIOT , Esq. Received June 12 , 1869 . The length of the coil from end to end is 9 feet 10 inches , and the diameter 2 feet ; the whole is cased in ebonite ; it stands on two strong pillars covered with ebonite , the feet of the pillars being 22 inches in diameter . The ebonite tubes &c. are the largest ever constructed at SilverTown Works . The total weight of the great coil is 15 cwt . , that of the ebonite alone being 477 pounds . I am indebted to Mr. Apps for the following details . The primary wiie is made of copper of the highest conductivity , and weighs 145 lbs. ; the diameter of this wire is *0925 of an inch , and the length 3770 yards . The number of revolutions of the primary wire round the core of soft iron is 6000 , its arrangement being 3 , 6 , and 12 strands . The total resistance of the primary is 2 201400 British Association units ; and the resistances of the primary conductors are , respectively , for three strands 733800 B.A.U. , six *366945 B.A.U. , twelve *1 834725 B.A.U. The primary core consists of extremnely soft straight iron wires 5 feet in length , and each wire is *0625 of au inch in diameter . The diameter of the combined wires is 4 inches , and their weight is 123 lbs. The secondary wire is 150 miles in length ; it is covered with silk throughout ; and the average diameter is *015 of an inch . The total weight of this wire is 606 lbs. , and the resistance 33,560 B.A. units . The insulation throughout is greater by 95 per cent. than the straiu upon the coil during its action . The secondary wire is insulated from the primary by means of an ebonite tube aui inch in thickiiess and 8 feet in length . The length of the secondary coil is 54 inches , the diameter is 19 inches , and , without the internial ebonite tube containing the primnary wire and iron core , it is a hollow cylinder 19 inches in diameter and 6 inches thick . The condenser , made in the usual manner with sheets of varnished paper and tinfoil , is arranged in six parts , each containing 125 superficial feet , or 750 square feet of tinfoil in the whole . A large and substantially made Contact-breaker , detached from the great coil and worked by an indepenident electromagnet , was constructed , and worked very well withi a comparatively moderate power of 10 or 20 large Bunsen 's cells ; when , however , the battery was increased to 30 or 40 cells , it became unmanageable . A Foucault break , with the platinumamalgam and alcohol above it , was now tried , and answered very much better than the ordinary contactbreaker : there was no longer any burning or destruction of the contact points , although the great power of the instrument appeared to cause continued decomposition in the water of the alcohol placed above the platinum amalgam , and the spirit was frequently ejected , probably by explosion of the mixed gases taking place in the amalgam , in which they collected in bubbles ; the alcohol took fire constantly , and had to be extinguished . A large and very strong glass vessel ( in fact the inverted glass cell of a bichromate battery ) was bored through , and the neck fitted into a cap with cement , a thick wire covered with platinum being inserted in the cap ; the platinum amalgam was poured on this , and over it a pint of alcohol ; the contact wire was also very large , and pointed with a thick stud of platinum , and , being attached to a spring , contact was easily made and broken . Flashes of light could be seen between the amalgam and the alcohol ; but explosions did not occur , and the height of the column of the latter prevented the forcible ejection of the spirit , which no longer took fire . This break was used for eight hours in a continuous series of experiments . The Bunsen 's battery used in the experiments was made with the largest porous cells that could be obtained , and each cell contained about one pint of nitric acid , the immersed carbon being 50 superficial inches in each cell . The resistance of a single cell of this large Bunsen battery was found to be *2585 B.A.U. In the following experiments the battery was arranged for intensity , and used with the complete condenser of 7.50 square feet of tinfoil and 2000 square feet of paper in 1500 sheets . Number of cells Length of spark . of battery.inhs inches . 5 ... complete cotndenser . 12 0 10 ... . , , , , 120 25 2.30 ... , ,23 30 935 ... . 235 35 5 ... ... . 26-0 40 . ) ... 27 5 50 ... . , , , , ... . 280 to 29 0 The longest spark yet obtained is therefore 29 inches in length . In order to ascertain whether any variation in the size of the condenser ( of which , as already stated , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , or 6 parts could be used ) would affect the length of the spark , a number of experiments were tried ; and it will be noticed in the tabbulated results that whenhalf the condenser was used the spark increased in length up to 20 cells , but not after . The experiment of dividing the condenser and using one half led to a very serious accident , and the coil was rendered useless for a time by the destruction of the insulating material of a part of the primary coil ; the particular strands affected threw out minute spicula of metal , which communicated with each other , and the battery-current , instead of passing , through 12057 yards , now only traversed a very short length . The accident , however , proved to be useful , inasmuch as it showed that the coil could be easily takenl to pieces and repaired in a comparatively short space of time . In the anlnexed Table the experiments with the half of the colndenser are marked with a cross . Number of cells . Lenigth of spark . inches ... ... ... . . full condenser ... ... . . 12 00 ... ... ... . reduced1. . 1075 )51 , ... ... ... ... ... ... . 13 00 , , ... ... ... . one-ha../ or + 13 50 ... ... ... reduced 4. . 13 00 5 ... ... ... ... . -9 v ) . ; 11-7**5 inches . 10 e. one-half . + . 18-00 ... ... ... . reduced.17-25 , ,. . , ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 1 76 20.full condenser ... .2 l25 . , ... ... ... . reduced one-halVf + . 22 30 ... ... ... . full condenser. . 23 . , * reduced one-half . + . e 23 a 40 full condenser. . 25'0 g ... ... ... . one-half . + . 25*0 50 ... ... full condenser ... ... ... ... 28 , , o one-half ... ... . . + 28 Experiments were now tried to ascertain whether any increase in the length of the spark could be obtained by arranging the battery and the primary coil for quantity . inches . 5+5 cells , length of spark ... ... ... ... ... ... . 14'5 10+ 10 cells , , , ... ... ... ... ... ... ... I ... ... . 18-0 20+20 cells , , , ... ... ... ... ... ... 21175 25 +25 cells , ,,.23-75 15 + 15 + 15 cells , ,,.20-00 It is evident that no material advantage was obtained by the above arrangement except in the first experimenit ; and even where three groups were connected , as in the last experiment , a decrease in the length of the spark is observed when compared with the 45 or 50 cells arranged for initensity , the difference being as 20 to 28 . The spark obtained from the large coil presents some novel and curious features . It is thick and flame-like in its appearance , and therefore it will be alluded to as the " flaimini spark . " Wheni the discharging-point and circular plate are brought within 6 or 7 inches of each other , the flaming nature of the spark becomes still more apparent . Two light yellow flames curving upwards appear to connect the opposite poles . If a blast of air from powerful bellows is directed against the flaming spark , the flaming portion carn be blown away and increased in area ; and thin wiry sparks are now seem darting through it , sometimes in one continuous stream , at another time divided iiito three or more sparks , all following the direction in which the flame is blown . The heat of this is very great , and , if passed through asbestos ( supported on an insulating pillar ) , quiickly causes the latter to become red-hot , When powdered charcoal is shaken from a pepper-box into the flaming spark in a vertical line and in considerable quantities , the greater part of the light is obscured , and the whole form of the flaming spark presents the appearance of a black cloud with a line of brightly ignited particles fringing the lower parts . If the charcoal is dusted through in small quantities , each particle becomes ignited , like charcoal blown into a hydrogen-flame . When the flaming spark is directed on to a glass plate upon which a little solution of lithium chloride is placed , the latter colours the flame upwards to the height of 3 or 4 inches in the most beautiful manner ; and if the point of the discharge is tipped with paper or sponge moistened with a little solution of sodium chloride , the two colours ( the yellow from the salt and the crimson from the lithium ) meet each other , a neutral point being found about halfwav , thus illustrating apparently the dual character of electricity , and that + passes to -electricity , and vice ver8d . The flaming spark can be obtained in perfectly dry air . Whilst passing through common air , if blown against a sheet of damp litmus-paper , the latter is rapidly changed red . In order to ascertain whether the acid product was nitric acid , the flaming spark ( 9 or 10 inches in length ) was passed through a tube connected by a cork and bent tube with a bottle containing distilled water , from which another tube passed to the air-pump ; on drawing the air slowly over the spark , and passing the former into the bottle , nitric acid was obtained in large quantities-so much so that it could be detected by the smell and taste as well as by the ordinary tests . The popular notion that nitric acid is always produced during a thurnder-storm would therefore appear to be correct . To determine the effect of a cooling surface on the flaming spark , a hole one inch and a half in diameter was bored through a thick block of Wenham-lake ice , and the spark passed through the air in the tube of ice ; nio change took place , and the spark was still a flaming one . When the spark was received on the ice , it lost its flaming character , and becanie thin and wiry , spreading oat in all directions . If the discharging-wires were tipped with ice , the spark was always flaming whenl any thickness of air initervened between them . Even over the ice , if the spark passed a fraction of an inch above the surface , it was always a flaming one , but changed to the thini spark when the point of the discharging-wire was thrust into the ice . If one of the discharging-wires of the great coil is brought to the centre of a large swing looking-glass and the other wire connected with the amalgam at theback , the sparks are thin and wiry , arboreseent , and very bright ( see figure , p. 69 ) , the crackling noise of these discharges being quite different from that of the heavy thud or blow delivered 6y the flaming spark . When the discharging-wire is brought close to the frame of the lookingglass , or if a sufficient thickness of air intervenes , the spark again becomes flaming ; or , as sometimes occurs , if the discharging wire is placed about 5 inches from the framie , the spark is partly flaming and partly wiry , i. e. when it impinges on the glass . The examination of the flaming spark with the spectroscope has not as yet settled aDything definitely . The spectrum is a continuous one with the sodiun-line . When the blast of air is used , and the wiry sparks made apparent , then the nitrogen line appears . The flaming spark has beeni ascribed by some experienced observers to the incandescence of the dust in the air , and especially sodium chloride . If the salt &c. is thus made hot , can the air in which it is mechanically diffused remain cool ? Is not the salt &c. in the same condition as a platinum-wire held in the non-luminous part of the hot burnt gas escaping from the chimney of an Argand burner ? Will gaseous elements when combining ( and in this case the nitrogen and oxygen do unite , as proved by the formation of nitric acid ) give a colntinuous spectrum ? To ascertain whether the " flaming spark " could be obtained with a small number of cells , the large Bunsen 's battery was reduiced to 3 cells ; and it was found that no appreciable spark could be produced when the whole primary wire was used with less than 5 cells . By reducing the length of the primary wire , and using the 4 divisions separately , the following results were are rived at 5 cells . inches . 1st section , inearest core ... ... 4 wiry spark . 2nd e ... ... ... . 6 3rd , , 4th,6. . 6 , , , 10 cells . inches . 1st section , nearest core . 8+ , wiry spark . 2nd , ,83 , 3rd , , ... ... ... . 8 , bright blue wiry spark . 4th , , 94- , slightly flaming . 15 cells . inches . 1st section , nearest core . 10 , slightly flaming . 2nd , , 108 , 3rd , , 93 , 4th , , ... ... ... . . 11- , flaming spark . 20 cells . inches . 1 st section , nearest core ... 1 1 , flaming spark . 2nd , , ... 12 , 3rd , , 11 , 4th , , 12 ' 1 If the two wires from the secondary coil are placed in water , no spark is perceptible , even when they are brought very close together , until they touch . If the negative wire is passed through a cork , on which a glass tube ( a lamp-glass ) is fixed containing a depth of 5 inches of water , and the positive wire is brought within half an inch of the surface of the water in the tube , it becomes red-hot ; and if drawn further awav from the surface , the upper part of the tube is filled with a peculiar glow or light abounding in Stokes 's rays . The experiments with the vacuuim-tubes , and especially Gassiot 's cascade , are , as might be expected , very beautiful . When a coal-gas vacuum-tube of considerable diameter , and conveying the full discharge from the secondary coil , is supported over a powerful electromagnet axially , the discharge is condensed and heat is produced . If placed equatorially , the heat increases greatly ; the discharge is condensed and iMpinges upon the sides of the glass tube , which becomes too hot to touch ; and if the experiment had been continued too long , no doubt the tube would have cracked . The enormous quantity of electricity of high tension which the coil evolves when conniected with a battery of 40 cells , is shown by the rapidity with which it will charge a Leyden battery . Under favourable circun stances , three contacts with the mercurial break will charge 40 square feet of glass . Mr. Gassiot was present on one occasion , and particularly observed with myself the rapidity with which a series of 12 large Leyden jars arraniged in cascade were discharged . The noise was great ; and each time the spark ( which was very condensed and brilliant ) struck the metallic disk , the latter emitted a ringing sound , as if it had received a sharp blow from a small hammer . The discharges were made from a point to a metallic disk ; and when the former was positive the dense spark measured from 18k to 183 inches , and fell to 8k inches when the metallic plate was positive and the point negative . A variations of the Leyden-jar experiments was tried , by connecting the coil worked by a quantity battery of 25+25 cells with six Leyden jars arranged in cascade ; and the spark obtained measured 8k inches . The same six jars connected with the coil when the 50 cells were arraniged continuously for intensity gave a spark of 12 inches of very great density and brilliancy . Other experiments are being tried with the great coil , the results of which will be duly brought before the Societv if thought of sufEcient inportance .

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On the Mechanical Description of Curves

72

74

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. H. L. Russell

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proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112715

10.1098/rspl.1869.0022

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112715

Measurement

Formulae

Measurement

XXVIII . " On the Mechanical Description of Curves . " By W. H. L. RUSSELL , F.R.S. Received June 17 , 1869 . Let A , B , C be three wheels rolling in one another ( fig. ) ; they may of course be supposed to describe simultaneously the angles mO , nO , rO , when m , n , and r are constant . Fig. 1 . Let a , 3 , y be three nuts situated on A , B , C respectively , at distances a , b , c from their centres . Then if these nuts work in horizontal bars ( as exemplified in many sewing-machines ) , the bars will descend vertically 72 [ June 17 , through the spaces a sin mO , b sin nO , c sin rO respectively . We may combine all these vertical motions together ; for if vertical rods be attached to the horizontal bars , and a cord fixed at Q pass over the pulleys a , , A , a3 bl , B2 , b , c1 , C2 , c , , as shown in the figure , the other extremity Q1 will describe the space a sin mO+ b sin nO +c sin rO . By this contrivance we are able to combine any number of vertical descents , so that it is readily seen that a sin ( mO+a)+b sin ( nO+f3)+ &c. may be described mechanically . A machine on the same principle as this had been previously invented by Mr. Bashforth . I soon perceived that in order to describe the general equation of the rth order by continued motion , it was necessary to make a wheel revolve through an angle equal to the sum and difference of the angles described in the same time by two given wheels ; to effect this I invented the apparatus shown in fig. 2 . Fig. 2 . In fig. 2 let A be a vertical wheel working truly in a horizontal rack R. , which propels the horizontal frame a , f , y , 8 . On this frame stand the wheels B and D parallel to the plane of the paper . The wheel C , supposed perpendicular to the plane of the paper , works by teeth in the wheels B and D , and the four wheels A , B , C , D are precisely equal . To the centre of C is attached a square axis , which passes through the centre of the wheel E , so that the wheel E in revolving may , without changing its plane , communicate motion to C as the frame moves forward . Two horizontal racks , R2 , R , , parallel to the plane of the paper , are urged by the wheels B and D ; and these , again , work in the fixed wheels F and G , equal to A , B , C , D in all respects . Then if the wheel A describe in a given time the angle 0 , and the wheel E in the same time the angle ? , the wheels F and G will revolve respectively in the same time through the angles 0+ ? and 0-- . We shall call the wheel A an abscissa wheel , the wheel E , an ordinate wheel , for reasons which will appear directly , also F an addition wheel , and Ga subtraction wheel . Let x=a sin 0 , y=a sin 9 , then the general equation of the rth order may be written a sin ( mO + no ) + a ' sin ( m'O--n'p ) + a " sin ( m"0 + n"1 ) ... .a sin 0 . Let a number of machines like the foregoing be placed side by side with their ordinate wheels rolling in one another , and their abscissa wheels duly connected . Let one abscissa wheel describe an angle mO , and the corresponding ordinate wheel the angle no , then a nut placed on the corresponding addition wheel , at a distance a from its centre , will cause a horizontal bar to descend vertically through a space a sin ( mO +nq ) . In the same way a nut properly placed on the subtraction wheel will cause a horizontal bar to descend vertically through a space a sin ( mO--no ) . By means of the adjacent machines we may in like manner cause bars to descend through the vertical spaces , a " sin ( m'O -n'p ) , a " ' sin ( m'O--n ) ) , &c. Now let motion be communicated to the ordinate wheels , and let all the vertical motions due to the addition and subtraction wheels be combined together and made to act vertically upon a nut in one of the abscissa wheels ; then the angles 0 , p , will satisfy the equation a sin ( mO + no ) + a ' sin ( mO-n9 ) + a " sin ( m'+ n ' ) ... =a sin 0 , which is the general equation of the rth order . Therefore two bars moved respectively horizontally and vertically by nuts in the wheels describing the angles 0 and 9 will trace by their intersection the required curve .

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Spectroscopic Observations of the Sun.--No. V

74

79

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. Norman Lockyer

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proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112716

10.1098/rspl.1869.0023

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112716

Atomic Physics

Astronomy

Atomic Physics

I. " Spectroscopic Observations of the Sun."-No . V. By J. NORMAN LOCKYER , F..S . Received July 8 , 1869 . Since the date of my last communication under the above title the weather has , if possible , been worse for telescopic work than during the winter and spring ; my opportunities of observation , therefore , have been very limited : still the sun has occasionally been in such a disturbed state , and our atmosphere has at times been so pure , that several new facts of importance have come out . I will state them here as briefly as possible , reserving a discussion of them and my detailed observations for a future occasion . I. The extreme rates of movement in the chromosphere observed up to the present time are : Yertical movement ... ... ... . . 40 miles a second Horizontal or cyclonic movement . 120 , , II . I have carefully observed the chromosphere when spots have been near the limb . The spots have sometimes been accompanied by prominences , at other times they have not been so accompanied . Such observations show that we may have spots visible without prominences in the same region , and prominences without spots ; but I do not say that a spot is not accompanied by a prominence at some stage of its life , or that it does not result from some action which , in the majority of cases , is accompanied by a prominence . III . At times , when a prominence is seen bright on the sun itself , the bright F line varies considerably , both in thickness and brilliancy , within the thickness of the dark line . The appearances presented are exactly as if we were looking at the prominences through a grating . IV . Bright prominences , when seen above spots on the disk , if built up of other substances besides hydrogen , are indicated by the bright lines of those substances in addition to the lines of hydrogen . The bright lines are then seen very thin , situated centrally ( or nearly so ) on the broad absorption-bands caused by the underlying less-luminous vapours of the same substances . V. I have at last detected an absorption-line corresponding to the orange line in the chromosphere . Father Secchi states* that there is a line corresponding to it much brighter than the rest of the spectrum . My observation would seem to indicate that he has observed a bright line less refrangible than the one in question , which bright line is at times excessively brilliant . It requires absolutely perfect atmospheric conditions to see it in the ordinary solar spectrum . It is best seen in a spot-spectrum when the spot is partially covered by a bright prominence . VI . In the neighbourhood of spots the F bright line is sometimes observed considerably widened out in several places , as if the spectroscope were analyzing injections of hydrogen at great pressure in very limited regions into the chromosphere . VII . The brilliancy of the bright lines visible in the ordinary solar spectrum is extremely variable . One of them , at 1871 5 , and another , at 1529'5 of Kirchhoff 's scale , I have detected in the chromosphere at the same time that they were brilliant in the ordinary solar spectrum . VIII . Alterations of wave-length have been detected in the sodium- , magnesium- , and iron-lines in a spot-spectrum . In the case of the last substance , the lines in which the alteration was detected were not those observed when iron ( if we accept them to be due to iron alone ) is injected into the chromosphere . IX . When the chromosphere is observed with a tangential slit , the F bright line close to the sun 's limb shows traces of absorption , which gradually diminish as the higher strata of the chromosphere are brought on to the slit , until the absorption-line finally thins out and entirely disappears . T'he lines of other substances thus observed do not show this absorption . X. During the most recent observations I have been able to detect traces of magnesium and iron in nearly all solar latitudes in the chromosphere . If this be not merely the result of the good definition lately , it would indicate an increased general photospheric disturbance as the maximum sun* Comptes Rendus , 1869 , V sem . p. 358 . spot period is approached . Moreover I suspect that the chromosphere has lost somewhat of its height . I append a list of the bright lines , the positions of which in the chromosphere I have determined absolutely , with the dates of discovery , remarking that in the case of C and F my observations were anticipated by M. Janssen : Uydrogen . C. October 20 , 1868 . F. October 20 , 1868 . near D. October 20 , 1868* . near G. December 22 , 1868 . h. March 14 , 1869 . Sodium . D. February 28 , 1869 . Barium . 1989'5t . March 14 , 1869 . 2031-2 . July 5 , 1869 . Magnesium and included line . bl February 21 , 1869 . br Other Lines . Iron ... ... 1474 . June 6 , 1869 . ? ? 1515-5 . June 6 , 1869 . Bright line 1529-5 . July 5 , 1869 . ? ? 1567'5 . March 6 , 1869 ? ? 1613-8 . June 6 . Iron ... . . 186 70 . June 26 . Bright line 1871-5 . , , Iron ... . . 2001-5 . , 2003'4 . , ? band or line near black 20540 July 5 . line , very delicate ... . JI have seen other lines besides these at different times ; but I do not include them , as their positions have not been determined absolutely . I refrain from dwelling on this list at present , except to point out that , taking iron as an instance , and assuming that the iron-lines mapped by Angstriom and Kirchhoff are due to iron only , I have only been able , up to the present time , to detect 3 lines out of the total number ( 460 ) in the spectrum of the lower regions of the chromosphere , -a fact full of promise as regards the possible results of future laboratory work . The same remark applies to magnesium and barium . Dr. Frankland and myself have determined that the widening out of the sodium-line in the spectrutl of a spot which I pointed out in 1866 , and then stated to be possibly an evidence of greater absorption , indicates a greater absorption due to greater pressure . The continuous widening out of the sodium-line in a spot must therefore be regarded as furnishing an additional argument ( if one were now needed ) in favour of the theory of the physical constitution of the sun first put forward by Dr. Frankland and myself-namely , that the chromosphere and the photosphere form the true atmosphere of the sun , and that under ordinary circumstances the absorption is continuous from the top of the chromosphere to the bottom of the photosphere , at whatever depth from the bottom of the spot that bottom may be assumed to be . This theory was based upon all our observations made from 1866 up to the time at which it was communicated to the Royal Society and the Paris Academy of Sciences , and has been strengthened by all our subsequent work ; but several announcements made by Father Secchi to the Paris Academy of Sciences and other learned bodies are so opposed to it , and differ so much from my own observations , that it is necessary that I should refer to them , and give my reasons for still thinking that the theory above referred to is not in disaccord with facts . At the same time I must state that Father Secchi does not combat this theory ; indeed it is not to be gathered from any of his communications that he has seen any of the papers communicated by myself to the Royal Society . Father Secchi states that the chromosphere is often separated from the photosphere , and that between the chromosphere and the photosphere there exists a stratum giving a continuous spectrum , which he considers to be the base of the solar atmosphere , and in which he thinks that the inversion of the spectrum takes place . With regard to the first assertion , I may first state that all the observations I have made have led me to a contrary conclusion . Secondly , in an instrument of comparatively small dispersive power , such as that employed by Father Secchi , in which the widening out of the F line at the base of the chromosphere is not clearly indicated , it is almost impossible to determine , by means of the spectroscope , whether the chromosphere rests on the sun or not , as the chromosphere is an envelope and we are not dealing merely with a section . But an instrument of great dispersive power can at once settle the question ; for since the F line widens out with pressure , and as the pressure increases as the sun is approached , the continuous curvature of the F line must indicate really the spectrum of a section ; and if the chromosphere were suspended merely at a certain height above the photosphere , we should not get a widening due to pressure : but we always do get such a widening . Spectroscopic Observations of the Sun . With regard to the second assertion , I would remark that if such a continuous-spectrum-giving envelope existed , I entirely fail to see how it could be regarded as a region of selective absorption . Secondly , my observations have indicated no such stratum , although injections of sodium , magnesium , &c. into the chromosphere not exceeding the limit of the sun 's limb by 2 " have been regularly observed for several months past . To-day I have even detected a low level of barium in the chromosphere not 1 " high . This indicates , I think , that my instrument is not lacking in delicacy ; and as I have never seen anything approaching to a continuous spectrum when my instrument has been in perfect adjustment , I am inclined to attribute the observation to some instrumental error . Such a phenomenon might arise from a local injection of solid or liquid particles into the chromosphere , if such injection were possible . But I have never seen such an injection . If such an occurrence could be observed , it would at once settle that part of Dr. Frankland 's and my own theory , which regards the chromosphere as the last layer of the solar atmosphere ; and if it were possible to accept Father Secchi 's observation , the point would be settled in our favour . The sodium experiments to which I have referred , however , and the widening out of the lines in the spot-spectra , clearly indicate , I think , that the base of the atmosphere is below the spot , and not above it . I therefore cannot accept Father Secchi 's statement as being final against another part of the theory to which I have referred-a conclusion which Father Secchi himself seems to accept in other communications . Father Secchi remarks also that the F line is produced by the absorption of other bodies besides hydrogen , because it never disappears . This conclusion is also negatived by my observations ; for it has very often been observed to disappear altogether and to be replaced by a bright line . At times , as I pointed out to the Royal Society some months ago , when a violent storm is going on accompanied by rapid elevations and depressions of the prominences , there is a black line on the less-refrangible side of the bright one ; but this is a phenomenon due to a change of wave-length caused by the rapid motion of the hydrogen . With regard to the observation of spot-spectra , I find that every increase of dispersive power renders the phenomenon much more clear , and at the same time more simple . The selective absorption I discovered in 1866 comes out in its most intense form , but without any of the more complicated accompaniments described by Father Secchi . I find , however , that by using three prisms this complexity vanishes to a great extent . We get portions of the spectrum here and there abnormally bright , which have given rise doubtless to some of the statements of the distinguished Roman observer ; but the bright lines , properly so-called , are as variable as they are in any other part of the disk , but not much more so . I quite agree that the " interpretation " of sun-spot phenomena to which Father Secchi has referred % , * Comptes Rendus , 1869 , ir sem . p. 764 . which ascribes the appearances to anything but selective plus general absorption , is erroneous . But as I was not aware that it had ever been propounded , I can only refer to my own prior papers in support of my assertion , and to Mr. Huggins 's indorsement of my observations , which were communicated to the Royal Society some three years ago .

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Researches on Gaseous Spectra in Relation to the Physical Constitution of the Sun, Stars, and Nebulae.--Third Note

79

80

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

E. Frankland|J. Norman Lockyer

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proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112717

10.1098/rspl.1869.0024

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112717

Atomic Physics

Astronomy

Atomic Physics

II . " Researches on Gaseous Spectra in relation to the Physical Constitution of the Sun , Stars , and Nebulse."-Third Note . By E. FRANKLAND , F.R.S. , and J. NORMAN LOCKYER , F.R.S. Received July 14 , 1869 . 1 . It has been pointed out by one of us that the vapours of magnesium , iron , &c. are sometimes injected into the sun 's chromosphere and are then rendered sensible by their bright spectral lines * . 2 . It has also been shown ( 1 ) that these vapours , for the most part , attain only a very low elevation in the chromosphere , and ( 2 ) that on rare occasions the magnesium vapour is observed like a cloud separated from the photosphere . 3 . It was further established on the 14th of March , 1869 , and a drawing was sent to the Royal Society indicating , that when the magnesium vapour is thus injected the spectral lines do not all attain the same height . Thus of the b lines , b1 and b2 are of nearly equal height , but b4 is much shorter . 4 . It has since been discovered that of the 450 iron lines observed by Angstrom , only a very few are indicated in the spectrum of the chromosphere when iron vapour is injected into it . 5 . Our experiments on hydrogen and nitrogen enabled us at once to connect these phenomena , always assuming , as required by our hypothesist , that the great bulk of the absorption to which the Fraunhofer lines are due takes place in the photosphere itself . It was only necessary , infact , to assume that , as in the case of hydrogen and nitrogen , the spectrum became simpler where the density and temperature were less , to account at once for the reduction in the number of lines visible in those regions where , on our theory , the pressure and temperature of the absorbing vapours of the sun are at their minimum . 6 . It became important , therefore , to test the truth of this assumption by some laboratory experiments , the preliminary results of which we beg to communicate in this Note , reserving details , and an account of the further experiments we have already commenced , for another paper under the above title . We took the spark in air between two magnesium poles , so separated that the magnesium spectrum did not extend from pole to pole , but was visible only for a little distance , indicated by the atmosphere of magnesium vapour , round each pole . 79 We then carefully examined the disappearance of the b lines , and found that they behaved exactly as they do on the sun . Of the three lines the most refrangible was the shortest ; and shorter than this were other lines , which one of us has not yet detected in the spectrum of the chromosphere . This preliminary experiment , therefore , quite justified our assumption , and must be regarded as strengthening the theory on which the assumption was based-namely , that the bulk of the absorption takes place in the photosphere , and that it and the chrornosphere form the true atmosphere of the sun . In fact had the experiment been made in hydrogen instead of in air , the phenomena indicated by the telescope would have been almost perfectly reproduced ; for each increase in the temperature of the spark caused the magnesium vapour to extend further from the pole , and where the lines disappeared a band was observed surmounting them , which is possibly connected with one which at times is observed in the spectrum of the chromosphere itself when the magnesium lines are not visible .

112718

3701662

On the Thermodynamic Theory of Waves of Finite Longitudinal Disturbance. [Abstract]

80

83

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. J. Macquorn Rankine

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112718

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112718

Fluid Dynamics

Thermodynamics

Fluid Dynamics

III . " On the Thermodynamic Theory of Waves of Finite Longitudinal Disturbance . " By W. J. MACQUORN RANKINE , C.E. , LL. D. , F.R.SS . Lond. & Edin . Received August 13 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) The object of the present investigation is to determine the relations which must exist between the laws of the elasticity and heat of any substance , gaseous , liquid , or solid , and those of the wave-like propagation of a finite longitudinal disturbance in that substance-in other words , of a disturbance consisting in displacements of particles along the direction of propagation , the velocity of displacemrent of the particles being so great that it is not to be neglected in comparison with the velocity of propagation . In particular , theinvestigation aims atascertaining : in the firstplace , what conditions as to the transfer of heat from particle to particle must be fulfilled in order that a finite longitudinal disturbance may be propagated along a prismatic or cylindrical mass without loss of energy or change of typethe word type being used to denote the relation between the extent of disturbance at a given instant of a set of particles and their respective undisturbed positions ; and , secondly , according to what law the type of a wave of finite longitudinal disturbance must change when the substance through which it is propagated has , un(der the circumstances of the disturbance , no appreciable power of transferring heat from particle to particle , being in the condition which , in the language of thermodynamics , is called adiabatic , The disturbed matter in these inquiries may be conceived to be contained a straight tube of uniform cross section and indefinite length . The investigation is facilitated by the use of a quantity which the author calls the Mass-velocity or Somatic Velocity-that is to say , the mass of matter through which a disturbance is propagated in a urnit of time while advancing along a prism of the sectional area unity , also by expressing the reative positions of a series of transverse planes that travel along with a wave by means of the masses of matter contained between them , instead of by their distances apart . Let such a transverse advancing platne coincide with that part of a wave of longitudinal disturbance at which the pressure P and bulkiness S* are equal to those corresponiding to the undisturbed condition ; it is shown that the value of the square of the mass-velocity is dP in TS , ( A ) The linear velocity of advance of the wave is obviously mS . Let a second transverse plane advalnce alonig with the wave in such a manner that an invariable mass of matter is contained between it and the first advancing plane . The condition of permnanence of type of disturbance is , that the distance between those planes sball be invariable . Let T be the rate at which that distance varies , being positive when the second plane gains on the first plane ; it is shown that this quantity has the followinD valuedxtp-_Pm m($ -s ) ; ,..,.(B ) in which p and s respectively are the pressure and bulkiness at the second plane . Hence the condition of permanence of type is expressed symbolically as follows : S_ d_ dP =m2 ( a constant). . * ( C ) This relation between pressure and bulkiness is not fulfilled by any known substance , when either in atn absolutely non-conducting ' state ( called , in the language of thermody7namics , the adiabatic state ) or in a state of uniform temperature . In order that it may be fulfilled , transfer of heat must go on between the particles affected by the wave-motion , in a certain manner depending on the thermodynamiefunction . The value of the thermodynamic function is dU p-Jchyp log r+d+ U ; rddXv ( D ) in which J is the dynamical equivalent of a unit of heat , c the real specific heat of the substance , r the absolute temperature , X(r ) a function of the absolute temperature , which is =0 for all temperatures at which the substanice is capable of approximating indefinitely to the perfectly gaseous state , auid U the work which the elastic forces in unity of mass of the substance are capable of doing at the constant temperature r. The thermodynamic condition to be fuilfilled by a wave of permanient type is expressed by frd0=O . , ( E ) In applying this equation to particular cases , 0 and T are to be expressed in terrns of p and s. It is shown to be probable that the only lonigitudinal disturbance which can be propagated with absolute permanence of type is a sudden disturbance ; and that the consequence of the non-fuilfilment of the conditioni of permanence of type is a tendenicy for every wave of gradual longitudinal disturbance to convert itself by degrees into a wave of sudden disturbance . But although suddenness of disturbance may be approximated to , it cannot be absolutely and permanently realized ; whence it follows that the propagation of waves of longitudinal disturbance of absolutely permanent type for anl indefinite distance is impossible ; and this may be the cause of the absence of longitudinal vibrations from rays of light . The laws of the advance of adiabatic waves are investigated ; that is , waves of longitudinial disturbance in which there is no transfer of heat , and in which consequently do=O ; and it is shown , by the aid of the equation marked ( B ) in this abstract , that the compressed parts of those waves tend to gain upon and at last overtake the rarefied parts , just as the crests of rolling waves in shallow water gaini upon and at last break into the troughs , the consequence being a gradual conversion of the adiabatic waves into waves of sudden disturbance , followed by a mutual interference of the compressed with the rarefied parts which leads to the energy of the waves being spent in molecular agitation . It is also shown that the extreme values of the pressure and of the bulkiness are constant during the change of type ; and consequently that the respective velocities with which the plane of greatest compression gains upon and the plane of greatest rarefaction falls behind the plane of undisturbed density are uniform . The values of the linear velocity of advance , inS , found for various modes of finite disturbance , all approximate , when the disturbance becomes indefinitely small , to the well-known value of the velocity of soulnd , viz. > i d{Pg the relation between P and S being determined by the condition dq=O . Supplement . Received October 1 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) In this supplement the author of the paper refers to the previous investigations on waves of finite longitudinal disturbance by the following authors : Poisson , I Journal de l'Ecole Polytechnique , ' vol. vii . cahier 14 , p. 319 Stokes , Philosophical Magazine , Nov. 1848 , S. 3 . vol. xxxiii . p : 349 . Airy , Philosophical Magazine , June 1849 , S. 3 . vol. xxxiv . p. 401 . Earnshaw , Philosophical Transactions , 1860 , p. 133 . He points out to what extent the resuilts arrivedl at in his ow l ' paper are identical with those of the above-mentioned previous researches ; and he claims the following results as new:-The conditions as to transfer and transformation of heat which must be fulfilled in order that permanence of type may be realized , exactly or approximately , in a wave of finite longitudinal disturbanice in any elastic medium ; the types of wave which eniable such conditions to be fulfilled with a given law of the conduction of heat ; the velocity of advance of such waves ; and some special results as to the rate of change of type in adiabatic waves . He also claims as new the method of investigation by the aid of mass-velocity and mass-coordinates , which he alleges to possess great advantages in point of simplicity .

112719

3701662

Researches into the Constitution of the Opium Bases.-- Part III. On the Action of Hydrochloric Acid on Codeia

83

88

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Augustus Matthiessen|C. R. A. Wright

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0026

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112719

10.1098/rspl.1869.0026

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112719

Chemistry 2

Thermodynamics

Chemistry

IV . " Researches into the Constitution of the Opium Bases . Part III . On the Action of Hydrochloric Acid on Codeia . " By AuGUSTUS MATTHIESSEN , F.R.S. , Lecturer on Chemistry in St. Bartholomew 's Hospital , and C. R. A. WRIGHT , B.Sc. Received July 23 , 1869 . § 1 . On the Action of Hydrochloric Acid on Codeia . In Part II . ( Proc. Roy . Soc. vol. xvii . p. 460 ) it was shown that when codeia is heated with excess of hydrochloric acid under pressure that it splits up into chloride of methyl , water , and apomorphia , thusC8 , H , NO3 + HC1I= CH{ Cl H , 0+ C , , H , , NO , . At the time it appeared probable that one of the two following reactions would first take place , forming an intermediate product : I. C18 121 NO 3+ HCI=CH3 C1 + C17 IH9 NO3 . II . C , H21 NO = H,2 0+ C181 H NO2 . On investigation , however , it has been found that neither the one nor the other takes place , at least as the chief reaction ; for by heating codeia with excess of hydrochloric acid on the water-bath , a body is obtained by the following reactionC18 121 NO , + HC1H O+ C18 H20 C1 NO2 ; and this base , when heated under pressure with hydrochloric acid , splits up into chloride of methyl and apomorphia , C18 H20 C1 NO2 = CH3 C1 + C , , H1 , NO2 . The new base may be obtained in a state of purity thus:-codeia is heated under paraffin on the water-bath with ten to fifteen times its weight of strong hydrochloric acid for twelve to fifteen hours , and the resulting brownish liquid evaporated to dryness on the water-bath ; the residue is dissolved in water , and excess of bicarbonate of sodium added , whereby a voluminous white precipitate is formed , consisting chiefly of the new base mixed with a trace of apomorphia . The filtrate contains the unaltered G2 83 codeia mixed with a little of the new base , which is not quite insoluble in bicarbonate of sodium solution ; the precipitate is washed with ammoniawater to remove the trace of apomorphia ( which is much more soluble in ammonia than the new base ) , and is then dissolved in hydrochloric acid and fractionally precipitated by bicarbonate of sodium : the second fraction is pure white , and is free from apomorphia and codeia ; this is then extracted with ether , which dissolves almost the whole . The clear ethereal solution is then shaken up with a few drops of hydrochloric acid , and the solution of hydrochlorate thus obtained , if coloured , must be fractionally precipitated by bicarbonate of sodium , and the ether and hydrochloric-acid process repeated ; the resulting product is a viscid colourless solution of the hydrochlorate of the new base , which refuses to crystallize . When evaporated on the water-bath , the dry residue yielded the following numbers on analysis:(I . ) 0-3270 gramme , burnt with lead chromate , gave 0-7230 carbonic acid and 0'1820 water . ( II . ) 0-3080 gramme gave 0-6870 carbonic acid and 0-1720 water . ( III ) 0'3010 gramme , burnt with lime , gave 0-2450 silver chloride . Calculated . Found . 1 . I1 . III . C18 216 61-01 60-30 60-83 H11 21 5-93 6-18 6 20 C01 71 20-04 20-14 N 14 3 95 02 32 9'07 C18 , 12 C1 N02 , I-IC1 354 100-00 The hydrochlorate , when fractionally precipitated by bicarbonate of sodiunm , yielded the base as a snow-white mass , scarcely affected by exposure to air , very soluble in alcohol and ether , but not crystallizable from those menstrua owing to decomposition ; when well washed and dried , first over sulphuric acid and then at about 60 ? , it gave the following results on analysis:(I . ) 0-3380 gramme gave 0-8410 carbonic acid and 0-1900 water . ( II . ) 0-2680 gramme , burnt with lime , gave 0-1160 silver chloride . Calculated . Found . I. II . C18 216 68-03 67-87 H120 20 6-29 6-25 CI 35-5 11-18 10-71 N 14 4-41 02 32 10-09 C18 H0 1 NO2 317-5 100-00 Another portion of hydrochlorate converted into platinum-salt gave a yellow precipitate permanent in the air , but decomposed when heated to 100 ? in a moist state ; dried several days over sulphuric acid , 0'5380 gramme gave 0'1000 metallic platinum . per cent. Found ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 18 60 The formula ( C,1 Ho2 Cl NO2 , HC1)2 PtCl , requires ... ... 1881 The codeia salt requiring ... ... ... 1950 From these numbers it appears that the new base is formed from codeia by the replacement of an atom of hydroxyl by one of chlorine , thusCodeia . New base . C18 21 NO , + HC1=H ( 1-O ) + C , HI , C NO , . If codeia be regarded as being formed on the mixed type Ha3 N then the HN new base may be looked upon as formed on the mixed type HCI ; and , using Professor Foster 's nomenclature* for these types ( viz. oxynitride and chloronitride respectively ) , codeia would be oxycodide , and the new base chlorocodide ; but until further investigation affords some knowledge of the nature of the radicals occurring in codeia and morphia , it would be premature to attempt to give rational formulae for these bases . The folfowing Table ( p. 86 ) exhibits the comparative reactions of solutions containing 1 per cent. of the hydrochlorates of morphia , codeia , apomorphia , and chlorocodide respectively . The physiological action of chlorocodide appears to be much less marked than that of apomorphia . Doses of 4 grain of the hydrochlorate taken internally and -0 grain injected subcutaneously produced no appreciable effect ; Dr. Gee is now engaged in studying this subject . § 2 . Action of lydrochloric Acid on Clhlorocodide . When the hydrochlorate of this base is sealed up with eight to fifteen times its weight of strong hydrochloric acid and heated to 140 ? -150 ? for three hours , the tube is found , after cooling , to contain a layer of liquid chloride of methyl floating at the top : the tarry contents of the tube , when dissolved in water and precipitated by bicarbonate of sodium , yield , on shaking up the ethereal extract with a few drops of hydrochloric acid , a copious supply of crystals of hydrochlorate of apomorphia ; these , when drained from the mother liquors , washed with cold water , and recrystallized , had all the physical properties of the hydrochlorate of apomorphia from morphia , gave the same qualitative reactions , and produced the same physiological effects , and gave the following numbers on analysis after drying at 100 ? :(I . ) 0'3090 gramme , burnt with lead chromate , gave 0'7595 carbonic acid and 0 1740 water . ( II . ) 0'4030 gramme , burnt with lime , gave 0-1910 silver chloride . Bleaching-powder SoluFerric Chloride Nitric Acid . chromate f Pcitassium . tion and a drop of HyCorrosive SubliNitrate of Silver . chromtate of Patassiuo.o Solution . drochloric Acid . ---- : ... . . --- ... . _ , Morphia ... ... Greenish-blue coloraYellow coloration . Slowly reduced . tion . Stronger solutions give a Morphia alone yields a white precipitate soluble , pure blue . on boiling , crystallizing out on cooling . Codeia ... ... -Yellowish coloration . Same as morphia . Scarcely any re- ' duction Apomorphia. . Dark purple amethyst Dark blood-red colour . Dark blood-red colour . Dark blood-red colour . White precipitate decomReduced more coloration . posed on boiling with quickly than the I____________j~~~~~~~~~~~~ ________________ _-_ -_ _ ? blood-red coloration . morphia . Chlorocodide. . Pale amethyst coloraPale red colour . Evanescent pale red Pale red colour . White precipitate decomSame as apomor3 ' tion . coloration . posed on boiling with phia . pale red colour . Phosphate of Caustic Potash . Carbonate of Sodium . Ammonia . Iodide of Potassium . Oxalate of Ammonium . PhSplih M orphia ... . . Stronger solutions give a Stronger solutions give Stronger solutions give a whiteprecipitatescarcely ' a white precipitate crystalline precipitate soluble in excess . insoluble in excess . insoluble in excess . Codeia ... ... Stronger solutions give Very strong solutions a white precipitate cause codeia to crysscarcely soluble in extallize out slowlyafter cess . some hours . Apomorphia. . Whiteprecipitatereadily White precipitate White precipitate soWhite precipitate . White precipitate . White precipitate . soluble inexcess ; soluslighly solublein excess . ; luble in excess ; solution soon decomposes . tion soon decomposing . Chlorocodide White precipitate diffiWhite precipitate White precipitate White precipitate . White precipitate . ; cultly soluble in excess . slightlysolublein excess . slightlysolublein excess . c > w Jy . cD CD US Q-+ c_ Ct . cs 93 c3 CD Ct C Calculated . Found . I. II . C17 204 67*22 67'04 H18 18 5-93 6-25 N 14 4-61 02 32 10 54 C1 35'5 11l70 11-72 C17H1 NO2 , HC1 303-5 100-00 Hence the reaction which takes place is C18 H20 C1 NO,2=CH3 1 C1+ 7 H17 NO , . It is worthy of notice that this reaction probably takes place gradually , while that whereby apomorphia and chloride of methyl are formed direct from codeia appears to occur suddenly , thereby bursting the large majority of sealed tubes used : this never occurred with chlorocodide . § 3 . Action of Wrater on the Hydrochlorate of Chlorocodide . When the hydrochlorate ( obtained by dissolving the base freed from codeia &c. by the process previously described in as small an excess of hydrochloric acid as possible ) is sealed up with ten to fifteen times its weight of water and heated for three hours to 130 ? -140 ? , it splits up into hydrochloric acid and hydrochlorate of codeia , no gas whatever being formed during the reaction . Ci H20 C1 NO , HCl+ H2O 0= HCl1+ C,18 H2I NO3 , HC1 . In two experiments the amount of free hydrochloric acid thus formed was estimated by titration with a solution of carbonate of sodium , and after subtraction of the small amount due to the excess of hydrochloric acid in the original liquid ( estimated in the same way ) , was found to amount respectively to 9 and 10 per cent. of the hydrochlorate employed , the theoretical amount according to the above equation being 10-3 ; the amount of undecomposed chlorocodide was found to be very small , the liquid resulting from the digestion giving but a minute precipitate with carbonate of sodium . The filtrate from the carbonate-of-sodium precipitate was extracted with ether , and the ethereal solution obtained shaken with a few drops of hydrochloric acid ; an oily liquid was thus obtained , which on standing several hours deposited crystals ; these , when drained from the mother liquors and recrystallized , had the character of hydrochlorate of codeia , and gave the following numbers after drying in an ordinary water-bath till constant in weight . As crystallized hydrochlorate of codeia is stated to lose one-fourth of its water of crystallization at 100 ? , a sample was prepared by dissolving codeia in hydrochloric acid and recrystallizing the product ; after drying in the same water-bath it was also burnt as a comparison ( III . ) . ( I. ) 0-3110 gramme of hydrochlorate of codeia from chlorocodide gave 0-6595 carbonic acid and 0-2015 water . ( II . ) 0-2790 gramme of the same , burnt with lime , gave 0-1090 silver chloride . 1869 . ] 87 ( III . ) 0'3460 gramme of hydrochlorate of codeia made from codeia gave 0)7360 carbonic acid and 0-2300 water . Calculated . Found . I. II . III . Cis 216 58-13 57'83 58-01 H2 , 26 7-00 7'20 7-38 0 , 80 21-54 N 14 3-77 C1 35-5 9-56 9'67 Cls 121 NO , , IHC+ 2 H20 371-5 10000 ) A portion of the regenerated hydrochlorate of codeia was precipitated by caustic potash and crystallized from benzole ; after drying at 120 ? it yielded these numbers . 0'3325 gramme , burnt with oxide of copper and oxygen , gave 0-8795 carbonic acid and 0'2185 water . Calculated . Found . C18 216 72-24 72-14 H21 21 7'02 7-30 N 14 4-68 03 48 16.06 C18 121 NO3 299 100-00 The influence of mass upon chemical reactions is well illustrated by the inverse reactions taking place between codeia and hydrochloric acid in excess , and chlorocodide with water in excess . Codeia . Chlorocodide . 18 H,2(HO)NO , +H1C1= H HO +C H , C1 NO , Chlorocodide . Codeia . CO8 HI C1 NO+ H(H10 ) = HCl+ CO1 , H20(11O)NO , . The codeia employed in the foregoing experiments forms part of a second supply kindly given to us by Messrs. M'Farlane of Edinburgh . § 4 . On the Crystalline Form of Chloride of Apomorphia . By Prof. W. H. MILLER , For . Sec. R.S. Prof. Miller has kindly determined the crystalline form of the chloride of apomorphia , which we here annex . Chloride of apomorphia . Prismatic:001 , 101 = 29§ 26'5 0 0,1 10 =0 56 ? 48'5 . Simple forms:-e , 101 : m , 1 10 . Angles between normals to the faces:e e'..580§ 53 ' em m'. . 66 23 e m. . 74 23 No cleavage observable . 30/ The crystals are small , the length and breadth of one of the largest being 0-9 and 0'22 millimetres respectively .

112720

3701662

On the Action of Cyanogen on Anthranilic Acid

89

91

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

P. Griess

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0027

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112720

10.1098/rspl.1869.0027

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112720

Chemistry 2

Biochemistry

Chemistry

body separates , the formation of which is represented by the following equation : Co Hlo , N , O , +H 1H2 =C8 1H N , O , + C , H , 0 . New Alcohol . compound . This new compound , Cs Ho N2 O , , is very difficultly soluble in boiling water , alcohol , and ether , and crystallizes in small white brilliant plates . It is likewise disolved by solutions of caustic alkalies , but is again , however , separated by carbonic acid . On adding a solution of silver salt to its aqueous or alcoholic solution ( neither of which has any action on vegetable colours ) , a white precipitate is formed . Fuming nitric acid converts this body into a nitro-compound , crystallizing in honey-yellow prisms of the composition C8 H5 ( NO , )N , 0 , . On treating the latter with sulphide of ammonium or with tin and hydrochloric acid , it is reduced and furnishes a basic amido-compound crystallizing in slightly yellowish-tinted needles , difficultly soluble in all neutral liquids . Its composition is C8 H5 ( NH , ) N , 0 , . Compounds of this amido-body with acids crystallize well generally , but are for the most part difficultly soluble . Action of Ammonia on the Compound C , , H1 , N , O,.-On digesting the body for several days at 100 ? C. in sealed tubes with alcoholic ammonia , it is gradually converted into a base , almost insoluble in water and difficultly soluble in boiling alcohol ; from this it crystallizes in brilliant nacreous plates . Its composition agrees with the formula C , H , N3 O , and its formation takes place according to the equation C , o 1-lo N , O+ NH3 = Cs H7 N3 0+ C,6 H0 . New base . Alcohol . This new base is monacid . Its nitrate is especially characteristic , for it is almost insoluble in water and alcohol . It separates out from very dilute solutions of the base in the form of small white plates on the addition of nitric acid . Its platinum-salt crystallizes in thick yellow needles , and has the composition 2(C1 H7 N3 O ) , 2HC1 , Pt C14 . The compounds just described may one and all be viewed as substitution products of anthranilic acid , viz.:Anthranilic acid ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... C7 H7 NO =C7 If NO . IHO . New ether ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . CO HIO N , 02 = C7 H ( CN ) NO . C2 I1 , 0 . Product of decomposition of the C H } NO -= 7 ( CN)NO . HO former with 1C1 ... ... ... ... ... ... N 0 , =0 H ( NO ) NO.110 Nitro-compound ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... C8 H , ( N 02 ) N2 02=zC7 14 ( NO2 ) ( CN ) NO . HO . Amido-compound ... ... ... ... ... ... ... H ( N H O2)N OC7 H4 NI ( CN ) NO . HO . Base obtained from the ether by CCH N3 = C,7 H , ( CN)NO . H2N . the action of N11f3 ... ... ... ... ... 8 As I intend taking an early opportunity of considering the rational constitution of these bodies somewhat more filly , I content myself for the present with remarking that I am inclined to regard the base C8 H , N , 0 as the creatinine of the benzoic series ; it stands to anthranilic acid exactly in the same relation as creatinine " par excellence " does to sarcosine : C8 H7 N3 O. C4 H 7N3 O. Benzo-creatinine . Creatinine . C7 H7 NO2 . C3 H17 NO2 . Anthranilic acid . Sarcosine . Herr Neubauer has shown * that creatinine , when treated in a sealed tube with baryta water , undergoes the following change : C4 H , N3 0+H2 O-=C , H4 N , 02+NHI . Creatinine . Methylhydantoine. . I consider it highly probable that the base C8 H7 N3 0 will split up in like manner with the formation of the above-described compound C8 H , N 0 , , according to the equation C8 H17 N3 O+ H2 0=CH N2 0+ NHII . Indeed this latter compound exhibits great resemblance in its chemical deportment to the methylhydantoine of Herr Neubauer . In conclusion , I should point out that the azodioxindol described by Herrn Baeyer and Knop in their paper on indigo-blue'* is isomeric with the before-mentioned compound , C8 H6 N2 O. These two bodies show , moreover , great similarity in other respects , so much so that I should feel inclined to view them as identical if their fusing-points did not differ essentially . Herrn Baeyer and Knop state that the fusing-point of their azodioxindol is 300 ? C. , while the compound I obtained fuses above 350 ? C. Should it turn out , however , on further investigation that the two bodies are identical , the compound C8 HN 02 would have to be regarded as the first derivative of indigo which has ever been prepared synthetically , and which , like indigo-blue itself , contains eight atoms of carbon . V. " On the Action of Cyanogen on Anthranilic Acid . " By P. GRIEss , F.R.S. Received June 29 , 1869 . Some time ago* I pointed out the action which takes place when cyanogen gas is passed into an alcoholic solution of amidobenzoic acid . The principal product of this reaction is , as I have shown , a yellow compound of cyanogen and amidobenzoic acid of the formula C , H ( NH2 ) 0 , 2CN , which separates in large quantities as soon as the alcoholic solution of amidobenzoic acid is nearly saturated with cyanogen . When anthranilic acid , a body isomeric with amidobenzoic acid , is submitted under the same condition to the same reagent , a totally different reaction takes place . In this case the solution remains either perfectly clear , or only traces of a similar yellow compound are precipitated . By allowing the alcoholic solution of anthranilic acid , saturated with cyanogen , to stand for several days , the acid is almost entirely converted into a new compound of the empirical formula C , , H , , N20 , ; two other new compounds ( an acid and an indifferent body ) are at the same time formed . It is worthy of remark that none of these compounds are isomeric with any of the bodies which by the same process are formed from amidobenzoic acid . Each of them belongs to a perfectly different type . I propose on this occasion to treat only of the principal product of the reaction , viz. the compound Co HIo N2 02 . It is prepared in the following manner . An alcoholic solution of anthranilic acid is saturated with cyanogen gas and left to stand for about eight days . The alcohol is then evaporated at a low temperature , and the crystalline residue washed several times with dilute solution of carbonate of ammonia , by which any traces of the new acid ( one of the by-products of the reaction ) are removed . It is then further purified by recrystallization from alcohol with the addition of a little animal charcoal . The indifferent body already referred to , which is very little soluble in alcohol , is thus separated . The new compound , C1o HIo N2 0 , is then obtained in the form of white acicular crystals , which are very little soluble in boiling water , but dissolve readily in boiling alcohol and ether . It fuses at 173 ? C. , and can be distilled in small quantities without undergoing decomposition . Its formation may be expressed as follows : C7 H7 NO + 2CN +C2 H16,0= C1 Ho N2 02+ CIN + H2 0 . Anthranilic CyanoAlcohol . New compound . HydroWater . acid . gen . cyanic acid . According to this equation , alcohol as well as anthranilic acid and cyanogen take place in the reaction . Confirmatory experiments which I have made show that the compound in question is really an ether . Action of HIydrochloric Acid upon the Compound C1o H1o N2 02.-Ordinary hydrochloric acid dissolves this body , and when cold does not act upon it . On boiling , however , speedy decomposition sets in and a new

112721

3701662

On the Successive Action of Sodium and Iodide of Ethyl on Acetic Ether

91

93

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. Alfred Wanklyn

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6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0028

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112721

10.1098/rspl.1869.0028

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112721

Chemistry 2

Formulae

Chemistry

VI . " On the successive Action of Sodium and Iodide of Ethyl on Acetic Ether . " By J. ALFRED WANKLYN , F.C.S. &c. Communicated by Professor WILLIAMSON . Received July 16 , 1869 . In a remarkable paper which appeared in the Philosophical Transactions , vol. clvi . p. 37 ( 1866 ) , Frankland and Duppa described the products obtained on treatment with iodide of ethyl of the yellow wax-like mass given by the action of sodium on acetic ether . Besides the description of the compounds , Frankland and Duppa give a theory of their origin , * Ann. der Chem. und Pharm. vol. cxl . p. 26 . which theory is embodied in four equations expressive of Frarikland and Duppa 's view of the origin of the wax-like mass . As I have already pointed out , each one of these four equations affirms the evolution of an equivalent of hydrogen by every equivalent of sodium employed . I have shown that acetic ether does not evolve hydrogen by reaction with the alkali metals . Equations which assume evolution of hydrogen in these reactions are therefore , in my opinion , inadmissible . At the end of my paper in the January Number of Liebig 's ' Annalen , ' I promised to give an explanation of Frankland and Duppa 's products , which should not involve the assumption of evolution of hydrogen . That explanation I now give . On reference to Frankland and Duppa 's paper just cited , it will be found that the products described by them as obtained froum the " wax-like mass " and iodide of ethyl are the following : A. C8 1-14 03 , liquid boiling at 195 ? C. , B. . C1o HO 03 , liquid boiling at 210 ? C. to 212 ? C. , butyric ether , caproic ether , and also some unacted upon acetic ether , and a considerable quantity of common ethylic ether . The history of these compounds is therefore the task set before me . I have already shown that the direct products of the action of sodium on acetic ether are ethylat.e of sodium and sodium-triacetyl . Nothing else seems to be produced directly . But the excess of acetic ether , which is necessarily taken , acts on some of the ethylate of sodium , producing alcohol and acetate of ethylene-sodium in the manner described by me on a former occasion . ( Of course the extent to which this secondary action takes place will be determined by the exact circumstances of the experiment . ) We have , therefore , in the wax-like mass got by prolonging the action of sodium on acetic ether : Ethylate of sodium ... ... ... ... ... 11 -3 NaO Sodium-triacetyl ... ... ... ... ... ... C , 11H 0 Na Acetate of ethylene-sodium ... ... ... C4 H17 Na O0 Alcohol ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . *1H 0 . On the first three iodide of ethyl acts , giving iodide of sodium and organic liquids . From the ethylate of sodium comes the common ether . From the sodium-triacetyl comes ethyl-triacetyl , which is A-C 1-1 , 03 , having been got by Geuther from the pure sodium-triacetyl , From isolated acetate of ethylene-sodium and iodide of ethylene I have recently obtained liquid B , Co1 H,18 Og , thus : Acetate of ethylenesodium . Alcohol . 2C4 , , NaO , + 2C , HI= 2Na I+ C , -I 0+ C0o H , , 03 . The liquid prepared by me boiled at 212 ? C. , and gave carbonate of baryta with baryta-water , and was identical with Frankland and Duppa 's liquid B. By the action of liquid A upon ethylate of sodium Geuther has recently shown that butyric ether is produced . Geuther 's reaction I write thus : Acetate of ethylenesodium . Butyric ether . A. C , H , , , + C , H NaO = NaC2= H , C2 H3 02 +C6 E12 02 Finally , I predict that liquid B will give Caproic ether . B. C,1 H , O3 + C , INaO = NaC , H C , 3 02 + C , I,1 0 , .

112722

3701662

On Approach Caused by Vibration. [Abstract]

93

94

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Frederick Guthrie

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112722

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112722

Fluid Dynamics

Measurement

Fluid Dynamics

VII . " On Approach caused by Vibration . " By FREDERICK GUTHRIE . Communicated by Prof. G. G. STOKES , Sec. R. S. lReceived August 26 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) The author observes that when a vibrating tuning-fork is held near to a piece of cardboard , the latter has a tendency to approach the fork . Starting from this experiment , a series of experiments is described having for their object the determination of the cause and conditions of the fundamental observed fact . It is shown that no sensible permanent air-currents , having their source at the fork 's surface , are established ; and hence that the approach of the card to the fork is not due to the expansion of such currents as in M. Clement 's experiment . The modifications are examined which Mr. Faraday 's surface-whirlwinds on a vibrating tuning-fork undergo when the fork vibrates in the neighbourhood of a sensibly rigid plane . It is shown that a delicately suspended card approaches the fork when either of the three essential faces of the fork is presented to the card , and that the approach takes place from distances far exceeding the range of Mr. Faraday 's air-current . That the action between the card and fork is mutual is shown by suspending the latter . Also one vibrating fork tends to approach another in whatever sense their planes of vibration may be towards one another . The mean tension of the air surrounding a vibrating fork is examined by enclosing one limb of the fork in a glass tube . It appears that the vibrating fork displaces air . The question whether the equilibrium between two equal and opposite forces acting on a body is disturbed by submitting one of the forces to successive , rapid , equal , and opposite alterations in quantity , is answered in the negative by an experiment which shows that the equilibrium of a Cartesian diver is not disturbed by submitting the water in which it floats to vibration . Various modifications are introduced into the nature of the surface s1869 . ] 93 which receives the vibrations , such as making it a narrow cylinder with one end closed , making it of cotton-wool , &c. It is found that in all cases the suspended body approaches the vibrating one . The author concludes that the effect of apparent attraction is due to atmospheric pressure , and that this pressure is due to undulatory dispersion . It is suggested that the dispersion of the vibrations which constitute radiant heat may cause bodies to approach , being pushed not pulled .

112723

3701662

Anniversary Meeting

101

115

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

fla

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112723

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112723

Biography

Astronomy

Biography

GENTLEMiEN , ONE of the first subjects to which I have to draw your attention is the Royal Society 's Catalogue of Scientific Papers , the printing of which , I am happy to report , proceeds satisfactorily . The tlird volume , which I lay before you , is now completed , carrying the Index of Titles in alphabetical order as far as LEz inclusive ; and good progress has been made in correcting the proofs of the fourth volume . Each succeeding volume of the work , of course , adds to its practical utility , which continues to be thankfully acknowledged by cultivators of science in various parts of the world . But while the aid to be derived to scientific research from the index arranged according to authors ' names is fully recognized , there can be no doubt that the value of the Catologue will be greatly enhanced by the fulfilment of the second part of the plan announced in the preface , namely , by the publication of an Alphabetical Index of Subjects . The preparation of such an " Index Rerum " as is contemplated has been for some time a subject of anxious as well as careful consideration by the Library 102 [ Nov. 30 , Committee , and they have at length arrived at what , they have reason to hope , will be a most satisfactory solution of the question , through a communication with Professor Julius Victor Carus , of Leipsic , who they found would be willing himself to undertake the task . I am happy to announce that the Council , acting on the recommendation of the Library Committee , have entered into a very satisfactory arrangement with Professor Carus , who will be able to commence his labours in the ensuing spring . From the well-known scientific accomplishment of Professor Carus , and his extensive experience in the peculiar work to be performed , as well as the confidence which will be reposed in him by all acquainted with the nature of the undertaking and interested in its success , we may consider the Society most fortunate in securing his services . The Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade , snperintenided by a Committee of the Royal Society , is making good progress , under the able direction of Mr. Robert Scott , towards the fulfilment of the objects for which it was constituted . In respect to the Meteorology of the United Kingdom , the seven observatories distributed over its surface and maintained at the public expense are all in thoroughly good working order , transmitting their self-recorded results monthly to the central establishment , where they undergo a careful revision before their final acceptance . The first publication of the numerical results , which will be complete for each of the seven observatories for the year 1869 , will take place towards the end of the first quarter of 1870 , and similarly in subsequent years , and will be followed at brief intervals by graphical representations illustrating the phenomena of the weather at times of its most important disturbances . The other departments of the office show also a healthy activity . As regards Ocean Meteorology , the Committee have been enabled to increase their staff , and so to accelerate materially the investigations alluded to in my address of last year ; while the collection of new observations of a high character is also going on steadily . The system of Weather Telegraphy is making solid advances . The Drum Signal is now hoisted at upwards of 100 British Stations , and intelligence of atmospheric disturbances felt on our shores is transmitted to the coasts of the continent from Norway to Spain . The results of the transmission of such news to Hamburg have been especially satisfactory . The extension of telegraphic communication to the north of Scotland has enabled the Committee to adopt Wick as an observing-station , while the Norwegian authorities have resolved to make use of the direct cable laid down last summer between Scotland and their coast , to exchange information daily with the office in London . Hlitherto the reports from Norway have always reached us vid Paris , whereby delays were occasioned . The attention of the Commnittee has also been directed to instituting discussions of the statistics of our weather . The results already obtained in this field lead us to hope that the practical value of such inquiries will soon be manifested . The great Melbourne Telescope arrived at its destination in November 1868 , without injury of any importance-which , perhaps , could hardly have been expected after a voyage of 16,000 miles , for an instrument at once so massive and so delicate ! The Visitors of the Melbourn e Observatory thought it advisable to adopt the suggestion of Dr. Robinson to provide the telescope with a covering , and for this purpose they preferred the second of the plans which he proposed-a rolling roof . This appears to have been satisfactorily executed . It protects the telescope completely , and carl be removed by a single workman , leaving the telescope fully exposed to the sky . In erecting the instrument some trifling difficulties seem to have been experienced , and it was not fit for actual work until the beginning of last June , which is midwinter there , a season when cloudy weather prevails to an extent which we were scarcely prepared to expect , and which is stated to have been this year excessive . For these reasons the habitual work of the telescope had not been commenced up to September . Its performance since erection does not appear to have given altogether the same satisfaction at Melbourne that it did at Dublin ; but the defects complained of may arise partly from an imperfect knowledge of the principles of the instrument and inexperience in the use of so large a telescope , partly from experimental alterations made at Melbourne , and partly from atmospherical circumstances . Those who are acquainted with the difficulties which Sir J. F. W. Herschel experienced at the Cape , will not be surprised that they should be felt at Melbourne to a much greater extent , on account of the far greater size of the speculum . But I have no doubt that if the instrument be kept in its original condition and as carefully adjusted as it was at Dublin , it will perform as well in ordinary observing-weather . The high impression of its power produced by the trials which were made of it when at Dublin , is maintained by a sketch of a portion of the Great Nebula near q Argus , made by M. Le Sueur during two nights in June last . Some change in this nebula from the time when it was described by Sir J. F. W. HIerschel had been indicated by Mr. Powell and other observers , though with instruments so much inferior in power to his 20-foot reflector , that little reliance could be placed on them ; however , here the evidences of change are indisputable . The peculiar opening in the nebula , which Sir John Herschel has compared to a lemniscate , is still very sharply marked , but its shape and magnitude have altered . Its northern extremity is opened out into a sort of estuary ; one of the remarkable constrictions seen in 1834 has disappeared , and the other has shifted its place . Two stars which were then exactly on the edges of the opening are now at some distance within the bright nebulosity ; the nebula has become comparatively faint near n Argus . Another remarkable change is the formation of a V-shaped bay south and preceding the lemniscate , whose edges are so bright that if it had then existed it could not have been overlooked in the 20-foot reflector . Another feature , which , however , was perhaps not within reach of that telescope , is an oval which M. Le Sueur describes as " full of complicated dark markings and pretty bright nebular filaments . " The angular magnitude of the changes which have been thus observed is so great as to suggest a strong probability that this nebula is much nearer to us than the stars which are seen along with it . It may be also noticed that M. Le Sueur saw nothing to make him believe in any development of stars in addition to those seen by Sir J. F. W. Herschel . The spectroscope and photographic apparatus belonging to the instrument have by this time reached Melbourne , and will no doubt give good results , subject to the condition that the fascination of their use shall not be permitted to interfere with the primary destination of the telescope , viz. the observation of nebulae . Celestial spectroscopy has indeed attained such importance , that it requires for its successful prosecution the undivided attention of the astronomer who devotes himself to it , as well as an observatory specially designed for it . Our great national observatories cannot supply this want , for they have their own specific destination ; and the high optical power which is required , if we wish to make further progress , is scarcely within the reach of amateurs . These considerations have induced your Council to believe that an attempt to encourage and aid this most interesting class of researches is an object in full unison with the highest purpose of the itoyal Society 's existence ; and they have therefore , after most careful deliberation , resolved to act on this conviction by providing a telescope of the highest power that is conveniently available for spectroscopy and its kindred inquiries . The instrument will , of course , be the property of the Society , and will be entrusted to such persons as , in their opinion , are the most likely to use it to the best advantage for the extension of this branch of science ; and , in the first instance , there can be but one opinion that the person so selected should be Mr. Huggins . The execution of this project was much facilitated by the receipt of ? 1350 from a bequest made to the Society by the late Mr. Oliveira ; and in the beginning of the year proposals were received from the chief opticians of the time , of which that of Mir . Grubb was accepted last April . The conditions proposed were , that the object-glass of the telescope should be of 15 inches aperture , and not more than 15 feet focus , that the arrangements of its equatorial should be such that it could be easily worked by the observer without an assistant , and that the readings of its circles could be made without leaving the floor of the observatory . Mr. Grubb was fortunate enough to secure two disks which had been exhibited by Messrs. Chance at the French Exhibition . They are of first-rate transparency ; and as the construction which has been adopted admits of the lenses being cemented , this object-glass will transmit an unusually large portion of light . The respective indices of the glasses were determined by making facets on their edges at an angle of 60 ? , and observing spectral lines through the prisms thus formed with a spectroscope of such magnitude as to admit of their being placed on its table . The distinctness with which even faint lines were seen through 12 inches of the glass is a most satisfactory proof of its purity and clearness . From these Professor Stokes computed the curves for the lenses ; and his numbers were almost identical with those which Mr. Grubb had obtained . I may mention that some fears had been entertained that the equality of curvature in the adjacent surfaces might call up a ghost , if the lenses were used uncemented , and that this has been tried and no such effect was visible . Subsequently a rather novel addition has been made , bearing upon the radiation of heat from the stars . An object-glass intercepts so much of the heat-rays that , to economize the infinitesimal effect which is expected , a metallic mirror is more promising . The equatorial is therefore , at the suggestion of Mr. De La Rue , provided with the means of changing the 15-inch achromatic for an 18-inch reflector ; and this has been accomplished by means notable for their facility and their safety . The instrument will be ready for trial in December of the present year . In the meantime it may be said that the object-glass , notwithstanding the difficulty of working one of so short a focus , gives promise of very high excellence . With respect to the equatorial , it has been ascertained that a force of 2 lb. applied at the eyepiece is sufficient to move the telescope easily on its declination axis , and 1 lb. on its polar axis ; however , when all its parts are put together , these forces may require to be increased - . The anticipations which I ventured to express in may last year 's Address , of the renewal in the summer of the present year of the researches on the temperature of the sea at great depths , and on the nature of the seabottom and the life existing in its vicinity , have been realized by an ample provision on the-part of Her Majesty 's Government , and a devotion on the part of the Fellows of the Royal Society , viz. Dr. Carpenter , Prof. Wyville Thomson , and Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys , meriting the highest praise . The existence of persistent deep-sea currents of very different temperatures in proximity to each other , and their influence on the inhabiting forms of life and on the nature of the sea-bed , together with the great extension of our knowledge of the variety and characteristics of the new forms of life which have been discovered , justify the belief that we have embarked on a field of discovery and research which will not soon be exhausted , and which will have no unimportant bearing on the earlier geology of our globe , as well as on our knowledge of the life at present existing on the submerged portions of its surface . It had long been inferrec by naturalists that species of the marine Invertebrata may have a far wider extension on the surface of the globe than is the case with the inhabiters of the land . The correctness of this inference received the fullest confirmation by the researches of the late Admiral Sir James Clark Ross , whose dredges brought up from the depths of the Antarctic Ocean individuals of species which were well known to him from his earlier dredging operations in the Arctic seas . These animals are known to be particularly sensitive in regard to temperature ; and we have no reason to doubt his conclusion , that water of similar temperature to that of the Arctic and Antarctic seas exists in the depths of the intermediate ocean , and may have formed a channel for the dissemination of species . The barrier which the heated regions of the tropics present to the migrations of the land animals of colder climates does not exist in the case of many of those inhabitants of the sea whose remains constitute a large portion of the fossiliferous strata of the globe . The Fellows will not have forgotten the important paper on the Flora of North Greenland by Prof. Oswald Heer , which was read last winter , and which will speedily be in their hands in the forthcoming volume of the Transactions . The inquiries carried on by this eminent botanist have determined , beyond the possibility of cavil , the climatological conditions of the Arctic regions at a geological epoch which is comparatively recent ( the Miocene ) , and have shown that they must have resembled very closely those now prevailing in latitudes at least 20 ? lower ; for such is the zone inhabited by the living representatives of the plants found fossil by him in the localities in which they grew . The specimens brought by the recent Swedish Expedition from Spitzbergen have also been submitted to his examination ; and it appears that a portion of these , from Advent Bay , belong to the Quaternary Epoch . It will therefore be a matter of no small interest to determine accurately the changes of climate which took place in that locality at the expiration of the Miocene era . I proceed to the award of the Medals . The Copley Medal has been awarded to M. Victor Regnault , Foreign Member of the Royal Society , for the second volume of his ' Relation des Experiences pour determiner les lois et les donnees physiques necessaires au calcul des Machines a Feu , ' including his elaborate investigations on the Specific Heat of Gases and Vapours , and various papers on the Elastic Force of Vapours . The name of M. Victor Regnault has been associated for the last quarter of a century with the most refined and delicate experimental inquiries connected with the measurement of heat . The amount of labour involved in his researches upon the specific heat of simple and compound bodies , upon the dilatation of gases and vapours , upon the comparison of the air-thermometer with the mercurial thermometer , upon the elastic force of aqueous vapour , upon the determination of the density of gases , and upon hygrometry must excite the astonishment of all who can estimate the difficulty of the problems attacked , the precision of the results attained , and the fundamental character of the data which he has determined . These researches were published before the year 1850 ; many of them were embodied in the first volume of his ' Relation des Experiences pour determiner les lois et les donnees physiques necessaires au calcul des Machines a Feu . " ''The Royal Society marked their sense of the importance of these earlier labours of M. Regnault by the presentation of the Rumford Medal in the year 1848 . He has since published the second volume of that great work , to which more especially the Copley Medal is now awarded . It embraces a series of researches even more delicate and difficult ; to use the words of one whose recent loss we all deplore , and whose opinion on this subject possesses a weight which is equalled by few , viz. the late Mr. Graham , " in these researches a degree of precision is attained , where precision is allimportant , which appears never to have been surpassed , or perhaps even approached before in similar inquiries . The results are data of a fundamental character , to the completion of which chemists and natural philosophers have been looking anxiously for years past , and which they have now received from the hands of M. Regnault with a feeling of entire confidence . " The researches on the specific heat of gases and vapours , alone , constitute a monumental work . Upon this subject the most discordant results had been obtained by experimental investigators of tried skill and ingenuity ; and the problem , notwithstanding its importance , exhibited a series of perplexing contradictions . Before commencing his own experiments , M. Regnault submitted the various methods of previous inquirers on the subject to a minute comparison and criticism , particularly those of Delaroche and Berard , of Haycraft , and of Apjohn and Suesman . M. Regnault finally adopted a method based upon the one proposed by Delaroche and Berard . The principle of it may be explained in a few words . A current of the compressed gas under experiment is made to traverse at a uniform velocity a metallic worm maintained at a uniform temperature . The heated gas is then transmitted through a calorimeter , and the amount of the following quantities determined , viz.:-l , the weight of the gas employed ; 2 , the cooling of the gas ; 3 , the rise of temperature of the water in the calorimeter . From these data the specific heat of the gas is calculated . Amongst various special contrivances required for avoiding error , it was necessary to have the means of regulating the escape of the gas with sufficient uniformity , and for preveniting its issue from the calorimeter at varying pressures . Some idea of the enormous amount of labour bestowed upon these researches may be formed from the fact , that not fewer than eighty-four experiments were made upon the specific heat of air , under different pressures and temperatures , forty-three upon aqueous vapour , twenty-four upon carbonic acid , and a considerable number upon other important gases and vapours , embracing no fewer than thirty-six different elementary and comrpound bodies , many of which required special modifications of the method and apparatus employed . Besides this remarkable series of researches , M. Regnault has embodied in his work:-investigations on the compressibility of gases under wide variations of pressure , and on the specific heat of liquids at different temperatures ; also a second memoir on the elastic force of saturated vapours at different pressures , which he has extended to the compressed gases , and to the density of vapours emitted by saline solutions and by mixed liquids . In addition to all these , he has a memoir on the latent heat of vapours at different tensions . This extended series of investigations is carried out with minute and scrupulous precision , and the sources and limits of error are traced and guarded against with unvarying skill and sagacity . The publication of this work , the greatest experimental contribution of any single individual to the science of heat , must indeed mark an era in the history of thermotics , and furnish data of enduring value both to the chemist and the physicist in all that concerns specific and latent heat , and the laws of elastic force as acting on aeriform bodies . PROFESSOR MILLER , We greatly regret that we are deprived of the pleasure of Monsieur Regnault 's presence by reason of illness in his family . I will therefore request you to receive the Medal on his behalf , and to transmit it to him with the assurance of the Society 's highest respect . The Council has awarded a Royal Medal to Sir Thomas Maclear , Astronomer Royal at the Cape of Good Hope , for his Measurement of an Are of the Meridian at the Cape of Good Hope . Our sole knowledge of the figure of the southern hemisphere rests on the arc of the meridian measured by La Caille , and now remeasured and extended by Maclear . The original measurement , notwithstanding the wellknown ability of the great astronomer under whose superintendence it was executed , has not commanded confidence . The magnitude of the degree inferred from it is far too great , and , if accepted , would lead to the conclusion that the dimensions of the two hemispheres are dissimilar . But La Caille 's angles were observed with a quadrant , not with a circle , and were therefore liable to errors of eccentricity and of figure ; while the effects of local attraction , if recognized at all , were very imperfectly ap preciated . These considerations induced Maclear , shortly after his appointment to the Cape Observatory , to plan the verification which he has now accomplished . Pursuing the still earlier inquiries of Sir George Everest , he succeeded , though with considerable difficulty , in recovering La Caille 's terminal stations ; and , aided by the advice and encouragement of Sir John Herschel ( then at the Cape ) and of the Astronomer Royal , he commenced the work of a remeasurement in 1836 . The proceedings were necessarily tedious : the measurements of the base , of the triangles , and of the zenith-distances were repeated to an extent and with precautions unpractised at the earlier period . The zenith-distances were observed with the sector with which Bradley discovered the aberration of light and the nutation of the earth 's axis , entrusted to Maclear by the Admiralty . The terrestrial angles were taken with a 20-inch circle by Jones , and a smaller theodolite by Reichenbach , both of remarkable precision . The base , from which all the distances were derived , was measured with the compensation bars used in the Irish triangulation . Thus , in respect to the means employed , this arc of the meridian may be regarded as inferior to none on record . A full account of the whole was completed in 1866 , and has been published by the Admiralty in two quarto volumes . It does not confirm the abnormal value obtained by La Caille , but shows a probable cause for the discordance . La Caille 's northern station was in a hollow surrounded by mountains , one of which , half a mile distant to the north , was a mass of rock 2000 feet high ; and others , at distances somewhat greater , were still near enough to create disturbance . A station so situated was obviously ill suited to be a terminal station ; and the triangulation was therefore extended across an immense plain of sand to a point without any visible source of local attraction . By this extension , and by a similar one to the south , Maclear 's arc has an amplitude nearly four times as great as that of La Caille , and is , on this account , as well as on account of the greater accuracy in detail , far more deserving of confidence . The degree which is derived from it is 1133 feet shorter than that of La Caille ; and as La Caille 's is 1051 longer than that given by the spheroid which , according to Airy , represents the average of northern arcs , Maclear 's determination is evidently a near approximation to the truth . This is even more distinctly shown by the close agreement of the latitudes computed from the geodetic measurements with those given by the sector-that of the north extremity being 0'4 " in defect , that of the south extremity 0"'5 in excess . CAPTAIN RICHARDS , We should indeed have been happy to have had Sir Thomas Maclear 's presence among us ; but in his present unavoidable absence I will request you to receive this Medal on his behalf , and to transmit it to him with the assurance of the very great pleasure which it will give to the Society to welcome him on his return to his native country . A Royal Medal has been awarded to Dr. Augustus Matthiessen , F.R.S. , for his researches on the electrical and other physical properties of metals and their alloys . The earlier of Dr. Matthiessen 's published researches related to the preparation of the metals of the alkaline earths . Having succeeded in establishing or perfecting methods for the production of these , he proceeded to institute a far more complete examination of their physical properties than had previously been attempted . These researches appear to have led to his investigation of the more important physical properties of the principal metals and their alloys . In some of these investigations Dr. Matthiessen associated himself with younger workers in science of proved ability , Messrs. Holzmann , Box , and Vogt ; and the results arrived at were included in a series of nine papers published in the 'Philosophical Transactions . ' They embrace the determinations of the specific gravities , the expansion due to heat , the thermo-electric properties , the electric conducting-power , and the effects of temperature upon the electric conductingpower . The laws deduced from the results of Dr. Matthiessen 's electrical experiments are now in constant use by telegraphic engineers . The causes of the great variations observed in the electric conducting-power of commercial copper were first elucidated by him , and an important report was made by him on this subject in 1860 to the Committee appointed by Government to inquire into the construction of Submarine Telegraph Cables . His investigation of this subject has resulted in very great improvement of the conducting-power of the copper wire used in submarine telegraphy . Closely connected with this branch of his researches are the investigations which Dr. Matthiessen carried out for the Electrical-Standard Committee of the British Association , of which he was one of the most active members . The resistance-coils issued by that Committee , which have been very generally adopted as standard instruments , are all constructed of an alloy of platinum and tin , which , after a long series of experiments , Dr. Matthiessen recommended as specially fitted for that purpose . Under the auspices of the British Association , Dr. Matthiessen undertook , a few years ago , the investigation of the chemical constitution of cast iron , and of the influence exerted upon the physical properties of that metal by the several other elements which generally occur in association with it . With these objects in view he has laboured most perseveringly in the preparation of iron in a chemically pure condition , and in quantities sufficient to admit of the attainment of thoroughly trustworthy results in the study of the physical and chemical properties of the pure metal and of its alloys . His researches in this direction have recently been crowned with success ; and the method of producing pure iron , which he has elaborated , promises to be fruitful in interesting and important results in the hands of himself and the other chemists with whom he has been associated in this inquiry . Dr. Matthiessen 's researches , published in the Philosophical Transactions , on the action of oxidizing agents upon organic bases and on the chemical constitution of narcotics ( the latter investigation having been conducted in conjunction with Professor G. C. Foster ) , furnish proofs of the success of his labours in organic chemistry . The accounts published in our 'Proceedings , ' of the results of his most recent researches in this branch of chemical science , show that he has entered upon a line of investigation as productive of interesting and important results as any which he has yet pursued . Thus , he has already established an intimate relation between the organic bases morphia and codeia , and has shown that when either of these is treated with hydrochloric acid , a new base is produced , which he has called apomorphia , and which , though only differing from the powerful narcotic morphia by the elements of water , possesses the very distinct characteristics of a most powerful emetic . The substance known as Papaverine , hitherto regarded as a distinct organic base , is at the present time the subject of Dr. Matthiessen 's study , and promises to yield results of considerable interest . Dr. Matthiessen 's researches are distinguished as well for their diversity as for their uniformly complete and trustworthy character . DR. MATTHIESSEN , I have great pleasure in presenting you with this Medal , which you will receive as a mark of the value which the Royal Society attaches to your researches , and the interest with which it regards your continuation of them . Before concluding , I have to acquaint you that the Society will in future years have an additional Medal to bestow . Dr. John Davy , brother of Sir Humphry Davy , has bequeathed to the Royal Society , in fulfilment of an expressed wish of his illustrious brother , a service of Plate , presented to Sir Humphry Davy for the invention of the Safety Lamp , to be employed in founding a Medal to be given annually for the most important discovery in Chemistry made in Europe or Anglo-America . The directions given in the will , respecting the manner in which the plate should be disposed of , have been fulfilled , and the proceeds invested in India securities , yielding a little more than ? 30 a year ; and it now remains with your Council to determine the form of the Medal , and to specify the conditions under which it will be awarded . On the motion of Capt. Richards , seconded by Mr. Abel , it was resolved , - " That the thanks of the Society be returned to the President for his Address , and that he be requested to allow it to be printed . " The Statutes relating to election of the Council and Officers having been read , and Mr. C. V. Walker and Dr. Webster having been , with the consent of the Society , nominated Scrutators , the votes of the Fellows Number of Fellows , changes and present state of . present were collected , and the following were declared duly elected as Council and Officers for the ensuing year : President.-Lieut.-General Sir Edward Sabine , R.A. , K.C.B. , D.C.L. , LL. D. Treasurer.--William Allen Miller , M.D. , D.C.L. , LL. D. Secretaries.{ Willim Sharpey , M.D. , LL. D. George Gabriel Stokes , Esq. , M.A. , D.C.L. , LL. D , Foreign Secretary.-Professor William Hallows Miller , M.A. , LL. D. Other Members of the Council.-Frederick Currey , Esq. , M.A. ; Warren De La Rue , Esq. , Ph. D. ; Sir Philip de M. Grey Egerton , Bart. ; William Henry Flower , Esq. ; William IHuggins , Esq. ; John Gwyn Jeffreys , Esq. ; John Marshall , Esq. ; Augustus Matthiessen , Esq. , Ph. D. ; George Henry Richards , Capt. R.N. ; The Marquis of Salisbury , M.A. ; Charles William Siemens , Esq. ; John Simon , Esq. ; Archibald Smith , Esq. , M.A. ; Prof. Henry J. Stephen Smith , M'.A . ; Prof. John Tyndall , LL. D. ; Prof. Alexander W. Williamson , Ph. D. The thanks of the Society were voted to the Scrutators . The following Table shows the progress and present state of the Society with respect to the number of Fellows : Patron CornX2 12s . X4 and Foreign . o ? 212 Total . Royal . pounders . yearly , yearly . November 30 , 1868 . 4 48 289 2 257 6)0 Since elected ... ... +3 +5 +12 +20 Since re-admitted. . +2 +2 Since compounded. . +3 -3 Since deceased . -2 -13 -2 -8 -25 November 30 , 1869 . 4 49 284 260 597 Receipts and Payments of the Royal Society between December 1 , 1868 , and November 30 , 1869 . ? s. d. ? s d , Balance at Bank and on hand ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 493 14 6 Salaries , Wages , and Pension ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 1084 13 0 Annual Subscriptions , Admission Fees , and Compositions ... 1618 40 The Scientific Catalogue ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 406 76 Rents ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 252 57 Oliveira Bequest , Deposit ... ... ... ... ... ... . 10 17 Dividends ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 1476 10 5 Books for the Library and Biding ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 242 74 Ditto , Trust Funds ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . o0 281 43 Printing Transactions and Proceedings , Paper , Binding , Oliveira Bequest ( subject to Duty ) ... ... ... ... ... .1 ... ... ... ... . . 106 17 1 Engraving , and Lithography ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 1681 48 Davy Bequest ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 736 85 General Expenses ( as per Table subjoined ) ... ... ... ... ... . . 358 10 0 Sale of Transactions , Proceedings , &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 383 19 umford Medal Fund ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 136 94 Repayments ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 423 Davy Medal Fund , Investment , &c. ... ... ... ... 728 17 3 Donation Fund ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 17 15 0 Wintringham Fund ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 35 20 932 16 Copley Medal Fund ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4 15 7 Dr. Andrews , Bakerian Lecture ... ... ... ... ... ... 400 Rev. T. S. Evans , Fairchild Lecture ... ... ... . . 2 18 6\ ? .^^^~~~~~~~ Croonian Lecture , Poor of St. James 's Parish. . 2 18 6 , Law Expenses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 65 12 2 Legacy Duty , Oliveira Bequest ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 150 13 9 6429 18 '\ " '~ I Balance at Bank ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 298 18 5 '"X " '1 ~Balance of Catalogue Account ... ... ... ... ... ... 22 12 3 '~.\~ __ , , IPetty Cash Account ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 2 1311 ? 6753 6 3 ? ( 6753 63 WILLIAM ALLEN MILLER , i Vrl ; BM.tIP Treasurer . Estates and Property of the Royal Society , including Trust Funds . Estate at Mablethorpe , Lincolnshire ( 55 A. 2 R. 2 P. ) , ? 126 per annum . Estate at Acton , Middlesex ( 34 A. 2 R. 271 P. ) , ? 109 10s . per annum . Fee Farm near Lewes , Sussex , rent ? 19 4s . per annum . One-fifth of the clear rent of an estate at Lambeth Hill , from the College of Physicians , t3 per annum . 9 ? 14,000 Reduced 3 per Cent. Annuities . A ? 29,569 15s . 7d . Consolidated Bank Annuities . c ? 513 9s . 8d . New 21per Cent. Stock-Bakerian and Copley Medal Fund . ? 660 Madras Guaranteed 5 per Cent. Railway Stock-Davy Medal Fund . Scientific Rely Investments up to July 1805 , New 3 per Cent. An Dr. ? s. d. . Balance ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 379 70 Dividends ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 177 87 V556 15 7 Statement of Income and Expenditure ( apart from Trust E ? s. d. Annual Subscriptions ... ... ... ... . 1072 40 Admission Fees ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . Compositions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . Rents ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . Dividends on Stock ( exclusive of Trust Funds ) ... ... ... ... on Stevenson Bequest ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Sale of Transactions , Proceedings , &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Oliveira Bequest ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Repayments ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Income available for the Year ending Nov. 30 , 1869 ... ... Expenditure in the Year ending Nov. 30 , 1869 ... ... ... ... 170 00 376 00 252 57 1008 92 468 13 383 19 9 1506 17 1423 5241 19 1 5496 56 Excess of Expenditure over Income in the Year ending } 254 65 Nov. 30 , 1869 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0ve~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~ v v44 ? X* ? s a@@ ? ?qee *ovX ? *** f Fund . auities ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ? 6052 17 8 . ? 6052 17 8 ... ... ... _ Cs . CEe s , ? s. d. By Grants ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 175 00B alan e ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 381 15 7 ? 556 15 7 '\nds ) during the Year ending November 30 , 1869 . ? s. d. Salaries , Wages , and Pension ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 1084 13 0 The Scientific Catalogue ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 406 76 Oliveira Bequest , Deposit ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1506 17 1 Books for the Library ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 152 4 10 Binding ditto ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 90 26 Printing Transactions , Part II . 1868 , and 467 16 0 Part I. 1869 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . J Ditto Proceedings , Nos. 105-114 ... ... ... ... ... 430 17 7 Ditto Miscellaneous ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 62 49 1681 48 Paper for Transactions and Proceedings ... 208 66 Binding and Stitching ditto ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 70 90 Engraving and Lithography ... ... ... ... ... ... 441 10 10 ) Law Expenses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 65 12 2 Legacy duty , Oliveira Bequest ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 150 13 9 Fittings , Cleaning , and Repairs ... ... ... ... ... 82 18 4 Miscellaneous Expenses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 473 Coal , Lighting , &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 104 16 4 Tea Expenses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 28 11 2 EFire Insurance ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2811 6 358 10 0 Fire Insurance ... ... . .

112724

3701662

On Linear Differential Equations

118

119

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. H. L. Russell

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0031

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112724

10.1098/rspl.1869.0031

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112724

Formulae

Measurement

Mathematics

IV . " On Linear Differential Equations . " By W. H. L. RUSSELL , F.R.S. Received November 13 , 1869 . The condition that the linear differential equation ( a+p ? y d2 ) +(a +f3'X+y'X2 ) du 1rX , +y"X)u=0 ( a + prx + Yx23 d+ dxY2 ) ++ ( a " +3 " 2 ) admits of an integral u=efd w where y is a rational function of ( x ) , is given by the system of equations 0 ... P,._ QR,.-1 S,._-1 0 ? 0 0 ... 0 Pr Q , . Rr S , 0 ... 0 =0 0 ... 0 P,.+ Q,.+ RPr+ Sr+1. . 0 whIere P , . , Q , R , , S , . are given as follows . [ Dec. 9 , 118 Presents . When a , / 3 , y are none of them equal to zero , and Pie --rP + y"= O , Pr_p2p { 2y(r1 ) + P'}p+ ( r -l)+y'+ ' Q=p2a~(2/ 3r + a')p + y(r 1 ) + 'r + " , ,.= ( r+ 1)(-2pa + 3r+ a ' ) , S=a(r+ l)(r+ 2 ) . There will be ( n +2 ) horizontal and ( n 1 ) vertical rows , where n is the index of the highest power of x in the denominator of 9 . When a and 3 are not zero but 7=0 , and we put J ! _j"_2Y -7 7I " § 7 then P.= ? /.2 + 2a , I , - . P-(r , ^ + ~')t , + " , Qr= a~t(2,3r + ')-.(2r +1 )a +"+r ' , R , = ( r+l 1)(3r-2aC+L ' ) , S=ra(r+ 1)(r+ 2 ) . When a , is not zero , but / =y=0 , and we put --a dYL p/ 3 ' 'y -- , a7~a P , . = av-a'(r + l)p +f " , Qr= =alU2a'LYa(r + 1 ) + " , R.= ( r + 1)('2/ aA ) , S , =a(r+ 1)(r+2 ) . Similar methods will apply to the linear differential equation d3u d+u +( " X+"+ t ) d ( a+/ X+yrX)T ? t(a ' +(3 '+ +y )t +(+ P+3"+y X2 ) X P3 'x +7dX+ ( aCt " + 3 " ' X+ " ' yIX2)a=o , and the process admits of a very remarkable simplification . All linear differential equations of the second and third orders may be treated in the same way , and , I believe , all linear differential equations of every degree* .

112725

3701662

On Abstract Geometry. [Abstract]

122

123

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Professor Cayley

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112725

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112725

Formulae

Biography

Mathematics

III . " On Abstract Geometry . " By Professor CAYLEY . Received October 14 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) I submit to the Society the present exposition of some of the elementary principles of an Abstract m-dimensional geometry . The science presents itself in two ways , -as a legitimate extension of the ordinary twoand threedimensional geometries ; and as a need in these geometries and in analysis generally . In fact whenever we are concerned with quantities connected together in any manner , and which are , or are considered as variable or determinable , then the nature of the relation between the quantities is frequently rendered more intelligible by regarding them ( if only two or three in number ) as the coordinates of a point in a plane or in space ; for more than three quantities there is , from the greater complexity of the case , the greater need of such a representation ; but this can only be obtained by means of the notion of a space of the proper dimensionality ; and to use such representation , we require the geometry of such space . An important instance in plane geometry has actually presented itself in the question of the determination of the curves which satisfy given conditions : the conditions imply relations between the coefficients in the equation of the curve ; and for the better understanding of these relations it was expedient to consider the coefficients as the co6rdinates of a point in a space of the proper dimensionality . A fundamental notion in the general theory presents itself , slightly in [ Dec. 16 , 12 plane geometry , but already very prominently in solid geometry ; viz. we have here the difficulty as to the form of the equations of a curve in space , or ( to speak more accurately ) as to the expression by means of equations of the twofold relation between the coordinates of a point of such curve . The notion in question is that of a k-fold relation , -as distinguished from any system of equations ( or onefold relations ) serving for the expression of it , and giving rise to the problem how to express such relation by means of a system of equations ( or onefold relations ) . Applying to the case of solid geometry my conclusion in the general theory , it may be mentioned that I regard the twofold relation of a curve in space as being completely and precisely expressed by means of a system of equations ( P==0 , Q=0,. . T0 ) , when no one of the func ions P , Q , ... T , as a linear function , with constant or variable integral coefficients , of the others of them , and when every surface whatever which passes through the curve has its equation expressible in the form U=AP+BQ ... +KT , with constant or variable integral coefficients , A , B ... ' K. It is hardly necessary to remark that all the functions and coefficients are taken to be rational functions of the coordinates , and that the word integral has reference to the coordinates .

112726

3701662

On the Action of Bromine upon Ethylbenzol

123

130

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

T. E. Thorpe

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6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0033

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112726

10.1098/rspl.1869.0033

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112726

Chemistry 2

Thermodynamics

Chemistry

IV . " On the Action of Bromine upon Ethylbenzol . " By T. E. THORPE , Ph. D. Communicated by H. E. RoscoE , Ph. D. Received November 11 , 1869 . In the course of an investigation upon ethylbenzoic acid which Prof. Kekule and I recently published in conjunction , we had occasion to prepare a quantity ofmonobromethylbenzol , C6 H4 Br{ C2 H5 . Our object in this research was to prove experimentally the identity of the ethylbenzoic acid made synthetically by acting upon the monobromethylbenzol by means of carbonic anhydride and sodium , C , H4Br{C , H , +Na , +CO , =0 C , H{ CONaO +Br Na , with the acid subsequently obtained by Fittig by oxidizing diethylbenzol , C , 1I-4 C Hj ? by means of nitric acid . In the preparation of the bromide for the purposes of our experiments , we followed the direction given by Fittig and Konig , by whom this substance was first described . Bromine was added drop by drop to well-cooled ethylbenzol in the proportion of 1 mol . bromine to 1 mol . ethylbenzol , and the mixture was allowed to stand one or two days before distillation . The action of bromine upon ethylbenzol is extremely energetic , each drop of the bromine disappears almost immediately on coming in contact with the hydrocarbon , the mixture , unless carefully cooled , becomes very hot , and large quantities of hydrobromic acid are evolved . It is easy to perceive when the proper point in the substitution is reached , since after the addition of the theoretical quantity of bromine in order to form C6 H4 Br{C H1 , , 1 s869 . ] 123 the succeeding drops of bromine disappear with far less rapidity , a fact which evidently indicates that the substitution of the first atom of bromine is more easily effected than that of the second . After standing for about forty-eight hours , the liquid was shaken with a dilute solution of caustic soda , and then repeatedly washed with water , dried over calcium chloride , and submitted to fractional distillation . The liquid commenced to boil at about 145 ? , and a comparatively large quantity passed over between 150 ? and 160 ? ; a still larger fraction distilled over between 170 ? and 180 ? ; but the greater portion came over between 180 ? and 190 ? , after which the temperature rapidly rose , and the residue in the flask became nearly solid , owing to the formation of a mixture of metastyrol and styrolbromide . Throughout the process of distillation large quantities of hydrobromic acid were evolved , and the portion boiling between 150 ? and 160 ? was found by the characteristic bromine reaction to consist mainly of styrol , C , H , Br=C-0,8 I+I Br . An analysis of the portion boiling between 180 ? -190 ? showed it to contain very nearly the theoretical amount of bromine calculated for 8 H , Br . 0*9742 grm. substance gave 0'9510 grn. silver bromide , and 0'0082 grm. silver Found . Calculated . Bromine ... ... . . 42 1 / . 43-2 / % . This compound is very unstable ; on renewed distillation it invariably commences to boil at about 140 ? , and unless the distillation is very rapidly conducted , a large proportion is transformed into styrol and hydrobromic acid . So easily is this decomposition effected , that on exposing 4 or 5 grins . of the liquid in a sealed tube to a temperature of about 2000 for a few minutes , it is almost entirely converted into metastyrol , and on opening the tube torrents of hydrobromic acid are evolved . The formation of styrol may , however , be almost entirely avoided by conducting the distillation in a partial vacuum ; and for this purpose the water-pump of Bunsen may be very conveniently applied . The accompanying figure shows the disposition of the apparatus employed for this purpose ; as it may hereafter be found useful in operations of a like nature , the following description of its arrangement may not be superfluous:-The apparatus may easily be adapted to the process of fractional distillation in vacuo ; by a slight modification it is possible to change the receiver without disturbing the partial vacuum in the remaining parts of the apparatus . A represents the flask from which the liquid is distilled ; it is fitted with a good cork pierced with two holes , into one of which fits a thermometer , and into the other a piece of thermometer tubing ( B ) , one end of which nearly reaches to the bottom of the flask , and is drawn out into a fine capillary tube ; to the other end a screw-clamp is fixed by means of a short piece of caoutchouc tubing . The object of this capillary tube is to deliver a minute stream of air-bubbles , and thus to prevent the violent " bumping " which almost invariably occurs during ebullition in vacuo ; the supply of air may be regulated at will by increasing or diminishing the _A pressure of the screw-clamp on the caoutchouc tubing . This little device succeeds admirably ; it is due to my friend Mr. W. Dittmar , who has already applied it in the distillation of sulphuric acid : so rapidly and effectually does the " water-pump " of Bunsen exhaust , that the minute amount of air passing through the liquid , and serving to maintain it in regular ebullition , is without appreciable effect upon the manometer . The flask is attached , as represented in the figure , to a long tube C , made preferably of thin glass , so as to allow the condensation and cooling to take place as rapidly as possible : over the end of the condennser slides a short length of wider glass tubing , which is fastenled air-tight on to the condenser by an inch or two of caoutchouc tubing ; the other end fits into a caoutchouc cork adapted to the receivers ; on this short piece of wider tubing another piece of glass tubing is fixed at right angles , in order to connect the entire apparatus with the caoutchouc tubing leading to the " water-pump . " The mode of using the apparatus hardly requires description ; it will be selfevidenit to anyone familiar to the working of the Bunsen pump . Distilled in a partial vacuum ( about 05 m. ) in the apparatus above described , the bromide boiled nearly constantly at 148 ? -152 ? , and left scarcely any residue of styrolbromide or metastyrol . The bromide thus obtained is a heavy colourless liquid , possessing the characteristic penetrating odour peculiar to all the aromatic substitution products in which the substitution has occurred in the lateral group ; its vapour is extremely irritating , and excites a copious flow of tears when incautiously inhaled . When heated with solution of ammonia or potash in alcohol , it gives up its bromine with the greatest facility . The monobromethvlbenzol , C6 1H4Br{C2 15 , described by Fittig , is a colourless aromnatic-smelling liquid , possessing the sp. gr. 1P34 , boiling constantly at 199 ? C. , and capable of being distilled without decomposition . It may be boiled or heated in sealed tubes for any length of time with alcoholic solution of potash or ammonia without giving up the least trace of bromine . It is evident , therefore , that the two bromides , although prepared under circumstances apparently exactly similar , are not identical . In all probability the bromide we obtained is identical with that recently prepared by Berthelot by acting upon boiling ethylbenzol with the vapour of bromine . To this coTmpound the formula C , H{tC2 H , Br is assigned ; it cannot be distilled without a considerable portion undergoing decomposition into styrol and hydrobromic acid , and loses easily its bromine by double decomposition . It remained now to discover the cause of the variation in the position of the bromine atom . In the preparation of the two products the conditions were apparently identical ; why , then , should the substitution have occurred in the phenyl group in the bromide obtained by Fittig , and in the ethyl group in our own ? The cause of the difference was soon found to reside in the bromine employed . The bromine used by Fittig doubtless contained iodine . By digesting a few grains of the bromine employed in our experiments with water and granulated zinc , and , on the complete disappearance of all colour , filtering the solution , adding a small quantity of chlorinewater , and then shaking the mixture with a few drops of benzol , the absence of even a trace of iodine was shown by the benzol remaining perfectly colourless . By adding about 0-5 ? /0 iodine to the bromine before allowing it to act upon the ethylbenzol , I easily succeeded in obtaining monobromethylbenzol with the properties described by Fittig . It distilled constantly without decomposition at 203 ? C. , and completely resisted the action of boiling alcoholic potash . A similar series of comparative experiments on cymol obtained from camphor was attended with like results . We have thus a ready method of effecting at will the kind of substitution required without the employment of heat , the presence or absence of iodine determines the position of the substituting bromine ; in the one case substitution occurs in the phenyl group , in the other in the lateral group . The bromine obtained by Berthelot is described as boiling between 200 ? and 210 ? , whilst the bromide which I obtained distilled at 190 ? . I am disposed , however , to consider the higher number to be a nearer approximation to the truth . The difference observed in my case is probably due to the fact that in distilling the substance I operated on a larger scale than did Berthelot , and kept the liquid exposed to the influence of the high temperature for a comparatively longer time , thus working under conditions more favourable to the production of styrol and hydrobromic acid , the formation of which would necessarily tend to lower the boiling-point . Nearly seven years ago Dr. Hugo Muller drew attention to the remarkable effect of iodine in facilitating the action of chlorine upon organic compounds . He showed that many substances which were acted upon with great difficulty by chlorine alone , and some of them only with the aid of direct sunlight , yield chlorine products with great ease when acted upon by chlorine in the presence of iodine . He failed , however , to point out any difference in the kind of substitution effected by the halogen in the presence or absence of iodine . Beilstein also has recently shown thal the action upon toluol varies materially with the conditions under which the experiment is performed . When a stream of chlorine is passed through carefully cooled toluol , chlortoluol , C6 HACI14CH3t , only is formed ; this body is characterized by a high degree of stability , resisting completely the action of potassium cyanide , potassium sulphide , and silver-salts . On the other hand , if the toluol is previously heated , or if , through the energy of the action , its temperature be allowed torise , the relative position of the substituting chlorine atom is essentially changed , and under these circumstances chlorbenzyl , C61H{CHI2CI , is found to be the main product of the reaction : this substance differs from the isomeric chlortoluol by the facility with which it yields up its chlorine by double decomposition . But if a small quantity of iodine be added to the hydrocarbon before treatment with chlorine , chlortoluol only is produced , no matter whether the chlorine acts upon boiling or upon cold toluol . To the bromide obtained by the action of bromine free from iodine on cold ethylbenzol I assign the formula C6 HI{C2H 14 Br , on the assumption that it is identical with that prepared by Berthelot . From the ease with which the compound yielded its bromine to alcoholic ammonia , I was induced to attempt the preparation of the corresponding amines . A quantity of the bromide was sealed up in wide glass tubes with about four times its volume of absolute alcohol saturated with ammoniacal gas , and the mixture exposed to a temperature of 100 ? C. for about three hours . When all action had apparently ended , the tubes were reopened and the liquid portion drained from the bulky precipitate of ammonium bromide . On treating the liquid with water , a light mobile agreeablys melling liquid separated out ; this was washed , dried by means of calcium chloride , and distilled ; by far the greater portion boiled at 185 ? -187 ? C. This liquid was found to be free from nitrogen and bromine , and yielded on analysis the following numbers : I. 0'1552 grm. substance gave 0'4540 grm. carbonic anhydride and 0-1333 grm. water . II . 0'2011 grm. substance gave 0'5896 grm. carbonic anhydride and 0'1078 grm. water . Calculated . Found . I. 1I . Cl ... ... 120 80'00 79'79 79-98 1 1 ... ... 14 9'36 9-53 9-44 O..16 . -- . The constitution of this compound may be expressed by the formula C6 15{ C2 , ,C , H5 , and its formation from the bromide by the action of ammonium alcoholate may be thus represented : C , H,5{C 1I , Br ? + Ha } =CH , { ( , H4-O-C , H , +NII Br . For this substance I propose the name styrolylethyl ether . It is a colourless , mobile , fragrant-smelling liquid , boiling constantly at 187 0 of specific gravity 0'9310 at 21 ? '9 , slightly soluble in water , and burning with a strongly luminous flame . When heated for a few hours with a concentrated solution of hydriodic acid in a sealed tube to about 120 ? , it was completely decomposed , and on distilling the liquid from a water-bath , a quantity of ethyl iodide , boiling at 73 ? -75 ? , and easily recognizable by its characteristic alliaceous odour , distilled over ; the presence of the alcohol rest in the new ether was thus demonstrated . The remainder of the liquid , containing the greater portion of the hydriodic acid and possibly the alcohol or its corresponding iodide , was treated with dilute caustic soda , when a heavy oily liquid separated out . This liquid was repeatedly washed with water and dried over calcium chloride . On distilling it , the greater portion of the liquid boiled between 300 ? and 310 ? , but with evident decomposition , iodine being evolved . The compound in all probability was the iodide corresponding to the bromide originally taken , already described by Berthelot . C , tI5 , C , H , O 2 I-1 +2 r , IC2146 + C2{I+ 2C+ H2 0O . The very small quantity of substance at my disposal prevented me from more accurately investigating the nature of this reaction , or the properties of the iodine compound formed . I next sought to obtain the alcohol , C , H- , { C,2 l0 , already described by Berthelot as a colourless liquid of an agreeable aromatic odour , heavier than water , and boiling at about 225 ? . I attempted to prepare the acetate , intending to decompose the compound with caustic potash . Fifty grms. of the bromide diluted with double its volume of absolute alcohol were heated with about 40 grms. potassium acetate to 100 ? in a flask placed in a water-bath . The liquid was then filtered from the mass of potassium bromide , and again sealed up in tubes with a further addition of acetate , and heated to 120 ? -130 ? for an hour or two . On cooling , the tubes were reopened and the contents treated with water , and the non-miscible portion separated and dried over calcium chloride . On standing over the calcium chloride , a crystalline precipitate was slowly formed , which was afterwards proved to be the compound of ethyl acetate and calcium chloride . On submitting the dehydrated liquid to distillation , a further quantity of ethyl acetate came over at 720-74 ? . The next fraction , boiling between 140 ? and 150 ? was found to consist chiefly of styrol ; the quantity , however , was so small that in all probability it was not a product of the reaction , but existed already formed in the bromide used for the experiment . The next and main fraction of the distillate came over between 180 ? and 190 ? , and on repeated rectification a constant boiling-point of 185 ? -186 ? was obtained . , This substance , from its characteristic aromatic odour and from the following analyses , was identified as the styrolyl-ether already described . 0'2523 grm. substance gave 07358 grm. carbonic anhydride and 0'2119 water . 0 1993 grm. substance gave 0'5829 grm. carbonic anhydride and 0 1666 grm. water . Calculated . Found . I. II . C ... ... ..120 80'00 79-54 79-75 H ... ... 1 19436 9333 9-30 O ... ... 16 The simultaneous production of this body and of the ethyl acetate may be thus represented : C6 H{C H , Br+ c2 30 } 0+2(CO 5O -C= I{ C2 H-O-C + C0 } O+KBr+H 0 . The remainder of the distillate consisted principally of the acetic ether , C6 , H{C , I-I , --O-C , H3 0 . This body is a sweet-smelling liquid , possessing the characteristic fragrant odour of the acetic ethers and boiling at 217 ? -220 ? . The quantity produced , however , was so smallas to preclude further investigation , or any attempt to prepare the alcohol . Fittig has recently obtained phenylpropionic acid ( hydrocinnamic acid ) , C , Ho{CH , --2CH2-COH ) , by acting upon chlorinated ethylbenzol by means of potassium cyanide and treating the resultant cyanide with potash . C6 tI5{C C , IC , CN + 2 , = C , H1 , { CH , CH , COHO + NH3 . I have attempted to repeat this reaction with the bromide obtained by treating ethylbenzol with bromine free from iodine , but without success , although the experiment has been frequently made under the exact conditions described by Fittig . So easily , according to Fittig , is the transformation effected , that this chemist has recommended the reaction as affording the best method of obtaining phenylpropionic acid . I am unable to discover any reason for the discrepancy in the results of our observations . It is certainly very remarkable that the reaction should occur in the case of the chloride and not in that of the bromide . The experiments which led to the discovery of the above method of effecting the substitution of hydrogen in the phenyl or in the lateral group at will had for their object the preparation by synthesis of ethylbenzoic acid from the bromide , C6 4 Br{C,2H , . It therefore became interesting to trace the reaction which occurs on submitting the new bromide to a similar treatment . A small quantity ( about 7 grms. ) of the bromide was mixed with about five times its volume of anhydrous ether , and a large excess of sodium cut into slices as thin as possible added , and a slow continuous current of carbonic anhydride sent through the mixture . Not the slightest reaction was perceptible in the cold . The sodium remained perfectly metallic-looking , even after the expiration of twenty-four hours . On gently heating the liquid for a few minutes , a vigorous reaction at once set in ; the mass became suddenly very hot , and gave off abundant fumes of hydrobromic acid and a small quantity of a thick oily liquid boiling at a high temperature , and possessing the character of the distyrolyl , I 'l , C6 H5 . C2 H4 J described by Berthelot was produced , C6 , 11 ( C2 I14 2C , H5{C2 HB r+Na2 , = I +2BrNa . C6 H C2 114

112727

3701662

Some Account of the Suez Canal

132

144

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. F. Bateman

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0034

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112727

10.1098/rspl.1869.0034

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112727

Geography

Biography

Geography

" Some Account of the Suez Canal , in a Letter to the President . " By J. F. BATrEMAN , Esq. , F.R.S. Received January 3 , 1870 . 16 Great George Street , Westminster , 27th December , 1869 . MY DEAR SIR EDWARD , -On my return from the opening of the Suez Canal , where , by your kind selection , I had the honour of representing the Royal Society as the guest of the Viceroy , I think it incumbent on me to give a short account of my journey and my impressions of the great and important undertaking which was so magnificently inaugurated . Nothing could exceed the splendid hospitality of the Viceroy , who had in every possible way provided for the accommodation and the comfort of his guests . The crowd of visitors , however , was so great , and his own personal attendance was so constantly given to the Empress of the French , the Emperor of Austria , and other Royal personages who honoured him with their company , that it was almost impossible for him to bestow any special attention on other individual guests ; but few or none could complain of any want of attention or of any material inconvenience . I was fortunate in being present at every important point and on every important occasion , and in receiving all the civilities which might be considered due to the representative of the Royal Society . Of the work itself I have no hesitation in pronouncing it a decided success-not all that could be desired , nor all that was pronised , and very far from being finished , even on the contracted scale on which it has been executed . A reef of rocks at Serapeum , extending for about 85 metres in length , at a depth of 16 or 17 feet below the surface of the canal , and which was not discovered till just before the period fixed for the opening , at present limits the draft of vessels which can use the navigation . There are some objectionable curves and narrow places , and many miles of unprotected slopes , all of which must be improved or remedied before the canal can be placed in a satisfactory condition . Still , in its present state , vessels drawing not more than 16 feet can pass from end to end with facility and safety ; and when the rocks alluded to are removed , the depth will be increased to 21 or 22 feet . For years before the commencement of the project which has been , so far , happily concluded , the practicability of forming and maintaining a maritime canal between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean was a muchdisputed point among modern engineers . It was known that a water communication between the two seas had existed and been maintained for 600 years before , and for about 800 years after , the commencement of the Christian era ; subsequent to which time it was allowed to fall into decay , and for a thousand years has so remained . The first idea , in modern times , of restoring this ancient water commu nication , or of forming another more suitable to existing circumstances , seems to be due to the Emperor Napoleon I. ( then General Bonaparte ) , who , at the close of the last century , during his occupation of Egypt , directed that a complete survey of the ancient canal should be made under the direction of M. Lepere , a French engineer of reputation . This survey was completed , and a project for a canal was designed in accordance with the apparent facts resulting from M. Lepere 's survey . The evacuation of the country by the French put an end to further investigation , and arrested all progress in this direction for many years . The conclusion at which M. Lepere arrived was , that the level of the Red Sea at high water at Suez was 301 feet higher than low water in the Mediterranean in Pelusium Bay ; and his scheme was projected in accordance with the existence of such a difference in the level of the two seas . He also ascertained that the rise and fall of the tide in the Red Sea was 5or 6 feet , and in the Mediterranean about 1 foot , leaving still a difference of 25 feet between the respective low waters of the two seas . Doubts of the accuracy of the statement as to the difference of these levels were entertained by those who carefully considered the subject ; but it was not till the year 1847 that these doubts were set at rest . In that year the late Mr. Robert Stephenson , in conjunction with M. Talabot , a French engineer , M. de Negrelli , an Austrian engineer , and Linant Bay , a French engineer in the Egyptian service , directed a series of independent levellings across the Isthmus , which determined beyond all doubt the important fact that " at low water there was no essential difference in the level of the two seas , and that at high water it was not more than 4 feet , the rise of tide being about 1 foot in the Mediterranean and about 6 feet in the Red Sea . " Up to that time Mr. Stephenson seems to have been in favour of the proposal to form a canal across the Isthmus , in accordance with the views of Linant Bay , who " proposed to carry a canal from the Red Sea through the Bitter Lakes to Lake Timsah , and thence through the lagoons of Menzaleh to Tineh ( Pelusium ) on the Mediterranean : " it was " thus expected to create a current through the canal of three or four miles an hour ; " and " the project appeared very feasible , and was calculated to excite high hopes of success . " When , however , it was ascertained that the level of the two seas was practically the same , Mr. Stephenson remarked " it became evident that it would not be practicable to keep open a level cut or canal without any current between the two seas , and the project was abandoned . " The fact of there being no difference in the level of the two seas led other men to very different conclusions ; for shortly after the period here referred to , M. Ferdinand Lesseps conceived the idea which has since been so successfully realized . Hlis project was to cut a great canal on the level of the two seas by the nearest and most practicable route , which lay L along the valley or depression containing Lake Menzaleh , Lake Ballah , Lake Timsah , and the Bitter Lakes . The cliaracter of this route was well described in 1830 by General ( then Captain ) Chesney , R.A. , who examined and drew up a report on the country between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea . At that time a difference of 30 feet between the two seas was still assumed , and all proposals for canals were laid out on that assumption . Allowance must , of course , be made for this error , in so far as it affected any particular project of canal ; but it would not affect the accuracy of any general description of the district to be traversed . General Chesney summed up his report by stating , " as to the executive part , there is but one opinion : there are no serious difficulties ; not a single mountain intervenes , scarcely what deserves to be called a hillock ; and in a country where labour can be had without limit , and at a rate infinitely below that of any other part of the world , the expense would be a moderate one for a single nation , and scarcely worth dividing among the great kingdoms of Europe , who would all be benefited by the measure . " M. Lesseps was well advised therefore in the route he selected , and ( assuming the possibility of keeping open the canal ) in the character of the project he proposed . From 1849 to 1854 he was occupied in maturing his project for a direct canalization of the Isthmus . In the latter year Mahomet Said Pasha became Viceroy of Egypt , and sent at once for M. Lesseps to consider with him the propriety of carrying out the work he had in view . The result of this interview was , that on the 30th of November in the same year a Commission was signed at Cairo charging M. Lesseps to constitute and direct a Company named " The Universal Suez Canal Company . " In the following year , 1855 , M. Lesseps , acting for the Viceroy , invited a number of gentlemen eminent as directors of public works , as engineers , and distinguished in other ways , to form an International Commission for the purpose of considering and reporting on the practicability of forming a ship canal between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea . This Commission , which included some of the ablest civil and military engineers of Europe , was honorary , and its members were considered as guests of the Viceroy . The Commission met in Egypt in December 1855 and January 1856 , and , accompanied by M. Lesseps , and by Mougel Bay and Linant Bay , engineers , and other gentlemen in the service of the Viceroy , they made a careful examination of the harbours in the two seas and of the intervening Desert , and arrived at the conclusion that a ship canal was practicable between the Gulf of Pelusium in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea near Suez . They differed , however , as to the mode in which such a canal should be constructed . The three English engineering members of the Commision were of opinion that a ship canal raised 25 feet above the sea-level , and communicating with the Bay of Pelusium at one end and the Red Sea at the other , by means of locks , and supplied with water from the Nile , was the best mode of construction . The foreign members , on the contrary , held that a canal 27 feet below sea-level , from sea to sea , without any lock , and with harbours at each end , was the best system : the harbours to be formed by piers and dredging out to deep water . The whole of the Members of the Corlmission , with the exception of Mr. Rendel , met at Paris in June 1856 , when the views of the English engineers were , after full discussion , rejected , and the report to the Viceroy recommended the system which has since been carried out . The Commission estimated the work to cost ? 8,000,000 . Two years from the date of this report were spent in conferences and preliminary steps before M. Lesseps obtained the necessary funds for carrying out the works . About half the capital required was subscribed on the Continent , by far the larger portion being taken in France , and the other half was found by the Viceroy . Further time was necessarily lost in preparatiol , and it was not till near the close of 1860 that the work was actually commenced . In this interval two " Reports on the subject of the Deposits of the Delta of the Nile " were made by Admiral ( then Captain ) T. Spratt , R.N. , C.B. , F.R.S. , extracts from which were printed by order of the House of Commons in 1860 . They embraced " An Enquiry into the Soundness of M. Lesseps 's Reasonings and Arguments on the practicability of the Suez Canal , " and " An Investigation of the effect of the prevailing Wave-influence on the Nile 's Deposits , and upon the Littoral of its Delta . " These documents were dated respectively 30th January and 9th July 1858 . The conclusion to which Captain Spratt arrived was adverse to M. Lesseps 's project . He was of opinion that it would be next to impossible to keep open any harbour to the eastward of the mouths of the Nile ; and he warned " the commercial interest against risking their millions in the undertaking . " He contended that the material brought to the sea by the Nile , and which is carried eastwards by the prevailing winds and currents , would accumulate against the piers or jetties proposed to be carried out to deep water at Port Said , so rapidly and to such an extent as to prevent the maintenance of a sufficient harbour . He thought " the sands of the Nile would mount over the piers of Said , " and he did not believe that any amount of dredging would overcome the difficulties . It was against such opinions from high authority that M. Lesseps had to contend ; but his confidence in his project and his courage and perseverance never failed him . As time went on , he had other difficulties ahead . The original concession granted extraordinary privileges to the Company . It included or contemplated the formation of a " sweet-water " canal for the use of the workmen engaged ; and the Company were to become proprietors of all the land which could be irrigated by means of this canal . One of the conditions of the concession also was , that the Viceroy should procure forced labour for the execution of the work ; and soon after the commencement of operations , and for some time , the number of workmen so engaged amounted to from 25,000 to 30,000 . The work , thus commenced , steadily proceeded until 1862 , when the late Viceroy , during his visit to this country at the time of the International Exhibition , requested Mr. -Iawkshaw , F.R.S. , to visit the canal and report on the condition of the works and the practicability of its being successfully completed and maintained . His Iighness 's instructions were , that Mr. Hawkshaw should make an examination of the works quite independently of the French Company and their engineers , and report , from his own personal examination and consideration , the result at which he arrived . If his report were favourable , the work would be proceeded with ; if unfavourable , it would at once be stopped . Mr. Hawkshaw proceeded to Egypt upon this important commission in November of the same year ; and in February 1863 he wrote a well-considered report which may be said to have in great measure contributed to the rapid and successful completion of the work . Mr. IHawkshaw described the works of the canal which had been already executed , and those which remained at that time unfinished . IHe examined and discussed the dimensions of the various parts then in progress , recommending various alterations ; and having carefully gone into all the details of construction , he proceeded to investigate the question of maintenance , with reference to which it had been urged by opponents:"1st . That the canal will become a stagnant ditch . " 2nd . That the canal will silt up , or that the moving sands of the Desert will fill it up . " 3rd . That the Bitter Lakes through which the canal is to pass will be filled up with salt . " 4th . That the navigation of the Red Sea is dangerous and difficult . " 5th . That shipping will not approach Port Said , because of the difficulties that will be met with , and the danger of that port on a leeshore . " 6th . That it will be difficult , if not impracticable , to keep open the Mediterranean entrance to the canal . " laving analyzed each of these objections , and fully weighed the arguments on which they were based , he came to the following conclusions as to the practicability of construction and of maintenance:"1st . As regards the engineering construction , there are no works on the canal presenting on their face any unusual difficulty of execution , and there are no contingencies , that I can conceive , likely to arise that would introduce difficulties insurmountable by engineering skill . " 2ndly . As regards the maintenance of the canal , I am of opinion that no obstacles would be met with that would prevent the work , when completed , , being maintained with ease and efficiency , and without the necessity of incurring any extraordinary or unusual yearly expenditure . " The whole of Mr. Hawkshaw 's report is well worthy of perusal ; and I must congratulate him on the sound conclusions at which he arrived , and on the foresight by which he was enabled to point out difficulties and contingencies which have since arisen . Could he at that time have seen the full realization of the work , he would scarcely have altered the report he wrote . Said Pasha died between the period of Mr. Hawkshaw 's examination of the country and the date of his report . He was succeeded by his brother Ismail , the present Viceroy or Khedive , who , alarmed at the largeness and uncertainty of the grants to the Canal Company , of the proprietorship of land which could be irrigated by the Sweet-water Canal , and anxious to retire from the obligation of finding forced labour for the construction of the works , refused to ratify or agree to the concessions granted by his brother . The whole question was referred to the arbitration of the present Emperor of the French , who kindly undertook the task , and awarded the sum of ? 3,800,000 to be paid by the Viceroy to the Canal Company as indemnification for the loss they would sustain by the withdrawal of forced or native labour , for the retrocession of large grants of land , and for the abandonment of other privileges attached to the original Act of Concession . This money was applied to the prosecution of the works . The withdrawal of native labour involved very important changes in the mode of conducting the works , and occasioned at the time considerable delay . Mechanical appliances for the removal of the material , and European skilled labour , had to be substituted ; these had to be recruited from different parts of Europe , and great difficulty was experienced in procuring them . The accessory canals had to be widened for the conveyance of larger dredging-machines , and additional dwellings had to be provided for the accommodation of European labourers . All these difficulties were overcome , and the work proceeded . Since the date of Mr. Hawkshaw 's Report , viz. February 1863 , much has been said and written upon the operations of the canal as they were going on , and upon its prospects of success . Sir William Denison , K.C.B. , R.E. , presented the Institution of Civil Engineers , in April 1867 , with a paper on the condition of the works as he found them at the end of 1866 , which led to an animated discussion upon the whole subject . The conclusions at which Sir William Denison himself arrived were : " 1st . That ( subject , of course , to the condition that the relative levels of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean are as stated by the French authorities ) there will be no extraordinary difficulty in carrying an open saltwater channel from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea of the depth proposed , namely 8 metres . s " 2nd . That no special difficulty in maintaining this channel need be anticipated . " 3rd . That it will be necessary to modify the section proposed by the French engineers , making the side slopes much more gradual . " 4th . That the cost of maintaining the above-mentioned depth of water will be found at first to be largely in excess of the amount estimated . Eventually , it is by no means impossible that means may be found to fix or check the drift of sand , or to shut it out from the canal . But for some years it must be expected that the ordinary action of the atmosphere , which has filled up former excavations made in this dry desert , will have the same effect on the new canal . " Looking at the work as an engineer , there does not appear to be any difficulty which a skilful application of capital may not overcome . " In the discussion which followed , while on the one hand Sir William Denison 's views were well supported , much was said , on the other hand , of the difficulties which would attend the construction , and the impossibility of keeping open the harbours and the canal . The old questions of silting up and stagnation were discussed ; and quotations from the correspondence of Mr. R. Stephenson with M. de Negrelli were read , with the object of showing the absurdity of the whole scheme . In one of these quotations Mr. Stephenson thus expresses himself:"In conclusion , Sir , I will only say that I have-indeed I can haveno hostility to a maritime canal through the Isthmus of Suez . If I could regard such a canal as commercially advantageous , I have already shown that I should be the first to give it the advantage of my time , my money , and my experience . It was because , after elaborate investigation , and ia conjunction with such men as M. Talabot , I arrived at a clear conclusion that the project was not one which deserved serious attention , that I refused to give it support . I should be delighted to see a channel like the Dardanelles or the Bosphorus penetrating the Isthmus that divides the Red Sea from the Mediterranean . But I know that such a channel is impracticable-that nothing can be effected even by the most unlimited expenditure of time and life and money beyond the formation of a stagnant ditch , between two almost tideless seas , unapproachable by large ships under any circumstances , and only capable of being used by small vessels when the prevalent winds permit their exit and their entrance . I believe that the project will prove abortive in itself and ruinous to its constructors ; and entertaining that view , I will no longer permit it to be said that , by abstaining from expressing myself fillly on the subject , I am tacitly allowing capitalists to throw away their money on what my knowledge assures me to be an unwise and unremunerative speculation . " It was shown also by calculations that the evaporation from the Bitter Lakes alone , without taking into consideration the long length of canal , was such that the channel from the Red Sea to the lakes was much too small to supply the loss , and that the result would be that the water in these Lakes must settle to a level below the low water of a spring tide in the Red Sea . It was urged too that there would be great difficulty in maintaining the entrances to the harbours and the harbours themselves , and that bars would inevitably form at each end of the canal . It will be seen therefore that , so recently as 1867 , opinions were strongly against the success of the canal , those persons who entertained contrary views being in a considerable minority . In the commencement of this year Mr. John Fowler , C.E. , wrote an excellent letter to ' The Times ' on the condition in which he then found the canal , and upon its prospects . The observations which he made , and the conclusions at which he arrived , seem to have been carefully formed and well grounded . He stated that the cost would greatly exceed the original estimate , although the works were carried out of much less than the originally proposed dimensions-that the works were in truth simple in character , and in a soil favourable to execution , but of such vast magnitude , and in a country presenting such peculiar difficulties in climate , and in the absence of fresh water , that special organization and adoption of means of no ordinary kind were required for their realization . He was of opinion that large quantities of alluvium would find their way into the harbour at Port Said , and that it would be necessary to make the western breakwater solid to prevent the deposit being carried through , as at presentnevertheless that no apprehension need be entertained as to the channel and harbour being silted up and destroyed , but that considerable expense in dredging would be constantly required . He agreed with Mr. IHawkshaw that the amount of drifting sand would not be such as materially to interfere with maintenance , that various means might be adopted for limiting the amount , but that , after every precaution , it would be necessary to employ one or two powerful dredges to keep the canal clear from the sand blown in . He was further of opinion that the protection of the slopes by stone would be necessary . With reference to the evaporation from the Bitter Lakes , and the current from the Red Sea to those Lakes , he believed that it would not be strong enough to affect injuriously the bottom or sides of the channel , after they had been properly protected by stone pitching . Mr. Fowler then entered into a consideration of the mode in which the traffic should be carried on and the probable use to be made of the canal , and concluded his letter with a well-deserved compliment to the remarkable energy and perseverance of M. Lesseps , to the skill and resources of M. Voisin , the Engineer-in-chief , and the district engineers acting under him , and to the great powers of organization and high qualities of MI . Levalley , the contractor . The total length of the canal from Port Said to Suez is 99 miles ; it varies in width from 196 feet to 327 feet , having , however , in each case a width of 72 feet in the centre , the slopes on each side of this centre width varying with the character of the material cut through . Near Port Said , and through the shallow lake of Menzaleh , the material is very sandy ; and here and elsewhere , under similar circumstances , the slopes must be protected by stone pitching or facing , or they will wash down by the action of passing vessels , and the material thus deposited in the bottom of the canal must be removed by dredging . Further south , the material generally becomes more argillaceous and stony ; and here the slopes will be much more easily maintained , though nearly throughout the whole length of the canal some stone protection at the level of the water will be required . Before reaching Lake Timsah , which lies about midway between Port Said and Suez , the canal passes through the deep cutting of El Guisr , which at its greatest depth is 85 feet to the bottom of the canal . The lower part of this excavation , at and a little above the level of the water , consists of soft clay , above which is a concreted mass of shells and sand ; and this is covered by loose sand liable to be acted on by the wind . The canal here is curved and narrow , and ought to be improved in both respects . It is again restricted in width through the deep cutting at Serapeum ; but here , the material being argillaceous and strong , the slope will be easily maintained in shape . From the Bitter Lakes to Suez it is a wide , noble , and well-finished canal . Out of the whole length , nearly 30 miles are through Lake Timsah and the Bitter Lakes , 51 miles in the first , and 23}in the latter . In these lakes a deep channel has been dredged out , which is marked by buoys and stakes . These vast sheets of water in the midst of the Desert , on which so many noble vessels were floating , had been but a few months before mere dry depressions , covered by a stratum of salt . The filling them with water commenced in February from the Mediterranean , and in July from the Red Sea . They were filled by the beginning of October , thus belying one of the many unfavourable prophecies , that the absorption and evaporation would be so great that they would never fill at all , or , if they did , the current inwards in both directions would be so great as to be destructive of the canal . On our voyage from Port Said to near Lake Timsah there was a current setting against us towards the Mediterranean . We anchored about -3 mile from the end of this portion of the canal , and at daylight the next morning there was a current in the same direction of nearly 1mile an hour . Our time of starting from Lake Timsah was purposely delayed till near midday , that we might have the tide from the Red Sea against us , and deep water over the rocks at Serapeum . The current towards Lake Timsah was strong ; and on the following morning , between the Bitter Lakes and Suez , it ran at 3miles per hour , but a strong southerly wind accompanied the tide . We had no opportunity of making observations ourselves , or of obtaining information ; but my impression is that at this season of the year there is on the average of the day a regular current from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean . This is an interesting as well as important question ; and it is to be hoped that regular observations will be taken at all points along the canal , and at each end , which may show accurately the rise and fall of tide , the velocity and duration of the currents in each direction , and the relative height of the various portions of the canal and the Lakes it traverses . The range of the tide in the Mediterranean is , as already stated , about 12 inches , while in the Red Sea at Suez it varies from 4 to 6 feet . On the day of the opening thirty.two vessels reached Lake Timsah without let or hindrance ; one Egyptian vessel , the 'Garbia , ' coming after this number , stuck fast for some hours about 12 miles from the Lake , and retarded a number of vessels in its rear ; but eventually all came forward , and the mighty fleet assembled on Lake Timsah the following day . At Port Said I counted on the day of the inauguration more than ninety vessels , chiefly of the largest class ( many being upwards of 2000 tons register ) , and including a fleet of British " iron-clads , " which anchored within the western pier . Here , however , a good deal requires to be done . The harbour is formed by two jetties built of concrete blocks , the western one being run out to sea , at right angles to the shore , for a distance of 2400 metres , and then turned eastwards for 300 metres more . The eastern jetty starts from shore at a distance of 1400 metres from the western pier , is continued out to sea for a length of about 1700 metres , gradually approaching to within about 700 metres of the western jetty at its termination . The western jetty has been erected for protection , and for the purpose of intercepting the sand and alluvial matter which are undoubtedly drifted from the mouth of the Nile eastwards . This work is too light and too open effectually to answer its purpose , and requires improvement . Close in shore a considerable amount of the drifting sand has been arrested , and where the sea recently flowed there is already an accumulation of dry land . On the land thus formed were erected the temple in which the Viceroy received his principal guests at the inauguration , and the temples for the worship of the Mahometan and Christian churches , where all the religions of the world were supposed to be present and to ask a blessing on the great undertaking the opening of which they were assembled to celebrate . In its present condition , the jetty favours the deposit of material within the harbour ; and not until the passage of the sand through the interstices of the concrete blocks of which it is built has been checked , will there be any effectual protection against the silting up which is taking place . Perhaps by degrees an inner bank or shoal may be formed , which would answer the purpose of a breakwater ; but this would create a crooked and inconvenient channel , and would be ineffective towards the seaward end of the jetty . The Company will no doubt see the necessity of completing the necessary works here and elsewhere . The harbour at Port Said and portions of the canal will require pretty constant dredging for some time ; but in my opinion neither this nor any other work will entail any very seriois expense in maintenance . The cost of the whole undertaking is stated to have been about ? 16,000,000 sterling ; and it may require from ? 2,000,000 to ? 4,000,000 more to complete the work satisfactorily on its present scale of dimensions ; but interest has to be paid at present on about half only of the capital hitherto raised . Many persons who are competent to form sound opinions on this point believe that the traffic will be quite sufficient to pay all cost of maintenance and handsome dividends ; but I am not sufficiently well informed to hazard any conjecture on the purely financial part of the question . In an engineering point of view I consider the canal a great and most important undertaking-great , however , only as respects its magnitude and the country in which it has been executed . There is not a work of art or of difficulty from one end to the other ; but there have been about 80,000,000 cubic yards of material excavated , and at one time nearly 30,000 labourers were employed in the works . For their sustenance , and before operations could be carried on with any vigour , sweet water had to be brought from the Nile at Cairo , and distributed along the whole length of the canal . This work was in itself one of considerable magnitude . It is a navigable canal from Cairo to Ismailia , and thence to Suez . From Ismailia to Port Said and intervening places , the fresh water is conveyed in pipes . The surplus water has been applied to irrigation , the fertilizing results of which are already visible , and may be expected to perform an important part in the improvement of the country . The canal must be regarded as a great work , more from its relation to the national and commercial interests of the world than from its engineering features . In this light it is impossible to overestimate its importance . It will effect a total revolution in the mode of conducting the great trafic between the East and the West , the beneficial effects of which I believe it is difficult to realize . It is in this sense that the undertaking must be regarded as a great one ; and its accomplishment is due mainly to the rare courage and indomitable perseverance of M. Ferdinand Lesseps , who well deserves the respect he has created and the praises which have been bestowed . By cutting across the sandy ligaments which have hitherto united Asia and Africa , a channel of water-communication has been opened between the East and the West which will never again be closed so long as mercantile prosperity lasts or civilization exists . I cannot close this letter without expressing my obligations to Mr. Pender , Chairman of the Eastern Telegraphic Comlpanies , who courteously entertained me , with other friends , on our passage through the canal on A board the 'Hawk , ' a steam corvette belonging to the Electric Telegraph Construction Company , which had been placed at his disposal . On board this vessel were assembled a small body of distinguished and intelligent gentlemen , who had more than usual opportunities of obtaining such information as time and circumstances afforded . I have the honour to remain , Very truly and faithfully yours , JOHN FRED . BATEMAN . Lieut.-General Sir Edward Sabine , P.R.S. , K. C , B. Memorandum as to the Dimensions of the Canal . The following , it is believed , are the dimensions on which the canal has been constructed . They are principally extracted from Mr. Fowler 's letter . 1 . From Port Said , through Lakes Menzaleh and Ballah , to near El Ferdane ... ... . . 2 . From near El Ferdane , through the great excavation of Seuil de Guisr , to Lake Timsah . 3 . Through Lake Timsah ... ... ... ... ... . 4 . From Lake Timsah , through the excavation of Seuil de Serapeum , to the Bitter Lakes. . 5 . Through the Bitter Lakes ... ... ... ... . 6 . Through the deep portion of Chalouf cutting . 7 . Thence to Suez and the end of the canal ... . files , in Width at length . top water , in feet . 37 327 9 ' 2 23 23 ; 5 11 196 327 196 327 196 327 Total length ... ... ... ... . . 99 The canal is intended throughout to be 8 metres , or 26 ft. 4 in . in depth . In every case this depth is to be maintained for a width at the bottom in the centre of 72 feet , with slopes on each side of 2 horizontal to I vertical to within a few feet of the surface . In the wider portions of the canal the sides above this level are formed with flat slopes of 5 horizontal to 1 vertical , with a horizontal bench between the two slopes of 58 feet in width . A narrower bench is left where the canal is of the smaller width . On board the ' Hawk ' soundings were taken along the whole length of the canal . Between Port said and Lake Timsah the soundings near the centre of the canal , on both sides of the vessel , showed a depth varying from 21 ft. to 29 ft. , the greater number being from 24 to 29 . In Lake Timsah the depth , according to soundings , was from 19 to 23 ft. Between Lake Timsah and the Bitter Lakes there were no soundings less than 21 ft. , except over the rocks at Serapeum , where vessels drawing 1870 . ] 143 16 ft. only could pass . In the Bitter Lakes the depth was seldom below 28 ft. , often above 30 ft. ; and the same may be said of the canal between the Bitter Lakes and the Red Sea at Suez . On each side of the deep part in the centre the depth was generally about 12 or 13 ft. Where the slopes are unprotected by stone , and the natural soil is sandy , the sides , notwithstanding the flat slope , were a good deal washed when a paddle-wheel steamer ( the 'Delta , ' P. & 0 . 1600 tons ) advanced at seven or eight miles an hour ; but comparatively little effect was produced when the speed did not exceed five or six miles an hour . Two large vessels will find it difficult to pass each other ; but " lie-by " or passing-places are being constructed to remedy this inconvenience . J. F. B. January 13 , 1870e WAREREN DE LA RUE , Vice-President , in the Chair . The Presents received were laid on the Table , and thanks ordered for them , as follows : Transactions . Basel:-Naturforschende Gesellschaft . Verhandlungen . Theil V. Heft 2 . 8vo . Basel 1869 . The Society . Bern:-N-aturforschende Gesellschaft . Mliittheilungen , aus demJahre 1868 . No. 654-683 . 8vo . Bern 1869 . The Society . Brussels:-Academie Royale deMedecine . Memoires . TomeV . Fasc.l . 4to . Bruxelles 1869 . Bulletin . 3e serie , Tome II . No. 10 ; Tome III . Nos. 5-10 . 8vo . Brucelles 1868-69 . The Acadeny . Buenos Aires:-Museo Publico . Anales , por German Burmeister . Entrega 6 . 4to . Buenos Aires 1869 . The Museum Einsiedeln:-Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft . Verhandlungen . Jahresbericht 1868 . 8vo . Einsiedeln . The Society . Geneva:--Societe de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle . Memoires . Tome XX . Party 1 . 4to . Genreve 1869 . The Society . Gittingen:-Koinigl . Sternwarte . Astronomische 3ittheilungen . Theil T. 4to , Gotingen 1869 . The Royal Society of Gottingen . Graz:-NTaturwissenschaftlicher Verein fir Steiermark . Mittheilungen . Band II . Heft 1 . 8vo . Graz 1869 . The Society . Haarlem:-1M[usee Teyler . Archives . Vol. II . Face . 3 . roy . 8vo . Haarlemn 1869 . The LMuseum . London:-Quekett Microscopical Club . Journal . Nos. 7-9 . Fourth Report . 8vo . London 1869-70 . The Club . Utrecht:-Provinciaal Utrechtsch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen . Natuurkundige Verhandelingen . NieuweRceks . DeelI , 144 Presents . [ Jan. 13 ,

112728

3701662

On the Mineral Constituents of Meteorites. [Abstract]

146

157

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Nevil Story-Maskelyne

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112728

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112728

Chemistry 2

Geography

Chemistry

I. " On the Mineral Constituents of Meteorites . " By NEVIL STORY-MASKELYNE , M.A. , Professor of Mineralogy in the University of Oxford , and Keeper of the Mineral Department , British Museum . Communicated by Prof. H. J. STEPHEN SMITH . Received October 9 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) I. The Application of the Microscope to the Investigation of Meteorites . The difficulties in the way of the complete investigation of a meteorite resemble those we meet with in terrestrial rocks . In both the ingredient minerals are minute , and are often , especially in the case of the aerolitic rock , very imperfectly crystallized . Moreover the methods for separating them , whether mechanically or chemically , are very incomplete . With a view to obtain some more satisfactory means of dealing with these aggregates of mixed and minute minerals , I sought the aid of the microscope , by having in the first place sections of sunall fragments cut from the meteorites so as to be transparent . One may learn , by a study and comparison of such sections , something concerning the changes that a meteorite has passed through ; for one soon discovers that it has had a history , of which some of the facts are written in legible characters on the meteorite itself ; and one finds that it is not difficult roughly to classify meteorites according to the varieties of their structure . In this way one recognizes constantly recurring minerals ; but the method affords no means of determining what they are . Even the employment of polarized light , so invaluable where a crystal is examined by it of which the crystallographic orientation is at all known , fails , except in rare cases , to be a certain guide to even the system to which such minute crystals belong . It was found that the only satisfactory way of dealing with the problem was by employing the microscope chiefly as a means of selecting and assorting out of the bruised d'bris of a part of the meteorite the various minerals that compose it , and then investigating each separately by means of the goniometer and by analysis , and finally recurring to the microscopic sections to identify and recognize the minerals so investigated . The present memoir deals with the former part of this inquiry . Obviously the amount of each mineral thus determined , after great care and search , can only be extremely small , as only very small amounts of a meteorite can be spared for the purpose , notwithstanding that as large a surface as possible of its material requires to be searched over for instances of any one of the minerals occurring in a less than usually incomplete form . On this account one has to operate with the greatest caution in performing the analysis of such minerals ; and the desirability of determining the silica with more precision than is usually the case in operations on such minute quantities of a silicate suggested to me the process , which , after several experiments in perfecting it , assumed the following form . II . On the Method of Analyzing Silicates that do not gelatinize wtth Hydrogen Chloride . The process is conducted in an apparatus of the following construction . A platinum retort , 30 cub. centims. in capacity , is fitted with a tubulated stopper of the same material , which reaches nearly to the bottom ; a small tube entering the vertical tube of the stopper at an angle , above the neck of the retort , conveys hydrogen to its interior . The vertical tube can be closed either by a stopper of platinum or by a funnel of that metal , stopped in like manner at the top , and having a fine orifice at its lower extremity . To the side of the retort , just below its neck , a straight delivery-tube is fixed , which in its turn fits into another platinum tube that , after taking a curve into a vertical position , is enlarged into a cylinder , which passes a considerable distance down a test-tube . The latter , into which the delivery-tube is fitted with a cork , holds 7'5 cub. centims. , or 6'6 grammes of strong ammonia of the spec . gravity 0'88 . The gas-delivery tube inserted in the side of this receiver dips into some more ammonia in a second test-tube . The pounded mineral , from 0*2 to 0*5 gramme in quantity , and a small platinum ball , are placed in the retort , and the stopper luted to it with gutta percha , and cemented air-tight in its place with caoutchouc and guttapercha varnish . The funnel , filled with perfectly pure hydrogen fluoride , is now introduced into the tubulure of the stopper , the tap opened , and the acid allowed to run down into the retort . This acid contains about 32 per cent. of absolute hydrogen fluoride-that is to say , a funnel of this reagent contains 1*12 gramme of acid , capable of rendering gaseous 0'84 gramme of silica , and of neutralizing 0'95 gramme of ammonia . The funnel is now replaced by a little platinum stopper , and the orifice secured air-tight with gutta-percha varnish . Pure hydrogen is then allowed slowly to traverse the entire apparatus , the retort is placed in a water-bath at 100 ? C. for two hours , and occasionally slightly shaken to set the ball rotating . During the operation a trace only of silicium difluoride passes over . The retort is next transferred to a paraffin-bath , and the temperature is cautiously raised . At first hydrogen fluoride passes over , and at this point of the process the flow of hydrogenrequires some attention to prevent regurgitation of the ammonia . At about 132 ? C. , in the case of the silicates mentioned in this memoir , the silica first becomes visible in fine flocks in the ammonia of the receiver , and in another minute the whole is cloudy . In eight minutes the rise of the thermometer to 145 ? C. has brought over so much difluoride that the contents of the tube are semisolid , and nearly the whole of it has passed over . The temperature is then raised to 150 ? C. , and the retort allowed to cool . The process is next repeated with a fresh charge of acid and ammonia . If no more than 0'2 gramme of silicate be taken , twice charging of the retort is sufficient ; but with 0'5 gramme three or four repetitions of the process are required . In short , the operation is continued with fresh reagents till no flock of silica forms in the receiver . Finally , 0-75 cub. centim. of sulphuric acid is introduced into the retort , and the temperature again raised to 160 ? C. , the stream of hydrogen being continued as before . The several ammoniacal charges are poured into a platinum dish , together with the washings of the delivery-tube and the two test-tubes , and slowly evaporated in a water-bath , with continued stirring . At a point in the evaporation just before the solution becomes neutral and the ammonium fluoride begins to turn acid , the entire silica in the dish will have been dissolved by the fluoride . The process is gradual , but the moment when the solution is complete is easily determined . Then , the dish being removed , potassic chloride is added in slight excess , together with absolute alcohol equal in volume to the contents of the platinum vessel . Potassiun fluosilicate precipitates , which , after the lapse of twenty-four hours , is filtered , washed with a mixture of equal volumes of absolute alcohol and water , dried , and weighed . The results are accurate . In the retort are the bases in the form of sulphates , the treatment of which calls for no further remark . III . The Busti Aerolite of 1852 . This meteorite fell on the 2nd of December , 1852 , about six miles south of Busti , a station halfway between Goruckpoor and Fyzabad in India , and nearly in lat. 26 ? ? 45 ' N. and long . 82 ? ? 42 ' E. For an account of the circumstances attending its fall I am indebted to Mr. George Osborne , at that time resident at Busti , and who presented this stone ( the only specimen of the fall that he was able to procure ) to the East India Company . Mr. Osborne states that the fall took place at ten minutes past ten in the morning , and was attended by an explosion louder than a thunderclap , and lasting from three to five minutes . At Goruckpoor the report appeared to approach in a direction from N.N.W. ; at Busti the sound seemed to come from the zenith , and proceed in a somewhat easterly course . The explosion that shattered the meteorite must have occurred soon after its passing the longitude of Goruckpoor . There was no cloud in the sky at the time . The stone , which weighed about 3 lbs. , was presented to the collection at the British Museum by the Secretary of State for India . The Busti aerolite bears a great resemblance to the stone that fell on the 25th of March , 1843 , at Bishopsville , South Carolina , U.S. A crust , coating the larger part of the stone , was of a dark yellowish brown , with a few yellowish-white porphyritic-looking patches at it fiat end , whilst a yellowish enamel , mingled with dark grey , covered a hollow portion on one side of the stone . It is difficult to refer these markings to the minerals underlying them , a similar crust covering both the augite and enstatite of the meteorite . They are probably due to the alterative action of the oxidized products of the nickeliferous iron on the silicates in a state of fusion during the rapid passage of the stone through the atmosphere . The meteorite consists for the most part of the mineral enstatite ; at one end , however , was imbedded a number of small chestnut-brown spheruies , in which again a lens enabled me to detect minute octahedral crystals , having the lustre and colour of gold . These two minerals seem scarcely to have been affected by the heat that fused the silicates which surround and encrust them . IV . Sulphide of Calcium ( Oldhamite ) . This mineral occurs in the Busti aerolite , and sparsely in that which fell at Bishopsville , imbedded in augite , or enstatite , or both of them . It has a pale chestnut-brown colour , and forms small , nearly round spherules , whose outer surface is generally coated with calcium sulphate . It cleaves with.equal facility in three directions , which give normal angles , averaging 89 ? ? 57t , and are no doubt really 90 ? . Its system , therefore , is cubic ; indeed in polarized light it is seen to be devoid of double refraction . Its specific gravity is 2'58 , and its hardness 3'5 to 4 . With boiling water it yields calcium polysulphides , and in acids it easily dissolves with evolution of hydrogen sulphide . Chemical analyses indicated the following as its composition : I. II . Oldhamite f Calcium monosulphide ... ... . 89369 90244 Magnesium monosulphide ... ... 3246 3'264 Gypsum ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 3-951 4-189 Calcium carbonate ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3'434 Troilite ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 2-303 100'000 100'000 The presence of such a sulphide in a meteorite shows that the conditions under which the ingredients of the rock took their present form are unlike those met with in our globe . Water and oxygen must have alike been absent . The existence of iron in a state of minute division , as often found in meteorites , leads to a similar conclusion . But if we bear in mind the conditions necessary for the formation of pure calcium sulphide , the evidence imported into this inquiry by the Busti aerolite seems further to point to the presence of a reducing agent during the formation of its constituent minerals ; whilst the crystalline structure of the Oldhamite and of the Osbornite must certainly have been the result of fusion at an enormous temperature . The detection of hydrogen in meteoric iron by Professor Graham tends to confirm the probability of the presence of such a reducing agent . V. Osbornite . The golden-yellow microscopic octahedra imbedded in the Oldhamite were furnished by the analyses of that mineral to the amount of only 0-0028 gramme , and though upwards of 150 in number , were capable of oeing measured by the goniometer . This microscopic mineral I wish to name Osbornite , in honour of Mr. M , 2 1870 . ] 149 Osborne and in commemoration of the important service that gentleman rendered to science in preserving and transmitting to London in its entirety the stone which his zeal saved at the time of its fall . That the octahedra of Osbornite are regular was proved by angles of even such microscopic crystals giving measurements over the edges and solid angles that accorded within 31 with those of the regular octahedron . The crystals are brittle , and their powder retains the beautiful yellow colour of the surface , which is therefore intrinsic , and not a tarnish . The amount of them available for analysis being so minute , their chemical examination was attended with much difficulty . Boiled for a long time in the strongest hydrogen chloride , they were unchanged , and hydrogen fluoride was apparently without action on them . They passed unscathed through a fusion with potassio-sodium carbonate . When heated on a splinter of porcelain in a current of dry chlorine , the crystals glowed for a few seconds , lost their metallic lustre , and became of a honey-yellow colour , while a white sublimate formed on the walls of the tube . Exposed to the air , the altered crystals deliquesced , and assumed a pasty consistence ; in water they dissolved partially , forming an alkaline solution , in which ammonium oxalate produced a precipitate . The insoluble portion was taken up for the most part by hydrogen chloride , and its solution gave a decided precipitate with the above reagent . The water through which the chlorine was allowed to escape , and the sublimate in the tube , after treatment with hydrogen chloride , were taken together , and found , on examination , to give a white precipitate with barium chloride , the filtrate from which , after the excess of barium had been removed , furnished with ammonia a precipitate resembling alumina , which , however , was insoluble in potash , and was thrown down from slightly acid solutions with sodium hyposulphite , and potassium sulphate . It was examined for titanic acid by means of magnesium wire in a slightly acid solution , but with a negative result . The only alternative left was to conclude that the substance which exhibited this deportment was either titanium or zirconium , and that the gold-like crystals were a combination of this element with calcium ( perhaps a little iron ) and sulphur in some remarkably stable form . That this mineral should be a compound of the sulphides of these metals merely is scarcely conceivable when its power to withstand the action of acids is considered ; possibly its composition , if it could be quantitatively analyzed , would be found to be that of a compound of titanium or zirconium and calcium of the obscure kind that is known as an oxysulphide . Mr. Sorby , who has made the zirconium and titanium group of metals the subject of special study , formed a microscopic borax bead , into which he introduced some of the oxide obtained from the Osbornite . He found it to behave as titanic acid . The occurrence of Osbornite occasionally in the augite presently to be described , and the fact of the latter mineral lying chiefly in that part of the meteroite where the Osbornite is found , suggested the possibility of the presence of this metal of the zirconium group in the augite itself , -an assumption confirmed by experiment . The dichroism of this augite is strongly marked , especially through the face 01 0 , which in one position exhibits a tint resembling that of the blue anatase of Brazil , due apparently to minute scales permeating the crystal , and visible only in the microscope . These scales may possibly be the Osbornite sufficiently thin to be transparent , and may be the cause of the beautiful golden metallic reflection which characterizes the face 100 of the augite . VI . The Augitic Constituent of the Busti Aerolite . Associated with the spherules of Oldhamite that have been described as occurring in a nodule of this aerolite , and less plentifully distributed through the rest of its mass , is the silicate already alluded to as a variety of augite , and as containing traces of titanium or zirconium oxide . This silicate occurs in crystalline grains of a pale violet-grey colour , intimately mixed with another silicate presently to be described . When isolated , these grains present a few crystal faces , among which one as a cleavageplane is prominent . So imperfect are the rest , that they furnished reliable measurements only with extreme difficulty . These determinations , however , together with its optical characters , proved that the mineral belongs to the oblique system . The measurements gave the following approximate values : Angles found . Angles of diopside . 001 100 About 75 ? ? 30 ' 73 ? ? 59t 001 1 10 About 81 ? ? 79 ? ? 29t 110 100 45 ? 54 ? to 47 ? ? 26t 46 ? ? 27 ' 110 110 ' 85 ? ? 8 ' to 86 ? ? 20 ' 87 ? ? 5 ' 100 1 1( ? ) 53 ? ? 25 ' to 54 ? ? 15 ' 530 50f 001 10 0 100 ? ? 8 ' 100 ? 57 ' The plane containing the optic axis is perpendicular to the edge 10 0 , 10 0 , and the optical character in the centre of the field is negative on looking down the second mean line , which makes angles about 220 45 ' and 52 ? ? 30 ' with the normals to the faces 001 and 100 respectively . Two analyses of this mineral by the method described gave the following resultsI . II . Mean oxygen ratios . Silicic acid ... ... . . 55-389 55*594 29-928 Magnesia ... ... . . 23-621 23-036 9'331 Lime ... ... ... ... 20-02 19-942 5'709 Iron oxide ... ... . 0'78 0-309 Soda ... ... ... ... 0'554 [ 0-554 ] Lithia ... ... ... trace [ trace ] 100-364 99-435 1870 . ] 151 Viewed as a magnesium calcium silicate , the percentage composition becomesSilicic acid ... ... ... ... 56165 56-604 Magnesia ... ... ... ... 23-612 23-585 Lime ... ... ... ... . 20-223 19-811 100-000 100'000 The second column gives the percentage composition according with the formula ( iMg , 3 Ca ) 0 , SiO2 . Such a formula does not accord with those of the ordinary varieties of augite , in which calcium is usually present in at least as high a ratio in equivalents as the magnesium . A deduction , however , of a certain amount of purely magnesian enstatite corresponding in chemical type to the augite has to be made by reason of the presence of the white mineral intercalated in layers along a direction parallel to the plane 0 01 , and sometimes to a second plane . This white mineral is , there can be no doubt , the mineral next to be described , and its presence would modify the apparent formula of the augite as derived from analysis , increasing the magnesia . The trace of the titanoid element in this mineral is included with the iron oxide in the above analyses . VII . On the Occurrence of Enstatite in the Busti Aerolite . Besides the augite already described there occurs in this meteorite another silicate which constitutes its most important ingredient . The aNgite is chiefly found in the nodule with the calcium sulphide , and is found more sparsely in the remaining parts . Associated with it throughout , and otherwise forming the chief mass of the stone , is a mineral which , in microscopic sections , presents the appearance of a number of more or less fissured crystals of varying transparency , some clear , some nearly opaque , and usually presenting a not very unsymmetrical polygonal outline . Those crystals are imbedded in a magma of fine-grained silicate , itself often entangled in an irregular meshwork of opaque white mineral . Amongst these ingredients , when mechanically separated , what seems to be three different minerals can be distinguished . The rarest of them is transparent and colourless , and very irregular in the form of its fragments ; a second is of a greyish-white colour , translucent , and offering an even less hopeful problem to the crystallographer than that presented by the first . The third is an opaque mineral with a distinct cleavage following the faces of a prism of about 8-5 , and with a second imperfect cleavage perpendicular to the former . From a few fragments of the two former kinds some measurements were obtained , which conduct to the conclusion that , like the lastmentioned silicate , these minerals are enstatite . The angles 10 0 , 110 are 46 ? ? 25 ' , and 10 0 , 10 1 , 41 ? ? 34 ' . Chemical analysis confirmed the identity of these three minerals by showing them to be enstatite under different aspects . When lime is absent it presents itself as a simply prismatic mineral , the dark-grey tabular variety . When lime is present , though to an amount less than two per cent. , the crystalline structure becomes more complex . The augite may perhaps be tessellated , as it were , in the enstatite , somewhat as this latter mineral has been shown to occur intercalated to a small amount in layers of augite . I did not succeed in establishing this point , however , by an examination of microscopic sections of this mineral . The crystalline fragments frequently show , when examined by polarized light , a composite structure , the principal sections of the different parts of the mineral being disposed at every angle of mutual inclination . The analysis of these minerals yielded the following numbers : Silicic acid ... . Magnesia ... . . Lime ... ... . Iron oxide ... . Potash ... ... Soda ... ... . . Dark Grey Tabular Variety . PerOxygen centages . ratios . 57-597 30-718 40-64 16-238 1 438 0-394 0-906 100-975 Transparent White Variety . PerOxygen centages . ratios , 58-437 31-166 38-942 15-564 1 677 0-479 1'177 0-332 0 357 100-922 Semitransparent Grey Variety . A Percentages . I. Silicic acid. . 57-037 Magnesia ... 40-574 Lime ... ... 2-294 Iron oxide. . 0-867 Potash. . Soda ... . . Lithia ... . 100-772 Oxygen ratios . 30-419 16-117 0-655 Percentages . II . 57-961 39-026 1 524 0-154 0-569 0-68 99-914 Oxygen Perratios . centages . III 30-912 57'754 15-598 38-397 0-435 2-376 0-423 0-569 0-657 0-016 100-192 As in the case of the augite , the soda is probably derived from the hydrogen chloride ; the iron occurs partly as metal , minutely subdivided , partly as oxide combined with the magnesium silicate . In each case the bases slightly exceed the amount required by the formula of enstatite . On comparing these with known analyses , and those which I shall shortly submit to the Society , it seems highly probable that , where the conditions under which a meteoric silicate has been formed were such that silicic acid was present in excessof that required by the formula of enstatite , this acid Oxygen ratios . 30-802 15'247 0-678 1870.1 remains uricombined in the form of crystallized silica with the specific gravity of a fused quartz , and that where magnesia and other bases are in excess , a basic silicate with the formula of olivine absorbs the supplementary portion of these bases . Calcium , when present , would convert into augite its equivalent ratio of what would otherwise constitute enstatite , and it is possible that this is true even when this element is distributed in small quantities throughout the mass . No alumina , and consequently no feldspathic ingredient , has been detected in this meteorite . VIII . Composition of the entire Meteorite . With the view of determining the different ingredient minerals present in the Busti meteorite , fragments and dust from the neighbourhood of the nodule of sulphide and augite were analyzed . The mineral was treated with hydrogen chloride , carbon disulphide , and potash , which removed 168873 per cent. , leaving a residue of 83'127 per cent. ; the composition of these two portions , soluble and insoluble , is given below : Soluble portion . Insoluble portion . Perr Oxygen PerOxygen centages . ratios . centages . ratios . Calcium sulphate. . 0'442 Calcium sulphide ... 4133 Iron oxide ... ... . . 0'194 ... . 0'891 Silicic acid ... ... ... 6-514 3'474 46'357 24'727 Lime ... ... ... ... 0-022 0*006 12-375 3'535 Magnesia ... ... ... 5055 202 23*266 9'299 Potash ... ... ... . 0-099 0'14 Soda ... ... ... ... 0-118 0'455 Lithia ... ... ... ... 0'019 16-577 83-503 The ratio of the silicic acid to the magnesia and lime in the latter analysis corresponds with the composition ( 3 Mg Ca)O , SiO2 . Regarding the calcium of the white and grey varieties of enstatite to be present as angite intercalated with the enstatite , we may assert that while all the silicates of this meteorite present the typical formula MO , SiO2 , three equivalents of the rock near the nodule may be treated as composed of two equivalents of augite and one of enstatite ; in other parts of the stone the latter mineral predominates . A formula for the augite with magnesium and calcium in equal proportions would no doubt more truly represent its composition ; it is , however , as impossible to separate the enstatite intercalated with it as it is to remove this mineral when blended with the enstatite . IX , olubility of the Minerals of the Busti Meteorite . As it appears of importance to determine the degree to which these , meteoric minerals were soluble in acid , the augite and enstatite were submitted to this solvent action . Digested for several hours at 100 ? C. in hydrogen chloride diluted with half its volume of water , and subsequently in potash for some hours to remove the free silica , the augite and each of the three forms of enstatite proved-to be acted upon , the results in all cases showing that the acid simply exercises a solvent action on the mineral , without separating it into two or more distinct silicates . The subjoined Table gives the results of the experiments . The degree in which the acid dissolved the mineral was due to the more or less complete trituration of the material before treatment . In one case , for which the transparent variety was selected , a repetition of the process three times gave results that left no doubt as to the nature of the action of the acid . Of the greyish-white variety of enstatite , after treatment for 20 hours with acid and 12 hours with potash , 9'414 per cent. dissolved , an analysis of which is given in column I. Of the grey tubular variety of enstatite , after treatment with acid for 16 hours and with potash for a similar time , 7'779 per cent. dissolved , that gave on analysis numbers the approximate value of which is found in column II . Of the white variety , after the first treatment for 20 hours with acid and subsequently with potash , 12'68 per cent. dissolved , the composition of which is given in column III . By a second treatment of the residual enstatite from this experiment , after 2 hours ' trituration with acid for 30 hours and potash for 12 hours , 67'84 per cent. dissolved ; and on subjecting the mineral to a third treatment in a similar way , 51'18 per cent. were dissolved in acid and potash . In the last of these experiments the ratio of the silica to the bases , neglecting the small amount of the former dissolved in the acid , is as 58-4 to 42'0 , that of an analysis of an enstatite being as 58'4 to 41'6 . The solubility of the augite was determined by subjecting it to similar treatment with acid during 18 hours , and with potash for a like time , these reagents removing 7'384 per cent. of the mineral . I. II . III . Silicic acid ... ... ... . 5408 5-141 6-724 Magnesia ... ... ... . 2-367 1-353 4-61 Lime ... ... ... ... . . 1-048 0-27 0-432 Iron oxide , &c. ... . . 0-187 0-676 0-576 Potash ... ... ... ... 0121 0528 0'504 Lithia ... ... ... ... . . trace trace 9-131 7-968 12-846 Soda found ... ... ... . [ 0-126 ] [ 1-217 ] [ 1-042 ] X. The Iron of the Busti Meteorite . A small pepita of the iron contained in the meteorite was analyzed , Omitting the silicate attached to the iron , the results of the analysis were as follow : Iron-nickel alloy ... ... ... ... 98 798 Iron , ... ... ... ... . . 94-949 Nickel ... ... ... ... 3-849 Schreibersite.12 ... ... ... ... ... . . 1'202 Iron ... ... 0 ... ... . 0884 Nickel ... ... ... ... . . 0-234 Phosphorus ... ... . . 0-084 100'000 The quantity was far too small to encourage a search for cobalt and other metals . Besides the nickeliferous iron , which is disseminated very sparsely , and in particles singularly unequal in size and distribution , and with which troilite is associated in very small quantity , chromite is present as a constituent of small but appreciable amount . The crystals of this mineral are distinct and brilliant , and sometimes present good angles for measurement . One gave the solid angle of a regular octahedron . The Manegaum Meteorite of 1843e This meteorite fell at Manegaum in Khandeish , India , on the 26th July , 1843 . Only a small fragment was preserved , and of this a portion was given by the Asiatic Society of Bengal to the British Museum in 1862 . In 1863 I described its appearance as seen in section in the microscope , and gave the particulars of its fall ( Phil. Mag. August 1863 ) . From the minuteness of the specimen I had very little material to work upon . One mineral is conspicuous in the stone , namely , a p ; imrosecoloured transparent crystalline silicate in small grains , loosely cemented by a white flocculent mineral . This greenish-yellow mineral ( I. ) and a fragment of the entire meteorite ( II . ) were analyzed , and crystalline grains of the former were measured on the goniometer . The prism angles ( 1 ) for the prism { 1 1 0 } were about 75 ? , and ( 2 ) for the prism { 101 } were 5 8 ' for { 100 , 1 10 } about 46 ; for { 1 0 0 , 101 } , 49 ? ? 4 ' ; and for 10 , 0l } 58 ? ? 39 ' . The analyses gave the following numbers-L Oxygen I. Oxygen ratios . ratios . Silicic acid ... ... . . 55-699 29-706 53-629 28-602 Magnesia ... . . 22-799 23-32 Iron oxide ... ... . 20-541 14-059 20'476 14'305 Lime ... ... ... . 1-316 1-495 Chromite ... ... . . 1'-029 100-355 99-949 [ Jan. 13 , 156 The specific gravity of the granular mineral is 3'198 , and its hardness 5-5 . The result of the above analyses is to show that , except for a little chromite and a little augite , with possibly in the crystallized mineral a little free silica , both that mineral and the collective silicate of the stone consist of a ferriferous enstatite . The formula most in accordance with the analysis would be ( 2Mg Fe)O , SiO , ; that of the enstatite in the Breitenbach meteorite is ( - . Mg 5 Fe)O , SiO2 . The bulk of the Busti meteorite consists of a purely magnesian enstatite ; this of Manegaum is almost entirely an enstatite richer in iron than any yet examined . Both bear evidence to the white flocculent mineral which characterizes the microscopic sections of many meteorites , being composed of this now important mineral enstatite . In publishing the results I have obtained in the attempt , so far as this memoir goes , to treat exhaustively of the mineralogy of two important meteorites , I wish to record the obligations I am under to Dr. Flight , Assistant in my Department at the British Museum , for his valuable aid in the chemical portion of the inquiry .

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3701662

On Fluoride of Silver.--Part I. [Abstract]

157

159

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

George Gore

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112729

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112729

Chemistry 2

Thermodynamics

Chemistry

II . " On Fluoride of Silver.-Part I. By GEORGE GORE , F.R.S. Received October 5 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) This communication treats of the formation , preparation , analysis , composition , common physical properties , and chemical behaviour of fluoride of silver . The salt was prepared by treating pure silver carbonate with an excess of pure aqueous hydrofluoric acid in a platinum dish , and evaporating to dryness , with certain precautions . The salt thus obtained invariably contains a small amount of free metallic silver , and generally also traces of water and of hydrofluoric acid , unless special precautions mentioned are observed . It was analyzed by various methods : the best method of determining the amount of fluorine in it consisted in evaporating to dryness a mixture of a known weight of the salt dissolved in water , with a slight excess of pure and perfectly caustic lime in a platinum bottle , and gently igniting the residue at an incipient red heat until it ceased to lose weight . By taking proper care , the results obtained are accurate . The reaction in this method of analysis takes place according to the following equation , 2AgF + CaO = CaF2+ 2Ag+ O. Sixteen parts of oxygen expelled equal thirty-eight parts of fluorine present . One of the methods employed for determining the amount of silver consisted in passing dry ammonia over the salt in a platinum boat and tube at a low red heat . The results ob tained in the various analyses establish the fact that pure fluoride of silver consists of 19 parts of fluorine and 108 of silver . Argentic fluoride is usually in the form of yellowish brown earthy fragments ; but when rendered perfectly anhydrous by fusion , it is a black horny mass , with a superficial satin lustre , due to particles of free silver . It is extremely deliquescent and soluble in water ; one part of the salt dissolves in '55 part by weight of water at 150 ? 5 C. ; it evolves heat in dissolving , and forms a strongly alkaline solution . It is nearly insoluble in absolute alcohol . The specific gravity of the earthy-brown salt is 5'852 at 15§ 5 C. ; the specific gravity of its aqueous solution , at 15 ? *5 C. , saturated at that temperature , is 2*61 . By chilling the saturated solution , it exhibited the phenomenon of supersaturation and suddenly solidified , with evolution of heat , on immersing a platinum plate in it . The solution is capable of being crystallized , and yields crystals of a hydrated salt ; the act of crystallization is attended by the singular phenomenon of the remainder of the salt separating in the anhydrous and apparently non-crystalline state , the hydrated salt taking to itself the whole of the water . The fused salt , after slow and undisturbed cooling , exhibits crystalline markings upon its surface . The dry salt is not decomposed by sunlight ; it melts below a visible red heat , and forms a highly lustrous , mobile , and jet-black liquid . It is not decomposed by a red heat alone ; but in the state of semifusion , or of complete fusion , it is rapidly decomposed by the moisture of the air with separation of metallic silver ; dry air does not decompose it . In the fused state it slightly corrodes vessels of platinum , and much more freely those of silver . The salt in a state of fusion with platinum electrodes conducts electricity very freely , apparently with the facility of a metal , and without visible evolution of gas or corrosion of the anode ; a silver anode was rapidly dissolved by it , and one of lignum-vita charcoal was gradually corroded . A saturated aqueous solution of the salt conducted freely with electrolysis , crystals of silver being deposited upon the cathode , and a black crust of peroxide of silver upon the anode ; no gas was evolved ; with dilute solutions gas was evolved from the anode . By electrolysis of anhydrous hydrofluoric acid with silver electrodes , the anode was rapidly corroded . The electrical order of substances in the fused salt was as follows , the first-named being the most positive : silver , platinum , charcoal of lignum-vitoe , palladium , gold . In a dilute aqueous solution of the salt , the order found was : aluminium , magnesium , silicon , iridium , rhodium , and carbon of lignum-vitae , platinum , silver , palladium , tellurium , gold . The chemical behaviour of the salt was also investigated . In many cases considerable destruction of the platinum vessels occurred , either in the experiments themselves , or in the processes of cleaning the vessels from the products of the reactions . Hydrogen does not decompose the dry salt , even with the aid of sunlight , nor does a stream of that gas decompose an aqueous solution of the salt , but the dry salt is rapidly and perfectly decomposed by that gas at an incipient red heat , its metal being liberated . Nitrogen has no chemical effect upon the salt , even at a red heat , nor upon its aqueous solution . Dry ammonia gas is copiously absorbed by the dry salt . In one experiment the salt absorbed about 844 times its volume of the gas . The salt in a fused state is rapidly and perfectly decomposed by dry ammonia gas , and its silver set free . A saturated solution of the salt is also instantly and violently decomposed by strong aqueous ammonia . Oxygen has no effect either upon the dry salt at 15 ? C. , or at a red heat , nor upon its aqueous solution . Steam perfectly and rapidly decomposes the salt at an incipient red heat , setting free all its silver . No chemical change took place on passing either of the oxides of nitrogen over the salt in a state of fusion . By passing anhydrous hydrofluoric acid vapour over perfectly anhydrous and previously fused fluoride of silver , at about 60 ? Fahr. , distinct evidence of the existence of an acid salt was obtained . This acid salt is decomposed by a slight elevation of temperature . Numerous experiments were made to ascertain the behaviour of argentic fluoride in a state of fusion with chlorine , and great difficulties were encountered in consequence of the extremely corrosive action of the substances when brought together in a heated state . Vessels of glass , platinum , gold , charcoal , gas carbon , and purified graphite were employed* . By heating the salt in chlorine , contained in closed vessels , formed partly of glass and partly of platinum , more or less corrosion of the glass took place , the chlorine united with the platinum and fluoride of silver to form a'double salt , and a vacuum was produced . By similarly heating it in vessels composed wholly of platinum , the same disappearance of chlorine , the same double salt , and a similar vacuum resulted . Also , by heating it in vessels composed partly of gold , an analogous double salt , the same absorption of chlorine and production of rarefaction were produced . And by employing vessels partly composed of purified graphite , a new compound of fluorine and carbon was obtained .

112730

3701662

Approximate Determinations of the Heating-Powers of Arcturus and a Lyrae

159

165

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

E. J. Stone

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0037

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112730

10.1098/rspl.1869.0037

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112730

Astronomy

Electricity

Astronomy

III . " Approximate determinations of the Heating-Powers of Arcturus and a Lyrm . By E. J. STONE , F.R.S. , First Assistant at the Royal Observatory , Greenwich . Received October 13 , 1869 . About twelve months ago I began to make observations upon the heatingpower of the stars . My first arrangements were simply these : I made * In the next communication will be described the results obtained with vessels formed of other materials . use of a delicate reflecting astatic galvanometer , and a thermo-electric pile of nine elements . The pile was screwed into the tube of a negative eyepiece of the Greenwich Great Equatoreal , from which the eye-lenses had been removed . I soon convinced myself that the heat , condensed by the object-glass of twelve and three-quarters inches upon my pile , was appreciable in the case of several of the brighter stars ; but the endless changes in the zero-point of the galvanometer-needle , and the magnitude of these changes , compared with those arising from the heating-power of the stars , prevented me from making any attempts to estimate the absolute magnitude of the effects produced . Every change in the state of the sky , every formation or dissipation of cloud , completely drove the needle to the stops . At the February Meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society I first became aware of what Mr. Huggins had done upon this question . His arrangements , however , did not appear to me to meet the difficulties which I had encountered . After some trials , I arranged my apparatus as follows , and with its present form I am satisfied . 13a and / 3 are two pairs of plates of antimony and bismuth . The areas are about ( 0'075)2 inches , and their distance is about 0'25 inch . The poles are joined over in opposite directions to the terminals of the pile and galvanometer . The whole pile is screwed into a tube of one of the negative eyepieces of the great equatoreal . This completely shuts the pile up in the telescope-tube . A thick flannel bag is then wrapped over the eyepiece and terminals . The bag is prevented from actually touching the case of the pile , and is useful in preventing the irregular action of draughts upon the case of the pile and terminals . The wires are led from the terminals of the pile to the observatory library , where I have placed the reflecting galvanorneter . This separation of the galvanometer from the telescope is most inconvenient , but it was absolutely necessary on account of the large moving masses of iron in the observing-room . The two faces a and fi of the pile are so nearly alike , that the resultant current generated by any equal heating of them is exceedingly feeble . The telescope is first directed so that the star falls between the faces a and / 3 , and allowed to remain thus until the needle is nearly steady at the zero . The star is then placed alternately upon the faces a and / 3 , and the corresponding readings of the galvanometer taken as soon as the needle appears to have taken up its position , which usually takes place in about , ten minutes . In order to avoid changes of zero , I have always reduced those readings by comparing a reading with star on face a with the mean of two readings with star on 13 , taken before and after the reading with star on a , or vice versa . With this precaution I have never met with any anomalous results , although in making the observations I have usually joined over the terminals , without knowing the direction for heat , and have left this undetermined until the completion of the observations . I mention this because the differences in the readings for star on a and star on 3 in the state in which I use my galvanometer are small . On many nights , when very slight appearances of cloud prevailed , I have not been able to make any satisfactory observations at all . The number of divisions over which the spot of light travels on the galvanometer-scale for a given difference of temperature of the faces a and / 3 is of course dependent upon many circumstances , and especially upon the position of the sensitiveness-regulation magnet of the galvanometer . I have thought it useless , therefore , to publish any results unless obtained upon nights when the state of the galvanometer was eliminated by referring to an independent source of heat . The way in which this has been attempted is as follows : After obtaining the differences in the position of the spot of light on galvanometer-scale for star on a and star on 3 , I remove the pile from the telescope , leaving all its galvanic connexions untouched , and mount the pile so that of the two halves of the face of a Leslie 's cube , containing boiling water , each radiates heat upon one face , a or / 3 of the pile , placed at a known distance of about twenty inches from the cube . After some time the deflection of the needle will fall nearly to zero , and become steady enough for observation . A piece of glass , G , is then placed to intercept from 3a portion of the heat radiating from one half of the face of the cube , and when the needle has taken up its position , the reading is taken . Next the glass G is placed to intercept a portion of the heat from the face a , and the galvanometer-reading taken , as before , as soon as the needle has assumed its position of rest . If , then , 0 is the mean difference of readings for star on face a and face t3 , q the mean difference for glass before ft and a , C the heating-power of each half of the cube at its distance from the faces of the pile , and p the measure of the absorption of the piece of glass G , then the heating-power of star =xC xp . The quantity p has been determined by merely comparing the readings of the galvanometer , obtained by cutting off the whole heat from one-half of the cube , with that obtained by intercepting a portion of this heat by the glass G. A considerable number of accordant results gave p= 0725 . To determine the quantity C , I have proceeded as follows : 1st . I have placed two very delicate thermometers , one in contact with each face a and f3 of the pile , along the lines of junction of the plates . The thermometers were separated from each other , and the direct radiation of one on the other prevented by the interposition of a piece of blackened card . The two thermometers , with faces of pile in contact , were then exposed to the radiation of the halves of the face of the cube containing the boiling water . A third delicate thermometer was read for registration of any change in the temperature of the surrounding air . This thermometer was protected from the direct radiation from the cube . The pile , with thermometers in contact , was then placed at different distances from the cube and the thermometer-readings taken . I have usually taken readings at three distances , one at about 23*5 inches , another at 11'9 inches , another at 2'5 inches . From a comparison of these readings with those taken before the heat from the cube fell upon the thermometers , I infer the heating-power of each half of the cube upon the thermometers , with faces of pile in contact . Calling this quantity for one inch of distance Ht , I find for my cube in its present state , with slightly laquered face , HI= 130 ? F. 2nd . If H denote the corresponding heating-power of each half of the cube upon the faces of the pile a and / 3 , I have found the ratio H : HI as follows : The thermometers being placed in contact with the faces of the pile , and the galvanic connexions made , we may be certain that the temperature of the thermometers has been imparted to the faces of the pile when the needle is steady , provided that the current be carried from the therinometers without loss in the nature of increased resistance . I have therefore compared the deviations produced by glass G before the faces f and a with the thermometers in contact and without thermometers in contact with two different amounts of resistance in circuit . Such observations have been considered satisfactory only when the two resistances for thermometers in contact and without thermometers are sensibly equal . This condition can be obtained by making the thermometers touch along the lines of junction of the antimony and bismuth ; but the connexion being one of mere contact , there is always danger of failure . The following observations were made on 1869 , Aug. 19:1 . Without thermometers : Resistance =R +0003 B.A. units . Mean difference , G before 3--G before a= 735 div. 2 . With thermometers in contact : Resistance =R1+0'003 B.A. units . Mean difference = 698 div. 3 . With thermometers in contact : Resistance =-R1'437 B.A. units . Mean differences =324 div. 4 . Without thermometers : Resistance R1+ 1437 B.A. unit , From ( 1 ) and ( 4 ) R= 1251 B.A. unit . From ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) R1= 1*239 B.A. unit . The resistances are therefore each sensibly equal to 1*245 B.A. unit . From ( 1 ) ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) ( 4 ) we find -1 056 . From the mean of such determiniations I find -='087 . ii If , therefore , c is the distance of the pile from the cube in inches , we have C 1300 x1 087 . And the heating-power of the star 130b0 0=31 087 x 0'725 xI may mention that the whole area of a face of the small pile may be considered as effective in the focus of the equatorcal . The following observations have been made and reduced as above : 1869 . Aug. 2 . Observations of Areturus , altitude about 25 ? . 0=23 div. =lG160 div. c=17'6 inches . Heating-power of star 130 23/ 17 x -3 2x I'087 X 0725 27 1 I ) ( 17,6 ) f60-37=00-0216 F. For the observations ? the scale was removed nearer the galvanometer so that the effective radius for these readings was 2x 17 inches against 2X 37'5 inches for the observations of the star . 1869 . August 11 . Observations of Arcturus . 0= 27 div. q=114 div. c=24 inches . Effective radius for observations , 32 inches . Heating-power of Arcturus 130 o 27 32 3x 1'087 x 0i2 x , 75 ( 24)2 1107 75 =0 ? '0180 F , 'TOL . XVIITI The mean result of the observations on these two nights is 0 ? 00198 F. as a measure of the heating-effect of Arcturus in raising the temperature of the plate of antimony and bismuth when the heat is condensed by the object-glass of 12'75 inches . If the absorption by the object-glass be considered insensible , the direct efect upon the pile would be 00 ? 000000685 F. I have not yet determined the coefficient of absorption for the objectglass , but if it be provisionally taken at 1 , the direct leating-effect of Arcturus =0 ? 000000137 F. The result may be otherwise stated as follows:-That the heat received from Arcturus is sensibly the same as that from the whole face of the cube containing boiling water at 4090 yards . 1869 . August 14 . Observations of 3 Lyrie at 8h 38-1 G.M.T. 0= 15 div. -= 686 div. Heating-power for P Lyrae 130 15 11'087X 0-725 : =0-0039 P. ( 24)2 686 Observations were subsequently made of a Lvyro , but the zero was unsteady ; and as the night advanced clouds appeared , and ultimately interrupted the observations . 1869 . August 14 . aLyree . Star on astar on 3=11 div. 1869 . August 15 . The night was very clear , and the air steady , but completely saturated with moisture , at a temperature of about 52 ? . The mean of fourteen observations of the difference of reading for a Lyras on a and ( 3 gave only 11 divs . I have no doubt but that the small effect here obtained was due principally to the amount of moisture in the air . 1869 . August 25 . Observations of a Lyr . Night fine . Mean value of the difference from nine observations was 80=33 div. , S=669 , div. c=24 inches . , heating-power of aL yr-_= 00 ? 0088 F. This result is again so much smaller th'an those obtained from Arcturus , although the observations of Arcturus were made under more unfavourable circumstances with respect to altitude , that I cannot but regard it as a fact that the starArcturus does give us more heat than aLyrse , -a result probably due to the same cause which gives rise to the difference in colour between these stars , viz. the greater absorption of the red end of the spectrum in the case of aLyrm than in the case of Arcturus . I may here mention that on June 25 , 1869 , I made a direct comparison between Arcturus and aLyrse . The result gave for the heat received from Arcturus : that from a Lyre : : 3 : 2 ; but on account of the observations of a Lyrae having been interrupted by cloud , they were not sufficiently numerous to eliminate mere errors of reading . From the whole of these observations I think we may conclude that Arcturus gives to us considerably more heat than ac Lyrs ; that the amount of heat received is diminiished very rapidly as the amount.of moisture in the air increases ; that nearly the whole heat is intercepted by the slightest cloud ; that as first approximations , the heat from Arcturus , at an altitude of 25 ? , at Greenwich is about equal to that from a three-inch cube containing boiling water at a distance of 400 yards . The heat from a Lyrse at an altitude of 60 ? is about equal to that from the same cube at a distance of about 600 yards . The form given to the pile appears likely to be useful in many inquiries respecting differences of heatingpower .

112731

3701662

On the Mechanical Performance of Logical Inference. [Abstract]

166

169

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. Stanley Jevons

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112731

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112731

Formulae

Biography

Mathematics

I. " On the Mechanical Performance of Logical Inference . " By W. STANLEY JEVONS , M.A. ( Lond. ) , Professor of Logic &c. in Owens College . Communicated by Professor E. RoscoE . Received October 16 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) It is remarkable that from the earliest times mechanical assistance has been employed in mathematical computation . The Ise of pebbles , of the fingers , and of the abacus of the Greeks and Romans may be adduced as examples . Mathematicians have constantly delighted in devising mechanical modes of calculations , as in the case of Napier 's bones , mechanical globes , slide rules , &c. Actual machines for performing difficult calculations have been designed or constructed at various times since the early part of the 17th century , by Pascal , Morland , Leibnitz , Gersten , Babbage , and Scheutz . In logic , on the contrary , we meet with a total absence of any actual mechanism , although logical works abound with expressions implying the need of such aid . The name of Aristotle 's logical treatises , the ' Organon , ' or Instrument , and many definitions of logic , clearly express this idea , which is also distinctly stated by Bacon in the second aphorism of his 'New Organon . ' This inability of logicians to realize their notions of a mechanical logic in a material form , analogous to the many kinds of calculating machines , can only be explained by the extreme incompleteness of their doctrines , It is the advance of logical science , chiefly due to the late Dr. Boole , Prof. De Morgan , and George Bentham , which now enables us to produce a truly mechanical logic . Boole , in his celebrated work on the ' Laws of Thought , ' first put forth the problem of logical science in its complete generality:-Given certain logical premises or conditions , to determine the description of any class of objects under those conditions . The ancient forms of logical deductions are but a few isolated cases of this general problem , which Boole solved in a complete but exceedingly obscure manner . In my 'Pure Logic ' ( London , 1864 , Stanford ) and my 'Substitution of Similars ' ( London , 1869 , Macmillan ) , I have endeavoured to show that the mysterious mathematical form of Boole 's logical system is altogether superfluous , and that in one point of great importance he was deeply mistaken . His logical views , when simplified and corrected , give us a method of indirect deduction of extreme generality and power , founded directly upon this most fundamental Law of Thought . A proof of the truthfulness and power of this system is to be found in the fact that it can be embodied in a machine just as the Calculus of Differences is embodied in Mr. Babbage 's calculating machine . To explain the nature of the logical machine alluded to , it may be pointed out that the third of the fundamental Laws of Thought allow us to affirm of any object one or the other of two contradictory attributes , and that we are thus enabled to develope a series of alternatives which must contain the description of a given class or object . Thus , if we are considering the propositionsIron is metal , Metal is element , we can at once affirm of iron that it is included among the four alternatives : Metal , element , Metal , not element . Not metal , element . Not metal , not element . But according to the second Law of Thought , nothing can combine contradictory attributes , and this law prevents us from supposing that iron can be not metal , while the first premise affirms that it is metal . The second premise again prevents our supposing that the combination metal , not element can exist . Hence the only combination of properties which the premises allow us to affirm of iron is metal , element . In a similar manner a complete solution of any logical problem may be effected by forming the complete list of combination , in which the terms of the problem can manifest themselves , and then striking out such of the combinations as cannot exist in consistency with the conditions of the problem . The logical machine actually constructed represents the combination , 16 in number , of four positive terms , denoted by A , B , C , D , and their corresponding negatives , a , 6 , c , d. The instrument is provided with eight keys , representing these terms when appearing in the subject of a proposition , with eight keys , placed to the right hand of the former , representing the terms when occurring in the predicate of a proposition , and with the certain operation keys denoting the copular of the proposition , thefull stop at the end of it , and the conjunction or , according as it occurs in the eulycet or tredicate . There is also a key denoting the Jinis or end of an argument , which has the effect of obliterating any previous impressions , and making the machine a tabula nasa . If , now , each of the letter terms A , B , C , D be taken to represent some logical term or noun , and propositions concerning them be , as it were , played upon the machine , as upon a telegraphic instrument , the machine effects thereby such a classification and selection of certain rods representing the 16 possible combinations of the terms , that only those combinations consistent with the propositions remain indicated by the machine at the end of the operations . When once a series of propositions is thus impressed upon the machine , it is capable of exhibiting an answer to any question which may be put to it concerning the possible combinations which form any class . The machine thus embodies almost all the powers of Boole 's logical system up to problems involving four distinct terms , and to represent problems of any complexity involving any number of terms only requires the multiplication of the parts of the machine . The construction involves no mechanical difficulties , and depends upon a peculiar arrangement of pins and levers , which it would not be easy to explain without drawings . In this arrangement of the parts the conditions of correct thinking are observed ; the representative rods are just as numerous as the laws of thought require , and no rod represents inconsistent attributes . The representative rods are classified , selected , or rejected by the reading of a proposition in a manner exactly answering to that in which a reasoning mind should treat its ideas , and at every step in the progress of a problem the machine indicates the proper condition of a mind exempt from mistake . It is believed that this logical machine may be usefully employed in the logical class-room to exhibit the complete analysis of any argument or logical problem ; and it is superior for this purpose to a more rudimentary contrivance , the logical abacus , constructed by me for the same purpose and previously described . But by far the chief importance of the machine is in a theoretical point of view as demonstrating , in the simplest and most evident manner , the character and powers of a universal system of logical deduction , of which the first , although obscure solution , was given by Dr. Boole .

112732

3701662

Preliminary Paper on Certain Drifting Motions of the Stars

169

171

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Richard A. Proctor

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0039

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112732

10.1098/rspl.1869.0039

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112732

Astronomy

Fluid Dynamics

Astronomy

II . " Preliminary Paper on certain Drifting Motions of the Stars . " By RICHARD A. PROCTOR , B.A. , F.R.A.S. Communticated by WARREN DE LA RUE , V.P.R.S. Received October 26 , 1869 . A careful examination of the proper motions of all the fixed stars in the catalogues published by Messrs. Main and Stone ( Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society , vols . xxviii . and xxxiii . ) has led me to a somewhat interesting result . I find that in parts of the heavens the stars exhibit a wellmarked tendency to drift in a definite direction . In the catalogues of proper motions , owing to the way in which the stars are arranged , this tendency is masked ; but when the proper motions are indicated in maps , by affixing to each star a small arrow whose length and direction indicate the magnitude and direction of the star 's proper motion , the star-drift ( as the phenomenon may be termed ) becomes very evident . It is worthy of notice that Maidler , having been led by certain considerations to examine the neighbourhood of the Pleiades for traces of a community of proper motion , founded on the drift he actually found in Taurus his well-known theory that Alcyone ( the lucida of the Pleiades ) is the common centre around which the sidereal system is moving . But in reality the community of motion in Taurus is only a single instance , and not the most striking that might be pointed out , of a characteristic which may be recognized in many regions of the heavens . In Gemini and Cancer there is a much more striking drift towards the south-east , the drift in Taurus being towards the south-west . In the constellation Leo there is also a well-marked drift , in this case towards Cancer . These particular instances of star-drift are not the less remarkable , that they ( the stars ) are drifting almost exactly in the direction due to the proper motion which has been assigned to the sun , because the recent researches of the Astronomer Royal have abundantly proved that the apparent proper motions of the stars are not to be recognized as principally due to the sun 's motion . Mr. Stone has shown even that we must assign to the stars a larger proper motion , on the average , than that which the sun possesses . Looking , therefore , on the stars as severally in motion , with velocities exceeding the sun 's on the average , it cannot but be looked upon as highly significant that in any large region of the heavens there should be a community of motion such as I have described . We seem compelled to look upon the stars which exhibit such community of motion as forming a distinct system , the members of which are associated indeed with the galactic system , but are much more intimately related to each other . In other parts:of the heavens , however , there are instances of a stardrift opposed to the direction due to the solar motion . A remarkable instance may be recognized among the seven bright stars of Ursa Major . Of these , the stars 3 , y , e , e , and 4 are all drifting in the same direction , and almost exactly at the same rate , towards the " apex of the solar motion , " that is , the point from which all the motions due to the sun 's translation in space should be directed . If these five stars , indeed , form a system ( and I can see no other reasonable explanation of so singular a community of motion ) , the mind is lost in contemplating the immensity of the periods which the revolutions of the components of the system must occupy . Madler had already assigned to the revolution of Alcor around Mizar ( 4 Ursae ) a period of more than 7000 years . But if these stars , which appear so clear to the naked eye , have a period of such length , what must be the cyclic periods of stars which cover a range of several degrees upon the heavens ? In like manner the stars a , / 3 , and y of Arietis appear to form a single system , though the1motion of c is not absolutely coincident either in magnitude or direction with that of f3 and y , which are moving on absolutely parallel lines with equal velocity . There are many other interesting cases of the same kind . I hope soon to be able to lay before the Society a pair of maps in which all the wellrecognized proper motions in both hemispheres are exhibited on the stereographic projection . In the same maps also the effects due to the solar motion are exhibited by means of great circles through the apex of the solar motion , and small circles or parallels having that apex for a pole . It appears to me that the star-drift I have described serves to explain several phenomena which had hitherto been thought very perplexing . In the first place , it accounts for the small effect which the correction due to the solar motion has been found to have in diminishing the sums of the squares of the stellar proper motions . Again , it explains the fact that many double stars which have a common proper motion appear to have no motion of revolution around each other ; for clearly two members of a drifting-system might appear to form a close double , and yet be in reality far apart and travelling not around each other , but more closely around the centre of gravity of the much larger system they form part of . I may add that , while mapping the proper motions of the stars , I have been led to notice that the rich cluster around X Persei falls almost exactly on the intersection of the Milky Way with the great circle which may be termed the equator of the solar motion ; that is , the great circle having the apex of the sun 's motion as a pole . This circumstance points to that remarkable cluster , rather than to the Pleiades , as the centre of the sidereal system , if , indeed , that system have a centre cognizable by us . When we remember that for every fixed star in the Pleiades there are hundreds in the great cluster in Perseus , the latter will seem the worthier region to be the centre of motion . I should be disposed , however , to regard the cluster in Perseus as the centre of a portion of the sidereal system , rather than as the common centre of the Galaxy . The peculiarities of the apparent proper motions of the stars seem to me to lend a new interest to the researches which Mr. IIuggins is preparing to make into the stellar proper motions of recess or approach .

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On Jacobi's Theorem Respecting the Relative Equilibrium of a Revolving Ellipsoid of Fluid; and on Ivory's Discussion of the Theorem. [Abstract]

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I. Todhunter

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Fluid Dynamics

Biography

Fluid Dynamics

III . " On Jacobi 's Theorem respecting the relative Equilibrium of a Revolving Ellipsoid of Fluid ; and on Ivory 's Discussion of the Theorem . " By I. TODHUNTER , M.A. , F.R.S. , late Fellow of St. John 's College , Cambridge . Received November 23 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) Jacobi discovered the theorem that a fluid ellipsoid revolving with uniform angular velocity round its least axis might be in equilibrium . Ivory discussed the theorem , and made several statements regarding the limitations of the proportions of the axis . Ivory 's statements contain various errors and truths based on erroneous reasoning . The object of the present memoir is to correct Ivory 's errors , to supply his imperfections , and to add something to what is already known respecting the theorem .

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Observations on the Temperature of the Strata Taken during the Sinking of the Rose Bridge Colliery, Wigan, Lancashire, 1868-69

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Edward Hull

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Geography

Meteorology

Geography

Melbourne:-Flagstaff Observatory . Meteorological Observations , 1857 -58 . 2 vols . sm . fol. Daily Meteorological Register , 1859-1863 . 5 vols . fol. Original Observations on Atmospheric Electricity , 1858 . s fol. Daily Electrical Register , 1860-63 . 3 vols . 4to . Tagnetical Observatioris , 1st May to 31st Dec. 1858 . sm . fol. Remarks and DisturbaiLce Observations dLirii g the year 1859 . Daily Magnetical 1egoister , 1860-62 , and Wan . to Feb. 1863 . 3 vols . sm . fol. IS . Presented by the Observer , Dr. Neumnaer , * The entire series of these interesting observations were kindly suipplied to me by Mr. W. Fairbairn , and are published in ' The Coalfields of Great Britain , ' 2nd edit . p. 226 . resuilt obtained by Professor Phillips , F.R.S. , at the MonkNvearmouth Colliery . Since the time above referred to , the proprietor of the IRose Bridge Colliery , Mr. J. Granit tlorris , determined to carry down the shafts from the " Cannel " seam to the c ; Arley " seam of coal , which was knoown to lie more than 200 yards below it ; and consequently in the spring of 1868 preparations were commenced for carrying out this project . In the incredibly short time of one year and two months the Arley coal was struck , and was founid to be of good thickness and quality . The total depth reached was 808 yards , and the ultimate temperature in the coal itself was found to be 931P F. The manager of the colliery , Mr. Bryham , sensible of the value of observations on the temperature of the strata at such unusual depths ( this being probably the deepest colliery in the world , certainly in Britain ) , made a series of observations with as much care as the circumstances would admit , and has entrusted them to me for publication . The mode of taking the observations was as follows:-On a favourable stratum , such as shale , or even coal , having been reached , a bole was drilled with water in the solid strata to a depth of one yard from thze bottom of the pit . A thermometer was then inserted , the hole having been sealed and made airtight with clay . At the expiration of half an hotur the thermometer was taken up and the reading noted . It might possibly be objected that the time allowed ( thirty minutes ) was insufficient for the imbedding of the thermometer , and that the readings are liable to error from this cause . I feel sure , however , that if any error has ariseni it is inappreciable , and does not in the least invalidate the general result . In fact I am assured by Mr. Bryham that , from actual testing on several occasions , he found less than this time of thilty miniutes sufficient for the purpose required . While the temperatures of the strata were being measured , observationls were also carried on _par passu on those of the open pit during the deseent . These are given in the Table annexed . By a comparison of the results in the two columns , it will be observed that as the depth increased the differences between the corresponding temperatures in the pit and the strata tended to augment ; in other words , the temperature of the strata was found to augment more rapidly than that of the open pit . The effects of the high temperature and pressure on the strata at the depth of 242.5 feet are , as I am informed by Mr. Bryham , making themselves felt , and cause an increase in the expense both of labour and timber for props . This colliery , in fact , will be in a position to put to the test our views and speculations on the effects of high temperature and pressure on mining operations . Itn order to obtain the average rate of increase of heat , as shown by the experiments at Rose Bridge Colliery , we may assume ( in the absence of direct observation ) the positioni and temperature of the invariable stratum to be 50 feet from the surface and 500 F. , which is probablyv nearly the mean temperature of the place . With these data , the increase is 1 ? F. for every 54 57 feet , which approximates to that obtainied by Professor Phillips at Monkwearmouth of I ' F. for about every 60 feet . If , on the other hand , for the purpose of comparison , we adopt the measurements for the invariable stratum as obtained at Dukenfield , we find the rate of increase to be 10 F. for every 47-2 feet as against 1 ? F. for every 83-2 feet in the case of Dukenfield itself . So great a discordance in the results is remarkable , and is not , in my opinion , attributable to inaccuracy of observation in making the experiments . On the other hand , I may venture to suggest that it is due , at least in some measure , to dissimilarity in the position and inclination of the strata in each case . These I now proceed to point out . Position of the Strata at Rose Bridge and Dukenfield Collieries . Rose Bridge Colliery occupies a positioni in the centre of a gently sloping trough , where the beds are nearly horizontal ; they are terminated both on the west and east by large parallel faults which throw up the strata on either side . The colliery is placed in what is known as " the deep belt . " Dukenfield Colliery , on the other hand , is planted upon strata which are highly inclined . The beds of sandstone , shale , and coal rise and crop out to the eastward at angles varying from 30 ? to 35 ' . Now I think we may assume that strata consisting of sanidstones , shales , clays , and coal alternating with each other are capable of conducting heat more rapidly along the planes of bedding , than across them , different kinds of rock having , as Mr. I-hopkins 's experiments slhow , differenit couducting-powers . If this be so , we have an evident reason for the dissimilar results in the two cases before us . Assuming a constanit supply of heat from the interior of the earth , it could only escape , in the case of Rose Bridge , across the planes of bedding , meeting in its progress upwards the resistance offered by strata of , in each case , varying conducting-powers . On the other hand , in the case of Dukenfield the internal heat could travel alonig the steeply inclinied strata themselves , and ultimately escape along the outerop of the beds . I merely offer this as a suggestion explanatory of the results before us , and may be allowed to add that the strata at oionkwearmouth ( olliery , the thermometrical observations at which correspond so closely with those obtained at Rose Bridge , are also in a positioni not much removed from the horizontal , which is some evidence in corroboration of the views here offered . Thermometrical Observations at Rose Bridge Colliery . Deptb , ~~~~~~TemperaTempera . Date . inStDeapth ture ture in Date . in Strata . in open solid yard_ . pit . strata . 0 F. 0 F. July 1854 ... ... ... ... . 161 Blue shale ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 64-5 August 1854 ... ... . . 188 Warranit earth ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 66 May 1858 ... ... ... ... 5 50 Blue shale ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 78 July 1858 ... ... ..600 Tarraint earth ... ... . 80 May 18 , 18G8 6 ... ... 30 " Raven " coal ... ... ... . , , ... ... 73 83 Jtuly 24 , 1868 ... ... 665 Liunii and wool..5 85 April 19 , 1869 ... ... . . 673 " Yard Coal " mine ... ... . 76 86 Novemher 18 , 1868 . 700 Strong blue metal ... 76 87 February 22 , 1869 ... 736 Do ... ... ... ... . 76 88 March 12,1869 ... ... 748 Shale ... . 77 89 April.17 , 1869 ... ... 762 Linn and wool , or strouig shale . 78 90%5 May 3 , 1869 ... ... ... 774 Strong shale.80 915 May 19,1869 ... ... ... . 782 Blue metal ... ... ... ... ... . . 79 92 Juily 8 , 1869 ... ... . 801 Strong blue slhale ... ... ... ... ; 79 93 July 16 , 1869 ... ... ... 808 Coal ( Arley minie ) ... ... ... ... ... ... 79 932 Remarhs . All holes vertical in solid at bottom of pit drilled with water 1 yard deep , and thermometer remained in hole thirty minutes and made airtight with clay .

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On the Theory of Continuous Beams. [Abstract]

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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Mortimer Heppel

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Biography

Tables

Biography

III . " On the Theory of Continuous Beams . " By JOHIN MORITIMER HIEPPEL , Mem. Inst. C.E. Communicated by Prof. W. J. MACQUORN RANKINE . Received December 9 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) The chief object of the present communication is to remedy some acknowledged defects in the theory of the above-mentioned subject . The principal steps by which it Ias reached its present state of development are also noticed , and may be briefly recapitulated as follows : In 1825 M. Navier investigated the conditions of a straight continuous beam resting on any number of supports . HIis method , though perfectly correct for the assumed conditions ( which embraced most cases occurring 176 [ Jan. 27 , in practice ) , was so exceedingly intricate when the number of openings became at all large , that in such instances it was of little practical use . In 1849 M. Clapeyron , a distinguished engineer and savant , devised a much more direct and easy means of treating such cases , though he did not at first succeed in giving to his own method all the simplicity and elegance of which it was capable . This was first done in 1856 by M. Bertot , civil engineer , who , by effecting an elimination which had escaped Clapeyron , arrived at a remarkable equation which has been the key to all subsequent treatment of the subject . This equation involves the bending moments over any three consecutive points of support , and is well known in France by the name of the " Theorem of the three Moments . " In 1857 MV . Clapeyron himself and M. Bresse , Professeur de Mecanique appliquee a l'Ecole Imperiale des Ponts et Chaussees , appear to have discovered this theorem independently of M. Bertot , and M. Bresse shortly afterwards extended it to a much greater degree of generality . M. Bresse 's reseairches on this subject are published in the third volume of his ' Course de Mecanique appliqu6e , ' Paris , 1865 ; but they had been communicated by him to the Academy of Sciences in 1862 , and fully completed in the previous year . M. Bresse not only contributed to the advancement of the theory , but entered largely into the best methods of its application to practice , and framed rules which have since , under an Imperial Commission , acquired the character of legislative enactments . M. 3Belanger , Professeur de Mecanique appliquee i l'Ecole centrale , appears , about the same time as M. Bresse , to have made an independent investigation of this subject , and to have brought the theory of it to about the same stage of advancement . Little has been since added to this theory in France , but valuable contributions to its development in reference to practice are to be found in the works of MM . Renaudot , Albaret , Molinos et Pronnier , Colignon , and Piarron de Mondesir . In England Professor Moseley is the first writer on mechanics who appears to have occupied himself with this subject . In his work on s The Mechanical Principles of Engineering and Architecture , ' he gives several examples of the application of M. Navier 's method to important practical cases . This work was published in 1843 , and no doubt furnished the groundwork for Mr. Pole 's more extended investigations . In 1852 Mr. Pole had to examine the case of the bridge over the Trent at Torksey , involving some new conditions not treated by Moseley , but which he found the means of treating with perfect success . About the same time Mr. Pole had to deal with the much more complex and important case of the Britannia bridge , in which , besides variation of load from one span to another , variation of section also had to be considered , and imperfect continuity over the middle pier . These conditions were successfully imported into this method of Navier , which was , however , only known to Mr. Pole through the examples of its application given in [ Moseley 's work , and the results obtained were identical with those which would have followed from the application of the method of Clapeyron in its most improved and generalized form . In 1858 , the present writer , being then in India , had occasion to consider the condition of a continuous girder of five spans , and finding the method of Navier unmanageable , was forced to seek for some other . He first came upon the equation which he afterwards found had been for some years known in France as the " Theorem of the three Moments , " and afterwards extended it , so as to take in all the conditions of the Britannia bridge and to verify all Mr. Pole 's results . In this form it was absolutely identical with the equation given by M. Belanger , and nearly so with that of M. Bresse . The great defect in all this theory up to the present time has been that , in order to avoid an inextricable complexity , it has been necessary to consider the load in each span as uniformly distributed over it , and the moment of inertia of the section as uniform throughout each span . In many cases these hypotheses are false , notably so in the case of the Britannia ; and the conclusions are affected by their falsity , to what extent being a matter of uncertainty , though good grounds have been shown for believing that the errors cannot attain to importance . The method now given treats these conditions , it is hoped , rigorously ; and although the equations obtained are such as necessarily require some laborious computation to obtain numerical results , they are certainly by no means inextricable . It is satisfactory to find that in the case of the Britannia , where these new conditions enter with much greater force than in most cases , their effect on the resulting stresses is very unimportant ; so that the inference may legitimately be drawn that in all ordinary cases the method of Bresse may be confidently applied . It is scarcely possible in a short abstract to give an idea of an analytical investigation . The equations obtained are of the same form as those of the previous methods , each containing , as unknown quantities , the bending moments over three consecutive supports ; but the coefficients are somewhat involved functions of the varying loads and sections . An abbreviated functional notation has , wherever possible , been used , by means of which a certain degree of clearness and symmetry is preserved in expressions which would otherwise become inextricably complex .

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Remarks on Mr. Heppel's Theory of Continuous Beams. [Abstract]

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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. J. Macquorn Rankine

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Tables

Biography

Tables

IV . " Remarks on Mr. Heppel 's Theory of Continuous Beams . " By W. J. MACQUORN RANKINE , C.E. , LL. D. , F.R.S. Received December 22 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) The author states that the advantages possessed by Mr. Heppel 's method will probably cause it to be used both in practice and in scientific study . With a view to the instruction of students in engineering science , he proposes an abridged way of stating the theoretical principles of Mr. Heppel 's method , considering at the same time that Mr. Heppel 's more detailed investigation forms the best model for numerical calculation . He then uses Mr. Heppel 's improved form of the " Theorem of the three Moments " to test the accuracy of the formulae which he obtained in another way , and published in 'A Manual of Civil Engineering , ' for the case of a uniform continuous beam with an indefinite number of equal spans , the successive spans being loaded alternately with a uniform fixed load only , and with a uniform travelling load in addition to the fixed load ; and he finds the results of the two methods to agree in every respect .

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Remarks on the Recent Eclipse of the Sun as Observed in the United States

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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. N. Lockyer

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Astronomy

Atomic Physics

Astronomy

V. " Remarks on the recent Eclipse of the Sun as observed in the United States . " By J. N. LOCKYER , F.R.S. Received December 7 , 1869 . By the kindness of Professors Winlock , Morton , and Newton , I have been favoured with photographs , and as yet unpublished accounts , of the results of the recent total eclipse of the sun observed in America . I am anxious , therefore , to take the opportunity afforded by the subject being under discussion , to lay a few remarks thus early before the Royal Society . The points which I hoped might be more especially elucidated by this eclipse were as follows:1 . Is it possible to differentiate between the chromosphere and the corona § 2 . What is the real photographic evidence of the structure of the base of the chromosphere in reference to Mr. W. D)e La Rue 's enlarged photographs of the eclipse of 1860 § 3 . What is the amount of the obliterating effect of the illumination of our atmosphere on the spectrum of the chromosphere § 4 . Is there any cooler hydrogen above the prominences§ 5 . Can the spectroscope settle the nature of the corona during eclipses ? With regard to 1 , the evidence is conclusive . The chromosphere , including a " radiance , " as it has been termed by Dr. Gould ( the edge of the radiance as photographed being strangely like the edge of the chromosphere in places viewed with the open slit ) , is not to be confounded with the corona . On this subject , in a letter to Professor Morton , Dr. B. A. Gould writes:- " An examination of the beautiful photographs made at Burlington and Ottumwa by the sections of your party in charge of Professors Mayer and Haines , and a comparison of them with my sketches of the corona , have led me to the conviction that the radiance around the moon in the pictures made during totality is not the corona at all , but is actually the image of what Lockyer has called the chromosphere . " This interesting fact is indicated by many different considerations . The directions of maximum radiance do not coincide with those of the great beams of the corona ; they remain constant , while the latter were variable . There is a diameter approximately corresponding to the solar axis , near the extremities of which the radiance upon the photographs is a minimum , whereas the coronal beams in these directions were especially marked during a great part of the total obscuration . The coronal beams stood in no apparent relation to the protuberances , whereas the aureole seen upon the photographs is most marked in their immediate vicinity ; indeed the great protuberance , at 230 ? to 245 ? , seems to have formed a southern limit to the radiance on the western side , while a sharp northern limit is seen on all the photographs at about 350 ? , the intermediate arc being thickly studded with protuberances which the moon displayed at the close of totality . The exquisite masses of flocculent light on the following limbs are upon the two sides of that curious prominence at 93 ? , which at first resembled an ear of corn , as you have said , but which , in the later pictures after it had been more occulted , and its southern branch thus rendered more conspicuous , was like a pair of antelope 's horns , to which some observers compare it . Whatever of this aureole is shown upon the photographs was occulted or displayed by the lunar motion , precisely as the protuberances were . The variations in the form of the corona , on the other hand , did not seem to be dependent in any degree upon the moon 's motion . The singular and elegant structural indication in the special aggregations of light on the eastern side may be of high value in guiding to a further knowledge of the chromosphere . They are manifest in all the photographs by your parties which I have seen , but are especially marked in those of shortest exposure , such as the first one at Ottumwa . In some of the later views they may be detected on the other side of the sun , though less distinct ; but the very irregular and jagged outline of the chromosphere , as described by Janssen and Lockyer , is exhibited in perfection . " The second point is also referred to in the same letter . I think the American photographs afford evidence that certain appearances in parts of Mr. De La Rue 's photographs , which represent the chromosphere as billowy on its under side , are really due to some action either of the moon 's surface or of a possible rare lunar atmosphere ; so that it is not desirable to confound these effects with others that might be due to a possible suspension of the chromosphere in a transparent atmosphere , if only a section of the chromosphere were photographed . Dr. Gould writes:- " You will observe that some of the brighter , petallike flocculi of light have produced apparent indentations in the moon 's limb at their base , like those at the bases of the protuberances . These indentations are evidently due to specular reflection from the moon 's surface , as I stated to the American Association at Salem last month . Had any doubt existed in my mind previously , it would have been removed by an inspection of the photographs . " Where the chromosphere is so uniform a light that the actinic effect on the plate is pretty nearly equal , the base of the chromosphere is absolutely continuous in the American photographs ; but in the case of some of the larger prominences , notably those at + 146 ( Young ) and --130 ( Young ) , there are strong apparent indents on the moon 's limb . I next come to the obliterating effect of the illumination of our atnlosphere on the spectrum of the chromosphere . This is considerable ; in fact the evidences of it are very much stronger than one could have wished , but hardly more decided than I had anticipated . Professor Winlock 's evidence on this point , in a letter to myself , is as follows:- " I examined the principal protuberance before , during , and after totality . I saw three lines ( C , near D and F ) before and after totality and eleven during totality ; eight were instantly extinguished on the first appearance of sunlight . " This effect was observed with two flint prisms and 7 inches aperture . Professor Young , with five prisms of 45 ? and 4 inches aperture , found the same result in the part of the spectrum he was examining at the end of the totality . He writes : " I had just completed the measurements of 2602 , when the totality ended . This line disappeared instantly , but 2796 [ the hydrogen line near G- ] was nearly a minute in resuming its usual faintness . " These observations I consider among the most important ones made during the eclipse ; for they show most unmistakably that , as I have already reported to the Secretary of the Government-Grant Committee , the new method to be employed under the best , conditions must be used with large apertures and large dispersion . On the fourth point the evidence is but negative only , and therefore in favour of the view I have some time ago communicated to the Royal Society . We next come to the question of the corona , -a question which has been made more difficult than ever ( in appearance only I think ) by the American observations . I propose to discuss only the spectroscopic observations of Professors Young and Pickering in connexion with Dr. Gould 's before quoted remarks . Professor Pickering , with an ordinary chemical spectroscope merely directed to the sun 's place during totality , obtained the combined spectrum of the protuberances and corona . Ile saw a continuous spectrum with two or three bright lines , one " near E , " and a second ( " near C. " Professor Young , who used a spectroscope specially adapted for the work , in which only one part of the prominence at + 146 ? was being examined , saw C , near D , a line at 1250 + 20 , and another at 1350 + 20 of Kirchhoff 's scale . The rest of the observations I give in his own words . " Then came the 1474 K line , which was very bright , though by no means equal to C and D. ; but attention was immediately arrested by the fact that , unlike them , it extended clean across the spectrum ; and on moving the slit away from the protuberances , it persisted , while D , , visibly in the edge of the field , disappeared . Thus it was evident that this line* belonged not to the spectrum of the protuberance , but to that of the corona . My impression , but I do not feel at all sure of it , is that the two faint lines between it and D3 behaved in the same manner , and are also corona lineslt . " I am confirmed in this opinion by Professor Pickering 's observation . He used a single-prism spectroscope , with the slit of the collimator simply directed to the sun , and having no lens in front of it . With this arrangement he saw only three or four bright lines , the brightest near E ( 1474 ) . Now this is exactly what ought to occur if that line really belongs to the corona , which , from its great extent , furnished to his instrument a far greater quantity of light than the prominences . " By this time the moon had advanced so far that it became necessary to shift the slit to the great prominence on the opposite side of the sun . While my assistant was doing this , I suppose I must , in the excitement of the moment , have run my eye-piece over the region of the magnesium lines ( b ) , and thrown them out of the field before he had brought anything upon the slit . At any rate I saw nothing of these lines , which were evident enough to several other observers , and can think of no other way to account for their having escaped me . The F line in the spectrum of the great protuberance was absolutely glorious , broad at the base and tapering upwards , crookedly as Lockyer has before often observed . Next appeared a new line , about as bright as 1474 at 2602=2 of Kirchhoff 's scale . Its position was carefully determined by micrometrical reference to the next line , 2796 K ( hydrogen y ) , which was very bright ; h was also seen , very clear , but hardly brilliant . In all I saw nine bright lines . " A faint continuous spectrum , without any traces of dark lines in it , was also visible , evidently due to the corona . Its light , tested by a tourmaline applied next to the eye , proved to be very strongly polarized in a plane passing through the centre of the sun . I am not sure , however , but that this polarization , as suggested by Prof. Pickering , may have been produced by the successive refractions through the prisms . This explanation at once removes the difficulty otherwise arising from the absence of dark lines . " I have first to dowith the continuous spectrum , deduced from Professor Pickering 's observations . I think in such a method of observation , even if the corona were terrestrial and gave a dark line spectrum , the lines visible with such a dim light would in great part be obliterated by the corrksponding bright lines given out by the long arc of chromosphere visible , to say nothing of the prominences , in which it would be strange if C , D , E , b , F , and many other lines were not reversed . This suggestion , I think , is strengthened by the statement that two bright lines were seen " near C " and " near E ; " should we not rather read ( for the " near " sllows that we are only dealing with approximations ) C and F , which is exactly what we might expect . But even this is not all that may be hazarded on the subject of the continuous spectrum , which was also seen by Professor Young under different conditions . Assuming the corona to be an atmospheric effect merely , as I have before asserted it to be , it seems to me that its spectrum should be continuous , or nearly so ; for is it not as much due to the light of the prominences as to the light of the photosphere , which , it may be said roughly , are complementary to each other ? With regard to the aurora theory , I gather from Professor Young 's note that , if not already withdrawn , he is anxious to wait till the next eclipse for further facts . I consider that the fact that I often see the line at 1474 , and often do not , is fatal to it , as it should be constantly visible on the proposed hypothesis . The observation of iron-vapour , as I hold it to be at this elevation , is of extreme value , coupled with its simple spectrum , seen during an eclipse , as it entirely confirms my observations made at a lower level in the case not only of iron but of magnesium .

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3701662

Note on an Extension of the Comparison of Magnetic Disturbances with Magnetic Effects Inferred from Observed Terrestrial Galvanic Currents; and Discussion of the Magnetic Effects Inferred from Galvanic Currents on Days of Tranquil Magnetism. [Abstract]

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George Biddell Airy

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Meteorology

Tables

Meteorology

I. Note on an Extension of the Comparison of Magnetic Disturbances with Maagnetic Effects inferred from observed Terrestrial Galvanic Currents ; and Discussion of the Magnetic Effects inferred from Galvanic Currents on days of tranquil magnetism . " By GEORGE B1DDELL AIBY , Astronomer Royal . Received December 22 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) The author , after referring to his paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1868 on the comparison of Magnetic Disturbances inferred from Galvanic Currents recorded by the Self-registering Galvanometers of the Royal Observatory of Greenwich with the Magnetic Disturbances registered by the Magnetometers , on 17 days , states that he had now undertaken the examination of the whole of the Galvanic Currents recorded during the establishment of the Croydon and Dartford wires ( from 1865 April 1 to 1867 October 24 ) . The days of observation were divided into three groups , -No . I containing days of considerable magnetic disturbance , and therein including not only the 17 days above mentioned , but also 36 additional days , No. 2 containing days of moderate disturbance , of which no further use was made , and No. 3 containing the days of tranquil magnetism . The comparisons of the additional 36 disturbed days were made in the same manner as those of the preceding 17 days , and the inferences were the same . The results were shown in the same manner , by comparison of curves , which were exhibited to the Society . The points most worthy of notice are , that the general agreement of the strong irregularities , Galvanic and Magnetic , is very close , that the galvanic irregularities usually precede the magnetic , in time , and that the northerly magnetic force appears to be increased . The author remarks that no records appeared open to doubt as regards instrumental error , except those of western declination ; and to remove this he had compared the Greenwich Curves with the Kew Curves , and had found them absolutely identical . The author then proceeds with the discussion of the Galvanic CurrentCurves on days of tranquil magnetism , not by way of comparison with the magnetic curves , but for independent examination of the galvanic laws . The method was explained of measuring the ordinates and connecting the measures into expressions for magnetic action , at every hour , and group184 On Magnetic Disturbances . [ Feb. 3 , ing the measures at the same nominal hour by months , and taking their monthly means for each hour . As these exhibited sensible discordance , they were smoothed by taking the means of adjacent numbers , taking the means of the adjacent numbers of the new series , and so on , repeating the operation six times . The author explains the theory of this process , and the way in which it tends to degrade the periodical terms of higher orders . He then explains an easy method of resolving the numbers so smoothed into periodical terms recurring once in the day , twice in the day , thrice in the day , &c. , and applies the method to the numbers for every month . When these quantities ( which from month to month are perfectly independent ) are brought together in tables , they present such an agreement , with gradual change accompanying the change of seasons , as leaves no doubt on their representation of a real law of the diurnal changes of the galvanic currents . They also show the existence of a constant turn towards the north ( which explains the apparent increase of force to the north observed in the results for days of great disturbance ) , and a still larger force towards the west ( which also is well marked on the days of great disturbance ) . No light is obtained on the origin of these terms , but they appear to be probably pure galvanic accidents , depending on the nature of the earth-connexions . The author then exhibits in curves the diurnal inequalities of magnetism which the galvanic currents must produce . The form generally consists of two parallel lobes , making with the magnetic meridian an angle of nearly 60 ? from the north towards the west . The greatest east-andwest difference of ordinates , in the month of April , is 0'00044 of Total Horizontal Magnetic Force ; it corresponds , in the hours to which those ordinates relate , nearly with the Ordinary Diurnal Inequality . But it is much smaller than the ordinary diurnal inequality , and the daily law of the galvano-magnetic inequality differs greatly from that of diurnal inequality . For the greater part , therefore , of diurnal inequality the cause is yet to be found .

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3701662

Monthly Magnetic Determinations, from December 1866 to May 1869 Inclusive, Made at the University of Coimbra

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J. A. De Souza

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Biography

Meteorology

Biography

II . " Monthly Magnetic Determinations , from December 1866 to May 1869 inclusive , made at the University of Coimbra . " By Professor J. A. DE SovZA , Director of the Observatory . Communicated by BALFOUR STEWART , F.R.S. Received December 16 , 1869 . [ NoTE.-These observations form the continuation of a series the results of which were communicated to the Royal Society on May 8 , 1867 , by the President . In both series the same instruments were used , and the method of observation was the same in both.-B . S. ] P2 185

112740

3701662

On the Fossil Mammals of Australia.--Part III. Diprotodon australis, Owen. [Abstract]

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196

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Prof. Owen

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Anatomy 2

Tables

Anatomy

III . " On the Fossil Mammals of Australia.--Part III . Diprotodon australis , Owen . " By Prof. OWEN , F.R.S. &c. Received December 10 , 1869 . ( Abstract . ) In this paper the author communicates descriptions , with figures of the fossil remains at his command , of Diprotodon australis , which have been received from various localities in Australia , since the first announcement of the genus , founded on a fragment of the lower jaw and tusk , described and figured in the 'Appendix ' to Sir Those . Mitchell 's ' Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia , ' 8vo , 1838 . The fossils in question include the entire cranium and lower jaw with most of the teeth , showing the dental formula of:-i . 3-a , c. o-0 m. 5-5 = 28 ; portions of jaws and teeth exemplifying characteristics of age and sex ; many bones of the trunk and extremities . After some introductory remarks , the author proceeds to the description of the skull and teeth , which are illustrated by many figures , those of the teeth being of the natural size . The result of the comparisons detailed establishes the marsupial character of Diprotodon , and the combination of characters of Macropus and Phascolomys with special modifications of its own . These latter are more fully and strongly manifested in the bones of the trunk and limbs , subsequently described . The pelvis and femora present resemblances to those in Proboscidea , not hitherto observed in any other remains of large extinct quadrupeds of Australia . But in all the bones described essentially marsupial characteristics are more or less determinable . The paper concludes with a summary of the characters of Diprotodon , throwing light upon the conditions of its extinction , its analogies with the Megatheriunm , its affinities to existing forms of Marsupialia , and the more generalized condition which it manifests of that mammalian type . A table of the localities in Australia from which remains of Diprotodon have been obtained , and a table of the principal admeasurements of the skeleton , are appended to the text .

112741

3701662

On Some Remarkable Spectra of Compounds of Zirconia and the Oxides of Uranium

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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

H. C. Sorby

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/112741

Chemistry 2

Atomic Physics

Chemistry

I. " On some remarkable Spectra of Compounds of Zirconia and the Oxides of Uranium . " By I. C. SORBY , F.R.S. Received December 27 , 1869 . When a scientific man has been led into an error and afterwards discovers his mistake , I think it a matter of duty that he should take an early opportunity to correct it . I therefore now write the following notice of certain remarkable peculiarities in the spectra of some compounds of the oxides of uranium with zirconia which led both myself and others* to conclude that they were due to a new elementary substance . Though the spectra of the different salts of those bases which show wellmarked absorption-bands often differ in detail , yet they usually resemble each other so much that there is no difficulty in recognizing each particular element . This is so constantly the case in the various compounds of erbium , didymium , and cobalt , and in the ordinary salts of uranium , that for a long time the more I studied this question , the more did it appear to be a general rule , and there seemed to be no reason to suspect that a few special compounds of uranium would give spectra with absorption-bands as unlike as possible those of all others . Such , however , turns out to be the fact , when its oxides are combined with zirconia . As an excellent illustration of important differences in mere detail , but general correspondence , I would refer to the spectra of didymium in different states of combination t , and would especially refer to the most distinct of the numerous absorption-bands which occurs in the yellow . The various compounds agree in showing this band in the same general position ; but by careful management , and by the use of sufficient dispersive power , it may be resolved into a very variable number of narrow bands or black lines . For example , in the case of the crystallized sulphate containing comparatively little lanthanum , it can be resolved into seven narrow lines , two of those near the centre being the darkest , whereas when much lanthanum is present , one line on the side next the green is so much darker than the rest that the others are comparatively absent . On fusing the mixed oxides with borax , the same spectrum is seen as with oxide of didymium alone , and I can resolve the above-named band into only two narrower bands ; whereas when the saturated bead is made to deposit crystals by being kept some time at a very dull red heat , this band can easily be resolved into eight equal and very distinct black lines . Although these and similar differences in detail are of much interest , yet in no case are they so considerable as to prevent our recognizing at once that the spectra are all due to didymium . It is also important to notice that the amount requisite to give a most splendid spectrum when the bead is crystalline will scarcely show any trace of bands when it is in a vitreous condition , dissolved in the borax . This is analogous to what occurs in the case of solid and powdered crystals of sulphate of didymium ; for the absorption-bands in the spectrum of the light transmitted by a thin layer of the fine powder , strongly illuminated from the other side , are as distinct as in that transmitted by a many times greater thickness of solid and transparent crystal . We may very conveniently take advantage of this fact in studying the spectra of such substances , when the amount of material at command is otherwise too small . This seems to be because the transmitted light does not simply pass through the crystals , but is in great measure reflected from them backwards and forwards , and thus , as it were , passes through a greater thickness . It is also to a considerable extent similar to that reflected from the powder when illuminated from above , as may be clearly proved by what occurs in the case of uranic salts . These when in a state of moderately fine powder transmit light , giving a spectrum showing not only the absorption-bands in the blue , which alone are met with in that transmitted by a clear crystal , but also the bands in the green , which depend on fluorescence , characteristic of that reflected from the powder* . These two kinds of bands can be easily distinguished by means of a plate of deep blue cobalt glass , which has an entirely different action , according as it is placed below or above the object when the bands are due to fluorescence , but has no such effect when they are due to ordinary absorption . It would perhaps be well to mention here that I have in this manner proved that the abnormal bands seen in the spectra of the compounds of zirconia with the oxides of uranium described in this paper are due to genuine absorption , and not to fluorescence . The remarkable spectrum of some jargons has been already described by me in the 'Chemical News 't , and in the Proceedings of the Royal Societyl . One of its most striking peculiarities is that when light passes in a direction perpendicular to the principal axis of the crystal , and the spectrum is divided by means of a double-image prism into two spectra , having the light polarized in opposite planes , though some of the absorption-bands are of equal intensity in both images , yet others are comparatively absent , some in one and some in the other ; whereas in the case of other dichroic crystals which give spectra with absorption-bands , they are lusually all more distinct in one image than when the light is not polarized , and all fainter , or even comparatively absent , in the other . No sooner had I observed this spectrum ( No. 5 , given below ) , than I made various experiments in order to ascertain whether uranium was present or not ; and the then known tests that could be applied to the amount of material at my command seemed to show that it was absent . This was quite in accord with the results of the various analyses published by other chemists , none of whom mention the existence of any trace of that substance . Moreover the general character of the spectrum was entirely unlike that of all the known compounds of uranic oxide . The various artificial salts all agree in giving a variable but small number of moderately broad absorption-bands in the blue end ( Nos. 1 , 2 , and 3 ) ; and the same is also seen in the case of several natural minerals ; whereas the jargon gave a most unusually large number of narrow black lines ( fourteen quite distinct , besides others more faint , and a single broader band which I cannot separate into lines ) , extending from the red end , so that nearly all occur in that part of the spectrum which is , entirely free from bands in all previously known compounds of uranic oxide . This same general fact was also seen in the spectrum ( No. 6 ) of the opaque blowpipe-beads gently flamed , as described in my former paper . These differences will be better understood by means of the following drawing , which shows three of the most striking spectra of uranic salts , that of uranate of soda , and the two which are rendered so abnormal by the presence of zirconia . Red End . Blue End . BI7 11 ii , I ... ... 1.l ! mj/ DoF ai Spoe3(rl of UraLic Compounds . Nos. 1 , 2 , and 3 . Uranic salts of the common type , viz.:1 . Native phosphate . 2 . Nitrate in crystals . 3 . Acetate in crystals . No. 4 . Uranate of soda in the carbonate-of-soda bead . Nos. 5 and 6 . Uranic compounds with zirconia , viz.:5 . Jargon after ignition . 6 . Crystalline borax blowpipe-beotd . I will not now enter into a description of the various chemical and physical facts which seemed to warrant the conclusion that zircons sometimes contain a new earth ; but taking these into consideration , there seemed to be every reason to believe that spectra which thus differed so much from those of any previously known substance were characteristic of this new earth . Judging from the facts then known , it was more probable that spectra of such a new type were due to a new element , than that they were due merely to a combination of two such elements as zirconium and uranium . Some of these chemical and physical facts can now be explained by the presence of uranium ; but besides this and several of the more common earths and oxides , I have detected in some zircons erbium , didymium , yttria , and another substance which exists in such small quantity that I have not yet been able to ascertain whether or no it is the suspected new earth . These accidental constituents do not indeed occur in sufficient quantity to be of importance , except as modifying the physical and optical properties , the didymium giving its usual characteristic absorption-bands ( zircons from Sveneroe , Norway ) , and the manganese the same spectrum as that of garnets ( zircons from an unknown locality in Siberia* ) . This method , however , fails to give evidence of a new earth ; for since the publication of my former paper , I have proved that the very abnormal spectra , which seemed sufficient to establish its existence , are really due to compounds of zirconia with the oxides of uranium , which have such a powerful action on light , that an almost inappreciable amount is sufficient to produce the spectra to great perfection-in fact so small an amount , that the total quantity which misled me was only a few thousandths of a grain ; and its presence might easily have remained unsuspected , if I had not made a number of experiments , which at first did not seem to have much connexion with the subject . In studying the spectra of crystalline blowpipe-beads , it seemed desirable to examine those made with carbonate of soda , with or without a little borax . This when melted dissolves certain oxides ; and though it crystallizes on cooling , so as to be only partially translucent , yet with strong direct sunlight well-marked spectra may be seen . For example , in the oxidizing flame uranic oxide is easily dissolved by carbonate of soda alone ; and when quickly cooled , an orange-coloured bead is obtained , probably containing uranate of soda in a vitreous condition , which gives a single well-marked absorption-band in the green ( see spectrum No. 4 ) with so small a quantity of the oxide ; that in a bead I inch in diameter shows the spectrum to the best advantage , and even yT-aV grain can be easily detected . We need not be surprised that this spectrum differs so much from the usual type of uranic salts ( Nos. 1 , 2 , and 3 ) , since in this case the oxide plays the part of an acid . It may be only an accidental coincidence , but this difference is analogous to the change which commonly occurs on adding an alkali to neutral solutions of vegetable colourst . When gently reheated it seems as if the uranate passed into a crystalline state , for the spectrum then shows four absorption-bands , and is more like the ordinary type ; but this change does not occur if a little borax has been added . The addition of more and more borax causes the absorption-band to become more and more faint , and to advance towards the blue end , until we obtain a spectrum with very faint bands but of the usual character . In examining the various products into which I separated jargons in order to study the supposed new earth in a state of purity , I obtained a small quantity of a dark-coloured substance , appareitly zirconia containing some oxide which communicated a green tint to a glassy , borax blowpipebead , but yet not sufficiently distinct to show that it was due to uranous oxide . I therefore thought that the carbonate-of-soda method might throw light on the question ; and though the presence of zirconia prevented solution by pure carbonate of soda , the addition of a little borax enabled me to prove that uranic oxide is really present in some jargons . Such , then , being the case , it seemed desirable to ascertain whether the oxides of uranium would give rise to any special spectra when present along with zirconia in crystalline blowpipe-beads . To my astonishment I found that the spectra were precisely the same as those obtained in the case of what I had thought to be an approximately pure new earth* . When , however , I had ascertained the quantity of oxide requisite to give this result,.I was no longer surprised that I had not suspected its presence . In the case of transparent blowpipe-beads of borax with microcosmic salt , it is requisite to have as much as about 1 grain of uranous oxide to show faintly the characteristic absorption-bands , whereas , when present along with zirconia in the crystalline beads , 5-^'0 ' grain gives an equally well-marked spectrum ; and -l0-f grain shows it far better than a larger quantity , which makes the beads too opaque . These very minute quantities were obtained by the repeated division of a small known weight , either before or after fusion with borax . This spectrum also differs very considerably from the spectra of the usual salts or blowpipe-beads of uranous oxide . On comparing them side by side , the only common peculiarity is the fact of there being numerous absorption-bands distributed over a large part of the spectrum , but they do not correspond in either number or position . On the contrary , they differ almost as much as possible , and the darker bands in the spectrum of this zirconia compound occur where the transmitted light is the brightest in other cases . The oxide of uranium is so easily reduced at a high temperature to the state of protoxide in a borax-bead , with excess of boric acid , and is so readily peroxidized at a dull-red heat , when crystallized along with borate of zirconia , that there seemed good reason to refer the change in the spectra to temperature rather than to the state of oxidization , until after it was found that they were due to uranium . By gently flaming the crystalline bead , the spectrum is entirely altered , and becomes like No. 6 , which seems to be characteristic of a compound of borate of zirconia with uranic oxide . This gives a spectrum with five well-marked absorption-bands , all of which occur at the red end , where no trace of bands exists in the case of ordinary salts , as will be seen on comparing it with Nos. 1 , 2 , and 3 . I have tried many experiments in order to ascertain whether any other element besides zirconia will cause uranium to give similar abnormal spectra , but none show anything of the kind , at all events in similar conditions . A few have special characters , as described below , but the majority exert little or no influence ; and even when the blowpipe-beads are crystalline , they show only the usual spectra of the oxides of uranium . Moreover no such great change in the character of the spectra of any other elements which give absorption-bands is to be seen when they are combined with zirconia ; and , as far as my present experience goes , it seems as if such very abnormal spectra were met with only in the case of these remarkable compounds of zirconia with the oxides of uranium . Such , then , being the facts , it appears to me that we are now in a position to explain why certain zircons give three different spectra , as described in my former paper . Some jargons ( usually those of a green tint ) contain a little uranium so combined that the characteristic spectrum is only faintly visible , whereas , after ignition , the intensity of the absorption-bands is permanently increased to a variable extent , occasionally only a little , but in some cases as much as twenty-five times . This more powerful action on light is accompanied by an increase in hardness and in specific gravity ( sometimes as much as from 4'20 to 4'60 ) , as described in my former paper ; and I have since found that these changes are approximately proportional to the amount of uranic oxide in the various specimens , as shown by comparing the spectra of the blowpipe-beads . This change may partly depend on the oxidization of the uranous oxide , since some specimens slightly increase in weight when ignited ; but I think it cannot be mainly due to that ; for sometimes there is no such increase , and uranous oxide combined with zirconia gives rise , not to a spectrum without bands , but to one with several of very marked character , as described below . On the whole , since this abnormal type of spectrum is so characteristic of combination with zirconia , it appears to me more probable that the effect of a high temperature is to cause the uranic oxide to combine more specially with the zirconia , as though the greater part existed naturally as a silicate , but after ignition as a zirconiate . We may also apply the same explanation in the case of zircons more or less strongly coloured by other oxides , which become almost colourless when heated , and thus this unexplained peculiarity of zircons may depend on the fact of zirconia being able to play the part of both a base and an acid , which , as compared with silica , has an affinity for bases varying according to the temperature . The brown-red zircon from Ceylon , named at page 514 of my former paper , kindly presented to me by Mr. E. L. M3itford , of Rusthall , gives a spectrum precisely like that of the borax blowpipe-beads crystallized after treatment in the deoxidizing flame , and therefore no doubt contains uranous oxide . This spectrum being given by only one part of the crystal , probably depended upon the presence of some substance which either reduced the uranic oxide or prevented the oxidization of the uranous . These facts thus clearly show that the various spectra which seemed to indicate the presence of a new element existing in three different physical conditions , are in reality only characteristic of the two oxides of uranium combined with zirconia , or not in combination . Perhaps some may think that my having been thus led astray shows that little or no reliance can be placed on the method of investigation employed ; but I contend that the mistake was due to its being such an unexpectedly delicate test for uranium ; and , as explained above , the error was ultimately corrected by a further development of the same method . As far as the interests of science are concerned , there is no need to regret the general result . We have lost what appeared to be good evidence of a new earth , but have gained an almost entirely new system of blowpipe testing , which enables us to detect such a minute quantity of some substances as could not be recognized by the ordinary means . I shall not now attempt to give anything like a full account of this subject , since it would be much better to let it form part of a paper on various improvements in blowpipe chemistry , but will merely mention a few facts which have a special bearing on the question before us . In the first place , I would say that zirconia and the oxides of uranium are most useful reagents in detecting the presence of certain substances with which they unite to form compounds having very special characters . The most striking of these are the compounds already described , which are distinguished by the spectra , and not by any well-marked colour , the compound of ceric oxide with uranic oxide , which is of a splendid deep blue colour , but shows no absorption-bands ; and that of yttria with uranic oxide , which is characterized by a deep orange-colour and extreme fusibility . Thorina and oxide of lanthanum form with uranous oxide compounds which give spectra with absorption-bands in special positions , but of the usual type , and not of such a marked character as to be useful in detecting minute quantities of those substances in mixtures . In order to see the spectra of the zirconium-uranium compounds , it is requisite that both elements should be combined in a crystalline condition . When both constituents are melted in borax and are held in solution , or if when crystals are deposited any other substance replaces either the zirconia or the oxides of uranium , the characteristic spectra cannot be seen . The most simple application of this test for uranium is in the case of various zircons . As much of the powdered mineral as will dissolve should be melted with borax in a circular loop of platinum wire about I inch in diameter , so as to give a bead of moderate thickness . A little boric acid should then be added , which not only tends to keep the uranium in the state of protoxide , but also facilitates the crystallization of the borate of zirconia , which is far less soluble when there is excess of boric acid . The bead should then be kept at a bright red heat , just within the deoxidizing flame , until so much borax has been volatilized that small needle-shaped crystals begin to be 1870 . ] 203 deposited , when it must be allowed to cool rapidly . It should then be transparent with scattered crystals , and the uranium all in the state of protoxide . On gently reheating it , the bead ought to suddenly turn white and almost opaque ; and care must be taken not to heat it any more than is just requisite to cause the borate to crystallize out , or else the uranium will rapidly pass into the state of peroxide . Such beads must be examined by strong direct light from the sun , or from a lamp of very great brilliancy , condensed on them by means of an almost hemispherical lens of about inch focal length ; and in addition to the means described in my former paper , I have since found it very convenient to place them over a hole in a black card , so as to entirely prevent the passage of any light which has not penetrated through them , even when so arranged in the focus of the microscope that the spectrum of their thin edges may be examined , if the centre be too thick and opaque . If thus properly prepared , the presence of more or less uranium will be shown by the greater or less intensity of the absorption-bands of the spectrum described and shown in fig. 1 of my former paper . This test is so delicate that there is no difficulty in seeing the darker band in the green in the case of zircons which contain no more than -1 per cent. of uranic oxide ; and I find that very few localities yield this mineral so free from it that it cannot be easily detected . Those from Miask , Siberia , are the only specimens in which I have not been able to recognize it . The jargons from Ceylon contain an amount varying up to about 1 per cent. , although in no published analysis that I have seen is there any allusion to the presence of even a trace . It has also been overlooked in several other cases ; and it now becomes important , because it gives rise to various well-defined spectra , which are so characteristic of the different minerals , that they can be very conveniently identified , even when cut and mounted as jewels , by means of the number and position of the absorption-bands , as I intend to explain in a paper on the spectra of minerals . On flaming the bead at a moderate red heat , the protoxide passes into the peroxide , and the spectrum No. 6 , given above , may be seen , if sufficient oxide be present , but considerably more is required than in the case of the protoxide . I may here say that the examination of better preparations has enabled me to detect another distinct band in the extreme red , not shown in fig. 2 of my former paper , and also an additional faint band in the blue , not shown in fig. 1 . In applying this test to detect minute quantities of uranium in other minerals , it is requisite to bear in mind that zirconia may play the part of both an acid and a base , and that various oxides and acids so combine with the zirconia or with the oxides of uranium as to prevent the formation of the compounds which give rise to the characteristic spectra . The zirconia appears to combine with some rather than with the uranous oxide , and with others rather than with the uranic , so that , if one spectrum cannotbe obtained , the other may ; and there are few , if any , cases when neither can be seen , especially if care be taken to use excess of zirconia . If , however , the amount of uranium be very small , and so much of other oxides be present as to make the bead very dark , or too opaque from deposited crystals , before it is sufficiently concentrated for the compounds with the oxides of uranium to crystallize out , it may be impossible to detect it . In order to apply the test in the case of complex minerals , a bead of borax , boric acid , and pure zirconia should be prepared , then a small quantity of the mineral added , and , after fusion and sufficient concentration , the bead made to crystallize in the manner already described . If needleshaped crystals be not deposited in the bead when very hot , and if it do not suddenly turn opaque when reheated , the result may not be satisfactory . In this manner it is easy to detect uranium in --o0 grain of such minerals as Fergusonite , tyrite , and yttrotantalite , even when they contain no more than 1 or 2 per cent. If in such cases the spectrum of the uranous compound cannot be obtained , the bead should always be flamed and reexamined , to see if that of the uranic compound is thereby developed . In a similar manner we may make use of a little oxide of uranium to detect zirconia ; but the test is far less delicate than the converse , because it is almost impossible to obtain the compound in a crystalline state , unless there be an excess of zirconia . Not more than T-1I- , grain of uranic oxide should be employed , or the bead may be too opaque . There is no difficulty in thus detecting zirconia in zircons , or in katapleiit ; but the presence of so much of other bases in minerals like eudialyte prevents our obtaining a satisfactory result . There certainly could not be a more characteristic test to confirm the results of other methods , or to identify such a small quantity of approximately pure zirconia as could not easily be distinguished in any other way . The only other compound of uranic oxide of very abnormal character which I have so far discovered is that with cericic oxide . So much of both oxides should be fused with borax in the oxidizing flame as will yield a bead which is perfectly clear , and of pale yellow colour when rapidly cooled , but crystallizes when gently reheated . If the constituents be present in a certain proportion , it then turns from pale yellow to a deep blue , as though coloured by oxide of cobalt . In mos cases the bead is rendered nearly opaque by the number of crystals ; but sometimes , though it turns deep blue , it remains transparent , owing to the compound being set free in a state similar to that of the red oxide of copper in a borax blowpipe-bead , with carbonate of soda and oxide of tin , treated in the reducing flame . The spectrum of these blue beads shows no absorption-bands , but merely a general absorption at the red end ; and it is curious to find that the combination of two yellow substances gives rise to a deep blue , in much the same manner as when the yellow ferrocyanide of potassium is added to a yellow ferric salt . The production of this blue colour on the addition of a little uranic oxide might be employed with advantage to identify moderately small quantities of cerium , even when mixed with a number of other 1870 . ] 205 substances ; but unfortunately the presence of much oxide of lanthanum , which is so commonly associated with it , interferes , as though the eerie oxide had a stronger affinity for the oxide of lanthanum than for uranic oxide . The most characteristic peculiarity of the compound of yttria and uranic oxide is that it will not crystallize out from a borax blowpipe-bead , and that the affinity of the uranic oxide for yttria is stronger than for zirconia . Perhaps erbia may prove to act in the same way , but I have not been able to examine that earth quite free from yttria . On adding yttria to a bead with zirconia and a little uranic oxide , and gently flaming it in the oxidizing flame , the uranic oxide combines with the yttria and rises to the surface as an orange-coloured scum , which has a great tendency to collect on the platinum wire ; and if sufficient yttria be added , the crystallized borate of zirconia is left in the interior almost colourless , and so free from uranic oxide that no absorption-bands can be seen in the spectrum . We may take advantage of this circumstance to detect yttria in small quantities of compound minerals like Gadolinite and Fergusonite ; and I may here say that by combining such means with the observation of the spectra of the transparent or crystalline beads , and of the form of the crystals when slowly deposited , with or without the addition of suitable reagents * , we may often detect twice as many constituents in minerals as could be accomplished by the ordinary methods of blowpipe chemistry-an advantage which I am sure will be appreciated by those engaged in the study of rocks , when it is often so important to obtain satisfactory results with small quantities of material . I have also found these methods of great practical use in examining small residues in the qualitative analysis of minerals , and have thus unexpectedly discovered small quantities of comparatively rare elements . I have tried the effect of many other substances along with zirconia and the oxides of uranium , and find that most of them have no sensible influence , unless they are present in considerable relative quantity . The most striking effect is that of oxide of tin , which causes the two absorption-bands in the yellow and yellow end of the green in the spectrum of the uranous oxide compound to be nearly equally dark , whereas without the oxide of tin that in the yellow is comparatively faint . This is another illustration of the manner in which certain substances , having no special action on light , influence by their presence the properties of another . The oxides of uranium are unusually sensitive to such actions , and thus not only lend themselves to us as blowpipe-reagents , but also seem more than any others to afford the means of explaining the relation between the physical conditions of compounds and their action on light . The only compound of zirconia with any other oxide to which I need now draw attention is that with chromic oxide , as deposited from a borax blowpipe-bead . After treatment in the deoxidizing flame , when the cooled very pale-green bead is gently reheated , this compound crystallizes out so as to give a fine red-pink colour by transmitted light , even when so little chromium is present that the glassy bead is scarcely at all green . If too strongly heated the pink tint is lost . This compound is of interest in connexion with the colour of rubies and other minerals coloured red by chromic oxide . To others , like the emerald , it imparts a green colour , and on the whole it acts on light in such a variable manner according to the presence of other substances , that the spectra may be made use of as a means of identifying particular minerals , though they do not present anything like such striking anomalies as those met with in the compounds of zirconia with the oxides of uranium .

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3701662

On the Mathematical Theory of Stream-Lines, Especially Those with Four Foci and Upwards. [Abstract]

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209

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William John Macquorn Rankine

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/112742

Fluid Dynamics

Biography

Fluid Dynamics

II . " On the Mathematical Theory of Stream-lines , especially those with four Foci and upwards . " By WILLIAM JOIIN MACQUORN RANKINE , C.E. , LL. D. , F.R.SS . Lond. and Edinb . , &c. Received January 1 , 1870 . ( Abstract . ) A Stream-line is the line that is traced by a particle in a current of fluid . In a steady current each individual stream-line preserves its figure and position unchanged , and marks the track of a filament or continuous series of particles that follow each other . The motions in different parts of a steady current may be represented to the eye and to the mind by means of a group of stream-lines . Stream-lines are important in connexion with naval architecture ; for the curves which the particles of water describe relatively to a ship , in moving past her , are stream-lines ; and if the figure of a ship is such that the particles of water glide smoothly over her skin , that figure is a streamline surface , being a surface which contains an indefinite number of stream-lines . The author in a previous paper proposed to call such stream-lines Nreoids ; that is , ship-shape lines . The author refers to previous investigations relating to stream-lines , and especially to those of Mr. Stokes , in the Cambridge Transactions for 1842 and 1850 , on the " Motion of a Liquid past a Solid , " and of Dr. H-oppe , on the " Stream-lines generated by a Sphere , " in the Quarterly Journal of Mathematics for 1856 , and to his own previous papers on " Plane Waterlines in Two Dimensions , " in the Philosophical Transactions for 1864 , and on " Stream-lines , " in the Philosophical Magazine for that year . iHe states that all the neoid or ship-shape stream-lines whose properties have hitherto been investigated in detail are either unifocal or bifocal ; that is to say , they may be conceived to be generated by the combination of a uniform progressive motion , with another motion consisting in a divergence of the particles from a certain point or focus , followed by a convergence either towards the same point or towards a second point . Those which are 207 continuous closed curves when unifocal are circular , and when bifocal are blunt-ended ovals , in which the length may exceed the breadth in any giveil proportions . To obtain a unifocal or bifocal neoid resembling a longitudinal line of a ship with sharp ends , it is necessary to take a part only of , stream-line , and then there is discontinuity of form and of motion at each of the two ends of that line . The author states that the occasion of the investigation described in the present paper was the communication to him by Mr. William Froude of some results of experiments of his on the resistance of model boats , of lengths ranging from three to twelve feet . A summary of those results is printed at the end of a Report to the British Association on the " State of Existing Knowledge of the Qualities of Ships . " In each case two models were compared together of equal displacement and equal length ; the water-line of one was a wave-line with fine sharp enlds , that of the other had blunt rounded ends , each joined to the midship body by a slightly hollow neck-a form suggested , Mr. Froude states , by the appearance of water-birds when swimming . At low velocities , the resistance of the sharp-ended boat was the smaller ; at a certain velocity , bearing a definite relation to the length of the model , the resistances became equal , and at higher velocities the round-ended model had a rapidly increasing advantage over the sharpended model . Hence it appeared to the author to be desirable to investigate the mathematical properties of stream-lines resembling the water-lines of Mr. Froude 's bird-like models ; and he has found that endless varieties of such forms , all closed curves free from discontinuity of form and of motion , may be obtained by usingfour foci instead of two . They may be called from this property quadrifocal stream-lines , or , from the idea that suggested such shapes to Mr. Froude , cycno'ds ; that is , swan-like lines* . Those lines are not to be confounded with the lines of a yacht having at a distance the appearance of a swan , which was designed and built some years ago by Mr. Peacock , for the figure of that vessel is simply oval . The paper contains four chapters . The first three are mainly cinematical and geometrical , and relate to the forms of stream-line surfaces in two and in three dimensions , especially those with more than one pair of foci and surfaces of revolution , to the methods of constructing graphically and without calculation , by means of processes first applied to lines of magnetic force by Mr. Clerk Maxwell , the traces of such surfaces , which methods are exemplified by diagrams drawn to scale , and to the motions of the particles of liquid past those surfaces . The fourth chapter is dynamical : it treats of the momentum and of the energy of the disturbance in the liquid , caused by the progressive motion of a solid that is bounded by a ship-shape stream-line surface of any figure whatsoever ; of the ratio borne by the total energy of the disturbance in the liquid to that of the disturbing body when that body displaces a mass of liquid equal to its own mas , K UVKvoCtBS . , 208 [ Feb. 1%0 which ratio ranges in different cases from to I ; of the acceleration and retardation of ships as affected by the disturbance in the water , and especially of the use of experiments on the retardation of ships in finding their resistance ; and of the disturbances of pressure which accompany the disturbances of motion in the liquid . Up to this point the dynamical principles arrived at in the fourth chapter are certain and exact , like the geometrical and cinematic principles in the three preceding chapters . The results obtained in the remainder of the fourth chapter are in some respects approximate and conjectural , and are to a great extent designed to suggest plans for future experiments , and rules for their reduction . These results relate to the disturbances of level which accompany the disturbances of motion when the liquid has a free upper surface , to the waves which originate in those disturbances of level , and the action of those waves in dispersing energy and so causing resistance to the motion of the vessel , to friction , or skin-resistance , and the " wake " or following current which that kind of resistance causes the disturbing solid body to drag behind it , and to the action of propelling instruments in overcoming different kinds of resistance . The resistance caused by viscosity is not treated of , because its laws have been completely investigated by Mr. Stokes , and because for bodies of the size , of ships , and moving at their ordinary velocities , that kind of resistance is inconsiderable compared with skin-resistance and wave-resistance . The resistance caused by discontinuity of figure is stated to be analogous in its effects to friction , but it is not investigated in detail , because ships ought not to be built of discontinuous ( commonly called " unfair " ) figures . SUPPLEM : ENT . Received January 8 , 1870 . The allthor in the first place calls attention to the agreement between the position of the points at which there is no disturbance of the pressure on the surface of a sphere , as deduced from Dr. Hoppe 's investigation , published in 1856 ( Quarterly Journal of Mathematics ) , and on the surface of a short vertical cylinder with a flat bottom , as determined by the experiments of the Rev. E. L. Berthon before 1850 ( Proc. Roy . Soc. vol. v. 1850 ; also Transactions of the Society of Engineers , 6th December , 1869 ) . The theoretical value of the angular distance of those points from the foremost pole of the sphere is sin-l 3=41 ? ? 49 ' ; the value deduced from experiment is 41 ? ? 30 ' . The author then adds some remarks on a suggestion made by AMr William Froude , that the wave-resistance of a ship is diminished when two series of waves originating at different points of her surface partially neutralize each other by interference ; and states that , with regard to this and many other questions of the resistance of vessels , a great advancement of knowledge is to be expected from the publication in detail of the results of experiments on which Mr. Froude has long beenr engaged .

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On Linear Differential Equations.--No. II

210

212

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. H. L. Russell

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10.1098/rspl.1869.0050

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112743

Formulae

Tables

Mathematics

III . " On Linear Differential Equations."--No . It . By W. H. L. RUSSELL , F.R.S. Received January 20 , 1870 , being made up of two Papers received December 30 , 1869 , and January 6 , 1870 . The principles laid down in my former paper will enable us to integrate a proposed differential equation , when the solution can be expressed in the P form e ' , where P , Q , w are rational and entire functions of ( x ) . Let ( ao + aiX + Z , x2 + , + ant 3 dn , ym ) + dx " ( O+o +a2 + ... + ? , + xm ) d-y + d7t lie ( o , +/ 3 +3 + ... +~~m )a+ dn-'2y ( yo+ YI3+ '2x+. . +y^ ' 'm ) d.l'-2 + +(Xo+X +x2x++. . +Xm , x)y=O be the general linear differential equation of the nth order , where none of the indices of ( x ) in the coefficients of the succeeding terms are greater than those in the coefficients of the two first . Then if the equation admit of a solution of the form -/ J( ) d , where oq(x ) , 02(x ) are rational and entire functions of x , and 0k(x ) and a+ ax ... +acxm have no factors in common , and if the degree of the coefficients of the two first terms is the same , y=E(x ) e-JPd where p is a reot of the equation pn"m--pn-I3mPn-2ym ... X 0 ; and if a , = O , -fdE lm-1 Um n2m X-1 y=E(x)rs 2 +am _1i and if am , = a , = 0 , y=E(x ) -rd 3m-2 Ym am-3m 3m am-43m +ml Mn m-3m ) m+ n ' 2n _fd m-2 Am 2a a2 am2 a_2 m-2 m-2 _m n--2 and so on , where the value of y is to be substituted in the proposed equation , which then becomes a linear equation to determine the rational and entire function E(x ) . When , however , am=/ Pm= , or , in other words , when the degree of the coefficients of the succeeding terms of the proposed equation exceeds the degree of the coefficients of the two first , some modification is required ; thus if Y y(a + die ( a +P : ) d+ ( ac ++ P+ ( +"+ r+ 'Y Y+ ( +PX1F+ ItI + +ZX)d +(a " +13"'x+ y"'2 + B " ' " 3 + rx+ I"'x')y = 0 , y=E(S)e-vMf { " r6r ll " L +X'3 } where E(x ) is to be determined as before . But now let Opx and , + ax + o , x ? + ... a^ , ,x " have factors in common . We have the two equations , P ___ PQ die Q'-PQ+Pw ' , qsx l=~ ; dx dx hence , since 2_ is a fraction in the lowest terms , any common factors of qix f1x and ao0+ ax + ... + mxm must be factors of P or Q ; hence if x-a be one of the factors of ao+a , + ... + CXmm , we may ascertain if it is a factor of P and Q by putting in the proposed differential equation y=An(x-a)m+Am+ , ( x-a)m+l +Am+2(-a)m+2+ ... , and shall thus obtain an equation to determine the index ( nm ) ; and we must treat the other factors of ao+aL ++ x a+ ... a , ,xm in the same way , and thus ascertain those which are also factors of P and Q. I shall illustrate these remarks by applying them to the well-known differential equation d2u i(i ? +l ) 2u u ( fu = O* dx2 X'2 We have 2d-u i(i + )u-qu=O . dLe I , et u= Ax + Bx+ ' + Cx+-2+ ... Substituting p/ ( tt-l)-i(i+l)=0 , whence t=-i ; putting then u d"z . dz 2 0 ; d2c dx P hence z=E(x ) eq ' , if the equation can be integrated in the form y= Qe , which gives us d2E dE Putting E(x)==a-a + ax + +. . we have m(m-2i1)m+ 2q(m-i1 )am= 0 , s which determines the function E(x ) , a rational and entire function of the ith degree . I conclude this paper with a proposition of much importance in the theory of linear differential equations , Let d2J_y dn-'y d'2y nx ~ +%n1 IX-_cx +d %_2xdx ; +..* ? + ? oy=O be any linear differential equatidn . Then in general this equation will not admit a solution of the form y=f(e ' ) . For then , putting for ( x ) successively x+ 27ri , x-47ri ... , we should have J d'A ' ) ? 2n-2/ lp^ ( ) +d ` ! f(e ) d1n-1J( , X ) dnd ( x2 ) -"dx+ _n-lx dxr-l + z-2Xd-+ ... =0 , dlnf(E i ) dn-1f(px ) / /7( ? -+2n a on-l ( x + 2i ) 1 , 1 + ' " =0 , pn( +4 47i)d ? ^ +qn-1( x+47r.i ) d +..=0 . And these equations can be indefinitely continued . It will be observed p u. that this solution does not comprise integrals of the form ev , where is a rational function .

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3701662

On a Distinct form of Transient Hemiopsia. [Abstract]

212

216

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Hubert Airy

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112744

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112744

Optics

Biology 2

Optics

I. " On a distinct form of Transient Hemiopsia . " By ITUBERT AIRY , M.A. , M.D. Communicated by the Astronomer Royal . Received January 6 , 1870 . ( Abstract . ) From a comparison of the different accounts of " I emiopsia , " " Halfvision , " or " I-alf-blindness , " given by Dr. Wollaston ( Phil. Trans. 1824 , p. 222 ) , M. Arago ( Annals de Chimie et de Physique , tom . xxvii . p. 102 ) , Sir David Brewster ( Phil. Mag. 1865 , vol. i. p. 503 , and Transactions of Royal Society of Edinburgh , vol. xxiv . part 1 ) , the Astronomer Royal ( Phil. Mag. July 1865 , vol. ii . p. 19 ) , Professor Dufour ( in a letter to the Astronomer Royal ) ; Sir John Herschel ( Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects , p. 406 , Lecture IX . , and private letters ) , Sir CharlesWheatstone ( in a private letter ) , Mr. Tyrrell ( On the Diseases of the Eye , 1840 , vol. ii . p. 231 ) , and the author of this paper , it is plain that there are different forms of transient Hemiopsia , irrespective of the wide primary distinction [ F eb . 17 , 21 between the transient and permanent forms , which have all been included under the same name Hemiopia or Hemiopsia . It seems that Wollaston , Arago , Brewster , and Tyrrell are describing one form of the transient affection , while Sir John Herschel , Sir Charles Wheatstone , the Astronomer Royal , Professor Dufour , and the author agree in describing another . In the experience of the former group , the limits of the blind region , as projected on the field of view , are ill-defined ; there is no variety of colour , and the progress of the disease presents no remarkable features . In the latter group , the blind region is at first very small , and gradually spreads outwards , to left or right , with a zigzag margin of bright and dark lines , tinged in most cases with various colours , -clear vision gradually returning in the centre and following the outward advance of the curved cloud ; usually the blindness occupies only one lateral half of the field of view ; but in one very remarkable instance recorded by Sir John Herschel , the course of the cloud was from the extreme left to the extreme right , sweeping over the whole of the visual area . Possibly the gap between these two forms may be filled by connecting links , as further evidence arises , and it may be found that they differ only in degree of prominence of different features . The remarkable account given by Sir Charles Wheatstone ( who has kindly given permission for its publication ) , where the zigzag luminous lines are strongly marked , but without colour , perhaps offers the first link in the connecting chain . The author 's experience dates from 1854 . Since then he has repeatedly suffered from these attacks . The circumstances and features of the complaint have varied somewhat in different attacks , but the type has remained unaltered from that time to this . The blindness comes on usually while the eves are engaged in toilsome reading : some word or letter on the page near the sight-point ( generally below to the left ) is found to be obliterated ; this germ of blindness slowly spreads , with zigzag margin , defined by alternate bright and dark lines , with gleams of colour , the margin rapidly trembling and slowly rolling at the same time . These three orders of motion , ( 1 ) gradual outward growth of the whole , ( 2 ) slow rolling of parts , ( 3 ) rapid tremor of the margin , are especially characteristic of this affection . The region of blindness takes a horseshoe shape ; the upper arm points to the centre of sight , while the lower spreads downwards and outwards away from the centre . The zigzag pattern is minute near the centre , and grows larger the further it recedes . The gleams of colour , most conspicuous at the margin , are red and blue , yellow , green , orange , in order of frequency . As the blindness spreads outwards , clear vision returns gradually in the concavity of the horseshoe . The sight of both eyes is affected at once , exactly in the same manner and in the same degree ; though naturally that eye seems most affected which corresponds to the obliterated side of the field of view , because the nasal half of the field of view of either eye is more limited , and vision there is less distinct than on the temporal side . Looking at any surface of uniform colour , the cloud partakes of the general hue of the field on which it lies , and shows little that is characteristic exceptits bright margin , tremor , and boiling . Against bright light a faint shadowy curved cloud is seen , with bright margin , tremor and boiling , and slight colour . Against dark shade the cloud is seen to show faint light . When part of the cloud is seen against dark shade and part against bright light , the boundary between the light and shade is wholly obliterated . Viewed in the dark , the cloud presents inherent luminosity , especially at the margin . Its various colours are seen as well in dark as in light . The cloud spreads outwards in horseshoe shape till it reaches the outskirts of the field of view , and fades away after great boiling and turbulence . The lower arm is the first to fade , then the middle , and finally the upper arm , which remains pointing to the centre of the field to the very last . The climax is reached in about twenty-five minutes from the first beginning . The whole duration of the attack is just half an hour . Often , midway in the attack , a fresh germ of blindness arises near the birthplace of the first , but always proves abortive unless it takes root on the opposite side , when a second attack may develope itself immediately after the first . This half-bindness is followed by oppressive headache , lasting many hours . From the resemblance of the angular margin of the cloud to a fortified wall " with salient and reentering angles , bastions , and ravelins " ( to use Sir John HIerschel 's words ) , the author ventures to suggest the name Teichopsia for this striking form of transient half-blindness . Among the circumstances that have seemed to favour an attack may be mentioned sudden change of air and living , over-exercise , and insufficient sleep . The attack has sometimes been nocturnal . The most usual position of the germ of blindness is 3 ? or 4 ? below , and 3 ? or 4 ? to the left of the centre of vision . In one or two cases , after reaching a certain stage , the cloud has parted in the middle , and died away without ripening . The cloud , whether developed in the right or the left half of the field , has never ( the author believes ) transgressed the vertical median line . Lately , one or two attacks have been followed by a slight disturbance of hearing . Of three cases coming under the author 's immediate observation , in one these attacks have been very frequent , from an early age to middle life . The bastioned outline is always present , with more or less colour . Formerly the attendant headache used to be very severe , accompanied with prolonged vomiting . Latterly the blindness has been more oppressive than the headache , and its advent greatly dreaded . The speech is often affected , and sometimes the memory ; and on one occasion the mouth was noticed to be drawn to one side . The cause has seemed to be mental anxiety . In the second case , which is adduced for the sake of contrast , the phenomena are much less definite . There is no serrated margin , no colour , no curve , nothing of which a picture can be made . The obscurity grows from a small but ill-defined germ , and gathers like a cloudy film or gauze over the field , oppressive to the eyes , and accompanied by headache and nausea , and passes away after a doubtful period , leaving the impression that it is caused by disorder of the stomach . In the third case , the blindness is sometimes brought on by looking at a striped wall-paper or a striped dress . The appearance before the eyes is described as zigzag , wavy , quivering , without colour . The first attack , in adult age , was followed by partial paralysis of one side , and later attacks have almost always had a sequel of defective speech , and tingling at the tip of the tongue , at the tip of the nose , and in the fingers and thumb . At any rate it is certain that there does exist a distinct form of transient hemiopsia , presenting the following main characteristics:1 . Dependence on mental anxiety , bodily exhaustion , overwork to the eyes , gastric derangement ( ? ) , want of exercise . 2 . Origin from a small germ near the centre of vision . 3 . Orderly centrifugal growth from the original germ . 4 . Blindness to boundaries , but not to general impressions of light and colour . 5 . Proper luminosity in the dark . 6 . Bright-bastioned margin , with gleams of various colours . 7 . Tremor and " boiling . " 8 . Gradual occupation of one lateral half of the field of view . 9 . Gradual recovery of clear vision in rear of the outward-growing cloud . 10 . Disappearance of the phenomenon after about half an hour . 11 . Sequelae : headache and nausea , and sometimes affection of speech and hearing , and even symptoms of hemiplegia . As to the actual seat of the visual derangement , the exact agreement of the two eyes in the nature , extent , and degree of their affection proves ( assuming the semidecussation of the optic nerves at the chiasma ) that the seat of the affection must lie at some point behind the chiasma of these nerves . All the causes that are found to lead to transient halfblindness point to the brain as the seat of disturbance . Still clearer is the evidence given by the loss of speech and of memory , the derangement of hearing , and the partial paralysis that sometimes follow an attack of teichopsia . Such cases as Sir John Herschel 's , where the cloud passed over the whole field from left to right , can only be explained by supposing the disturbance to lie in some region of the brain where the opposite halves are in contact . The mischief may possibly be seated in the corpora quadrigemina or geniculata , or even in the cerebellum itself . As to the nature of the mischief in the brain , it is difficult to do more than hazard guesses . Is it a temporary suspension of function among the nerve-cells of the visual sensorium , due to vascular congestion , and relieved by the relief of that congestion ? Does the headache tell of the further propagation of the nervous disturbance into parts of the brain where disturbance is ache , as in the visual tract disturbance is abnormal sensation of light ? And the detriment to speech and hearing , -does it mean extension of the same disturbance still further into the regions of brain-substance appropriate to those functions ? Or is the attack in any way analogous to a fit of epilepsy ? The phenomena are so definite and so localized , and their course is so regular , that we can hardly avoid the conviction that their cause is equally definite and equally localized ; and it is difficult to admit so vague al agent as nervous sympathy with gastric derangement , except as acting through the medium of some secondary local manifestation in the brain .

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3701662

Account of the Great Melbourne Telescope from April 1868 to Its Commencement of Operations in Australia in 1869

216

222

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Albert Le Sueur

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10.1098/rspl.1869.0052

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112745

Measurement

Astronomy

Measurement

II . " Account of the Great Melbourne Telescope from April 1868 to its commencement of operations in Australia in 1869 . " By ALBERT LE SUEUR . Received January 8 , 1870 . Communicated by the President . A description of the great Melbourne reflector , and its history , up to the time of inspection by the Committee , have been communicated to the Royal Society ; the following additional account of the doings connected therewith since the instrument was consigned to my care may be of interest to the Society . Mr. Grubb commenced taking down the telescope at the end of April 1868 ; this was accomplished in no great length of time , and without any difficulty . The specula ( by the advice of Mr. Lassell , who had found this method answer perfectly ) were coated over with shellac varnish to prevent oxidation on the voyage out ; they were then protected in their cells and on their lever supports by strong double wood casings , and the other parts of the telescope and machinery cased or otherwise protected . The only casualty which there seemed to be any reason to fear could give rise to any serious consequences was a tilting over of the speculum cases ; their great weight was , perhaps , a sufficient guarantee from such an event : it was nevertheless thought prudent that the telescope , and machinery generally , should not be left entirely to the tender mercies of the shipping and crane labourers I was therefore present at the shipping in Dublin on board a steam-tug hired for the purpose , and at the transshipment in Liverpool , on board the 'Empress of the Seas . ' Both these operations were performed satisfactorily , and withlout any serious casualty . 216 Mr. A. Le Sueur on the [ Feb. 17 , The ' Empress of the Seas ' sailed from Liverpool on the 17th or 18th of July ; I followed by the August Overland Mail . On my arrival in Melbourne I found that , beyond the selection of a site in the Observatory grounds , nothing had yet been done towards the erection of piers or building ; this was principally owing to the fact that Mr. Ellery and the Board of Visitors had not considered the information which they possessed sufficiently definite to warrant their placing the matter in the hands of the Works Department ; it had therefore been thought advisable to await my arrival . Some necessary modifications having been made in the drawings , the construction of the piers was soon proceeded with , and satisfactorily terminated at the beginning of this year . In the mean time the ' Empress of the Seas , ' with her precious cargo , had arrived , after a very long voyage , which for some time was the cause of much uneasiness ; parts of the instrument were unpacked and temporarily housed : the whole appeared in fair order ; there was certainly no material damage done to anything . Arrangements being in progress for the erection of a suitable building , it was thought advisable to delay mounting the telescope until part of the building was constructed ; little therefore was done for some time beyond setting up , as accurately as possible , the plumrmer-blocks which contain the polar axis bearings . The building was commenced early in the year , and when it was thought that sufficient progress had been made , the crane which had been used in the erection of the piers was removed to a more convenient position , and the various heavy parts of the instrument lifted on to the floor of the telescope-room , over the walls or through a gap left for that purpose , and , for convenience in after operations , in the north wall and north end of the west wall . The mounting was then proceeded with , and satisfactorily accomplished in little more than a week , as regards the main parts , without much difficulty . Attempts were made on one or two occasions to use the instrument for adjustment and observation , but it was found that the dust ( a dreadful enemy in the summer ) and the grit caused by the building accumulated to such an extent as to lead to fear of considerable damage to the bearings and more delicate parts of the machinery ; it was therefore deemed prudent to cover up the telescope as well as possible with tarpaulins , and leave it in that state for some time . The building is rectangular , 80 feet long meridionally by 25 wide , with walls 11 feet high . Of the meridional length the telescope-room occupies the north 40 feet ; the next 12 feet are appropriated to the polishing-machine , crane , and engine ; the remaining 28 feet are divided into two rooms , one of which is at present used as an office , the other , 25 by 14 , is intended R2 1870 . ] 217 for a laboratory . The moveable roof is 40 feet long , and runs on rails laid the whole length of the walls ; the telescope-room may therefore be completely covered in , and as completely uncovered when required , the roof in the latter case resting on the south building , which on that account has a very low permanent roof . The roof is constructed of six triangular wrought-iron principals , crossbraced , which abut at each side on a broad horizontal plate formed of two parallel lengths of stout angle-iron , connected at various points by iron bands ; for additional strength , a broad vertical plate is bolted to the outer angle-iron piece . There are four pairs of wheels , 26 inches in diameter , flanched on the inside ; these lie along the middle of the horizontal plate , the journals being bolted to the angle-iron pieces which form the plate . The roof is covered with galvanized corrugated iron ; it is therefore on the whole a somewhat heavy affair . The mechanical arrangements for moving are , however , simple and effective ; a stout iron shaft runs across the building , and gears by wheel and pinion on the axles of the two south end wheels ; to this shaft is fixed a spoked hand-wheel , by means of which the operator readily sets the roof in motion , and standing on a small platform connected therewith , is himself carried along at the same time . The design of the roof is due to Mr. Merrett , of the Works department . On the whole , there is much to be said in favour of this rectangular form of roof : the temperature even in this climate frequently descends too low to be pleasant ; but the occasional bodily inconvenience produced thereby is more than counterbalanced by perfect freedom to the observer , and the gratification of knowing that the instrument is in the best possible conditions for satisfactory performance . Only one really serious annoyance have I found connected with complete exposure ; I allude to occasional heavy dew rendering it almost impracticable to use the sketching and other papers , the speculum meanwhile remaining free from deposit if precaution is taken not to work at too great an altitude . The telescope , when housed , lies meridionally on the east side of the pier , and nearly in a horizontal direction , provision having been made to prevent the tube being lowered beyond a certain small inclination . The piers are in keeping with the massiveness of the instrument ; they are constructed of large , not to say huge blocks of basalt axed to a fine surface , altogether a substantial and beautiful piece of work . The height of the walls with reference to the piers is such that very little of the sky range is curtailed . The north wall cuts off objects having a lesser altitude than about 100 . When resting on the east or west walls the telescope is nearly horizontal ; in both these directions trees interfere , especially on the west side , where the ground rises . This curtailment will probably be a matter of very small importance , as with a four-feet aperture observations at low altitudes are almost impracticable , and would probably never have to be resorted to except in the case of comets . The roof itself cuts off some of the range near the subpolar meridian ; this , again , is not likely to be of much consequence . The steam-engine , polishing-machine , and crane have been mounted in the room devoted to them ; this room adjoins and is on the same floor ( raised 4 feet from the ground , and 3 to 6 feet from the floor of the other rooms ) as the telescope-room . To the east end of this machine-room , and communicating therewith , a small lean-to boiler-house has been added ; in the west wall is a window which , when open , will leave sufficient clear space to admit of viewing a distant nearly horizontal object for the purpose of testing the mirrors . The large speculum ( A ) was originally attached to the tube in its varnished condition ; on the first favourable occasion it was taken down and unvarnished-a process which proved more troublesome than had been anticipated . The lac was very refractory , and the difficulty of removal exaggerated by the extreme heat then prevalent ; after a process of solution in alcohol , mopping up , and washing with water frequently repeated , although there seemed no lac which would still dissolve , a large number of markings caused originally by the varnish brush were apparent , and the whole surface had an unpleasant mealy appearance . It was thought , however , that the light lost would not prove serious , and in any case it did not seem that any further operation except polishing would improve matters ; the speculum was therefore remounted and tried ; and although it was of course impossible to say what would have been the effect of a more perfect polish , the views given of the brighter nebule were grand in the extreme , and left nothing to be desired . By degrees , however , and without much exposure , the surface became more and more tarnished , with evident effect on the performance . In the meantime the second mirror ( B ) had been unvarnished ; in this case naphtha was used as the solvent , the solution moppec ! up , and the surface washed with soap and water . After a frequent repetition of this process , the surface seemed clear of impurities , and though not so bright as I had frequently seen it in Mr. Grubb 's workshop , there were no signs of mealiness , the only unpleasant casualty being a considerable pitting of two patches some two inches square , produced by droppings from the muriate used in soldering the tin cover . These pittings are deep and unsightly ; but the extent of surface corroded is comparatively so small that the effect must be inconsiderable . The specula were exchanged about two months ago , and A put on the machine ; but nothing has yet been done towards repolishing , as the necessary arrangements have not been got together for performing that delicate operation with due convenience . Of work done , I cannot yet speak with any satisfaction since it became at all practicable to use the telescope ; the history which I have to relate is a long chapter of weary heart-breaking watchings , with an occasional half hour 's work . n Argo was the first object observed for purpose of delineation ; after the first night 's work little ( and that by snatches ) was done towards it , a new inroad of workmen and a long course of extremely unfavourable weather having carried the nebula out of convenient reach . The search , which was reluctantly given up , will , however , be again soon resumed . I enclose two sketches , 4403 and 3570 , of the 1864 catalogue . 4403 . The horseshoe nebula is a grand object , conspicuous and with shape even in the finder ( Plate I. ) . In the sketch the principal stars are laid down from measured position-angles about different centres ; they are not as accurmate as I could wish , and will be reobserved differently under better conditions ; in no case , however , can there be sufficient error to influence in any material degree the configurations of the nebula or the smaller stars sketched in by eye.j It will be seen that the sketch contains considerably more detail than the corresponding figure in Herschel 's Catalogue ; there appears , however , to be no marked difference ( with perhaps one exception ) which may , not be accounted for by the difference of aperture used . The exception to which I allude is the presence of a small but conspicuous double star at the s. p. angle of the knot which lies between the ? 3 and the bright streak ; the experiment has not been tried of cutting down the aperture to approximate to an 18-inch Ilerschelian , but the intrinsic brightness of the principal star , and the presence in the C. G. II . of stars not more bright ( No. 3 of Herschel 's catalogue is certainly less bright ) go far to show , without this experiment , that the star did not exist as such with its present brilliancy at the time of the C. G. I-I . and P. T. 33 observations. . I have not seen Mr. Mason 's drawing , but look forward with much interest to examining it and his remarks thereon . The important position of the star , and the careful scrutiny which the knot and its neighbourhood must have repeatedly undergone , forbid the assumption that it was simply overlooked by Sir John Herschel . TIe star / 3 ( I keep to Sir John Herschel 's numbers and letters ) is conspicuously and beautifully double , the companion of considerable brilliancy , about 15 mag . ; with its present brilliancy and elongation it should , I think , be within reach of an 1 8-inch . The knot is what I presume should be called resolvable ; the appearance is sparkling , though no discrete stars can be seen , except perhaps a second faint one , which is suspected at the s. f. angle . Part of the streak near to the knot is also sparkling , but not in so marked a manner ; the other portions appear of the ordinary milky nebulosity . The fainter nebulosity ( S ) of the bright streak pretty well marks out the borders of the almost vacuous lane which leads up to and past the knot . On receding from the lane it becomes very faint : nor is this faintness uniform ; but the appearances are so fugitive that , after repeated and painful effort , I have been unable to catch them ; the borders , however , stretching to the stars , as in the figure , are occasionally pretty well seen . On one or two occasions I have suspected the existence of a link between the nebulosity about the star No. 10 and the lower portion of the ? 3 ; this , however , requires verification . At the f. end the upper and smaller semicircle is plainly marked , the lower and larger very faint , and consequently its exact figure uncertain ; there is certainly some very faint nebulosity leading through the groups of stars north of the three bright f. end stars , but it has not been added to the sketch on account of its uncertain figure and extreme faintness . 3570 . A small but beautiful spiral . The two brighter knots are resolvable ; the greater brightness of these knots is not particularly shown in Sir John Herschels sketch ( Plate I. ) , but is mentioned in the observations ; the general ground is only slightly nebulous . Of work out of the regular course , amongst other things , Neptune has been observed on some five or six occasions for figure and a second satellite , with only negative results . In the absence of a photographic apparatus to be used at the uninterrupted focus of large mirror , attempts have been made to utilize the 2nd or Cassegrain image ; an average exposure of near ten minutes on an eightday moon produced pictures which ( by no meais good ) were of sufficient promise to make it worth while to resume the attempt under more favourable conditions . The time of exposure is somewhat surprising , and would seem to accuse a great loss of chemical rays by a second perpendicular reflexion ; but perhaps the more legitimate conclusion would be that the inactivity was mainly due to absorption at the surface of the large mirror , which was then very yellow . The spectroscope arrived some time ago , but has not been much used ; it is thought that for star work of any value some modification will be required , principally the exchange of the present collimator for one of longer focal length . A greater dispersion , moreover , seems desirable ; for nebular work , however , for which it was mainly designed , the spectroscope in its present form , which is handy and compact , will be of much service . For spectroscopic work on objects having a sensible diameter , the great telescope itself labours under some disadvantages ; the enormous focal length and consequent magnification of the image is a serious inconvenience in the case of faint objects , and may be only partially remedied by a suitable condenser . This magnifying of the image may , however , in some cases be advantageous : I allude to the possibility thereby afforded of viewing small definite portions of moderately bright objects ; unfortunately the objects with which we have to deal are seldom of such a character . Of nebulme , Orion has been examined for purpose of practice . The three lines are plainly and conspicuously seen ; the hydrogen line is comparatively much fainter than I had anticipated , and disappears in the fainter portions of the nebula . 30 Dorado shows the nitrogen line with facility ; the second line certainly , but not in all positions , and always with difficulty ; the hydrogen line is suspected only . I can see no trace of a con ' tinuous spectrum . Tr Argo has been observed on only one unfavourable morning ; the nitrogen line was seen over a considerable space ; of the presence or absence of others , or of a continuous spectrum , I am unable to speak with certainty . With respect to future operations , it is intended that at first the routine work shall consist of a detailed delineation of the objects figured by Sii John Herschel , or any others which may prove interesting : this will take some time ; for even without the impediment of cloudy weather , thb delineation , with any degree of satisfactory correctness , of a moderately ' large nebula requires a considerable amount of work and careful and frequent scrutiny . It is hoped , however , that this work will by practice be found less painfully difficult than it is at present . The spectroscope will be used as much as possible , the moon photographed , and attempts made to photograph the nebulae , when a photographic apparatus has been procured , and staging , photographic room , &c. added to the building . It is , moreover , hoped that before long a refractor , of some nine inches aperture , may be procured , to be mounted with the reflector , or , preferably , as a separate instrument . This telescope , besides being of much general use , will find much and valuable employment in determining micrometrically the chief points in the nebulae under examination with the reflector , with more expedition and accuracy than at present ; for spectroscopic work this telescope would be a valuable adjunct , especially if it be constructed of such comparatively short focal length as seems now to be practicable . The great interest which the Royal Society has taken in everything connected with the Melbourne reflector is my sole apology for sending thus early such a meagre account ,

112746

3701662

Note on Certain Lichens

222

227

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Stenhouse

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0053

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112746

10.1098/rspl.1869.0053

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112746

Chemistry 2

Chemistry 1

Chemistry

I. " Note on certain Lichens " By JOHN STENtIOUSE , LL. D. , F.R.S. , &c. IReceived January 10 , 1870 . Through the kindness of W. Carruthers , Esq. , of the Botanical Department of the British Museum , I obtained a considerable quantity of lichens from the neighbourhood of Moffat in Scotland . These were Cladonia rangiferina , and a mixture of Usnea barbata and Evernia prunastri , [ Feb. 24 . ' the latter of which were carefully separated by picking-a somewhat tedious operation , as they were much interlaced . Usnea baarata . In order to extract the usnic acid from this lichen , it was macerated for about thirty minutes with a dilute solution of sodic carbonate , squeezed , again treated once or twice in a similar manner , and the turbid solution precipitated by a slight excess of hydrochloric acid . The crude dark-green acid thus obtained was mixed with milk of lime and a considerable quantity of warm water ( 40 ? C. ) , filtered , and the clear lemon-coloured solution of usnate of calcium acidulated with hydrochloric acid . The acid was thus precipitated in pale yellow flocks , which were collected . The reason that I adopted this modification of the process I formerly proposed* is , that although usnic acid readily dissolves in milk of lime when it has been extracted , yet in order to exhaust this and other compact lichens , it requires to be treated a great many times if lime be employed , whilst two or three are sufficient with carbonate of sodium . The partially purified usnic acid obtained in the manner above described was easily rendered quite pure by taking advantage of the peculiar property which this acid possesses of forming an insoluble calcium salt when boiled with lime . The crude yellow acid was placed in a flask with a quantity of water and an excess of slaked lime , and the mixture boiled for twenty minutes or half an hour . The insoluble calcium usnate was collected , well washed with hot water , and the lime then removed by boiling it with a slight excess of hydrochloric acid . The tolerably pure usnic acid was then collected , and well washed with boiling water . It was advisable to continue the digestion with hydrochloric acid for half an hour , as it rendered the acid more compact and easy to collect . By this alternate treatment with lime and acid , a large quantity of some dark-coloured impurity was removed . This forms the best process for recovering usnic acid in a state of tolerable purity from residues . It was found , however , to be better , when considerable quantities of usnic acid were to be prepared , to boil the pale yellow usnic acid paste , as obtained by precipitation from the lime solution , with a small quantity of water , to which strong caustic soda solution was gradually added , sufficient to dissolve nearly the whole of the usnic acid . It was then set aside to crystallize , and when cold the very dark coloured supernatant mother liquor decanted , and the crystals of sodic usnate washed once or twice by decantation , with a small quantity of cold water . It was then redissolved and recrystallized once or twice in the same manner . The nearly pure sodic usnate was now dissolved in a considerable quantity of hot spirit , filtered , and the boiling solution strongly acidulated with acetic acid . The usnic acid then separated in fine needles , which when cold were collected , well washed with cold spirit ( in which they are almost insoluble ) , and recrystallized from boiling spirit to render them quite pure . When the quantity of acid operated on was but small , the best process was to dissolve it , by means of caustic soda solution , in a large quantity of boiling spirit , filter from the insoluble impurities , and strongly acidulate with acetic acid . The nearly pure usnic acid , which crystallizes out in large needles when the solution cools , was collected , washed , and recrystallized two or three times from spirit . I. '130 grn. usnic acid gave '298 grm. carbonic anhydride and *060 grm. water . II . *245 grm. usnic acid gave '564 grin . carbonic anhydride and *188 grm. water . I. II . Htesse . C01 = 216 = 62'43 62-53 62-79 62-80 11 = 18 = 5-20 5-i3 4'99 5'00 07 112 = 3237 346 100-00 I. was purified by boiling with lime , and II . by repeated crystallization of the crude acid from spirit . In the analyses published by W. Knop , Rochleder , and Ileldt , and also by myself in 1848 , the carbon is about *75 per cent. higher than the above , and the formula deduced from it was C1 H1 , ,07 . Hesse* from his analyses proposed the formula C , , H , , 07 , which I have adopted . Usnate of Sodium . This was best prepared by adding one part pure usnic acid to twenty of boiling water , and then sufficient caustic soda solution to dissolve nearly the whole of the acid , filtering , and setting aside to crystallize . After one recrystallization it was subjected to analysis . I. *598 grm. usnate of sodium gave ' 114 grm. sulphate of sodium . II . '864 grm. usnate of sodium gave '168 grm. sulphate of sodium . I. II . Mean . C1 , = 216 = 58-70 H17 = 17 = 4-61 Na = 23 6-25 6-18 6-30 6-24 07 = 112 30-44 368 100'00 This salt crystallizes in pale yellow silky needles , is not very soluble in cold water , but more so in spirit . It is readily decomposed by carbonic anhydride ; so much so , that when pure sodium usnate is exposed for some time to the atmosphere , it absorbs carbonic acid , and is no longer completely soluble in water . By passing a current of carbonic anhydride through its aqueous solution , the usnic acid is entirely precipitated . Calcium Usnate . When pure usnic acid was moistened with spirit , and then rubbed up in a mortar with milk of lime , it combined and formed a deep yellow paste , which , on the addition of more water and filtration , yielded a lemon-coloured solution , containing calcium usnate , and hydrate . When this solution was heated it became turbid , and after boiling some time , the whole of the usnic acid was deposited as an insoluble calcium compound , in the form of small deep yellow rhomboidal crystals . Although I made several analyses of this compound , prepared at different times , I was unable to obtain it of a constant composition , probably owing to its being mixed with variable quantities of calcium carbonate and hydrate . The formation of this insoluble calcium salt is very characteristic of usnic acid , and is an excellent test of its presence . As with the sodium salt , carbonic anhydride entirely decomposes the calcium compound . Usnic acid appears , therefore , to be a very feeble acid . An attempt was made to prepare ethylic usnate by treating usnate of silver with ethylic iodide , but without success . When usnic acid was treated with bromine it was completely decomposed , and converted into an orange-coloured uncrystallizable resin . Evernia prunastri-Evernic Acid . The evernic and usnic acids that this lichen contains were extracted by the lime process , which consists in macerating the lichen two or three times successively with milk of lime for about half an hour each time . The solution of the mixed acids was then filtered , precipitated by a slight excess of hydrochloric acid , and the precipitate collected and dried . In order to extract the evernic acid from the mixture , it was agitated for about five minutes with four parts boiling alcohol and filtered . The acids remaining undissolved were treated two or three times with the same quantity of boiling alcolhol , and the : dissolved evernic acid precipitated by the addition of an equal bulk of water . By this means the evernic acid , being readily soluble in boiling alcohol , was in a great measure separated from the usnic acid , which dissolves with difficulty in that menstruum unless digested with it for a considerable time . The crude evernic acid thus obtained amounted to about one-third of the mixed acids , and was purified by repeated crystallization from strong spirit , taking care not to digest it for any length of time . The process is much facilitated by completely removing the mother liquors by Bunsen 's vacuum filter . Pure evernic acid , as has been already described by myself* and Hesset- , consists of aggregations of minute needles , melting at 164 ? C. It is a feeble acid , and does not decompose solutions of bicarbonate of sodium in the cold ; as , however , the adhering colouring-matter is somewhat soluble in that menstruum , it may be employed to free the crude acid to a great extent from that impurity . The solution of calcium evernate is decomposed by a long-continued current of carbonic anhydride , which precipitates calcic carbonate and unaltered evernic acid . On theoretical grounds it has been stated* that , by the action of potassic or baric hydrate , evernic acid should be resolved into orsellinic and everninic acids . This prediction , however , is incorrect , as I find , as formerly statedt , that everninic acid is the only fixed product . Tetrabrom-evernic Acid . Perfectly dry and finely powdered evernic acid was treated in the cold with a slight excess of dry bromine , large quantities of hydrobromic acid were given off , and a brominated compound produced . In order to prevent any portion of the acid escaping bromination , the product was finely powdered and again treated with bromine . After standing some time to allow the excess of bromine to volatilize , the finely powdered compound was well washed with bisulphide of carbon , to remove the last traces of bromine , and a small quantity of a resinous body which is produced at the same time . Two or three crystallizations from boiling spirit render it quite pure . When subjected to analysis , it gave the following results : I. *312 grm.acid gave '362 grm.carbonic anhydride and '067 grm. water . II . '32l grmn acid gave *373 grm. bromide of silver . ei I. II . C , , = 204 = 31-48 31-64 1 --2 12 1= 86 2-03 Br , = 320 = 49-48 49'44 0 , 112 =1728 648 100-00 This analysis agrees very well with the formula C,7 HI1 Br , O , , four equivalents of hydrogen in evernic acid being replaced by bromine . Tetrabrom-evernic acid is rather soluble in hot alcohol , from which it crystallizes on standing some time in small colourless prisms . It is insoluble in water and bisulphide of carbon , slightly soluble in hot benzol , and readily in ether , which when quickly evaporated leaves it as a transparent colourless resin ; it melts at 161 ? C. The acid is very soluble in alkaline solutions , which on evaporation dry up to a gummy mass . When heated with concentrated sulphuric acid it decomposes . Usnic Acid from Evernia prunastri . The usnie acid left undissolved in the preparation of evernic acid usually retained traces of that acid even after repeated treatment with alcohol ; but this was entirely removed by boiling with lime , as described in the first part of this paper . This decomposed and removed the evernic acid and other impurities , leaving the usnic acid in the form of an insoluble calcium salt . The acid when freed from lime and purified , melted at 20 2 ? C. , and by analysis gave the following results : I. *409 grm. usnic acid gave *939 grin . carbonic anhydride and 4188 grn. water . I. C18 = 216 62-43 62-63 118 -= 8 5= 20 5 11 07 = 112 = 32-37 346 100-00 From the above analyses it will be seen that the usnic acid from Evernia prunastri is identical in composition with that from Usnea barbata . It has the same melting-point , and agrees with it in all its other properties . Cladonia rangiferina . In 1848 *I extracted the lichen acid from Cladonia rangiferina , and by analysis found it to have the same composition as usnic acid , with which it agrees very closely in its properties . Iesse , however , observedt that this acid had a different melting-point ( 175 ? C. ) from ordinary usnic acid ( 203 ? C. ) , and proposed , therefore , as it so closely resembled ordinary usnic acid in its general character , to call it f3-usnic acid . Cladonic Acid , f3-orcin . I formerly obtained+ / 3-orcin by subjecting to destructive distillation a mixture of the acids from Cladonia rangiferina and various species of Usnea ; but I have lately found that ordinary usnic acid , melting at 203 ? C. , obtained from Evernia prunastri , Ramalina calicaris , and the various Usneas , does not yield a trace of / 3-orcin when distilled , whilst , on the contrary , the acid extracted from Claclonia ( Hesse 's / 3-usnic acid melting at 175 ? C. ) , on being subjected to the same treatment , yields / 3-orcin , thus showing a marked difference in the products of its decomposition from ordinary usnic acid , as well as in its melting-point . Under these circumstances , therefore , I think that it would be better to name the acid from Cladonia rangiferina " Cladonic Acid , " instead of 3-usnic acid , as proposed by Hesse . I expected to have been able to subject cladonic acid to a more careful examination , and procured for that purpose a quantity of Cladonia rangiferina from the neighbourhood of Moffat . Unfortunately , however , it was not gathered until the beginning of December , and I was surprised to find that it contained scarcely a trace of cladonic or any similar acid . I intend to obtain a new quantity next summer , when I hope to be more successful . I cannot conclude this paper without acknowledging the efficient assistance I have received from Mr. Charles E. Groves .

112747

3701662

On the Successive Action of Sodium and Iodide of Ethyl upon Acetic Ether

228

230

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

E. Frankland|B. F. Duppa

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0054

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112747

10.1098/rspl.1869.0054

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112747

Chemistry 2

Thermodynamics

Chemistry

IL . " On the successive Action of Sodium and Iodide of Ethyl upon Acetic Ether . " By E. FRANKLAND , F.R.S. , and B. F. DUPPA , Esq. , F.R.S. Received January 13,1870 . In a paper by Mr. J. Alfred Wanklyn , bearing the above title , and published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society , vol. xviii . p. 91 , the author refers to our memoir on the same subject printed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1866 , vol. clvi . p. 37 , and expresses his opinion 'that our interpretation of the nature of the reaction must be erroneous because it involves the disengagement of hydrogen . This opinion is founded upon certain experiments which Mr. Wanklyn has himself made , and which are described in the number of Liebig 's 'Annalen ' for January 1869 , and in the Chemical Society 's Journal , vol. ii . p. 371 . In reference to this opinion we have to remark , first , that it is founded upon experiments which differ essentially from our own ; and , second , that even the results obtained in those experiments by the author do not warrant the conclusion , at variance with ours , which he has drawn from them , viz. that the evolution of hydrogen in this reaction is inadmissible . The reaction , the theoretical explanation of which Mr. Wanklyn seeks to controvert , is described in the Philosophical Transactions , vol. clvi . p. 38 , as follows:-- " When acetic ether is placed in contact with sodium it becomes hot , and a considerable quantity of gas is evolved , which , after being passed first through alcohol and then through water , burns with a nonluminous flame , and the products of combustion do not produce the slightest turbidity on agitation with baryta-water . In fact the gas is pure hydrogen . When the action is complete , the liquid solidifies on cooling to a mass resembling yellow beeswax . By putting the sodium into the acetic ether as just described , it is difficult to conduct the operation to completion , owing to the liquid gradually assuming such a thick and pasty condition as to prevent the further action of the sodium . " Owing to the difficulty of carrying the reaction far enough in this way we frequently employed a modification of this process , which is minutely described in the same memoir . The modification consisted in placing the sodium in a separate vessel and causing the acetic ether to distil continuously over it ; thus the portions of acetic ether still unacted upon were brought , again and again , into contact with the sodium , whilst the non-volatile product of the operation was retained in a lower vessel . As we acted upon several pounds of acetic ether at once , the operation frequently lasted several d'ays , and during the whole time torrents of hydrogen were evolved . The temperature of the liquid in the distillation vessel was allowed to rise to 130 ? C. , and the amount of sodium consumed was not much less than one atom for each molecule of acetic ether employed . We have made several attempts to determine quantitatively the volume of hydrogen given off from a known weight of sodium , and also from a known weight of acetic ether , but in neither operation could we obtain a [ Feb. 24 , trustworthy result . In the first case because the sodium , which fuses during the reaction , breaks up into a vast number of very minute globules , the final disappearance of which in the highly coloured and pasty product it is impossible to verify . In the second case because the thickening of the liquid prevents the reaction being pushed far enough to decompose the whole of the acetic ether employed . In a quantitative experiment , in which 4'857 grammes of acetic ether were acted upon by sodium in slight excess , 344'79 cub. centims. of hydrogen at 0 ? C. and 760 millims. pressure were obtained . If one molecule of acetic ether had lost one atom of hydrogen , 615'9 cub. centims. of gas ought to have been collected . It was evident , however , that a large proportion of acetic ether still remained unattacked at the close of the experiment . Such , then , was our mode of operating ; the hydrogen evolved was allowed freely to escape , the whole process was conducted at the ordinary atmospheric pressure , and the temperature varied from the boiling-point of acetic ether to 130 ? C. Moreover the acetic ether used was prepared with the greatest care so as to ensure the absence of alcohol and water . By our method of preparation , described in the memoir already cited , no traces of the former could be detected even in the crude ether ; nevertheless it was first placed for several days over fragments of fused calcic chloride , which apparently remained perfectly dry and unaffected ; it was then in some cases boiled for ten days or a fortnight upon many pounds of sodiumamalgam , which we find to be entirely without action upon pure acetic ether , whilst it rapidly attacks and removes alcohol , if the latter be added even in very small proportion to the acetic ether . When acetic ether , sotreated and then distilled from the sodium-amalgam , was brought into contact with the sodium , an abundant evolution of hydrogen immediately commenced , and continued during the entire treatment , which , as already remarked , frequently lasted several days . The general impression , however , produced upon us by the whole of our operations was , that the evolution of hydrogen was not quite so great as that theoretically required by the reactions which we believe to take place ; nevertheless it was obvious that no equations , from which free hydrogen was excluded , could possibly correctly express the chemical changes effected in this action . Certain experiments were undertaken to trace the missing hydrogen , but as they have not hitherto been completed we will not further allude to them here . We now turn to Mr. Wanklyn 's mode of experimenting . This is not stated in his communication to the Royal Society , but is given in the Journal of the Chemical Society , vol. xvii . p. 371 , and in the Ann. Chem. u. Pharm. for January 1869 , as follows : Exp. 1 . " I sealed up a quantity of sodium with acetate of ethyl , which had been very carefully deprived of alcohol and water , and weighed the tube containing these materials . I then heated the tube to 130 ? C. for some time , until the contents had changed from liquid to solid . After opening the tube and allowing any gas that might have formed to escape , I weighed it again . The loss amounted to 0'5 in 100 parts of acetic ether . " 1870o . ] 229 Exp. 2 . " 5 cub. centims. of good acetate of ethyl and 0'3 grm. of sodium were sealed up in a small glass tube and heated in a water-bath to 100 ? C. until all the sodium had disappeared . The tube was then opened under water ; the evolved gas measured 25 cub. centims. at ordinary temperature , but at 0 ? C. and 760 millims. pressure and dry it measured 23 cub. centims. If the volume of hydrogen be calculated , which is equivalent to 0'3 grm. sodium , it will be found to be 140 cub. centims. " Exp. 3 . " Another specimen of acetic ether , which was prepared with greater care , evolved no gas by the action of potassium or sodium . " It is thus evident that whilst we allowed all evolved gas freely to escape , Mr. Wanklyn operated in sealed tubes under great pressure , --an alteration in the conditions of the experiment which might well lead to a modification of the result . Mons. L. Cailletet has recently shown that the evolution of hydrogen from zinc and hydrochloric acid is gradually diminished and finally stopped under increasing pressure ; and the same chemist also finds that the evolution of hydrogen from sodium-amalgam and water is diminished and finally stopped in a sealed tube . It follows from these experiments that pressure retards or even interrupts a reaction in which a permanent gas is evolved , whilst it is known to exercise little or no influence upon other chemical changes in which no evolution of gas takes place . This influence of pressure upon certain kinds of chemical action affords an explanation of the difference between the results of Mr. Wanklyn 's experiments and our own , as regards the evolution of hydrogen during the action of sodium upon acetic ether . We can confirm his observation that sodium dissolves in valeric ether , under ordinary atmospheric pressure , without the evolution of any gas . A reaction , whatever its nature may be , which thus proceeds readily with ethylic valerate can scarcely be impossible with its homologue , acetic ether , and it is probable that this reaction goes on side by side with those which we have described in our memoir ; but when the pressure is moderate those changes chiefly take place which involve the disengagement of hydrogen , whilst under the great pressure arising in sealed tubes these changes are more or less suppressed , and the reaction observed by Mr. Wanklyn comes into prominence . Lastly , Mr. Wanklyn 's own experiments scarcely justify his unqualified opinion that " equations which assume evolution of hydrogen in these reactions are inadmissible . " In two out of three of his experiments , hydrogen in considerable quantity was evolved ; and although in experiment No. 2 , given above , he attributes the hydrogen to the presence of alcohol , yet in experiment No. 1 its origin cannot be so explained , as he states expressly that the acetic ether employed " had been very carefully deprived of alcohol and water ; " yet the proportion of hydrogen evolved in this case was much larger than in experiment No. 2 . We reserve our observations upon Mr. Wanklyn 's views regarding the changes which take place when sodium acts upon acetic , butyric , and valeric ethers , until the publication of the experimental data upon which those views are founded .

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Results of the Monthly Observations of Dip and Horizontal Force Made at the Kew Observatory, from April 1863 to March 1869 Inclusive

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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Balfour Stewart

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1869.0055

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