Datasets:

cfli

/

ssss

like 0

Which US president ended his country's participation in the Vietnam War?

Which US president ended his country's participation in the Vietnam War? View the step-by-step solution to: Which US president ended his country's participation in the Vietnam War? This question was answered on Jun 08, 2016. View the Answer Which US president ended his country's participation in the Vietnam War? WmLittle posted a question · Jun 08, 2016 at 6:58am Top Answer The way to answer this question is ... View the full answer {[ getNetScore(29995166) ]} lewismrk557 answered the question · Jun 08, 2016 at 6:59am Other Answers president Gerald Ford .... The end of the Vietnam War on April 30, 1975, was a much-anticipated and emotionally fraught event... View the full answer {[ getNetScore(30005967) ]} View Full Answer or ask a new question Related Questions The late 1960s and 1970s were turbulent years both at home and abroad for the United States. Evaluate the failures and successes of the Nixon presidency during Recently Asked Questions Need a World History tutor? mathtutor1983 3 World History experts found online! Average reply time is less than an hour Get Homework Help Why Join Course Hero? Course Hero has all the homework and study help you need to succeed! We’ve got course-specific notes, study guides, and practice tests along with expert tutors and customizable flashcards—available anywhere, anytime. - - Study Documents Find the best study resources around, tagged to your specific courses. Share your own to gain free Course Hero access or to earn money with our Marketplace. - Question & Answers Get one-on-one homework help from our expert tutors—available online 24/7. Ask your own questions or browse existing Q&A threads. Satisfaction guaranteed! - Flashcards Browse existing sets or create your own using our digital flashcard system. A simple yet effective studying tool to help you earn the grade that you want!

Richard Nixon

What was the first considerable engagement in the American Revolution?

Vietnam - John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum Vietnam Vietnam During the early 1960s, the U.S. military presence in Vietnam escalated as corruption and internal divisions threatened the government of South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem. After World War II, the French tried to re-establish colonial control over a region known as French Indochina—today the countries of Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. Following the defeat of the French, Vietnam was partitioned by the Geneva Accord of 1954 into Communist North Vietnam and non-Communist South Vietnam. The United States supported a military government in the South and the decision of its leader, Ngo Dinh Diem, to prevent free elections, which might result in the unification of the country under the control of the Communists. Guerilla forces supported by the Communist government of the North initiated a series of attacks in South Vietnam, and the Geneva Accord began to crumble. The Domino Theory American foreign policy after World War II was based on the goal of containing Communism and the assumptions of the so-called "domino theory"—if one country fell to Communism, the surrounding countries would fall, like dominoes. In response to that threat, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was formed in 1955 to prevent Communist expansion, and President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent some 700 military personnel as well as military and economic aid to the government of South Vietnam. The effort was foundering when John F. Kennedy became president. Internal Divisions Corruption, religious differences, and mounting successes by the Vietcong guerrillas weakened the South Vietnamese government of Ngo Dinh Diem. Diem was Catholic, and public protests over the repression of Buddhists threatened the stability of his regime. Kennedy accelerated the flow of American aid and gradually increased U.S. military advisers to more than 16,000. At the same time, he pressed the Diem government to clean house and institute long-overdue political and economic reforms. The situation did not improve. In September of 1963, President Kennedy declared in an interview, "In the final analysis, it is their war. They are the ones who have to win it or lose it. We can help them, we can give them equipment, we can send our men out there as advisers, but they have to win it, the people of Vietnam, against the Communists... But I don't agree with those who say we should withdraw. That would be a great mistake... [The United States] made this effort to defend Europe. Now Europe is quite secure. We also have to participate—we may not like it—in the defense of Asia." The Overthrow of Diem A few weeks later, on November 1, 1963, the South Vietnamese government was overthrown. The coup had the tacit approval of the Kennedy administration. President Diem was assassinated, after refusing an American offer of safety if he agreed to resign. In the final weeks of his life, President Kennedy wrestled with the future of the United States' commitment in Vietnam. Whether he would have increased military involvement or negotiated a withdrawal of military personnel still remains hotly debated among historians and officials who served in the administrations of President Kennedy and President Lyndon B. Johnson. A Domino Falls United States military aid to Vietnam increased during 1964. By 1965, President Johnson authorized US troops to begin military offensives and started the systematic bombing of North Vietnam. By 1968, the number of US forces surpassed 500,000. During that year's presidential campaign, Americans were deeply divided by the deteriorating military and political situation in Vietnam. In May 1968, President Johnson announced that formal peace talks would soon begin in Paris. The talks stalled during the last eight months of Johnson's presidency, and the deadlock continued during the early years of Richard Nixon's administration. Finally, in January 1973, an agreement was reached, and President Nixon ordered an end to all US offensive actions against North Vietnam. In January 1975, North Vietnam began massive invasions of South Vietnam. A few months later, the North Vietnamese captured the capital city of Saigon, and the last Americans were evacuated from the US embassy. The American war in Vietnam was over. More than 3 million Vietnamese and 58,000 Americans had lost their lives. JOHN F. KENNEDY PRESIDENTIAL LIBRARY AND MUSEUM Columbia Point, Boston MA 02125 (617) 514-1600

i don't know

Who succeeded Henry I as king of England in 1135?

Henry (1068 - 1135) - Genealogy Genealogy Join the world's largest family tree Gender Henry I "Beauclerc", King of England London, Greater London, England, United Kingdom Henry I "Beauclerc", King of England's Geni Profile Share your family tree and photos with the people you know and love Build your family tree online Share photos and videos French: Henri, Danish: Henrik, Latin: Henricus, German: Heinrich, Spanish: Enrique, Portuguese: Henrique, Dutch: Hendrik Also Known As: Selby, North Yorkshire, England, United Kingdom Death: in Saint-Denis-le-Ferment, Department de Eure, Haute Normandie, France Cause of death: Reading Abbey, Reading, Berkshire, England Immediate Family: Brother of Robert II "Curthose", duke of Normandy ; Adelizia de Normandie, Princess of England ; Cecilia, Abbess of Holy Trinity ; Richard ; Agatha de Normandie, Princess of England and 5 others ; Anna de Normandie, Princess of England ; Constance, Duchess Consort of Brittany ; Adela, countess of Blois ; Matilda and William II "Rufus", King of England « less Occupation: King of England, Roi d'Angleterre de 1100 à 1135-Duc de Normandie, King of the English Duke of Normandy, Duke of the Normans, Kung av England och Hertig av Normandie, Duke of Normandy King of England, King, kung, KING OF ENGLAND, 1100-1135, King Henry I Managed by: http://genealogics.org/getperson.php?personID=I00000238&tree=LEO Called "Beauclerc because of his study habits (Beauclerc meaning well-learnt, scholarly, erudite) Il est aussi connu sous le nom de Henri Ier de Normandie, roi d'Angleterre et Henri Ier, roi d' Angleterre dit le Beau Clerc. En 1106, il est connu sous le nom de Henri Ier, duc de Normandie dit Beauclerc. Henry I 'Beauclerc', King of England gained the title of Lord of Domfront in 1092 Comte de Coutances in 1096 Comte de Bayeux in 1096 King Henry I of England on 2 August 1100. He was crowned King of England on 5 August 1100 in Westminster Abbey, Westminster, London, Married First: Eadgyth renamed on marriage Mathilda of Scotland He had 2 wives, Eadgyth of Scotland who changed her name to Matilda mother of Euphemia (unconfirmed), Matilda & William and Adelisa de Louvain who married William d'Aubigny on Henry's death He also had many mistresses (or concubines) as follows: 1 Unknown woman from Caen mother of Robert de Caen aka Robert FitzRoy, Earl of Gloucester 2 Edith Unknown mother of Mathilde w/o Routrou de Perche 3 Ansfride widow of Anskill mother of Richard, Juliane & Foulques 4 Unknown mother of Sybil Queen of Scotland & William 5 Sibyl Corbet married Herbert FitzHerbert mother of Renaud de Dunstanville, William, & Gundred, Rohese 6 Edith FitzForne d/o Forn Sigurdson Lord of Greystoke, Cumberland married Robert De Oilly of Hook Norton mother of Robert FitzEdith 7 - 12 All Unknown. Mothers to: * Maud (m. Conan III Duke of Brittany), *Alix (m. MATHIEU [I] de Montmorency) *Constance (Mathilde) (m ROSCELIN Vicomte de Beaumont) *Mathilde abbess of Montvilliers *Gilbert *William de Tracy 13 Nest of South Wales wife of Gerald FitzWalter of Windsor d/o Rhys apTewdwr Prince of South Wales and Gwladus mother of Henry 14 Unknown mother of unknown daughter (m GUILLAUME [III] Goët de Montmirail) 15 Isabelle de Beaumont d/o Robert de Beaumont Comte de Meulan, Earl of Leicester and Isabelle de Vermandois and wife of Gilbert FitzGilbert de Clare Earl of Pembroke mother of Isabel Please do not merge Named Mistresses as Unknown Mistresses ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ The fourth son of William I the Conqueror the first King of England after the Norman Conquest of 1066. Henry I 'Beauclerc', King of England gained the title of Lord of Domfront in 1092. He gained the title of Comte de Coutances in 1096. He gained the title of Comte de Bayeaux in 1096. He succeeded to the title of King Henry I of England on 2 August 1100. He was crowned King of England on 5 August 1100 in Westminster Abbey, Westminster, London, and styled 'Dei Gratiâ Rex Anglorum.' He fought in the Battle of Tinchebrai on 28 September 1106.2 He succeeded to the title of 9th Duc de Normandie on 28 September 1106, after defeating his brother Robert in battle. Strangely, at the time William 'Rufus' was shot in the New Forest, Henry was also hunting there and this may or may not be coincidence. Henry was in turn in some danger from his brother Robert who claimed the throne for himself. Robert was captured at the battle of Tinchebrai in 1106 and Henry imprisoned him in Cardiff Castle for the rest of his life. Henry was successful in keeping the peace in England despite spending much time in Normandy. He developed the English system of justice and organised the civil service of the time, particularly the taxation department. He was unpopular with the church leaders. He had only one legitimate son, William and a legitimate daughter Matilda, but over twenty illegitimate children. His sons William and Richard were drowned in 1120 aboard his personal vessel the 'White Ship' when it struck a rock off the Normandy coast. He wanted his successor to be his daughter Matilda whom the English called Maud. He has an extensive biographical entry in the Dictionary of National Biography. All detailed biographical entries are extracted from: 1. [S18] Dictionary of National Biography; and 2. [S23] Dictionary of New Zealand National Biography Henry I 1068-1135, king, fourth son of William the Conqueror and Matilda, was born, it is said, at Selby in Yorkshire (Monasticon, iii. 485; Freeman, Norman Conquest, iv. 231, 791), in the latter half of 1068, his mother having been crowned queen on the previous Whitsunday (Orderic, p. 510). As the son of a crowned king and queen of England he was regarded by the English as naturally qualified to become their king; he was an English ætheling, and is spoken of as clito, which was used as an equivalent title (ib. p. 689; Brevis Relatio, p. 9; comp. Gesta Regum, v. 390). He was brought up in England (Cont. William of Jumièges, viii. 10), and received an unusually good education, of which he took advantage, for he was studious and did not in after life forget what he had learnt (Orderic, p. 665; Gesta Regum, u. s.). The idea that he understood Greek and translated Æsop's Fables into English is founded solely on a line in the Ysopet of Marie de France, who lived in England in the reign of Henry III, but it is extremely unlikely, and there is so much uncertainty as to what Marie really wrote or meant in the passage in question that it is useless to build any theory upon it (Poésies de Marie de France, par B. de Roquefort, i. 33-44, ii. 401; Professor Freeman seems to think that the idea is fairly tenable, Norman Conquest, iv. 229, 792-4). It is certain that he understood Latin (Orderic, p. 812), and could speak English easily (William Rufus, i. pref. viii). At least as early as the thirteenth century he was called clerk, the origin of the name Beauclerc (Wykes, iv. 11; Norman Conquest, iv. 792). While he was with his father at Laigle in Normandy, in 1077, when the Conqueror was on bad terms with his eldest son Robert, he and his brother, William Rufus, went across to Robert's lodgings in the castle, played dice with their followers in an upper room, made a great noise, and threw water on Robert and his men who were below. Robert ran up with Alberic and Ivo of Grantmesnil to avenge the insult, a disturbance followed, and the Conqueror had to interfere to make peace (Orderic, p. 545). His mother at her death in 1083 left Henry heir of all her possessions in England, but it is evident that he did not receive anything until his father's death (ib. p. 510). The next year, when his father and brothers were in Normandy, he spent Easter by his father's order at the monastery of Abingdon, the expenses of the festival being borne by Robert of Oily (Chron. de Abingdon, ii. 12). At the Whitsuntide assembly of 1086 his father dubbed him knight at Westminster, and he was armed by Archbishop Lanfranc. He was with his father when the Conqueror lay dying the next year at Rouen, and, on hearing his father's commands and wishes about his dominions and possessions, asked what there was for him. I give thee 5,000l., was the answer. But what, he said, can I do with the money if I have no place to live in? The Conqueror bade him be patient and wait his turn, for the time would come when he should be richer and greater than his brothers. The money thus left had been his mother's, and he went off at once to secure the treasure. He returned for his father's funeral at Caen Robert of Normandy, who was in want of money, asked Henry for some of his treasure; Henry refused, and the duke then offered to sell or pledge him some part of his dominions. He accordingly bought the Avranchin and the Côtentin, along with Mont St. Michel, for 3,000l., and ruled his new territory well and vigorously (Orderic, p. 665). In 1088 he went over to England, and requested Rufus to hand over to him his mother's lands. Rufus received him graciously, and granted him seisin of the lands, but when he left the country granted them to another. Henry returned to Normandy in the autumn in the company of Robert of Bellême, and the duke, acting on the advice of his uncle, Bishop Odo, seized him and shut him up in prison at Bayeux, where he remained for six months, for Odo made the duke believe that Henry was plotting with Rufus to injure him (ib. p. 673). In the spring of the following year the duke released him at the request of the Norman nobles, and he went back to his county, which Robert seems to have occupied during his imprisonment, at enmity with both his brothers. He employed himself in strengthening the defences of his towns, and attached a number of his nobles to himself, among whom were Hugh of Chester, the lord of Avranches, Richard of Redvers, and the lords of the Côtentin generally. When the citizens of Rouen revolted against their duke in favour of Rufus in November 1090, Henry came to Robert's help, not so much probably for Robert's sake, as because he was indignant at seeing a city rise against its lord (William Rufus, i. 248). He joined Robert in the castle, and headed the nobles who gathered to suppress the movement. The rebellious party among the citizens was routed, and Conan, its leader, was taken prisoner. Henry made him come with him to the top of the tower, and in bitter mockery bade him look out and see how fair a land it was which he had striven to subject to himself. Conan confessed his disloyalty and prayed for mercy; all his treasure should be given for his life. Henry bade him prepare for speedy death. Conan pleaded for a confessor. Henry's anger was roused, and with both hands he pushed Conan through the window, so he fell from the tower and perished (Orderic, p. 690; Gesta Regum, v. 392). In the early part of the next year Robert and William made peace, and agreed that Cherbourg and Mont St. Michel, which both belonged to Henry, should pass to the English king, and the rest of his dominions to the Norman duke. Up to this time Henry had been enabled to keep his position mainly by the mutual animosity of William and Robert. Now both his brothers attacked him at once. He no longer held the balance between them in Normandy, and the lords of his party fell away from him. He shut himself up in Mont St. Michel, and held it against his brothers, who laid siege to it about the middle of Lent, each occupying a position on either side of the bay. The besieged garrison engaged in several skirmishes on the mainland (Flor. Worc.). Their water was exhausted, and Henry sent to the duke representing his necessity, and bidding him decide their quarrel by arms and not by keeping him from water. Robert allowed the besieged to have water. After fifteen days Henry offered to surrender if he and his men might march out freely. He was accordingly allowed to evacuate the place honourably (Orderic, p. 697) The surrender of Mont St. Michel left Henry landless and friendless, and for some months he wandered about, taking shelter first in Brittany and then in the Vexin. In August he accompanied his two brothers to England, and apparently joined in the expedition against Malcolm of Scotland (Gesta Regum, iv. 310; HistoriæDunelm. Scriptores Tres, p. xxii; William Rufus, ii. 535-8). Then he probably resumed his wandering life, travelling about attended only by a clerk, a knight, and three armed followers. Apparently at the end of 1092 he received a message from the men of Domfront inviting him to become their lord. He was received at Domfront by Archard, the chief man of the town, who had instigated his fellow-townsmen to revolt against Robert of Bellême, their former lord. Henry promised that he would never give up the town to any other lord, and would never change its laws and customs (Orderic, pp. 698, 788). Domfront, situated on the Varenne, dominated part of the border of Normandy towards Maine; lies not far to the east of Henry's old county, and was a place of great strength (for geographical description see William Rufus, i. 319). The interests of Henry and Rufus were now one; both alike desired to win all the parts of Normandy they could from the duke. Henry from his new fortress carried on constant war against the duke and Robert of Bellême; before long he regained a large part of his old territory in the west (ib. p. 321), and in doing so certainly acted with the goodwill of Rufus, though there appear to have been some hostilities between them (Orderic, p. 706; too much weight must not be given to this passage; in the first place it is rather vague and may apply to an earlier period, and in the second a war such as that which Henry was carrying on, consisting of attacks on single towns and castles, was certain to lead to quarrels with others besides those immediately concerned). Some places in his old county yielded to him out of affection, for, as the people of Domfront had discerned, he was a good lord, others he took by force of arms, and his old friends and followers again joined him. In 1094 he received an invitation from Rufus, who was then carrying on open war against Robert in Normandy, to meet him with Hugh of Chester at Eu, and because the duchy was in too disturbed a state for them to pass through it safely, Rufus sent ships to bring them (A.-S. Chron. sub an.). They sailed, however, to Southampton, and waited at London for the king, who met them there shortly after Christmas. Henry stayed with Rufus until Lent, and then returned to Normandy with a large supply of money, and carried on war against Robert with constant success (ib. an. 1095). When Normandy passed into the possession of Rufus in 1096, Henry joined him and remained with him, receiving from him the counties of Coutances and Bayeux, with the exception of the city of Bayeux and the town of Caen, and having further committed to his charge the castle of Gisors, which Rufus built on the frontier against France (Cont. William of Jumièges, viii. 7). On 2 Aug. 1100 Henry was hunting in the New Forest, when men came hastening to him one after another telling him of the death of Rufus. According to popular belief he had shortly before gone into a hut to mend his bowstring, and an old woman had declared that she had learnt by augury that he would soon become king. When he heard of his brother's death, it is said that he grieved much, and went to where his body lay (Wace, ll. 10105-38). In reality he spurred at once to Winchester, where the royal treasure was kept, and demanded the keys of the treasury from the guards (Orderic, p. 782). William of Breteuil refused to deliver them, declaring that, as Robert was his father's first-born, he was the rightful heir. The dispute waxed hot, and men came running to the spot, and took the count's part (Professor Freeman's assumption that these men were Englishmen as opposed to Normans seems unwarranted). Henry clapped his hand on his sword, drew it, and declared that no one should stand between him and his father's sceptre. Friends and nobles gathered round him, and the treasury was delivered over to him. The next day such of the witan as were at hand met in council, and after some opposition chose Henry as king, chiefly owing to the influence of Henry Beaumont, earl of Warwick (Gesta Regum, v. 393). As king-elect he bestowed the see of Winchester, which Rufus had kept vacant since January 1098, on William Giffard [q.v.]; he then rode to London, and was crowned at Westminster on Sunday, 5 Aug., by Maurice, bishop of London, for Archbishop Anselm [q.v.] was then in exile. Thomas, archbishop of York, hastened from the north to perform the ceremony, but came too late. When he complained of this as an infringement of his right, the king and the bishops told him that it was necessary to hasten the coronation for the sake of the peace of the kingdom (Hugh the Chantor, ii. 107). At his coronation he swore to give peace to the church and people, to do justice, and to establish good law. On the same day he published a charter in which, after declaring that he had been made king by the ‘common concent of the barons,’ he forbade the evil customs introduced during the last reign. The church was to be free, its offices and revenues neither sold nor farmed, and the feudal incidents of relief, marriage, and wardship were no longer to be abused by the king as instruments of oppression. As he did by his tenants-in-chief so were they to do by their tenants, a provision which may be said to have been founded on the law of his father that all men, of what lord soever they held, owed the king allegiance, a provision wholly contrary to the feudal idea. The coinage was to be reformed, and justice done on those who made or kept bad money. Wills of personalty were permitted. Men who incurred forfeiture were no longer to be forced to be at the king's mercy. Knights who held by knight-service were to have their demesne lands free of tax, and were to be ready both with horses and arms to serve the king and defend his realm. Good peace was to be kept throughout the kingdom, and the ‘law of King Edward,’ with the amendments of the Conqueror, was restored. The forests were, with the common consent of the barons, to remain as they were in the days of the king's father (Select Charters, pp. 95-8). This charter was taken by the barons in the reign of John as the basis of their demands. Henry also wrote a letter to Anselm inviting him to return, and declaring that he committed himself to the counsel of the archbishop and of those others whose right it was to advise him (Epp. iii. 41). There was great joy among the people at his accession, and they shouted loudly at his coronation, for they believed that good times were at last come again, and saw in their new king the ‘Lion of Justice’ of Merlin's prophecy (Gesta Regum, v. 393; Orderic, pp. 783, 887). Henry was thirty-two at his accession. He was of middle height, broad-chested, strong, stoutly built, and in his later years decidedly fat (Orderic, p. 901). His hair was black and lay thickly above his forehead, and his eyes had a calm and soft look. On fitting occasions his talk was mirthful, and no press of business robbed him of his cheerfulness. Caring little what he ate or drank, he was temperate, and blamed excess in others (Gesta Regum, v. 412). He was, however, exceedingly licentious, and was the father of a large number of natural children by many mistresses. At the same time he was free from the abominable vices which Rufus had practised, and, sensual as he was, his accession was at once followed by a reform in the habits of the court (ib. p. 393). In common with all his house he was devoted to hunting, and one of his lords who quarrelled with him gave him the nickname of ‘Pie-de-Cerf,’ because of his love of slaying deer (Wace, l. 10566). From the studies of his youth he acquired an abiding taste for books. He formed a collection of wild beasts at Woodstock, where he often resided (Gesta Regum, v. 409; Henry of Huntingdon, pp. 244, 300). He was an active, industrious king, and when in England constantly moved about, visiting different places in the southern and central parts of the kingdom, though he seems very seldom to have gone north of the Humber. In his progresses the arrangements of his court were orderly, for he was a man of method; there were no sudden changes of plan, and people brought their goods to the places on his route, certain that the court would arrive and stay as had been announced, and that they would find a market. The morning he gave to affairs of state and to hearing causes; the rest of his day to amusement (De Nugis Curialium, p. 210). He was not without religion. Reading Abbey he founded (ib. p. 209; Gesta Regum, v. 413; Monasticon, iv. 28); he completed the foundation of the abbey of Austin canons at Carlisle; he formed the see of Carlisle (Creighton, Carlisle, pp. 31-5; John of Hexham, col. 257; Waverley Annals, ap. Annales Monast. ii. 223); Cirencester Abbey, and Dunstable (Dunstable Annals, ib. iii. 15) and Southwyke priories, all for Austin canons, were founded by him (Monasticon, vi. 175, 238, 243), together with some other houses. He was a benefactor to some older English foundations, and rebuilt many churches in Normandy which suffered during his wars. He was liberal to pilgrims and to the military orders in Palestine (Cont. William of Jumièges, viii. 32), and seems to have treated clergy of holy life with respect. Contemporaries were much impressed by his wisdom; he did not love war, and preferred to gain his ends by craft. An unforgiving enemy, he was said to be an equally steadfast friend. He was, however, such a thorough dissembler that no one could be sure of his favour; and Robert Bloet [q.v.], bishop of Lincoln, declared that when he praised any one he was sure to be plotting that person's destruction (De Contemptu Mundi). He was cruel, and his cruelties proceeded from a cold-hearted disregard of human suffering. Policy rather than feeling guided his actions. Without being miserly, he was avaricious, and the people suffered much from his exactions, which, though apparently not exorbitant in amount, were levied with pitiless regularity alike in times of scarcity and plenty. His justice was stern. Unlike his father, he caused thieves, robbers, and other malefactors to be hanged, and sometimes inflicted such sweeping punishments that the innocent must have suffered along with the guilty. Criminals were constantly blinded and mutilated, though in his later years he often substituted heavy fines for these punishments. He strictly enforced the forest laws; no one was allowed, except as a special privilege, to hunt on his own land or to diminish the size of his woods; all dogs in the neighbourhood of a forest were maimed, and little difference was made between the slayer of a deer and of a man (Orderic, p. 813; William of Newburgh, i. c. 3). On the whole, however, Henry's harsh administration of justice was good for the country; while it brought suffering to the few, it gave peace and security to the many. His despotism was strong as well as stern; no offender was too powerful to be reached by the law. Private war he put down peremptorily, and peace and order were enforced everywhere. He exalted the royal authority, and kept the barons well under control, both by taking sharp measures against those who offended him, and by choosing his counsellors and chief officers from a lower rank, raising up a number of new men, whom he enriched and ennobled in order to make them a counterpoise to the power of the great houses of the Conquest (Orderic, p. 805). Although he kept a large number of stipendiary soldiers, to whom he was a liberal master (Cont. William of Jumièges, viii. 22), he was persuaded by Anselm to sharply restrain them from injuring the people, as they had done in his brother's time, and as they did in the earlier years of his own reign (Eadmer, Historia Novorum, iv. col. 470). Trade was benefited by his restoration of the coinage, and the severity with which he punished those who issued bad money or used false measures; he is said to have made the length of his own arm the standard of measure throughout the kingdom (Gesta Regum, v. 411). The peace and order which he established were highly valued by the people, and the native chronicler, though he makes many moans over his exactions, yet, writing after his death, and looking back in a time of disorder to the strong government of the late reign, says of him: ‘Good man he was, and great awe there was of him. No one durst misdo another in his time. Peace he made for man and deer. Whoso bare his burden of gold and silver no man durst say to him aught but good’ (Anglo-Saxon Chron. sub an. 1135; for Henry's character, both as a man and as a king, see more at large in Norman Conquest, v. 153-61, 839-45, where full references are given; also Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. i. secs. 110-12). In the first days of his reign Henry imprisoned, in the Tower of London, Ranulf Flambard [q.v.], bishop of Durham, the evil minister of Rufus, and began to appoint abbots to the abbeys which his brother had kept vacant in order to enjoy their revenues. He met Anselm at Salisbury, on his return to England about Michaelmas, and required him to do homage as his predecessor had done, and receive back from him the temporalities of the see, which were then in the king's hands. Anselm refused, and Henry, who could not afford to quarrel with him, and would probably in any case have been unwilling to do so, agreed to delay the matter, in order that the pope might be consulted whether he could so far change his decrees as to bring them into accordance with the ancient custom of the kingdom. In this dispute as to the question of investiture [for which see under Anselm] Henry took his stand on the rights of his crown as handed down by his predecessors, and on the undoubted usages of his realm. He made no new demand; the innovation was introduced by Anselm, who, in obedience to papal instructions, refused to accept the temporalities from Henry, as he had accepted them from Rufus, and as former archbishops had accepted them from former kings. Nor did Henry make the quarrel a personal matter; he did not persecute the archbishop, or thwart him in the exercise of his office, as Rufus had done. He behaved throughout with a due regard to law, and on the whole acted fairly, though he naturally availed himself of every lawful means to gain his point. He was urged by his counsellors, and especially by the bishops, to marry and reform his life. He had for some time been in love with Eadygyth (Edith) or Matilda [q.v.], daughter of Malcolm Canmore, king of Scotland, by Margaret, daughter of Edward the Exile, son of Edmund Ironside [q.v.]. Matilda had been brought up in the convent at Romsey, and many people declared that she had taken the veil. Anselm, however, pronounced that she was not a nun, and married her to the king, and crowned her queen in Westminster Abbey on 11 Nov. 1100. The English were delighted to see their king take a wife of ‘England's right kingly kin’ (A.-S. Chronicle, a. 1100). Before long, his example was followed by others, and intermarriages between Normans and English became common. They were encouraged by Henry, who by this and other means did all he could to promote the amalgamation of the two races within his kingdom (De Nugis Curialium, p. 209). His efforts were so successful that he has been called the ‘refounder of the English nation’ (William Rufus, ii. 455). For a while he devoted himself to his queen, but before long returned to his old mode of life. His marriage was not pleasing to the Norman nobles, who knew his early misfortunes, and as yet held him in little respect; they sneered at the domestic life of the king and queen, calling them by the English names Godric and Godgifu (Godiva). Henry heard their sneers but said nothing (Gesta Regum, v. 394; Henry of Huntingdon, p. 236). Already they were plotting against him in favour of Robert, who had returned from the crusade, and had again resumed his government, such as it was, of Normandy, though Henry kept the castles which he held in virtue of his grant from Rufus. Some hostilities were carried on in Normandy between his men and the duke's. At Christmas the king held his court at Westminster, and there received Louis, who had lately been made joint king of France by his father, Philip. While Louis was with him a letter came from Bertrada, Philip's adulterous wife, purporting to have been sent by Philip, and requesting Henry to keep Louis in lifelong imprisonment. Henry, however, sent his guest home with many presents (Symeon of Durham, ii. 232; Orderic, p. 813, places this visit under 1103. Symeon's date seems better; comp. Recueil des Historiens, xii. 878, 956). At Christmastide Flambard escaped from the Tower and fled to Normandy, where he stirred up Robert against his brother. During the spring of 1101 the conspiracy of the Norman nobles against the king spread rapidly, and when the Whitsun assembly met it was known that Robert was about to make an invasion. A large number both of nobles and of the people generally came to the assembly to profess their loyalty. Henry and the nobles met with mutual suspicions. Among the nobles only Robert FitzHamon, Richard of Redvers, Roger Bigot, Robert of Meulan, and his brother Henry, earl of Warwick, were steadfast to him; all the rest were more or less on Robert's side. The English people and the bishops were loyal, and by the advice of Anselm Henry renewed his promises of good government (Gesta Regum, v. 394; Eadmer, Historia Novorum, iii. col. 430). He gathered a large army, and was joined by Anselm in person. With him he went to Pevensey, and sent a fleet to intercept the invaders. Some of the seamen were persuaded to join the duke, who landed near Portsmouth on 20 July. Henry advanced to meet him, and though some of his lords, and among them Robert of Bellême, now earl of Shrewsbury, deserted him, many were kept from following their example by the influence of Anselm. The king and the duke met at Alton in Hampshire (Wace, l. 10393). Henry's army was largely composed of Englishmen. He rode round their battalions, telling them how to meet the shock of a cavalry charge, and they called to him to let them engage the Normans. No battle took place; for the brothers had an interview, were reconciled, and came to terms. Henry agreed to give up all he held in Normandy except Domfront, which he kept according to his promise to the townsmen, to restore the lands in England which Robert's adherents had forfeited, and to pay the duke three thousand marks a year. Robert renounced his claim on England and on homage from Henry, and both agreed that if either should die without leaving an heir born in wedlock the other should succeed to his dominions (A.-S. Chronicle, sub an.; Orderic, p. 788). The duke went back to Normandy, and Henry bided his time to take vengeance on the lords who had risen against him. By degrees one after another at various times and by various means he brought them to judgment and punished them (ib. p. 804). One of them, Ivo of Grantmesnil, began to carry on war in England on his own account, was cited before the king's court, and was forced to part with his lands for the benefit of the king's counsellor, Robert of Meulan, and to go on a crusade. Henry now prepared to deal with Robert of Bellême, the most powerful noble in his kingdom, and his enemy alike in England and in Normandy. He knew that while Robert remained lord of so many strong fortresses, and held an almost independent position in the Severn country, where he could easily find Welsh allies, it was hopeless to attempt to carry out his design of enforcing order and of humbling the great feudatories. His war with the earl [for particulars see Bellême, Robert of] was the principal crisis in his reign. Not only did Robert's wealth and dominions make him a dangerous foe, but the chief men in Henry's army also sympathised with him. Henry depended on the loyalty of men of lower degree. In fighting out his own quarrel he was also fighting against the foremost representative of a feudal nobility, which would, if triumphant, have trampled alike on the crown, the lesser landholders, and the nation generally. The shouts which were raised on the surrender of Shrewsbury, the earl's last stronghold in England, and the song which celebrated his banishment, show that the people knew that the king's victory insured safety for his subjects. During the early part of the war the earl received help from the Welsh under Jorwerth and his two brothers, who ruled as Robert's vassals in Powys and the present Cardigan. The king won Jorwerth over to his side by promising him large territories free of homage, and he persuaded his countrymen to desert the earl and uphold the king. When, however, he claimed the fulfilment of Henry's promise, it was refused, and in 1103 he was brought to trial at Shrewsbury and imprisoned. It is characteristic of the spirit in which Henry carried on his dispute with Anselm that while in 1102 he allowed the archbishop to hold his synod at Westminster, he in 1103 banished William Giffard [q.v.], the bishop-elect of Winchester, for refusing to receive consecration from Gerard [q.v.] of York. He was anxious for a settlement of the question, and willingly gave Anselm license to go to Rome. Henry was relieved from some anxiety by the death of Magnus Barefoot, king of Norway, who was slain while invading Ireland, and he enriched himself by seizing on 20,000l. deposited by the Norwegian king with a citizen of Lincoln. Some interference in the affairs of Normandy was forced on the king by the attacks made on his son-in-law, Eustace of Pacy, lord of Breteuil, the husband of his natural daughter, Juliana. Robert of Meulan was sent to threaten the duke and his lords with the king's displeasure unless they helped Eustace, and his mission was successful (Orderic, p. 811). Duke Robert came over to England, and was persuaded by the queen to give up the pension of three thousand marks which the king had agreed to pay him (Flor. Wig. ii. 52; Gesta Regum, v. 395). Normandy was in a state of confusion. Henry's enemies, and above all Robert of Bellême, who was now in alliance with the duke, were active, and were joined by William of Mortain, one of the king's bitterest foes, who claimed the earldom of Kent as heir of Bishop Odo. Since the overthrow of Robert of Bellême the king had become too strong for the nobles. William was tried in 1104 and sentenced to banishment. He went over to Normandy and attacked some of the castles belonging to men of the king's party. Henry himself crossed with a considerable fleet, and visited Domfront and other towns, apparently those held by the lords who also had English estates. In an interview with Robert he complained of his alliance with Robert of Bellême and of his general misgovernment. Robert purchased peace by ceding to him the lordship of the county of Evreux. Henry's lords seem to have fought with some success. The king returned before Christmas. It was a time of trouble in England; for he was determined to invade Normandy, and accordingly taxed his subjects to raise funds for his expedition. He was collecting an army, and, as he had not yet made his decree against military wrongdoing, his soldiers oppressed the people, plundering, burning, and slaying (A.-S. Chron. sub an.). He held his Christmas court at Windsor, and in Lent 1105 left England with a large force. He landed at Barfleur, and spent Easter day at Carentan. Thither came Serlo, bishop of Seez, who had been driven out of his see by Robert of Bellême, and prepared to celebrate mass. The king and his lords were sitting at the bottom of the church, among the goods and utensils which the country-folk had placed there to preserve them from plunder. Serlo called on the king to look at these signs of the misery of the people, and exhorted him to deliver them and the church from those who oppressed them. He wound up by inveighing against the custom of wearing long hair which prevailed among the men of the English court, and spoke to such good effect that the king allowed him then and there to shear off his locks, and the courtiers followed the king's example (Orderic, p. 816). Geoffrey, count of Anjou, and Elias, count of Maine, came to his help; Bayeux, with its churches, was burnt, and Caen, where the treasure of the duchy was kept, was bribed to surrender. On 22 July Henry met Anselm at Laigle. There was some talk of a possible excommunication, which would have damaged his position. The interview was amicable, and terms were almost arranged. Although he won many of the Norman barons over by gifts, he failed to take Falaise, and found it impossible to complete the conquest of the duchy that year. He returned to England in August. (For this expedition see ib. pp. 816-18; Henry of Huntingdon, p. 235; Versus Serlonis, Recueil des Historiens, xix. præf. xcj; Norgate, Angevin Kings, i. 11.) On his return he laid a tax on the clergy, who kept their wives in disobedience to Anselm's canon, and, finding that it brought in little, extended it to all the secular clergy alike. A large number appeared before him at London in vestments and with bare feet, but he drove them from his presence. Then they laid their griefs before the queen, who burst into tears and said she dared not interfere (Eadmer, iv. col. 457). Robert of Bellême came over to endeavour to obtain the king's pardon, and was sent back indignant at his failure. Duke Robert also came early in 1106 and found the king at Northampton; he failed to persuade the king to give up his conquests and make peace. Contrary to his usual custom, Henry held no court at Easter or Whitsuntide, and spent the one feast at Bath and the other at Salisbury. In July he again went over to Normandy. On 15 Aug. he had a satisfactory interview with Anselm at Bec, and the archbishop returned to England. At Caen he received a visit from Robert of Estouteville, one of the duke's party, who offered to surrender the town of Dives to him, proposing that he should go thither with only a few men. Henry did so, and found that a trap had been laid for him, for he was attacked by a large number. Nevertheless, his men routed their assailants and burnt both castle and monastery (Orderic, p. 819). He raised a fort outside Tinchebray, a town between Vire and Flers, belonging to the Count of Mortain, and stationed one of his lords there to blockade the place. As the count succeeded in introducing men and stores, and the siege made no progress, Henry appeared before the town in person. Robert and his army found him there on 2 Sept. Henry's army, which comprised allies from Anjou, Maine, and Brittany, had the larger number of knights, while Robert had more foot-soldiers. The clergy urged the king not to fight with his brother. Henry listened to their exhortations, and sent to Robert, representing that he was not actuated by greed or by a desire to deprive him of his dukedom, but by compassion for the people who were suffering from anarchy, and offering to be content with half the duchy, the strong places, and the government of the whole, while Robert should enjoy the revenues of the other half in idleness. Robert refused. Both armies fought on foot, with the exception of the duke's first line, and Henry's Breton and Cenomannian cavalry, which he placed at some little distance from his main body under the command of Count Elias. The Count of Mortain, who led the first line of the ducal army, charged the king's first line under Ranulf of Bayeux and shook without routing it. Then Elias with his cavalry fell on the flank of the duke's second line of foot, and cut down 225. Thereupon Robert of Bellême, who commanded the rear of the army, fled, and the whole of the duke's forces were scattered (ib. p. 821; Henry of Huntingdon, p. 235). The duke, the Count of Mortain, Robert of Estouteville, and other lords were made prisoners, and the battle completed the conquest of the duchy. It was regarded as an English victory, and a reversal of the battle of Hastings, fought almost on the same day forty years before, for it made Normandy a dependency of the English crown (Will. of Malm. v. 398; Norman Conquest, v. 176). The war in Normandy helped on Henry's work of consolidating the Norman and English races in England, and this process was still further forwarded by his later wars with France. His subjects in England of either race were counted Englishmen as opposed to Normans or Frenchmen (Angevin Kings, i. 23, 24). Duke Robert was kept a prisoner until his death in 1134; there is no ground for the story current in the thirteenth century (Ann. Monast. ii. 50, iv. 15, 378) that he was blinded (Orderic, p. 823). Henry caused William of Mortain to be blinded, and kept him in prison until he died. In the middle of October he held a council of the Norman lords at Lisieux, in which he resumed the grants made by his brother, and ordered the destruction of all ‘adulterine’ or unlicensed castles, and at the same time held a council of the Norman church. In order to accustom the Norman lords to his rule he held a court at Falaise the following January, and it was there probably that he caused Robert of Montfort sur Risle to be tried for disloyalty and banished by legal process. In March he again held a council at Lisieux, and settled the affairs of the duchy, where he pursued the same policy as in England, depressing the baronage and protecting the lower classes from tyranny and violence (ib.). He returned to England in Lent, and according to his custom held courts at Easter and Whitsuntide, the first at Windsor, the second at Westminster. On 1 Aug. he held a council at Westminster, at which the terms of the compromise between the crown and the papacy were finally settled [see under Anselm]. The issue of the struggle was that the church was freed from the feudal character which had gradually, and especially in the reign of Rufus, been imposed upon it, and that the king tacitly recognised a limitation of secular authority. On the other hand, Henry surrendered a shadow and kept the substance of power; for the appointment of bishops remained as much as before in the king's hands. At this council five vacant sees were filled by the consecration of bishops, some of whom had been elected long before. One of the new bishops, Roger, consecrated to the see of Salisbury, formerly the king's chancellor, was now made justiciar. Henry used the revenues and offices of the church as a means of rewarding his ministers, whom he chose from the clergy rather than from the baronial class. He employed Bishop Roger to develope a system of judicial and fiscal administration. The curia regis, or king's court, became specially active in judicial matters, and while the three solemn courts were regularly held, at which the king came to decisions on more important judicial cases in the presence, and theoretically by the advice, of his counsellors, the permanent court of which he, or in his absence his justiciar, was the head, and which was composed of the great officers of the household and any others whom he might select, gained greater distinctness; the king further sent out justices to go on circuit to transact judicial business and to settle and enforce the rights of the crown. The court of exchequer was organised for the purpose of royal finance; it seems to have consisted of the justiciar and the other ordinary members of the curia regis, and to have been the body which received the royal revenue from the various officers appointed to collect it. Its business was recorded, and the earliest exchequer roll known to be in existence is that of the thirty-first year of Henry I. From this it appears that the royal revenue was then fully 66,000l. The ordinary direct taxes were the danegeld, the ferm, or composition paid by the shires, and certain fixed amounts paid by towns. Besides these sources of revenue there were, among others, the feudal incidents, the sale of offices, and the profits of the royal jurisdiction (see Constitutional History, i. 376-91; Angevin Kings, i. 25-7). In July 1108 Henry again crossed over to Normandy, where trouble was beginning. He had given Robert's son William, called ‘Clito,’ into the charge of Elias of Saint-Saen, and now, by the advice of his courtiers, wanted to get hold of the lad. An attempt to seize him in the absence of Elias failed, and his guardian refused to give him up, and when Henry took his castle from him, went from one lord to another asking help for his young charge. Many of the Norman nobles were ready to uphold their old duke's son, and his cause was favoured by several of the great French feudatories, and by Louis VI, who, after his father's death, was crowned king on 3 Aug. (Orderic, pp. 837, 838). During all the earlier part of 1109 Henry remained in Normandy, and in the course of the next year a quarrel broke out between him and Louis about the border fortress of Gisors. According to the French statement an agreement had been made between them, when Henry conquered the duchy, that Gisors should be a kind of neutral ground, and should belong to neither of them. Henry, however, turned out the castellan and made it his own. Louis gathered a large army and marched to meet him at the town of Neauffles; the Epte flowed between the two armies, and could only be crossed by a crazy bridge. Messengers came to Henry from Louis asserting his grievance and offering to decide the matter by combat. Henry would not hear of this. After some altercation Louis offered to fight the matter out if Henry would allow the French army to cross over the river, but Henry answered that if Louis came over to the Norman side he would find him ready to defend his land. The two armies retired each to its own quarters. This was the beginning of a long border warfare between the Normans and the French, during which Louis did much harm to the castles and lands on the Norman march (Suger, Vita Ludovici Grossi, ap. Recueil, xii. 27, 28). About 1111 Theobald, count of Blois, Henry's nephew, relying on his uncle's help, began to make war on Louis on his own account (ib. p. 35). Meanwhile Henry continued his work of repressing the baronage, and in 1110 banished from England Philip of Braiose, William Malet, and William Bainard, and confiscated their lands. While he was fighting in Normandy he kept England at peace. In 1111 Fulk V of Anjou joined Louis against him, for Fulk had married the daughter and heiress of Elias of Maine, and on the death of his father-in-law revived the old claim of his house on Maine; the war increased in importance, and Henry remained in Normandy for about two years. He seems to have acted warily, to have trusted much to good management and bribes, and to have avoided actual fighting as much as possible. He caught his old enemy, Robert of Bellême, sent him over to an English prison, and captured his town of Alençon. The Norman barons were not universally faithful, and Henry banished the Count of Evreux and William Crispin. By the beginning of 1113 the war seems to have died out. Henry spent the festival of the Purification (2 Feb.) at the monastery of Evroul, and early in Lent met Fulk at Pierre-Pécoulée, near Alençon, and there made peace with him, for, as he had by gifts won over to his side many of the nobles of Maine, the count was not unwilling to come to terms; he did homage to Henry for Maine, and promised to give his daughter in marriage to Henry's son William. Henry pardoned the Count of Evreux and some other banished lords. Shortly afterwards Henry and Louis made peace at Gisors. The amount of Henry's success may be gauged by the concessions of the French king, who acknowledged his right to Bellême, Maine, and all Brittany. He received the homage of the Count of Brittany, subdued the forces which held out in Bellême, and then returned to England. During Henry's reign the English power in Wales was strengthened by colonisation and conquest. The English regarded with dislike the large number of Flemish which had settled in their country since the Conquest, and Henry in 1111 settled them in the southern part of Dyfed or Pembrokeshire, where they formed a vigorous Teutonic colony, held their ground against the Welsh, and converted a land originally Welsh into an outlying English district, ‘Little England beyond Wales’ (Gesta Regum, iv. 311, v. 401; Flor. Wig. ii. 64; Orderic, p. 900; Ann. Cambriæ, an. 1106; Freeman, English Towns and Districts, pp. 33-9). Barnard, an English bishop of Norman race, was appointed to the see of St. David's, and professed obedience to Canterbury (Councils and Eccl. Docs. i. 307); obedience was likewise professed by the Bishop of Llandaff, who was consecrated by Anselm in 1107. Owen, the prince of Powys, caused a good deal of trouble, and carried on constant wars against the Normans and Flemings until he was slain in 1116. After one of his raids Henry granted the present Cardiganshire to Gilbert of Clare, who subdued the district in 1111. After his return from Normandy, Henry, in the summer of 1114, led a large army into Wales against Gruffyd of North Wales and Owen. On his approach the Welsh made peace with him, and after ordering castles to be built he returned, and on 21 Sept. embarked at Portsmouth for Normandy, where he remained until the following July. His relations with Scotland, where three of his wife's brothers reigned in succession, were uniformly peaceful. David I [q.v.], the queen's youngest brother, passed his youth at the English court, and Henry gave him an English wife and an English earldom. At the same time he was careful to strengthen the borders against the Scots as well as against the Welsh. The eastern border he gave in charge to Ranulf Flambard, bishop of Durham, whom he reinstated in his see in 1107 (Orderic, p. 833); over the western border he first set an earl of Carlisle, and on his death divided the district of Carlisle into baronies, and gave it a county organisation. He also carried on the work begun by his brother of making Carlisle an English city by completing the monastery of Austin canons, and making it the cathedral church of a bishop of Carlisle. In 1114 he sent his daughter Matilda over to Germany to be the wife of the Emperor Henry V; at the time of her betrothal in 1110 he had levied an aid which the English chronicler says was specially burdensome because it came in a year of scarcity. When he was in Normandy in 1115 he made all the barons do homage and swear fealty to his son William as heir to the duchy, and on 19 March 1116 he caused the prelates, nobles, and barons throughout the whole of England to do the like at an assembly which he held at Salisbury (Anglo-Saxon Chron. a. 1115; Flor. Wig. ii. 69; Eadmer, Historia Novorum, v. col. 496; Dr. Stubbs considers this to have been a general muster of landowners, Constitutional History, i. 358; and William of Malmesbury says that the oath was taken by all freemen of every degree in England and Normandy, Gesta Regum, v. 419. In the face of the English chronicler and Florence this may perhaps be put down as merely rhetorical). After Easter Henry again visited Normandy, and, taking up the quarrel of his nephew Theobald with Louis VI, sent forces into France, took the castle of St. Clair, and did much damage. Provoked by this invasion, Louis adopted the cause of Robert's son William, and attacked Normandy, and, as he knew that the dukes had thoroughly fortified the border, seized by a clever stratagem a little town called Gue Nichaise, where there was a bridge across the Epte. Henry tried to blockade him by building two forts against his quarters, but Louis called them ‘Malassis’ and ‘hare's-form’ (trulla leporis), stormed Malassis, and carried on a desultory warfare (Suger, p. 43; Orderic, p. 842). The French king was joined by Baldwin of Flanders and Fulk of Anjou, who combined with him to place William Clito in possession of Normandy. Many of the Norman barons revolted, and Amaury of Montfort, who claimed Evreux, the fief of his uncle William, was active in gaining fresh adherents to the league against Henry. During 1117 Henry remained in Normandy, and in the following year matters became serious. While Count Baldwin was mortally wounded at Eu, and the king did not suffer any important defeat, the defection of his lords still continued. On 1 May of this year his queen, Matilda, died, and he also lost his faithful counsellor, Robert of Meulan. To this time also is to be referred a conspiracy which was made by one of his chamberlains to assassinate him. The plot was discovered, and the traitor punished by mutilation. It is said to have had a considerable effect on the king; he increased his guards, often changed his sleeping-place, and would not sleep without having a shield and sword close at hand (Suger, p. 44; Gesta Regum, v. 411). Hearing that Richer of Laigle had admitted the French into his town, he marched against it, but was stopped by William of Tancarville, who brought him false news that Hugh of Gournay, Stephen of Albemarle, and others of his rebellious lords were at Rouen. When he found that they were not there, he attacked Hugh of Gournay's castle, la Ferté, but heavy rain forced him to abandon the siege. Having laid waste the country he attacked and burnt Neubourg. In September he seized Henry of Eu and Hugh of Gournay at Rouen, imprisoned them, and reduced their castles. He held a council at Rouen in October, and endeavoured to make peace with his lords. While he was there Amaury of Montfort made himself master of Evreux. About the middle of November he attacked Laigle, and was hit on the head by a stone sent from the castle by the French garrison; his helmet, however, protected him. In December Alençon rebelled against his nephews Theobald and Stephen, and was occupied by Fulk of Anjou. Henry had caused Eustace de Pacy, the husband of his natural daughter Juliana and lord of Breteuil, to send him his two little daughters as hostages for his good faith, and had put a castellan, Ralph Harenc, in charge of his tower of Ivry, making him send his son as a hostage to Eustace. By the advice of Amaury of Montfort, Eustace, who was on the rebels' side, put out the boy's eyes. On this Henry, in great wrath, sent his two grand-daughters to Harenc that he might serve them in the same way. Harenc tore out their eyes, and cut off the tips of their noses. Their parents then fortified all their castles against Henry, and Juliana gathered a force, and shut herself in the castle of Breteuil. The townsmen who were loyal sent to Henry, and he appeared before the castle in February 1119. Juliana tried to kill her father by a shot from an engine. She failed, and was forced to offer to surrender. Her father would not allow her to leave the castle except by letting herself down into the moat and wading through the icy water (Orderic, p. 848; De Contemptu Mundi, p. 311; Lingard, ii. 12). During the early months of the year the war went on much as in the year before; the Norman lords still remained disloyal, Louis took Andelys, which was held by the king's natural son Richard, by surprise, and the French became masters of all the neighbouring country. Henry was losing ground, and Amaury of Montfort scornfully rejected his offer of reconciliation. In May 1120 Henry joyfully received his son William, who came over to him from England. The object of his coming was shown by the despatch of messengers to Count Fulk to propose that the marriage contract between William and Fulk's daughter Matilda should be fulfilled. Fulk agreed and made peace with Henry, offering to end the ancient dispute between the houses of Normandy and Anjou by settling Maine upon his daughter, and to give up Alençon provided that the king would restore it to William Talvas, son of Robert of Bellême, and heir of its ancient lords (Orderic, p. 851; Suger, p. 45; Gesta Regum, v. 419). This marriage, which was celebrated in June at Lisieux, changed the aspect of the war, for the alliance with Count Fulk enabled Henry to devote all his energies to repelling Louis and punishing his rebellious vassals. In the summer he made a terrible raid on the disloyal lords; he laid siege to Evreux, and finding it well defended called the Bishop Audoin to him, for Audoin, in common with the bishops and clergy of the duchy generally, was loyal to Henry, and asked him whether it would not be well for him to fire the town provided that if the churches were burnt he would rebuild them. As the bishop hesitated to give an answer, the king set fire to the town and burnt it, churches and all, he and his nobles giving the bishop ample pledges that he would rebuild the churches, which he afterwards did. When Amaury heard that his town was burnt, he sent to Louis for help. On 20 Aug. Henry, who had heard mass that morning at Noyon, was riding towards Andelys to make war, with five hundred of his best knights, when his scouts told him that the French king, who had ridden out from Andelys with four hundred knights, was close at hand. The two bands met on the plain of Brenneville. Besides William the Ætheling two of Henry's natural sons, Robert and Richard, fought in their father's company; Richard with a hundred knights remained mounted, the rest of Henry's knights fought on foot. Among the knights of Louis fought William of Normandy. Louis neglected to marshal his force; William Crispin, a rebel Norman, charged Henry's forces with eighty horse. He and his men were surrounded, but he made his way to the king and struck him a deadly blow on the head, but Henry's headpiece saved him, though it was broken by the blow, and wounded his head so that the blood flowed. All the eighty knights were taken. A body of knights from the Vexin for a moment shook the Norman lines, but was quickly repulsed. When Louis saw that William Crispin and the knights whom he led did not return from their charge, he and his men took flight, and the Normans pursued some of the fugitives as far as Andelys. Henry's men took 140 prisoners and the banner of the French king. Henry returned this banner to Louis together with his charger, and William the Ætheling sent back the charger of his cousin William of Normandy. Henry also sent back without ransom some knights who owed allegiance to Louis as well as to himself. Only three knights were slain out of the nine hundred engaged in the fight; for all were clad in complete armour, and on both sides there was a feeling of knightly comradeship which prevented any sanguinary conflict; indeed the aim of both sides was rather to make prisoners than to slay the enemy. The whole affair was more like a great tournament than a battle (Orderic, pp. 853-5; Suger, p. 45; Henry of Huntingdon, p. 241, where some details are probably untrustworthy). Louis raised a large force and overran part of Normandy and Chartres, gaining nothing by his raid, while Henry organised his army. In October Louis, who evidently felt himself overmatched, appeared before Calixtus II at the Council of Rheims, and made his complaints against the English king. Geoffrey, archbishop of Rouen, rose to reply to the charges brought against his lord, but the council would not hear him. The pope, however, was anxious to make peace with the emperor, and did not care to offend the father of the empress. Meanwhile Henry received the submission of several rebel lords, and was reconciled to Amaury of Montfort, Eustace, and Juliana, Hugh of Gournay, and others, who agreed, though against their wills, to let William Clito and Elias of St.-Saen remain in exile. In November he met the pope at Gisors, and replied in person to the charges brought against him by Louis of usurping the inheritance of his brother and nephew, declaring that he had offered to make William earl of three counties in England, and to bring him up with his own son. His answers on these and other points thoroughly satisfied the pope, by whose intercession a peace was arranged in 1120 between Henry and Louis and the Count of Flanders; all conquests were to be restored, captives liberated, and offences pardoned, and Louis accepted the homage of Henry's son, and thus gave a pledge that he should succeed to his father's fiefs (Orderic, p. 866; Norman Conquest, v. 193). Henry thus passed safely and honourably through the most dangerous crisis of his reign. After devoting some time to settling the affairs of the duchy, he embarked at Barfleur on 25 Nov. to return to England, from which he had been absent for four years. His only legitimate son, William, was to follow him, with his half-brother Richard, his half-sister the Countess of Perche, many young lords and ladies, and the king's treasure, in the White Ship. The ship foundered, and all were drowned except a butcher of Rouen. Although Henry's lords were mourning their own losses, they concealed the disaster from the king for a day after the news had come, for they feared to tell him. At last the young son of Count Theobald knelt before him and told him of his loss. Henry fell senseless to the ground, and though in a few days he restrained his grief, and applied himself to his kingly business, he was deeply affected by his son's death (Orderic, pp. 868 sq.; Gesta Regum, v. 419; Henry of Huntingdon, p. 242; Symeon, ii. 259; Wace, ll. 10203-10288; Benoit, ll. 41039-41152). The disaster ruined his schemes at the very moment when their success appeared certain, and when it seemed as though nothing could prevent his son from inheriting both his kingdom and duchy. All his dominions would now naturally pass at his death to his enemy, William Clito. By the advice of his counsellors he married again, taking to wife, on 29 Jan. 1121, Adela, or Adelaide, daughter of Godfrey VII, count of Louvain, in the hope of having a son by her, and also, it is said, to keep himself from disgraceful conduct (Gesta Regum, v. 419; Eadmer, col. 517). Unfortunately the marriage proved barren. After Whitsuntide Henry led an army into Wales, where the natives had taken advantage of the death of the Earl of Chester to rise in revolt. He marched as far as Snowdon (Symeon, ii. 264), and received the submission of the Welsh nobles, who gave him their sons as hostages, and paid him tribute, so that he is said to have fully subdued the land (Giraldus Cambrensis, iii. 152). While on this expedition, and as the army was passing through English territory, he was hit by an arrow which was shot at him secretly. His armour saved him from harm. The man who made the attempt was not discovered, and Henry swore ‘by God's death,’ his favourite oath, that he was no Welshman, but one of his own subjects (Gesta Regum, v. 401). Shortly before this time Henry brought to a close a quarrel with Thurstan, archbishop of York. His rule was as despotic in ecclesiastical as in civil matters, and in both alike he maintained the principle of holding to the hereditary rights of the crown. After the death of Anselm in 1109, he broke the promise of his coronation charter by keeping the see of Canterbury vacant until 1114, when he summoned the suffragan bishops and the monks of Christ Church to Windsor, and allowed the election of Ralph, bishop of Rochester, to the archbishopric. This election led to a dispute with Pope Paschal II, who in 1115 wrote to Henry, complaining that his legates were shut out from the kingdom, and that he translated bishops without papal license. On the other hand, the king informed the bishops that the pope had infringed the privileges enjoyed by his father and brother. He commanded Thurstan, the archbishop-elect of York, to make profession to Archbishop Ralph. Thurstan refused, and was upheld in his refusal by Pope Paschal and his successors, Gelasius II and Calixtus II. A long quarrel ensued, in which Henry upheld the rights of Canterbury. He allowed Thurstan to attend the pope's council at Rheims in 1119, on his promising that he would not receive consecration from the pope, and so evade the profession, and allowed the English prelates to go thither also, warning them that, as he intended to abide by the ancient customs and privileges of his realm, they had better not bring back any idle innovations. Finding that Thurstan, in spite of his promise, was trying to obtain consecration from Calixtus, he charged the bishops to prevent it. They were too late, and the pope consecrated Thurstan, whereupon the king forbade him to enter England, and seized the estates of his see. Nor would Henry at Gisors assent to the pope's demand for his restoration. Thurstan, however, did Henry a service by forwarding the negotiations with Louis, and Henry allowed him to return, and gave him the temporalities (Eadmer, v. col. 499 sq.; Hugh the Chantor, pp. 129 sq.). Although Henry sent the young widow of his son back to her father against his own will¾for, besides her importance as a kind of hostage for Count Fulk's conduct, he seems to have been fond of her (Orderic, p. 875)¾he did not return the money which formed part of her dower, nor would he satisfy the envoys from the count who came to his court, probably on this matter, at Christmas 1122. The settlement of the county of Maine, however, was broken by William's death, and Fulk was induced, partly by his anger at the retention of the dower, and partly by the persuasions of Louis of France and Amaury of Montfort, count of Evreux, to give the county to William Clito, to whom he betrothed his second daughter Sibyl. At the same time in 1123 a revolt was excited among the Norman lords, chiefly through the instrumentality of Amaury and of Waleran of Meulan, the son of Henry's late counsellor. Henry heard of the movement, and crossed over from Portsmouth immediately after Whitsuntide, leaving his kingdom under the care of his justiciar, Roger, bishop of Salisbury, who was at this period, after the king himself, all powerful both in church and state. In September the rebels met at Croix-St. Leuffroy, and arranged their plans. As soon as Henry knew of their meeting, he gathered his forces at Rouen, and took the field in October. His promptitude would have taken them by surprise had they not received timely warning from Hugh of Montfort, of whom the king required the surrender of his castle. Henry burnt Montfort, and forced the garrison to surrender the fortress, and then laid siege to Pont Audemer, the town of Waleran. The town was burnt, but the castle was held by a strong garrison, partly composed of men who had pretended to be on Henry's side, while some, the poet Luke de Barré among them, were fierce and valiant warriors. In spite of his age Henry was as active during this siege as the youngest soldier of his army, superintending everything himself, teaching the carpenters how to build a tower against the castle, scolding bad workmen, and praising the industrious, and urging them on to do more. At last, after a siege of six weeks, the castle was surrendered. On the other hand Gisors was taken by a treacherous stratagem. Henry at once hastened thither, and the rebels evacuated the town on his approach. In returning he seized Evreux. Heavy rains compelled him for a time to forbear further operations. While his rebellious lords seem to have been no match for him, their attempts gained importance from the fact that they were upheld by Louis, who was ready, if matters went ill with Henry, to take a prominent part in the war. In order to prevent this, Henry's son-in-law, the emperor, threatened France with an invasion, but did not advance further than Metz (Suger, pp. 49, 50; Otto of Freising, vii. 16). A decisive blow was struck on 25 March 1124, when Ranulf of Bayeux, who held Evreux for the king, defeated a large force led by Waleran, and took him and many others captive at Bourgthéroulde. This battle virtually ended the war, and after Easter Henry pronounced sentence on the rebel prisoners at Rouen. Many were imprisoned, Hugh of Montfort being confined miserably at Gloucester. Waleran, whose sister was one of the king's mistresses, was kept in prison in England until 1129, and then pardoned and received into favour. Two rebels who had forsworn themselves were condemned to lose their eyes. A like doom was pronounced against the warrior poet, Luke de Barré, for he had mortally offended the king by his satirical verses, as well as by his repeated attacks upon him. Charles, count of Flanders, who chanced to be at the court, and many nobles remonstrated at this, for, as they pleaded, Luke was not one of Henry's men, and was taken while fighting for his own lord. Henry acknowledged this, but would not remit his sentence, for he said that Luke had made his enemies laugh at him. Luke escaped his doom by dashing out his own brains (Orderic, pp. 880, 881). The king's success was crowned by the publication of a papal decree, obtained by his persuasion, annulling the marriage contract between William Clito and the daughter of the Count of Anjou, on account of consanguinity (ib. p. 838; D'Achery, Spicilegium, iii. 497). The war cost much money, and Englishmen moaned over the burdens which were laid upon them; ‘those who had goods,’ the chronicler writes, ‘were bereft of them by strong gelds and strong motes; he who had none starved with hunger.’ The law was enforced vigorously, and sometimes probably unjustly; at Huncote in Leicestershire the king's justices at one time hanged forty-four men as thieves, and mutilated six others, some of whom, it was generally believed, were innocent. At the end of the year Henry sent from Normandy, commanding that severe measures should be taken against debasers of the coin, which had deteriorated so much that it was said that a pound was not worth a penny in the market. The offenders were punished with mutilation. On the death of his son-in-law the emperor in 1125, Henry sent for his daughter Matilda, who went back to him, and in September 1126 he returned to England with his queen, his daughter, and his prisoners. Finding that it was unlikely that his queen would have children, he determined to secure the succession for his daughter, and at the following Christmas assembly at Westminster caused the prelates and barons to swear that if he died without a male heir they would receive Matilda as Lady both of England and Normandy. Among those who took this oath were David, king of Scots, who had come to the English court at Michaelmas, and Stephen, count of Boulogne, the king's nephew, and the brother of Count Theobald (Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, sub an. 1127; William of Malmesbury, Historia Novella, i. 2, 3; Symeon, ii. 281; Cont. William of Jumièges, viii. 25). It was afterwards asserted by Bishop Roger of Salisbury that this oath was taken on the king's promise that he would not give his daughter in marriage to any one out of the kingdom without the advice of his chief men; this assertion was probably untrue. Henry's move must have seemed strange to the men of his time, for no woman had hitherto reigned in her own right either over England or Normandy; it was meant to put an end to the hopes of the party which supported William Clito, and so to give stability to Henry's position during the rest of his reign, as well as to secure the succession after his death. By way of answer to this oath of succession, Louis again took up the cause of William, who, since the papal decree against his marriage had been finally enforced, had been forsaken by his friends, gave him to wife Jane of Montferrat, the half-sister of his queen, and invested him with the grant of the French Vexin. Moreover, when Charles, count of Flanders, died on 1 March 1127, he gave the county to William as the heir of Baldwin V. Henry was himself one of the claimants, and sent his nephew Stephen, whose county of Boulogne was a Flemish fief, to press his claim. Stephen was unsuccessful, and the favour shown to William by the French king and the rapid rise in his nephew's fortunes forced him to take measures to prevent another combination being formed against him. Accordingly he made alliance with Fulk of Anjou, and at Whitsuntide sent his daughter and heiress to Normandy, under the charge of her half-brother, Robert, earl of Gloucester, to become the wife of Fulk's son Geoffrey. He also made alliance with Theodoric of Alsace, who claimed to succeed to the county, and with a strong party among the Flemings against William and the French king. In August he crossed over to Normandy, and in order to prevent Louis from giving help to William upheld Amaury of Montfort in a quarrel with the French king (Suger, p. 56); invaded France, though probably without any idea of making conquests; encamped for a week at Epernon, one of Amaury's chief possessions, without being attacked (Henry of Huntingdon, p. 247), and by this means kept Louis from marching into Flanders. At Whitsuntide 1128 he knighted Geoffrey with much ceremony at Rouen, and then proceeded with him and Matilda to Le Mans, where on the octave of the feast Geoffrey and Matilda were married in his presence in the cathedral (Historia Gaufredi ap. Recueil, xii. 520, 521; for date see Angevin Kings, i. 258). The marriage was unpopular in England, Normandy, and Maine; the English were not pleased at the heiress to the crown marrying out of the country, while the people of both Normandy and Maine had a long-standing hatred for the Angevin house. It promised, however, to turn the most dangerous of Henry's enemies into an assured friend, to put an end to the designs of the counts of Anjou on Maine, and to add Anjou to the inheritance of his descendants. In the last days of July he heard that his nephew was dead, and received a letter from him, asking his pardon, and praying that he would be gracious to such of his friends as might come to him. He agreed to this request, released some of his nephew's adherents from prison, and allowed them and others to have their lands again. William's death relieved him from all further attempts on the part of Louis to shake his power, and robbed the nobles of Normandy of the weapon which they had so often used against him. His good fortune was soon chequered, for shortly after he landed in England, in July 1129, he heard that Geoffrey had quarrelled with his wife, and that she had returned to Rouen (Symeon, ii. 283). Towards the end of the year he scandalised the English bishops by a trick to raise money. With his concurrence William of Corbeuil, archbishop of Canterbury, held a synod at Michaelmas 1127, at which it was ordered that married priests should put away their wives. Nevertheless after his return the king allowed the clergy to keep their wives by paying him a fine (Henry of Huntingdon, p. 251). On 4 May following, the repairs of Christ Church, Canterbury, being finished, he attended the consecration, and there is a story that when the anthem ‘Terribilis est locus’ was sung with a trumpet accompaniment, he was so much moved that he swore aloud that by God's death the place was indeed awful (Oseney Annals, p. 19). Four days later he went to Rochester, where another monastic and cathedral church was to be dedicated, and while he was there the city was almost destroyed by fire. At Michaelmas he went to Normandy to his daughter. Innocent II was then in France, having been forced to leave Rome by the supporters of his rival Anaclete. Henry was urged to take the side of Anaclete, who was, it is said, favoured by the English bishops. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, persuaded him otherwise, and he left his own dominions and came to Chartres to meet Innocent, promised him his support, and afterwards received him at Rouen with much honour, and used all his influence on his behalf (Henry of Huntingdon, p. 251; Historia Novella, i. 6; Arnulf of Seez ap. Muratori, iii. 436; Acta SS., Mabillon, ii., Vita S. Bernardi, ii. 4). He returned to England with Matilda in July 1131, and soon received a message from Geoffrey asking that his wife should come back to him. By the advice of a great council held at Northampton on 8 Sept., it was decided that his request should be granted, and Henry again required all the nobles who were present to swear fealty to Matilda as his successor. During 1132 he remained in England, and at Christmas lay sick at Windsor. The following Easter he kept at Oxford at the ‘new hall,’ which he had just completed; this was Beaumont Palace, outside the north gate of the city (Wood, City of Oxford, p. 366; Boase, Oxford, pp. 28, 62; the suggestion in Henry of Huntingdon, ed. Arnold, p. 253 n., that it was Oxford Castle is erroneous). The birth of his grandson, afterwards Henry II, on 5 March, seemed to secure the success of his policy, and in August he embarked, for the last time, for Normandy, to see the child. An eclipse of the sun which took place during his voyage was afterwards held to have been ominous (Anglo-Saxon Chron. a. 1135; Historia Novella, i. 8). Matilda joined him at Rouen, and there, at Whitsuntide 1134, bore a second son named Geoffrey. He took much delight in his little grandchildren, and stayed at Rouen contentedly until, in 1135, he heard that the Welsh had made an insurrection and had burnt a castle belonging to Pain Fitzjohn [q.v.]. In great wrath he bade his men prepare to return to England, and was thrice on the point of embarking, but was prevented by fresh troubles. His son-in-law claimed certain castles in Normandy, which he asserted had been promised to him at the time of his marriage; and, according to a later story (Robert of Torigni, a. 1135, which receives some confirmation from Orderic, p. 900; see Angevin Kings, i. 269), seems to have demanded to receive fealty for all Henry's strong places in England and Normandy. Henry indignantly declared that so long as he lived he would make no one his master or his equal in his own house. Geoffrey destroyed the castle of the viscount of Beaumont, the husband of one of Henry's natural daughters, and behaved so insultingly towards him that he threatened to take Matilda back with him to England. But he was unable to leave Normandy, for some of the nobles were disaffected and held with the count. Chief among these were William Talvas and Roger of Toesny. He kept Roger quiet by sending a garrison to Conches, and when Talvas, after disregarding several summonses, fled to Angers, he made an expedition into his country and compelled the surrender of his castles. Matilda made frequent attempts to persuade him to pardon Talvas, and when Henry refused quarrelled with her father, and went off to Angers to her husband (Cont. William of Jumièges, viii. 34). Henry's health, which had now been failing for some time, was further impaired by the agitation brought on by these quarrels, and he fell sick while hunting in the forest of Lyons towards the end of November, his illness, it is said, being brought on by eating lampreys contrary to the orders of his physician (Henry of Huntingdon, p. 254). He became feverish, and, feeling that his end was near, sent for Hugh, archbishop of Rouen, by whose directions he remitted all sentences of forfeiture and banishment. To his son Robert, earl of Gloucester, the only one of his children who was with him, he gave 6,000l. from his treasury at Falaise, ordered that wages and gifts should be distributed among his household and mercenary soldiers (Orderic, p. 901), and declared Matilda heiress of all his dominions (Historia Novella, i. 8). He received absolution and the last sacrament, and died in peace (ib. c. 9), after a week's illness, on the night of 1 Dec., at the age of sixty-seven. It was afterwards asserted that he had on his deathbed repented of having caused his lords to swear to receive Matilda as his successor (Gesta Stephani, p. 7), and that he had on one occasion absolved them from their oath (Gervase, i. 94). His corpse was carried to Rouen, and was followed thither by twenty thousand men. There it was roughly embalmed, and his bowels having been buried in the church of St. Mary de Pre at Emandreville, near Rouen, which had been begun by his mother and finished by him, his body was taken to Caen, where it lay for a month in the church of St. Stephen, and thence, according to his orders, was brought over to England, and buried, on 4 Jan. 1136, in the church of the monastery which he had founded at Reading (ib. p. 95; Henry of Huntingdon, pp. 256, 257; Orderic, p. 901). Besides William and Matilda, his two legitimate children by his first wife, he had many natural children (for list see Cont. William of Jumièges, viii. 29; Lappenberg, p. 348). Of these the most noteworthy was Robert, earl of Gloucester [see Robert, d. 1147], who is said on insufficient grounds to have been the son of Nest or Nesta [q.v.] daughter of Rhys ap Tewdwr (d. 1093), king of Deheubarth, one of Henry's mistresses, who afterwards married Gerald of Windsor, constable of Pembroke Castle, by whom she had four children: Robert was probably born at Caen before his father's accession, and was most likely the son of a French mother (Norman Conquest, v. 851). He was the eldest of Henry's sons (Continuat. William of Jumièges, lib. viii. cap. 39). Of Henry's other natural children, Richard, and Matilda, wife of the Count of Perche, were both drowned in the White Ship; Reginald of Dunstanville, whose mother was Sibil, daughter and (in her issue) co-heir of Robert Corbet of Longden, Shropshire (Eyton, History of Shropshire, vii. 145, 159, 181), was created Earl of Cornwall in 1140, and died 1175 (Gesta Stephani, p. 65; see art. Reginald, Earl of Cornwall, d. 1175); Matilda was wife of Conan III of Brittany (Orderic, p. 544); Juliana, wife of Eustace of Pacy, lord of Breteuil; Constance, wife of Roscelin, viscount of Beaumont (Cont. William of Jumièges, viii. 29; Orderic, p. 900); and Sybilla, born to him by a sister of Waleran, count of Meulan, married Alexander I, king of Scotland, fourth son of Malcolm Canmore and Margaret, grand-niece of Edward the Confessor (ib. p. 702; Skene, Celtic Scotland, i. 448). By his mistress Nest or Nesta he was father of Henry ‘filius regis,’ who was slain in Anglesey in 1157 (Itinerarium Kambriæ, p. 130), and was also father of Meiler Fitzhenry [q.v.] and of Robert Fitzhenry (d. 1180?; Expugnatio Hiberniæ, p. 354). Sources: For Henry's birth and education, see Freeman's Norman Conquest, iv. 790-5; for his life before his accession and his reign to 1104, Freeman's William Rufus, passim; for his personal character, Norman Conquest, v. 839-45; for sketch of reign, ib. pp. 148-243; for state of England under him, and for his relations with Anjou, Miss Norgate's England under Angevin Kings, i. 1-96, 230-44, 261-71; for reign, especially as regards continental policy, Lappenberg's Norman Kings, pp. 276-356, trans. Thorpe; for constitutional aspect, Stubbs's Constitutional History, i. 303-18, and chap. xi. passim; for summary of events relating to his doings on the continent, index with references to Recueil des Historiens, xii. 934-7 (the chronological sequence is occasionally incorrect, but this is a matter of much doubt and difficulty owing to the confused character of the work of Orderic); William of Jumièges and Orderic, Hist. Norm. Scriptt. (Duchesne); Brevis Relatio (Giles); Anglo-Saxon Chron.; Henry of Huntingdon's Hist., with De Contemptu Mundi, Ann. Cambriæ, Descript. Kambriæap. Girald. Cambr. vol. iii., Annals of Waverley, Wykes, and Oseney ap. Ann. Monast. vols. ii. and iv., Hugh the Chantor ap. Archbishops of York, vol. ii., Symeon of Durham, and Gervase of Cant., all Rolls Ser.; Florence of Worc., William of Malm., Gesta Stephani, and William of Newburgh, all Engl. Hist. Soc.; Eadmer's Hist. Nov. and the Letters of S. Anselm, Patrol. Lat., Migne, vols. clviii. clix.; Map's De Nugis Curialium (Camd. Soc.); Hist. Dunelm. SS. tres (Surtees Soc.); Wace's Roman de Rou, ed. Andresen; Benoˆit, ed. Fr. Michel; John of Hexham, ed. Twysden; Suger's Vita Lud. Grossi, and Hist. Gaufr. Ducis ap. Recueil des Historiens, vol. xii.; Arnulf of Seez, tractatus ap. Rer. Ital. Scriptt. Muratori, vol. iii.; Vita S. Bernardi ap. Acta SS. O.S.B., Mabillon, vol. ii.; for Henry's English foundations, Dugdale's Monasticon, index, and references; Boase's Oxford and Creighton's Carlisle (Hist. Towns Ser.); Wood's City of Oxford (Oxf. Hist. Soc.) Contributor: W. H. [William Hunt] Published: 1891 Henry I was born in the year 1068---a factor he himself regarded as highly significant, for he was the only son of the Conqueror born after the conquest of England, and to Henry this meant he was heir to the throne. He was not an attractive proposition: he was dissolute to a degree, producing at least a score of bastards; but far worse he was prone to sadistic cruelty---on one occasion, for example, personally punishing a rebellious burgher by throwing him from the walls of his town. At the death of William the Conqueror, Henry was left no lands, merely 5,000 pounds of silver. With these he bought lands from his elder brother Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy, only to see them taken back again a few years later by Robert, in unholy alliance with his brother William Rufus. Henry could do little to avenge such treatment, but in England he found numerous barons who were tired of the exactions and ambitions of their king. He formed alliances with some of these, notably with the important de Clare family. He and some of the de Clares were with William Rufus on his last hunting expedition, and it is thought that the king's death was the result of Henry's plotting. Certainly he moved fast to take advantage of it; leaving Rufus's body unattended in the woods, he swooped down on Winchester to take control of the treasury. Two days later he was in Westminster, being crowned by the Bishop of London. His speed is understandable when one realises that his elder brother, Robert [Curthose], was returning from the crusade, and claimed, with good reason, to be the true heir. Henry showed great good sense in his first actions as King. He arrested Ranulph Flambard, William's tax-gatherer, and recalled Anselm, the exiled Archbishop. Furthermore, he issued a Charter of Liberties which promised speedy redress of grievances, and a return to the good government of the Conqueror. Putting aside for the moment his many mistresses, he married the sister of the King of Scots, who was descended from the royal line of Wessex; and lest the Norman barons should think him too pro-English in this action, he changed her name from Edith to Matilda. No one could claim that he did not aim to please. In 1101 Robert Curthose invaded, but Henry met him at Alton, and persuaded him to go away again by promising him an annuity of £2,000. He had no intention of keeping up the payments, but the problem was temporarily solved. He now felt strong enough to move against dissident barons who might give trouble in the future. Chief amongst these was the vicious Robert of Bellême, Earl of Shrewsbury, whom Henry had known for many years as a dangerous troublemaker. He set up a number of charges against him in the king's court, making it plain that if he appeared for trial he would be convicted and imprisoned. Thus Robert and his colleagues were forced into rebellion at a time not of their own choosing, were easily defeated and sent scuttling back to Normandy. In Normandy Robert Curthose began to wreak his wrath on all connected with his brother, thus giving Henry an excellent chance to retaliate with charges of misgovernment and invade. He made two expeditions in 1104-5, before the great expedition of 1106 on which Robert was defeated at the hour-long battle of Tinchebrai, on the anniversary of Hastings. No one had expected such an easy victory, but Henry took advantage of the state of shock resulting from the battle to annex Normandy. Robert was imprisoned (in some comfort, it be said); he lived on for 28 more years, ending up in Cardiff castle whiling away the long hours learning Welsh. His son William Clito remained a free agent, to plague Henry for most of the rest of his reign. In England the struggle with Anselm over the homage of bishops ran its course until the settlement of 1107. In matters of secular government life was more simple: Henry had found a brilliant administrator, Roger of Salisbury, to act as Justiciar for him. Roger had an inventive mind, a keen grasp of affairs, and the ability to single out young men of promise. He quickly built up a highly efficient team of administrators, and established new routines and forms of organisation within which they could work. To him we owe the Exchequer and its recording system of the Pipe Rolls, the circuits of royal justiciars spreading the king's peace, and the attempts at codification of law. Henry's good relationships with his barons, and with the burgeoning new towns owed much to skilful administration. Certainly he was able to gain a larger and more reliable revenue this way than by the crude extortion his brother had used. In 1120 came the tragedy of the White Ship. The court was returning to England, and the finest ship in the land was filled with its young men, including Henry's son and heir William. Riotously drunk, they tried to go faster and faster, when suddenly the ship foundered. All hands except a butcher of Rouen were lost, and England was without an heir. Henry's only legitimate child was Matilda, but she was married to the Emperor Henry V of Germany, and so could not succeed. But in 1125 her husband died, and Henry brought her home and forced the barons to swear fealty to her---though they did not like the prospect of a woman ruler. Henry then married her to Geoffrey of Anjou, the Normans' traditional enemy, and the barons were less happy---especially when the newly-weds had a terrible row, and Geoffrey ordered her out of his lands. In 1131 Henry, absolutely determined, forced the barons to swear fealty once more, and the fact that they did so is testimoney of his controlling power. Matilda and Geoffrey were reunited, and in 1133 she produced a son whom she named for his grandfather. If only Henry could live on until his grandson was old enough to rule, all would be well. But in 1135, against doctor's orders, he ate a hearty meal of lampreys, got acute indigestion, which turned into fever, and died. He was buried at his abbey in Reading---some said in a silver coffin, for which there was an unsuccessful search at the Dissolution. [Source: Who's Who in the Middle Ages, John Fines, Barnes & Noble Books, New York, 1995] 24th great-grandfather of Queen Elizabeth II King Henry I (1068-1135) at Selby, Yorkshire West Riding King of England Died: 1st December 1135 at St. Denis-le-Fermont, Gisors, Normandy Henry was the youngest son of William the Conqueror and his only child born in England. He came into the World at Selby, in Yorkshire, while Queen Matilda was accompanying her husband on his expedition to subdue the North. Henry was always his mother’s favourite and, though his father held a life interest, he inherited all her English states upon her death in 1083. As a boy, Henry received an excellent education at Abingdon Abbey in Berkshire. Though a native speaker of Norman-French, as well as learning the usual Latin, he was taught to read and write in English. He also studied English law, possibly with a view to entering the Church, like so many other younger sons. Henry had a particular interest in natural history and, being far in advance of the times, eventually collected together the first zoo in the country, at his palace in Woodstock (Oxfordshire). His wide-ranging knowledge earned him the epithet of ‘Beauclerc’ meaning ‘Fine Scholar’, a name of which he was extremely proud. In later years, he even declared that ‘an unlettered King was but a crowned ass.’ Knighted by his father at Whitsun 1086, Henry became one of the barons who suffered from divided loyalties after the latter’s death the next year. The Conqueror left Normandy to his eldest son, Robert Curthose, and England to his second son, William Rufus. For nine years, this resulted in many disputes in which men like Henry, with lands in both realms, were obliged to take sides with one overlord while unintentionally antagonizing the other. Eventually, however, Robert renounced Normandy and set off on crusade, leaving Henry and the other barons to serve the monarch of a united kingdom. He was thus attending his brother, William, in the New Forest when he was accidentally (or otherwise) shot dead whilst out hunting on 2nd August 1100. Recognising the need for quick actions, the young prince left his brother’s body on the forest floor and rode straight for Winchester to secure both the treasury and his election as King by a small band of available councilors. He then left for Westminster where Bishop Maurice of crowned him in the Abbey, four days later. Henry promised to return to the ways of his father and his first act as king was to restore the exiled St. Anselm to the Archdiocese of Canterbury. He then began his search for a suitable wife and quickly decided Princess Edith (later renamed Matilda), the eldest daughter of King Malcolm Canmore of Scots. Her mother was St Margaret, the grandaughter of the penultimate Saxon King of England, Edmund Ironside. So their children united the blood lines of both the old and new ruling houses. Anselm’s return was not without controversy and the monarch and prelate soon clashed over the question of lay investiture of ecclesiastical estates. Believing he held his estates from the Pope, for years, the Archbishop refused to do homage for them to King Henry, until the frustrated monarch finally forced him to flee into exile once more. The King's sister, the Countess of Blois, eventually suggested a compromise in 1107, by which the bishops paid homage for their lands in return for Henry allowing clerical investiture. King Henry’s elder brother, Robert, had returned from the Crusade in 1100, but proved such an ineffectual ruler in Normandy that the barons revolted against him and asked Henry, a wise monarch and a skilled diplomat, to take his place. The King crossed the Channel to aid their struggle and Duke Robert was prisoner at Tinchebrai. Disquiet continued to harass Henry’s rule in Normandy over the next few years, and this was not helped by war with France. However, in 1109, his foreign policy was triumphant in arranging the betrothal of his only legitimate daughter, Matilda, to the powerful German Emperor, Henry V. They were married five years later. Despite his numerous bastard progeny, King Henry had only one other legitimate child, his heir, Prince William, a boisterous young man whom the monarch completely idolized. Tragically, in 1120, the prince was needlessly drowned - along with many of his generation at court - while making a return trip from Normandy in the ‘White Ship’ which ran aground and sank. It is said that Henry never smiled again. His first wife having died in 1118, Henry took a second, Adeliza of Louvain, in 1122. But, despite the lady being many years his junior, the marriage remained childless. So, four years later, while staying for Christmas at Windsor Castle, the King designated as his successor, his widowed daughter, the Empress Matilda; and all the barons swore to uphold her rights after his death. The following May, Henry also found his daughter a new husband, in the person of Geoffrey, the rather young heir to the County of Anjou. Henry found it expedient to spent an equal amount of time in both his realms but, on 1st August 1135, he left England for the last time. An eclipse the next day was seen as a bad omen and by December, the King was dead. He apparently had a great love of lampreys (eels), despite their disagreeing with him intensely. He had been ordered not to eat them by his physician, but, at his hunting lodge at St Denis-le-Fermont, near Gisors, the monarch decided he fancied some for supper. A severe case of ptomaine poisoning ensued, of which gluttonous King Henry died. Several Norman monasteries wanted Henry’s body buried within their walls, but it was mummified for transportation back to England and only his bowels, brains, heart, eyes & tongue were interred at Rouen Cathedral. As he had wished, King Henry was laid to rest before the high altar of Reading Abbey, at the time, an incomplete Cluniac house he had founded in 1121. The Di

Stephan

In which war was the Battle of Shiloh?

Henry (1068 - 1135) - Genealogy Genealogy Join the world's largest family tree Gender Henry I "Beauclerc", King of England London, Greater London, England, United Kingdom Henry I "Beauclerc", King of England's Geni Profile Share your family tree and photos with the people you know and love Build your family tree online Share photos and videos French: Henri, Danish: Henrik, Latin: Henricus, German: Heinrich, Spanish: Enrique, Portuguese: Henrique, Dutch: Hendrik Also Known As: Selby, North Yorkshire, England, United Kingdom Death: in Saint-Denis-le-Ferment, Department de Eure, Haute Normandie, France Cause of death: Reading Abbey, Reading, Berkshire, England Immediate Family: Brother of Robert II "Curthose", duke of Normandy ; Adelizia de Normandie, Princess of England ; Cecilia, Abbess of Holy Trinity ; Richard ; Agatha de Normandie, Princess of England and 5 others ; Anna de Normandie, Princess of England ; Constance, Duchess Consort of Brittany ; Adela, countess of Blois ; Matilda and William II "Rufus", King of England « less Occupation: King of England, Roi d'Angleterre de 1100 à 1135-Duc de Normandie, King of the English Duke of Normandy, Duke of the Normans, Kung av England och Hertig av Normandie, Duke of Normandy King of England, King, kung, KING OF ENGLAND, 1100-1135, King Henry I Managed by: http://genealogics.org/getperson.php?personID=I00000238&tree=LEO Called "Beauclerc because of his study habits (Beauclerc meaning well-learnt, scholarly, erudite) Il est aussi connu sous le nom de Henri Ier de Normandie, roi d'Angleterre et Henri Ier, roi d' Angleterre dit le Beau Clerc. En 1106, il est connu sous le nom de Henri Ier, duc de Normandie dit Beauclerc. Henry I 'Beauclerc', King of England gained the title of Lord of Domfront in 1092 Comte de Coutances in 1096 Comte de Bayeux in 1096 King Henry I of England on 2 August 1100. He was crowned King of England on 5 August 1100 in Westminster Abbey, Westminster, London, Married First: Eadgyth renamed on marriage Mathilda of Scotland He had 2 wives, Eadgyth of Scotland who changed her name to Matilda mother of Euphemia (unconfirmed), Matilda & William and Adelisa de Louvain who married William d'Aubigny on Henry's death He also had many mistresses (or concubines) as follows: 1 Unknown woman from Caen mother of Robert de Caen aka Robert FitzRoy, Earl of Gloucester 2 Edith Unknown mother of Mathilde w/o Routrou de Perche 3 Ansfride widow of Anskill mother of Richard, Juliane & Foulques 4 Unknown mother of Sybil Queen of Scotland & William 5 Sibyl Corbet married Herbert FitzHerbert mother of Renaud de Dunstanville, William, & Gundred, Rohese 6 Edith FitzForne d/o Forn Sigurdson Lord of Greystoke, Cumberland married Robert De Oilly of Hook Norton mother of Robert FitzEdith 7 - 12 All Unknown. Mothers to: * Maud (m. Conan III Duke of Brittany), *Alix (m. MATHIEU [I] de Montmorency) *Constance (Mathilde) (m ROSCELIN Vicomte de Beaumont) *Mathilde abbess of Montvilliers *Gilbert *William de Tracy 13 Nest of South Wales wife of Gerald FitzWalter of Windsor d/o Rhys apTewdwr Prince of South Wales and Gwladus mother of Henry 14 Unknown mother of unknown daughter (m GUILLAUME [III] Goët de Montmirail) 15 Isabelle de Beaumont d/o Robert de Beaumont Comte de Meulan, Earl of Leicester and Isabelle de Vermandois and wife of Gilbert FitzGilbert de Clare Earl of Pembroke mother of Isabel Please do not merge Named Mistresses as Unknown Mistresses ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ The fourth son of William I the Conqueror the first King of England after the Norman Conquest of 1066. Henry I 'Beauclerc', King of England gained the title of Lord of Domfront in 1092. He gained the title of Comte de Coutances in 1096. He gained the title of Comte de Bayeaux in 1096. He succeeded to the title of King Henry I of England on 2 August 1100. He was crowned King of England on 5 August 1100 in Westminster Abbey, Westminster, London, and styled 'Dei Gratiâ Rex Anglorum.' He fought in the Battle of Tinchebrai on 28 September 1106.2 He succeeded to the title of 9th Duc de Normandie on 28 September 1106, after defeating his brother Robert in battle. Strangely, at the time William 'Rufus' was shot in the New Forest, Henry was also hunting there and this may or may not be coincidence. Henry was in turn in some danger from his brother Robert who claimed the throne for himself. Robert was captured at the battle of Tinchebrai in 1106 and Henry imprisoned him in Cardiff Castle for the rest of his life. Henry was successful in keeping the peace in England despite spending much time in Normandy. He developed the English system of justice and organised the civil service of the time, particularly the taxation department. He was unpopular with the church leaders. He had only one legitimate son, William and a legitimate daughter Matilda, but over twenty illegitimate children. His sons William and Richard were drowned in 1120 aboard his personal vessel the 'White Ship' when it struck a rock off the Normandy coast. He wanted his successor to be his daughter Matilda whom the English called Maud. He has an extensive biographical entry in the Dictionary of National Biography. All detailed biographical entries are extracted from: 1. [S18] Dictionary of National Biography; and 2. [S23] Dictionary of New Zealand National Biography Henry I 1068-1135, king, fourth son of William the Conqueror and Matilda, was born, it is said, at Selby in Yorkshire (Monasticon, iii. 485; Freeman, Norman Conquest, iv. 231, 791), in the latter half of 1068, his mother having been crowned queen on the previous Whitsunday (Orderic, p. 510). As the son of a crowned king and queen of England he was regarded by the English as naturally qualified to become their king; he was an English ætheling, and is spoken of as clito, which was used as an equivalent title (ib. p. 689; Brevis Relatio, p. 9; comp. Gesta Regum, v. 390). He was brought up in England (Cont. William of Jumièges, viii. 10), and received an unusually good education, of which he took advantage, for he was studious and did not in after life forget what he had learnt (Orderic, p. 665; Gesta Regum, u. s.). The idea that he understood Greek and translated Æsop's Fables into English is founded solely on a line in the Ysopet of Marie de France, who lived in England in the reign of Henry III, but it is extremely unlikely, and there is so much uncertainty as to what Marie really wrote or meant in the passage in question that it is useless to build any theory upon it (Poésies de Marie de France, par B. de Roquefort, i. 33-44, ii. 401; Professor Freeman seems to think that the idea is fairly tenable, Norman Conquest, iv. 229, 792-4). It is certain that he understood Latin (Orderic, p. 812), and could speak English easily (William Rufus, i. pref. viii). At least as early as the thirteenth century he was called clerk, the origin of the name Beauclerc (Wykes, iv. 11; Norman Conquest, iv. 792). While he was with his father at Laigle in Normandy, in 1077, when the Conqueror was on bad terms with his eldest son Robert, he and his brother, William Rufus, went across to Robert's lodgings in the castle, played dice with their followers in an upper room, made a great noise, and threw water on Robert and his men who were below. Robert ran up with Alberic and Ivo of Grantmesnil to avenge the insult, a disturbance followed, and the Conqueror had to interfere to make peace (Orderic, p. 545). His mother at her death in 1083 left Henry heir of all her possessions in England, but it is evident that he did not receive anything until his father's death (ib. p. 510). The next year, when his father and brothers were in Normandy, he spent Easter by his father's order at the monastery of Abingdon, the expenses of the festival being borne by Robert of Oily (Chron. de Abingdon, ii. 12). At the Whitsuntide assembly of 1086 his father dubbed him knight at Westminster, and he was armed by Archbishop Lanfranc. He was with his father when the Conqueror lay dying the next year at Rouen, and, on hearing his father's commands and wishes about his dominions and possessions, asked what there was for him. I give thee 5,000l., was the answer. But what, he said, can I do with the money if I have no place to live in? The Conqueror bade him be patient and wait his turn, for the time would come when he should be richer and greater than his brothers. The money thus left had been his mother's, and he went off at once to secure the treasure. He returned for his father's funeral at Caen Robert of Normandy, who was in want of money, asked Henry for some of his treasure; Henry refused, and the duke then offered to sell or pledge him some part of his dominions. He accordingly bought the Avranchin and the Côtentin, along with Mont St. Michel, for 3,000l., and ruled his new territory well and vigorously (Orderic, p. 665). In 1088 he went over to England, and requested Rufus to hand over to him his mother's lands. Rufus received him graciously, and granted him seisin of the lands, but when he left the country granted them to another. Henry returned to Normandy in the autumn in the company of Robert of Bellême, and the duke, acting on the advice of his uncle, Bishop Odo, seized him and shut him up in prison at Bayeux, where he remained for six months, for Odo made the duke believe that Henry was plotting with Rufus to injure him (ib. p. 673). In the spring of the following year the duke released him at the request of the Norman nobles, and he went back to his county, which Robert seems to have occupied during his imprisonment, at enmity with both his brothers. He employed himself in strengthening the defences of his towns, and attached a number of his nobles to himself, among whom were Hugh of Chester, the lord of Avranches, Richard of Redvers, and the lords of the Côtentin generally. When the citizens of Rouen revolted against their duke in favour of Rufus in November 1090, Henry came to Robert's help, not so much probably for Robert's sake, as because he was indignant at seeing a city rise against its lord (William Rufus, i. 248). He joined Robert in the castle, and headed the nobles who gathered to suppress the movement. The rebellious party among the citizens was routed, and Conan, its leader, was taken prisoner. Henry made him come with him to the top of the tower, and in bitter mockery bade him look out and see how fair a land it was which he had striven to subject to himself. Conan confessed his disloyalty and prayed for mercy; all his treasure should be given for his life. Henry bade him prepare for speedy death. Conan pleaded for a confessor. Henry's anger was roused, and with both hands he pushed Conan through the window, so he fell from the tower and perished (Orderic, p. 690; Gesta Regum, v. 392). In the early part of the next year Robert and William made peace, and agreed that Cherbourg and Mont St. Michel, which both belonged to Henry, should pass to the English king, and the rest of his dominions to the Norman duke. Up to this time Henry had been enabled to keep his position mainly by the mutual animosity of William and Robert. Now both his brothers attacked him at once. He no longer held the balance between them in Normandy, and the lords of his party fell away from him. He shut himself up in Mont St. Michel, and held it against his brothers, who laid siege to it about the middle of Lent, each occupying a position on either side of the bay. The besieged garrison engaged in several skirmishes on the mainland (Flor. Worc.). Their water was exhausted, and Henry sent to the duke representing his necessity, and bidding him decide their quarrel by arms and not by keeping him from water. Robert allowed the besieged to have water. After fifteen days Henry offered to surrender if he and his men might march out freely. He was accordingly allowed to evacuate the place honourably (Orderic, p. 697) The surrender of Mont St. Michel left Henry landless and friendless, and for some months he wandered about, taking shelter first in Brittany and then in the Vexin. In August he accompanied his two brothers to England, and apparently joined in the expedition against Malcolm of Scotland (Gesta Regum, iv. 310; HistoriæDunelm. Scriptores Tres, p. xxii; William Rufus, ii. 535-8). Then he probably resumed his wandering life, travelling about attended only by a clerk, a knight, and three armed followers. Apparently at the end of 1092 he received a message from the men of Domfront inviting him to become their lord. He was received at Domfront by Archard, the chief man of the town, who had instigated his fellow-townsmen to revolt against Robert of Bellême, their former lord. Henry promised that he would never give up the town to any other lord, and would never change its laws and customs (Orderic, pp. 698, 788). Domfront, situated on the Varenne, dominated part of the border of Normandy towards Maine; lies not far to the east of Henry's old county, and was a place of great strength (for geographical description see William Rufus, i. 319). The interests of Henry and Rufus were now one; both alike desired to win all the parts of Normandy they could from the duke. Henry from his new fortress carried on constant war against the duke and Robert of Bellême; before long he regained a large part of his old territory in the west (ib. p. 321), and in doing so certainly acted with the goodwill of Rufus, though there appear to have been some hostilities between them (Orderic, p. 706; too much weight must not be given to this passage; in the first place it is rather vague and may apply to an earlier period, and in the second a war such as that which Henry was carrying on, consisting of attacks on single towns and castles, was certain to lead to quarrels with others besides those immediately concerned). Some places in his old county yielded to him out of affection, for, as the people of Domfront had discerned, he was a good lord, others he took by force of arms, and his old friends and followers again joined him. In 1094 he received an invitation from Rufus, who was then carrying on open war against Robert in Normandy, to meet him with Hugh of Chester at Eu, and because the duchy was in too disturbed a state for them to pass through it safely, Rufus sent ships to bring them (A.-S. Chron. sub an.). They sailed, however, to Southampton, and waited at London for the king, who met them there shortly after Christmas. Henry stayed with Rufus until Lent, and then returned to Normandy with a large supply of money, and carried on war against Robert with constant success (ib. an. 1095). When Normandy passed into the possession of Rufus in 1096, Henry joined him and remained with him, receiving from him the counties of Coutances and Bayeux, with the exception of the city of Bayeux and the town of Caen, and having further committed to his charge the castle of Gisors, which Rufus built on the frontier against France (Cont. William of Jumièges, viii. 7). On 2 Aug. 1100 Henry was hunting in the New Forest, when men came hastening to him one after another telling him of the death of Rufus. According to popular belief he had shortly before gone into a hut to mend his bowstring, and an old woman had declared that she had learnt by augury that he would soon become king. When he heard of his brother's death, it is said that he grieved much, and went to where his body lay (Wace, ll. 10105-38). In reality he spurred at once to Winchester, where the royal treasure was kept, and demanded the keys of the treasury from the guards (Orderic, p. 782). William of Breteuil refused to deliver them, declaring that, as Robert was his father's first-born, he was the rightful heir. The dispute waxed hot, and men came running to the spot, and took the count's part (Professor Freeman's assumption that these men were Englishmen as opposed to Normans seems unwarranted). Henry clapped his hand on his sword, drew it, and declared that no one should stand between him and his father's sceptre. Friends and nobles gathered round him, and the treasury was delivered over to him. The next day such of the witan as were at hand met in council, and after some opposition chose Henry as king, chiefly owing to the influence of Henry Beaumont, earl of Warwick (Gesta Regum, v. 393). As king-elect he bestowed the see of Winchester, which Rufus had kept vacant since January 1098, on William Giffard [q.v.]; he then rode to London, and was crowned at Westminster on Sunday, 5 Aug., by Maurice, bishop of London, for Archbishop Anselm [q.v.] was then in exile. Thomas, archbishop of York, hastened from the north to perform the ceremony, but came too late. When he complained of this as an infringement of his right, the king and the bishops told him that it was necessary to hasten the coronation for the sake of the peace of the kingdom (Hugh the Chantor, ii. 107). At his coronation he swore to give peace to the church and people, to do justice, and to establish good law. On the same day he published a charter in which, after declaring that he had been made king by the ‘common concent of the barons,’ he forbade the evil customs introduced during the last reign. The church was to be free, its offices and revenues neither sold nor farmed, and the feudal incidents of relief, marriage, and wardship were no longer to be abused by the king as instruments of oppression. As he did by his tenants-in-chief so were they to do by their tenants, a provision which may be said to have been founded on the law of his father that all men, of what lord soever they held, owed the king allegiance, a provision wholly contrary to the feudal idea. The coinage was to be reformed, and justice done on those who made or kept bad money. Wills of personalty were permitted. Men who incurred forfeiture were no longer to be forced to be at the king's mercy. Knights who held by knight-service were to have their demesne lands free of tax, and were to be ready both with horses and arms to serve the king and defend his realm. Good peace was to be kept throughout the kingdom, and the ‘law of King Edward,’ with the amendments of the Conqueror, was restored. The forests were, with the common consent of the barons, to remain as they were in the days of the king's father (Select Charters, pp. 95-8). This charter was taken by the barons in the reign of John as the basis of their demands. Henry also wrote a letter to Anselm inviting him to return, and declaring that he committed himself to the counsel of the archbishop and of those others whose right it was to advise him (Epp. iii. 41). There was great joy among the people at his accession, and they shouted loudly at his coronation, for they believed that good times were at last come again, and saw in their new king the ‘Lion of Justice’ of Merlin's prophecy (Gesta Regum, v. 393; Orderic, pp. 783, 887). Henry was thirty-two at his accession. He was of middle height, broad-chested, strong, stoutly built, and in his later years decidedly fat (Orderic, p. 901). His hair was black and lay thickly above his forehead, and his eyes had a calm and soft look. On fitting occasions his talk was mirthful, and no press of business robbed him of his cheerfulness. Caring little what he ate or drank, he was temperate, and blamed excess in others (Gesta Regum, v. 412). He was, however, exceedingly licentious, and was the father of a large number of natural children by many mistresses. At the same time he was free from the abominable vices which Rufus had practised, and, sensual as he was, his accession was at once followed by a reform in the habits of the court (ib. p. 393). In common with all his house he was devoted to hunting, and one of his lords who quarrelled with him gave him the nickname of ‘Pie-de-Cerf,’ because of his love of slaying deer (Wace, l. 10566). From the studies of his youth he acquired an abiding taste for books. He formed a collection of wild beasts at Woodstock, where he often resided (Gesta Regum, v. 409; Henry of Huntingdon, pp. 244, 300). He was an active, industrious king, and when in England constantly moved about, visiting different places in the southern and central parts of the kingdom, though he seems very seldom to have gone north of the Humber. In his progresses the arrangements of his court were orderly, for he was a man of method; there were no sudden changes of plan, and people brought their goods to the places on his route, certain that the court would arrive and stay as had been announced, and that they would find a market. The morning he gave to affairs of state and to hearing causes; the rest of his day to amusement (De Nugis Curialium, p. 210). He was not without religion. Reading Abbey he founded (ib. p. 209; Gesta Regum, v. 413; Monasticon, iv. 28); he completed the foundation of the abbey of Austin canons at Carlisle; he formed the see of Carlisle (Creighton, Carlisle, pp. 31-5; John of Hexham, col. 257; Waverley Annals, ap. Annales Monast. ii. 223); Cirencester Abbey, and Dunstable (Dunstable Annals, ib. iii. 15) and Southwyke priories, all for Austin canons, were founded by him (Monasticon, vi. 175, 238, 243), together with some other houses. He was a benefactor to some older English foundations, and rebuilt many churches in Normandy which suffered during his wars. He was liberal to pilgrims and to the military orders in Palestine (Cont. William of Jumièges, viii. 32), and seems to have treated clergy of holy life with respect. Contemporaries were much impressed by his wisdom; he did not love war, and preferred to gain his ends by craft. An unforgiving enemy, he was said to be an equally steadfast friend. He was, however, such a thorough dissembler that no one could be sure of his favour; and Robert Bloet [q.v.], bishop of Lincoln, declared that when he praised any one he was sure to be plotting that person's destruction (De Contemptu Mundi). He was cruel, and his cruelties proceeded from a cold-hearted disregard of human suffering. Policy rather than feeling guided his actions. Without being miserly, he was avaricious, and the people suffered much from his exactions, which, though apparently not exorbitant in amount, were levied with pitiless regularity alike in times of scarcity and plenty. His justice was stern. Unlike his father, he caused thieves, robbers, and other malefactors to be hanged, and sometimes inflicted such sweeping punishments that the innocent must have suffered along with the guilty. Criminals were constantly blinded and mutilated, though in his later years he often substituted heavy fines for these punishments. He strictly enforced the forest laws; no one was allowed, except as a special privilege, to hunt on his own land or to diminish the size of his woods; all dogs in the neighbourhood of a forest were maimed, and little difference was made between the slayer of a deer and of a man (Orderic, p. 813; William of Newburgh, i. c. 3). On the whole, however, Henry's harsh administration of justice was good for the country; while it brought suffering to the few, it gave peace and security to the many. His despotism was strong as well as stern; no offender was too powerful to be reached by the law. Private war he put down peremptorily, and peace and order were enforced everywhere. He exalted the royal authority, and kept the barons well under control, both by taking sharp measures against those who offended him, and by choosing his counsellors and chief officers from a lower rank, raising up a number of new men, whom he enriched and ennobled in order to make them a counterpoise to the power of the great houses of the Conquest (Orderic, p. 805). Although he kept a large number of stipendiary soldiers, to whom he was a liberal master (Cont. William of Jumièges, viii. 22), he was persuaded by Anselm to sharply restrain them from injuring the people, as they had done in his brother's time, and as they did in the earlier years of his own reign (Eadmer, Historia Novorum, iv. col. 470). Trade was benefited by his restoration of the coinage, and the severity with which he punished those who issued bad money or used false measures; he is said to have made the length of his own arm the standard of measure throughout the kingdom (Gesta Regum, v. 411). The peace and order which he established were highly valued by the people, and the native chronicler, though he makes many moans over his exactions, yet, writing after his death, and looking back in a time of disorder to the strong government of the late reign, says of him: ‘Good man he was, and great awe there was of him. No one durst misdo another in his time. Peace he made for man and deer. Whoso bare his burden of gold and silver no man durst say to him aught but good’ (Anglo-Saxon Chron. sub an. 1135; for Henry's character, both as a man and as a king, see more at large in Norman Conquest, v. 153-61, 839-45, where full references are given; also Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. i. secs. 110-12). In the first days of his reign Henry imprisoned, in the Tower of London, Ranulf Flambard [q.v.], bishop of Durham, the evil minister of Rufus, and began to appoint abbots to the abbeys which his brother had kept vacant in order to enjoy their revenues. He met Anselm at Salisbury, on his return to England about Michaelmas, and required him to do homage as his predecessor had done, and receive back from him the temporalities of the see, which were then in the king's hands. Anselm refused, and Henry, who could not afford to quarrel with him, and would probably in any case have been unwilling to do so, agreed to delay the matter, in order that the pope might be consulted whether he could so far change his decrees as to bring them into accordance with the ancient custom of the kingdom. In this dispute as to the question of investiture [for which see under Anselm] Henry took his stand on the rights of his crown as handed down by his predecessors, and on the undoubted usages of his realm. He made no new demand; the innovation was introduced by Anselm, who, in obedience to papal instructions, refused to accept the temporalities from Henry, as he had accepted them from Rufus, and as former archbishops had accepted them from former kings. Nor did Henry make the quarrel a personal matter; he did not persecute the archbishop, or thwart him in the exercise of his office, as Rufus had done. He behaved throughout with a due regard to law, and on the whole acted fairly, though he naturally availed himself of every lawful means to gain his point. He was urged by his counsellors, and especially by the bishops, to marry and reform his life. He had for some time been in love with Eadygyth (Edith) or Matilda [q.v.], daughter of Malcolm Canmore, king of Scotland, by Margaret, daughter of Edward the Exile, son of Edmund Ironside [q.v.]. Matilda had been brought up in the convent at Romsey, and many people declared that she had taken the veil. Anselm, however, pronounced that she was not a nun, and married her to the king, and crowned her queen in Westminster Abbey on 11 Nov. 1100. The English were delighted to see their king take a wife of ‘England's right kingly kin’ (A.-S. Chronicle, a. 1100). Before long, his example was followed by others, and intermarriages between Normans and English became common. They were encouraged by Henry, who by this and other means did all he could to promote the amalgamation of the two races within his kingdom (De Nugis Curialium, p. 209). His efforts were so successful that he has been called the ‘refounder of the English nation’ (William Rufus, ii. 455). For a while he devoted himself to his queen, but before long returned to his old mode of life. His marriage was not pleasing to the Norman nobles, who knew his early misfortunes, and as yet held him in little respect; they sneered at the domestic life of the king and queen, calling them by the English names Godric and Godgifu (Godiva). Henry heard their sneers but said nothing (Gesta Regum, v. 394; Henry of Huntingdon, p. 236). Already they were plotting against him in favour of Robert, who had returned from the crusade, and had again resumed his government, such as it was, of Normandy, though Henry kept the castles which he held in virtue of his grant from Rufus. Some hostilities were carried on in Normandy between his men and the duke's. At Christmas the king held his court at Westminster, and there received Louis, who had lately been made joint king of France by his father, Philip. While Louis was with him a letter came from Bertrada, Philip's adulterous wife, purporting to have been sent by Philip, and requesting Henry to keep Louis in lifelong imprisonment. Henry, however, sent his guest home with many presents (Symeon of Durham, ii. 232; Orderic, p. 813, places this visit under 1103. Symeon's date seems better; comp. Recueil des Historiens, xii. 878, 956). At Christmastide Flambard escaped from the Tower and fled to Normandy, where he stirred up Robert against his brother. During the spring of 1101 the conspiracy of the Norman nobles against the king spread rapidly, and when the Whitsun assembly met it was known that Robert was about to make an invasion. A large number both of nobles and of the people generally came to the assembly to profess their loyalty. Henry and the nobles met with mutual suspicions. Among the nobles only Robert FitzHamon, Richard of Redvers, Roger Bigot, Robert of Meulan, and his brother Henry, earl of Warwick, were steadfast to him; all the rest were more or less on Robert's side. The English people and the bishops were loyal, and by the advice of Anselm Henry renewed his promises of good government (Gesta Regum, v. 394; Eadmer, Historia Novorum, iii. col. 430). He gathered a large army, and was joined by Anselm in person. With him he went to Pevensey, and sent a fleet to intercept the invaders. Some of the seamen were persuaded to join the duke, who landed near Portsmouth on 20 July. Henry advanced to meet him, and though some of his lords, and among them Robert of Bellême, now earl of Shrewsbury, deserted him, many were kept from following their example by the influence of Anselm. The king and the duke met at Alton in Hampshire (Wace, l. 10393). Henry's army was largely composed of Englishmen. He rode round their battalions, telling them how to meet the shock of a cavalry charge, and they called to him to let them engage the Normans. No battle took place; for the brothers had an interview, were reconciled, and came to terms. Henry agreed to give up all he held in Normandy except Domfront, which he kept according to his promise to the townsmen, to restore the lands in England which Robert's adherents had forfeited, and to pay the duke three thousand marks a year. Robert renounced his claim on England and on homage from Henry, and both agreed that if either should die without leaving an heir born in wedlock the other should succeed to his dominions (A.-S. Chronicle, sub an.; Orderic, p. 788). The duke went back to Normandy, and Henry bided his time to take vengeance on the lords who had risen against him. By degrees one after another at various times and by various means he brought them to judgment and punished them (ib. p. 804). One of them, Ivo of Grantmesnil, began to carry on war in England on his own account, was cited before the king's court, and was forced to part with his lands for the benefit of the king's counsellor, Robert of Meulan, and to go on a crusade. Henry now prepared to deal with Robert of Bellême, the most powerful noble in his kingdom, and his enemy alike in England and in Normandy. He knew that while Robert remained lord of so many strong fortresses, and held an almost independent position in the Severn country, where he could easily find Welsh allies, it was hopeless to attempt to carry out his design of enforcing order and of humbling the great feudatories. His war with the earl [for particulars see Bellême, Robert of] was the principal crisis in his reign. Not only did Robert's wealth and dominions make him a dangerous foe, but the chief men in Henry's army also sympathised with him. Henry depended on the loyalty of men of lower degree. In fighting out his own quarrel he was also fighting against the foremost representative of a feudal nobility, which would, if triumphant, have trampled alike on the crown, the lesser landholders, and the nation generally. The shouts which were raised on the surrender of Shrewsbury, the earl's last stronghold in England, and the song which celebrated his banishment, show that the people knew that the king's victory insured safety for his subjects. During the early part of the war the earl received help from the Welsh under Jorwerth and his two brothers, who ruled as Robert's vassals in Powys and the present Cardigan. The king won Jorwerth over to his side by promising him large territories free of homage, and he persuaded his countrymen to desert the earl and uphold the king. When, however, he claimed the fulfilment of Henry's promise, it was refused, and in 1103 he was brought to trial at Shrewsbury and imprisoned. It is characteristic of the spirit in which Henry carried on his dispute with Anselm that while in 1102 he allowed the archbishop to hold his synod at Westminster, he in 1103 banished William Giffard [q.v.], the bishop-elect of Winchester, for refusing to receive consecration from Gerard [q.v.] of York. He was anxious for a settlement of the question, and willingly gave Anselm license to go to Rome. Henry was relieved from some anxiety by the death of Magnus Barefoot, king of Norway, who was slain while invading Ireland, and he enriched himself by seizing on 20,000l. deposited by the Norwegian king with a citizen of Lincoln. Some interference in the affairs of Normandy was forced on the king by the attacks made on his son-in-law, Eustace of Pacy, lord of Breteuil, the husband of his natural daughter, Juliana. Robert of Meulan was sent to threaten the duke and his lords with the king's displeasure unless they helped Eustace, and his mission was successful (Orderic, p. 811). Duke Robert came over to England, and was persuaded by the queen to give up the pension of three thousand marks which the king had agreed to pay him (Flor. Wig. ii. 52; Gesta Regum, v. 395). Normandy was in a state of confusion. Henry's enemies, and above all Robert of Bellême, who was now in alliance with the duke, were active, and were joined by William of Mortain, one of the king's bitterest foes, who claimed the earldom of Kent as heir of Bishop Odo. Since the overthrow of Robert of Bellême the king had become too strong for the nobles. William was tried in 1104 and sentenced to banishment. He went over to Normandy and attacked some of the castles belonging to men of the king's party. Henry himself crossed with a considerable fleet, and visited Domfront and other towns, apparently those held by the lords who also had English estates. In an interview with Robert he complained of his alliance with Robert of Bellême and of his general misgovernment. Robert purchased peace by ceding to him the lordship of the county of Evreux. Henry's lords seem to have fought with some success. The king returned before Christmas. It was a time of trouble in England; for he was determined to invade Normandy, and accordingly taxed his subjects to raise funds for his expedition. He was collecting an army, and, as he had not yet made his decree against military wrongdoing, his soldiers oppressed the people, plundering, burning, and slaying (A.-S. Chron. sub an.). He held his Christmas court at Windsor, and in Lent 1105 left England with a large force. He landed at Barfleur, and spent Easter day at Carentan. Thither came Serlo, bishop of Seez, who had been driven out of his see by Robert of Bellême, and prepared to celebrate mass. The king and his lords were sitting at the bottom of the church, among the goods and utensils which the country-folk had placed there to preserve them from plunder. Serlo called on the king to look at these signs of the misery of the people, and exhorted him to deliver them and the church from those who oppressed them. He wound up by inveighing against the custom of wearing long hair which prevailed among the men of the English court, and spoke to such good effect that the king allowed him then and there to shear off his locks, and the courtiers followed the king's example (Orderic, p. 816). Geoffrey, count of Anjou, and Elias, count of Maine, came to his help; Bayeux, with its churches, was burnt, and Caen, where the treasure of the duchy was kept, was bribed to surrender. On 22 July Henry met Anselm at Laigle. There was some talk of a possible excommunication, which would have damaged his position. The interview was amicable, and terms were almost arranged. Although he won many of the Norman barons over by gifts, he failed to take Falaise, and found it impossible to complete the conquest of the duchy that year. He returned to England in August. (For this expedition see ib. pp. 816-18; Henry of Huntingdon, p. 235; Versus Serlonis, Recueil des Historiens, xix. præf. xcj; Norgate, Angevin Kings, i. 11.) On his return he laid a tax on the clergy, who kept their wives in disobedience to Anselm's canon, and, finding that it brought in little, extended it to all the secular clergy alike. A large number appeared before him at London in vestments and with bare feet, but he drove them from his presence. Then they laid their griefs before the queen, who burst into tears and said she dared not interfere (Eadmer, iv. col. 457). Robert of Bellême came over to endeavour to obtain the king's pardon, and was sent back indignant at his failure. Duke Robert also came early in 1106 and found the king at Northampton; he failed to persuade the king to give up his conquests and make peace. Contrary to his usual custom, Henry held no court at Easter or Whitsuntide, and spent the one feast at Bath and the other at Salisbury. In July he again went over to Normandy. On 15 Aug. he had a satisfactory interview with Anselm at Bec, and the archbishop returned to England. At Caen he received a visit from Robert of Estouteville, one of the duke's party, who offered to surrender the town of Dives to him, proposing that he should go thither with only a few men. Henry did so, and found that a trap had been laid for him, for he was attacked by a large number. Nevertheless, his men routed their assailants and burnt both castle and monastery (Orderic, p. 819). He raised a fort outside Tinchebray, a town between Vire and Flers, belonging to the Count of Mortain, and stationed one of his lords there to blockade the place. As the count succeeded in introducing men and stores, and the siege made no progress, Henry appeared before the town in person. Robert and his army found him there on 2 Sept. Henry's army, which comprised allies from Anjou, Maine, and Brittany, had the larger number of knights, while Robert had more foot-soldiers. The clergy urged the king not to fight with his brother. Henry listened to their exhortations, and sent to Robert, representing that he was not actuated by greed or by a desire to deprive him of his dukedom, but by compassion for the people who were suffering from anarchy, and offering to be content with half the duchy, the strong places, and the government of the whole, while Robert should enjoy the revenues of the other half in idleness. Robert refused. Both armies fought on foot, with the exception of the duke's first line, and Henry's Breton and Cenomannian cavalry, which he placed at some little distance from his main body under the command of Count Elias. The Count of Mortain, who led the first line of the ducal army, charged the king's first line under Ranulf of Bayeux and shook without routing it. Then Elias with his cavalry fell on the flank of the duke's second line of foot, and cut down 225. Thereupon Robert of Bellême, who commanded the rear of the army, fled, and the whole of the duke's forces were scattered (ib. p. 821; Henry of Huntingdon, p. 235). The duke, the Count of Mortain, Robert of Estouteville, and other lords were made prisoners, and the battle completed the conquest of the duchy. It was regarded as an English victory, and a reversal of the battle of Hastings, fought almost on the same day forty years before, for it made Normandy a dependency of the English crown (Will. of Malm. v. 398; Norman Conquest, v. 176). The war in Normandy helped on Henry's work of consolidating the Norman and English races in England, and this process was still further forwarded by his later wars with France. His subjects in England of either race were counted Englishmen as opposed to Normans or Frenchmen (Angevin Kings, i. 23, 24). Duke Robert was kept a prisoner until his death in 1134; there is no ground for the story current in the thirteenth century (Ann. Monast. ii. 50, iv. 15, 378) that he was blinded (Orderic, p. 823). Henry caused William of Mortain to be blinded, and kept him in prison until he died. In the middle of October he held a council of the Norman lords at Lisieux, in which he resumed the grants made by his brother, and ordered the destruction of all ‘adulterine’ or unlicensed castles, and at the same time held a council of the Norman church. In order to accustom the Norman lords to his rule he held a court at Falaise the following January, and it was there probably that he caused Robert of Montfort sur Risle to be tried for disloyalty and banished by legal process. In March he again held a council at Lisieux, and settled the affairs of the duchy, where he pursued the same policy as in England, depressing the baronage and protecting the lower classes from tyranny and violence (ib.). He returned to England in Lent, and according to his custom held courts at Easter and Whitsuntide, the first at Windsor, the second at Westminster. On 1 Aug. he held a council at Westminster, at which the terms of the compromise between the crown and the papacy were finally settled [see under Anselm]. The issue of the struggle was that the church was freed from the feudal character which had gradually, and especially in the reign of Rufus, been imposed upon it, and that the king tacitly recognised a limitation of secular authority. On the other hand, Henry surrendered a shadow and kept the substance of power; for the appointment of bishops remained as much as before in the king's hands. At this council five vacant sees were filled by the consecration of bishops, some of whom had been elected long before. One of the new bishops, Roger, consecrated to the see of Salisbury, formerly the king's chancellor, was now made justiciar. Henry used the revenues and offices of the church as a means of rewarding his ministers, whom he chose from the clergy rather than from the baronial class. He employed Bishop Roger to develope a system of judicial and fiscal administration. The curia regis, or king's court, became specially active in judicial matters, and while the three solemn courts were regularly held, at which the king came to decisions on more important judicial cases in the presence, and theoretically by the advice, of his counsellors, the permanent court of which he, or in his absence his justiciar, was the head, and which was composed of the great officers of the household and any others whom he might select, gained greater distinctness; the king further sent out justices to go on circuit to transact judicial business and to settle and enforce the rights of the crown. The court of exchequer was organised for the purpose of royal finance; it seems to have consisted of the justiciar and the other ordinary members of the curia regis, and to have been the body which received the royal revenue from the various officers appointed to collect it. Its business was recorded, and the earliest exchequer roll known to be in existence is that of the thirty-first year of Henry I. From this it appears that the royal revenue was then fully 66,000l. The ordinary direct taxes were the danegeld, the ferm, or composition paid by the shires, and certain fixed amounts paid by towns. Besides these sources of revenue there were, among others, the feudal incidents, the sale of offices, and the profits of the royal jurisdiction (see Constitutional History, i. 376-91; Angevin Kings, i. 25-7). In July 1108 Henry again crossed over to Normandy, where trouble was beginning. He had given Robert's son William, called ‘Clito,’ into the charge of Elias of Saint-Saen, and now, by the advice of his courtiers, wanted to get hold of the lad. An attempt to seize him in the absence of Elias failed, and his guardian refused to give him up, and when Henry took his castle from him, went from one lord to another asking help for his young charge. Many of the Norman nobles were ready to uphold their old duke's son, and his cause was favoured by several of the great French feudatories, and by Louis VI, who, after his father's death, was crowned king on 3 Aug. (Orderic, pp. 837, 838). During all the earlier part of 1109 Henry remained in Normandy, and in the course of the next year a quarrel broke out between him and Louis about the border fortress of Gisors. According to the French statement an agreement had been made between them, when Henry conquered the duchy, that Gisors should be a kind of neutral ground, and should belong to neither of them. Henry, however, turned out the castellan and made it his own. Louis gathered a large army and marched to meet him at the town of Neauffles; the Epte flowed between the two armies, and could only be crossed by a crazy bridge. Messengers came to Henry from Louis asserting his grievance and offering to decide the matter by combat. Henry would not hear of this. After some altercation Louis offered to fight the matter out if Henry would allow the French army to cross over the river, but Henry answered that if Louis came over to the Norman side he would find him ready to defend his land. The two armies retired each to its own quarters. This was the beginning of a long border warfare between the Normans and the French, during which Louis did much harm to the castles and lands on the Norman march (Suger, Vita Ludovici Grossi, ap. Recueil, xii. 27, 28). About 1111 Theobald, count of Blois, Henry's nephew, relying on his uncle's help, began to make war on Louis on his own account (ib. p. 35). Meanwhile Henry continued his work of repressing the baronage, and in 1110 banished from England Philip of Braiose, William Malet, and William Bainard, and confiscated their lands. While he was fighting in Normandy he kept England at peace. In 1111 Fulk V of Anjou joined Louis against him, for Fulk had married the daughter and heiress of Elias of Maine, and on the death of his father-in-law revived the old claim of his house on Maine; the war increased in importance, and Henry remained in Normandy for about two years. He seems to have acted warily, to have trusted much to good management and bribes, and to have avoided actual fighting as much as possible. He caught his old enemy, Robert of Bellême, sent him over to an English prison, and captured his town of Alençon. The Norman barons were not universally faithful, and Henry banished the Count of Evreux and William Crispin. By the beginning of 1113 the war seems to have died out. Henry spent the festival of the Purification (2 Feb.) at the monastery of Evroul, and early in Lent met Fulk at Pierre-Pécoulée, near Alençon, and there made peace with him, for, as he had by gifts won over to his side many of the nobles of Maine, the count was not unwilling to come to terms; he did homage to Henry for Maine, and promised to give his daughter in marriage to Henry's son William. Henry pardoned the Count of Evreux and some other banished lords. Shortly afterwards Henry and Louis made peace at Gisors. The amount of Henry's success may be gauged by the concessions of the French king, who acknowledged his right to Bellême, Maine, and all Brittany. He received the homage of the Count of Brittany, subdued the forces which held out in Bellême, and then returned to England. During Henry's reign the English power in Wales was strengthened by colonisation and conquest. The English regarded with dislike the large number of Flemish which had settled in their country since the Conquest, and Henry in 1111 settled them in the southern part of Dyfed or Pembrokeshire, where they formed a vigorous Teutonic colony, held their ground against the Welsh, and converted a land originally Welsh into an outlying English district, ‘Little England beyond Wales’ (Gesta Regum, iv. 311, v. 401; Flor. Wig. ii. 64; Orderic, p. 900; Ann. Cambriæ, an. 1106; Freeman, English Towns and Districts, pp. 33-9). Barnard, an English bishop of Norman race, was appointed to the see of St. David's, and professed obedience to Canterbury (Councils and Eccl. Docs. i. 307); obedience was likewise professed by the Bishop of Llandaff, who was consecrated by Anselm in 1107. Owen, the prince of Powys, caused a good deal of trouble, and carried on constant wars against the Normans and Flemings until he was slain in 1116. After one of his raids Henry granted the present Cardiganshire to Gilbert of Clare, who subdued the district in 1111. After his return from Normandy, Henry, in the summer of 1114, led a large army into Wales against Gruffyd of North Wales and Owen. On his approach the Welsh made peace with him, and after ordering castles to be built he returned, and on 21 Sept. embarked at Portsmouth for Normandy, where he remained until the following July. His relations with Scotland, where three of his wife's brothers reigned in succession, were uniformly peaceful. David I [q.v.], the queen's youngest brother, passed his youth at the English court, and Henry gave him an English wife and an English earldom. At the same time he was careful to strengthen the borders against the Scots as well as against the Welsh. The eastern border he gave in charge to Ranulf Flambard, bishop of Durham, whom he reinstated in his see in 1107 (Orderic, p. 833); over the western border he first set an earl of Carlisle, and on his death divided the district of Carlisle into baronies, and gave it a county organisation. He also carried on the work begun by his brother of making Carlisle an English city by completing the monastery of Austin canons, and making it the cathedral church of a bishop of Carlisle. In 1114 he sent his daughter Matilda over to Germany to be the wife of the Emperor Henry V; at the time of her betrothal in 1110 he had levied an aid which the English chronicler says was specially burdensome because it came in a year of scarcity. When he was in Normandy in 1115 he made all the barons do homage and swear fealty to his son William as heir to the duchy, and on 19 March 1116 he caused the prelates, nobles, and barons throughout the whole of England to do the like at an assembly which he held at Salisbury (Anglo-Saxon Chron. a. 1115; Flor. Wig. ii. 69; Eadmer, Historia Novorum, v. col. 496; Dr. Stubbs considers this to have been a general muster of landowners, Constitutional History, i. 358; and William of Malmesbury says that the oath was taken by all freemen of every degree in England and Normandy, Gesta Regum, v. 419. In the face of the English chronicler and Florence this may perhaps be put down as merely rhetorical). After Easter Henry again visited Normandy, and, taking up the quarrel of his nephew Theobald with Louis VI, sent forces into France, took the castle of St. Clair, and did much damage. Provoked by this invasion, Louis adopted the cause of Robert's son William, and attacked Normandy, and, as he knew that the dukes had thoroughly fortified the border, seized by a clever stratagem a little town called Gue Nichaise, where there was a bridge across the Epte. Henry tried to blockade him by building two forts against his quarters, but Louis called them ‘Malassis’ and ‘hare's-form’ (trulla leporis), stormed Malassis, and carried on a desultory warfare (Suger, p. 43; Orderic, p. 842). The French king was joined by Baldwin of Flanders and Fulk of Anjou, who combined with him to place William Clito in possession of Normandy. Many of the Norman barons revolted, and Amaury of Montfort, who claimed Evreux, the fief of his uncle William, was active in gaining fresh adherents to the league against Henry. During 1117 Henry remained in Normandy, and in the following year matters became serious. While Count Baldwin was mortally wounded at Eu, and the king did not suffer any important defeat, the defection of his lords still continued. On 1 May of this year his queen, Matilda, died, and he also lost his faithful counsellor, Robert of Meulan. To this time also is to be referred a conspiracy which was made by one of his chamberlains to assassinate him. The plot was discovered, and the traitor punished by mutilation. It is said to have had a considerable effect on the king; he increased his guards, often changed his sleeping-place, and would not sleep without having a shield and sword close at hand (Suger, p. 44; Gesta Regum, v. 411). Hearing that Richer of Laigle had admitted the French into his town, he marched against it, but was stopped by William of Tancarville, who brought him false news that Hugh of Gournay, Stephen of Albemarle, and others of his rebellious lords were at Rouen. When he found that they were not there, he attacked Hugh of Gournay's castle, la Ferté, but heavy rain forced him to abandon the siege. Having laid waste the country he attacked and burnt Neubourg. In September he seized Henry of Eu and Hugh of Gournay at Rouen, imprisoned them, and reduced their castles. He held a council at Rouen in October, and endeavoured to make peace with his lords. While he was there Amaury of Montfort made himself master of Evreux. About the middle of November he attacked Laigle, and was hit on the head by a stone sent from the castle by the French garrison; his helmet, however, protected him. In December Alençon rebelled against his nephews Theobald and Stephen, and was occupied by Fulk of Anjou. Henry had caused Eustace de Pacy, the husband of his natural daughter Juliana and lord of Breteuil, to send him his two little daughters as hostages for his good faith, and had put a castellan, Ralph Harenc, in charge of his tower of Ivry, making him send his son as a hostage to Eustace. By the advice of Amaury of Montfort, Eustace, who was on the rebels' side, put out the boy's eyes. On this Henry, in great wrath, sent his two grand-daughters to Harenc that he might serve them in the same way. Harenc tore out their eyes, and cut off the tips of their noses. Their parents then fortified all their castles against Henry, and Juliana gathered a force, and shut herself in the castle of Breteuil. The townsmen who were loyal sent to Henry, and he appeared before the castle in February 1119. Juliana tried to kill her father by a shot from an engine. She failed, and was forced to offer to surrender. Her father would not allow her to leave the castle except by letting herself down into the moat and wading through the icy water (Orderic, p. 848; De Contemptu Mundi, p. 311; Lingard, ii. 12). During the early months of the year the war went on much as in the year before; the Norman lords still remained disloyal, Louis took Andelys, which was held by the king's natural son Richard, by surprise, and the French became masters of all the neighbouring country. Henry was losing ground, and Amaury of Montfort scornfully rejected his offer of reconciliation. In May 1120 Henry joyfully received his son William, who came over to him from England. The object of his coming was shown by the despatch of messengers to Count Fulk to propose that the marriage contract between William and Fulk's daughter Matilda should be fulfilled. Fulk agreed and made peace with Henry, offering to end the ancient dispute between the houses of Normandy and Anjou by settling Maine upon his daughter, and to give up Alençon provided that the king would restore it to William Talvas, son of Robert of Bellême, and heir of its ancient lords (Orderic, p. 851; Suger, p. 45; Gesta Regum, v. 419). This marriage, which was celebrated in June at Lisieux, changed the aspect of the war, for the alliance with Count Fulk enabled Henry to devote all his energies to repelling Louis and punishing his rebellious vassals. In the summer he made a terrible raid on the disloyal lords; he laid siege to Evreux, and finding it well defended called the Bishop Audoin to him, for Audoin, in common with the bishops and clergy of the duchy generally, was loyal to Henry, and asked him whether it would not be well for him to fire the town provided that if the churches were burnt he would rebuild them. As the bishop hesitated to give an answer, the king set fire to the town and burnt it, churches and all, he and his nobles giving the bishop ample pledges that he would rebuild the churches, which he afterwards did. When Amaury heard that his town was burnt, he sent to Louis for help. On 20 Aug. Henry, who had heard mass that morning at Noyon, was riding towards Andelys to make war, with five hundred of his best knights, when his scouts told him that the French king, who had ridden out from Andelys with four hundred knights, was close at hand. The two bands met on the plain of Brenneville. Besides William the Ætheling two of Henry's natural sons, Robert and Richard, fought in their father's company; Richard with a hundred knights remained mounted, the rest of Henry's knights fought on foot. Among the knights of Louis fought William of Normandy. Louis neglected to marshal his force; William Crispin, a rebel Norman, charged Henry's forces with eighty horse. He and his men were surrounded, but he made his way to the king and struck him a deadly blow on the head, but Henry's headpiece saved him, though it was broken by the blow, and wounded his head so that the blood flowed. All the eighty knights were taken. A body of knights from the Vexin for a moment shook the Norman lines, but was quickly repulsed. When Louis saw that William Crispin and the knights whom he led did not return from their charge, he and his men took flight, and the Normans pursued some of the fugitives as far as Andelys. Henry's men took 140 prisoners and the banner of the French king. Henry returned this banner to Louis together with his charger, and William the Ætheling sent back the charger of his cousin William of Normandy. Henry also sent back without ransom some knights who owed allegiance to Louis as well as to himself. Only three knights were slain out of the nine hundred engaged in the fight; for all were clad in complete armour, and on both sides there was a feeling of knightly comradeship which prevented any sanguinary conflict; indeed the aim of both sides was rather to make prisoners than to slay the enemy. The whole affair was more like a great tournament than a battle (Orderic, pp. 853-5; Suger, p. 45; Henry of Huntingdon, p. 241, where some details are probably untrustworthy). Louis raised a large force and overran part of Normandy and Chartres, gaining nothing by his raid, while Henry organised his army. In October Louis, who evidently felt himself overmatched, appeared before Calixtus II at the Council of Rheims, and made his complaints against the English king. Geoffrey, archbishop of Rouen, rose to reply to the charges brought against his lord, but the council would not hear him. The pope, however, was anxious to make peace with the emperor, and did not care to offend the father of the empress. Meanwhile Henry received the submission of several rebel lords, and was reconciled to Amaury of Montfort, Eustace, and Juliana, Hugh of Gournay, and others, who agreed, though against their wills, to let William Clito and Elias of St.-Saen remain in exile. In November he met the pope at Gisors, and replied in person to the charges brought against him by Louis of usurping the inheritance of his brother and nephew, declaring that he had offered to make William earl of three counties in England, and to bring him up with his own son. His answers on these and other points thoroughly satisfied the pope, by whose intercession a peace was arranged in 1120 between Henry and Louis and the Count of Flanders; all conquests were to be restored, captives liberated, and offences pardoned, and Louis accepted the homage of Henry's son, and thus gave a pledge that he should succeed to his father's fiefs (Orderic, p. 866; Norman Conquest, v. 193). Henry thus passed safely and honourably through the most dangerous crisis of his reign. After devoting some time to settling the affairs of the duchy, he embarked at Barfleur on 25 Nov. to return to England, from which he had been absent for four years. His only legitimate son, William, was to follow him, with his half-brother Richard, his half-sister the Countess of Perche, many young lords and ladies, and the king's treasure, in the White Ship. The ship foundered, and all were drowned except a butcher of Rouen. Although Henry's lords were mourning their own losses, they concealed the disaster from the king for a day after the news had come, for they feared to tell him. At last the young son of Count Theobald knelt before him and told him of his loss. Henry fell senseless to the ground, and though in a few days he restrained his grief, and applied himself to his kingly business, he was deeply affected by his son's death (Orderic, pp. 868 sq.; Gesta Regum, v. 419; Henry of Huntingdon, p. 242; Symeon, ii. 259; Wace, ll. 10203-10288; Benoit, ll. 41039-41152). The disaster ruined his schemes at the very moment when their success appeared certain, and when it seemed as though nothing could prevent his son from inheriting both his kingdom and duchy. All his dominions would now naturally pass at his death to his enemy, William Clito. By the advice of his counsellors he married again, taking to wife, on 29 Jan. 1121, Adela, or Adelaide, daughter of Godfrey VII, count of Louvain, in the hope of having a son by her, and also, it is said, to keep himself from disgraceful conduct (Gesta Regum, v. 419; Eadmer, col. 517). Unfortunately the marriage proved barren. After Whitsuntide Henry led an army into Wales, where the natives had taken advantage of the death of the Earl of Chester to rise in revolt. He marched as far as Snowdon (Symeon, ii. 264), and received the submission of the Welsh nobles, who gave him their sons as hostages, and paid him tribute, so that he is said to have fully subdued the land (Giraldus Cambrensis, iii. 152). While on this expedition, and as the army was passing through English territory, he was hit by an arrow which was shot at him secretly. His armour saved him from harm. The man who made the attempt was not discovered, and Henry swore ‘by God's death,’ his favourite oath, that he was no Welshman, but one of his own subjects (Gesta Regum, v. 401). Shortly before this time Henry brought to a close a quarrel with Thurstan, archbishop of York. His rule was as despotic in ecclesiastical as in civil matters, and in both alike he maintained the principle of holding to the hereditary rights of the crown. After the death of Anselm in 1109, he broke the promise of his coronation charter by keeping the see of Canterbury vacant until 1114, when he summoned the suffragan bishops and the monks of Christ Church to Windsor, and allowed the election of Ralph, bishop of Rochester, to the archbishopric. This election led to a dispute with Pope Paschal II, who in 1115 wrote to Henry, complaining that his legates were shut out from the kingdom, and that he translated bishops without papal license. On the other hand, the king informed the bishops that the pope had infringed the privileges enjoyed by his father and brother. He commanded Thurstan, the archbishop-elect of York, to make profession to Archbishop Ralph. Thurstan refused, and was upheld in his refusal by Pope Paschal and his successors, Gelasius II and Calixtus II. A long quarrel ensued, in which Henry upheld the rights of Canterbury. He allowed Thurstan to attend the pope's council at Rheims in 1119, on his promising that he would not receive consecration from the pope, and so evade the profession, and allowed the English prelates to go thither also, warning them that, as he intended to abide by the ancient customs and privileges of his realm, they had better not bring back any idle innovations. Finding that Thurstan, in spite of his promise, was trying to obtain consecration from Calixtus, he charged the bishops to prevent it. They were too late, and the pope consecrated Thurstan, whereupon the king forbade him to enter England, and seized the estates of his see. Nor would Henry at Gisors assent to the pope's demand for his restoration. Thurstan, however, did Henry a service by forwarding the negotiations with Louis, and Henry allowed him to return, and gave him the temporalities (Eadmer, v. col. 499 sq.; Hugh the Chantor, pp. 129 sq.). Although Henry sent the young widow of his son back to her father against his own will¾for, besides her importance as a kind of hostage for Count Fulk's conduct, he seems to have been fond of her (Orderic, p. 875)¾he did not return the money which formed part of her dower, nor would he satisfy the envoys from the count who came to his court, probably on this matter, at Christmas 1122. The settlement of the county of Maine, however, was broken by William's death, and Fulk was induced, partly by his anger at the retention of the dower, and partly by the persuasions of Louis of France and Amaury of Montfort, count of Evreux, to give the county to William Clito, to whom he betrothed his second daughter Sibyl. At the same time in 1123 a revolt was excited among the Norman lords, chiefly through the instrumentality of Amaury and of Waleran of Meulan, the son of Henry's late counsellor. Henry heard of the movement, and crossed over from Portsmouth immediately after Whitsuntide, leaving his kingdom under the care of his justiciar, Roger, bishop of Salisbury, who was at this period, after the king himself, all powerful both in church and state. In September the rebels met at Croix-St. Leuffroy, and arranged their plans. As soon as Henry knew of their meeting, he gathered his forces at Rouen, and took the field in October. His promptitude would have taken them by surprise had they not received timely warning from Hugh of Montfort, of whom the king required the surrender of his castle. Henry burnt Montfort, and forced the garrison to surrender the fortress, and then laid siege to Pont Audemer, the town of Waleran. The town was burnt, but the castle was held by a strong garrison, partly composed of men who had pretended to be on Henry's side, while some, the poet Luke de Barré among them, were fierce and valiant warriors. In spite of his age Henry was as active during this siege as the youngest soldier of his army, superintending everything himself, teaching the carpenters how to build a tower against the castle, scolding bad workmen, and praising the industrious, and urging them on to do more. At last, after a siege of six weeks, the castle was surrendered. On the other hand Gisors was taken by a treacherous stratagem. Henry at once hastened thither, and the rebels evacuated the town on his approach. In returning he seized Evreux. Heavy rains compelled him for a time to forbear further operations. While his rebellious lords seem to have been no match for him, their attempts gained importance from the fact that they were upheld by Louis, who was ready, if matters went ill with Henry, to take a prominent part in the war. In order to prevent this, Henry's son-in-law, the emperor, threatened France with an invasion, but did not advance further than Metz (Suger, pp. 49, 50; Otto of Freising, vii. 16). A decisive blow was struck on 25 March 1124, when Ranulf of Bayeux, who held Evreux for the king, defeated a large force led by Waleran, and took him and many others captive at Bourgthéroulde. This battle virtually ended the war, and after Easter Henry pronounced sentence on the rebel prisoners at Rouen. Many were imprisoned, Hugh of Montfort being confined miserably at Gloucester. Waleran, whose sister was one of the king's mistresses, was kept in prison in England until 1129, and then pardoned and received into favour. Two rebels who had forsworn themselves were condemned to lose their eyes. A like doom was pronounced against the warrior poet, Luke de Barré, for he had mortally offended the king by his satirical verses, as well as by his repeated attacks upon him. Charles, count of Flanders, who chanced to be at the court, and many nobles remonstrated at this, for, as they pleaded, Luke was not one of Henry's men, and was taken while fighting for his own lord. Henry acknowledged this, but would not remit his sentence, for he said that Luke had made his enemies laugh at him. Luke escaped his doom by dashing out his own brains (Orderic, pp. 880, 881). The king's success was crowned by the publication of a papal decree, obtained by his persuasion, annulling the marriage contract between William Clito and the daughter of the Count of Anjou, on account of consanguinity (ib. p. 838; D'Achery, Spicilegium, iii. 497). The war cost much money, and Englishmen moaned over the burdens which were laid upon them; ‘those who had goods,’ the chronicler writes, ‘were bereft of them by strong gelds and strong motes; he who had none starved with hunger.’ The law was enforced vigorously, and sometimes probably unjustly; at Huncote in Leicestershire the king's justices at one time hanged forty-four men as thieves, and mutilated six others, some of whom, it was generally believed, were innocent. At the end of the year Henry sent from Normandy, commanding that severe measures should be taken against debasers of the coin, which had deteriorated so much that it was said that a pound was not worth a penny in the market. The offenders were punished with mutilation. On the death of his son-in-law the emperor in 1125, Henry sent for his daughter Matilda, who went back to him, and in September 1126 he returned to England with his queen, his daughter, and his prisoners. Finding that it was unlikely that his queen would have children, he determined to secure the succession for his daughter, and at the following Christmas assembly at Westminster caused the prelates and barons to swear that if he died without a male heir they would receive Matilda as Lady both of England and Normandy. Among those who took this oath were David, king of Scots, who had come to the English court at Michaelmas, and Stephen, count of Boulogne, the king's nephew, and the brother of Count Theobald (Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, sub an. 1127; William of Malmesbury, Historia Novella, i. 2, 3; Symeon, ii. 281; Cont. William of Jumièges, viii. 25). It was afterwards asserted by Bishop Roger of Salisbury that this oath was taken on the king's promise that he would not give his daughter in marriage to any one out of the kingdom without the advice of his chief men; this assertion was probably untrue. Henry's move must have seemed strange to the men of his time, for no woman had hitherto reigned in her own right either over England or Normandy; it was meant to put an end to the hopes of the party which supported William Clito, and so to give stability to Henry's position during the rest of his reign, as well as to secure the succession after his death. By way of answer to this oath of succession, Louis again took up the cause of William, who, since the papal decree against his marriage had been finally enforced, had been forsaken by his friends, gave him to wife Jane of Montferrat, the half-sister of his queen, and invested him with the grant of the French Vexin. Moreover, when Charles, count of Flanders, died on 1 March 1127, he gave the county to William as the heir of Baldwin V. Henry was himself one of the claimants, and sent his nephew Stephen, whose county of Boulogne was a Flemish fief, to press his claim. Stephen was unsuccessful, and the favour shown to William by the French king and the rapid rise in his nephew's fortunes forced him to take measures to prevent another combination being formed against him. Accordingly he made alliance with Fulk of Anjou, and at Whitsuntide sent his daughter and heiress to Normandy, under the charge of her half-brother, Robert, earl of Gloucester, to become the wife of Fulk's son Geoffrey. He also made alliance with Theodoric of Alsace, who claimed to succeed to the county, and with a strong party among the Flemings against William and the French king. In August he crossed over to Normandy, and in order to prevent Louis from giving help to William upheld Amaury of Montfort in a quarrel with the French king (Suger, p. 56); invaded France, though probably without any idea of making conquests; encamped for a week at Epernon, one of Amaury's chief possessions, without being attacked (Henry of Huntingdon, p. 247), and by this means kept Louis from marching into Flanders. At Whitsuntide 1128 he knighted Geoffrey with much ceremony at Rouen, and then proceeded with him and Matilda to Le Mans, where on the octave of the feast Geoffrey and Matilda were married in his presence in the cathedral (Historia Gaufredi ap. Recueil, xii. 520, 521; for date see Angevin Kings, i. 258). The marriage was unpopular in England, Normandy, and Maine; the English were not pleased at the heiress to the crown marrying out of the country, while the people of both Normandy and Maine had a long-standing hatred for the Angevin house. It promised, however, to turn the most dangerous of Henry's enemies into an assured friend, to put an end to the designs of the counts of Anjou on Maine, and to add Anjou to the inheritance of his descendants. In the last days of July he heard that his nephew was dead, and received a letter from him, asking his pardon, and praying that he would be gracious to such of his friends as might come to him. He agreed to this request, released some of his nephew's adherents from prison, and allowed them and others to have their lands again. William's death relieved him from all further attempts on the part of Louis to shake his power, and robbed the nobles of Normandy of the weapon which they had so often used against him. His good fortune was soon chequered, for shortly after he landed in England, in July 1129, he heard that Geoffrey had quarrelled with his wife, and that she had returned to Rouen (Symeon, ii. 283). Towards the end of the year he scandalised the English bishops by a trick to raise money. With his concurrence William of Corbeuil, archbishop of Canterbury, held a synod at Michaelmas 1127, at which it was ordered that married priests should put away their wives. Nevertheless after his return the king allowed the clergy to keep their wives by paying him a fine (Henry of Huntingdon, p. 251). On 4 May following, the repairs of Christ Church, Canterbury, being finished, he attended the consecration, and there is a story that when the anthem ‘Terribilis est locus’ was sung with a trumpet accompaniment, he was so much moved that he swore aloud that by God's death the place was indeed awful (Oseney Annals, p. 19). Four days later he went to Rochester, where another monastic and cathedral church was to be dedicated, and while he was there the city was almost destroyed by fire. At Michaelmas he went to Normandy to his daughter. Innocent II was then in France, having been forced to leave Rome by the supporters of his rival Anaclete. Henry was urged to take the side of Anaclete, who was, it is said, favoured by the English bishops. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, persuaded him otherwise, and he left his own dominions and came to Chartres to meet Innocent, promised him his support, and afterwards received him at Rouen with much honour, and used all his influence on his behalf (Henry of Huntingdon, p. 251; Historia Novella, i. 6; Arnulf of Seez ap. Muratori, iii. 436; Acta SS., Mabillon, ii., Vita S. Bernardi, ii. 4). He returned to England with Matilda in July 1131, and soon received a message from Geoffrey asking that his wife should come back to him. By the advice of a great council held at Northampton on 8 Sept., it was decided that his request should be granted, and Henry again required all the nobles who were present to swear fealty to Matilda as his successor. During 1132 he remained in England, and at Christmas lay sick at Windsor. The following Easter he kept at Oxford at the ‘new hall,’ which he had just completed; this was Beaumont Palace, outside the north gate of the city (Wood, City of Oxford, p. 366; Boase, Oxford, pp. 28, 62; the suggestion in Henry of Huntingdon, ed. Arnold, p. 253 n., that it was Oxford Castle is erroneous). The birth of his grandson, afterwards Henry II, on 5 March, seemed to secure the success of his policy, and in August he embarked, for the last time, for Normandy, to see the child. An eclipse of the sun which took place during his voyage was afterwards held to have been ominous (Anglo-Saxon Chron. a. 1135; Historia Novella, i. 8). Matilda joined him at Rouen, and there, at Whitsuntide 1134, bore a second son named Geoffrey. He took much delight in his little grandchildren, and stayed at Rouen contentedly until, in 1135, he heard that the Welsh had made an insurrection and had burnt a castle belonging to Pain Fitzjohn [q.v.]. In great wrath he bade his men prepare to return to England, and was thrice on the point of embarking, but was prevented by fresh troubles. His son-in-law claimed certain castles in Normandy, which he asserted had been promised to him at the time of his marriage; and, according to a later story (Robert of Torigni, a. 1135, which receives some confirmation from Orderic, p. 900; see Angevin Kings, i. 269), seems to have demanded to receive fealty for all Henry's strong places in England and Normandy. Henry indignantly declared that so long as he lived he would make no one his master or his equal in his own house. Geoffrey destroyed the castle of the viscount of Beaumont, the husband of one of Henry's natural daughters, and behaved so insultingly towards him that he threatened to take Matilda back with him to England. But he was unable to leave Normandy, for some of the nobles were disaffected and held with the count. Chief among these were William Talvas and Roger of Toesny. He kept Roger quiet by sending a garrison to Conches, and when Talvas, after disregarding several summonses, fled to Angers, he made an expedition into his country and compelled the surrender of his castles. Matilda made frequent attempts to persuade him to pardon Talvas, and when Henry refused quarrelled with her father, and went off to Angers to her husband (Cont. William of Jumièges, viii. 34). Henry's health, which had now been failing for some time, was further impaired by the agitation brought on by these quarrels, and he fell sick while hunting in the forest of Lyons towards the end of November, his illness, it is said, being brought on by eating lampreys contrary to the orders of his physician (Henry of Huntingdon, p. 254). He became feverish, and, feeling that his end was near, sent for Hugh, archbishop of Rouen, by whose directions he remitted all sentences of forfeiture and banishment. To his son Robert, earl of Gloucester, the only one of his children who was with him, he gave 6,000l. from his treasury at Falaise, ordered that wages and gifts should be distributed among his household and mercenary soldiers (Orderic, p. 901), and declared Matilda heiress of all his dominions (Historia Novella, i. 8). He received absolution and the last sacrament, and died in peace (ib. c. 9), after a week's illness, on the night of 1 Dec., at the age of sixty-seven. It was afterwards asserted that he had on his deathbed repented of having caused his lords to swear to receive Matilda as his successor (Gesta Stephani, p. 7), and that he had on one occasion absolved them from their oath (Gervase, i. 94). His corpse was carried to Rouen, and was followed thither by twenty thousand men. There it was roughly embalmed, and his bowels having been buried in the church of St. Mary de Pre at Emandreville, near Rouen, which had been begun by his mother and finished by him, his body was taken to Caen, where it lay for a month in the church of St. Stephen, and thence, according to his orders, was brought over to England, and buried, on 4 Jan. 1136, in the church of the monastery which he had founded at Reading (ib. p. 95; Henry of Huntingdon, pp. 256, 257; Orderic, p. 901). Besides William and Matilda, his two legitimate children by his first wife, he had many natural children (for list see Cont. William of Jumièges, viii. 29; Lappenberg, p. 348). Of these the most noteworthy was Robert, earl of Gloucester [see Robert, d. 1147], who is said on insufficient grounds to have been the son of Nest or Nesta [q.v.] daughter of Rhys ap Tewdwr (d. 1093), king of Deheubarth, one of Henry's mistresses, who afterwards married Gerald of Windsor, constable of Pembroke Castle, by whom she had four children: Robert was probably born at Caen before his father's accession, and was most likely the son of a French mother (Norman Conquest, v. 851). He was the eldest of Henry's sons (Continuat. William of Jumièges, lib. viii. cap. 39). Of Henry's other natural children, Richard, and Matilda, wife of the Count of Perche, were both drowned in the White Ship; Reginald of Dunstanville, whose mother was Sibil, daughter and (in her issue) co-heir of Robert Corbet of Longden, Shropshire (Eyton, History of Shropshire, vii. 145, 159, 181), was created Earl of Cornwall in 1140, and died 1175 (Gesta Stephani, p. 65; see art. Reginald, Earl of Cornwall, d. 1175); Matilda was wife of Conan III of Brittany (Orderic, p. 544); Juliana, wife of Eustace of Pacy, lord of Breteuil; Constance, wife of Roscelin, viscount of Beaumont (Cont. William of Jumièges, viii. 29; Orderic, p. 900); and Sybilla, born to him by a sister of Waleran, count of Meulan, married Alexander I, king of Scotland, fourth son of Malcolm Canmore and Margaret, grand-niece of Edward the Confessor (ib. p. 702; Skene, Celtic Scotland, i. 448). By his mistress Nest or Nesta he was father of Henry ‘filius regis,’ who was slain in Anglesey in 1157 (Itinerarium Kambriæ, p. 130), and was also father of Meiler Fitzhenry [q.v.] and of Robert Fitzhenry (d. 1180?; Expugnatio Hiberniæ, p. 354). Sources: For Henry's birth and education, see Freeman's Norman Conquest, iv. 790-5; for his life before his accession and his reign to 1104, Freeman's William Rufus, passim; for his personal character, Norman Conquest, v. 839-45; for sketch of reign, ib. pp. 148-243; for state of England under him, and for his relations with Anjou, Miss Norgate's England under Angevin Kings, i. 1-96, 230-44, 261-71; for reign, especially as regards continental policy, Lappenberg's Norman Kings, pp. 276-356, trans. Thorpe; for constitutional aspect, Stubbs's Constitutional History, i. 303-18, and chap. xi. passim; for summary of events relating to his doings on the continent, index with references to Recueil des Historiens, xii. 934-7 (the chronological sequence is occasionally incorrect, but this is a matter of much doubt and difficulty owing to the confused character of the work of Orderic); William of Jumièges and Orderic, Hist. Norm. Scriptt. (Duchesne); Brevis Relatio (Giles); Anglo-Saxon Chron.; Henry of Huntingdon's Hist., with De Contemptu Mundi, Ann. Cambriæ, Descript. Kambriæap. Girald. Cambr. vol. iii., Annals of Waverley, Wykes, and Oseney ap. Ann. Monast. vols. ii. and iv., Hugh the Chantor ap. Archbishops of York, vol. ii., Symeon of Durham, and Gervase of Cant., all Rolls Ser.; Florence of Worc., William of Malm., Gesta Stephani, and William of Newburgh, all Engl. Hist. Soc.; Eadmer's Hist. Nov. and the Letters of S. Anselm, Patrol. Lat., Migne, vols. clviii. clix.; Map's De Nugis Curialium (Camd. Soc.); Hist. Dunelm. SS. tres (Surtees Soc.); Wace's Roman de Rou, ed. Andresen; Benoˆit, ed. Fr. Michel; John of Hexham, ed. Twysden; Suger's Vita Lud. Grossi, and Hist. Gaufr. Ducis ap. Recueil des Historiens, vol. xii.; Arnulf of Seez, tractatus ap. Rer. Ital. Scriptt. Muratori, vol. iii.; Vita S. Bernardi ap. Acta SS. O.S.B., Mabillon, vol. ii.; for Henry's English foundations, Dugdale's Monasticon, index, and references; Boase's Oxford and Creighton's Carlisle (Hist. Towns Ser.); Wood's City of Oxford (Oxf. Hist. Soc.) Contributor: W. H. [William Hunt] Published: 1891 Henry I was born in the year 1068---a factor he himself regarded as highly significant, for he was the only son of the Conqueror born after the conquest of England, and to Henry this meant he was heir to the throne. He was not an attractive proposition: he was dissolute to a degree, producing at least a score of bastards; but far worse he was prone to sadistic cruelty---on one occasion, for example, personally punishing a rebellious burgher by throwing him from the walls of his town. At the death of William the Conqueror, Henry was left no lands, merely 5,000 pounds of silver. With these he bought lands from his elder brother Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy, only to see them taken back again a few years later by Robert, in unholy alliance with his brother William Rufus. Henry could do little to avenge such treatment, but in England he found numerous barons who were tired of the exactions and ambitions of their king. He formed alliances with some of these, notably with the important de Clare family. He and some of the de Clares were with William Rufus on his last hunting expedition, and it is thought that the king's death was the result of Henry's plotting. Certainly he moved fast to take advantage of it; leaving Rufus's body unattended in the woods, he swooped down on Winchester to take control of the treasury. Two days later he was in Westminster, being crowned by the Bishop of London. His speed is understandable when one realises that his elder brother, Robert [Curthose], was returning from the crusade, and claimed, with good reason, to be the true heir. Henry showed great good sense in his first actions as King. He arrested Ranulph Flambard, William's tax-gatherer, and recalled Anselm, the exiled Archbishop. Furthermore, he issued a Charter of Liberties which promised speedy redress of grievances, and a return to the good government of the Conqueror. Putting aside for the moment his many mistresses, he married the sister of the King of Scots, who was descended from the royal line of Wessex; and lest the Norman barons should think him too pro-English in this action, he changed her name from Edith to Matilda. No one could claim that he did not aim to please. In 1101 Robert Curthose invaded, but Henry met him at Alton, and persuaded him to go away again by promising him an annuity of £2,000. He had no intention of keeping up the payments, but the problem was temporarily solved. He now felt strong enough to move against dissident barons who might give trouble in the future. Chief amongst these was the vicious Robert of Bellême, Earl of Shrewsbury, whom Henry had known for many years as a dangerous troublemaker. He set up a number of charges against him in the king's court, making it plain that if he appeared for trial he would be convicted and imprisoned. Thus Robert and his colleagues were forced into rebellion at a time not of their own choosing, were easily defeated and sent scuttling back to Normandy. In Normandy Robert Curthose began to wreak his wrath on all connected with his brother, thus giving Henry an excellent chance to retaliate with charges of misgovernment and invade. He made two expeditions in 1104-5, before the great expedition of 1106 on which Robert was defeated at the hour-long battle of Tinchebrai, on the anniversary of Hastings. No one had expected such an easy victory, but Henry took advantage of the state of shock resulting from the battle to annex Normandy. Robert was imprisoned (in some comfort, it be said); he lived on for 28 more years, ending up in Cardiff castle whiling away the long hours learning Welsh. His son William Clito remained a free agent, to plague Henry for most of the rest of his reign. In England the struggle with Anselm over the homage of bishops ran its course until the settlement of 1107. In matters of secular government life was more simple: Henry had found a brilliant administrator, Roger of Salisbury, to act as Justiciar for him. Roger had an inventive mind, a keen grasp of affairs, and the ability to single out young men of promise. He quickly built up a highly efficient team of administrators, and established new routines and forms of organisation within which they could work. To him we owe the Exchequer and its recording system of the Pipe Rolls, the circuits of royal justiciars spreading the king's peace, and the attempts at codification of law. Henry's good relationships with his barons, and with the burgeoning new towns owed much to skilful administration. Certainly he was able to gain a larger and more reliable revenue this way than by the crude extortion his brother had used. In 1120 came the tragedy of the White Ship. The court was returning to England, and the finest ship in the land was filled with its young men, including Henry's son and heir William. Riotously drunk, they tried to go faster and faster, when suddenly the ship foundered. All hands except a butcher of Rouen were lost, and England was without an heir. Henry's only legitimate child was Matilda, but she was married to the Emperor Henry V of Germany, and so could not succeed. But in 1125 her husband died, and Henry brought her home and forced the barons to swear fealty to her---though they did not like the prospect of a woman ruler. Henry then married her to Geoffrey of Anjou, the Normans' traditional enemy, and the barons were less happy---especially when the newly-weds had a terrible row, and Geoffrey ordered her out of his lands. In 1131 Henry, absolutely determined, forced the barons to swear fealty once more, and the fact that they did so is testimoney of his controlling power. Matilda and Geoffrey were reunited, and in 1133 she produced a son whom she named for his grandfather. If only Henry could live on until his grandson was old enough to rule, all would be well. But in 1135, against doctor's orders, he ate a hearty meal of lampreys, got acute indigestion, which turned into fever, and died. He was buried at his abbey in Reading---some said in a silver coffin, for which there was an unsuccessful search at the Dissolution. [Source: Who's Who in the Middle Ages, John Fines, Barnes & Noble Books, New York, 1995] 24th great-grandfather of Queen Elizabeth II King Henry I (1068-1135) at Selby, Yorkshire West Riding King of England Died: 1st December 1135 at St. Denis-le-Fermont, Gisors, Normandy Henry was the youngest son of William the Conqueror and his only child born in England. He came into the World at Selby, in Yorkshire, while Queen Matilda was accompanying her husband on his expedition to subdue the North. Henry was always his mother’s favourite and, though his father held a life interest, he inherited all her English states upon her death in 1083. As a boy, Henry received an excellent education at Abingdon Abbey in Berkshire. Though a native speaker of Norman-French, as well as learning the usual Latin, he was taught to read and write in English. He also studied English law, possibly with a view to entering the Church, like so many other younger sons. Henry had a particular interest in natural history and, being far in advance of the times, eventually collected together the first zoo in the country, at his palace in Woodstock (Oxfordshire). His wide-ranging knowledge earned him the epithet of ‘Beauclerc’ meaning ‘Fine Scholar’, a name of which he was extremely proud. In later years, he even declared that ‘an unlettered King was but a crowned ass.’ Knighted by his father at Whitsun 1086, Henry became one of the barons who suffered from divided loyalties after the latter’s death the next year. The Conqueror left Normandy to his eldest son, Robert Curthose, and England to his second son, William Rufus. For nine years, this resulted in many disputes in which men like Henry, with lands in both realms, were obliged to take sides with one overlord while unintentionally antagonizing the other. Eventually, however, Robert renounced Normandy and set off on crusade, leaving Henry and the other barons to serve the monarch of a united kingdom. He was thus attending his brother, William, in the New Forest when he was accidentally (or otherwise) shot dead whilst out hunting on 2nd August 1100. Recognising the need for quick actions, the young prince left his brother’s body on the forest floor and rode straight for Winchester to secure both the treasury and his election as King by a small band of available councilors. He then left for Westminster where Bishop Maurice of crowned him in the Abbey, four days later. Henry promised to return to the ways of his father and his first act as king was to restore the exiled St. Anselm to the Archdiocese of Canterbury. He then began his search for a suitable wife and quickly decided Princess Edith (later renamed Matilda), the eldest daughter of King Malcolm Canmore of Scots. Her mother was St Margaret, the grandaughter of the penultimate Saxon King of England, Edmund Ironside. So their children united the blood lines of both the old and new ruling houses. Anselm’s return was not without controversy and the monarch and prelate soon clashed over the question of lay investiture of ecclesiastical estates. Believing he held his estates from the Pope, for years, the Archbishop refused to do homage for them to King Henry, until the frustrated monarch finally forced him to flee into exile once more. The King's sister, the Countess of Blois, eventually suggested a compromise in 1107, by which the bishops paid homage for their lands in return for Henry allowing clerical investiture. King Henry’s elder brother, Robert, had returned from the Crusade in 1100, but proved such an ineffectual ruler in Normandy that the barons revolted against him and asked Henry, a wise monarch and a skilled diplomat, to take his place. The King crossed the Channel to aid their struggle and Duke Robert was prisoner at Tinchebrai. Disquiet continued to harass Henry’s rule in Normandy over the next few years, and this was not helped by war with France. However, in 1109, his foreign policy was triumphant in arranging the betrothal of his only legitimate daughter, Matilda, to the powerful German Emperor, Henry V. They were married five years later. Despite his numerous bastard progeny, King Henry had only one other legitimate child, his heir, Prince William, a boisterous young man whom the monarch completely idolized. Tragically, in 1120, the prince was needlessly drowned - along with many of his generation at court - while making a return trip from Normandy in the ‘White Ship’ which ran aground and sank. It is said that Henry never smiled again. His first wife having died in 1118, Henry took a second, Adeliza of Louvain, in 1122. But, despite the lady being many years his junior, the marriage remained childless. So, four years later, while staying for Christmas at Windsor Castle, the King designated as his successor, his widowed daughter, the Empress Matilda; and all the barons swore to uphold her rights after his death. The following May, Henry also found his daughter a new husband, in the person of Geoffrey, the rather young heir to the County of Anjou. Henry found it expedient to spent an equal amount of time in both his realms but, on 1st August 1135, he left England for the last time. An eclipse the next day was seen as a bad omen and by December, the King was dead. He apparently had a great love of lampreys (eels), despite their disagreeing with him intensely. He had been ordered not to eat them by his physician, but, at his hunting lodge at St Denis-le-Fermont, near Gisors, the monarch decided he fancied some for supper. A severe case of ptomaine poisoning ensued, of which gluttonous King Henry died. Several Norman monasteries wanted Henry’s body buried within their walls, but it was mummified for transportation back to England and only his bowels, brains, heart, eyes & tongue were interred at Rouen Cathedral. As he had wished, King Henry was laid to rest before the high altar of Reading Abbey, at the time, an incomplete Cluniac house he had founded in 1121. The Di

i don't know

Which treaty after World War I established the League of Nations?

Milestones: 1914–1920 - Office of the Historian Milestones: 1914–1920 The League of Nations, 1920 The League of Nations was an international organization, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, created after the First World War to provide a forum for resolving international disputes. Though first proposed by President Woodrow Wilson as part of his Fourteen Points plan for an equitable peace in Europe, the United States never became a member. Cartoon critizing U.S. lack of participation in the League of Nations Speaking before the U.S. Congress on January 8, 1918, President Woodrow Wilson enumerated the last of his Fourteen Points , which called for a “general association of nations…formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.” Many of Wilson’s previous points would require regulation or enforcement. In calling for the formation of a "general association of nations," Wilson voiced the wartime opinions of many diplomats and intellectuals on both sides of the Atlantic who believed there was a need for a new type of standing international organization dedicated to fostering international cooperation, providing security for its members, and ensuring a lasting peace. With Europe’s population exhausted by four years of total war, and with many in the United States optimistic that a new organization would be able to solve the international disputes that had led to war in 1914, Wilson’s articulation of a League of Nations was wildly popular. However, it proved exceptionally difficult to create, and Wilson left office never having convinced the United States to join it. David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom The idea of the League was grounded in the broad, international revulsion against the unprecedented destruction of the First World War and the contemporary understanding of its origins. This was reflected in all of Wilson’s Fourteen Points, which were themselves based on theories of collective security and international organization debated amongst academics, jurists, socialists and utopians before and during the war. After adopting many of these ideas, Wilson took up the cause with evangelical fervor, whipping up mass enthusiasm for the organization as he traveled to the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919, the first President to travel abroad in an official capacity. Wilson used his tremendous influence to attach the Covenant of the League, its charter, to the Treaty of Versailles . An effective League, he believed, would mitigate any inequities in the peace terms. He and the other members of the “Big Three,” Georges Clemenceau of France and David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom, drafted the Covenant as Part I of the Treaty of Versailles. The League’s main organs were an Assembly of all members, a Council made up of five permanent members and four rotating members, and an International Court of Justice. Most important for Wilson, the League would guarantee the territorial integrity and political independence of member states, authorize the League to take “any action…to safeguard the peace,” establish procedures for arbitration, and create the mechanisms for economic and military sanctions. Georges Clemenceau of France The struggle to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and the Covenant in the U.S. Congress helped define the most important political division over the role of the United States in the world for a generation. A triumphant Wilson returned to the United States in February 1919 to submit the Treaty and Covenant to Congress for its consent and ratification. Unfortunately for the President, while popular support for the League was still strong, opposition within Congress and the press had begun building even before he had left for Paris. Spearheading the challenge was the Senate majority leader and chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee, Henry Cabot Lodge . Motivated by Republican concerns that the League would commit the United States to an expensive organization that would reduce the United States’ ability to defend its own interests, Lodge led the opposition to joining the League. Where Wilson and the League’s supporters saw merit in an international body that would work for peace and collective security for its members, Lodge and his supporters feared the consequences of involvement in Europe’s tangled politics, now even more complex because of the 1919 peace settlement. They adhered to a vision of the United States returning to its traditional aversion to commitments outside the Western Hemisphere. Wilson and Lodge’s personal dislike of each other poisoned any hopes for a compromise, and in March 1920, the Treaty and Covenant were defeated by a 49-35 Senate vote. Nine months later, Warren Harding was elected President on a platform opposing the League. Henry Cabot Lodge The United States never joined the League. Most historians hold that the League operated much less effectively without U.S. participation than it would have otherwise. However, even while rejecting membership, the Republican Presidents of the period, and their foreign policy architects, agreed with many of its goals. To the extent that Congress allowed, the Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover administrations associated the United States with League efforts on several issues. Constant suspicion in Congress, however, that steady U.S. cooperation with the League would lead to de facto membership prevented a close relationship between Washington and Geneva. Additionally, growing disillusionment with the Treaty of Versailles diminished support for the League in the United States and the international community. Wilson’s insistence that the Covenant be linked to the Treaty was a blunder; over time, the Treaty was discredited as unenforceable, short-sighted, or too extreme in its provisions, and the League’s failure either to enforce or revise it only reinforced U.S. congressional opposition to working with the League under any circumstances. However, the coming of World War II once again demonstrated the need for an effective international organization to mediate disputes, and the United States public and the Roosevelt administration supported and became founding members of the new United Nations .

Palace of Versailles

In which year did the Korean War break out?

PBS - American Experience: Woodrow Wilson | Wilson- A Portrait [56k]   [220k]   Of the treaty�s 440 articles, the first twenty-six comprise the Covenant of the League of Nations . This covenant describes the operational workings of the League. Article Ten obliges signatories to guarantee the political independence and territorial integrity of all member nations against outside aggression, and to consult together to oppose aggression when it occurs. This became the critical point, and the one that ultimately prevented the treaty�s ratification by the Senate.   [56k]   [220k]   Senator Henry Cabot Lodge led the opposition. Lodge and Wilson were bitter political foes, but they also had legitimate differences of views on the League and on the covenant�s Tenth Article. Lodge believed that the League, under Article Ten, could require the United States to commit economic or military force to maintain the collective security of member nations. Wilson did not share this interpretation of Article 10 - an article that Wilson had written himself. Wilson stated that the veto power enjoyed by the United States in the League Council could prevent any League sanction, but if a unanimous League voted sanctions, the vote amounted only to advice, in any case. The United States would not be, therefore, legally bound to the League�s dictates. However, Wilson did declare, that the United States would be morally bound to adhere to the League�s resolutions. A moral bond was, for Wilson, infinitely superior to a mere legal one. Article Ten was, for him, "a very grave and solemn obligation."     Wilson and Lodge surely could have found a middle ground. Some sort of compromise language could have been drafted. There were pro-treaty Republicans who could have formed a coalition with the Democrats to win the necessary two-thirds majority. But Wilson blocked compromise after he suffered a massive stroke in October 1919. No accommodation with the opposition was found on either side. The treaty was voted down. The United States remained officially at war until June of 1921 when President Warren Harding approved a joint congressional resolution proclaiming the war with the Central Powers ended, and later signed a separate peace treaty. The resolution and the treaty specified that although the United States was not a party to the Versailles Treaty, it retained all rights and advantages accorded to it under the pact�s terms, excluding the League Covenant. The United States never joined the League of Nations.  

i don't know

What is the official residence of the president of France?

Palais de l’Elysee Presidential Elysee Palace In Paris France Contact us This wealthy banker wanted the Hotel d’Evreux to house his collection of paintings and he hired the architect Etienne-Louis Boullee to make many different alterations to the building and transform the gardens, but it was then purchased by the Duchess of Bourbon in 1787 who then named it the Elysee. The next stage of the Palais de l’Elysee Palace During the French Revolution, the Elysee Palace was confiscated and then leased out, but in 1803 was sold to Joachim Murat who was Marshal of France and future King of Naples, then in 1808 it was purchased by Napoleon Bonaparte I . However, a few years later it was then returned back to the Duchess of Bourbon, who then subsequently sold the Palais Elysee to King Louis XVIII in 1816 and from then was starting to be used a guest residence for important foreign visitors. Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, who was the ruler of the Second Empire and of the French Republic resided at this palace in Paris and made some renovations, and then Marshal Macmahon, who was the President of the Third Republic of France then made the Palais de l’Elysee the official residence of the president in the 1870s. The Palais Elysee Official Residence of the French Presidents From this era of the Third Republic, the Palais Elysees became the official residence of the Presidents of France, such as President Raymond Poincare, President Paul Deschanel, etc, but was completely deserted during World War II. It was then reoccupied by the President of the provisional government, Vincent Auriol of the fourth French Republic in 1946 and then by Rene Coty who resigned to General Charles de Gaulle , who became the first President of the Fifth Republic. However, according to many reports, Charles de Gaulle did not like the idea that foreign state officials used to stay at the Palais Elysees because it was a bit too personal, and therefore the state purchased the Hotel de Marigny as the guest residence for kings and other state officials that were visiting Paris . And yet again, according to many sources, the President Francois Mitterrand preferred to stay at his own private residence rather than the official Palais de l’Elysee, but President Jacques Chirac did reside here with his wife throughout his term in office and there was always an official Bastille Day party held within the grounds of this palace in Paris. But when the President Nicolas Sarkozy took over, he put a stop to these festivities as a symbol of the economic crisis that France was going through, in order to reduce the financial burden, yet the palace would still the official home of the president of France. About The Palais de l’Elysee Palace in Paris Today As you can no doubt imagine, this is a heavily guarded mansion house and palace in Paris that has the same role since the 1800s, as the official residence of the President of France and therefore is a place not normally open to the public. However, if you are lucky enough to step inside and experience this wonderful mansion, you will find that there is a vast amount of different styles, where former residents have left their mark on designs, decor and their own personal tastes. To give you an idea, there is a very exquisite and lavish ballroom that is used for official ceremonies, which dates back to the 1800s, and a library that was originally an office on the ground floor along with a dining room that looks like it came out of the 1970s. On the second floor are meeting rooms and even though some have been renovated, there are still the rooms with wood panelling, portraits, tapestries and much more, which are no doubted there as reminders of its heritage and past. Of course, there are also the gardens to admire along with the facade and the fabulous entrance to the Elysee Palace in Paris with its monumental gate, and yet, because of its status plus its heritage, unfortunately this tourist attraction in Paris is not open every day to the public. Access to the Palais de l’Elysee Palace in Paris Even though this mansion house is normally out of reach to the normal resident or tourist on holiday in Paris, there is an opportunity that normally only occurs once or twice a year on a national heritage day , in which to get a glimpse inside this fabulous building. Many people find it hard to figure out when this day will happen, yet if you are one of the lucky ones, then you are in for a real treat and a place to visit that you will never forget.  But do be patient waiting for queues of people to access this part of the history of Paris , that is still continuing as a legacy today. The main entrance is on the Rue du Faubourg Saint-Honore and the nearest Metro station is the Champs Elysees - Clemenceau stop, although there others within a walking stance. Address Details 55 Rue de Faubourg Saint-Honore 75008 Copyright © www.eutouring.com All Rights Reserved Palais de l’Elysee Presidential Elysee Palace in Paris The Palais de l’Elysee is the official residence of the President of the French Republic where foreign dignitaries meet, and located close to the Champs Elysees , this heavily guarded palace has a rich history and impressive architecture. The Beginnings of the Palace Constructed by the architect Armand-Claude Mollet, the palatial mansion house was originally called the Hotel d’Evreux after the person that owned it and it was completely finished with its interior decoration by 1722. And at the time this residence was considered one of the most admired houses in Paris, so when the count d’Evreux died, King Louis XV purchased the residence for his mistress and after she died, the property went back to the crown, but by 1773 it had been purchased by a banker called Nicolas Beaujon.

Élysée Palace

Who set out his political ideas in Mein Kampf?

Palais de l’Elysee Presidential Elysee Palace In Paris France Contact us This wealthy banker wanted the Hotel d’Evreux to house his collection of paintings and he hired the architect Etienne-Louis Boullee to make many different alterations to the building and transform the gardens, but it was then purchased by the Duchess of Bourbon in 1787 who then named it the Elysee. The next stage of the Palais de l’Elysee Palace During the French Revolution, the Elysee Palace was confiscated and then leased out, but in 1803 was sold to Joachim Murat who was Marshal of France and future King of Naples, then in 1808 it was purchased by Napoleon Bonaparte I . However, a few years later it was then returned back to the Duchess of Bourbon, who then subsequently sold the Palais Elysee to King Louis XVIII in 1816 and from then was starting to be used a guest residence for important foreign visitors. Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, who was the ruler of the Second Empire and of the French Republic resided at this palace in Paris and made some renovations, and then Marshal Macmahon, who was the President of the Third Republic of France then made the Palais de l’Elysee the official residence of the president in the 1870s. The Palais Elysee Official Residence of the French Presidents From this era of the Third Republic, the Palais Elysees became the official residence of the Presidents of France, such as President Raymond Poincare, President Paul Deschanel, etc, but was completely deserted during World War II. It was then reoccupied by the President of the provisional government, Vincent Auriol of the fourth French Republic in 1946 and then by Rene Coty who resigned to General Charles de Gaulle , who became the first President of the Fifth Republic. However, according to many reports, Charles de Gaulle did not like the idea that foreign state officials used to stay at the Palais Elysees because it was a bit too personal, and therefore the state purchased the Hotel de Marigny as the guest residence for kings and other state officials that were visiting Paris . And yet again, according to many sources, the President Francois Mitterrand preferred to stay at his own private residence rather than the official Palais de l’Elysee, but President Jacques Chirac did reside here with his wife throughout his term in office and there was always an official Bastille Day party held within the grounds of this palace in Paris. But when the President Nicolas Sarkozy took over, he put a stop to these festivities as a symbol of the economic crisis that France was going through, in order to reduce the financial burden, yet the palace would still the official home of the president of France. About The Palais de l’Elysee Palace in Paris Today As you can no doubt imagine, this is a heavily guarded mansion house and palace in Paris that has the same role since the 1800s, as the official residence of the President of France and therefore is a place not normally open to the public. However, if you are lucky enough to step inside and experience this wonderful mansion, you will find that there is a vast amount of different styles, where former residents have left their mark on designs, decor and their own personal tastes. To give you an idea, there is a very exquisite and lavish ballroom that is used for official ceremonies, which dates back to the 1800s, and a library that was originally an office on the ground floor along with a dining room that looks like it came out of the 1970s. On the second floor are meeting rooms and even though some have been renovated, there are still the rooms with wood panelling, portraits, tapestries and much more, which are no doubted there as reminders of its heritage and past. Of course, there are also the gardens to admire along with the facade and the fabulous entrance to the Elysee Palace in Paris with its monumental gate, and yet, because of its status plus its heritage, unfortunately this tourist attraction in Paris is not open every day to the public. Access to the Palais de l’Elysee Palace in Paris Even though this mansion house is normally out of reach to the normal resident or tourist on holiday in Paris, there is an opportunity that normally only occurs once or twice a year on a national heritage day , in which to get a glimpse inside this fabulous building. Many people find it hard to figure out when this day will happen, yet if you are one of the lucky ones, then you are in for a real treat and a place to visit that you will never forget.  But do be patient waiting for queues of people to access this part of the history of Paris , that is still continuing as a legacy today. The main entrance is on the Rue du Faubourg Saint-Honore and the nearest Metro station is the Champs Elysees - Clemenceau stop, although there others within a walking stance. Address Details 55 Rue de Faubourg Saint-Honore 75008 Copyright © www.eutouring.com All Rights Reserved Palais de l’Elysee Presidential Elysee Palace in Paris The Palais de l’Elysee is the official residence of the President of the French Republic where foreign dignitaries meet, and located close to the Champs Elysees , this heavily guarded palace has a rich history and impressive architecture. The Beginnings of the Palace Constructed by the architect Armand-Claude Mollet, the palatial mansion house was originally called the Hotel d’Evreux after the person that owned it and it was completely finished with its interior decoration by 1722. And at the time this residence was considered one of the most admired houses in Paris, so when the count d’Evreux died, King Louis XV purchased the residence for his mistress and after she died, the property went back to the crown, but by 1773 it had been purchased by a banker called Nicolas Beaujon.

i don't know

Who preceded Ronald Reagan as American president?

Ronald Reagan | whitehouse.gov Air Force One Ronald Reagan Ronald Reagan, originally an American actor and politician, became the 40th President of the United States serving from 1981 to 1989. His term saw a restoration of prosperity at home, with the goal of achieving "peace through strength" abroad. At the end of his two terms in office, Ronald Reagan viewed with satisfaction the achievements of his innovative program known as the Reagan Revolution, which aimed to reinvigorate the American people and reduce their reliance upon Government. He felt he had fulfilled his campaign pledge of 1980 to restore "the great, confident roar of American progress and growth and optimism." On February 6, 1911, Ronald Wilson Reagan was born to Nelle and John Reagan in Tampico, Illinois. He attended high school in nearby Dixon and then worked his way through Eureka College. There, he studied economics and sociology, played on the football team, and acted in school plays. Upon graduation, he became a radio sports announcer. A screen test in 1937 won him a contract in Hollywood. During the next two decades he appeared in 53 films. From his first marriage to actress Jane Wyman, he had two children, Maureen and Michael. Maureen passed away in 2001. In 1952 he married Nancy Davis, who was also an actress, and they had two children, Patricia Ann and Ronald Prescott. As president of the Screen Actors Guild, Reagan became embroiled in disputes over the issue of Communism in the film industry; his political views shifted from liberal to conservative. He toured the country as a television host, becoming a spokesman for conservatism. In 1966 he was elected Governor of California by a margin of a million votes; he was re-elected in 1970. Ronald Reagan won the Republican Presidential nomination in 1980 and chose as his running mate former Texas Congressman and United Nations Ambassador George Bush. Voters troubled by inflation and by the year-long confinement of Americans in Iran swept the Republican ticket into office. Reagan won 489 electoral votes to 49 for President Jimmy Carter. On January 20, 1981, Reagan took office. Only 69 days later he was shot by a would-be assassin, but quickly recovered and returned to duty. His grace and wit during the dangerous incident caused his popularity to soar. Dealing skillfully with Congress, Reagan obtained legislation to stimulate economic growth, curb inflation, increase employment, and strengthen national defense. He embarked upon a course of cutting taxes and Government expenditures, refusing to deviate from it when the strengthening of defense forces led to a large deficit. A renewal of national self-confidence by 1984 helped Reagan and Bush win a second term with an unprecedented number of electoral votes. Their victory turned away Democratic challengers Walter F. Mondale and Geraldine Ferraro. In 1986 Reagan obtained an overhaul of the income tax code, which eliminated many deductions and exempted millions of people with low incomes. At the end of his administration, the Nation was enjoying its longest recorded period of peacetime prosperity without recession or depression. In foreign policy, Reagan sought to achieve "peace through strength." During his two terms he increased defense spending 35 percent, but sought to improve relations with the Soviet Union. In dramatic meetings with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, he negotiated a treaty that would eliminate intermediate-range nuclear missiles. Reagan declared war against international terrorism, sending American bombers against Libya after evidence came out that Libya was involved in an attack on American soldiers in a West Berlin nightclub. By ordering naval escorts in the Persian Gulf, he maintained the free flow of oil during the Iran-Iraq war. In keeping with the Reagan Doctrine, he gave support to anti-Communist insurgencies in Central America, Asia, and Africa. Overall, the Reagan years saw a restoration of prosperity, and the goal of peace through strength seemed to be within grasp. The Presidential biographies on WhiteHouse.gov are from “The Presidents of the United States of America,” by Frank Freidel and Hugh Sidey. Copyright 2006 by the White House Historical Association. For more information about President Reagan, please visit

Jimmy Carter

In which year was Ulster incorporated into the UK, under the Home Rule Act?

Ronald Reagan - U.S. Presidents - HISTORY.com Google Ronald Reagan’s Childhood and Education Ronald Wilson Reagan was born on February 6, 1911, in Tampico, Illinois , to Edward “Jack” Reagan (1883-1941), a shoe salesman, and Nelle Wilson Reagan (1883-1962). The family, which included older son Neil Reagan (1908-1996), resided in an apartment that lacked indoor plumbing and running water and was located along the small town’s main street. Reagan’s father nicknamed him Dutch as a baby, saying he resembled “a fat little Dutchman.” Did You Know? Among the items on display at Ronald Reagan's presidential library in California is a 6,000-pound graffiti-covered section of the Berlin Wall, given to him by the people of Berlin. During Reagan’s early childhood, his family lived in a series of Illinois towns as his father switched sales jobs, then settled in Dixon, Illinois, in 1920. In 1928, Reagan graduated from Dixon High School, where he was an athlete and student body president and performed in school plays. During summer vacations, he worked as a lifeguard in Dixon. Reagan went on to attend Eureka College in Illinois, where he played football, ran track, captained the swim team, served as student council president and acted in school productions. After graduating in 1932, he found work as a radio sports announcer in Iowa . Ronald Reagan’s Hollywood Career and Marriages In 1937, while in Southern California to cover the Chicago Cubs’ spring training season, Ronald Reagan did a screen test for the Warner Brothers movie studio. The studio signed him to a contract, and that same year he made his film debut in “Love is on the Air,” playing a radio news reporter. Over the next three decades he appeared in more than 50 movies. Among his best-known roles was that of Notre Dame football star George Gipp in the 1940 biographical film “Knute Rockne All American.” In the movie, Reagan’s famous line–which he is still rememberd for–was “Win one for the Gipper.” Another notable role was in 1942 in “Kings Row,” in which Reagan portrayed an accident victim who wakes up to discover his legs have been amputated and cries out, “Where’s the rest of me?” (Reagan used this line as the title of his 1965 autobiography.) In 1940, Reagan married actress Jane Wyman (1917-2007), with whom he had daughter Maureen (1941-2001) and an adopted son, Michael (1945-). The couple divorced in 1948 (Reagan is the only U.S. president to have been divorced). In 1952, he married actress Nancy Davis (1921-). The pair had two children, Patricia (1952-) and Ronald (1958-). During World War II (1939-1945), Reagan was disqualified from combat duty due to poor eyesight and spent his time in the Army making training films. From 1947 to 1952, and from 1959 to 1960, he served as president of the Screen Actors Guild (SAG), during which time he testified in front of the House Un-American Activities Committe ( HUAC ). From 1954 to 1962, he hosted the weekly television drama series “The General Electric Theater.” In this role, he toured the United States as a public relations representative for General Electric, giving pro-business talks in which he spoke out against too much government control and wasteful spending, central themes of his future political career. Golden State Governorship and Bid for the Presidency In his younger years, Ronald Reagan was a member of the Democratic Party and campaigned for Democratic candidates; however, his views grew more conservative over time, and in the early 1960s he officially became a Republican. In 1964, Reagan stepped into the national political spotlight when he gave a well-received televised speech for Republican presidential candidate Barry Goldwater (1909-1998), a prominent conservative. Two years later, in his first race for public office, Reagan defeated Democratic incumbent Edmund “Pat” Brown Sr. (1905-1996) by almost 1 million votes to win the governorship of California. Reagan was reelected to a second term in 1970. After making unsuccessful bids for the Republican presidential nomination in 1968 and 1976, Reagan received his party’s nod in 1980. In that year’s general election, he and running mate George H.W. Bush (1924-) faced off against President Jimmy Carter (1924-) and Vice President Walter Mondale (1928-). Reagan won the election by an electoral margin of 489-49 and captured almost 51 percent of the popular vote. At age 69, he was the oldest person elected to the U.S. presidency. 1981 Inauguration and Assassination Attempt Ronald Reagan was sworn into office on January 20, 1981. In his inaugural address, Reagan famously said of America’s then-troubled economy, “In this present crisis, government is not the solution to our problems; government is the problem.” After the more informal Carter years, Reagan and his wife Nancy ushered in a new era of glamour in the nation’s capital, which became known as Hollywood on the Potomac. The first lady wore designer fashions, hosted numerous state dinners and oversaw a major redecoration of the White House . Just over two months after his inauguration, on March 30, 1981, Reagan survived an assassination attempt by John Hinckley Jr. (1955-), a man with a history of psychiatric problems, outside a hotel in Washington , D.C. The gunman’s bullet pierced one of the president’s lungs and narrowly missed his heart. Reagan, known for his good-natured humor, later told his wife, “Honey, I forgot to duck.” Within several weeks of the shooting, Reagan was back at work. Ronald Reagan’s Domestic Agenda On the domestic front, President Ronald Reagan implemented policies to reduce the federal government’s reach into the daily lives and pocketbooks of Americans, including tax cuts intended to spur growth (known as Reaganomics). He also advocated for increases in military spending, reductions in certain social programs and measures to deregulate business. By 1983, the nation’s economy had started to recover and enter a period of prosperity that would extend through the rest of Reagan’s presidency. Critics maintained that his policies led to budget deficits and a more significant national debt; some also held that his economic programs favored the rich. In 1981, Reagan made history by appointing Sandra Day O’Connor (1930-) as the first woman to the U.S. Supreme Court. Ronald Reagan and Foreign Affairs In foreign affairs, Ronald Reagan’s first term in office was marked by a massive buildup of U.S. weapons and troops, as well as an escalation of the Cold War (1946-1991) with the Soviet Union, which the president dubbed “the evil empire.” Key to his administration’s foreign policy initiatives was the Reagan Doctrine, under which America provided aid to anticommunist movements in Africa, Asia and Latin America. In 1983, Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), a plan to develop space-based weapons to protect America from attacks by Soviet nuclear missiles. Also on the foreign affairs front, Reagan sent 800 U.S. Marines to Lebanon as part of an international peacekeeping force after Israel invaded that nation in June 1982. In October 1983, suicide bombers attacked the Marine barracks in Beirut, killing 241 Americans. That same month, Reagan ordered U.S. forces to lead an invasion of Grenada, an island in the Caribbean, after Marxist rebels overthrew the government. In addition to the problems in Lebanon and Grenada, the Reagan administration had to deal with an ongoing contentious relationship between the United States and Libyan leader Muammar al-Gaddafi (1942-). During his second term, Reagan forged a diplomatic relationship with the reform-minded Mikhail Gorbachev (1931-), who became leader of the Soviet Union in 1985. In 1987, the Americans and Soviets signed a historic agreement to eliminate intermediate-range nuclear missiles. That same year, Reagan spoke at Germany’s Berlin Wall , a symbol of communism, and famously challenged Gorbachev to tear it down. Twenty-nine months later, Gorbachev allowed the people of Berlin to dismantle the wall. After leaving the White House, Reagan returned to Germany in September 1990—just weeks before Germany was officially reunified–and took several symbolic swings with a hammer at a remaining chunk of the wall. 1984 Reelection and Iran-Contra Affair In November 1984, Ronald Reagan was reelected in a landslide, defeating Walter Mondale and his running mate Geraldine Ferraro (1935-), the first female vice-presidential candidate from a major U.S. political party. Reagan, who announced it was “morning again in America,” carried 49 out of 50 states in the election and received 525 out of 538 electoral votes, the largest number ever won by an American presidential candidate. Ronald Reagan’s Later Years After leaving the White House in January 1989, Ronald Reagan and his wife returned to California, where they lived in Los Angeles. In 1991, the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum opened in Simi Valley, California. In November 1994, Reagan revealed in a handwritten letter to the American people that he had been recently diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease. Nearly a decade later, on June 5, 2004, he died at his Los Angeles home at age 93, making him the nation’s longest-lived president (in 2006, Gerald Ford surpassed him for this title). Reagan was given a state funeral in Washington, D.C., and later buried on the grounds of his presidential library. Access hundreds of hours of historical video, commercial free, with HISTORY Vault . Start your free trial today. Tags

i don't know

What name is shared by the chairs of the UK House of Commons and the US House of Representatives?

Office and Role of Speaker - UK Parliament Office and Role of Speaker History of the Speakership Office and Role of Speaker The Speaker of the House of Commons chairs debates in the Commons chamber. The holder of this office is an MP who has been elected to be Speaker by other Members of Parliament. During debates they keep order and call MPs to speak. The Speaker is the chief officer and highest authority of the House of Commons and must remain politically impartial at all times. The Speaker also represents the Commons to the monarch, the Lords and other authorities and chairs the House of Commons Commission. The current Speaker is John Bercow, MP for Buckingham. Chairing debates in the House of Commons The Speaker is perhaps best known as the person who keeps order and calls MPs to speak during Commons debates. The Speaker calls MPs in turn to give their opinion on an issue. MPs signal that they want to speak by standing up from their seat (a custom known as 'catching the Speaker's eye') or they can notify the Speaker in advance by writing. The Speaker has full authority to make sure MPs follow the rules of the House during debates. This can include: directing an MP to withdraw remarks if, for example, they use abusive language suspending the sitting of the House due to serious disorder suspending MPs who are deliberately disobedient - known as naming asking MPs to be quiet so Members can be heard Election of the Speaker John Bercow was elected House of Commons Speaker on 22 June 2009 . The Speaker was elected using an exhaustive secret ballot system, the first time this procedure had been used for the election of a Speaker. Election process MPs are given a list of candidates and place an x next to the candidate of their choice if a candidate receives more than 50 per cent of the votes, the question is put to the House that he or she takes the chair as Speaker if no candidate does so, the candidate with the fewest votes, and those with less than five per cent of the vote, are eliminated in addition, any candidate may withdraw within 10 minutes of the announcement of the result of a ballot MPs then vote again on the reduced slate of candidates and continue doing so until one candidate receives more than half the votes Politically impartial Speakers must be politically impartial. Therefore, on election the new Speaker must resign from their political party and remain separate from political issues even in retirement. However, the Speaker will deal with their constituents' problems like a normal MP. Speakers and general elections Speakers still stand in general elections. They are generally unopposed by the major political parties, who will not field a candidate in the Speaker's constituency - this includes the original party they were a member of. During a general election, Speakers do not campaign on any political issues but simply stand as 'the Speaker seeking re-election'.

Speaker

Which is the lower house of the British parliament?

House of Commons Procedure and Practice - 6. The Physical and Administrative Setting - The Chamber House of Commons Procedure and Practice Second Edition, 2009 The Chamber   The South Corridor, where the portraits of former Prime Ministers are displayed, links Confederation Hall to the Commons Chamber. At the west end of the corridor is the spacious, high‑ceilinged foyer of the House of Commons, which may also be accessed from the Members’ entrance at the western end of the Centre Block. On the four walls of the foyer, just below the balcony which overlooks it from the floor above, is a series of 10 bas‑relief sculpture panels depicting 25,000 years of Canadian history from the arrival of the aboriginal peoples to that of the United Empire Loyalists in the late eighteenth century. [30] Opening off the foyer are the doors to the south lobby which leads into the Chamber itself. [31] The doors, known as the Canada Doors, are made of white oak and trimmed with hand‑wrought iron. The Canada Doors are usually open only for the Speaker’s Parade, the Speech from the Throne, and Royal Assent ceremonies. Members use the smaller doors on either side of the Canada Doors that lead into the south lobby. A second set of doors in the south lobby lead into the Chamber while doors on the west and east sides lead into the government and opposition lobbies. The lobbies also open onto the Chamber. Each day when the House meets to conduct business, the Speaker’s Parade [32] leaves the Speaker’s office and passes through the Speaker’s Corridor, the Hall of Honour, and the hall connecting the Hall of Honour to the Chamber. The Parade enters the south lobby of the House through the Canada Doors and proceeds into the Chamber. The Chamber itself is rectangular in shape, measuring approximately 21 metres in length and 16 metres in width; it is also sheeted with Tyndall limestone as well as white oak and, like its counterpart at Westminster, it is decorated in green. [33] (See Figure 6.3, The House of Commons Chamber.) The 14.7‑metre high ceiling is made of linen canvas, hand‑painted with the provincial and territorial coats of arms. The floral emblems of the 10 provinces and 2 of the territories are depicted in 12 stained‑glass windows on the east, west and north walls of the Chamber. [34] On the east and west walls, above the Members’ galleries and between the stained‑glass windows, is the noted British North America Act (BNA) series of sculptures. It consists of 12 separate bas‑relief sculptures in Indiana limestone. Each one depicts, in symbolic and story form, the federal roles and responsibilities arising out of the BNA Act (now called the Constitution Act, 1867). [35]    Seating The Chamber is divided by a wide central aisle and is furnished on either side with tiered rows of desks and chairs, facing into the centre. The desks are equipped with a locked compartment in which Members may store belongings, microphones, an electrical outlet for laptop computers, and access to the Internet. Government Members sit to the Speaker’s right, opposition Members to the left. [36] The Prime Minister and Cabinet sit in the front rows of the government side; directly across the floor from the Prime Minister sits the Leader of the Official Opposition who is flanked by Members of his or her party. The second‑ranked opposition party and all other recognized parties in the House sit with their leaders usually to the left of the Official Opposition, closer to the Bar of the House. Traditionally, the front‑row seats to the left of the Speaker are reserved for leading Members of the opposition parties, and opposition parties are allocated front‑row seats in proportion to their numbers in the House. [37] The distance across the floor of the House between the government and opposition benches is 3.96 metres, said to be equivalent to two swords’ length. [38] When there are more government Members than can be accommodated on the Speaker’s right, some are seated on the left, usually in the seats closest to the Speaker. Similarly, when there are more opposition Members than can be accommodated on the Speaker’s left, the remaining opposition Members are seated on the right, closer to the Bar of the House. Members of parties not recognized in the House and independent Members are assigned seats at the discretion of the Speaker. All Members of Parliament have their own assigned seats in the Chamber. Should the number of seats in the House be increased following a decennial census, additional desks are installed. The allocation of seats in the House is the responsibility of the Speaker and is carried out in collaboration with the party Whips. [39] Seat assignments may change from time to time, but the Prime Minister and Leader of the Opposition are always seated in the same places. It is customary for seats to be assigned near the Chair for the use of the Deputy Speaker and other Chair Occupants when they are not presiding over the House; no such allocation is made for the Speaker. [40]    The Chair The Speaker’s Chair stands on a dais [41] at the north end of the Chamber with the flag displayed to the right of the Speaker. [42] In the years after Confederation, it was the custom for departing Speakers to take their chairs with them and a new Chair to be made for the incumbent. [43] This custom ceased in 1916 when the Chair then in use was destroyed in the fire. A new Chair arrived in 1921 as a gift from the British branch of what is now the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association. [44] This Chair is an exact replica of the original Speaker’s Chair at Westminster, made circa 1849, and then destroyed when the British House of Commons was bombed in 1941. It is approximately four metres high, surmounted by a canopy of carved wood and the Royal Coat of Arms. The oak used for the carving of the Royal Arms was taken from the roof of Westminster Hall, which was built in 1397. In recent years, the Chair has undergone some minor renovations. Microphones and speakers have been installed and lights placed overhead. The armrests now offer a writing surface and a small storage space. A hydraulic lift was also installed to permit more comfortable seating for the various occupants of the Chair. [45] At the foot of the Chair, visible only to its occupant, is a computer screen which allows the Chair Occupant to see information generated by the computers at the Table, the countdown timer used to monitor the length of speeches and interventions when time limits apply, and a portion of the unofficial rotation list for Members wishing to speak. The screen also displays a digital feed from the television cameras in the Chamber, allowing the Speaker to see the image being broadcast. [46] At the foot of the dais below the Speaker’s Chair is a bench where some of the House of Commons pages are stationed during sittings of the House. The pages are first-year university students employed by the House of Commons to carry messages and deliver documents to Members during sittings of the House. [47] A door behind the Speaker’s Chair opens onto a corridor, called the Speaker’s Corridor, leading directly to the Speaker’s chambers. Hanging in this hallway are portraits of past Speakers of the House. [48]    The Table A short distance in front of the dais and the Speaker’s Chair is a long oak table where the Clerk of the House, chief procedural advisor to the Speaker, sits with other Table Officers. [49] The Clerk sits at the north end of the Table, with Table Officers along its right‑and left‑hand sides. The Clerk’s chair was made in 1873. After the death in 1902 of the then Clerk, Sir John Bourinot, the chair was presented to his widow. In 1940, it was donated back to the House by the family. Each of the three seating positions at the Table is equipped with a computer with wireless keyboard, mouse and microphone. The computers are used to keep the records, [50] to manage the rotation lists of Members wishing to speak, to relay information to the Chair and to send and receive electronic mail to and from other branches of the House. The computers also have access to the digital feed from the television cameras in the Chamber. The Mace rests at the south end of the Table. Also on the Table is a collection of parliamentary reference texts for consultation by Members and Table Officers, as well as a pair of bookends, a calendar stand, inkstand and seal press. [51]    The Mace The Mace is the ornamental staff, symbol of the authority of the Speaker, which rests on the Table during sittings of the House. In the Middle Ages, the mace was an officer’s weapon; it was made of metal with a flanged or spiked head and was used to break through chain‑mail or plate armour. [52] In the twelfth century, the Sergeants‑at‑Arms of the King’s Bodyguard were equipped with maces. These maces, stamped with the Royal Arms and carried by the Sergeants in the exercise of their powers of arrest without warrant, became recognized symbols of the King’s authority. Maces were also carried by civic authorities. Royal Sergeants‑at‑Arms began to be assigned to the Commons early in the fifteenth century. By the end of the sixteenth century, the Sergeant’s mace had evolved from a weapon of war to an ornately embellished emblem of office. The Sergeant‑at‑Arms’ power to arrest without warrant enabled the Commons to arrest or commit persons who offended them, without having to resort to the ordinary courts of law. [53] This penal jurisdiction is the basis of the concept of parliamentary privilege and, since the exercise of this privilege depended on the powers vested in the Royal Sergeant‑at‑Arms, the Mace—his emblem of office—was identified with the growing privileges of the Commons and became recognized as the symbol of the authority of the House and of the Speaker through the House. [54] At Confederation, the House of Commons’ Mace was that of the former Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada. [55] It had survived the burning of the Parliament building in Montreal in 1849, [56] as well as two fires in Quebec City in 1854, [57] but was lost in the great fire of February 3, 1916. When the House met in the Victoria Memorial Museum (as it was then known) in the immediate aftermath of the fire, the Senate lent the House its Mace. For the following three weeks, the Mace belonging to the Ontario Legislature was used until a temporary Mace, made of wood, was fashioned. The Mace currently in use is a replica of the original. Made of silver covered with heavy gilt, it is 1.47 metres long and weighs 7.9 kilograms. It was a gift from the Lord Mayor and the Sheriffs of London and was presented in May 1917. [58] The wooden Mace was kept and since 1977 has been used in the Chamber on the anniversary of the date of the fire. [59] The Mace is integral to the functioning of the House; since the late seventeenth century it has been accepted that the Mace must be present for the House to be properly constituted. [60] The guardian of the Mace is the Sergeant‑at‑Arms, [61] who carries it on the right shoulder in and out of the Chamber at the beginning and end of each sitting of the House. [62] At the opening of a sitting of the House, the Mace is laid across the foot of the Table with its crown pointing to the government side of the House. When the House sits as a Committee of the Whole, it is placed on brackets below the foot of the Table. [63] During the election of a Speaker, the Mace rests on a cushion on the floor beneath the Table. During a sitting, it is considered a breach of decorum for Members to pass between the Speaker and the Mace. [64] Members have also been found in contempt of the House for touching the Mace during proceedings in the Chamber. [65] When the House is adjourned, the Mace is kept in the Speaker’s office. During longer adjournments and recesses, it may be displayed in or near the Commons Chamber, although this has not occurred in recent years.    The Bar of the House The Bar is a brass rod extending across the floor of the Chamber inside its south entrance. It is a barrier past which uninvited representatives of the Crown (as well as other non‑Members) are not welcome. [66] The Sergeant‑at‑Arms, or an assistant, sits at a desk on the opposition side of the Chamber and inside the Bar. Individuals may be summoned to appear before the Bar of the House in order to answer to the authority of the House. If someone is judged to be in contempt of the House—that is, guilty of an offence against the dignity or authority of Parliament—the House may summon the person to appear and order that he or she be reprimanded by the Speaker in the name of and with the full authority of the House. On a number of occasions in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, individuals were summoned to appear before the Bar of the House. Since 1913, there have been only two instances of the House requiring someone to appear at the Bar to be reprimanded. [67]    The Galleries Overlooking the floor of the House on both sides and at both ends of the Chamber are galleries which can accommodate more than 500 people. (See Figure 6.3, The House of Commons Chamber.) In the gallery facing the Speaker’s Chair, called the Ladies’ Gallery, [70] the first rows are reserved for the diplomatic corps and for other distinguished guests; the remaining rows are reserved for the visiting public. At the opposite end of the Chamber, immediately above the Speaker’s Chair, is the Press Gallery. Admittance is restricted to members of the Parliamentary Press Gallery [71] (one of the galleries in which note‑taking is permitted). Immediately behind the Press Gallery is another public gallery. [72] On the side of the Chamber facing the government benches are three galleries: one for guests of government Members, another for Senators and their guests, and another one for guests of the Prime Minister and the Speaker. Only from the Speaker’s Gallery can distinguished visitors (such as heads of state, heads of government and parliamentary delegations invited to Canada and celebrated Canadians) be recognized and introduced to the House, and only by the Speaker. Members other than the Speaker may not refer to the presence of any visitors in the galleries at any time. [73] On the other side of the Chamber, facing the opposition benches, a gallery is reserved for departmental officials (the other gallery in which note‑taking is permitted), another for guests of the Leader of the Opposition, and two others for guests of Members of other opposition parties. The doors to the galleries are opened at the start of each sitting of the House, after prayers are read. [74] For reasons of decorum and security, photography, reading and sketching materials, and note‑taking (with the above exceptions) are not permitted in the galleries. Coats, briefcases, notebooks, photographic equipment and the like may not be carried into the galleries. [75] During the taking of recorded divisions, no one may enter or leave the galleries. Strangers “Stranger” is a term of long-time use in the procedural lexicon; it refers to anyone who is not a Member or an official of the House of Commons (for example, Senators, diplomats, government officials, journalists or members of the general public). It underlines the distinction between Members and non‑Members and gives emphasis to the fact that strangers or outsiders may be present in the galleries or within the House precincts only under the authority of the House. [76] Strangers are not permitted on the floor of the House of Commons when the House is sitting. [77] The right of the House to conduct its proceedings in private—that is, without strangers present—is centuries old. Until 1845 in the British House, sessional orders excluded strangers from every part of its premises (while in practice the presence of strangers came to be tolerated in areas not appropriated to the exclusive use of Members). [78] In Canada, at Confederation, the House adopted a rule giving individual Members the power to order the galleries to be cleared. [79] In 1876, the rule was substantially amended to allow Members only to move a motion “that strangers be ordered to withdraw”; this non‑debatable and non‑amendable motion was then left for the House to decide. [80] Since 1994, in addition to Members being allowed to move the motion, the Speaker has had the authority to order the withdrawal of strangers without putting the question to the House. [81] In practice such occurrences are not frequent and strangers are welcome so long as there is space to accommodate them and proper decorum is observed. Disorder in the Galleries The Sergeant‑at‑Arms, one of the senior officials of the House, is responsible for maintaining order and decorum in the galleries. [82] From time to time there have been instances of misconduct in the galleries and the Sergeant‑at‑Arms and security staff have acted to remove demonstrators or strangers behaving in a disruptive way. [83] In cases of extreme disorder, the Speaker has directed that the galleries be cleared. [84] In addition, should the House adopt the motion “That strangers be ordered to withdraw”, it would be the duty of the Sergeant‑at‑Arms and security staff to clear the galleries of strangers.    Lobbies Adjacent to the government and opposition sides of the Chamber is a long, narrow room known as a lobby. The one behind the government benches is reserved for government Members; the other, on the opposition side, is for Members of the opposition parties. Connected by doors to the Chamber, the lobbies are furnished with tables and armchairs and equipped with telephones, fax machines, photocopiers, computer terminals and the like for Members’ use. Members attending the sitting of the House use the lobbies to converse, discuss matters, make telephone calls, attend to correspondence or other business and are able to return to the Chamber at a moment’s notice. The party Whips assign staff to work from the lobbies and pages are stationed in the lobbies to answer telephones and carry messages. The lobbies are not open to the public. The House of Commons security staff controls access to the lobbies in accordance with guidelines set by the Whips.    Sound Reinforcement, Simultaneous Interpretation, and Broadcasting Systems In 1951, a special committee of the House recommended the installation of a sound reinforcement system “similar to the one in the House of Commons Chamber at Westminster”. [85] For some years, there had been complaints about the acoustics in the Chamber and the difficulty that Members and those in the galleries had in following the proceedings. The challenge in providing effective sound amplification lay in devising a system for use in an assembly where Members speak from their places (rather than from a rostrum) and only when recognized by the Speaker. The committee’s report was adopted; the system was installed during a recess and used for the first time in the session which opened on November 20, 1952. [86] Each Member’s desk, as well as the Speaker’s Chair, is equipped with a microphone. A microphone switching console, staffed by console operators, is located at the front of the gallery at the south end of the Chamber. Individual microphones are activated when a Member is recognized by the Speaker. Only the Speaker has the power to activate his or her own microphone (it may also be activated by the console operator); when the Speaker’s microphone is activated, the Members’ microphones will not function. In 1958, the House agreed to the installation in the Chamber of a system for simultaneous interpretation in both official languages. [87] Members were of the opinion that this would give further expression to the Constitution, which provides for the equal status of the official languages and for their use in parliamentary debate. [88] Enclosed booths for interpreters are located in the corners of the Chamber opposite the Speaker’s Chair. Members’ desks are equipped with interpretation devices in order to receive simultaneous interpretation of the proceedings into French or English. Visitors in the galleries also have access to the sound reinforcement and interpretation systems and may choose to listen to the proceedings with interpretation in the official language of their choice, or without interpretation. In 1977, the House decided to televise its proceedings. [89] Following this decision, the Chamber became the site of extensive construction to equip it for this purpose. During the summer adjournment, the Chamber was refitted: the sound systems were upgraded, appropriate lighting installed, cameras were added (operated manually and later replaced with remote‑controlled cameras), and a control room was constructed above the Ladies’ Gallery situated at the south end of the Chamber. [90] In 2003, the House approved the broadcast of its proceedings over the Internet via the Parliament of Canada Web site. [91] Since then, sittings of the House, televised committee meetings, and the audio feed from non-televised committee meetings have been broadcast over the Internet. [92] During the summer adjournment in 2003, significant upgrades to the technological equipment in the Chamber were installed. The broadcasting infrastructure was replaced, and a wireless simultaneous interpretation system for special events was added. Further improvements followed during the summer adjournment in 2004 when a new sound system and a new simultaneous interpretation system for the galleries were installed. [93] Provision for Still Photography Before the advent of broadcasting of House of Commons’ proceedings, photographs of the House during a sitting were taken with the permission of the House. [94] In the late 1970s, once the House had dealt with the question of broadcasting, the matter of still photography arose. There were no provisions for print media to take pictures of the House at work, except by special arrangement, whereas the electronic media now had access to images of every sitting of the House. [95] On a trial basis, and now standard practice, [96] a photographer was allowed behind the curtains on each side of the House during Question Period. The photographers are employed by a news service agency which supplies other news organizations under a pooling arrangement. When in the Chamber, they operate in accordance with the principles governing the use of television cameras, described in Chapter 24, “The Parliamentary Record”. Only these photographers, and the official photographers employed by the House of Commons, are authorized to take photographs of the Chamber while the House is in session; even Members are forbidden from taking photographs. [97]    Other Uses of the Chamber At times, the House of Commons Chamber is used for purposes other than a parliamentary sitting. Some are recurring events such as addresses by distinguished visitors, [98] orientation sessions for new Members, [99] and educational and other programs. [100] At other times, the Chamber has been used for special events. [101] Since these events are not actually sittings of the House, the Mace is not on the Table. [30] The “History of Canada” series was begun in 1962 by Eleanor Milne and her team of stonecarvers, and completed in 1974. The Loyalists were American colonists of diverse ethnic backgrounds who supported the British cause during the American Revolution, and who left the United States at the end of the War of Independence or soon thereafter. [31] Lobbies for the House and Senate were part of the design for the new Parliament Building constructed after the fire of 1916; the original building had no lobbies. [32] A parade consisting of the Speaker, the Sergeant-at-Arms with the Mace, the Clerk of the House and other House officials. For further information on the Speaker’s Parade, see Chapter 9, “Sittings of the House”. [33] The predominance of the colour red in the Senate Chamber and the British House of Lords can be explained by its history as a royal colour used in the room where the Sovereign met his Court and nobles, as was the case in Parliament’s earliest days. The association of the colour green with the Commons is not so easily determined. The colour green has been linked to the Commons’ meeting places at least since 1663 (date of the first authoritative written reference to green in the House of Commons). See Davies, J.M., “Red and Green”, The Table, Vol. XXXVII, 1968, pp. 33‑40 as well as United Kingdom, House of Commons, “House of Commons Green”, Factsheet G10, www.parliament.uk, 2006. [34] The windows were a special project, undertaken in 1967 by Speaker Lamoureux to mark Canada’s centennial. They were designed by Dominion Sculptor Eleanor Milne. The project was completed in 1973. See Canada, House of Commons, The Stained Glass Windows of Canada’s House of Commons, Ottawa: published under the authority of the Speaker of the House of Commons. See also Debates, September 7, 1971, p. 7545. [35] This 11‑year project, completed in 1985, was undertaken by Dominion Sculptor Eleanor Milne and her team. On the east wall are featured civil law, freedom of speech, the Senate, the Governor General, Confederation, and the vote; on the west wall are bilingualism, education, the House of Commons, taxation, criminal law and communication. See Milne, R.E., Captured in Stone: Carving Canada’s Past, with K.B. Lambert and E. Moore, Manotick, Ontario: Penumbra Press, 2002. [36] If a Member is unable to occupy a desk due to a disability or physical restriction (such as a wheelchair), the desk may be altered or removed. See Standing Order 1.1, which permits the Speaker to make such arrangements as may be required to allow Members with disabilities to perform their duties. [37] This is said to have originated with the formation of political parties and party government. In the Parliaments of seventeenth century Britain, according to Redlich, the division into right and left was “quite unknown”. For information on the origins of this and other traditions associated with seating in the British House, see Redlich, J., The Procedure of the House of Commons: A Study of its History and Present Form, Vol. II, translated by A.E. Steinthal, New York: AMS Press, 1969 (reprint of 1908 ed.), pp. 23‑7. [38] This relates to times gone by in the British House. Members in the British House no longer wear swords, but red lines marked on the carpet two swords’ length apart still serve as a reminder to seek resolutions by peaceful means. [39] In response to a point of order, Speaker Parent explained the process followed in assigning seats to parties and stated: “There is no such thing as a bad seat in the House of Commons” (Debates, September 30, 1998, pp. 8584‑5). For further information on the assignment of seats, see Chapter 4, “The House of Commons and Its Members”. [40] Seating plans for the House indicate that at one time the Speaker, a government Member, was assigned a desk on the government side near the Chair. It appears the practice was discontinued in the Thirty‑First Parliament (1979) when, following a change of government, Speaker Jerome was elected to a second term, becoming the first opposition Member to be nominated by the governing party to preside over the House. [41] This design element may be related to the fact that the Chair is a replica of the original Speaker’s Chair at Westminster, which is also raised above floor level. In St. Stephen’s Chapel, the home of the British Commons from 1547 to 1834, the Speaker’s Chair was located atop the steps leading to the altar. [42] In 1973, the House adopted a motion authorizing the Speaker to “display the Canadian Flag in the House of Commons in such location as he chooses” (Journals, February 14, 1973, p. 119). With the exception of the tenure of Speaker Parent (1994-2001) when the flag was displayed on both sides of the Chair, Speakers have chosen to display one flag to the right of the Chair. [43] Debates, May 20, 1921, p. 3691. [44] Journals, June 8, 1920, p. 324; Debates, May 20, 1921, pp. 3689‑96. [45] The lift was installed in 1981 during the tenure of Speaker Sauvé (1980‑84). [46] At one point, there was both a television monitor and a computer screen at the foot of the Chair. At the beginning of the Thirty-Seventh Parliament (2001‑04), a single computer screen was installed combining the functions of the previous two screens. [47] See Speaker Jerome’s comments about the Page Program, Debates, March 22, 1978, pp. 4026‑7; October 10, 1978, p. 6953. [48] The portraits are normally commissioned before a Speaker leaves office, but hung only after a Speaker has left office. An unveiling ceremony is held when a new portrait is added to the collection. [49] The Table, with its elaborately carved base, was designed by John A. Pearson, who, along with Jean‑Omer Marchand, also designed the reconstructed Centre Block. [50] In keeping with a long-established practice, Table Officers produce a scroll for every sitting day. This is a handwritten record of proceedings in the House and is used to produce the Journals. [51] The calendar stand, inkstand and seal press are the handiwork of ironmaster Paul Beau. They were placed on the Table in 1926 to replace items lost in the fire of 1916 (Debates, May 26, 1926, p. 3731). For a description of their design, see Journals, May 28, 1926, pp. 364‑5. Mr. Beau was also responsible for many of the ironwork items found elsewhere in the Centre Block. See Pepall, R., Paul Beau, Montreal: Musée des beaux‑arts de Montréal, 1982. [52] The Mace developed from the club (prehistoric weapon) and the staff (ancient symbol of age, wisdom and authority). See Grant‑Dalton, E., “The Mace”, The Table, Vol. XXV, 1956, pp. 15‑20; Thorne, P., “Maces: Their Use and Significance”, The Parliamentarian, Vol. 44, January 1963, pp. 25‑30. It is said that the mace rather than the sword was carried into battle by the medieval warrior bishops, in conformity with canonical rule forbidding priests to shed blood (Beauchesne, Canada’s Parliament Building: The Senate and House of Commons, Ottawa, p. 55). [53] May, T.E., Erskine May’s Treatise on The Law, Privileges, Proceedings and Usage of Parliament, 23rd ed., edited by Sir W. McKay, London: LexisNexis UK, 2004, pp. 156‑7. [54] At this time, the British Commons was at the start of its centuries‑long struggle to assert and win the privileges essential to establishing its distinct role in Parliament. In the Ferrers case of 1543, the House of Commons successfully challenged the City of London authorities, securing the release of an arrested Member (Ferrers) “by their Serjeant without writ, only by shew of his mace, which was his warrant”. See the account in Hatsell, J., Precedents of Proceedings in the House of Commons, Vol. I, South Hackensack, New Jersey: Rothman Reprints Inc., 1971 (reprint of 4th ed., 1818), pp. 53‑9. See also Chapter 3, “Privileges and Immunities”. [55] The legislative assemblies of the other provinces joining Confederation did not use maces (Bourinot, J.G., Parliamentary Procedure and Practice in the Dominion of Canada, 2nd ed., rev. and enlarged, Montreal: Dawson Brothers, Publishers, 1892, pp. 277‑8, note 5). Nova Scotia and New Brunswick obtained maces in 1930 and 1937 respectively. In Upper and Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec), maces were used in the houses of assembly from the time of their first meetings in 1792. [56] Bourinot, 2nd ed., pp. 277‑8, note 5. [57] McDonough, J., “The History of the Maces of the British and Canadian Parliaments”, Canadian Regional Review: Commonwealth Parliamentary Association, Vol. II, No. 2, June 1979, p. 29. [58] Journals, May 16, 1917, p. 216. For a description of the design of the Mace, see Debates, May 16, 1917, pp. 1468‑9. See also Wilding, N. and Laundy, P., An Encyclopaedia of Parliament, 4th ed., London: Cassell & Company Ltd., 1972, pp. 455‑6 for information on maces in other Commonwealth Parliaments. [59] See, for example, Debates, February 3, 2005, p. 3011. The tradition began in 1961 during the tenure of Speaker Michener (1957-62) (Debates, February 3, 1961, p. 1701), and was revived by Speaker Jerome in 1977 (Debates, February 3, 1977, p. 2665). [60] United Kingdom, House of Commons, “The Mace in the House of Commons”, House of Commons Library Document No. 3, London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1957, p. 7. See also Hatsell, Vol. II, p. 141. [61] Standing Order 157(1). [62] The Mace is left on the Table whenever a sitting is suspended for a short period of time; however, during an emergency such as a fire alarm, the Sergeant-at-Arms removes it from the Chamber. [63] This long‑standing custom may have originated in the Elizabethan period, when the large committees of the time began to meet in the Chamber as an alternative to less convenient locations outside the precinct. The position of the Mace—on the Table or below it—would have provided a clear indication as to whether Members were sitting as a House or as a committee (“The Mace in the House of Commons”, pp. 9‑10). [64] For further information on this custom, see Chapter 13, “Rules of Order and Decorum”. [65] Debates, October 30, 1991, pp. 4269‑70; October 31, 1991, pp. 4271‑85, 4309‑10; April 22, 2002, pp. 10654‑70; April 23, 2002, pp. 10747‑8; April 24, 2002, p. 10770. For further information, see the section below, “The Bar of the House”. [66] In 1642, in a conflict over the respective rights and authority of the monarch and the British Parliament, Charles I issued a warrant for the arrest of five Members of the British House of Commons. The King himself went to the Commons Chamber, crossed the Bar—the first and last monarch to do so—and took the Speaker’s Chair, demanding the presence of the five Members. The King’s intentions were foiled by Speaker Lenthall whose famous words (“May it please Your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see, nor tongue to speak in this place, but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here, and I humbly beg Your Majesty’s pardon that I cannot give any other answer than this to what Your Majesty is pleased to demand of me”) established the precedence of the privileges of the Commons over the authority of the Crown (Wilding and Laundy, 4th ed., pp. 708‑9). When the House sits as a Committee of the Whole, typically two departmental officials are permitted onto the floor of the House in order to assist the Minister. Members requiring assistance in the Chamber due to a disability may also have an aide present on the floor of the House. See Standing Order 1.1. [67] On October 30, 1991, angry at having missed a vote, Ian Waddell (Port Moody–Coquitlam) attempted to take hold of the Mace as it was borne out of the Chamber at the end of the sitting. The Member’s actions were judged to be an attempt to obstruct the House, as well as a challenge to the Chair’s authority to adjourn the sitting. A prima facie breach of privilege was found and a motion was adopted calling the Member to the Bar to be admonished by the Speaker (Debates, October 30, 1991, pp. 4269‑70; October 31, 1991, pp. 4271‑85, 4309‑10). On April 17, 2002, angry with the outcome of a vote on his private Member’s bill, Keith Martin (Esquimalt–Juan de Fuca) took hold of the Mace. This action was considered to be in contempt of the House and a prima facie breach of privilege was found (Debates, April 22, 2002, pp. 10654-70). On April 23, 2002, the House adopted a motion calling not only for the Member to appear at the Bar of the House, but also to apologize for his actions (Journals, pp. 1337-8). The next day, Mr. Martin appeared at the Bar and apologized to the House (Journals, April 24, 2002, p. 1341, Debates, p. 10770). [68] For further information, see Chapter 3, “Privileges and Immunities”. [69] On March 1, 2002, a motion was adopted by unanimous consent calling for a former Member of Parliament, Herb Gray, to appear at the Bar to hear remarks by one representative of each party, and to respond to them (Journals, p. 1149). On March 13, 2002, Mr. Gray appeared at the Bar and Members paid tribute to his long service as a Member of Parliament (Journals, p. 1171, Debates, pp. 9588-93). [70] At one time the Ladies’ Gallery was reserved for women (who tended to be the wives and daughters of Members), as is the Ladies’ Gallery in the British House. See Wilding and Laundy, 4th ed., p. 424; Redlich, Vol. II, pp. 22, 35. [71] The Parliamentary Press Gallery is a non‑profit corporation whose membership comprises journalists assigned by media organizations to cover Parliament. [72] All persons going into the galleries must first go through a security screening station. [73] For further information on the recognition of visitors in the galleries, see Chapter 7, “The Speaker and Other Presiding Officers of the House”. [74] On Wednesdays, the doors are not opened until after the prayers are read and the national anthem has been sung. [75] In March 1997, the House was made aware that an Aboriginal visitor carrying an eagle feather had been refused admission to the public galleries. The House took note of the sacred character of the eagle feather for Aboriginal peoples, and the Speaker stated that it is permissible for an Aboriginal person to bring an eagle feather into the House (Debates, March 12, 1997, pp. 8946, 8954‑5). [76] For further information on the authority of the House over its precincts, see Chapter 3, “Privileges and Immunities”. When it came to the attention of the House in June 1998 that Ernst Zündel (notorious for having published his claims that the Holocaust never occurred) had been granted use of the Centre Block press conference facility managed by the Parliamentary Press Gallery (Debates, June 4, 1998, pp. 7608‑9, 7616), the House agreed that, for the remainder of the session, Mr. Zündel would be denied admission to the House of Commons precinct (Journals, June 4, 1998, p. 937). In October 2007, the House adopted a similar motion denying admittance to the precincts of the House for the remainder of the parliamentary session to two representatives of a white supremacy organization who had planned to hold a press conference in the Centre Block (Journals, October 17, 2007, p. 12). [77] There have been rare exceptions. In 1944, the House twice agreed to permit the Minister of National Defence, who was newly appointed and not an elected Member, to address the House during a sitting (Journals, November 23, 1944, p. 926; November 24, 1944, p. 928). In addition, the House met in a secret session at which the Minister was present and participated (Journals, November 28, 1944, p. 931, Debates, p. 6634). In 2007, when the House met in a Committee of the Whole to consider emergency legislation, 10 witnesses were seated at a table on the floor of the Chamber. Some of the witnesses made statements and answered questions (Journals, December 11, 2007, pp. 295‑6, Debates, pp. 2049‑78). In 2008, pursuant to two Special Orders adopted by the House, the House met in a Committee of the Whole and guests representing the First Nations, Métis and Inuit peoples were permitted on the floor of the Chamber to hear the Prime Minister’s statement of apology to former students of Indian Residential Schools and the responses of the leaders of the opposition parties. Five of the representatives were also permitted to make statements in response to the apology. See Journals, June 10, 2008, p. 952; June 11, 2008, pp. 963‑4, Debates, pp. 6849‑57. Moreover, since 2005, a Member with a disability has required the presence of an aide in the Chamber. See Standing Order 1.1. On several occasions, the House has sat as a Committee of the Whole in order to receive Canadian Olympic and Paralympic athletes onto the floor of the Chamber to be recognized for their achievements. See Journals, October 1, 1996, p. 699, Debates, pp. 4944‑6; Journals, April 22, 1998, p. 691, Debates, pp. 5959‑60; Journals, April 15, 2002, p. 1288, Debates, p. 10394; Journals, November 1, 2004, p. 174, Debates, pp. 1011-2. [78] For historical background, see May, T.E., A Treatise Upon the Law, Privileges, Proceedings and Usage of Parliament, South Hackensack, New Jersey: Rothman Reprints Inc., 1971 (reprint of 1st ed., 1844), pp. 163‑4; A Treatise on the Law, Privileges, Proceedings, and Usage of Parliament, 5th ed., rev. and enlarged, London: Butterworths, 1863, pp. 238‑40; Redlich, Vol. II, pp. 34‑5. [79] Rules and Forms of Proceedings of the House of Commons of Canada, 1868, Rule 6. See Debates, March 27, 1871, col. 655, for an example of its use. [80] Debates, March 29, 1876, p. 905. No such motion has ever been adopted, although attempts have been made. See, for example, Journals, September 7, 1950, p. 38; Debates, April 4, 1990, pp. 10186‑7. In the 1990 example, Speaker Fraser ruled that a Member could not propose the motion on a point of order. [81] Standing Order 14 (Journals, June 10, 1994, p. 563). [82] Standing Orders 157(2) and 158. [83] For example, on May 2, 2001, two demonstrators unfurled a banner in the galleries and tossed stuffed animals onto the floor of the House. Security staff took the initiative to remove the demonstrators before an objection was raised in the House. The RCMP later charged the demonstrators with causing a disturbance. On March 13, 2008 during the taking of a vote on a motion to extend Canada’s military presence in Afghanistan, 26 visitors in one of the galleries stood up and began chanting in protest to the motion. Security staff advised the demonstrators to leave the gallery and they did so without incident. [84] See, for example, Debates, May 11, 1970, p. 6796; November 28, 1989, pp. 6342‑3. On October 18, 1990, a question of privilege was raised accusing a Member of complicity in a demonstration in the galleries on the previous day, when some 20 individuals identified as students had shouted and pelted Members with macaroni and messages of protest before being escorted from the galleries by security staff (Debates, pp. 14359‑68). The Speaker ruled out the allegation of complicity, but found a prima facie breach of privilege in the demonstration. The matter was referred to committee, which recommended that participants in such demonstrations be charged or otherwise punished for their actions (Journals, November 6, 1990, p. 2228, Debates, pp. 15177‑81; Journals, March 6, 1991, pp. 2666‑7). For the text of the report, see Standing Committee on Privileges and Elections, Minutes of Proceedings and Evidence, March 6, 1991, Issue No. 39, pp. 3‑8. The report was not taken up by the House. [85] The development of the system in the British House was watched with interest. See reports tabled by the Speaker in Journals, December 5, 1947, pp. 7, 30‑2; March 15, 1951, pp. 177‑9. The special committee’s report was presented to the House and adopted on June 19, 1951 (Journals, pp. 517‑8). [86] Journals, February 29, 1952, p. 9 (tabling of an Order in Council authorizing the Minister of Public Works to contract for the supply, installation and operation of a sound system); Debates, June 25, 1952, p. 3732 (questioning of the Minister in Committee of Supply); November 21, 1952, p. 11; November 26, 1952, p. 123 (Members’ comments on the new system). [87] Journals, August 11, 1958, p. 402. [88] See Debates, August 11, 1958, pp. 3331‑40. See also Debates, November 25, 1957, pp. 1456‑99. [89] Journals, January 25, 1977, p. 287. [90] See the Speaker’s statement when the House began broadcasting its proceedings (Debates, October 17, 1977, pp. 8201‑2). [91] See the Fourth Report of the Special Committee on the Modernization and Improvement of the Procedures of the House of Commons, presented to the House on June 12, 2003 (Journals, p. 915) and concurred in on September 18, 2003 (Journals, p. 995), par. 23 to 30. [92] The subject of broadcasting as an “electronic Hansard” is addressed in Chapter 24, “The Parliamentary Record”. [93] In an effort to meet possible future needs, an electronic voting infrastructure was also installed, although such technology has not yet been required by the House. For further information on the upgrades which took place during the summer adjournments of 2003 and 2004, see the Fourth Report of the Special Committee on the Modernization and Improvement of the Procedures of the House of Commons, presented to the House on June 12, 2003 (Journals, p. 915) and concurred in on September 18, 2003 (Journals, p. 995), par. 16 to 22. [94] See, for example, the Special Order adopted on May 11, 1961 (Journals, p. 535). On another occasion, when a Member objected, the Speaker sought the consent of the House for photographs to be taken during a sitting (Debates, November 27, 1964, p. 10597; December 17, 1964, p. 11263). In January 1967, the Speaker wrote to all Members, informing them of arrangements made in consultation with the House Leaders for photographs to be taken of the House in session. [95] Debates, October 24, 1979, p. 557. [96] Debates, January 25, 1983, p. 22194. [97] Members have been warned by the Chair not to take photographs while the House is in session (Debates, December 7, 1999, pp. 2419-20; February 29, 2000, p. 4151; April 22, 2004, p. 2298; April 26, 2004, p. 2394; April 27, 2004, p. 2469). See also Debates, October 31, 2007, p. 624. [98] From time to time, the House of Commons Chamber is the site for an address by a distinguished visitor to assembled Senators and Members. In order for such a meeting to take place, the House first adopts a motion to that effect. See, for example, Journals, October 8, 2004, p. 75; May 5, 2006, pp. 134-5. When a joint address takes place, an established protocol is followed. It does not constitute a sitting of the House and the House is not in session. For further information on joint addresses to members of both Houses, see Chapter 9, “Sittings of the House”. [99] Orientation sessions are provided to Members following a general election, and before the opening of Parliament. They have been held in the Chamber following each general election since 1993, with the exception of the orientation session in 2004, which was held in a reception room in the West Block due to renovations that were taking place in the Chamber. [100] For example: The Teachers’ Institute on Canadian Parliamentary Democracy, a professional development seminar held annually since 1996; the annual meetings of the Forum for Young Canadians, a program operated by the non‑profit Foundation for the Study of Processes of Government in Canada for secondary school aged students to learn about the workings of government and the responsibilities of citizenship; Model Parliaments for various Canadian universities; and the annual swearing‑in ceremony for the pages. [101] In 1921, Senators and Members assembled in the House of Commons Chamber for a ceremony to receive the Speaker’s Chair, a gift to replace the Chair lost in the fire of 1916. The gathering was not a sitting of the House and the Mace was not laid on the Table. When the House sat later the same day, Special Orders were adopted to prefix the remarks made at the ceremony to that day’s Debates (Journals, May 20, 1921, pp. 305‑6). Sessions were held in the House of Commons Chamber when the Parliament of Canada hosted the XIth and XVIIIth General Assemblies of the Association internationale des parlementaires de langue française in 1980 and 1991 respectively, the XXVth General Assembly of the Assemblée parlementaire de la Francophonie in 1999, and the inaugural meeting of the Inter-Parliamentary Forum of the Americas in 2001. In 1996, Senators and Members past and present gathered in the Chamber and galleries to witness a ceremony unveiling the first of a series of plaques commemorating the service of individual parliamentarians since Confederation. The event was not a sitting of the House. (The ceremony was televised but the official documents contain no written record; see references in Debates, May 29, 1996, pp. 3124, 3133.)

i don't know

"Of what electoral system are ""single transferable vote"" and ""party list"" forms?"

Proportional Representation Systems   Party List Voting Party list voting systems are by far the most common form of proportional representation. Over 80% of the PR systems used worldwide are some form of party list voting. It remains the system used in most European democracies and in many newly democratized countries, including South Africa. How It Works. Legislators are elected in large, multi-member districts. Each party puts up a list or slate of candidates equal to the number of seats in the district. Independent candidates may also run, and they are listed separately on the ballot as if they were their own party (see below). On the ballot, voters indicate their preference for a particular party and the parties then receive seats in proportion to their share of the vote. So in a five-member district, if the Democrats win 40% of the vote, they would win two of the five seats. The two winning Democratic candidates would be chosen according to their position on the list. There are two broad types of list systems: closed list and open list. In a closed list system--the original form of party list voting--the party fixes the order in which the candidates are listed and elected, and the voter simply casts a vote for the party as a whole. This is shown in the first ballot below, which illustrates an election for the House of Representatives in a five-seat district. Voters are not able to indicate their preference for any candidates on the list, but must accept the list in the order presented by the party. Winning candidates are selected in the exact order they appear on the original list. So in the example here, if the Democrats won two seats, the first two candidates on the pre-ordered list--Foster and Rosen-Amy--would be elected. Closed Party List Ballot Most European democracies now use the open list form of party list voting. This approach allows voters to express a preference for particular candidates, not just parties. It is designed to give voters some say over the order of the list and thus which candidates get elected. One version of this is illustrated in the ballot below. Voters are presented with unordered or random lists of candidates chosen in party primaries. Voters cannot vote for a party directly, but must cast a vote for an individual candidate. This vote counts for the specific candidate as well as for the party. So the order of the final list completely depends on the number of votes won by each candidate on the list. The most popular candidates rise to the top of the list and have a better chance of being elected. In our example, if the Democrats won 2 seats, and Volz and Gentzler received the highest and next highest number of individual votes, they would rise to the top of the list and be elected. This example is similar to the system used in Finland and widely considered to be the most open version of list voting. Open Party List Ballot A variety of different formulas exist for accomplishing the actual allocation of seats to the parties. One of the simplest seat allocation formulas is the called the "largest remainder formula." In this approach, the first step is to calculate a quota, which is determined by taking the total number of valid votes in the district and dividing this by the number of seats. In the example in the table below, 100,000 votes were cast and ten seats are to be filled. 100,000/10 = 10,000 � which is the quota. The quota is then divided into the vote that each party receives and the party wins one seat for each whole number produced. So the Republican party received 38,000 votes, which is divided by 10,000 to produce three seats � with a remainder of 8,000. After this first allocation of seats is complete than the remainder numbers for the parties are compared and the parties with the largest remainders are allocated the remaining seats. In our example, two seats remain to be allocated and the Republicans and Moll, the independent candidate, have the largest remainders, so they get the seats. Ultimately all the parties end up with the number of seats that as closely as possible approximates their percentage of the vote. Largest Remainder Approach to Seat Allocation Political Attributes.   Party list voting has a number of advantages over plurality-majority voting.  It assures accurate representation of parties in legislatures.  It gives voters more choices of parties at the polls, increases voter turnout, and wastes far fewer votes. This form of PR also reduces the creation of manufactured majorities and the opportunity for gerrymandering.  In addition, it assures fair representation for third parties, racial minorities, and women.  On the other hand, some forms of party list PR use very large districts and do not ensure local geographical representation. Closed party list systems give voters little power over which party candidates win office. Like all PR systems, party list PR usually results in coalitions governments, not single-party governments.   Mixed-Member Proportional Voting Mixed-member proportional representation goes by a variety of other names, including "the additional member system," "compensatory PR," the "two vote system," and "the German system." It is an attempt to combine a single-member district system with a proportional voting system. Half of the members of the legislature are elected in single-member district plurality contests. The other half are elected by a party list vote and added on to the district members so that each party has its appropriate share of seats in the legislature. Proponents claim that mixed-member proportional voting (MMP) is the best of both worlds: providing the geographical representation and close constituency ties of single-member plurality voting along with the fairness and diversity of representation that comes with PR voting. This system was originally invented in West Germany right after World War Two, though since then it has also been adopted in several other countries, including Bolivia and Venezuela. It is still one of the least used PR systems, but in recent years it has begun to garner a great deal of attention. In fact, it is now one of the "hottest" systems being considered by those involved in electoral design. In part this growing attention is a result of MMP�s unique claim to be a "compromise" between the two main rival systems. In the 1990s New Zealand abandoned its traditional single-member plurality system for MMP. Hungary also adopted this approach. Most recently, the newly formed parliaments of Scotland and Wales used this system for their first elections. How It Works. People cast votes on a double ballot--see the ballot below. First, on the left part of the ballot, they vote for a district representative. This part of the ballot is a single-member district plurality contest to see which person will represent the district in the legislature. The person with the most votes wins. Typically half of the seats in the legislature are filled in this way. So in a hypothetical 100-member state legislature, the winners of these district contests would occupy 50 of the seats. Mixed-Member Proportional Representation Ballot On the right part of the ballot--the party list portion--voters indicate their choice among the parties, and the other half of the seats in the legislature are filled from regional lists of candidates chosen by these parties. The party lists are closed in the German version. These party list votes are counted on a national basis to determine the total portion of the 100-seat legislature that each party deserves. Candidates from each party�s lists are then added to its district winners until that party achieves its appropriate share of seats. The following table illustrates how this process works for our hypothetical election. The Democrats won 40% of the party list votes in the 100-member state legislature, so they would be entitled to a total of 40 of the 100 seats. Since they already elected 28 of their candidates in district elections, they would then add 12 more from their regional party lists to come up to their quota of 40 seats. Allocation of Seats in MMP In the German version two electoral thresholds are used, either of which a party must overcome to be allotted seats in the legislature. A party must either get 5% of the nationwide party list vote or win at least three district races in order for it to gain any seats in the legislature. In our hypothetical case, the New Party did not win any district seats, but they did win over 5% of the nationwide vote, so they deserve their share of legislative seats--which in this case would be six seats, all of which would be filled from the regional party lists. One variation of the mixed-member system is called "parallel voting." It uses the same double ballot, but it differs in that the party list seats are simply divided proportionately among the parties then added to the district winners, with not attempt to ensure proportional representation for parties in the legislature. For this reason, this voting system is usually classified as a semiproportional system. Political Attributes.   MMP has a number of advantages over plurality-majority voting.  It produces more accurate representation of parties in legislatures, while also ensuring that each local district has a representative.  It gives voters more choices of parties at the polls, increases voter turnout, and wastes far fewer votes. This form of PR also reduces the creation of manufactured majorities.  In addition, it assures fair representation for third parties, racial minorities, and women.  On the other hand, gerrymandering is possible in the single-member districts used by this system. Also, MMP creates two different types of representatives, those who represent districts and those who represent parties.  Finally, like all PR systems, MMP usually results in coalitions governments, not single-party governments.     Single Transferable Vote Or Choice Voting This system of proportional representation is known by several names. Political scientists call it "the single transferable vote." It is called the "Hare-Clark system" in Australia. In the United States, electoral reform activists have taken to calling it "choice voting." Currently this system is used to elect parliaments in Ireland and Malta. In Australia it is used to elect the federal Senate, as well as the legislatures in several states there. It is also the PR system that was used in a number of cities in the United States during the twentieth century, including New York, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Toledo, and Boulder. It continues to be used today in Cambridge, Massachusetts for elections to their city council and school board. (For a history of this system in this country, see A Brief History of Proportional Representation in the  U.S. ) How It Works. The voting process is illustrated by ballot below. All candidates are listed in the same place on the ballot. Instead of voting for one person, voters rank each candidate in their order of choice. So if you like Campbell best, you would mark the "1" after his name. If you liked Gomez second best, you would mark "2" by his name, and so on. You can rank as few or as many as you want. This ballot illustrates the use of the AccuVote system used in Cambridge, Massachusetts to elect its city council and school board. Voters fill in the ranking numbers as they would for standardized tests taken in school, which allows for computerized vote counting and ballot transfers. Choice Voting Ballot As the name "single transferable vote" implies, this systems involves a process of transferring votes. To understand how the transfer process works, it may be best to start out with a simple analogy. Imagine a school where a class is trying to elect a committee. Any student who wishes to run stands at the front of the class and the other students vote for their favorite candidates by standing beside them. Students standing almost alone next to their candidate will soon discover that this person has no chance of being elected and move to another candidate of their choice to help him or her get elected. Some of the students standing next to a very popular candidate may realize that this person has more than enough support to win, and decide to go stand next to another student that they would also like to see on the committee. In the end, after all of this shuffling around, most students would be standing next to candidates that will be elected, which is the ultimate point of this process. In the single transferable vote, votes are transferred around just as the students moved from candidate to candidate in the analogy. The exact order of the transfer process is illustrated in figure below. An example of how the votes are actually transferred is shown in the table that follows. For the sake of simplicity, assume that there is a three-seat district in which six people are running for office. The first step in the process is to establish the threshold: the minimum number of votes necessary to win a seat. The threshold usually consists of the total number of valid votes divided by one plus the number of seats to be filled, plus one vote. The formula looks like this: Threshold = (valid votes/1+seats) +1 vote. So in our three-seat districts with 10,000 voters, a candidate would need 10,000/1+3 (which is 2,500) plus one more vote, for 2,501. Diagram of Ballot Transfer Process The second step is to count all the number one choices to see if any candidates have reached the threshold of 2,501. As shown on the table below, the Democrat Gomez has 2,900 voters and he is declared elected. But Gomez actually has 399 more votes than he needs to win. These votes are considered wasted if they stay with Gomez, so they are transferred to the second choices on the ballot. (There are several ways to do this, but we needn�t get into those details here.) In the second count, we see the effect of this transfer. The other Democratic candidate, Campbell, gets 300 of those second choice votes, and the independent candidate, Daniels, gets the other 99. The vote totals are now recalculated to see if anyone is now over the threshold. No one is, so the next transfer takes place. The candidate with the least chance to win is eliminated and his or her votes are transferred to their second choices. This candidate is Higgins, the Republican, and 500 of his votes are transferred to the other Republican candidate, Dains; and the other 100 votes are given to Daniels. Again the votes are recounted to see if anyone has reached the threshold. Dains has reached it with 2,800 votes and so she is declared elected. Once again her excess votes are redistributed to their second choices--200 to Graybeal, and 99 to Daniels. But still no one has reached the threshold, so again the lowest candidate is eliminated and those votes transferred. That candidate is Campbell, the Democrat, and 100 of his votes go to Graybeal, and 600 go to Daniels. This puts Daniels, the independent candidate, over the threshold with 2,698 votes, and she is the last one elected. Ballot Count and Transfer Process This transfer process is a bit complicated, so why does it exist? The transfer process was invented primarily to reduce the problem of wasted votes -- votes that are cast but do not actually elect anyone. Plurality-majority systems routinely waste large numbers of votes and this is why they are prone to such problems as party misrepresentation, and the underrepresentation of political minorities, racial minorities, and women. The transfer process in STV is designed to ensure that the fewest votes are wasted and that the maximum number of people gets to elect a representative to office. It acknowledges that there are two kinds of wasted votes: votes for candidates that stand little chance of winning, and votes in excess of what a winning candidate needs. Transferring these votes to their next ranked choice makes it more likely that they will actually contribute to the election of a candidate. Political Attributes.   Choice voting has a number of advantages over plurality-majority voting.  It produces more accurate representation of parties in legislatures.  It gives voters more choices of parties at the polls, increases voter turnout, and wastes far fewer votes. This form of PR also reduces the creation of manufactured majorities.  In addition, it assures fair representation for third parties, racial minorities, and women.  All votes are for individual candidates not parties, and this arrangement allows voters to cross party lines with their votes.  It is also the only form of PR that can be used in nonpartisan elections. On the other hand, if the districts are too small, some gerrymandering is possible.  STV also produces somewhat less proportional results than other forms of PR.  Finally, like all PR systems, STV usually results in coalition governments, not single-party governments.  

Proportional representation

Who was the USA's vice president in 1990?

How Proportional Representation Elections Work HOW PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION ELECTIONS WORK Douglas J. Amy We in the United States are very used to our single-member district, winner-take-all style of elections. We've all grown up with a system where we elect members of our legislatures one at a time in small districts, with the winner being the candidate with the most votes. This system seems so "natural" that proportional representation (PR) elections may at first appear a bit strange to us. Adding to the potential confusion is the fact that there are several different kinds of PR systems in use around the world. But in reality, the principles underlying proportional representation systems are very straightforward and all of the systems are easy to use. The Basic Principles of PR The basic principles underlying proportional representation elections are that all voters deserve representation and that all political groups in society deserve to be represented in our legislatures in proportion to their strength in the electorate. In other words, everyone should have the right to fair representation. In order to achieve this fair representation, all PR systems have certain basic characteristics -- characteristics that set them apart from our current election system. First, they all use multi-member districts. Instead of electing one person in each district, as we do here in the U.S., several people are elected. These multi-member districts may be relatively small, with only three or four members, or they may be larger, with ten or more members. (The figures below illustrate districting maps for a hypothetical 50-person state senate.  Figure 1 shows 50 single-seat districts, as is common with plurality-majority systems. Figure 2 depicts 10 five-seat PR districts, and Figure 3 shows 5 ten-seat PR districts.) Figure 1                     Figure 2                    Figure 3 The second characteristic of all PR systems is that they divide up the seats in these multi-member districts according to the proportion of votes received by the various parties or groups running candidates. Thus if the candidates of a party win 40% of the vote in a 10 member district, they receive four of the ten seats -- or 40% of the seats. If another party wins 20% of the vote, they get two seats, and so on. That, in a nutshell, is how proportional representation works. But while all PR systems have the same goals of ensuring that all voters receive some representation and that all groups are represented fairly, various systems do have different ways of achieving these goals. So it is helpful to see how different kinds of PR systems work in practice. Types of PR Systems Party List Voting Party list voting systems are by far the most common form of proportional representation. Over 80% of the PR systems used worldwide are some form of party list voting. It remains the system used in most European democracies and in many newly democratized countries, including South Africa. How It Works. Legislators are elected in large, multi-member districts. Each party puts up a list or slate of candidates equal to the number of seats in the district. Independent candidates may also run, and they are listed separately on the ballot as if they were their own party (see below). On the ballot, voters indicate their preference for a particular party and the parties then receive seats in proportion to their share of the vote. So in a five-member district, if the Democrats win 40% of the vote, they would win two of the five seats. The two winning Democratic candidates would be chosen according to their position on the list. There are two broad types of list systems: closed list and open list. In a closed list system--the original form of party list voting--the party fixes the order in which the candidates are listed and elected, and the voter simply casts a vote for the party as a whole. This is shown in the first ballot below, which illustrates an election for the House of Representatives in a five-seat district. Voters are not able to indicate their preference for any candidates on the list, but must accept the list in the order presented by the party. Winning candidates are selected in the exact order they appear on the original list. So in the example here, if the Democrats won two seats, the first two candidates on the pre-ordered list--Foster and Rosen-Amy--would be elected. Closed Party List Ballot Most European democracies now use the open list form of party list voting. This approach allows voters to express a preference for particular candidates, not just parties. It is designed to give voters some say over the order of the list and thus which candidates get elected. One version of this is illustrated in the ballot below. Voters are presented with unordered or random lists of candidates chosen in party primaries. Voters cannot vote for a party directly, but must cast a vote for an individual candidate. This vote counts for the specific candidate as well as for the party. So the order of the final list completely depends on the number of votes won by each candidate on the list. The most popular candidates rise to the top of the list and have a better chance of being elected. In our example, if the Democrats won 2 seats, and Volz and Gentzler received the highest and next highest number of individual votes, they would rise to the top of the list and be elected. This example is similar to the system used in Finland and widely considered to be the most open version of list voting. Open Party List Ballot A variety of different formulas exist for accomplishing the actual allocation of seats to the parties. One of the simplest seat allocation formulas is the called the "largest remainder formula." In this approach, the first step is to calculate a quota, which is determined by taking the total number of valid votes in the district and dividing this by the number of seats. In the example in the table below, 100,000 votes were cast and ten seats are to be filled. 100,000/10 = 10,000 � which is the quota. The quota is then divided into the vote that each party receives and the party wins one seat for each whole number produced. So the Republican party received 38,000 votes, which is divided by 10,000 to produce three seats � with a remainder of 8,000. After this first allocation of seats is complete than the remainder numbers for the parties are compared and the parties with the largest remainders are allocated the remaining seats. In our example, two seats remain to be allocated and the Republicans and Moll, the independent candidate, have the largest remainders, so they get the seats. Ultimately all the parties end up with the number of seats that as closely as possible approximates their percentage of the vote. Largest Remainder Approach to Seat Allocation     Mixed-Member Proportional Voting Mixed-member proportional representation goes by a variety of other names, including "the additional member system," "compensatory PR," the "two vote system," and "the German system." It is an attempt to combine a single-member district system with a proportional voting system. Half of the members of the legislature are elected in single-member district plurality contests. The other half are elected by a party list vote and added on to the district members so that each party has its appropriate share of seats in the legislature. Proponents claim that mixed-member proportional voting (MMP) is the best of both worlds: providing the geographical representation and close constituency ties of single-member plurality voting along with the fairness and diversity of representation that comes with PR voting. This system was originally invented in West Germany right after World War Two, though since then it has also been adopted in several other countries, including Bolivia and Venezuela. It is still one of the least used PR systems, but in recent years it has begun to garner a great deal of attention. In fact, it is now one of the "hottest" systems being considered by those involved in electoral design. In part this growing attention is a result of MMP�s unique claim to be a "compromise" between the two main rival systems. In the 1990s New Zealand abandoned its traditional single-member plurality system for MMP. Hungary also adopted this approach. Most recently, the newly formed parliaments of Scotland and Wales used this system for their first elections. How It Works. People cast votes on a double ballot--see the ballot below. First, on the left part of the ballot, they vote for a district representative. This part of the ballot is a single-member district plurality contest to see which person will represent the district in the legislature. The person with the most votes wins. Typically half of the seats in the legislature are filled in this way. So in a hypothetical 100-member state legislature, the winners of these district contests would occupy 50 of the seats. On the right part of the ballot--the party list portion--voters indicate their choice among the parties, and the other half of the seats in the legislature are filled from regional lists of candidates chosen by these parties. The party lists are closed in the German version. These party list votes are counted on a national basis to determine the total portion of the 100-seat legislature that each party deserves. Candidates from each party�s lists are then added to its district winners until that party achieves its appropriate share of seats. The following table illustrates how this process works for our hypothetical election. The Democrats won 40% of the party list votes in the 100-member state legislature, so they would be entitled to a total of 40 of the 100 seats. Since they already elected 28 of their candidates in district elections, they would then add 12 more from their regional party lists to come up to their quota of 40 seats. Allocation of Seats in MMP In the German version two electoral thresholds are used, either of which a party must overcome to be allotted seats in the legislature. A party must either get 5% of the nationwide party list vote or win at least three district races in order for it to gain any seats in the legislature. In our hypothetical case, the New Party did not win any district seats, but they did win over 5% of the nationwide vote, so they deserve their share of legislative seats--which in this case would be six seats, all of which would be filled from the regional party lists.   Single Transferable Vote Or Choice Voting This system of proportional representation is known by several names. Political scientists call it "the single transferable vote." It is called the "Hare-Clark system" in Australia. In the United States, electoral reform activists have taken to calling it "choice voting." Currently this system is used to elect parliaments in Ireland and Malta. In Australia it is used to elect the federal Senate, as well as the legislatures in several states there. It is also the PR system that was used in a number of cities in the United States during the twentieth century, including New York, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Toledo, and Boulder. It continues to be used today in Cambridge, Massachusetts for elections to their city council and school board.  How It Works. The voting process is illustrated by ballot below. All candidates are listed in the same place on the ballot. Instead of voting for one person, voters rank each candidate in their order of choice. So if you like Campbell best, you would mark the "1" after his name. If you liked Gomez second best, you would mark "2" by his name, and so on. You can rank as few or as many as you want. This ballot illustrates the use of the AccuVote system used in Cambridge, Massachusetts to elect its city council and school board. Voters fill in the ranking numbers as they would for standardized tests taken in school, which allows for computerized vote counting and ballot transfers. Choice Voting Ballot As the name "single transferable vote" implies, this systems involves a process of transferring votes. To understand how the transfer process works, it may be best to start out with a simple analogy. Imagine a school where a class is trying to elect a committee. Any student who wishes to run stands at the front of the class and the other students vote for their favorite candidates by standing beside them. Students standing almost alone next to their candidate will soon discover that this person has no chance of being elected and move to another candidate of their choice to help him or her get elected. Some of the students standing next to a very popular candidate may realize that this person has more than enough support to win, and decide to go stand next to another student that they would also like to see on the committee. In the end, after all of this shuffling around, most students would be standing next to candidates that will be elected, which is the ultimate point of this process. In the single transferable vote, votes are transferred around just as the students moved from candidate to candidate in the analogy. The exact order of the transfer process is illustrated in figure below. An example of how the votes are actually transferred is shown in the table that follows. For the sake of simplicity, assume that there is a three-seat district in which six people are running for office. The first step in the process is to establish the threshold: the minimum number of votes necessary to win a seat. The threshold usually consists of the total number of valid votes divided by one plus the number of seats to be filled, plus one vote. The formula looks like this: Threshold = (valid votes/1+seats) +1 vote. So in our three-seat districts with 10,000 voters, a candidate would need 10,000/1+3 (which is 2,500) plus one more vote, for 2,501. Diagram of Ballot Transfer Process The second step is to count all the number one choices to see if any candidates have reached the threshold of 2,501. As shown on the table below, the Democrat Gomez has 2,900 voters and he is declared elected. But Gomez actually has 399 more votes than he needs to win. These votes are considered wasted if they stay with Gomez, so they are transferred to the second choices on the ballot. (There are several ways to do this, but we needn�t get into those details here.) In the second count, we see the effect of this transfer. The other Democratic candidate, Campbell, gets 300 of those second choice votes, and the independent candidate, Daniels, gets the other 99. The vote totals are now recalculated to see if anyone is now over the threshold. No one is, so the next transfer takes place. The candidate with the least chance to win is eliminated and his or her votes are transferred to their second choices. This candidate is Higgins, the Republican, and 500 of his votes are transferred to the other Republican candidate, Dains; and the other 100 votes are given to Daniels. Again the votes are recounted to see if anyone has reached the threshold. Dains has reached it with 2,800 votes and so she is declared elected. Once again her excess votes are redistributed to their second choices--200 to Graybeal, and 99 to Daniels. But still no one has reached the threshold, so again the lowest candidate is eliminated and those votes transferred. That candidate is Campbell, the Democrat, and 100 of his votes go to Graybeal, and 600 go to Daniels. This puts Daniels, the independent candidate, over the threshold with 2,698 votes, and she is the last one elected. Ballot Count and Transfer Process This transfer process is a bit complicated, so why does it exist? The transfer process was invented primarily to reduce the problem of wasted votes -- votes that are cast but do not actually elect anyone. Plurality-majority systems routinely waste large numbers of votes and this is why they are prone to such problems as party misrepresentation, and the underrepresentation of political minorities, racial minorities, and women. The transfer process in STV is designed to ensure that the fewest votes are wasted and that the maximum number of people gets to elect a representative to office. It acknowledges that there are two kinds of wasted votes: votes for candidates that stand little chance of winning, and votes in excess of what a winning candidate needs. Transferring these votes to their next ranked choice makes it more likely that they will actually contribute to the election of a candidate. Simpler Than They Look Again, to American eyes, these various PR systems often appear at first to be overly-complex and confusing. And while the mechanics of seat allocation can sometimes be complicated, the actual voting process is not intimidating at all and can be easily utilized by the average citizen.   Voters need not understand all the mathematics of these systems to use them effectively.  To use an analogy:  you don't have to understand how all the electronic components in your car radio work in order to use it to find the kind of music you like.   The party list system, the mixed-member system, and the choice vote have all been used for decades in other Western democracies. Voters in these countries have had no trouble using these systems, as indicated by the very high voters turnout rates that these PR countries enjoy. Certainly we could expect that American voters would easily master the use of these systems as well.

i don't know

Which prime minister took Britain into the European Community in 1973?

BBC ON THIS DAY | 1 | 1973: Britain joins the EEC 1973: Britain joins the EEC The United Kingdom has become a fully-fledged member of the European Economic Community. Ireland and Denmark also joined Britain in becoming the newest members of the community, bringing the total number of member states to nine. At midnight last night a Union Jack flag was raised at the EEC's headquarters in Brussels to mark the occasion. Celebrations were held in the city and one of Britain's new European Commissioners, George Thomson, joined revellers in a torch lit procession. Prime Minister Edward Heath is optimistic that Britain's membership of the community will bring prosperity to the country. He said: "It is going to be a gradual development and obviously things are not going to happen overnight. "But from the point of view of our everyday lives we will find there is a great cross-fertilisation of knowledge and information, not only in business but in every other sphere. "And this will enable us to be more efficient and more competitive in gaining more markets not only in Europe but in the rest of the world." More than 1,000 Britons will relocate to Brussels over the coming months to take up their places as civil servants of the community. Britain will be given four votes within the council, which proposes policies on issues ranging from the environment to public health. Membership applications by the UK to join the EEC were refused in 1963 and 1967 because the French President of the time Charles de Gaulle doubted the UK's political will. It is understood, however, his real fear was that English would suddenly become the common language of the community.

Edward Heath

What was enforced by Parliament in 1379 and was the trigger that caused the Peasants' Revolt?

Was Britain Taken Into The EU Illegally? Was Britain Taken Into The EU Illegally? Vernon Coleman Many constitutional experts believe that Britain isn't actually a member of the European Union since our apparent entry was in violation of British law and was, therefore invalid. In enacting the European Communities Bill through an ordinary vote in the House of Commons, Ted Heath's Government breached the constitutional convention which requires a prior consultation of the people (either by a general election or a referendum) on any measure involving constitutional change. The general election or referendum must take place before any related parliamentary debate. (Britain has no straightforward written constitution. But, the signing of the Common Market entrance documents was, without a doubt, a breach of the spirit of our constitution.) Just weeks before the 1970 general election which made him Prime Minister, Edward Heath declared that it would be wrong if any Government contemplating membership of the European Community were to take this step without `the full hearted consent of Parliament and people'. However, when it came to it Heath didn't have a referendum because opinion polls at the time (1972) showed that the British people were hugely opposed (by a margin of two to one) against joining the Common Market. Instead, Heath merely signed the documents that took us into what became the European Union on the basis that Parliament alone had passed the European Communities Bill of 1972. Some MPs have subsequently claimed that `Parliament can do whatever it likes'. But that isn't true, of course. Parliament consists of a number of individual MPs who have been elected by their constituents to represent them. Political parties are not recognised in our system of government and Parliament does not have the right to change the whole nature of Britain's constitution. We have (or are supposed to have) an elective democracy not an elective dictatorship. Parliament may, in law and in day to day issues, be the sovereign power in the state, but the electors are (in the words of Dicey's `Introduction for the Study of the Law of the Constitution' published in 1885) `the body in which sovereign power is vested'. Dicey goes on to point out that `in a political sense the electors are the most important part of, we may even say are actually, the sovereign power, since their will is under the present constitution sure to obtain ultimate obedience.' Bagehot, author of The English Constitution, 1867, describes the nation, through Parliament, as `the present sovereign'. In 1972, when Heath decided to take Britain into the Common Market, he used Parliament's legal sovereignty to deny and permanently limit the political sovereignty of the electorate. Heath and Parliament changed the basic rules and they did not have the right (legal or moral) to do that. The 1972 European Communities Bill wasn't just another Act of Parliament. Heath's Bill used Parliament's legal sovereignty, and status as representative of the electorate, to deny the fundamental rights of the electorate. Precedents show that the British constitution (which may not be written and formalised in the same way as the American constitution is presented) but which is, nevertheless, enshrined and codified in the Magna Carta (1215), the Petition of Right (1628), the Bill of Rights (1689) and the Act of Settlement (1701) requires Parliament to consult the electorate directly where constitutional change which would affect their political sovereignty is in prospect. (The 1689 Bill of Rights contains the following oath: `I do declare that no foreign prince, person, prelate, state or potentate hath or ought to have jurisdiction, power, superiority, pre-eminence or authority within this Realm.' Since this Bill has not been repealed it is clear that every treaty Britain has signed with the EU has been illegal.) So, for example, Parliament was dissolved in 1831/2 to obtain the electorate's authority for the Reform Bill and again in 1910 following the Lord's rejection of the Liberal Finance Bill. In 1975, when the Government changed, Harold Wilson sought to put right the clear constitutional error by organising a retrospective referendum (something quite unprecedented in British history) designed to obtain the permission of the British people for Britain to join something it had already `joined'. Wilson's referendum was inspired solely by the realisation that the consent of the electorate ought first to have been obtained before we joined the EEC. The lack of legitimacy of the European Communities Act brought about the decision by the incoming Prime Minister and Labour leadership that a referendum should be held in preference to yet another general election. But, almost inevitably, the question asked in the referendum was also illegal since voters were asked: `Do you think that the United Kingdom should stay in the European Community (the Common Market)?' The problem was that since Heath had ignored the constitution duties and requirements of Parliament and had signed the entrance documents illegally the words `stay in' were deceptive. We couldn't stay in the EEC because, constitutionally, we had never entered. We couldn't enter the Common Market because Parliament did not have the right to sign away our sovereignty. The referendum Wilson organised to remedy Heath's constitutional breach misled the electorate on a simple constitutional issue and was, therefore, itself illegal. (Wilson's referendum was passed after a good deal of very one-sided propaganda was used to influence public opinion. If the nation had voted against our `continued' membership of the EEC the political embarrassment for all politicians would have been unbearable.) Attempts through the courts to annul our membership of the European Union on the basis that Parliament acted improperly have failed because Parliament, through its legal sovereignty, is the source of the law in Britain and the courts are, therefore, unable to challenge any Parliamentary Act. Only Parliament can reclaim the legislative powers that Heath and subsequent Prime Ministers have handed to the European Union. And so, only when Parliament is filled with honest politicians (not inevitably an oxymoron) who are not controlled by the private party system will the mistake be rectified and our membership annulled. Britain's entry into the Common Market (later to be transformed into the EU) was also illegal for another reason. The Prime Minister who signed the entry documents, Edward Heath, later confirmed that he had lied to the British people about the implications of the Treaty. Heath told the electorate that signing the Treaty of Rome would lead to no essential loss of National Sovereignty but later admitted that this was a lie. Astonishingly, Heath said he lied because he knew that the British would not approve of him signing the Treaty if they knew the truth. Heath told voters that the EEC was merely a free trade association. But he was lying through his teeth. He knew that the original members of the EEC had a long-standing commitment to political union and the step by step creation of a European superstate. Edward Heath received a substantial financial bribe for taking Britain into the EU when he was Prime Minister. (Heath was no stranger to bribery. One of his aides bribed a senior Labour Party official �25,000 for details of Harold Wilson's election tactics.) The reward of �35,000, paid personally to Heath and at the time a substantial sum of money, was handed over to him (in the guise of The Charlemagne Prize) for signing the Treaty of Rome. Because of Heath's dishonesty we never actually joined the Common Market. And so all the subsequent treaties that were signed were illegal. Britain's Treason Act (1351) is (at the time of writing) still in place. It states `that treason is committed when a man be adherent to the King's enemies in his realm, giving them aid and comfort in the realm'. And under the Treason Felony Act (1848) it is treason if `any person whatsoever shall, within the United Kingdom or without, devise or intend to deprive our most gracious Lady the Queen (Elizabeth) from the style, honour or Royal Name of the Imperial crown of the United Kingdom.' Our membership of the European Union will mean the end of the United Kingdom. So, since our membership of the European Union will doubtless `deprive our most gracious Lady the Queen from the style, honour or Royal Name of the Imperial crown of the United Kingdom' Britain's entry into the Common Market, under Edward Heath's signature, was null and void. Heath committed an act of treason. He betrayed the Queen and he deliberately misled the British people. Does any of this really matter to politicians? Is there any hope that Parliament will repeal the 1972 European Communities Act and restore sovereignty to the people? Not in the immediate future. But the errors made by Heath and Wilson mean that when we want to leave the EU it will be very easy. Because, officially, we never joined. An independent British Parliament would simply have to pass one short Act of Parliament and give notice to the EU and we would be out of this accursed club. Copyright Vernon Coleman 2011 Taken from Vernon Coleman's book OFPIS (for details of how to purchase a copy see the bookshop on this site.)

i don't know

In which country did Pol Pot lead the feared Khmer Rouge?

Pol Pot - Leader of the Khmer Rouge Pol Pot Pol Pot Leader of the Khmer Rouge An interview with former Khmer Rouge leader Pol Pot in the rebels' Cambodian stronghold of Anlgong Veng. Asked about his role in the killing of as many as two million Cambodians, Pol Pot said he did not wish to discuss the matter. (Jan. 8, 1998).  (Photo By Getty Images) By Michael Richards, Contributing Writer Updated March 28, 2016. Who Was Pol Pot? As head of the Khmer Rouge, Pol Pot oversaw an unprecedented and extremely brutal attempt to remove Cambodia from the modern world and establish an agrarian utopia. While attempting to create this utopia, Pol Pot created the Cambodian Genocide, which lasted from 1975 to 1979 and caused the deaths of at least 1.5 million Cambodians out of a population of approximately 8 million. Dates: May 19, 1928 (1925?) – April 15, 1998 Also known as: Saloth Sar (born as); “brother number one” Childhood and Youth of Pol Pot The man who would later be known as Pol Pot was born as Saloth Sar on May 19, 1928, in the fishing village of Prek Sbauk, Kampong Thom province, in what was then French Indochina (now Cambodia ). His family, of Chinese-Khmer descent, was considered moderately well-to-do. They also had connections to the royal family: a sister was a concubine of the king, Sisovath Monivong, and a brother was a court official. In 1934, Pol Pot went to live with the brother in Phnom Penh, where he spent a year in a royal Buddhist monastery and then attended a Catholic school. continue reading below our video Profile of Pol Pot At age 14, he began high school in Kompong Cham. Pol Pot was, however, not a very successful student and switched to a technical school to study carpentry. In 1949, Pol Pot obtained a scholarship to study radio electronics in Paris. He enjoyed himself in Paris, gaining a reputation as something of a bon vivant, fond of dancing and drinking red wine. However, by his second year in Paris, Pol Pot had become friends with other students who were impassioned by politics. From these friends, Pol Pot encountered Marxism, joining the Cercle Marxiste (Marxist Circle of Khmer Students in Paris) and the French Communist Party. (Many of the other students whom he befriended during this period later became central figures in the Khmer Rouge.) After Pol Pot failed his examinations for the third year in a row, however, he had to return in January 1953 to what would shortly become Cambodia. Pol Pot Joins the Viet Minh As the first of the Cercle Marxiste to return to Cambodia, Pol Pot helped assess the different groups rebelling against the Cambodian government and recommended that returning members of the Cercle join the Khmer Viet Minh (or Moutakeaha). Although Pol Pot and other members of the Cercle disliked that the Khmer Viet Minh had heavy ties with Vietnam, the group felt that this Communist revolutionary organization was the one most likely to take action. In August 1953, Pol Pot left his home secretly and, without even telling his friends, headed to the Viet Minh’s Eastern Zone Headquarters, located near the village of Krabao. The camp was located in the forest and consisted of canvas tents that could be easily moved in case of an attack. Pol Pot (and eventually more of his Cercle friends) were dismayed to find the camp completely segregated, with Vietnamese as the high ranking members and Cambodians ( Khmers ) given just menial tasks. Pol Pot himself was assigned tasks such as farming and working in the mess hall. Still, Pol Pot watched and learned how the Viet Minh used propaganda and force to take control of peasant villages in the region. When the Khmer Viet Minh were forced to disband after the 1954 Geneva Accords ; Pol Pot and several of his friends headed back to Phnom Penh. The 1955 Election The 1954 Geneva Accords had temporarily quashed much of the revolutionary fervor within Cambodia and proclaimed a mandatory election in 1955. Pol Pot, who was now back in Phnom Penh, was determined to do what he could to influence the election. He thus infiltrated the Democratic Party in the hopes of being able to reshape its policies. When it turned out that Prince Norodom Sihanouk (Sihanouk had abdicated his position as king so that he could join directly into politics) had rigged the election, Pol Pot and others became convinced that the only way for change in Cambodia was through revolution. The Khmer Rouge In the years following the 1955 elections, Pol Pot led a dual life. By day, Pol Pot worked as a teacher, who surprisingly was well liked by his students. By night, Pol Pot was heavily involved in a Communist revolutionary organization, the Kampuchean People's Revolutionary Party (KPRP). (“Kampuchean” is another term for “Cambodian.”) During this time, Pol Pot also married. During a three-day ceremony that ended on July 14, 1956, Pol Pot married Khieu Ponnary, the sister of one of his Paris student friends. The couple never had children together. By 1959, Prince Sihanouk had begun to seriously repress leftist political movements, especially targeting the older generation of experienced dissidents. With many of the older leaders in exile or on the run, Pol Pot and other young members of the KPRP emerged as leaders in party affairs. After a power struggle within the KPRP in the early 1960s, Pol Pot took control of the party. This party, which was officially renamed the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK) in 1966, became more commonly known as the Khmer Rouge (meaning “Red Khmer” in French). The term “Khmer Rouge” was used by Prince Sihanouk to describe the CPK, since many in the CPK were both Communists (often called “Reds”) and of Khmer descent. The Battle to Topple Prince Sihanouk Begins In March 1962, when his name appeared on a list of people wanted for questioning, Pol Pot went into hiding. He took to the jungle and began preparing a guerrilla-based revolutionary movement that intended to topple Prince Sihanouk’s government. In 1964, with help from North Vietnam, the Khmer Rouge established a base camp in the border region and issued a declaration calling for armed struggle against the Cambodian monarchy, which they viewed as corrupt and repressive. A Khmer Rouge ideology gradually developed in this period. It featured a Maoist orientation with an emphasis on the peasant farmer as the foundation for a revolution. This contrasted with the orthodox Marxist idea that the proletariat (working class) was the basis for revolution. Pol Pot Courts Vietnam and China In 1965, Pol Pot was hoping to get support from either Vietnam or China for his revolution. Since the Communist North Vietnamese regime was the most likely source of support for the Khmer Rouge at the time, Pol Pot first went to Hanoi via the Ho Chi Minh Trail to ask for aid. In response to his request, the North Vietnamese criticized Pol Pot for having a nationalist agenda. Since, at this time, Prince Sihanouk was letting the North Vietnamese use Cambodian territory in their struggle against South Vietnam and the United States, the Vietnamese believed the time was not ripe for an armed struggle in Cambodia. It did not matter to the Vietnamese that the time might feel right for the Cambodian people. Next, Pol Pot visited the Communist People’s Republic of China (PRC) and fell under the influence of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution . The Cultural Revolution re-emphasized revolutionary enthusiasm and sacrifice. It accomplished this in part by encouraging people to destroy any vestiges of traditional Chinese civilization. China would not openly support the Khmer Rouge, but it had given Pol Pot some ideas for his own revolution. In 1967, Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge, although isolated and lacking widespread support, made the decision to start a revolt against the Cambodian government anyway. The initial action began on January 18, 1968. By that summer, Pol Pot had moved away from collective leadership to become the sole decision maker. He even set up a separate compound and lived apart from the other leaders. Cambodia and the Vietnam War The Khmer Rouge’s revolution was progressing very slowly until two major events occurred within Cambodia in 1970. The first was a successful coup led by General Lon Nol, which deposed the increasingly unpopular Prince Sihanouk and aligned Cambodia with the United States. The second involved a massive bombardment campaign and invasion of Cambodia by the United States. During the Vietnam War , Cambodia had officially remained neutral; however, the Viet Cong (Vietnamese communist guerrilla fighters) used that position to their advantage by creating bases within Cambodian territory in order to regroup and to store supplies. American strategists believed that a massive bombing campaign within Cambodia would deprive the Viet Cong of this sanctuary and thus bring the Vietnam War to a quicker end. The result for Cambodia was political destabilization. These political changes set the stage for the rise of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia. With an incursion by Americans within Cambodia, Pol Pot was now able to claim that the Khmer Rouge was fighting for Cambodian independence and against imperialism, both of which were strong standpoints in which to gain widespread support from the Cambodian people. Also, Pol Pot might have been refused aid from North Vietnam and China before, but Cambodian involvement in the Vietnam War led to their support of the Khmer Rouge. With this new-found support, Pol Pot was able to concentrate on recruiting and training while the North Vietnamese and the Viet Cong did most of the initial fighting. Disturbing trends emerged early. Students and so-called “middle” or better-off peasants were no longer allowed to join the Khmer Rouge. Former government workers and officials, teachers, and people with an education were purged from the party. Chams , an important ethnic group in Cambodia, and other minorities were forced to adopt Cambodian styles of dress and appearance. Decrees were issued establishing cooperative agricultural enterprises. The practice of emptying urban areas began. By 1973, the Khmer Rouge controlled two-thirds of the county and half the population. Genocide in Democratic Kampuchea After five years of civil war, the Khmer Rouge was finally able to capture Cambodia’s capital, Phnom Penh, on April 17, 1975. This ended Lon Nol’s rule and began the five-year reign of the Khmer Rouge. It was at this time that Saloth Sar began calling himself “brother number one” and took Pol Pot as his nom de guerre. (According to one source, “Pol Pot” comes from the French words “politique potentielle.”) After taking control of Cambodia, Pol Pot declared the Year Zero. This meant much more than restarting the calendar; it was a means of emphasizing that all that was familiar in the lives of Cambodians was to be destroyed. This was a far more comprehensive cultural revolution than the one Pol Pot had observed in Communist China. Religion was abolished, ethnic groups forbidden to speak their language or follow their customs, the family unit ended, and political dissent ruthlessly eliminated. As dictator of Cambodia, which the Khmer Rouge renamed Democratic Kampuchea, Pol Pot began a ruthless, bloody campaign against a variety of groups: members of the former government, Buddhist monks, Muslims, western-educated intellectuals, university students and teachers, people in contact with Westerners or Vietnamese, people who were crippled or lame, and ethnic Chinese, Laotians, and Vietnamese. These massive changes within Cambodia and the specific targeting of large sections of the population led to the Cambodian Genocide. By its end in 1979, at least 1.5 million people were murdered (estimates range from 750,000 to 3 million) in the “Killing Fields.” Many were beaten to death with iron bars or hoes after digging their own graves. Some were buried alive. One directive read: “Bullets not to be wasted.” Most died from starvation and disease, but probably 200,000 were executed, often after interrogation and brutal torture. The most infamous interrogation center was Tuol Sleng, S-21 (Security Prison 21), a former high school. Here prisoners were photographed, interrogated, and tortured. It was “the place where people go in but never come out.”* Vietnam Defeats the Khmer Rouge As the years passed, Pol Pot became increasingly paranoid about the possibility of an invasion by Vietnam. To preempt an attack, Pol Pot’s regime began carrying out raids and massacres in Vietnamese territory. Rather than dissuade the Vietnamese from attacking, these raids ultimately provided Vietnam with an excuse to invade Cambodia in 1978. By the following year, the Vietnamese had routed the Khmer Rouge, ending both the Khmer Rouge’s rule in Cambodia and the genocidal policies of Pol Pot. Ousted from power, Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge retreated to a remote area of Cambodia along the border with Thailand. For several years, the North Vietnamese tolerated the existence of the Khmer Rouge in this border area. However, in 1984, the North Vietnamese made a concerted effort to deal with them. After that, the Khmer Rouge survived only with the support of Communist China and the toleration of the Thai government. In 1985, Pol Pot resigned as head of the Khmer Rouge and handed over day-to-day administrative tasks to his longtime associate, Son Sen. Pol Pot nonetheless continued as the de facto leader of the party. In 1986, Pol Pot’s new wife, Mea Son, gave birth to a daughter. (His first wife had begun to suffer from mental illness in the years before he took power as Pol Pot. She died in 2003.) He also spent some time in China undergoing treatment for facial cancer. The Aftermath In 1995, Pol Pot, still living in isolation on the Thai border, suffered a stroke that left the left side of his body paralyzed. Two years later, Pol Pot had Son Sen and members of Son Sen’s family executed because he believed that Sen had attempted to negotiate with the Cambodian government. The deaths of Son Sen and his family shocked many of the remaining Khmer leadership. Feeling that Pol Pot’s paranoia was out of control and worried about their own lives, Khmer Rouge leaders arrested Pol Pot and put him on trial for the murder of Son Sen and other Khmer Rouge members. Pol Pot was sentenced to house arrest for the remainder of his life. He was not punished more severely because he had been so prominent in Khmer Rouge affairs. Some of the remaining members of the party questioned this lenient treatment. Only a year later, on April 15, 1998, Pol Pot heard a broadcast on Voice of America (of which he was a faithful listener) announce that the Khmer Rouge had agreed to turn him over to an international tribunal. He died that same night. Rumors persist that he either committed suicide or was murdered. Pol Pot’s body was cremated without an autopsy to establish the cause of death. * As quoted in S21: The Killing Machine of the Khmer Rouge (2003), a documentary film

Cambodia

How often are American presidential elections held?

Did the Khmer Rouge regime commit genocide? © Copyright 2016 Southeastern Globe Communications Co. Ltd. Did the Khmer Rouge regime commit genocide? Did the Khmer Rouge regime commit genocide? By: George Wright - POSTED ON: June 20, 2016 The Khmer Rouge, responsible for the deaths of millions of Cambodians in the 1970s, has long been synonymous with the word ‘genocide’. Yet some are questioning whether Pol Pot’s regime is, in fact, guilty of ‘the crime of all crimes’ Amid the darkest days of Pol Pot’s oppressive Khmer Rouge regime, during which the Cambodian population was decimated by starvation, overwork and murder, Sam Mat Ly snuck away from his designated worksite to scavenge wild plants for his wife and newborn daughter. As he walked past the Buddhist pagoda in Kanhchom, a town in the southern province of Prey Veng, he made a grisly discovery. “I saw seven holes filled with bodies. They had been there a week and the bodies were sticking out from the earth because they were so bloated. The smell was so bad,” Ly recounted of that haunting day in 1978, still seared into his brain nearly four decades on. Horrifying: Sam Mat Ly recalls finding a Cham mass grave during the Khmer Rouge era. Photo: Benjamin Noel A fisherman in Phnom Penh before the Khmer Rouge overthrew the government in 1975, Ly said there was no doubt in his mind about the identity of the victims piled up in the pits. About a week before he stumbled upon the graves, 30 Cham Muslim families had suddenly disappeared from the rice paddies surrounding his worksite. “I knew it was them because I didn’t see them working in the fields any more,” said Ly, also a Cham, who now lives on the outskirts of the country’s capital. In Cambodian popular discourse, the crimes committed during the Khmer Rouge era, during which an estimated 1.7 million people perished, are often referred to as genocide. Hundreds of thousands of tourists pass through the gates of the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum each year, while 7 January is a public holiday for Cambodians to celebrate ‘Victory Over Genocide Day’, when events are held to mark the Vietnamese-backed overthrow of the Pol Pot regime in 1979. This narrative is not only promoted within Cambodia , it is also widely accepted abroad. During a debate in February, US Democratic presidential candidate Bernie Sanders called the period “one of the worst genocides in the history of the world”. Yet a debate is now raging as to whether the fanatical communists did, in fact, carry out genocide, specifically against two groups: Cham Muslims and ethnic Vietnamese. A secondary debate might be whether the label – genocide or crimes against humanity – applied to the Khmer Rouge’s crimes is even important in the context of one of the greatest periods of human suffering in recent history. The genocide trials At the crux of the matter at the Khmer Rouge war crimes tribunal, set up by the Cambodian government and the UN to hold the regime to account, is whether the Khmer Rouge set out to exterminate these minorities, or whether members of these groups died in large numbers for the same reasons as more than one million ethnic Khmer – chief among them overwork, malnutrition and disease. Farina So, a Cham researcher with the Documentation Centre of Cambodia who penned the book The Hijab of Cambodia, said that a guilty verdict in the trial of ageing regime leaders Nuon Chea and Khieu Samphan on the count of genocide – often referred to as ‘the crime of all crimes’ – is vital to recognise the horrors her people were subjected to. Verdict: Cham researcher Farina So says the Khmer Rouge tribunal’s ruling on genocide charges is important to her people. Photo: Benjamin Noel “The Khmer Rouge policy affected everyone. However, little by little it intended to destroy in part members of ethnic groups, mainly the Cham and the Vietnamese. This annihilation can be seen through a complete eradication of their ethnic, religious and cultural identities,” So said. “Some Cham people feel that their experience is unique, [that they were] given different KR treatment – while others do not [see] any difference, given the great loss and pain all survivors had. However, Cham people have perceived that the KR committed genocide against them… [The] verdict is important to shed light on the topic,” she added. Looking at the wider picture, Gregory Stanton, the president of Genocide Watch who also founded the Cambodian Genocide Project in 1981, argues that the “G-word” holds greater weight in the eyes of the world than other crimes. “We conducted a study of the terminology used to describe the four most recent genocides – Rwanda, Bosnia, Kosovo and Darfur – and looked at whether there was any correlation between the terminology used and action to stop the genocides,” Stanton said. “The striking result was that as long as ‘ethnic cleansing’ was used, there was no forceful action to stop the killing.  But as soon as the word ‘genocide’ became dominant, forceful action was taken to stop the killing… The G-word still has the moral force for which it was invented.” The UN’s Genocide Convention defines genocide as “acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group”. It is this designation over which prominent academics that study the Khmer Rouge are wrangling. In the mind of historian Ben Kiernan of Yale University, there is “no question” that ethnic Vietnamese were targeted on racial grounds. Mass deportations left only 10,000 in the country after 1975, and not one remained after 1979, according to his book The Pol Pot Regime. Kiernan also believes there was a policy in place to eliminate the Cham community, estimating that 36% of 250,000 Chams died at the hands of the regime, compared to about a fifth of ethnic Khmer. Testifying at the tribunal in March, Alex Hinton, an anthropologist and the director of the Rutgers Centre for the Study of Genocide and Human Rights, pointed to a 1978 speech by Pol Pot – in which the infamous leader announced that “not one seed” of Vietnamese was left in Cambodia – as an illustration of the proclamation of “a successful genocide”. “It’s what might be called a successful genocide in the sense that virtually every ethnic Vietnamese disappeared from Cambodia, is [what is] being said… The word ‘seed’ is a root metaphor for the destruction of what might be called a race,” Hinton told the court. During his appearance at the court in 2013, however, Philip Short, author of Pol Pot: A History of a Nightmare, argued that neither the Cham nor ethnic Vietnamese were targeted along ethnic lines. “I’m absolutely convinced there was no attempt to exterminate any particular ethnic group,” Short told the court. “We are in a totally different situation in Cambodia to that in Rwanda, to that in Nazi Germany, where there was an attempt to exterminate Jews for what they were; they were Jews, therefore they should be exterminated. Tutsis should be exterminated because they’re Tutsis. That simply did not apply in Democratic Kampuchea.” French historian Henri Locard went further in a 2014 opinion piece for the Cambodia Daily, arguing that genocide is a politically charged term in Cambodia – used by the government for political expediency – and that the Vietnamese fared better than ethnic Khmer. “The Khmer Rouge committed every single crime against humanity that mankind can devise, but they were not specifically racists,” Locard wrote. “As for the Vietnamese, they were the least unfortunate of all Cambodian residents since the [approximately] 300,000 Vietnamese citizens… were required to leave the country. Not only did most of them take the opportunity to run away from the hated regime, but Sino-Khmers, or Khmers with some snippets of Vietnamese language, also desperately tried to go through the border.” Flawed argument Locard argued that genocide was not waged against the Cham due to their ethnicity, but instead they were targeted over attempts to rebel in Kampong Cham province and their refusal to renounce their religion. Stanton called Short and Locard’s understanding of the law flawed, saying that motive is irrelevant if there is evidence of intent to destroy the group. “Henri Locard and Philip Short are not lawyers, and they probably do not understand the difference between legal intent and motive… The specific intent of genocide must be to destroy members of a group. Motive is the purpose or reason for the acts,” Stanton told Southeast Asia Globe. “The Cham rebellion followed intense persecution and attempts to prevent Chams from speaking their language, raising their own children and living as Chams. Putting down rebellions may have been a Khmer Rouge motive for the genocide of the Chams, [but] repression of a rebellion and genocide were not mutually exclusive. They went together.” Ly, who says he was spared because of a friendship with a low-level Khmer Rouge official, believes his people were targeted by the regime as its leaders feared that more Chams would rebel after the Kampong Cham uprisings, and because their strong cultural identity made them resistant to assimilation. “Regarding religion, there was not much talk about hating our religion because Buddhism was also banned. The important thing is that they were scared because the Cham people might have rebelled,” Ly said. “The Cham people tend to help and love each other, that’s why they wanted to create a division between us.” Regardless of the motives behind the Khmer Rouge policy, Ly was certain that the regime planned to wipe out the Cham in Cambodia. And he has been left to face a painful reality alone. “They really wanted to demolish the Cham people. I lost all my relatives, 35 of them. It is only me left.”  Imperfect justice The Khmer Rouge tribunal has never been far from controversy In 1997, Cambodia approached the UN for help establishing a tribunal to prosecute those responsible for the horrors of the Khmer Rouge era. It was more than a decade before the first case – against the head of the notorious Tuol Sleng prison, Kaing Guek Eav, also known as Duch – was heard at the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia in 2009. Wrangling over the court’s mandate slowed the process considerably, and little wonder, as several senior government figures who served in the Khmer Rouge were keen to ensure they would not be implicated. Pol Pot and senior regime leaders Ieng Sary and Ieng Thirith all escaped prosecution, with the two men dying before they could stand trial and Thirith, suffering Alzheimer’s disease, being found unfit to do so. The second case – against Nuon Chea and Khieu Samphan – is ongoing, while the government continues to fight tribunal efforts to bring lower-level Khmer Rouge officials before the court. Funding has also been a major bugbear, with the Cambodian government repeatedly failing to pick up its share of the tab, causing local staff to strike on a number of occasions. International donors, who are only required to pay the heftier UN salaries, have bailed out the tribunal each time. At a total cost of more than $200m to date and with just three convictions secured, some have criticised the Khmer Rouge tribunal as a bloated and laborious form of justice.

i don't know

Israel was proclaimed an independent state in 1948. Who was its prime minister from then until 1963?

The Declaration of the State of Israel The Declaration of the State of Israel May 14, 1948 donations Introduction As the British forces pulled out of Palestine and the mandate came to an end, the Executive Committee of the Jewish "Yishuv" (community) in Palestine met to decide whether or not to declare a state, as has been envisioned under UN Resolution 181. The Arab states had declared that if such a state was declared, they would invade it. Nonetheless, the committee decided to declare a state, armed with the promise of US President Harry S. Truman that he would recognize such a state if it was declared. The Israeli Declaration of Independence was read out on Friday, the 14th of May 1948 by   David Ben Gurion, who then became the first Prime Minister of the new state. The State was quickly recognized by the United States and the USSR. The Palestinians did not declare a state immediately, and though several attempts were made to do so, they were blocked by the Jordanians and then by the Egyptians. The Egyptians later allowed the declaration of such a state in Gaza in September 1948, but it was recognized by no-one and had no resources and no real existence. Arab states had no interest in the formation of a separate state in Palestine, both because each state had territorial ambitions in Palestine, and because they feared the radical influence of Palestinian leadership under Haj Amin El-Husseini, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem. The declaration stated that Israel  "will uphold the full social and political equality of all its citizens, without distinction of race, creed or sex; will guarantee full freedom of conscience, worship, education and culture; will safeguard the sanctity and inviolability of the shrines and Holy Places of all religions; and will dedicate itself to the principles of the Charter of the United Nations. " The last sentence of the declaration refers to "the rock of Israel" (tsur Yisrael). This is one of the synonyms for God used in Hebrew. According to Tom Segev, in The First Israelis, the wording represents a compromise between the demand of Moshe Shapira representing the religious party that the declaration incorporate a reference to the Lord of Israel, and the demand of the leftist Mapam party representative that the declaration must not incorporate such a reference. The compromise formula made it possible to approve the declaration and publish it before the Sabbath and before the British left the country. May 15, 1948 was a Sabbath. David Ben Gurion, the first Prime Minister, who was a deist or possibly a polite atheist, was agreeable to this compromise. He said on other occasion that for him "the rock of Israel" was the Old Testament with its history and traditions.  Ami Isseroff Notice - Copyright This introduction is Copyright 2001-2003 by MidEastWeb http://www.mideastweb.org and the author. Please tell your friends about MidEastWeb and link to this page. Please do not copy this page to your Web site. You may print this page out for classroom use provided that this notice is appended, and you may cite this material in the usual way. Other uses by permission only.  The source material below is placed in the public domain  and is free of copy restrictions. MidEastWeb is a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting peace and coexistence in the Middle East. We provide balanced and complete information, news and views to promote understanding and dialog. We cannot continue without your help! If peace in the Middle East is important to you, please help us by making a tax-deductible donation . If you don't help us, who will? Thank you!   Declaration of Israel's Independence 1948 Issued at Tel Aviv on May 14, 1948 (5th of Iyar, 5708) The land of Israel was the birthplace of the Jewish people. Here their spiritual, religious and national identity was formed. Here they achieved independence and created a culture of national and universal significance. Here they wrote and gave the Bible to the world. Exiled from Palestine, the Jewish people remained faithful to it in all the countries of their dispersion, never ceasing to pray and hope for their return and the restoration of their national freedom. Impelled by this historic association, Jews strove throughout the centuries to go back to the land of their fathers and regain their statehood. In recent decades they returned in masses. They reclaimed the wilderness, revived their language, built cities and villages and established a vigorous and ever-growing community with its own economic and cultural life. They sought peace, but were always prepared to defend themselves. They brought the blessing of progress to all inhabitants of the country. In the year 1897 the First Zionist Congress, inspired by Theodor Herzl's vision of the Jewish State, proclaimed the right of the Jewish people to national revival in their own country. This right was acknowledged by the Balfour Declaration of November 2, 1917, and re-affirmed by the Mandate of the League of Nations, which gave explicit international recognition to the historic connection of the Jewish people with Palestine and their right to reconstitute their National Home. The Nazi holocaust, which engulfed millions of Jews in Europe, proved anew the urgency of the re-establishment of the Jewish state, which would solve the problem of Jewish homelessness by opening the gates to all Jews and lifting the Jewish people to equality  in the family of nations. The survivors of the European catastrophe, as well as Jews from other lands, proclaiming their right to a life of dignity, freedom and labor, and undeterred by hazards, hardships and obstacles, have tried unceasingly to enter Palestine. In the Second World War the Jewish people in Palestine made a full contribution in the struggle of the freedom-loving nations against the Nazi evil. The sacrifices of their soldiers and the efforts of their workers gained them title to rank with the peoples who founded the United Nations. On November 29, 1947, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted a Resolution for the establishment of an independent Jewish State in Palestine , and called upon the inhabitants of the country to take such steps as may be necessary on their part to put the plan into effect. This recognition by the United Nations of the right of the Jewish people to establish their independent State may not be revoked. It is, moreover, the self-evident right of the Jewish people to be a nation, as all other nations, in its own sovereign State. ACCORDINGLY, WE, the members of the National Council, representing the Jewish people in Palestine and the Zionist movement of the world, met together in solemn assembly today, the day of the termination of the British mandate for Palestine, by virtue of the natural and historic right of the Jewish and of the Resolution of the General Assembly of the United Nations, HEREBY PROCLAIM the establishment of the Jewish State in Palestine, to be called ISRAEL. WE HEREBY DECLARE that as from the termination of the Mandate at midnight, this night of the 14th and 15th May, 1948, and until the setting up of the duly elected bodies of the State in accordance with a Constitution, to be drawn up by a Constituent Assembly not later than the first day of October, 1948, the present National Council shall act as the provisional administration, shall constitute the Provisional Government of the State of Israel. THE STATE OF ISRAEL will be open to the immigration of Jews from all countries of their dispersion; will promote the development of the country for the benefit of all its inhabitants; will be based on the precepts of liberty, justice and peace taught by the Hebrew Prophets; will uphold the full social and political equality of all its citizens, without distinction of race, creed or sex; will guarantee full freedom of conscience, worship, education and culture; will safeguard the sanctity and inviolability of the shrines and Holy Places of all religions; and will dedicate itself to the principles of the Charter of the United Nations. THE STATE OF ISRAEL will be ready to cooperate with the organs and representatives of the United Nations in the implementation of the Resolution of the Assembly of November 29, 1947 , and will take steps to bring about the Economic Union over the whole of Palestine. We appeal to the United Nations to assist the Jewish people in the building of its State and to admit Israel into the family of nations. In the midst of wanton aggression, we still call upon the Arab inhabitants of the State of Israel to return to the ways of peace and play their part in the development of the State, with full and equal citizenship and due representation in its bodies and institutions - provisional or permanent. We offer peace and neighborliness to all the neighboring states and their peoples, and invite them to cooperate with the independent Hebrew nation for the common good of all. Our call goes out the the Jewish people all over the world to rally to our side in the task of immigration and development and to stand by us in the great struggle for the fulfillment of the dream of generations - the redemption of Israel. With trust in the rock of Israel [sometimes incorrectly translated as "Lord of Israel or "Almighty God -tr], we set our hand to this Declaration, at this Session of the Provisional State Council, in the city of Tel Aviv, on this Sabbath eve, the fifth of Iyar, 5708, the fourteenth day of May, 1948.

David Ben-Gurion

Who did Margaret Thatcher succeed as leader of the Conservative Party?

Glossary of Israeli Parties and Personalities - 1948-1981 Glossary of Israeli Parties and Personalities - 1948-1981 Abba Houshi -- See Houshi, Abba. Abdullah Ibn el Hussain (1882-1951) -- Emir of Transjordan (1921-1946); King of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (1946-1951). Born in Mecca, displaced from the Hejaz by Ibn Saud, he accepted the throne at Amman from the British Mandatory Government on a temporary basis. Subsequently attempted to broaden his influence which brought him into direct confrontation with Haj Amin el Husseini, the Mufti of Jerusalem. Maintained sporadic contacts with leaders of the Jewish Agency with a view to arriving at plan which would leave the Arab parts of Palestine under Hashemite rule. In May 1948 served as pro forma commander of the regular Arab forces invading Palestine. In December 1948 convened the Jericho Meeting of Arab Notables which called for the incorporation of the West Bank in his kingdom. In 1949-1950, following the signature of the Israel-Jordan Armistice Agreement, conducted negotiations with Israel culminating in the initialling of a non-aggression pact. Because of internal and external opposition the pact was never signed. Assassinated by Palestinians upon leaving the Al Aksa mosque in Jerusalem. Abu Ageila -- Important road junction and dam, in the north of the Sinai peninsula, some 45 km. southeast of El Arish. Captured by the IDF in 1949, 1956, and 1967. Returned to Egypt and demilitarized under the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty of 1979. Acre -- Mediterranean coastal city, at northern end of the bay which bears its name. One of the most ancient populated sites in Israel. Captured by the IDF in May 1948. Mixed Jewish-Arab population. Abdul Hamid (1842-1918) -- 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and Halif of Islam from 1876 to 1909, when he was evicted from the throne by the young Turks who suspected him of conspiring against them. Achdut Ha'Avoda-Poale Zion (Unity of Labor) -- Left wing party which merged with Mapai and Rafi in 1968 to form the Israel Labor party. Following the Six Day War many of its members, including the party's spiritual leader Yitzhak Tabenkin, supported the idea of Greater Israel; however, another leader, Yigal Allon, advocated the return of some of the administered territories which would not endanger Israel's security. Afula -- Town in the Valley of Esdraelon, located near a road junction between the Coastal Plain and Galilee and the Jordan Valley. Founded in 1925 and planned as the comercial center of the region, it came into its own only after the establishment of the State of Israel. Aguda, Agudath Israel (or Yisrael) (Association of Israel) -- Orthodox religious political party, founded at the Kattowitz convention of 1912, more traditional than the National Religious Party. Although not a Zionist party and not a member of the World Zionist Organization, it has been willing to cooperate with Zionists in areas of immigration, settlement and defense before the establishment of the state and has participated in all Knesset elections since 1948. It has participated in government coalitions but, except for the period of 1949-1952, has not accepted cabinet posts so as not to share responsibility for decisions concerning religious matters contrary to its beliefs. Ahad Ha'am (Asher Ginsburg) (1856-1927) -- Zionist leader and thinker. Born in the Ukraine; immigrated to Palestine in 1922, but visited several times before. A staunch critic of both the political and practical Zionists, he insisted on giving first priority to the establishment in Palestine of a spiritual center for the Jewish people. Aharonowitz, Z. -- See Aranne. Akiva (Rabbi) -- One of the foremost Jewish sages in the period following the destruction of the Second Temple. Mentor and supporter of Bar Kochba (q.v.). Al Aksa Mosque -- Silver-domed mosque at the southern end of the Temple Mount. Named Al Aksa -- the last, most remote -- because of its distance from Mecca and Medina, Islam's holy cities. Mentioned in the Qur'an and considered sacred by Muslims. Earliest remains date back to the eighth century AD. Alexandroni -- One of the six original territorial infantry brigades, taken over at its inception by the IDF from the Hagana (q.v.). Its area of recruitment and responsibility was centerd on the coastal plain, north of Tel Aviv; its name derives from the Alexander Brook, which flows into the Mediterranean south of Hadera. Names of brigades served also as the cover names of their commanders. Al Hamishmar -- Daily newspaper of Mapam (United Workers' party) (q.v.). Aliya Hadasha (New Immigration) -- Political party established in 1942 by immigrants from Germany and Austria, against the background of their difficult absorption -- economic and cultural. In 1948 it joined with Haoved Hazioni, a non-socialist component of the Histadrut, and some General Zionists in the establishment of the Progressive party (q.v.). Allenby, Field Marshal Edmund Henry (1861-1936) -- Commander-in-chief of the British and Allied forces who captured Palestine from the Ottoman Turks towards the end of World War I, in 1917-1918; subsequently British High Commissioner in Egypt until his retirement in 1925. Allon, Yigal (1918-1980) -- Military commander, leader of the Labor movement. Born in Kfar Tavor, Lower Galilee; from an early age member of the Hagana; one of the first soldiers of the Palmach, he served as its commander from 1945 until its disbandment in 1948. Commanded some of the outstanding operations during Israel's War of Independence (1947-49). One of the founding members of Achdut Ha'Avoda (q.v.), 1946. In 1950 entered active political life; first elected to the Knesset in 1955. Served as a cabinet minister from 1961 until 1977, in the Labor (1961-67), Immigrant Absorption (1967-69), Education (1969-74) and Foreign Affairs (1974-77) portfolios. Instrumental in the formation of the first Alignment between Mapai and Achdut Ha'Avoda in 1965, he nevertheless failed to achieve a central leadership position. In 1980 he planned to contend for the leadership of the Labor party, but died before the party conference took place. Author of the Allon Plan for Judea, Samaria and the Gaza Strip which, calling for a differentiation between security and political boundaries, would leave strategically important areas in Israel hands, while returning to Jordan the areas most heavily populated by Arabs. Almaliah, Avraham (1885-1967) -- Teacher, journalist, leader of the Sephardic community. Born in Jerusalem; banished to Damascus during World War I. Represented the Sephardic community in the National Committee of Palestine Jewry under the British Mandate; at Zionist Congresses; in the Jerusalem Municipal Council. Member of the First Knesset on the Sephardic List. Altalena -- Arms ship brought by the Irgun (q.v.) to Israel in the course of the first truce, June 1948. It was sunk by IDF artillery off the coast of Tel Aviv following a controversy in which Ben-Gurion, suspecting a coup, insisted on the immediate delivery of the arms to the government, a demand rejected by the Irgun High Command. Altman, Dr. Arieh (1902-1982) -- Revisionist leader. Born in the Ukraine, immigrated to Palestine 1925, studied in the United States where he became one of the leaders of the Revisionist Zionist movement and a close collaborator of its founder, Ze'ev Jabotinsky (q.v.). From 1937 headed the Revisionist movement in Palestine. Following the failure of its list in the elections for the First Knesset and its merger with the Irgun-based Herut (q.v.) in 1950, Altman was elected to the Knesset in 1955 and served three terms. Amalek -- Biblical tribe, descendants of Esau, brother of Jacob. Enemies of the Jews in all generations. Amman -- Capital of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Aqaba (Gulf of) (or Gulf of Eilat) -- Continuation of the Red Sea to the northeast, adjoining the eastern shore of the Sinai Peninsula, and the western shore of the Arabian Peninsula. Israel (Eilat) and Jordan (Aqaba) possess outlets at its northern end. Arab League -- Organization of Arab states. Founded in 1945 by seven Arab states, independent or nearly independent at the time, it has come to include all independent Arab states, with and the PLO raised from observer status to full membership in 1974. Recognised as a regional organization by the UN. Its decisions are not binding on its members. In 1979, following the signature of its Peace Treaty with Israel, Egypt was suspended from the League, and its headquarters were moved from Cairo to Tunis. Arab Legion -- Armed forces of Transjordan, and subsequently of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Commanded by a British officer, Glubb Pasha, (q.v.) until 1956. Arava -- Long and narrow valley, part of the Great Rift, extending from the southern tip of the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba. The armistice line between Jordan and Israel follows its lowest points. Aranne, Zalman (1899-1970) -- Labor leader. Born in Russia, immigrated 1926. Secretary of the Tel Aviv Labor Council; Member of the Central Committee of the Histadrut. In 1948 Secretary General of Mapai (q.v.); member of the Knesset 1949-1969; Minister of Education (1955-60; 1963-69). A stout follower of Ben-Gurion for many years, they parted ways over the Lavon Affair (q.v.). Argov (Grabovski), Meir (1905-1963) -- Labor leader. Born in Russia; immigrated 1925. Secretary of Petah Tikva Labor Council. Member of the National Committee of Palestine Jewry under the Mandate. Joined the British Army in 1940, served in the Jewish Brigade. Among the signatories of Israel's Declaration of Independence. Member of the Knesset 1949-1961, Chairman of Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee. Ariav, Chaim (1895-1957) -- General Zionist leader, journalist. Born Lida, Russia. Immigrated 1912. Turkish officer on the Armenian front, World War I. Director General of the Farmers'Association 1931-1951. Member of the Knesset 1951-57. Arlosoroff, Dr. Chaim (1899-1933) -- Labor leader and ideologue. Born in the Ukraine, immigrated from Germany 1924. In 1930 appointed Head of the Political Department of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, in which capacity he negotiated with the Nazi German authorities for the Ha'avara -- transfer of Jewish property to Palestine -- in the form of German goods. His assassination, still unsolved, on the Tel Aviv beach, has given rise to an acrimonious debate between left and right whose echo resounded loudly well into the 1980s. Ashdod -- Port in the south of Israel. Named after an ancient Philistine city. Asian Socialist Conference -- Bombay 1956, coincided with the Sinai campaign. Since there were no Arab Socialist parties at the time, Israel, represented by former Prime Minister and Foreign Minister Moshe Sharett, was the only participant from the Middle East. Attlee, Clement (1883-1967) -- British Labour leader, Prime Minister from 1945 until 1951. A-Tur -- Arab quarter in the east of Jerusalem atop the Mount of Olives. Auja-el-Hafir (Nitzana) -- Ancient road junction, close to some wells, on the border between Sinai and the Negev. Auster, Daniel (1893-1963) -- General Zionist. Born in Galicia, immigrated 1914. Member of the Jerusalem Municipal Council in Mandatory times. Mayor of Jerusalem 1949-1950. Avriel (Ueberall), Ehud (1917-1980) -- Mapai, Rafi, Labor party. Born in Austria. Immigrated 1939. Active in Ha'apala (illegal immigration) and acquisition of arms. Israel's first diplomatic envoy to Prague, 1948. Subsequently Director General of the Prime Minister's Office; of the Ministry of Finance. After a short term in the Knesset, first envoy to Ghana and later to Zaire. Azaniah (Eisenstadt), Baruch (1905-  ) -- Mapai; Kibbutz Meuhad. Born in Pinsk, Russia. Immigrated from Germany 1933. Member of Kibbutz Givat Chaim; active in the kibbutz movement. Member of the Knesset 1951-69; Chairman of Knesset (Rules and Regulations; House) Committee. Ba'al Shem Tov (Israel of Moldavia) (ca.1700-1760) -- Jewish mystic; founder of the Hassidic movement. Babi Yar -- Near Kiev, Ukraine. Site near which tens of thousands of Jewish inhabitants of Kiev were massacred by German Einsatzgruppen soon after the German Army captured the city in September 1941. Bader, Dr. Yohanan (Jan) (1901-   ) -- Born in Krakov. Leader of the Revisionist party in Poland and editor of its Polish language organ. Studied law, economics, philosophy and history. Immigrated after release from Soviet camp, 1943; jailed by British authorities for membership in Irgun. Member of the Knesset (Herut) from 1949 to 1977. Chief Opposition spokesman on economic matters; Chairman of the Committee on State Control. Member of the Interparliamentary Union. Baghdad Pact -- Informal name of the defensive alliance signed by Turkey and Iraq in 1955, subsequently joined by Great Britain, Iran and Pakistan. The U.S. participated in its committees and covered a major part of the budget, but never joined officially. Its purpose, as part of the containment strategy designed by Secretary Dulles, was the defense of the northern tier, as a link between NATO and SEATO. Iraq abandoned the organization in 1959, after which it lost its strategic significance. Bahir, Arye (1906-1970) -- Leader of kibbutz movement. Born in Odessa, Russia. Immigrated 1924; joined Kibbutz Afikim in the Jordan Valley. Member of the Knesset for Mapai until the split in 1965, when he joined Ben-Gurion in the formation of Rafi; active mainly in committees dealing with economic affairs. Bandung Conference (1955) -- First meeting of heads of state of non-aligned countries, at which the Non-Aligned movement was founded. Israel's invitation was aborted by a threat of an Arab boycott of the Conference. Barash, Asher (1889-1952) -- Born Galicia; Immigrated 1914. Teacher, editor, writer. Chairman of the Hebrew Writers' Association. Barazani, Moshe (1926-1947) -- Member of Lehi (Fighters for the Freedom of Israel). Captured by British troops in the course of an operation against an army commander; denied the jurisdiction of the Mandatory court; condemned to death. Together with Meir Feinstein (Irgun) committed suicide en route to the place of execution. Bar Kochba (Son of the Star) (Simon Bar Kozeba) -- Leader of the revolt against Rome, 132 AD. After spectacular initial successes, the revolt was brutally suppressed by Emperor Hadrian. Betar, west of Jerusalem, was the last Jewish stronghold to be reduced (135 AD). Bar Kochba, his mentor Rabbi Akiva, and thousands of their followers were executed; many others sold as slaves. The revolt signified the virtual end of Jewish presence in Judea; Jerusalem was rebuilt as a city dedicated to Zeus. Bar-Rav-Hai (1894-1977) -- Mapai. Lawyer. Born in Russia; immigrated after release from Soviet prison 1924. Member of the National Committee of Palestine Jewry. Delegate to various Zionist Congresses. Honorary Citizen of Haifa. Member of the Knesset 1949-65; mainly active in juridical and constitutional matters, including election proceedings. Bar-Yehuda (Idelson), Israel (1895-1965) -- Mapam. Born Yekatrinoslav, Russia. Immigrated 1926. Member of Kibbutz Yagur. Active in Petah Tikva Labor Council; subsequently in Kibbutz movement. Member of the Knesset 1949-65. Minister of Internal Affairs (1955-59); Transport (1962-65). Bashan (Hauran) -- Mountainous, basalt covered region, east of the Jordan, north of the Yarmuk River. Includes the Golan Heights and Gebel e-Druze. Basle Program -- Program of the incipient World Zionist Organization, formulated and adopted at the First Zionist Congress held in Basle (1897). It states that "Zionism strives to create for the Jewish people a home in Palestine secured by Public Law." It remained unchanged until after the establishment of Israel, 51 years later. Beduin -- Nomadic Arab. Beersheba (Well of the Oath) -- Town in the south of Israel; capital of the Negev. Named after biblical locality, related to Abraham and Isaac. Under Ottoman and British rule, small Beduin market town. Beer Tuviah -- Moshav (cooperative village) in the coastal plain. Founded in 1887. Abandoned following an Arab attack in 1929, it was restored in 1930. Begin, Menahem (1913-   ) -- Herut. Born Brest-Litovsk. Studied law at Warsaw University. In 1939 appointed by Jabotinsky as Commander of the Betar movement in Poland. In 1940 condemned by Soviets to eight years hard labor; released following the Soviet-Polish agreement of 1941. Arrived in Palestine with Polish forces; after his release at the end of 1943 appointed Commander of the Irgun (q.v.). In 1944 declared revolt against the British Mandatory government; official Zionist policy, at the time called for restraint until after the end of the war except on matters of illegal immigration. British authorities put a price on his head, but he was never apprehended. Revolt continued until shortly before the end of the British Mandate, at times in direct contradiction with Hagana, which led to confrontation; for a while in cooperation with Hagana and Lehi. In 1948 present on board Altalena (q.v.). Established Herut party, based on Irgun. Member of Knesset, as leader of Herut, subsequently Gahal, and ultimately Likud, from 1949 until his resignation in 1983. Minister without portfolio 1967-1970. Prime Minister, and for one year Minister of Defense, 1977-1983. Signed Peace Treaty with Egypt 1979. Beit Jiz and Beit Sussin -- Abandoned Arab villages near Latrun, on Burma Road (q.v.). Ben-Aharon (Nissenbaum), Yitzhak (1906-   ) -- Mapam. Born Bucovina, Rumania. Immigrated 1928. Member of Kibbutz Givat Chaim. Secretary of Tel Aviv Labor Council. Joint Secretary of Mapai. Joined British Army at beginning of war; captured on Crete and held by Germans as prisoner of war. Detained by British authorities June 1946. Member of Knesset 1949-77. Minister of Transport 1958-62. Secretary General of the Histadrut 1969-1973. The reunification of the two workers parties (1962) was to a large extent the result of his initiative. Leader of the Labor party "dovish" wing. Retired from active political life in 1977; continues propagating his ideas orally and in writing. Ben-Eliezer, Arye (1913-1970) -- Herut. Born Vilna. Immigrated 1920. Joined Betar (Brit Trumpeldor) 1926. Active in defense of Jerusalem and Tel Aviv during the riots of 1929 and 1936. Emissary of the Irgun in Eastern and Southern Europe 1937-39. During World War II in the U.S., active in the establishment of the Committee for a Jewish Army; the Emergency Committee to Save the Jewish People in Europe. Returned to Palestine 1943; joined Irgun High Command. Instrumental in appointment of Menahem Begin as Commander. Detained by British in 1944; escaped from Eritrea (1947); granted asylum by French, together with Yitzhak Shamir. Returned to Israel, June 1948. One of the founders of Herut. Member of Knesset 1949-70. Deputy Speaker. Ben-Gurion, David (1886-1973) -- Born Plonsk (then Russia); immigrated 1906. In 1912 went to Istanbul to study law. Back in Palestine, was expelled by Ottoman authorities in 1915 as enemy (Russian) alien; moved to the U.S. where he promoted idea of Jewish Army. When U.S. entered the war, joined the American Battalion of the Jewish Legion, with which he returned to Palestine. One of the founders of the historical "Leachdut Haavoda" party (1919) and the Histadrut (1920). Secretary General of the Histadrut (1920-35). Chairman of the Jewish Agency for Palestine (1935-48), representing Mapai which had become the predominant party in 1933. In 1937 supported Partition of Palestine as the only way towards a peaceful solution of the Palestine problem. In World War II coined the slogan: "We shall fight against Hitler as if there were no White Paper [of 1939, calling for an end to the National Home policy], and we shall fight against the White Paper as if Hitler did not exist." Was responsible for the drafting and adoption of the Biltmore program (q.v.). Once he became convinced that the new British Labour government (1945) would continue the White Paper policy, he was active in organization of the struggle in the areas of immigration (Ha'apala); settlement, and military preparations. Was the first to foresee a military confrontation with the regular armies of neighboring countries and to conceive of practical ways to prepare for the clash. Drafted and promoted Israel's Declaration of Independence. As Prime Minister and Minister of Defense (1948-53), responsible for the conduct of the War of Independence and the negotiations of the Armistice Agreements (1949); the mass immigration and absorption of the first years of the state. In 1953 retired to Kibbutz Sde Boker in the Negev. Recalled from retirement first as Minister of Defense and then also as Prime Minister, he was responsible for the Sinai Operation (1956), and its aftermath. Promoted the alliance with France. Against bitter opposition negotiated the Reparations Agreement with German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer. Resigned in 1963 in favor of Levi Eshkol. In 1964, in the wake of the Lavon Affair, split from his party to form Rafi, which gained ten seats in the elections of 1965. When his Rafi colleagues decided to merge with the Labor party, he stayed outside as the lone member of the State List. In 1969 that list won four seats. In 1970, retired from political life at the age of 84. Generally considered as the single most influential leader in the establishment of Israel and its early history. Ben Shalom, Rafi -- Member of Kibbutz Haogen. Emissary for illegal immigration; Ambassador to Rumania. Ben-Tov, Mordechai (1900-1985) -- Born Grodzisk, near Warsaw. Active in Hashomer Hatzair movement. Immigrated 1920. Founding Member of Kibbutz Mishmar Haemek. Member of Zionist Action Committee; Kibbutz Artzi and Histadrut Executive. Member of Knesset 1949-60, Mapam. Minister of Labor and Reconstruction (1948-49); Development (1955-61). Founder of Al Hamishmar (q.v.). Ben-Yehuda, Eliezer (1858-1922) -- The "Father of Modern Hebrew"; principal agent in the renaissance of the Hebrew language as the living vehicle of communication among Palestinian Jews, and subsequently in Israel. Ben-Zvi, Yitzhak (1884-1963) -- Mapai. Born Poltava, Russia. Immigrated 1907. Among the founders of the Bar Giora and Hashomer clandestine Jewish self-defense organizations. Studied law in Istanbul; expelled in 1915, went to the U.S. with Ben-Gurion. Returned as soldier in Jewish Legion. Active in community affairs; President of the National Committee (Va'ad Leumi) of Palestine Jewry from 1931. Member of First and Second Knesset. In 1952 elected second President of Israel, after the death of Chaim Weizmann; reelected 1957 and 1962. Conducted extensive research on Oriental Jewish communities. Endeavored to bring about reconciliation with Samaritans. Berligne, Eliahu (1866-1955) -- Born Mohilev, Russia. Immigrated 1907. Industrialist. Delegate to the Representative Assembly; Member of Provisional Council of State for General Zionists. Signatory of Declaration of Independence. Berlin, Rabbi Meir (1880-1949) -- Born Volozin, Russia. Immigrated from the U.S. 1926. Leader of Mizrachi (Religious Zionist party); member of Jewish Agency Executive; of Va'ad Leumi. Active in defense and political affairs. After 1944 partly incapacitated because of illness. Bernadotte, Count Folke (1895-1948) -- Swedish diplomat. In May 1948 appointed by the Secretary General of the United Nations as Chief of the Truce Supervision Organization, and as Mediator for Palestine. In June 1948 presented first plan, envisaging inter alia the merger of the Arab parts of Palestine with Transjordan, under the rule of King Abdullah, and the inclusion of Jerusalem as well as the Negev in that Arab state, with Western Galilee to be added to the Jewish state. Soon after signing second plan, with certain modifications, killed in Jerusalem by a group identified with Lehi (q.v.). Bernstein, Peretz (Fritz) (1890-1971) -- Born Meiningen, Germany. Immigrated from Holland 1936. Leader of General Zionist, subsequently reconstituted as Liberal party. Member of Jewish Agency Executive, in charge of Department of Commerce and Trade. Editor of Haboker. Member of Provisional Council of State; of Knesset 1949-65. Minister of Commerce and Industry 1948-49; 1953-55. Betar -- Acronym for Brit Josef Trumpeldor. Zionist youth movement, founded 1923, affiliated with Revisionist party. Its mentor was Ze'ev Jabotinsky; its program called for immediate Jewish statehood; military preparedness; "Hadar," a code of honor and personal behavior. Its anti-socialist stance led to clashes with Histadrut affiliated youth movements. A major recruiting ground for the Irgun, it was outlawed by the British authorities in Palestine. Beth Guvrin (Jovrin) -- Kibbutz in the Judean foothills, 14 km. from Kiryat Gat. Named after an ancient Jewish and more recent Arab settlement on the same site. Beth Hanoun -- Arab town in the north of the Gaza Strip. Bethlehem -- Arab town in the Judean mountains, 7 km. south of Jerusalem. Site of the biblical town by the same name, birthplace of King David. Sacred for Christianity as site of Nativity of Jesus. Bevin, Ernest (1881-1951) -- British Labour leader. Foreign Secretary 1945-51; played a central role in formulation and implementation of British policy on Palestine. Attaching major importance to British relations with Arab Middle East, many of his decisions and pronouncements have been perceived as anti-Zionist, at times even as anti-Semitic. Bialik, Chaim Nachman (1873-1934) -- Born Brody, Ukraine. Immigrated from Germany 1924. Poet, author, editor and publisher. Principal poet of the Jewish renaissance. Biltmore Program -- Resolution adopted by an extraordinary Zionist Conference, which took place at the Biltmore Hotel in New York in May 1942, after the real dimensions of the Holocaust became known. It urged that "Palestine be established as a Jewish Commonwealth integrated in the structure of the new democratic world (after World War II)." This was the first time that the Zionist organization officially demanded a Jewish state, by implication accepting the Partition of Palestine. Bilu'im -- Movement of Palestine pioneers who spearheaded the First Aliya (1882). Acronym of "Beth Ya'akov L'khu V'nelkha" (House of Jacob, come ye and let us go -- Isaiah, ch. 2). Founded in Kharkov as a reaction to the pogroms of that year. Bir-Hama; Bir Hasneh -- Egyptian strongholds in Eastern Sinai. Birobidzhan -- Jewish autonomous region in Eastern Siberia. Established 1928 with the idea of providing a territorial solution to the Jewish problem in Russia, in direct competition with Zionism. In spite of considerable propaganda and pressure, its Jewish population at its peak (1934) numbered 20,000, many of whom left. It never became a cultural center and is generally considered as a failure, even by Soviet authorities. Blood Libel -- Accusation levelled against Jews, claiming that they used Christian blood for their Passover ritual and killed Christian children for that purpose. First enunciated at Norwich, England, in 1144, it was repeated over and over again in spite of repeated condemnation and disauthorization by the highest secular and ecclesiastical authorities. Boger, Dr. Haim (1876-1963) -- Born in Crimea; immigrated 1906. Co-founder and for many years Headmaster of the Herzlia Gymnasium, Tel Aviv, first Hebrew language secondary school. Memeber of the Second Knesset for the General Zionists. Borochov, Ber (1881-1917) -- Founder and theoretician of the Poale Zion movement, synthesizing Socialism and Zionism. Brandeis, Louis Dembitz (1856-1941) -- Jurist; Zionist leader. Born in Louisville, Ky. First Jewish Justice of the Supreme Court of the U.S. Attracted to Zionism fairly late in life, he became the uncontested leader of American Zionism. In 1917, prior to the Balfour Declaration, negotiated with American, British and French governments. Was offered, but declined, the presidency of the World Zionist Organization (1920). A split with European Zionists headed by Weizmann brought about his withdrawal from active leadership. He continued his Zionist activities, particularly with the practical work of economic development. His insistence on national funds being devoted to the development of Infrastructure, with private initiative and capital responsible for micro-economic construction, gained greater acceptance in later years. Brest-Litovsk (Brisk) -- Town near the Polish-Russian border. Center of Jewish learning. Site of the German-Russian Peace Treaty at the end of World War I. Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich (1888-1938) -- Russian Communist leader, chief theoretician after Lenin's death. Purged and executed 1938. Bunche, Dr. Ralph Johnson (1904-1971) -- American diplomat; senior United Nations official. In 1947 served as Secretary of the UN Special Committee on Palestine. In 1948 Special UN Representative; after assassination of Count Bernadotte (q.v.), appointed Acting Mediator for Palestine. Active in the negotiation of Armistice Agreements between Israel and its neighbors (1949), for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize (1950). Burg, Dr. Shlomo Yoseph (1909-  ) -- Born in Dresden, Germany; immigrated 1939. Leader of Hapoel Hamizrachi; Mizrachi; National Religious Party (Mafdal). Member of Knesset 1949-88. Deputy Speaker in First Knesset. From Second Knesset (1951) until 1988 held cabinet posts, with brief intervals, holding the portfolios of Health; Post and Communications; Welfare; Interior; Religious Affairs. Burla, Yehuda (1886-1969) -- Born in Jerusalem. Teacher, writer, editor. Active in the promotion of Sephardic literature. Director of the Histadrut Department for Arab Affairs. Cadogan, Sir Alexander -- British civil servant; Permanent Undersecretary of the Foreign Office 1938-1945; first Permanent Representative to the United Nations. Cahana (Kahana), Rabbi Kalman (1910- ) -- Born in Brody, Poland; immigrated 1938. Leader of Poalei Agudat Israel (q.v.). Member of Kibbutz Hafetz Haim. Member of Provisional Council of State, and of the Knesset 1949-81. Deputy Minister of Education and Culture 1961-66. Chamberlain, Sir Neville (1869-1940) -- British political leader; Conservative. Prime Minister 1937-40. Issued White Paper on Palestine (May 1939) considered as betrayal of British obligations towards the Jewish National Home. Signed Munich Pact with Hitler, believing that it would bring "Peace in our time." Circassians -- Tribe from the Caucasus whose territory was handed over to the Russians by the Ottoman Turks in 1829. After several revolts lasting until 1859, many, particularly from among the Muslim Circassians, fled to the other parts of the Ottoman Empire. Renowned for their martial and equestrian prowess. In Israel there are several hundred in two villages in Galilee. Clayton, Brigadier Sir Illtyd Nicholl -- British officer attached to the Middle East Office in Cairo during and after World War II. Active in the formation of Arab League (q.v.) and formulation of postwar British policy in the Middle East. Coastal Plain -- Undulating, often sandy, strip of territory running north to south parallel to the Mediterranean Coast of Israel. About 100 km. in length, its width varies from 14 to 30 km. Includes major population centers of the country. Cohen, Idov (1909-   ) -- Born in Rumania; immigrated 1940. Leader of Haoved Hazioni (q.v.); subsequently Progressive party, and finally Liberal party. Member of Knesset (Progressive Party) 1949-63. Cohen (Cahan), Yaakov (1881-1960) -- Hebrew writer; linguist. Born in Sluzk, Russia; immigrated 1934. Active in Revisionist, subsequently Jewish State party. President of PEN Club. Cohen (Cagan), Rachel (1888-1982) -- Born in Odessa; immigrated 1919. President of WIZO-Women's International Zionist Organization. Member of the First Knesset on behalf of WIZO; of the Fifth on behalf of Liberal party. Active in social welfare issues and women's rights. Cohen-Maguri, Chaim (1912-  ) -- Herut. Member of the First to the Sixth Knessets. Cominform -- Communist Information Bureau; established 1947 by Communust parties of Soviet Union, Eastern Europe and Italy. Dominated by Russia; dissolved itself in 1956 to placate Marshal Tito of Yugoslavia who had been expelled. Conciliation Commission -- Established by UN General Assembly in 1948 to find agreed solution for Palestine question; consisted of representatives of France, Turkey and the U.S. Convened Lausanne Conference (1949) which proved futile. Dormant For many years. Cook, Hillel (Peter Bergson) (1915-   ) -- Born in Lithuania; immigrated 1924. Member of Irgun (1931) and its Command (1937). Irgun Representative in U.S. 1940-48. Active in promotion of Committee for a Jewish Army (1941-43); Emergency Committee to Rescue the Jewish People in Europe (1943-45). Member of First Knesset (Herut); retired from political life as a result of difference of opinion with the leader of the party. Copeland, Sir Reginald (1884-1952) -- Professor of British Colonial History. Member of the Royal Commission for Palestine (Peel Commission) 1936-37; formulated the idea of Partition of Palestine which became the majority recommendation of that Commission. Council of State (Provisional Council of State) (14 May 1948-25 January 1949) -- Provisional representative and legislative body of Israel; replaced by the First Knesset, whose election it initiated and supervised. Council of Four Lands -- Regional Jewish self-governing authority, established towards the end of the sixteenth century, comprising four Polish provinces. Based in Lublin. Creech-Jones, Sir Arthur (1891-1964) -- British Labour leader and cabinet member. Colonial Secretary of State, subsequently Secretary 1945-1950. CSSR -- Czechoslovak Soviet Socialist Republic. Cunningham, General Sir Alan Gordon (b.1887) -- Last British High Commissioner for Palestine 1945-1948. Dahab -- Oasis and Beduin fishing village in Sinai, 150 km. south of Eilat. Dan -- Kibbutz in Eastern Galilee, named after ancient nearby biblical town. Dardara -- Kibbutz in the east of the Hula Valley at the foot of the Golan Heights. Davar -- Histadrut daily newspaper, founded by Berl Katznelson in 1925. Dayan, Moshe (1915-1981) -- Born in Kibbutz Degania. Military and political leader. Mapai and Rafi. Chief of the General Staff (1953-58); conducted Sinai Campaign. Member of Knesset 1959-81. Minister of Agriculture 1959-64. Appointed Minister of Defense on the eve of the Six Day War (1967); replaced in the aftermath of the Yom Kipur War (1974). Minister of Foreign Affairs 1977-79; played central role in the negotiation of the Camp David Accords and the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty. Dayan, Shmuel (1881-1968) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1908. Active in Moshav movemement. Member of Knesset. Dayanim -- Judges of Jewish religious courts. Day of Atonement -- See Yom Kippur. DDR -- German Democratic Republic. Defense (Emergency) Regulations -- Regulations issued by the Executive without prior Parliamentary authorization, on the basis of emergency legislation carried over from the Brirish Mandatory government. Degania -- Kibbutz at the southern tip of the Sea of Galilee, 10 km. south of TIberias. First kibbutz in the country; scene of major battle with invading Syrian Army, 1948. De Haan, Jacob Israel (1881-1924) -- Born in Holland; immigrated 1919. At first a Dutch Socialist; then a Zionist; ultimately a member of the ultra-Orthodox community of Jerusalem and relentless opponent of the Zionist movement. When he carried the struggle against Zionism outside of Palestine, he was killed by a group linked to the Hagana. Dimitrov, George M. (1882-1949) -- Bulgarian Communist leader. Secretary General of the Cominform (q.v.). Dinur (Dinaburg), Professor Ben Zion (1884-1973) -- Born in the Ukraine; immigrated 1921. Teacher, authority on Jewish history. As Minister of Education (1951-55), presented Obligatory Education Law envisaging inter alia the abolition of the different "streams" (ideological tendencies). Introduced the law establishing the Holocaust Memorial Authority (Yad Vashem), which he headed 1953-59. Deir Yassin -- Former Arab village on the western outskirts of Jerusalem. Captured by Irgun and Lehi units in April 1948; five of the attackers lost their lives in the operation, against about 120 Arabs, many of them women and children. The "massacre" was immediately condemned by the Jewish Agency. Presented by Arab spokesmen as typical of Jewish tactics (which it was not), it spurred the Arab exodus from other locations in Palestine. Doar Ivri -- Improvised motto on postage stamps, used in April and May 1948, after the breakdown of Mandatory Postal Services, and before those of the newly-established state were properly organized. Dobkin, Elyahu (1898-1976) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1932. Mapai. Member of Jewish Agency Executive; Head of the Youth and Hechalutz (Pioneer) Department. Druse -- National-religious Arabic-speaking minority, occupying mainly mountainous areas in Lebanon, Syria and Israel. Split from Islam in eleventh century, the principles of their religion are made known only to a select group of elders. In Israel they live in a number of villages and towns in Galilee and the Carmel, to which some villages in the Golan Heights have been added in 1967. They number about 1 percent of the total population. Close relations with Jews have been established over the years. In 1948, after a brief clash in which Druse troops from Syria sided with Arabs, non-aggression between Jews and Druse, subsequently cooperation, were agreed upon. Since 1957 the Druse community voluntarily adopted obligatory military service for its young men. Many Druse military and police personnel have distinguished themselves in the line of duty. Dubnow, Simon (1860-1941) -- Born near Moghilev, Russia; shot by German soldiers in Riga, Latvia. Historian; theorist of Jewish autonomism or Galut nationalism; Founder of Folkspartei (People's party). In later years drew closer to Zionism. Duvdevani, Yechiel (1896-1988) -- Kibbutz Meuhad activist. Member of First Knesset for Mapai. Dunam -- Land measurement unit equivalent to 1000 sq. meters. Dushinsky, Rabbi Josef Zvi (1868-1948) -- Born in Hungary; died in Jerusalem. Immigrated 1933, when appointed Chief Rabbi of Orthodox Jerusalem. Close to the extreme anti-Zionist faction of that community (Neturei Karta, the Guardians of the Walls), he nevertheless approved of the rabbinical decree issued during the siege of Jerusalem permitting defense preparations on the Sabbath. Eban, Abba (Aubrey) (1915- ) -- Diplomat; leader of Mapai, subsequently Labor party; writer and lecturer. Born in South Africa. From 1946 member of Jewish Agency Political Department; Permanent Representative to the UN 1948-59; Ambassador to Washington 1959-60. Member of Knesset 1961-87. Minister of Education and Culture 1960-63; Deputy Prime Minister 1963-66; Foreign Minister 1966-74. Chairman of Foreign Affairs and Defense Committe of the Knesset 1984-87. One of the best known Israel political leaders worldwide, his books and articles have been translated into many languages. Economic Union -- Arrangement envisaged under the Partition Resolution of 29 November 1947 by which the three successor states in Mandatory Palestine -- the Arab state, the Jewish state, and the international enclave -- would continue with one currency and within a customs and tariff union. Edom -- Mountainous country, also called Mt. Se'ir, given to Esau and his descendants. Extended from Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba. Ehrenburg, Ilya (1891-1967) -- Russian Jewish novelist and journalist. Extreme opponent of Zionism. Active in the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee in World War II. Eilat -- Port at the head of the synonymous Gulf. Mentioned in the Bible under different names, including Etzion Gever, where King Solomon equipped and dispatched his fleet. Part of the Jewish state under Partition, it was occupied by the IDF in March 1949. Ein Gedi -- Kibbutz near an oasis on the western shore of the Dead Sea, 17 km. north of Massada. Ein Gev -- Kibbutz on the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee, 10 km. northeast of Zemach junction. Site of heavy fighting against Syrian invaders in 1948 when it constituted the only Jewish outpost to the east of the Sea. Ein Harod -- Two kibbutzim by the same name, close to each other, in the Valley of Esdaelon near the Afula-Baisan Road. Ein Kerem -- Quarter in the southwest of Jerusalem. Formerly an Arab village. Identified with biblical Bet Hakerem. El-Arish -- Mediterranean coastal town in Sinai. Center of local administration. At the beginning of the twentieth century its region was considered suitable for Jewish settlement by some British officials. Thorough investigations and lengthy negotiations had negative results. In 1949 IDF troops reached its outskirts in the course of Operation Horev designed to dislodge the Egyptians from Palestine. Captured by the IDF in 1956 and again in 1967. El-Gafgafa (Bir) -- Road junction and communications center in the center of the Sinai Peninsula. El-Hamah -- Ancient baths in the Yarmuk riverbed in the south of the Golan Heights, 10 km. southeast of Zemach. Demilitarized under Israel-Syrian Armistice Agreement 1949. Eliash, Dr. Mordecai (1892-1950) -- Born in the Ukraine; immigrated 1919. Lawyer and diplomat. First Israel Minister to the Court of St. James, 1949. Eliashar, Elyahu (1899-1981) -- Born in Jerusalem. First President of the Sephardic Community Council in Jerusalem. Member of First and Second Knesset for Sephardic List. Es-Salt -- Town in Transjordan; regional center, near Hijaz Railway. Emes Publishing House -- Official Yiddish language publishing house in the Soviet Union. Erem, Moshe (1896-1978) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1924. Leader of left wing Poalei Zion. Member of Knesset for Mapam. Eritrea -- Former British colonial territory in East Africa where camps for Palestinian Jewish detainees were established in the 1940s. Etrog -- Citrus fruit used for liturgical purposes during the Feast of Sukkot (Tabernacles). Etzion Bloc -- Group of four Jewish settlements in the Hebron mountains, 20 km. south of Jerusalem. Captured by the Arab Legion following prolonged battle on 14 May 1948. Even Yehuda -- Village in the Sharon Valley, 8 km. southeast of Netanya. Faisal, Ibn Abd el-Aziz (1905-1975) -- King of Saudi Arabia 1964-1975. Faluja Pocket -- Enclave near the Faluja road junction in the Judean foothills in which an Egyptian brigade was besieged from October 1948 until its release under the Armistice Agreement. Gamal Abd el-Nasser served as operations officer of the Brigade. Farouk, King (1920-1965) -- King of Egypt 1936-52, when ousted by Free Officers. FDR -- Federal Republic of Germany. Fedayeen (Fedayun) -- Moslem commando soldiers, literally: suicide squads. In the 1950s, until the Sinai Campaign, Palestinian guerillas and terrorists, were trained and directed against Israel by Egyptian Intelligence, primarily from the Gaza Strip. Feinstein, Meir (1927-1947) -- Member of Irgun; wounded and captured in the course of an operation against the Jerusalem railway station. Condemned to die, committed suicide together with Moshe Barazani (q.v.). Fellaheen -- (Arabic) Farmers. Fishman (Maimon), Rabbi Judah-Leib Hacohen (1876-1962) -- Born in Bessarabia; immigrated 1913. Leader of Mizrachi. Member of Jewish Agency Executive from 1935. Minister of Religious Affairs in Provisional Government and several subsequent governments until 1961. A political activist, served on several occasions as mediator between Hagana, Irgun and Lehi. Flavius, Josephus (37-95?) -- Jewish historian and soldier; chronicler of the Jewish revolt against the Romans and the destruction of the Second Temple 71 AD. Frank, Yaacov Israel (1925-   ) -- Member of Eighth Knesset. Friedmann-Yellin, Nathan (1913-1978) -- Born in Russia; immigrated during World War II. Engineer. Member of Lehi Command; condemned to imprisonment after the killing of Bernadotte. Member of First Knesset heading the list of Fighters for the Freedom of Israel. In 1958 initiated short-lived Semitic Movement for Arab-Jewish reconciliation; henceforth advocated dovish positions. Garin (literally nucleus) -- Group organized for the purpose of establishing a new agricultural settlement. Gahal (Acronym: Gius Hutz Laaretz; recruiting from abroad) -- IDF soldiers in the War of Independence who immigrated mainly from DP camps in Europe and detention camps on Cyprus during the war. Galilee, Sea of -- Part of the Jordan Rift Valley, bordering on Lower Galilee. Lowest freshwater lake on earth. Galili, Israel (1910-1986) -- Born in the Ukraine; immigrated 1914. Leader of Achdut Ha'Avoda; subsequently Mapam; Labor party. Chief of the Hagana Command 1946-48. Deputy Minister of Defense 1948. Member of Knesset 1949-77. Minister without portfolio 1966; 1974-77. Gaon of Vilna (Gaon Rabbi Elijah) (1720-1803) -- Jewish scholar; rationalist. Opponent of Hassidism, whose perceived superstitions he condemned. At the height of the controversy (1781), he excommunicated the Hassidim and forbade intermarriage with them. Gaza Strip -- Southernmost section of the coastal plain of former Palestine, held by Egyptians at the end of the War of Independence. Forty km. long; varies in width from 6 to 13 km. Gemara (Talmud) -- Formulation and codification of the oral exegesis of Jewish law, finalized in the sixth century in Jerusalem and Babylon. General Zionists -- During the first decades of the Zionist Organization, a vague term applied to all those who did not have a specific (such as socialist or religious) agenda in addition to the Basle Program. Subsequently organized as a separate group, including the majority of diaspora members of the Organization, they were still relatively weak in Palestine where they came to represent middle class interests. In the 1940s they split into two groups -- A and B -- over the twin issues of more or less activist, combative attitudes towards the Mandatory government and its policies, on the one hand, and the Socialist-dominated Histadrut, on the other. In the elections for the First Knesset, group A constituted the Progressive party; group B, the General Zionists. United for a number of years after 1961 under the name of Liberal party, they split again when one part, basically former group B, joined Herut in 1965, in the formation of a joint list (Gahal). The former Progressives continued as Independent Liberals. Geneva Convention -- In fact, conventions: a series of international conventions signed in Geneva designed to alleviate human suffering, particularly at the time and in the aftermath of war. The first convention, signed in 1864, initiated the Red Cross. Genihowski, Eliahu Moshe (1903-1971) -- Born in Poland; immigrated 1932. Hapoel Hamizrachi. Member of First and Second Knesset. Gerar -- Ancient settlement in the southwest of Israel near the synonymous Valley. Gesher -- Kibbutz in the Jordan Valley, 10 km. south of Zemach, near the confluence of the Jordan and Yarmuk Rivers. Site of heavy fighting against the invading Iraqi Army in 1948. Gil, (Lifshitz) Yaakov (1908-   ) -- Born in Tiberias. Military chaplain, Chief Rabbi of the Jewish Brigade Group during World War II. Member of First Knesset for General Zionists. Gilboa -- Mountain range between the Esdraelon and Beisan Valleys, some 18 km. long and 9 km. wide. Gilead -- Mountainous region to the east of the Jordan River, some 105 km. in length, from the Yarmuk River to the Heshbon River, north of the Dead Sea. Glubb (Pasha), Sir John Bagot (1897- ) -- British officer; Deputy Commander of the Arab Legion 1930-38; Commander-in-chief 1938-56. Goebbels, Josef (1897-1945) -- German National Socialist Propaganda Minister 1933-45. Gold, (Rabbi) Wolf (1889-1956) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1924. Mizrachi Leader. Co-founder, American Union of Orthodox Rabbis; Member of Provisional Council of State. Goldmann, Nahum (1894-1982) -- Born in Lithuania; immigrated 1964. Co-founder of World Jewish Congress; Jewish Agency Representative in Geneva; President of the World Zionist Organization. Active in soliciting support for Partition in 1947; instrumental in negotiation of German Reparations. Later extremely critical of Israel and its policies, advocating mutual Palestinian-Israel recognition. Goldrat, Avraham (1911-1980) -- Born in Poland; immigrated 1933. Young Agudat Israel activist in Poland; member of First Knesset on behalf of Religious Front. Goshen -- Fertile part of Egypt, probably in the northeast of the Delta, occupied by Israelites according to Bible. Gottwald, Klement (1896-1953) -- President of Czechoslovakia 1948-1953. Govrin, Akiba (1902-1980) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1922. Mapai; Labor party. Member of Knesset 1949-69; Minister without portfolio 1963-64; Tourism 1964-66. Grabowsky, Meir -- See Argov. Granowsky (Granott), Dr. Abraham (1890-1962) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1922. Active in Jewish National Fund (KKL); Chairman of the Board 1945; President 1960. Member of the First Knesset on behalf of the Progressive party. Greenberg, Uri Zvi (1895-1981) -- Born in Galicia; immigrated 1924. Hebrew and Yiddish poet. Poet of the pioneers at one time, he later developed a mystical nationalist philosophy. Member of First Knesset for Herut. Gromyko, Andrei Andreyevich (1909-1988) -- Russian diplomat; Permanent Delegate to the UN 1946-48; Deputy Foreign Minister 1949-52; Foreign Minister 1957. Grotewohl, Otto (1894-1964) -- Communist party leader and Prime Minister of the DDR (1949-64). Gruenbaum, Yitzhak (b.1879) -- Zionist Leader in Poland; Member of the Siem 1919-1930, one of the organizers of the Minorities Bloc; immigrated 1933. Member of the Zionist Executive (General Zionists); Minister of Internal Affairs in Provisional Government (1948-49). Guildhall Speech -- Speech delivered by Sir Anthony Eden (later Lord Avon), British Foreign Secretary, on 9 November 1955, calling for a compromise adjustment between Israel's borders at the time and those assigned it under the UN Partition Resolution. Gulf of Solomon -- See Eilat. Ha'aretz -- Israeli daily newspaper, founded as Hadashot Haaretz in 1919. For many years the only morning paper not affiliated with any political party. Habibi, Emil (1922-  ) -- Palestinian, later Israel Communist Arab leader. Member of the Knesset representing Maki and Rakah. Hacohen, David (1897-1984) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1907. Mapai, Labor. First Ambassador to Burma. Member of the Knesset; Chairman of Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee. Hadar Hacarmel -- Commercial center of Haifa, on the western slope of Mount Carmel halfway between the lower city and the peak. Hadassah -- Women's Zionist Organization of America. Founded by Henrietta Szold, it first dispatched medical personnel to Palestine in 1913. Directs a network of humanitarian institutions in Israel, the most important being the Hadassah Hospital Medical Center in Jerusalem. Hadera -- Town in the north of the Sharon; originally an agricultural settlement founded in 1890. HaDor -- Hebrew daily newspaper, owned by Mapai. Hagana -- Clandestine Jewish self-defense organization in Palestine, founded at the initiative of the Histadrut in 1920 for the purpose of protecting Jewish life and property against attacks by Arabs as a result of the inadequacy of protection provided by British authorities. Following the establishment of the state it was converted into the IDF. Hager, (Rabbi) Menachem Mendel (1889-1954) -- Born in Bukovina; immigrated 1943. Mizrachi member of Provisional Council of State. Haifa -- Port and industrial center in the north of Israel. Haj (Mohamed) Amin el-Husseini (1895-1974) -- Grand Mufti of Jerusalem; radical Palestinian and Muslim leader. Active in anti-Jewish riots of 1920-21; 1929; 1936-39. During World War II recruited Muslims for Nazi Germany, and declared a war criminal. Opposed Partition in 1947 and headed violent Palestinian resistance to its implementation in its early phase. Hakim, (Bishop) George (1908-   ) -- Born in Egypt. Head of the Greek Catholic community in the north of Israel. Halakhah -- Jewish religious law. Hamashbir (or Hamashbir Hamerkazi) -- Central cooperative sales organization for productive enterprises linked with or owned by the Histadrut. Hamizrachi -- Religious Zionist party established in 1902 with the aim of securing "Eretz Israel for the people of Israel according to the Torah of Israel." It envisages, in the ultimate stage, a Jewish state governed according to Halakhah, but considers the present day secular state as a precursor of that state. Participated in most government coalitions from 1956 as a part of the National Religious Party. Hammarskjold, Dag (1905-1961) -- Swedish economist and diplomat. Secretary General of the United Nations from 1953 until his death in an accident. Active in connection with the Suez Crisis in 1956, and instrumental in establishment of the UN Emergency Force (UNEF). Ha'Oved Hatzioni -- Non-socialist workers party, merged with the Progressive party in 1948. Hapoel Hamizrachi -- Religious labor organization, established in 1921. Cooperated with Mizrachi on political matters; merged with it in 1956 to form the National Religious Party. Harari, Yizhar (1908-1978) -- Born in Jaffa. Progressive; subsequently Independent Liberal; ultimately Labor party. Lawyer. Member of the First to the Eighth Knesset. Active in Foreign Affairs, and Law and Constitution Committees. In 1951 proposed the formula that Israel would have a written constittution developed gradually, which has been accepted since. Harzfeld, Abraham (b.1888) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1914. Mapai, Labor. Active in land purchases and settlement. Member of Knesset 1949-65. Hashemite -- Arab clan, from which sprang the Prophet Mohamed, according to tradition. The Sharif of Mecca was one of its descendants. Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan -- Since 1949, the territory on both banks of the Jordan River controlled by the Hashemite King Abdullah (until 1951); by Tallal (1951-52); by Hussain (1952-  ). Hashomer Hatzair -- Jewish youth movement formed in 1913 when various local Zionist groups in Galicia (then under Austro-Hungarian rule, and Poland (then under Tsarist Russian rule) combined. Subsequently spread to other diaspora countries, and established a series of kibbutzim in Palestine, federated in Kibbutz Artzi. During World War II members of the organization stood out in partisan and resistance units. In 1946 Hashomer Hatzair formally became a political party in Palestine, and in 1948 it participated in the formation of Mapam. Hasmoneans (Maccabees) -- Jewish family of the second and first century BCE which led the opposition to Syrian dominance and Hellenizing tendencies and in the restoration of Jewish political and religious life. Hassan Beck -- Quarter of Jaffa, named after the synonymous mosque. Hassan Hanifas, Salah (1918-   ) -- Born in Shefaram. Druse leader. Member of Second and Third Knessets, heading an Arab list linked with Mapai. Hatikva (The Hope) -- Anthem of the Zionist movement and national anthem of the State of Israel. Written by Naftali Herz Imber about 1880. The melody is based on a Moldavian folk melody. Hatzohar -- See Revisionists. Hayarkon Street -- North-south artery parallel to the shore of Tel Aviv. In 1948 seat of the Hagana High Command; central committee of Mapai, subsequently Labor party. Hazan, Yaakov (b.1899) -- Born in Russia. Hashomer Hatzair, Mapam Leader. Knesset Member 1949- . Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee. Hebron -- Ancient town in Judean mountains, 36 km. south of Jerusalem. Believed to have been the seat of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Its Jewish community was massacred or expelled in 1929. Captured by IDF in 1967, a new community was subsequently established in nearby Kiryat Arba. Heletz -- Moshav in the Lahish region; nearby is the first modest oilfield discovered in Palestine. Hermon (Mount) -- Highest mountain range in the Levant, on the borderline between Israel and Syria. Scene of heavy fighting in the course of the Yom Kippur War. Its peak, in Syria, reaches 2814 m. Herut (party or movement) -- Israel political party founded by the Irgun in 1948. Advocates the unification of Eretz Israel within its historic boundaries and the promulgation of a written constitution. In 1965 entered a parliamentary and electoral bloc with the Liberal party (Gahal); in 1977 Gahal joined with two more groups -- the Free Center and the Movement for Greater (literally: the complete) Israel -- to form the Likud bloc, which won a plurality in the elections of 1977. Its undisputed leader from 1948 until his retirement in 1983 was Menahem Begin. Herzl, Benjamin Zeev (Theodor) (1860-1904) -- Born in Budapest; died in Vienna. Prophet of the Jewish state; father of political Zionism and founder of the World Zionist Organization. Originated the Basle Program. In accordance with his will, his remains were transferred to Jerusalem after the establishment of the state in 1949. Hibat Zion (Hovevei Zion) -- Movement established in 1882 in reaction to pogroms in Russia, for the purpose of encouraging Jewish settlement in Palestine and achieving a Jewish national revival there. Histadrut -- General Federation of Labor, founded 1920 in Haifa. In 1985 close to 1.5 million members. The Histadrut is at one and the same time a trade union, a mutual aid society, a productive economic system and a center of cultural and sports activities. The Histadrut Conference, its supreme institution, is elected once every four years by proportional representation. Mapai, and subsequently the Labor party or Alignment, have been in control throughout, and all Secretaries General have come from its ranks. Horeb (Operation) (22 December 1948-7 January 1949) -- One of the last operations undertaken by the IDF in the course of Israel's War of Independence, designed to expel the remaining Egyptian invading forces from Israeli territory. Horthy, Nicholas (1886-1957) -- Hungarian admiral and statesman. Headed counterrevolutionary forces during Bela Kun regime; regent of Hungary 1920-44; forced by Germans to resign. Hosni Zaim (1889-1949) -- Born in Aleppo; Kurdish descent. Syrian Army officer; appointed Chief of Staff May 1948. Undertook first military coup in Syria in March 1949; in June of the same year elected President; in August 1949 toppled in another coup, condemned to death and executed. Hoter-Yishai, Aharon (1905-   ) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1913. Lawyer. Active in Hagana. Served in Jewish Brigade during World War II. IDF Advocate General. Abba Houshi (1898-1969) -- Mapai-Labor leader. Born in Eastern Galicia; immigrated to Palestine 1920. Secretary of Haifa Labor Council 1931-51; Mayor of Haifa 1951-69. Member of Arab Department of Histadrut; maintained close relations with Arab and Druse population of Haifa and the North. Husan -- Arab village in the Judean mountains, 7 km. west of Bethlehem. Hussain, Ibn Tallal (1935-  ) -- King of Jordan since 1952. Husseinis -- Followers of Haj Amin el Husseini, Mufti of Jerusalem (q.v.). Hyat, Victor -- Christian Arab businessman and leader in Haifa. In 1948 member of the Arab Emergency Committee, attempted to prevent the exodus from the city. Hyrcanus (Jochanan) -- Son of Simeon the Hasmonean; ruled from 135-105 BCE. Ibn-Saud, Abdel-Aziz (1880-1953) -- Chief of the Wahabi Sect; captured Mecca and Medina 1924, Jedda and the rest of the Hejaz 1925; proclaimed King 1926. In 1932 changed name of his Kingdom to Saudi Arabia. Ichilov, Ezra (1907-1961) -- Born in Petah Tikva. Leader of Farmers Union; General Zionists. Member of Second to Fourth Knessets. Idelson, Beba (1895-1975) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1926. Active in Women Workers' Organization; its Secretary General from 1930. Member of the Provisional Council of State and of the Knesset on behalf of Achdut Ha'Avoda, later Mapai. Deputy Speaker. IDF -- Israel Defense Forces. Ilyushin -- Soviet-made military airplane, fighter bomber. Immigration Ordinance (1941) -- British Mandatory decree drastically limiting Jewish immigration into Palestine. Iraq el-Manshya -- Arab village, military outpost in the South; towards the end of the War of Independence part of the Faluja Pocket. Iraq Suedan -- British police fortress, of the type designed by Teggart and named after him, in the southern coastal plain. Fulfilled a central role in the battle for the besieged Negev in 1948; attacked seven times by IDF before its capture from Egyptians. Irgun Zvai Leumi (National Military Organization) -- Clandestine military organization founded in Jerusalem in 1931 following a disagreement within the Hagana. From 1936 linked politically with the Revisionist movement. Dissolved upon the establishment of the IDF in May 1948, it continued its existence in Jerusalem until September. In June 1948 its last commander, Menahem Begin, established the Herut movement adopting the IZL's emblem. Isaac -- Son of Abraham. Biblical figure; forefather of the Jews. Isaiah -- Son of Amoz. One of foremost prophets. Lived in Judea at the time of the First Temple. Ismailya -- Town in Egypt; halfway station along the Suez Canal and administrative center of the region. Named after the Khedive Ismail, during whose reign the Canal was inaugurated. Iton Rasmi -- Official Gazette of British Mandate. Renamed Reshumot in Israel. IZL -- See Irgun Zvai Leumi. Jabotinsky, Vladimir (Ze'ev Yona) (1880-1940) -- Born in Odessa, Russia. Political leader; writer; journalist. Immigrated as a soldier in the Jewish Legion towards the end of World War I; jailed in 1920 by British authorities. Released in 1921, he joined the Zionist Executive in London. Died in U.S. in 1940. Founder of Betar movement; of New Zionist Organization (Zohar, the Revisionists). Considered ideologue and precursor of Herut. Jacob -- Son of Isaac. Biblical figure; forefather of the Jews. Jaffa -- Ancient port on the Mediterranean Coast, south of Tel Aviv. Part of the municipal area of Tel Aviv. Jaljulya -- Arab village in the Sharon Valley, 4 km. east of Kfar Saba. Jarjoura, Amin (b.1894) -- Member of Knesset. Jarrah (Sheikh) -- Arab quarter in the northeastern part of Jerusalem, astride the road to Mount Scopus. Scene of heavy fighting in 1948 and of the liquidation of a convoy of Jewish medical personnel in April 1948. Jebel Libneh -- Mountain in the northern part of the Sinai peninsula; site of battles in 1956 and 1967. Jenin -- Arab town on the border of Samaria and the valley of Esdraelon. Jericho -- Ancient city in Palestine north of the Dead Sea. Jerusalem -- City in the Judean mountains, selected by King David as capital of his united kingdom, ca.1000 BCE. Holy city of the three monotheistic religions; capital of Israel. Jewish Agency (for Palestine) -- Recognized under the Mandate as a public body for the purpose of advising and cooperating with the administration of Palestine in matters related to the establishment of the Jewish National Home. Until 1929 it was the World Zionist Organization which acted in that capacity; subsequently non-Zionists were also incorporated. In 1948 the functions of the Jewish Agency were taken over by the Israel government. In 1952 it was reconstituted with responsibility for immigration and absorption. Jezreel Valley -- Elongated, fertile valley between Galilee and Samaria. JNF -- Jewish National Fund. Johnston Plan -- Plan for distribution of the waters of the Jordan and its tributaries among Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Israel, formulated by Eric Johnston (1896-1963) at the request of President Eisenhower in 1953. Jordan -- River, 250 km. in length, running from north to south along the Syrian-African rift. Jordania -- Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Joseph, Dr. Bernard Dov (1889-1980) -- Born in Canada; came to Palestine in 1918 as soldier in Jewish Legion. Lawyer. Mapai. From 1936 Legal Adviser to the Jewish Agency. Military Governor of Jerusalem 1948-49. Member of First, Second and Third Knessets. Minister of Supply and Rationing 1949-50; subsequently Communications; Trade; Development. Minister of Justice 1961-65. Josiah (640-609 BCE) -- King of Judah. Judah -- Jacob's third son, forefather of the tribe of the same name. Judea Capta -- Name given to the province of Judea after its subjugation by the Romans in 70 AD. Kafr Qasem -- Large Arab village on the border of the Sharon Valley and Samaria, 8 km. northeast of Petah Tikva. Kahane, Kalman -- see Cahane. Kalkilya -- Arab town on the border of the Sharon and Samaria, about three km. east of Kfar Saba. Kaplan, Eliezer (1891-1952) -- Born in Minsk; immigrated 1923. Labor leader. Engineer. Treasurer of the Jewish Agency from 1933; Israel's first Minister of Finance, from 1948 until shortly before his death. Keren Hayessod (Palestine Foundation Fund) -- One of the major fund-raising and financial institutions of the World Zionist Organization; founded in London 1923. Kartiya -- Abandoned Arab village in the South, located near the Egyptian-occupied belt separating the Negev from the rest of Israel. Kasher (Kosher) -- Proper; food which complies with Jewish dietary laws; hence Kashrut. Kattowitz Conference -- Conference of Hovevei Zion (q.v.), held in Kattowitz in 1884. Katznelson, Dr. Abraham (1888-1956) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1924. Physician. Mapai. Member of the Provisional Council of State from Jerusalem. First Director General of the Ministry of Health. Kaukji, Fauzi el -- Arab military commander. Born in Tripoli, Lebanon. Graduate of Ottoman Military Academy. Commander of volunteer units from neighboring countries during Palestine riots 1936; Commander of Arab Liberation Army 1948. Kesse, Yona (1907-1985) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1926. Hapoel Hatzair and Mapai. Secretary General of Mapai in the early 1940s. Member of the Knesset 1949- . Kfar Saba -- Town in the south of the Sharon Valley, founded 1903. Kfar Szold -- Kibbutz northeast of the Hula Valley, founded 1942. Kfar Vitkin -- Moshav in the Sharon, 6 km. north of Netanya, founded 1930. Kinot -- Elegies, normally in a religious liturgical context. Kiryat Anavim -- Collective settlement in the Judean mountains, 10 km. west of Jerusalem. Founded 1920. Klausner, (Prof.) Josef (1884-1958) -- Born in Lithuania; immigrated 1919. Historian, editor and publicist. From ideological standpoint close to Revisionism, yet never officially member of the Revisionist party. Klivanov, Jacob (1887-1966) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1921. Lawyer. Member of the Second and Third Knessets for General Zionists. Knesset Record -- Record of Knesset Plenary Proceedings, equivalent of British Hansard. Kol (Kolodny), Moshe (1911-1989) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1932. Founder of Hanoar Hatzioni; Progressive party, which developed into Liberal party. Head of Youth Aliya (Immigration) Department of the Jewish Agency 1947-64. Member of Provisional Council of State; signed Declaration of Independence. Member of First to Eighth Knessets; Minister of Development and Tourism 1965; Minister of Tourism 1969-74. Kosoi (Kosoy), Yona -- See Kesse. Kulturkampf -- German: Conflict of Cultures, 1873-87. Conflict between the German government and the Roman Catholic Church. Applied to the potential conflict between the government of Israel and Jewish religious authorities. Kunteila -- Road junction in eastern Sinai, about 45 km. northwest of Eilat. Kuseima (El-Kuseima; Kuzeima) -- Oasis, road junction and Beduin settlement on the border between Sinai and the Negev, 25 km. southwest of Nitzana. Lake Success -- Resort in southeast of New York State; temporary headquarters of the United Nations 1946-1951. Lamm, Josef Michael (1899-1976) -- Born in Galicia; immigrated 1939. Lawyer. Labor Zionist leader in Austria. Detained in Dachau 1938-39. Organized immigrants from Central Europe. Member of the Knesset for Mapai. Judge. Landau, Haim (1916-1981) -- Born in Cracow; immigrated 1935. Engineer. Irgun Chief of Staff 1945-48. Member of First to Ninth Knessets for Herut. Active in Foreign Affairs and Defense. Minister of Development 1967-70; Transport 1977-81. Land Transfer Regulations -- Mandatory regulations limiting or prohibiting the transfer of land to Jews in most of Palestine. Lankin, Eliahu (1914-   ) -- Born in Russia; immigrated (from China) 1933. Member of Irgun. Detained in Eritrea 1944. Irgun Commander in Europe 1947. Commander of the Altalena (q.v.). Member of the First Knesset for Herut. Latrun Road -- Section of Jerusalem-Tel Aviv road passing beneath the Latrun monastery and police fortress. Lausanne (Conference) -- Israel-Arab Conference convened in the summer of 1939 by the UN Palestine Conciliation Commission. Lavon (Lubianiker), Pinchas (1904-1976) -- Born in Eastern Galicia; immigrated 1929. Lawyer. Founder of the Gordonia Youth Movement. Co-Secretary of Mapai 1938-39. Secretary General of the Histadrut 1949-51, 55-61. Minister of Agriculture 1950-52; Minister of Defense in Moshe Sharett government 1953-55, when he was replaced by Ben-Gurion. In 1961 raised the question of responsibility for the "Mishap," the activation of an underground cell in Egypt, known as the Lavon Affair. Forced to resign, he abandoned Mapai to found the "Min Hayesod" movement. Law and Administration Ordinance (1948) -- One of the first items of legislation adopted by the Provisional Council of State, regulating governmental processes, also known as the "Little Constituton." Law of Return -- Law permitting Jews anywhere to immigrate to Israel and become Israeli citizens; adopted in 1949. Lawrence, Thomas Edward (Lawrence of Arabia) (1888-1935) -- Born in Wales; British Intelligence officer, credited with guiding the Arab uprising against the Turkish government in the Hejaz in June 1916. Lehi -- Hebrew acronym of Lohamei Herut Israel, Fighters for the Freedom of Israel. Underground resistance group in pre-state Israel referred to as the Stern gang, after its founder Abraham (Yair) Stern. Was formed by breakaway Irgun members in 1940, in the aftermath of the Irgun decision to cease its attacks against the British administration for the duration of the war against Hitler. Lemberger, S. -- Member of the Knesset for Aguda. Levin, Isaac Meir (Rabbi) (1894-1971) -- Born in Poland; immigrated 1940. Head of Aguda in Israel and Chairman of World Aguda Executive. President of the Jewish community of Warsaw. Minister of Welfare in First Government 1949-51. Member of the Knesset until his death. Litvinov (Wallach), Maxim Maximovich (1876-1952) -- Soviet Foreign Commissar 1930-39; Ambassador to the U.S. 1941-43. Livneh (Liebenstein), Eliezer (1902-1975) -- Born in Lodz, Poland; immigrated 1920. Journalist. Ahdut Ha'Avoda, later Mapai. Secretary of Haifa Labor Council 1923; Editor of Hagana clandestine weekly 1942-47. Member of Knesset for Mapai 1949-55. Criticized for building a "villa," deemed unworthy of a Labor leader, left the party. After Six Day War of 1967 one of the founders of Greater Israel Movement. Lod (Lud; Lydda) -- Town on the border between the Shefela and the coastal plain. Mentioned in the Bible as part of the territory of Benjamin. Major Jewish center of learning after the fall of Jerusalem (70 AD). Under British Mandate, regional center and railway junction. Captured by IDF in July 1948. Lod Airport -- International airport of Palestine and subsequently Israel, named after nearby town. Today Ben-Gurion Airport. Lowenstein, Meir David (b.1901) -- Merchant and importer. Aguda leader. Member of Provisional Council of State and of First Knesset. Lubyanka -- KGB headquarters and prison in Moscow, associated with torture and terror. Lulav -- Palm branch used for liturgical purposes during the Feast of Sukkot (Tabernacles). Luria (Lurie), Zvi (1906-1968) -- Born in Poland; immigrated 1925. Hashomer Hatzair; subsequently Mapam. One of the founders of Kibbutz Ein Shemer and leader of Kibbutz Artzi -- the kibbutz movement linked with Hashomer Hatzair. Member of Va'ad Leumi, National Committee of Palestine Jewry; of the People's Directorate; of Provisional Council of State. Subsequently Member of Jewish Agency Executive, with seat in New York. Luz (Luzinsky), Kadish (1895-1972) -- Born in Bobruisk, Russia; immigrated 1920. Co-founder of Deganya B in the Jordan Valley. Secretary General of Hever Hakevutzot (Organization of Kevutzot, small collective settlements). Member of Knesset for Mapai 1951-69; Minister of Agriculture 1955-59; Speaker of the Knesset 1959-69, in later years elected unanimously. Ma'abarot -- (literally: transit camps.) Temporary, makeshift settlements established in the early 1950s to house massive immigration, consisting of tents, barracks made of wood, asbestos, or corrugated iron. Some survived for decades, constituting a social, ecological, economic and ultimately a political problem. Machpela (Cave of) -- Cave in Hebron, identified as the burial place of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob; sacred for Jews and Muslims. Magen David (Shield of David) -- Six-cornered star; Jewish symbol incorporated into the flag of the Zionist movement and subsequently that of Israel. Sometimes used as abbreviation for Magen David Adom (Red Magen David), Israel equivalent of Red Cross. Maimon (Rabbi) -- See Fishman. Maimonides (Rambam-Moses ben Maimon) (1135-1204) -- Rabbi, physician, philosopher. Born in Cordova, Spain; died in Cairo. Codified Jewish law; provided spiritual guidance to the perplexed. Foremost religious leader and thinker. Majdal (literally: tower, in Arabic) -- Normally refers to Arab town abandoned in 1948, near which Migdal Ashkelon was established in the 1950s. Maidanek (Majdanek) -- Near Lublin, Poland. Major German concentration and extermination camp (1942-45) in which about 360,000 persons, mostly Jews, perished through "gradual annihilation" or immediate extermination. Maki (Acronym for Israel Communist Party) -- Established in 1948 through merger of several groups, both Jewish and Arab. Recognized the new state, its flag and anthem; denied bond between Israel and diaspora; insisted on Arab right to establish state in territory allotted under UN Partition Resolution. In elections from 1949 to 1965 gained 3-6 seats out of 120. In 1965 split between primarily Jewish group inclining to Zionist views and opposing Soviet all-out anti-Israel stance, which retained the name "Maki," and the remainder of the party, consisting primarily of Israel Arabs: Rakach (Acronym for New Communist List). In 1965 and 1969 Maki gained one seat; in 1973 it merged with Moked. Malaya -- Former British Crown Colony in the southern part of the Malay Peninsula; population mostly Moslem; since 1963 part of the Federation of Malaysia. Manara -- Kibbutz in Upper Galilee, near the Lebanese border, 2 km. west of Kiryat Shmona. Manasseh -- In the Bible, younger son of Josef; also applied to the area allotted to that tribe: partly in the Carmel, partly in Transjordan. Mandate -- Instrument created by the League of Nations in 1919 under which "advanced nations" could be entrusted with the administration of territories, formerly controlled by Germany or Turkey, "inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world." Palestine came under a British Mandate in 1920 with the responsibility for giving effect to the Balfour Declaration in favor of the "Establishment of a National Home for the Jewish people in Palestine." Mandatory Government -- The British government administering Palestine and Transjordan under the Mandate (q.v.). Mandelbaum House -- House in Jerusalem which under the Armistice Agreement of 1949 remained in no-man's land, on the border between Israel-controlled and Jordan-controlled territory; near it was the Mandelbaum Gate, the only authorized entry point from the one to the other. The meetings of the Mixed Armistice Agreements took place nearby. Ma'oz Haim -- Kibbutz in the Beit Shean Valley, 5 km. to the east of the city of Beit Shean (Beisan). Mao Tse Tung (1893-1976) -- Leader and a founder of Chinese Communist Party; first Chairman of Chinese People's Republic. Mapai (Acronym for Mifleget Poalei Eretz Israel-the Party of Eretz Israel Workers) -- Socialist Zionist party. Founded upon the merger of Achdut Ha'Avoda and Hapoel Hatzair in 1930, it constituted the the central and dominant political force in the Labor movement, in the Yishuv of Palestine, in the Zionist movement and later in the State of Israel. In 1965 joined with the reconstituted Achdut Ha'Avoda-Poalei Zion to form the first Alignment, which in 1968 merged with Rafi to form the Israel Labor party. As long as Mapai existed, all the Prime Ministers, all Presidents but one, all Knesset Speakers but one, all Secetaries General of the Histadrut belonged to that party. Mapam (Acronym for Mifleget Poalim Meuhedet-United Workers' party) -- Zionist Socialist party formed in 1948, through merger of Hashomer Hatzair and Achdut Ha'Avoda (q.v.). In the early years followed a pro-Moscow policy, which it disavowed after Stalin's death. For many years a partner of Mapai in the Knesset and government, it advocated a more Marxist socio-economic program; greater neutrality in foreign policy; greater restraint in defense; a more forthcoming attitude to Palestine Arab demands. Mareshah (Tel) -- Ancient settlement in the Shefela, 2.5 km. south of Beit Govrin. Marlin, Shmuel (1910-   ) -- Born in Kishinev; Secretary of Revisionist Party Executive 1933-38. During World War II cooperated with Hillel Cook (q.v.) in the U.S. Immigrated 1948. Member of the First Knesset for Herut. Marshall, George C. (1880-1959) -- American Army officer and statesman. Chief of Staff 1939-45; Secretary of State 1947-49, during which time initiated the Marshall Plan for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Secretary of Defense 1950-51. Massada -- Ruins of castle overlooking the Dead Sea. Founded by the Hasmoneans and fortified by Herod, it was held by Jewish Zealots from 66 to 73 CE, three years after the fall of Jerusalem. They preferred suicide to surrender, and thus became a symbol in Jewish history. Mazor, Eliahu (1889-1973) -- Born in Poland; immigrated 1940. President, Jewish community of Warsaw 1933-38. Industrialist. Member of First Knesset for Religious Front (Agudat Israel). Megiddo -- Kibbutz in the west of Esdraelon Valley; near ancient Tel, remains of one of the earliest and most important fortified towns in the country, located at the mouth of the Valley of Iron (Wadi Ara), at a junction of the Via Maris linking Egypt with Syria and Mesopotamia. Megillat Hamedina -- Name proposed but not used for the Official Gazette of the newly established State of Israel. Mekor Haim -- (literally: source of life) -- Jewish quarter in the southwest of Jerusalem; originally an agricultural settlement. Surrounded by Arab quarters, it was isolated during several months at the beginning of 1948 until relieved in the course of a Hagana operation at the end of April of that year. Menora (literally: candelabrum) -- The seven-branched candelabrum used in the Temple of Jerusalem, symbolically included in the official emblem of the State of Israel. Meridor, Ya'acov (1913-   ) -- Born in Poland; immigrated "illegally" in 1932 through Lebanese border. Commander of the Irgun 1941-43. Member of the First, Third, Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Knessets for Herut. After years of intensive economic activity, elected to the Tenth Knesset in 1981; Minister of Development in the first Begin government 1977-81. Meteor -- French-made fighter plane, utilized by Israel Air Force from 1955. Metulla -- Rural settlement in Upper Galilee, on the border with Lebanon, at the northern tip of the finger of Galilee, founded in 1896 by immigrants from Russia. Mevo Betar -- Cooperative moshav, smallholder settlement, 10 km. southwest of Jerusalem; established 1950 by Herut. Meyerson (Meir), Golda (1898-1978) -- Born in Russia; educated in the U.S.; immigrated 1921. Labor leader; fourth Prime Minister of Israel. Active in the Histadrut; Secretary Women Workers' Council 1928; Head of Histadrut Political Department 1936. In 1946 appointed acting Head of Jewish Agency Political Department when Sharett (Shertok) (q.v.) detained by British authorities. Met, in vain, with King Abdullah of Jordan to achieve an agreement. First Israel Ambassador to Moscow 1948. Member of the Knesset 1949-74. Minister of Labor 1949-56; of Foreign Affairs 1956-66. In 1966 appointed Secretary General of Mapai. Upon the death of Levi Eshkol in 1969 was elected Prime Minister. Although Mapai retained a reduced plurality in the Knesset in elections of 1974, and even though the Commission of Inquiry did not find her personally responsible for the surprise at the beginning of the Yom Kippur War, she resigned from the government and from the Knesset in the wake of that war in 1974. Migs -- Soviet-made fighter planes, used increasingly by Arab air forces from 1955 onwards, upgraded over the years from the MiG-15 to the MiG-23 model. Michoels, S. -- Soviet Jewish writer. Active in the Anti-Fascist Committee during World War II, was accused of cosmopolitanism and executed in 1953. Mikunis, Shmuel (1903-1982) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1921. Actor and co-founder of the Haohel Theater. Trained as an engineer in France. From 1939 Secretary General and leader of the Palestine Communist party; retained that position after most Arab members abandoned the party in 1943. Member of the People's Council, and the Provisional Council of State in 1948. Member of the Knesset from First to Sixth Knessets, heading the Israel Communist List. Mindszenty, Josef (Cardinal) (1892-1975) -- Catholic Primate of Hungary. Imprisoned for anti-German activities during World War II. Opposed Communist regime in Hungary; arrested on charges of treason 1948. Released in October 1956, took refuge in the American Embassy; ultimately permitted to emigrate to Austria. Mintz, Benjamin (1903-1961) -- Born in Lodz, Poland; immigrated 1925. One of the founders of Poalei Agudat Israel (q.v.), and its leader for many years. Member of the Provisional Council of State. Member of the First to the Fourth Knessets. Deputy Speaker. Joined government as Minister of Posts in 1960, against strong opposition and violent, often very personal, attacks. Mishmar Haemek -- Kibbutz in the west of the Esdraelon Valley, 6 km. northwest of Megiddo junction. Founded 1936. Scene of heavy fighting in April 1948. Mishmar Hayarden -- Rural settlement in Upper Galilee, on the West Bank of the Jordan River, near the Bridge of the Daughters of Jacob. Founded 1890. Captured by Syrians in 1948. Reestablished in 1949, in demilitarized zone. Mitle -- Strategic mountain pass in the western part of the Sinai Peninsula. Mizrachi -- See Hamizrachi. Moab -- Ancient nation in hilly region east of Dead Sea, sporadically at war with the Hebrews. Moetzet Hamedina -- Hebrew for (Provisional) Council of State. Morgenthau, Henry Jr. (1891-1967) -- U.S. Secretary of Treasury 1934-45; Author of plan for converting German economy after World War II. Initiated War Refugee Board to rescue victims of Nazi oppression. Opposed U.S. arms embargo against Israel. General Chairman of the United Jewish Appeal 1947-50; Honorary Chairman 1950-53. Morrison Grady Plan (Cantonization Plan) -- British proposal for a solution of the Palestine problem, presented by Herbert Morrison in July 1946, calling for federalization under overall British Trusteeship. Moses -- Lawgiver of Israel; the leader who led his people out of bondage in Egypt to the Promised Land of Canaan. Mosque of Omar -- Erroneous name for the Dome of the Rock, on the site of the ancient Jewish Temple in Jerusalem. According to both Jewish and Muslim tradition it was here that Abraham prepared to sacrifice his son. Present structure established after Muslim conquest of Jerusalem in 638; converted successively into a basilica and again a Muslim holy site. Motza -- Jewish settlement 5 km. west of Jerusalem, on the Tel Aviv highway. Founded 1860. Scene of masscare of Jews by Arabs in 1929, and of heavy fighting in 1948. Mount of Olives -- East of the Old City of Jerusalem; site of major Jewish cemetery whose beginning dates back to ancient times. In Christian tradition Gethsemane is located on its slope. Mount Scopus -- Northeast of Jerusalem, on continuation of Mount of Olives ridge. Traditionally observation point of attacking Roman legions in 70 AD. After World War I, the Hebrew University was established there. Remained behind Arab Legion lines until after the War of 1948. Mufti (of Jerusalem) -- See Haj Amin el Husseini. Munich -- Capital of Bavaria. Site of Hitler's party headquarters. Scene of Munich Pact (September 1938), signed by Germany, Italy, Great Britain and France, permitting Grmany to occupy the Czech Sudetenland. Neville Chamberlain, British Prime Minister proclaimed that the Pact had brought his countrymen "peace in our times"; it is generally considered as nadir of European and especially British appeasement of Hitler. Myerson, Golda -- See Meyerson. Mystere -- Advanced French-made fighter plane, delivered to Israel in the 1950s; characterized by its high ceiling and radius of action. Nablus (Neapolis) -- Large Arab town north of Jerusalem, near the site of the Hebrew city of Shechem. Built by Emperor Hadrian in the second century AD. Nahal -- IDF formation, whose soldiers combine military training and operations with agricultural work. Responsible for the initial stage of establishment of many new rural settlements. Namir (Nemirovsky), Mordechai (1897-1975) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1924. Secretary of Achdut Ha'Avoda 1926-29; later Mapai. Member of First to Sixth Knessets 1951-69. Secretary General of Histadrut 1951-56; Minister of Labor and Housing 1956-59. Mayor of Tel Aviv 1959-69. Naphtali, Peretz (Fritz) (1888-1961) -- Born in Berlin; immigrated 1933. Active in German Socialist party; Chairman of German League for Labor Palestine. Economist. Represented Mapai in the first three Knessets. Minister without portfolio 1951-52; Minister of Agriculture 1952-55; Minister of Social Welfare 1959, when he retired from government and Knesset because of ill health. Nazareth -- Arab town in Lower Galilee; sacred to Christianity as site of Jesus' childhood and annunciation. Nebi Daniel -- Site sacred for Muslims in Judean mountains, 6 km. southwest of Bethlehem, near Hebron Road. Scene of heavy battle between Jewish convoy and Arabs in March 1948, culminating in the surrender of the convoy defenders. Nebo -- Mountain in Transjordan from which Moses saw the Holy Land; adopted name of an IDF officer in 1948. Nebuchadnezzar -- King of Babylonia (605-562 BCE). In 597 BCE he quelled revolt of Judea and set Zedekiah on throne. In 586 BCE he destroyed the First Temple in Jerusalem and took king and notables captive, thus beginning the Captivity. Necho (Pharaoh) -- King of Egypt (609-593 BCE), of 16th Dynasty. After fall of Nineveh in 612 BCE, he took Palestine and Syria after battle of Megiddo. Negba -- Kibbutz in the southern coastal plain, 12 km. east of Ashkelon. Founded 1939. Site of heavy battle in 1948 when Egyptian troops tried repeatedly to subdue it in the effort to open the road to the north. Negev -- Southernmost and largest region in Israel, mostly arid, comprising about one-half of the country. Nes Ziona -- Town, formerly village, in the center of the coastal plain; founded in 1883. In 1948 headquarters of the southern front. Netanya -- Coastal town in the Sharon, named after philanthropist Nathan Strauss. Founded 1928. Nir (Rafalkes), Nahum (1884-1968) -- Born in Warsaw; immigrated 1925. Lawyer. Member of Provisional Council of State. Member of the First, Third, Fourth and Fifth Knessets representing first Mapam and later Achdut Ha'Avoda. Deputy Speaker throughout, he served briefly as Speaker (1959) owing to rare joining of forces of opposition parties at both ends of the House. Nirim -- Kibbutz in the western Negev, founded 1946. Attacked and nearly destroyed by Egyptian invading forces in 1948. Nisanov, Ezekiel (1886-1911) -- Born in Caucasian Mountains; immigrated 1905. Co-founder of Bar Giora and Hashomer, Jewish clandestine self-defense organizations. Nitzana (Auja el-Hafir) -- Oasis near the Negev-Sinai border; administrative center under Ottoman and British rule. Captured by IDF in December 1948. Demilitarized under Israel-Egypt Armistice Agreement; seat of the Mixed Armistice Commission until 1956. NKVD -- Soviet secret police; forerunner of the KGB. Nordau, Max (1849-1923) -- Born in Hungary; died in Paris. Author, physician and Zionist leader. One of the earliest and most effective supporters of Theodor Herzl. Nukrashi (Pasha) (1888-1948) -- Prime Minister of Egypt 1945-1948. Outlawed Moslem Brotherhood; assassinated by one of its members in December 1948. Nurock, (Rabbi) Mordechai (1884-1962) -- Born in Latvia; immigrated 1947. Leader of Latvian Jewry; for a while Prime Minister of Latvia. Member of the Knesset 1949-62, representing Mizrachi (United Religious Front); beginning in 1952 served for some time as Minister of Posts. The Observer -- British daily newspaper. Og -- King of Bashan; giant, conquered by Israelites. Olmert, Mordechai (1911- ) -- Born in Russia; immigrated via China 1933. Head of Settlement Department of the Herut movement. Member of the Third and Fourth Knessets. Omar (581-644) -- Second Caliph; converted to Islam in 618, in his reign Islam became an imperial power. Oren, Mordechai (1905- ) -- Born in Galicia; immigrated 1929. Left wing Mapam leader. Detained and condemned by Czechoslovak authorities. His trial had major impact on pro-Soviet orientation of Mapam. Orenstein, Mordechai -- See Oren. ORT (Organization for Rehabilitation through Training) -- Jewish vocational training agency, founded in Russia 1880, for purpose of ameliorating condition of Jewish masses through modern vocational training. Eventually established branches in Israel (1949); in many European, North African and Asian, and more recently Latin American countries. Although dedicated primarily to Jews, has been active also among the general population. Palmach (Hebrew acronym for shock troops) -- Hagana formation, established in 1941 to prepare for the eventuality of British evacuation of Palestine under Axis military pressure. Based on full-time service, dedicated partly to agricultural work, hence its emblem: two ears of wheat and a sword. Subsequently served as the reserve force at the disposal of the Hagana High Command; also comprised specialized units, including nuclei of clandestine Air Force and Navy. During War of Independence consisted of three brigades involved in some of the heaviest fighting. Its headquarters dissolved in October 1948, by order of Ben-Gurion. Partition Plan -- Plan for the partition of Palestine, adopted by the General Assembly of the UN on 29 November 1947. Pasha (Glubb) -- See Glubb Pasha. Passfield (Lord) (former Sidney Webb) -- British Colonial Secretary. In the wake of the Arab riots of 1929, and pursuant to the Hope-Simpson Report which concluded that the economic absorptive capaacity of Palestine had been exhausted, issued White Paper, reinterpreting Balfour Declaration and drastically arresting the development of the Jewish National Home. Peel Commission -- Royal commission appointed by British government in May 1936 under the chairmanship of Viscount Peel. The majority recommended the partition of Palestine into Arab and Jewish states, with Jerusalem and a corridor leading to it remaining under British rule. The Jewish state was to comprise all of Galilee, the Valley of Esdraelon, and part of the coastal plain; altogether 1,000 sq. mi. (2,500 sq. km.). People's Council -- Representative Assembly established in Palestine in May 1948, comprising 37 members drawn from Jewish Agency and from National Committee; upon the declaration of independence became Provisional Council of State. Peri, Eliezer (1902-1970) -- Born in Galicia; immigrated 1926. Co-founder of Kibbutz Merhavia. Mapam representative in First and Second Knessets; abandoned the party following the establishment of the Alignment between Mapam and Israel Labor party. Persitz, Shoshana (1893-1969) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1925. Publisher, educator. Member of Tel Aviv Municipality. Member of the First to Third Knessets representing General Zionists; chairperson of Education and Culture Committee. Petah Tikva -- City in the central coastal plain, 10 km. east of Tel Aviv. Founded 1878 as first Jewish agricultural settlement in modern times. City since 1937. Petlyura -- Ukrainian nationalist leader, responsible for widespread atrocities against Jews in the aftermath of Russia's defeat in World War I. Pharaoh Necho -- See Necho. Pinkas, David Zvi (1895-1952) -- Born in Hungary; immigrated 1925. Mizrachi. Member of Provisional Council of State and of the First and Second Knessets. Chairman of Finance Committee. In 1952 Minister of Communications. Pisga (literally: peak) -- Mountain east of the Jordan. PKP (Hebrew acronym for Palestine Communist party) -- See Maki. Plehve, Vyacheslav K. (1864-1904) -- Russian Minister of Interior; responsible for repressive and anti-Semetic policies; met with Herzl to discuss Zionist solution for Jewish problem. Poalei Agudat Israel -- Aguda (q.v.) Workers' Organization, set up in Poland in 1922; initiated activities in Palestine in 1925. While identified with Aguda on religious matters, advocates cooperation with secular workers' organization and service in the IDF. In most elections ran on joint list with Aguda. In 1960 joined Coalition against the advice of the Aguda Council of Sages. Poalei Zion -- Hebrew for Workers of Zion. Jewish Socialist-Nationalist Workers' party which first emerged in 1901 when widespread associations of Zionist workers met in Minsk. After several splits and mergers with other parties, joined with others to set up Mapai in 1930. Port Said -- Port in Egypt, on the Mediterranean, at the northern entrance of the Suez Canal, founded 1859. Pogromchik (Russian) -- Participant in attack on Jews. Praesidium (of the Knesset) -- Knesset body comprising the Speaker and his deputies. Procopius (d.562) -- Byzantine historian. Progressives -- Political party in Israel, established in October 1948 through unification of Haoved Hatzioni, Aliya Hadasha and the Union of General Zionists (A) (q.v.). Provisional Council of State -- Legislature of Israel from 14 May 1948 to 14 February 1949. Provisional Government (Cabinet) -- Government of the State of Israel from 14 May 1948 to 7 March 1949. Raab (Family) -- Co-founders of Petah Tikva (q.v.). Rachel's Tomb -- Tomb of Jacob's favorite wife, near Bethlehem. R.A.F. -- Royal Air Force. Rafael, Yitzhak (1914-   ) -- Born in Poland, immigrated 1935. Hapoel Hamizrachi, Mafdal (National Religious Party). Head of Jewish Agency Immigration Department 1948-54; member of the Second to the Eighth Knessets. Deputy Minister of Health 1961-65; Minister of Religious Affairs 1974-77. Rafah (Rafiach) -- Arab town in the south of the Gaza Strip, astride the Egyptian border. Ramallah -- Arab town in the northern Judean mountains, 13 km. north of Jerusalem. Ramat Rachel -- Kibbutz in the south of Jerusalem; founded 1926. Destroyed by Arab attackers in 1929; suffered during the riots of 1936-39; captured by Egyptian irregular troops and destroyed, subsequently recaptured, in 1948; rebuilt in 1952. Ramle -- Town on the border of the Shefela and the coastal plain; established in 717 as the center of Muslim rule. Ras al-Nakab -- Promontary, 10 km. northwest of Eilat (q.v.). Ras Natzrani -- Bulge on the coast of the Gulf of Eilat, opposite the island of Tiran; Egyptian stronghold from which navigation in the Tiran Straits was interdicted. Rathenau, Walter (1867-1922) -- German Jewish industrialist and statesman; Minister of Reconstruction 1921, and Foreign Minister 1922. Assassinated by German nationalists. Raziel-Na'or, Esther (1911-  ) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1923. Active in IZL. Member of First to Eighth Knessets. Recanati, Abraham (1888-1980) -- Born in Saloniki, Greece; immigrated 1934. Active in Revisionist movement. Member of First Knesset, Herut. Rehavia -- Jewish quarter in west Jerusalem, founded 1921. Rehoboam (King) (932-914 BCE) -- Son of Solomon; under him the northern tribes revolted and formed the new Kingdom of Israel. Reilly (General) -- American soldier, head of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization in Palestine. Remez, Aharon (1919-   ) -- Born in Palestine; first Commander of the Israel Air Force. Member of the Third Knesset. Remez, David (1886-1951) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1913. Achdut Ha'Avoda, subsequently Mapai. Secretary General of the Histadrut 1935-45; first Minister of Transportation; subsequently Minister of Education. Repetor, Berl (1902-1989) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1920. Achdut Ha'Avoda, later Mapai, then Mapam. Active in Histadrut. Member of the Provisional Council of State and of the First Knesset for Mapam. Revivim -- Kibbutz in the northern Negev, 25 km. south of Beersheba; established 1943. Rhee, Singman (b.1875) -- President of the Republic of (South) Korea 1948-60. Rhodes Lines -- Armistice lines established by the Armistice Agreements signed on the island of Rhodes in 1949. Ribbentrop, Joachim von -- German Foreign Minister under Hitler 1938-45. Riftin, Ya'akov (1907-1978) -- Born in Poland; immigrated 1929. Hashomer Hatzair and Mapam. Member of the Knesset 1949-65. Upon the establishment of the Alignment with the Labor party left Mapam and established Independent Zionist left-wing party, which failed in Histadrut elections. Rimalt, Dr. Elimelech (1907-1987) -- Born in Galicia; immigrated 1939. Educator. General Zionist. Member of the Knesset 1951-77. Chairman of the Education and Culture Committee, active in promoting educational reform. Minister of Posts 1969. Ringelblum, Dr. Emanuel (1900-1944) -- Born in Galicia. Educator, historian. Poalei Zion leader and an organizer of the Warsaw Ghetto revolt. Killed by Gestapo. Rishon Lezion -- Town in central coastal plain, 8 km. south of Tel Aviv, founded 1882. Rude Pravo -- Czech daily newspaper; official organ of Czech Communist party. Rokach, Israel (1889-1959) -- Born in Jaffa. Electrical engineer. General Zionist. Mayor of Tel Aviv 1936-53. Member of First to Third Knessets. Minister of Interior 1953-55. Deputy Speaker 1957-59. Rosen (Rosenblueth), Pinhas (Felix) (1887-1978) -- Born in Germany; immigrated 1931. Lawyer. President of German Zionist Organization. Leader of Progressive party, subsequently Liberal, ultimately Independent Liberal Party (q.v.). Member of the First to the Sixth Knessets. First Minister of Justice. Rosenberg, Ethel and Julius -- Condemned to death for conspiring to transmit atomic secrets to the USSR during World War II; executed June 1953. Rosh Ha'ayin -- Urban settlement, 4 km. east of Petah Tikva, established in 1950. Rosh Hanikra -- Promontory on the Mediterranean, on the border between Israel and Lebanon. Rothschild, (Baron) Edmond de (1845-1934) -- Banker, philanthropist, patron of scientific and cultural projects and supporter of settlement projects in Palestine. Rubin, Reuven (b.1893) -- Born in Rumania; immigrated 1912. One of Israel's foremost painters. Israel's first Ambassador to Romania. Rubin, Dr. Hanan (1908-1962) -- Born in Germany; immigrated 1933. Hashomer Hatzair, then Mapam. Member of the First to the Fifth Knessets. Rutenberg, Pinchas (1879-1942) -- Born in Ukraine; immigrated 1919. Electrical engineer. Participated in aborted attempt at revolution in Russia 1905. Active in Jewish self-defense; commander of Tel Aviv during riots of 1921. In the same year obtained concession for utilization of kinetic energy of the Yarmuk-Jordan catchment area. Founder of Palestine Electrical Corporation 1923. Maintained close contact with Emir Abdullah. Safed -- City in Upper Galilee; one of the three main Crusader fortresses. In the sixteenth century, center of Jewish mysticism (Kabala). Its Jewish quarter was attacked by Arabs in 1929, and again in 1936. Besieged at the beginning of the War of 1948, it was relieved by the Palmach, in an operation which resulted in the capture of the Arab parts of the city. Sa'id Nuri (1888-1958) -- Iraqi officer and statesman. Trained in Turkish Military Academy, joined Arab revolt under Faisal 1916; first chief of staff of Iraqi Army 1921. From 1930 served 14 times as Prime Minister. Negotiated treaty with Great Britain ending the British Mandate and establishing Iraqi independence. Conceived the Fertile Crescent concept calling for the unification of Syria, Iraq, Transjordan and Palestine under Hashemite rule, with a measure of autonomy for Palestine Jews. Autocrat; anti-Communist; assassinated in the course of the 1958 revolt which brought Hashemite rule in Iraq to an end. Salame -- Arab village, on the eastern outskirts of Tel Aviv. Served as base for attacks against the city in 1947-48; subsequently abandoned. Samaria -- Northern section of the central highlands of Palestine, named after the city of Samaria (Shomron, later Sebastia), capital of the biblical Kingdom of Israel. From 1949 to 1967 mostly in Jordanian territory; in the wake of the Six Day War came under Israel military government. Samuel, Herbert (Sir, later Viscount) (1870-1963) -- Leader of British Liberal party; first Jewish member of British Cabinet. First British High Commissioner for Palestine 1920-25. During World War I contributed to the formulation of Balfour Declaration. As High Commissioner laid foundations of Mandatory administrative system. Appointed Haj Amin al-Husseini (q.v.) as Mufti of Jerusalem. During his tenure the quota system for Jewish immigrants, based on the economic absorptive capacity of the country, was introduced by the Mandatory government. Sanhedrin (Hagedola, the Great) -- Supreme Jewish juridical and legislative body in Jerusalem, during the period of the Second Temple; perished with the destruction of the Temple. Sapir, Josef (1902-1972) -- Born in Jaffa. Agronomist. Active in Farmers' Union, leader of Jewish Citrus Growers. Leader of the "bourgois" center-right, and their representative on Hagana High Command. Mayor of Petah Tikva 1940-51; Member of the Knesset for General Zionists, later Gahal, from 1949 until his death. Minister of Transport 1952-55; Minister without portfolio 1967-70. Sapir (Koslowsky), Pinchas (1909-1975) -- Born in Poland; immigrated 1929. Mapai. Active in Mekorot (water company). Director General of Ministry of Defense 1948-53; of Finance 1953-55. Minister of Commerce and Industry 1955-64; of Finance 1964-74. Sarafand (Zerifin) -- Major British, subsequently IDF military base in the coastal plain, 3 km. northeast of Ramle. Saris (Shoresh) -- Arab village about 19 km. east of Jerusalem, astride the Jerusalem-Tel Aviv road. Base for several attacks against Jewish convoys to the besieged city; captured by Hagana in May 1948. Cooperative Jewish settlement since end of that year. Saud (Ibn Abdel Aziz) (1901-1969) -- King of Saudi Arabia, following his father's death, from 1953 until his ouster and expulsion from the Kingdom in 1964. Scopus -- See Mount Scopus. Second Temple -- Temple built in Jerusalem at the end of the fifth century BCE by exiles returned from Babylon; enlarged by Maccabees in the second century BCE; rebuilt completely by Herod at the beginning of the Common Era; destroyed by Romans following the capture of Jerusalem in 70 CE. Sefer Torah -- Scroll containing the handwritten Hebrew text of the five books of Moses, the Pentateuch, used by Jews for liturgucal purposes. Sejera (Ilania) -- Cooperative village in Lower Galilee, near vital road junction. Founded 1899 as an agricultural estate; served as transit station for many young immigrants, including David Ben-Gurion, and birthplace of Hashomer (q.v.). In 1948 site of heavy fighting with Arab Liberation Army, which attempted to isolate Galilee from the rest of the country. Sephardim -- Descendants of Jews expelled from Spain and Portugal at the end of the fifteenth century. Serlin, Joseph (1906-1974) -- Born in Bialistok, Poland; immigrated 1933. Lawyer. General Zionist, then Liberal. Member of the Knesset 1949-74. Deputy Speaker of Second, Fifth and Sixth Knessets. Minister of Health 1952-55. Seventh Brigade -- Armored infantry brigade, established in May 1948, to serve as strategic reserve; involved soon afterwards in heavy fighting against the Arab Legion (q.v.) for the road to Jerusalem. Sha'ag (Zwebner), Abraham Chaim (Rabbi) (1883-1958) -- Born in Jerusalem. Co-founder of Mizrachi in Palestine. Member of National Committee of Palestine Jewry, active in social welfare. Member of First Knesset, National Religious Front. Sha'ar Hagai (Bab el-Wad) -- Entrance from the Shefela going up the Judean mountains to Jerusalem. Sha'ar Hagolan -- Kibbutz in the Jordan Valley, about 2 km. southeast of the Zemach junction. Shapira, Moshe (Chaim) (1902-1970) -- Born in Grodno, Russia; immigrated 1926. Leader of Hapoel Hamizrachi; subsequently President of National Religious Party, established in 1956. Deputy member, later member of the Executive of the Jewish Agency from 1935 to 1948, responsible for immigration. Minister of Immigration and Health in Provisional Government. Member of the Knesset 1949-70. Member of Cabinet almost continuously, holding at various times the portfolios of Minister of Interior, Social Welfare, and Religious Affairs. Sharef, Ze'ev (1906-1984) -- Born in Romania; immigrated 1925. Secretary of the Cabinet 1948-57; Director General, Prime Minister's Office 1957-59; Member of the Knesset 1965-74; Minister of Commerce and Industry 1966; concurrently Minister of Finance as of 1968; Minister of Housing 1969-74. Sharett (Shertok), Moshe (1894-1965) -- Born in Kherson, Russia; immigrated 1906. Mapai. Studied law in Constantinople, served briefly in Turkish Army 1915; after World War I continued his studies in London. Head of Political Department of the Jewish Agency 1933-48. Member of the Provisional Council of State. Member of the Knesset 1949-65. First Foreign Minister of Israel 1948-56. Prime Minister 1953-55. Resigned following disagreements with Ben-Gurion. Chairman of the Jewish Agency Executive 1961-65. Sharm el-Sheikh (Ophira) -- Southern tip of the Sinai Peninsula, controlling the Straits of Tiran. From 1971 to 1982 site of urban Jewish settlement. Shattner, Mordechai (1904-1964) -- Born in Galicia; immigrated 1924. Mapai. Member of Kibbutz Ein Harod. Active in Va'ad Leumi. Shazar (Robashov), Zalman (1889-1974) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1924. Third President of Israel. Poalei Zion; Achdut Ha'Avoda; later Mapai. Historian and journalist. Subeditor, later editor of Davar. Member of the Knesset 1949-59; Minister of Education and Culture 1949-50; President 1963-73. Shechem (Nablus) -- Arab city in the Samarian mountains; settled continuously from Canaanite period. Sheffer, Ze'ev (1891-1964) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1913. Mapai. Member of Kibbutz Ayelet Hashachar. Member of the Hagana Command. Deputy Speaker of the Second Knesset. Sheikh Jarrah -- Arab quarter in northeast Jerusalem, astride the road to Mount Scopus; site of massacre of passengers of Jewish convoy in April 1948, and of heavy fighting thereafter, as well as in 1967. Shenhavi, Mordechai (1900-   ) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1919. Mapam. Member of Kibbutz Mishmar Haemek. Active in Development of kibbutz industry. Shertok, (Shertock) Moshe -- See Sharett. Shofman, Josef (1903-1978) -- Born in Warsaw, Poland; immigrated 1940. Lawyer, industrialist. Revisionist party; Herut. Member of the Knesset 1955-69; Ambassador to Venezuela 1970. Sheinkin, Menahem (1871-1924) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1906. Early Zionist leader. One of the founders of Tel Aviv. Shimoni, David (1886-1956) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1909. Hebrew poet. Shishak (Sheshonk I) -- Egyptian king of the 22nd Dynasty, died ca.924 BCE. Shitrit, Bekhor Shalom (1895-1967) -- Born in Tiberias. Mapai. Police officer under the British Mandate. Lawyer. Chief Magistrate of Tel Aviv 1945. Minister of Police and Minorities in Provisional Government. Member of the Knesset from 1949 until his death; Minister of Police 1948-66. Shofar -- Ram's horn used by Jews for liturgical purposes. Shostak, Eliezer (1911-  ) -- Born in Poland. Immigrated 1935. Herut; subsequently Merkaz Hofshi, La'am, Likud. Secretary General of National Workers' Union, linked with Revisionist party. Member of the Knesset since 1951. At various times Deputy Speaker. Minister of Health 1977-84. Shulhan Arukh -- Codification of Jewish law, completed in the sixteenth century by Rabbi Josef Karo of Safed. Sinai -- Peninsula and land bridge betweem Asia and Africa. Slansky, Rudolf -- Leader of Communist party and Vice Premier of Czechoslovakia; tried in 1952 for "Trotskyite, Titoist and Zionist" activities, found guilty and executed. Sneh (Kleinbaum), Moshe (1909-1972) -- Born in Radzyn, Poland; immigrated 1940. General Zionist, subsequently Mapam, ultimately Communist. Physician. Head of Hagana High Command, 1942-46. Director of Jewish Agency European Office 1946-47. Member of the Knesset 1949-65, and again from 1969 until his death, representing Mapam until the Prague Trials (see Slansky) in 1953; subsequently the Communist party; ultimately the New Communist Party (Maki; q.v.) which considered Israel's actions in the Six Day War as legitimate self-defense. Sobibor -- Major Nazi concentration and extermination camp in Poland 1942-45. Sodom -- Biblical city, at the southern end of the Dead Sea. Site of major mineral extraction plant. In 1948 isolated for over six months. Used figuratively as incarnation of evil, particularly parsimoniousness. Sokolov, Nahum (1859-1936) -- Early Zionist leader; founder and editor of the Zionist movement weekly 1907; President of the World Zionist Organization 1931-36. Solomon's Gulf -- see Eilat, Gulf of. Sprinzak, Joseph (1885-1959) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1910. Leader of the Hapoel Hatzair, moderate left wing politiical party; subsequently one of the founders and leaders of Mapai (q.v.). Chairman of the Zionist Action Committee. Secretary General of the Histadrut 1945-49. Speaker of the Provisional Council of State. First Speaker of the Knesset 1949-59. Largely responsible for the Knesset rules of procedure and conduct. Stamper, Joshua (1852-1908) -- Born in Hungary; immigrated 1869. Co-founder of Petah Tikva 1878. Stamper, Shlomo Yitzhak (1877-1961) -- Son of Joshua. Born in Jerusalem. Chairman of the Petah Tikva Local Council and its first Mayor. Star of David -- Six-cornered star; since Middle Ages a Jewish symbol used in synagogues and cemeteries; subsequently utilized in the distinctive badge, the yellow star, to differentiate between Jew and non-Jew. Constitutes part of the flag of the Zionist movement and the State of Israel. Sten gun -- Submachine gun developed in Great Britain during World War II for relatively cheap mass production; one of the first products of Israel's fledgeling arms industry. Sternberg, Benzion (1894-1962) -- Born in Bukovina (later Romania); leader of Revisionist party in Romania; immigrated 1940. Member of Provisional Council of State. Stuermer, Der -- Virulent anti-Semitic and pornographic weekly, published in Nuremberg, Germany from the early 1920s to 1945, by Julius Streicher, executed as war criminal following Nuremberg trial. Success (Lake) -- See Lake Success. Sudanese (Cushites in the Bible) -- Citizens of the Sudan; some participated in the War of 1948 in the ranks of the Egyptian Army. Sukenik, Elazar (Professor) (1889-1953) -- Born in Poland; immigrated 1912. Archeologist. In 1947 identified Dead Sea Scrolls and purchased some of them. Father of Yigael Yadin (q.v.). Sutzkever, Abraham (1913-   ) -- Born in Lithuania; immigrated 1947. Yiddish poet. During World War II active in the Vilna Ghetto; escaped and joined partisans. Tabib, Abraham (1889-1950) -- Born in Yemen; immigrated 1907. Active in Organization of Yemenites. Member of Va'ad Leumi, representing Yemenites, and from 1944 Mapai. Member of First Knesset. Tallit -- Prayer-shawl, made of white cloth with dark stripes, with tassels at the four corners, worn by Jews during prayer. Tamad (Bir) -- Oasis in western Sinai. Targum Yonatan -- Translation of the Bible into Aramaic. Tashah -- The year 5708 of the Hebrew calendar, coinciding mostly with 1948. Tel-al-Muteila -- Hill northwest of the Sea of Galilee, near the mouth of the Jordan River. In May 1951 site of bitter battle with Syrian forces trying to establish a foothold to the east of the river. Tel Aviv -- Coastal city in the center of Israel, founded in 1909. First Jewish city; name taken from the Hebrew translation of Theodor Herzl's utopian novel Altneuland. In 1950 merged with neighboring Jaffa. Templars -- Fundamentalist Protestant religious sect; took its name from a medieval monastic order active at the time of the Crusades. During the second half of the nineteenth century Templars from southern Germany immigrated to Palestine where they established a series of agricultural settlements and urban quarters. Temple Mount -- Site of the First and Second Temple in Jerusalem; since the Arab conquest of the city in the seventh century partly occupied by the Dome of the Rock and the Mosque of el-Azhar. Tewfik Toubi (1922-  ) -- Born in Haifa. One of the leaders of the National Liberation League-Palestine Arab Communist organization in the 1940s; joined Israel Communist party in August 1948. Member of the Knesset since its inception representing Israel Communist party, subsequently the New Communist List (Rakach); ultimately Hadash-Front for Democraecy and Peace. Member of World Peace Council. Publisher of Communist weekly. Tiberias (Lake of) -- See Sea of Galilee, also known as Kinneret or Lake of Galilee, after the main town on its shores. Tiran (Straits of) -- Waterway connecting the Red Sea with the Gulf of Eilat. Tirat Zvi -- Kibbutz in the Beisan Valley. Founded in 1937; named after Rabbi Zvi Kalisher, early proponent of religious Zionism. Scene of heavy fighting in 1938 and 1948. Titoists -- Followers of Josip Broz Tito, leader of Yugoslavia after the World War II; proponent of Marxism independent of the Soviet Union. Titus (ca.40-81 CE) -- Roman emperor who captured and destroyed Jerusalem 70 CE. Titus' Arch -- Erected in Rome by Titus' successor to commemmorate his triumph over the Jews. Tnuva -- Cooperative marketing organization for agricultural products sponsored by the Histadrut. Torah -- Hebrew name for the Pentateuch, the first five books of the Bible; also used to denote the sum total of Jewish religious teachings. Toubi, Tewfik -- See Tewfik Toubi. Transition Act -- One of the first laws adopted by the Provisional Council of State, to regulate the constitutional arrangements of the new state of Israel; also known as the "Little Constitution." Transjordan -- Area of Palestine east of the Jordan River. Triangle -- Heartland of Samaria, including the towns of Tulkarm, Kalkilya and Nablus. Trotskyites -- Followers of Leon Trotsky (1879-1940), Communist leader who advocated "permanent revolution," or "pure Communism." Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) -- Organization established by resolution of the United Nations Security Council, in May 1948, to supervise the truce in Palestine; subsequently charged with similar tasks concerning armistice, separation of forces and other arrangements. Its first chief was Count Bernadotte (q.v.). Tuchazevsky, Marshall -- Russian general during World War II. Tulkarm -- Arab town on the border between the Samarian mountains and the Sharon Valley, 14 km. east of Netanya. Tzemah -- Town at the southern tip of the Sea of Galilee; near junction of road coming from the south, following the Jordan River, and one following the circumference of the lake. UJA (United Jewish Appeal of America) -- Fund-raising arm of organized North American Jewry, for the development of the Jewish National Home in Palestine, later Israel, and the relief and reconstruction of distressed Jewish communities throughout the world. Um el Fahm -- Arab town, between Hadera and Afula, overlooking the Iron Valley. UN Emergency Force -- Military force established by the United Nations in November 1956, to facilitate and supervise the withdrawal of British, French and Israeli forces from Egypt; its firt chief was the Canadian General E.L.M. Burns. Ussishkin, Menahem (1863-1942) -- Born in Mogilev, Russia; immigrated 1919. Engineer. Active in Hovevei Zion (q.v.) from 1885, joined Zionist movement at its inception. Spokesman of Russian Zionists, participated in all Congresses. Leader of practical Zionists who emphasized importance of practical work in Palestine over political and diplomatic work elsewhere. Led revolt against Herzl over Uganda (1904); major opponent of Partition in 1937. From 1919-23 presided over the representative body of Palestine Jewry. Chairman of Jewish National Fund 1923-42. Va'ad Leumi (National Committee) -- Executive of the statutory Jewish community in Palestine, recognized by the British Mandatory government as the official spokesman of the community; elected by the annual sessions of the elected assembly (Asefat Hanivcharim), its composition reflected the relative strength of the political parties. Vampire -- British-made jet fighter-bomber, supplied to Egypt in considerable quantities from 1949 to 1956. Vardi (Rosenblum), Herzl Naftali (1903- ) -- Attorney, journalist. Born in Kovno, Lithuania; immigrated 1935. Joined Zionist Revisionist party at its inception; member of Provisional Council of State; signatory of Declaration of Independence. Vilenska, Esther (1918-1975) -- Born in Vilna, Lithuania; immigrated 1938. Active in Palestine, later Israel Communist party from 1940; editor of its organ "Kol Ha'am" (Voice of the People). Member of the Second, Third and Fifth Knessets. Vilna (Vilnius) -- Capital of Lithuania from 1323. Held at different periods by Russia, Germany, Poland. Its large Jewish population was virtually exterminated in the Holocaust. Vilna Gaon (1720-1797) -- Rabbi Elijah, the Gaon (Genius) of Vilna. Outstanding Jewish scholar; founder and leader of the Mitnagdim (opponents), who decried the mysticism, and what they perceived as the superstition and primitiveness of the Hassidic movement, restoring learning to its traditional central place, while trimming from it some of its overly scholastic aberrations. Wadi Ara -- Narrow valley connecting the coastal plain with the Valley of Esdraelon; part of the historical Via Maris linking Egypt with Syria and Mesopotamia. At its northern end is Megiddo (q.v.). Occupied by Iraqi troops in 1948, it was transferred to Israel under the Armistice Agreement of 1949. Warhaftig, Zerah (1906-   ) -- Born in Volkovisk, Byelorussia; immigrated via Poland, Lithuania, Japan and the U.S. in 1947. Attorney and scholar. Hapoel Hamizrachi; National Religious Front. Member of Va'ad Leumi; head of its Legal Department. Member of Provisional Council of State, and of the First to the Ninth Knessets 1949-81. Minister of Religios Affairs 1962-74. War of Independence -- First Israel-Arab War, waged in Palestine from the morrow of the UN Partition Resolution (29 November 1947) to the signature of the last Armistice Agreement, between Syria and Israel (20 July 1949). Local Arabs were soon joined by volunteers from neighboring countries; after Israel's Declaration of Independence on 14 May 1948 regular Arab forces invaded the country. The original Arab objective was the prevention of the establishment of a Jewish state; subsequently its elimination, and when that proved blatantly impossible, the reduction of its size; none of these was achieved. Wehrmacht -- Armed forces of the German Reich. Weinstein, Baruch (1898-1982) -- Born in Balta, Russia; immigrated 1923. Journalist. Revisionist party; after 1948 joined General Zionists. Weizmann, Dr. Chaim (1874-1952) -- Born in Motel, Russia; immigrated 1949. Professor of Chemistry. Joined Zionist movement in 1901; active in Democratic Fraction. Became British citizen in 1910. During World War I, working for British Admiralty, created synthetic acetone vital for production of explosives. Helped to procure the Balfour Declaration (q.v.). President of the Zionist Organization 1920-31, 1935-46. During World War II, advocated the establishment of a Jewish military formation to fight in Allied ranks. After the war opposed active resistance to British presence and policy in Palestine. His influence waned as Great Britain ignored its obligations towards the Jewish National Home. In 1948 invited to join the Provisional Council of State as its President; elected first President of Israel in February 1949, an office he occupied until his death. Weizsaecker, Richard von -- President of the Federal Republic of Germany; previously Mayor of Berlin; Member of the Bundestag representing Christian Democratic Union; President of the Evangelical Church. Active in the German-Israel Parliamentary Group, has maintained his interest in Israeli and Jewish matters also while holding the office of President. Western Land of Israel (Cisjordania) -- Part of Palestine lying west of the Jordan River. White Paper (1939) (MacDonald White Paper) -- Statement on policy on Palestine issued by the British government on 17 May 1939, so called after the then Colonial Secretary Malcolm MacDonald. It provided for drastic reduction in Jewish immigration, with a total of 75,000 over five years after which further immigration would require Arab consent; prohibition of the sale of lands to Jews in some, and its severe limitation in other parts of the country, and the establishment of an independent Palestine with a two-thirds Arab majority after an interim period of 10 years. Rejected by Jews unanimously as a betrayal of solemn undertakings, and by most Arabs as not going far enough, it nevertheless served as a basis for British policy during the crucial years of the Holocaust and World War II. Wiedergutmachung (Reparations) -- German term used to denote the material reparations made to Jewish and other victims of Nazi brutality and greed. Wilenska, Esther -- See Vilenska. Wilna -- See Vilna. Wilner, Meir (1918-  ) -- Born in Vilna, Poland; immigrated 1938. Joined Palestine Communist party in 1939; elected to the Central Committee in 1944. Member of the Provisional Council of State and cosignatory of Declaration of Independence. Member of the Knesset since 1949, representing Israel Communist party; after split in 1965, joined the mainly Arab New Communist List (Rakach), together with Tewfik Toubi. As Secretary General he headed the party's parliamentary list. Only continuously serving member from 1948 to 1989. WIZO -- Women's International Zionist Organization, founded in London in 1920, with the aim of uniting Jewish women for the purpose of establishing and maintaining social welfare, child care and educational institutions in Palestine, later in Israel. Active in Israel and throughout the Jewish world, with the exception of the U.S. Wolfson, David (1856-1914) - Born in Lithuania; died in Hamburg, Germany. Merchant. An advocate of ideas akin to those of Hovevei Zion, became one of Herzl's early adherents and trusted lieutenants. Second President of the World Zionist Organization 1905-11. Founder and Chairman of the Jewish Colonial Trust, the financial instrument of the WZO 1899-1914. Ya'ari (Wald), Meir (1897-1987) -- Born in Galicia; immigrated 1920. Member of Kibbutz Merhavia and foremost formulator of the principles of the Kibbutz Artzi, calling for a far-reaching collectivist approach in all spheres of life 1927. Together with Ya'akov Hazan (q.v.), leader of movement for over 50 years. Co-founder of Mapam (q.v.), and for many years its Secretary General. Member of the Knesset 1949-73. Advocating Zionist Marxism, he qualified his outright pro-Soviet orientation only following the Jewish doctors' trials in Moscow and the Oren trial (q.v.) in Prague in the mid-1950s. Yad Mordechai -- Kibbutz in the southern coastal plain, named after Mordechai Anilevitz, commander of the uprising in the Warsaw Ghetto. Founded 1943; capture by Egyptian Army after heavy fighting in May 1948; subsequently recaptured and rebuilt. Yadin (Sukenik), Yigael (1917-1984) -- Born in Jerusalem. Professor of Archeology; second Chief of the General Staff of the IDF 1949-52; politician. Active in the Hagana (q.v.) from early youth; Chief of Operations during War of Independence (q.v.); much of the time Acting Chief of Staff. Formulated and implemented the principles of Israel's reserve system-citizens' army. Resigned as Chief of Staff following differences with Ben-Gurion over budgetary allocations 1952. As archeologist was responsible for the excavation at Massada and Hatzor, as well as the purchase and partial deciphering of the Dead Sea scrolls. In 1976 one of the founders of the Democratic Movement for Change, as a centrist political force. Having won 15 seats, Yadin joined Begin's first government as Deputy Prime Minister and Chairman of the Ministerial Committee on Welfare; participated in peace negotiations with Egypt. DMC disintegrated, and in 1981 Yadin returned to his archeological pursuits. Yad Vashem (Heroes' and Martyrs' Authority) -- Israel official authority for the commemoration of victims of the Holocaust, established in Jerusalem in accordance with a law adopted in 1953. Yaffe, Bezalel (1868-1925) -- Born in Grodno, Russia; immigrated 1909. Early adherent of Zionist movement in Russia; head of the Jewish Community Board of Jaffa-Tel Aviv; member of the Va'ad Leumi (q.v.). Yariv, S. Sh. (Saba shel Yariv-Yariv's grandfather) -- Nom de plume used by Ben-Gurion, after his first grandson. Yarkon River -- River crossing the coastal plain, 30 km. in length, flowing into the Mediterranean north of Tel Aviv. Yarmuk River -- Largest river in Transjordan; separates Golan from the Gilead, it flows into the Jordan south of the Sea of Galilee. Yasif (Kufr) -- Large Arab rural settlement, 8 km. east of Acre. Yassin (Dir) -- See Dir Yassin. Yehuda, Zvi (1888-1964) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1906. Co-founder of first kibbutz, Degania, and later of first moshav, Nahalal. Member of First Knesset, Mapai. Yellin-Mor (Friedmann), Nathan (1913-1979) -- Born in Poland; immigrated 1941. Leader of Lehi: Fighters for the Freedom of Israel; detained by British authorities. After the murder of Bernadotte (q.v.) detained by Israel. Amnestied, elected to First Knesset heading the Freedom Fighters' List. While most former members of Lehi subsequently joined Herut, Yellin-Mor advocated a pro-Soviet orientation and close cooperation with Palestinians. Yemenites -- Jews originating from the Yemen, in the southwest of the Arabian Peninsula. Yemin Moshe -- Jewish quarter in Jerusalem; first to be established in the mid-nineteenth century outside the Old City walls. Named after its sponsor Sir Moses Montefiore. In 1948 scene of heavy fighting. Yeshiva -- Jewish religous institution of higher learning; while authorized to ordain Orthodox rabbis, frequented by many to study for study's sake, in accordance with Orthodox precepts. Yevsekzia (Yevrei Sekzia) -- Jewish section of the Soviet secret police (NKVD; KGB). Manned largely by Jews, who were widely condemned as renegades. Yishuv -- Jewish population of Palestine. Yisrael (Agudat) -- See Agudat Israel. Yivo -- Jewish scientific organization, dedicated to humanities and social sciences, including the history of Jews in Eastern Europe. Originally in Poland, it managed to transfer some of its archives and personnel to the U.S. Yekaterinoslav -- City in Russia. Yotvata -- Kibbutz in the Arava, 40 km. north of Eilat; established by Nahal (q.v.) in 1951; handed to civilian settlers in 1957. Yunichman, Shimshon (1907-1961) -- Born in Poland; immigrated 1935. Physician. Revisionist, subsequently Herut. Member of the Third and Fourth Knessets. Za'im, Hosni -- See Hosni Za'im. Zebulun -- Tribe of Israel, descendent from fifth son of Jacob; believed to have settled on the Mediterranean coast, in the vicinity of the Bay of Acre. Zhid -- Pejorative term applied to Jews in Russia and Poland. Zichron Ya'akov -- Town in the southern part of Mount Carmel; founded in 1882 by immigrants from Romania, and named after Baron James de Rothschild. In 1902 venue of the first representative assembly of the Yishuv (q.v.); during World War I center of NILI, a small clandestine organization active on behalf of the British behind Ottoman lines. Zimri -- Army commander in ancient Israel, who killed his king and inherited him (1 Regum, Chapter 16); prototype of hypocrisy and ingratitude. Zion, Hovevei -- See Hovevei Zion. Zion, Poalei -- Movement which sought to combine political Zionism with the class interests of the Jewish proletariat and the realization of socialism. Originated at the end of the nineteenth century and soon spread throughout the then Jewish world. After several splits and mergers combined with other parties to establish Mapai (q.v.) in 1930. Ben-Gurion and Ben Zvi (q.v.) were among its early adherents. Zion Square -- Square in the center of the Jewish part of Jerusalem. Zionist Congress -- Parliament of the Zionist movement created by Herzl. At first it met every year (1897-1901); then every second year (1903-13; 1921-39); after World War II at irregular intervals. Zionist Executive -- Elected by Zionist Congress to carry on the day to day operations of the movement. Zisling, Aharon (1901-1964) -- Born in Russia; immigrated 1904. Member of Kibbutz Ein Harod. Mapai; after split in 1944 leader of Achdut Ha'Avoda, then Mapam. Minister of Agriculture in Provisional Government and cosignatory of Declaration of Independence. Member of First and Second Knessets. Zwebner (Sha'ag), A.H. -- See Sha'ag.

i don't know

Who said 'A week is a long time in politics'?

Harold Wilson - Wikiquote Harold Wilson Jump to: navigation , search This Party needs to protect itself against the activities of small groups of inflexible political persuasion, extreme so-called left and in a few cases extreme so-called moderates, having in common only their arrogant dogmatism. James Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx , KG, OBE, FRS, PC ( 11 March 1916 – 24 May 1995 ) was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1964 to 1970, and again from 1974 to 1976. He had an impressive educational background, becoming an Oxford don at 21 and working as a war time civil servant; he was made a government minister immediately after he was elected to Parliament. As Leader of the Labour Party he moved the party towards a technocratic approach and appeared more in tune with the 'swinging sixties'; however his government was beset by economic difficulties and he was unexpectedly defeated in 1970. His return to office with a tiny majority in the mid-1970s saw a referendum which endorsed British membership of the European Communities. He resigned suddenly in 1976, and in his retirement suffered from Alzheimers' disease. Contents Sourced[ edit ] On 5 September, when the TUC unanimously rejected wage restraint, it was the end of an era, and all the financiers, all the little gnomes in Zürich and other finance centres about whom we keep on hearing, had started to make their dispositions in regard to sterling. Hansard, House of Commons, 5th series, vol. 560, col. 579. Speech in the House of Commons (12 November 1956); often quoted as "gnomes of Zürich". In all our plans for the future, we are re-defining and we are re-stating our Socialism in terms of the scientific revolution. But that revolution cannot become a reality unless we are prepared to make far-reaching changes in economic and social attitudes which permeate our whole system of society. The Britain that is going to be forged in the white heat of this revolution will be no place for restrictive practices or for outdated methods on either side of industry. Usually quoted as "the white heat of the technological revolution". Speech at Labour Party conference, October 1, 1963. Labour Party Annual Conference Report, 1963, pages 139-140. Hughie, get your tanks off my lawn. Statement to trade union leader Hugh Scanlon (c.1969), as quoted in "Lord Scanlon" in The Telegraph (28 January 2004) The government have only a small majority in the House of Commons. I want to make it quite clear that this will not affect our ability to govern. Having been charged with the duties of Government we intend to carry out those duties. David Butler, Coalitions in British Politics (Macmillan, London, 1978), p. 99. Television broadcast, October 1964, after winning the general election . Smethwick Conservatives can have the satisfaction of having topped the poll, of having sent a Member who, until another election returns him to oblivion, will serve his time here as a Parliamentary leper. Hansard, House of Commons, 5th series, vol. 701, col. 71. Speech in the House of Commons, 3 November, 1964. The 1964 general election had seen the defeat of Wilson's Shadow Foreign Secretary Patrick Gordon Walker by Conservative Peter Griffiths after an allegedly racist campaign. Griffiths was indeed defeated at the next election but returned to Parliament in 1979 and served until 1997. I know I speak for everyone in these islands, all parties, all our people, when I say to Mr. Smith tonight: "Prime Minister, think again". Broadcast speech calling on the Government of Rhodesia not to declare independence , October 12, 1965. Quoted in The Times, October 13, 1965, p. 8. It is difficult for us to appreciate the pressures which are put on men I know to be realistic and reasonable, not only in their executive capacity but in the highly organized strike committees in the individual ports by this tightly knit group of politically motivated men who, as the last general election showed, utterly failed to secure acceptance of their views by the British electorate, but who are now determined to exercise back-stage pressures, forcing great hardship on the members of the union and their families, and endangering the security of the industry and the economic welfare of the nation. Hansard, House of Commons, 5th series, vol. 730, cols. 42-3. Speech in the House of Commons, June 20, 1966, referring to the organisers of a Seamen's strike. Wilson meant to imply they were Communists. Among the union officials offended by this quote was John Prescott . We have taken steps which have not been taken by any other democratic government in the world. We are taking steps with regard to prices and wages which no other government, even in wartime, has taken. The Times, July 30, 1966. Speech to New York bankers. He who rejects change is the architect of decay. The only human institution which rejects progress is the cemetery. Speech to the Consultative Assembly of the Council of Europe, Strasbourg, France (January 23, 1967); reported in The New York Times (January 24, 1967), p. 12. From now on, the pound abroad is worth 14 per cent or so less in terms of other currencies. That doesn't mean, of course, that the Pound here in Britain, in your pocket or purse or in your bank, has been devalued. Televised speech,following the devaluation of the Pound Sterling . Usually remembered as "the Pound in your pocket". (November 19, 1967) May I say, for the benefit of those who have been carried away by the gossip of the last few days, that I know what's going on. [pause] I'm going on, and the Labour government's going on. "I am going on, your Government is going on—Mr Wilson", The Times, 5 May 1969, p. 1 At a May Day rally in London, 4 May 1969. There had been a series of reports that Wilson's leadership might be challenged. David Dimbleby : You couldn't - you couldn't set our minds at rest on the vexed question of what the Sunday Times did actually pay you for the book? Harold Wilson: No, I don't think it's a matter of interest to the BBC or to anybody else. Dimbleby: But why .. Wilson: If you're interested in these things, you'd better find out how people buy yachts. Do you ask that question? Did you ask him how he was able to pay for a yacht? Dimbleby: I haven't interviewed ... Wilson: Have you asked him that question? Dimbleby: I haven't interviewed him. Wilson: Well, has the BBC ever asked that question? Dimbleby: I don't know ... Wilson: Well, what's it got to do with you, then? Dimbleby: I imagine they have .. Wilson: Why you ask these question, I mean why, if people can afford to buy £25,000 yachts, do the BBC not regard that as a matter for public interest? Why do you insult me with these questions here? Dimbleby: It's only that it's been a matter of .. Wilson: All I'm saying, all I'm saying .. Dimbleby: … public speculation, and I was giving you an opportunity if you wanted to, to say something about it. Wilson: It was not a matter of speculation, it was just repeating press gossip. You will not put this question to Mr. Heath. When you have got an answer to him, come and put the question to me. And this last question and answer are not to be recorded. Is this question being recorded? Dimbleby: Well it is, because we're running film. Wilson: Well, will you cut it out or not? All right, we stop now. No, I'm sorry, I'm really not having this. I'm really not having this. The press may take this view, that they wouldn't put this question to Heath but they put it to me; if the BBC put this question to me, without putting it to Heath, the interview is off, and the whole programme is off. I think it's a ridiculous question to put. Yes, and I mean it cut off, I don't want to read in the Times Diary or miscellany that I asked for it to be cut out. [pause] Dimbleby: All right, are we still running? Can I ask you this, then, which I mean, I .. let me put this question, I mean if you find this question offensive then .. Wilson: Coming to ask if your curiosity can be satisfied, I think it's disgraceful. Never had such a question in an interview in my life before. Dimbleby: I .. [gasps] Joe Haines (Wilson's Press Secretary): Well, let's stop now, and we can talk about it, shall we? Dimbleby: No, let's .. well, I mean, we'll keep going, I think, don't you? Wilson: No, I think we'll have a new piece of film in and start all over again. But if this film is used, or this is leaked, then there's going to be a hell of a row. And this must be .. Dimbleby: Well, I certainly wouldn't leak it .. Wilson: You may not leak it but these things do leak. I've never been to Lime Grove without it leaking. Exchange with BBC interviewer David Dimbleby recorded for a documentary called "Yesterday's Men" broadcast on 16 June 1971. The BBC did agree not to show this portion of the interview, but Wilson's fears of a leak were justified as a transcript was published on page 1 of The Times on June 18, 1971. A fuller transcript appeared in Private Eye during 1972. Yet people who benefit from all this now viciously defy Westminster, purporting to act as though they were an elected government; people who spend their lives sponging on Westminster and British democracy and then systematically assault democratic methods. Who do these people think they are? Broadcast on May 25, 1974,referring to the Ulster Workers Council strike. The use of the term "sponging" gave offence in Northern Ireland. Glenn Barr , chairman of the coordinating committee between the Loyalist paramilitaries and the UWC, said he thought of making Wilson an honorary member of the UWC for rallying Protestants behind the strike. [1] I get a little nauseated, perhaps, when I hear the phrase 'freedom of the press' used as freely as it is, knowing that a large part of our proprietorial press is not free at all. Hansard, House of Commons, 5th series, vol. 882, col. 1936. Speech in the House of Commons, 5 December, 1974. This Party needs to protect itself against the activities of small groups of inflexible political persuasion, extreme so-called left and in a few cases extreme so-called moderates, having in common only their arrogant dogmatism. These groups, equally the multichromatic coalitionist fringe or groups specifically formed to fight other marauding groups, these groups are not what this Party is about. Infestation of this kind thrives only, and can thrive only, in minuscule local parties. Labour Party Annual Conference Report 1975 pp. 186-7. Speech to Labour Party conference, September 30, 1975.

Harold Wilson

Which Elizabethan politician, philosopher and essayist was fined L40,000 for taking bribes?

A week is a long time in politics - Idioms by The Free Dictionary A week is a long time in politics - Idioms by The Free Dictionary http://idioms.thefreedictionary.com/a+week+is+a+long+time+in+politics Also found in: Encyclopedia , Wikipedia . Like this video? Subscribe to our free daily email and get a new idiom video every day! a week is a long time in politics Due to the fast-changing pace of the political landscape, the fortunes of a politician or political group can change drastically just in the course of a single week. The phrase is attributed to British Prime Minister Harold Wilson, c. 1964. The challenger is enjoying a surge in popularity after the debate, but there's still time before the election, and a week is a long time in politics.

i don't know

Who succeeded Clement Attlee as Labour Party leader in 1955?

BBC ON THIS DAY | 7 | 1955: Attlee steps down as Labour leader 1955: Attlee steps down as Labour leader Clement Attlee has resigned as leader of the opposition Labour Party, following months of speculation. Tonight the Prime Minister, Sir Anthony Eden, announced in Downing Street that the Queen is to make Mr Attlee an earl. He is the first Labour leader to accept a hereditary peerage. This will allow him to continue his work for the parliamentary Labour Party from the House of Lords, where the Opposition has little representation. He made his announcement this morning at the start of a special meeting of the shadow cabinet in the Commons convened to discuss the Middle East. 'Regrettable' He said: "After the [1951] general election I intimated that I would continue as chairman of the party meantime. "It is regrettable, however, that since that date there has scarcely been a week passed without one prominent member of the party or another talking about my impending resignation. That certainly does not help the party." He then announced his immediate resignation and was thanked for his long service to the party and the country. Herbert Morrison, deputy chairman of the party, will stand in as leader while a successor is found. There are expected to be three candidates - Mr Morrison himself, Hugh Gaitskell and Aneurin Bevan. Most Labour MPs believe Mr Gaitskell, at 49 the youngest of the contenders, will be elected leader. Lasting legacy Mr Attlee, who is 72 and has recently suffered a stroke, has led his party for 20 years and has had a seat in the House of Commons for 33 years. In 1942 he became deputy prime minister in the war cabinet under Sir Winston Churchill. During his six years as prime minister from 1945 to 1951 he oversaw sweeping changes to the welfare state with the introduction of the National Health Service and the nationalisation of key industries - the Bank of England, civil aviation, coal telecommunications, transport, electricity, iron and steel. He also pushed through the independence of India and Burma.

Hugh Gaitskell

Whose book Sexual Politics was a landmark in feminist thinking?

The Hindu : Miscellaneous / This Day That Age : dated December 16, 1955: Attlee's successor Miscellaneous - This Day That Age    dated December 16, 1955: Attlee's successor Mr. Hugh Gaitskell on December 14 succeeded Mr. Clement Attlee as leader of the British Labour Party. In a secret ballot of Labour's 275 MPs, he defeated Mr. Herbert Morrison and Mr. Aneurin Bevan. The 49-year-old former Chancellor of the Exchequer topped the poll with 157 votes against 70 for Mr. Bevan and 40 for Mr. Morrison. It was a victory for youth as well as Socialist orthodoxy, as Mr. Morrison might have been more strongly backed but for his 67 years. Mr. Bevan, 58, had not been conceded a chance because of his unpopularity due to past clashes with the party leadership. Mr. Gaitskell, whose rise has been meteoric during only ten years in Parliament, will now become Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons.

i don't know

Which American economist is the foremost advocate of monetarism?

Milton Friedman: The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics | Library of Economics and Liberty | Biographies | Milton Friedman Milton Friedman was the twentieth century’s most prominent advocate of free markets. Born in 1912 to Jewish immigrants in New York City, he attended Rutgers University, where he earned his B.A. at the age of twenty. He went on to earn his M.A. from the University of Chicago in 1933 and his Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1946. In 1951 Friedman received the John Bates Clark Medal honoring economists under age forty for outstanding achievement. In 1976 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in economics for “his achievements in the field of consumption analysis, monetary history and theory, and for his demonstration of the complexity of stabilization policy.” Before that time he had served as an adviser to President Richard Nixon and was president of the American Economic Association in 1967. After retiring from the University of Chicago in 1977, Friedman became a senior research fellow at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University. Friedman established himself in 1945 with Income from Independent Professional Practice, coauthored with Simon Kuznets. In it he argued that state licensing procedures limited entry into the medical profession, thereby allowing doctors to charge higher fees than they would be able to do if competition were more open. His landmark 1957 work, A Theory of the Consumption Function, took on the Keynesian view that individuals and households adjust their expenditures on consumption to reflect their current income. Friedman showed that, instead, people’s annual consumption is a function of their “permanent income,” a term he introduced as a measure of the average income people expect over a few years. In Capitalism and Freedom, Friedman wrote arguably the most important economics book of the 1960s, making a case for relatively free markets to a general audience. He argued for, among other things, a volunteer army, freely floating exchange rates, abolition of licensing of doctors, a negative income tax, and education vouchers. (Friedman was a passionate foe of the military draft: he once stated that the abolition of the draft was almost the only issue on which he had personally lobbied Congress.) Many of the young people who read it were encouraged to study economics themselves. His ideas spread worldwide with Free to Choose (coauthored with his wife, Rose Friedman), the best-selling nonfiction book of 1980, written to accompany a TV series on the Public Broadcasting System. This book made Milton Friedman a household name. Although much of his trailblazing work was done on price theory—the theory that explains how prices are determined in individual markets—Friedman is popularly recognized for monetarism . Defying Keynes and most of the academic establishment of the time, Friedman presented evidence to resurrect the quantity theory of money—the idea that the price level depends on the money supply . In Studies in the Quantity Theory of Money, published in 1956, Friedman stated that in the long run, increased monetary growth increases prices but has little or no effect on output. In the short run, he argued, increases in money supply growth cause employment and output to increase, and decreases in money supply growth have the opposite effect. Friedman’s solution to the problems of inflation and short-run fluctuations in employment and real GNP was a so-called money-supply rule. If the Federal Reserve Board were required to increase the money supply at the same rate as real GNP increased, he argued, inflation would disappear. Friedman’s monetarism came to the forefront when, in 1963, he and Anna Schwartz coauthored Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960, which contends that the great depression was the result of the Federal Reserve’s ill-conceived monetary policies. Upon receipt of the unpublished manuscript submitted by the authors, the Federal Reserve Board responded internally with a lengthy critical review. Such was their agitation that the Fed governors discontinued their policy of releasing minutes from the board’s meetings to the public. Additionally, they commissioned a counterhistory to be written (by Elmus R. Wicker) in the hope of detracting from Monetary History. Friedman’s book has had a substantial influence on the economics profession. One measure of that influence is the change in the treatment of monetary policy given by MIT Keynesian Paul Samuelson in his best-selling textbook, Economics. In the 1948 edition Samuelson wrote dismissively that “few economists regard Federal Reserve monetary policy as a panacea for controlling the business cycle.” But in 1967 Samuelson said that monetary policy had “an important influence” on total spending. The 1985 edition, coauthored with Yale’s William Nordhaus, states, “Money is the most powerful and useful tool that macroeconomic policymakers have,” adding that the Fed “is the most important factor” in making policy. Throughout the 1960s, Keynesians—and mainstream economists generally—had believed that the government faced a stable long-run trade-off between unemployment and inflation—the so-called phillips curve . In this view the government could, by increasing the demand for goods and services, permanently reduce unemployment by accepting a higher inflation rate. But in the late 1960s, Friedman (and Columbia University’s Edmund Phelps ) challenged this view. Friedman argued that once people adjusted to the higher inflation rate, unemployment would creep back up. To keep unemployment permanently lower, he said, would require not just a higher, but a permanently accelerating inflation rate (see Phillips curve). The stagflation of the 1970s—rising inflation combined with rising unemployment—gave strong evidence for the Friedman-Phelps view and swayed most economists, including many Keynesians. Again, Samuelson’s text is a barometer of the change in economists’ thinking. The 1967 edition indicates that policymakers faced a trade-off between inflation and unemployment. The 1980 edition says there was less of a trade-off in the long run than in the short run. The 1985 edition says there is no long-run trade-off. Selected Works

Milton Friedman

In what year did the Representation of the People Act give the vote to all women over 21?

12/21/1999 Steven Kates [This piece appeared in the Canberra Times , December 21, 1999.] Who were the century's most important economists? The following presents my own selection of the ten economists of the past hundred years who have had the greatest influence on policy. 1. John Maynard Keynes is far and away this century's most influential economist, but in saying this it should not be thought I believe that influence as having been for the good. Until the publication of his General Theory in 1936 it was well understood that public spending dragged an economy down rather than propping it up. It will be well into the next century before his destructive influence will have finally disappeared. 2. Friedrich von Hayek is the economist of choice for those nations who have lived under communism these past fifty years. His name today is virtually unknown in the West, but within those economies trying to resurrect free markets, his is the guidance most frequently sought. His Road to Serfdom is beloved by anyone who treasures political freedom. 3. Ludwig von Mises took the fight up to the socialist dogmas of the early twentieth century and showed on paper that no economy could ever solve the problem of allocating resources without a price mechanism, free markets and private property. Who doesn't know it now? He knew it eighty years ago. 4. Milton Friedman has been the single most important advocate of free markets in the late twentieth century. He was also instrumental in turning the attention of governments away from Keynesian policies, which had created massive worldwide inflation, towards the need for monetary disciplines and a balanced budget. Much of what sounds like the mantra of the economics profession today Friedman had advocated almost on his own in the early years of the post-War period. 5. Arthur Pigou is in many ways my favourite. A conscientious objector during World War I, he nevertheless spent his summers as an ambulance driver on the Western Front. He also wrote the Economics of Welfare which provided the basic framework in which to consider how best to deal with harmful side effects ("externalities") to the production process. Most of the solutions to greenhouse problems developed by economists today are based on his original work. 6. Paul Samuelson makes the list twice over. His Foundations of Economic Analysis changed the study of economics from a subject based on words into a discipline where without mathematical ability one is entirely lost. But even had he not written his Foundations, his first year text, simply titled Economics, is easily the most influential of our time, having educated three generations in Keynesian sophistries whose baneful effects are indelibly imprinted on the profession. 7. John Kenneth Galbraith wrote popular works on economics which had a massive influence in their time. His basic line was that wage and price controls are an absolute necessity if an economy is to be run at full employment with low inflation. More countries than one ended up adopting such controls whose only effects were to prolong inflation and lower employment. His books still make entertaining reading; just don't follow the advice. 8. John Hicks was a prolific writer on a wide variety of subjects but his lasting claim to fame is based on a 1937 article, "Mr Keynes and the Classics", in which he developed an apparatus taught to every aspiring economist. These IS-LM curves show how playing around with aggregate demand can supposedly affect the level of economic activity. It is still how almost every economist is taught to think. 9. Bill Phillips invented the Phillips curve, a device for relating the growth in prices to the growth in unemployment. Debates over policy stemming from this original model have been legion. To this day the Phillips curve sits at the core of discussions over the proper conduct of monetary and interest rate policies. 10. Robert Lucas is famed for developing the theory of "rational expectations" which explains how anticipation of the effects of government policy can prevent that policy from doing what it was intended to do. It is one of the standard ways used to explain why Keynesian policies never work in practice. It has been a long century and these have been the economists whose names have mattered. Aside from ethnic and religious conflict, no controversies are as intense as those over how economies work. Wars and revolutions have been fought over nothing other than the architecture of the economic system. Passionate differences over economic matters are never ending. Economists attempt to provide satisfying answers to the age old questions of how to organise production, who should receive how much of what is produced, and what should be the basis of this division. A century from now the names will be different, but what may be said with certainty is this: the issues will be much the same as those we are dealing with today.  

i don't know

Who was Italy's Fascist lender from 1925-43?

The Fascist State: 1925-43 - Revision Cards in A Level and IB History The Fascist State: 1925-43 Fascism and the economy Mussolini's economic policy, 1922-29 in his first years as prime minister, Mussolini pursued liberal economic policies which pleased amny industrialists he appointed Alberto De Stefani - an economics professor and former First World War soldier - as his finance minister and introduced various pro-business measures taxes on war profits were reduced or abolished, private companised took over the telephone system and Ansaldo (the large shipping and steel firm) received a cash injection from the state these early years coincided with a general European economic recovery and the decline of the Italian Left, both of which strenghtened business confidence consequently, from 1921-25, manufacturing output in ITaly increased by almost 54% and a budget surplus was produced in 1924 1 of 36 Fascism and the economy Mussolini's economic policy, 1922-29 the boom years ended in 1925-26 due to rising inflation, a trade deficit crisis and the falling value of the lira these problems, and the creation of the fascist dictatorship, led to a shift in economic policy Mussolini replaced De Stefani with a new finance minister, the banker and industrialist Count Giuseppe Volpi, in 1925  unlike De Stefani, Volpi backed government loands to industry, state intervention, high tarifs and a balanced budget his appointment was a clear sign that Mussolini wanted good relations with big business Volpi pursued deflationary and protectionist policies, which set the tone for the rest of the fascist era 2 of 36 Fascism and the economy Mussolini's economic policy, 1922-29 1926 - for reasons of national and personal presige, the Duce insisted that the lira was undervalued and should be rest at 90 lire to the British pound - done so the following year foreign financiers and the Italin republic applauded Mussolini's decision but it had a damaging impact on the economy the high cost of the lire meant that Italian goods almost doubled in price abroad and Italian export industries, notably textiles, light engineering and car manufacturing, suffered between 1922-26 Italy's economic boom had been largley export-led moreover, imported foods and products did not become more affordbale through revaluation because the regime imposed reductions were part of the regime's deflationary policy only industries which required large supplies of cheap tariff-free raw materials from abroad and which relied mainly on domestic orders, really benefitted from 'Quota 90' and a protected home market by 1929, 'the Fascist economic pattern was becoming set. Italy was turning away from her export markets, and boosting instead the industries which stood to gain most from empire and rearmament' - Martin Clark, 2008 3 of 36 Fascism and the economy The corporate state  in the mid-1920s, production was officially reoganised under the Corporate State, the much-heralded Fascist 'third way' between capitalism and communism Fascist propaganda claimed this new mechanism would end class conflict and promote social harmony by incorporating both bosses and workers inside the state Mussolini also believed that corportate conomics would support an expansionist foreign policy under the Vidoni PAct of 1925, Confindustria (the Italian Industrialists' Confederation) and the Fascist syndiates (trade unions) recognised each other as the exclusive representatives respecitvely of capital and labour, but the regime was not even-handed 1926 Rocco Law & 1927 Labour Charter placed the Fascist unions under state control and created a labour relations system which favoured employers furthermore, in 1928, the Confederations of Fascist Syndicates was split into 6 sections this ensured that the Fascist unions were susceptible to greater state control and posed little threat either to the government or to the industrialists' aims 4 of 36 Fascism and the economy The corporate state to give this 'third way' some credibility, a Ministry of Corportations was set up in 1926 and, over the next 12 years, a Corporate State of sorts was fitfully developed in fact, the project never really got off the ground controlled by party bosses, the corporations developed into a vast, lumbering, centralised bureaucracy with an interventionist culture that discouraged industrial innovation and efficiency the Duce undoubtedly recognised the propaganda value of the Corporate State but never took corporatism that serioulsy there was no 'Battle for the Corporations', the regime did not use the Corporate State to tackle the Depression, and the system was introduced in a piecemeal fashion Mussolini also knew he had to be cautious rather than radical because he could not afford to alienate Italy's economic elite stripped of its 'third-way' mask, the Corporate State institutionalised workplace exploitation and served the regime and the emplyers' interests  5 of 36 Fascism and the economy The Great Depression 1929 - a major depression hit the US economy then spread to all the capitalist nations in Europe it reduced international trade sharply and created mass unemployment in the countries concerned Fascist Italy weathered this Great Depression, which lasted until 1936, relatively well the economy was not heavily dependent on world markets and had a limited industrial sector imports and consumption had already been cut, and high import tariffs and exchange controls gave some protection from foreign recession nevertheless, the economic downturn did have an impact 2929-33 - industrial production fell by 23% and unemployment increased from 300,000 to 1.3million by 1936 - exports and imports had dropped by one-third those still in work in the early 1930s faced wage cuts - state employees and farm workers had their pay reduced by 12 and 25% respectively furthermore, Mussolini's decision to stay on the gold standard until 1936 had a negative effect because it overvalued the currency at about 60 lire to the British pound £ 6 of 36 Fascism and the economy The Great Depression to tackle these problems, the regime introduced public work schemes and increased government expenditure and state itnervention spending on employment-creation schemes tripled between  1929 and 1934, resulting in some 240,000 new state jobs through road contstruction, marsh drainage and government bureaucracy a piecemeal fasist 'welfare state' was also established pensions, sick pay, paid holidays and unemployment benefit were all introduced by 1933 and, within 6 years, almost 30% of the population belonged to the state health insurance scheme in the late 1930s, social security spending accounted for 21% of total state expenditure 7 of 36 Fascism and the economy The Great Depression the government also had to intervene to save the anks, as hard-pressed companised defaulted on their loands Mussolini introduced the state-funded IMI in 1931 to take over the banks' role of granting long-term industrial loans two years later, another agency - the IRI, was set up to help struggling businesses and banks by purchasing the banks' shares in failing enterprises, the IRI helped to prevent financial collapse and came to own large sectors of the economy by 1939 the IRI controlled 90% of shipbuilding, 75% of pig iron and 45% of steel prodcution public bodies and agencies were also established to run other parts of the economy using industrialists and businessmen from relevent secotrs In Europe, only the soviet Union and a larger proportion of its economy under state control this broad policy of state intervention was driven more by pragmatism than ideolgy, yet it still had a significant effect by 1939 the Fascist state controlled over 20% of Italian industry  8 of 36 The drive for autarky 1935 - Mussolini invaded Abyssinia as a consequence, the League of Nations imposed economic sanctions on Italy and this accelerated the regime's persuit of autarky the Duce concluded that this would mark Italy out as a great independent nation he also reasoned that, as a major was was virtually inevitable, the economy had to be able to produce all the resources required for Italy to win a modern conflict Ersatz goods were developed to replace imports; tariffs and import quoteas were introduced state agencies such as AGIP (an oil company) searched for new energy sources in addition, large governmnt industries and state control over the economy was increased  9 of 36 The Drive for autarky to boost output further, major companies were permitted to merge into vitual monopolies or cartels under these arrangements, for example, FIAT controlled car manufacturing and Montecatini and SNIA Viscosa dominated chemical production nevertheless, by 1940, the Italian economy faced major problems the huge cost of rearmament and the Fascist military interventions in Abyssinia and Spain had increased Italy's budget deficit from 2 billion to 28 billion lire between 1934-1939, despite higher taxes Mussolini's focus on heavy industry to secure his foreign policy objectives had also distorted the development of the Italian economy export industries were largely neglected and the state opeed for the products of high-cost domestic industries rather than buying the same items more cheaply from abroad  10 of 36 Fascism and the economy The Battle for Births the regim's preoccupation with autarky, military strength and imperial expansion was also clearly reflected in the Battle for Births, which began in 1927 Mussolini wanted the populationto rise to 60 million Italins by 1950 (from 41 million in 1931) so the nation would have enough soldiers to win a modern war and enough people to populate the future Fascist empire for all its efforts, however, in political and economic terms, the regime lost the Battle for Births before 1937, the marriage rate did not icnrease and the birth rate steadily declined most Italians were not persuaded to have more children a shortage of non-manual jobs in some areas and the low living standards of many urban and rural workers encouraged later marriages and discouraged bigger families the desire for a comfortable lifesyle, particularly in the towns and cities, also explains why the government's message went largely unheeded the population increased at a modest rate to 44.5 million in 1940 and 47.5 million in 1950, well short of the Duce's target as a result, Mussolini's claim that the Italian army could rely on ''8million bayonets' remained empty propaganda  11 of 36 Fascism and the economy Fascism and agriculture in agriculture as well, Mussolini pursued measures to strenghten his political position, demonstrate Italy's great power status and make the nation self-sufficient for war in 1925, the regime launched the Battle for Grain to remove Italy's traditional relince on grain imports the Duce feared that, in war, foreign supplies could be cut off and the nation starved into submission buying in foreign wheat also contributed to Italy's balance of trade deficit to solve these problems, a patriotic campaign to maximise domestic grain production was started the state offered equipment grants and agricultural advice to farmers who cultivated wheat, guaranteed a generous price for their produce and imposed a high tariff on foreign grain  12 of 36 Fascism and agriculture the Battle for Grain curtailed wheat imports by 75% between 1925 and 1935 it also improved average harvests from 5.39 million tons in the early 1920s to 7.27 million tons a decade later cereal production doubled from 1922 to 1939 and, by the late 1930s, Italy cultivated enough grain to feed itself Mussolini extracted much propaganda value and important political support from this successful iniiative but there was a downside wheat grown in parts of southern and central Italy - where the soil and climate did not favour grain - displaced the traditional rural export industries of citrus, win and olive oil production furthermore, high tariffs and guaranteed prices protected inefficient farmers, slowed down agricultural mechanisations and made bread more expensive  13 of 36 Fascism and the economy Fascism and agriculture  1928 - the 'Mussolini Law' comitted the dictatorship to generously funded, comprehensive land reclamation and led to successful projects in Tuscany and the area around Rome the Pontine Marshes were the propaganda showpiece of this policy by 1935 they had been drained and converted into small farms run by ex-servicemen this project, just 56 km from Rome, provided the regime with much favourable publicity as it could be easily reached by foreign journalists and visitng agricultural experts land reclamation also improved public health (by reducing malaria and providing clean drinking water) and created one-third of all public works jobs during the Depression overall though, the economic impact of this initiative was limited barely 5% of the designated 4.75 million hectares was 'reclaimed' and the scheme settled fewer than 10,000 landless peasants  14 of 36 Fascism and the economy Fascism and agriculture 1927 - Mussolini also announced his intention to 'ruralise' Italy by establishing a new pro-Fascist class of productive small peasant landowners, but this proved to be an economic and political failure new and potential peasant landowners were adversely affected by deflation after 1926 (which brought falling food prices and mortgage payment problems) and a shortage of rural credit facilities  as a result, the number of peasant landowners shrank from around 3.4 million to under 3 million between 1921-36 during the Fascist era as a whole, over 500,000 peasant farmers left agriculture  15 of 36 the fascist economy up to 1939: winners and losers fascist economic policy had some success Italy was generally more prosperous in 1939 than in 1923 due to an average annual rise in gross national product of 1.2% by 1939, industrial production had increased by over 145% since 1913 and was 20% above the level acheived in the immediate pre-Depression years this was reinforced by a modest improvement in average wages fascist measures did not always have a posiive impact though: miliatry and welfare spending consumed 15 billion and 6.7 billion lire per year respectively at the edn of the decade, putting the state under massive financial strain moveover, government agencies - which by the late 1930s controlled key sectors of the economy, including electricity, armaments, shipbuilding and steel - encouraged political intervention, strifled entrepreneurial initiative and made important industries completely reliant on the state ITaly also continued to lag behind her major European competitors in terms of industrial output and economic growth wheat production had doubled by WW2, but at the expense of traditional agricultural export industries and livestock numbers Musoslini's policies also failed to tackel rural poverty and the backwardness of southern agriculture 16 of 36 the fascist economy up to 1939: winners and losers the industrialists and large landowners gained most from the regime's economic measures, which protected their products and profits, and controlled urban and rural manual workers large sections of the urban middle class also benefited by increasing the number of civil servant, teachers and public employees from 500,000 to 1 million, Mussolini offered the better educated the prospect of secure state service jobs moreover, measures to restrain organised labout gave the urban iddle class a sense of protection and status their rural counterparts - peasant landholders, tenant farmers and sharecroppers - fared less well peasant landholding declined during the Fascist period and, although the number of tenant farmers and sharecroppers increased, the landowners imposed stricter terms and conditions on them rural and urban workers were adversely affected too in the early 1930s the wages of agricultural labourers were cut by between 20 and 40%, which prompted  amny peasant workers to defy government restrictions on their movement and leave their villages for the city slums 17 of 36 the fascist economy up to 1939: winners and losers 1922-39, industrial wages fell by 14%  1936 - even Mussolini admitted that Italians faced the prospect of lower living standards  in addition, the Corporate State usually favoured the employers over the workers to some extent, however, the hardship experienced by the working class was offset by periodic price cuts and the availablility of social secrurity benefits the sydnicates also offered industrial workers some economic protection by successfully persuing wage claims and other improvements such as welfare payments most working-class Italians still resented Fascism for destroying the trade unions and defeating socialism but broadly accepted that Mussolini's policies had sheltered them from the worst of the Depression 18 of 36 the war economy 1940-43 Italy's disastrous performance in WW2 highlighted its economic wekaness inadequate supplied of fuel and raw materials restricted production and forced the regime to rely heavily on limited quantities of coal from Nazi Germany annual steel production fell from 2.3 million tons (1938) to 1.7 million tons (1943), and the number of vehicles manufactured halved between 1938-41 many factories could not obtain essential resources these problems were compounded by the systematic bombing of Italy's major industrial centres from late 1942, which distrupted production, demoralised the workers and forced thousands to abandon the cities wartime shortages of heating fuel and consumer goods akso damaged morale furthermore, although real wages were broadly maintain and family allowances increased, the working wek was extended to at least 48 hours and the government rationing system provided an inadequate diet of just 1000 calories per day under such circumstances, the black market thrived the food shortages were partly due to the large number of peasants serving in the army and the drying-up of supplies of animal feed and artificial fertilizers after 1941 many farmers made the situation worse by eating their own produce or trading it on the black market instead of selling it at fixed prices to the official agencies  19 of 36 The fascist regime and other groups The Industrialists  fascism had come to power with the backing of the industrial and agricultural elites and their continued support was required to realise Mussolini's vision of a militarised, self-suffieicent imperial Italy for their part, industrialists and landowners looked to the regime to protect their political and economic interests by marginalising socialism, controlling the workers, maintaining private ownership and safequarding their markets after 1926, Fascist measures designed to protect and boost the heavy industry sector consolidated the industrialists' support the Corporate STate also favoured business interests because, from 1928, workers in the corporations were represented by PNF officials who were usually pro-employer furthermore, the industrialists could negotiate directly with the regime through autonomous bodies such as Confindustria and were regularly consulted on economic issues  20 of 36 The fascist regime and other groups The industrialists beneath the common outlook, though, there were disagreements the business community wanted to revalue the lira but some industrialists felt that 'Quota 90' was set too high and would damage Italy's economic prospects moreover, by the late 1930s some business leaders were so concerned about the state of the economy and the pro-Nazi direction of the regime that they began transferring teir money to Swiss bank accounts most industrialists however, continued until the early 1940s to support a Fascist system which guaranteed contracts and high returns during the early stages of WW2, industrialists continued to make large profits and hoped to take commercial advantage of Italy's expected territorial gains  21 of 36 The fascist regime and other groups The Industrialists  unfortunately for Mussolini, later wartime events eroded the industrial elite's support for the Fascist system the regime could not prevent the Allied bomving in 1942-43 which destroyed the industrialists' factories and badly disrupted production the striked of March 1943, involving over 100,000 workers in Piedmont and Lombardy, also alarmed business leaders these stoppages, with their economic and anti-Fascist political demands, further discredited the regime in the eyes of the industrialists because it no longer appeared able to control the workforce industrialists probabl played no direct role in Mussolii's removal from power in July 1943 but by then they clearly regarded the regime as a liability and the king's appointment of a non-Fascist military government reassured them that their businesses would remain under private management  22 of 36 The fascist regime and other groups The landowners the fascist ditatorship relied just as much on the agrari of the Po Valley and the large landowners from other regions Mussolini needed their grain to create a self-sufficient Italy capable of waging a successful war their established political influence in the provinces was also required to consolidate Fascist rule as the Battle for the South amply demonstrated the agrari were the real victors in the Battle for Grain, which bolstered their prodits and entrenched their local economic power the progressive landowners of the Po Valley were able to increase their crop yields and prices within a protected home market Tariffs on imported wheat helped the less efficicent agrari of the south too and allowed them to survive without modernising their estates in addition, the government put groups of agrari in charge of their own state-subsidised land reclamation schemes over 10 years these land owners received around 4 billion lire to fund such projects the old agrarian notables retained their local policial importance as well most of the 7000 podestas appointed to run the municpalites were landowners and in Tuscany they were often drawen from the local nobility in southern Italy, where many Fascist branches were established in 1926, the agrari became local party leaders this gave some substance to the anti-Fascist taunt that the PNF was simply 'the old ruiling class in black shirts' 23 of 36 The fascist regime and other groups Merger with the Nationalists, 1923 perhaps Mussolini's most surprising early act as prime minister as to amalgamate the PNF with Luigi Federzoni's small but influential Nationalist Associateion (ANI) during the MArch on Rome, the Nationalists' Blueshirt squads had stood ready to fight the Fascists on the king's command Mussolini always regarded the February 1923  agreement as a 'marriage of convenience', but it offered serveral advabtages the pro-Catholic ANI pursued a partiotic, monarchist, anti-liberal agenda and contained a larger pool of polical and administerative talent than the PNF it was also stronge in the south, had valuable business, military and royal connections and gave the Fascists greater respectability by absorbing the 80,000-strong Sempre Pronti into the Fascist Militia, the Blueshirt threat was neutralised as well 24 of 36 The fascist regime and other groups Merger with the Nationalists, 1923 the Nationalists were to have a significant impact on the regime's development the merger enabled the PNF to extend its political influence down the Italian peninsula and win the Battle for the South furthermore, Federzoni and another leading Nationalist, Alfredo Rocco, played key roles in shaping the structure of the Fascist state as minister of the interior, Federxoni introduced a series of repressive measures to strengthen the regime including press censorship, the abolition of elected mayors and greater public security# Rocco, the minister of justice from 1925 to 1932, became, in Mussolini's worsd, 'the legislator of the fascist revolution'  he introduced the death penalty, imposed restrictions on the press and opposition parties, and brought the workers firmly under state control with the Rocco Law (1926) and the Labour Charter (1927) Rocci was also responsible for the penal code of 1931, much of which survived WW2 25 of 36 The fascist regime and other groups The civil service and judiciary  Mussolini refused to replace the existing personnel in key state institutions with the PNF appointees, as the Fascist radicals demanded there was to be no 'Fascist revolution' in government such a policy would have weakened his own position by bringing about a damaging conflict with these institutions and strengthening the party's influence Mussolini also recognised that the conservatively inclined senior civil servants, judges and generals mostly endorsed his regime to bolster this support, he introduced policies which these elite groups could accept, made promotion dependent on loyalty and threatened to deal ruthlessly with any opposition from the state institutions  26 of 36 The fascist regime and other groups the civil service and judiciary  conservative career officials continued to dominate the bureaucracy, prompting the PNF to complain in 1927 that only 15% of civil servants were Fascists even in the new Fascist Ministry of Corporations in 1938 all the senior officials had been civil servants since 1916 nonetheless, the bureautcracts dutifully implemented Mussolini's policies by the early 1930s, many civil servants had joined the PNF, mainly because promotion depended on it, and from 1935 party membership became a condition of employment the regime also icnreased the number of civil service jobs to attract middlee-class Italians although Mussolini claimed that he never interfered with the judiciary, this institution was purged numerous judges, barristers and soliciters were removed because of 'political incompatability' the judiciary was expected to do the government's bidding and, therefore, the Italian legal system lost all claim to impartiality Mussolini intervened in several court cases, most notably that of the Communist Antonio Gramsci, and many suspects were imprisoned without a trial 27 of 36 The fascist regime and other groups The Army action was also taken to secure the army leadership's loyalty this, of course, was vital both for the regime's domestic survival and the successful pursuit of an expansionist foreign policy in return for their support, the generals wanted the freedom to run military affairs without interference from the PNF and the militia in short, most senior army and navy officers wanted to return to the life they had enjoyed before 1915 it was a price the Duce was willing to pay to achieve his territorial ambitions 28 of 36 The fascist regime and other groups The Army Mussolini's retention of the monarchy smoothed relations because the military remained loyal to the king and regarded the crown as an important symbol of national unity, traditon and authority senior officers were also pleased when the MVSN, which they feared might become an alternative Fascist 'epoeple's army', was placed under greater army control in August 1924 for good measure, in September 1925, General Gonzaga was appointed commander of the militia in the same year, Mussolini calmed service and royal nerves by overruling proposeed military cutes and sacking the war minister who advocated them other measures in the mid-1920s provided further reassureance the old 'garrison' army structure was restored, officers' pay was boosted, the coveted senior rank of marshall was created (1924), and Mussolini became his own war, air and navy minister from then on, in practice, the three armed services were run by under-secretaries who were usually generals or admirals the appointment of Pietro Badoglio, a monarchist cereer soldier comfortable wih the regime, as chief of the general staff in 1925 also made for good realtions between the government and the military  29 of 36 The fascist regime and other groups The Army consequently, there was no systematic Fascist takeover of the army's upper ranks indeed, as late as December 1940, the regime was still trying to get army officers to join the PNF but, regime and the generals both wanted army expansion and a more assertive foreign policy  in essence, the Fascist state maintained the jobs of career soldiers and ensured their support but at the expense of proper military planning, co-ordination and efficiency e.g. Badoglio made no serious attempt to co-ordinate the 3 services, underestimated the value of tanks and did not press ahead with technological improvements each branch competed for resources and rejected the inter-service collaboration and combined operations required for a major war Military academies were outdated and there were far too many senior officers 1939 - army had 600 generals - these and other shortcomings would become painfully clear during WW2 30 of 36 The fascist regime and other groups Local Government at local level, Mussolini reinforced the prefects' authority at the expense of regional Fascist leaders of the 86 prefects appointed in the years between 1922-29, 57 were career bureautcrats and just 29 were Fascists the latter were usually sent to less-important areas 1926 - elected local councils were abolished and each prefect now nominated the podestas in his province generally, they opted for prosperous landowners and ex-military officers rather than local Fascists, partly because most podestas were not paid  Mussolini also issued directives insisting that the prefect, not the regional party secretary, controlled the province by mid-1927, this appeared to apply in about 81 of the 91 provinces, but disputes between prefects and local party bosses continued  31 of 36 The fascist regime and other groups Local government - the battle for the south traditionally, southern Italy was dominated by well-connected local political elites (including large landowners) who controlled the municipal councils and offered patronage in return for votes initially, PNF attempts to establish southern fasci had had little impact because they lacked local allies and influences when the ANI was absorbed into the PNF, however, Fascist's prospects in the South were transformed pro-Nationalist notables and their local followings moved over to the Fascist Party this strengthened the PNF's position but at th cost of compromising with the local political elites, accepting their continued dominance in local affairs and abandoning Fascist radicalism once in government, the PNF was also available to win over southern liberals and their local supporters by offering access to patronage and the resources of the state for this reason, during the coalition period, Mussolini appointed prominent southern politicians to run ministries (such as the Ministry of Public Works) which funded thousands of jobs in the South on a local level, prefects used their provincial powers over public spending, public sector employment and municipal councils to persuade members of the local elite to join the PNF only a few liberals resisted  32 of 36 The fascist regime and other groups Local government after the Acerbo Law of 1923, candidates for parliament stoof a much better chance of being elected if they were on the government's officially endorsed list consequently, many southern politicians and deputies joined it, bringing their local support with them non-fascists on the list lost their political independence in the PNF bloc these right-wing, liberal and Catholic 'flankers' formed a significant proportion of the government's candidates in the South  33 of 36 The fascist regime and other groups Mussolini and the King Mussolini remained outwardly deferential towards the king, visiting him twice a week and accepting royal advice on appointments and honours Victor Emmanel was even made Empoeror of Abyssinia in 1936 after all, as head of state, he could still sack Mussolini, suppress the PNF and turn elite opinion against Fascism fortunately for Mussolini, though, the king was a weak and insecure man with little faith in liberal politicians he felt he needed the Fascist leader's support to retain the throne accordingly, the king signed Mussolini's decrees and did not openly oppose measures he disliked underneath the public image of friendship, however, there was much resentment Victor Emmanuel regarded Mussolini as a 'vulgar and offensive' usurper of royal powers and, privately, the Duce derided 'this tiresome monarchy' by 1930, the king had virtually withdrawn from public affairs and royal influence was weak  34 of 36 The fascist regime and other groups Mussolini and the king Mussolini weakened the king's influence in a number of ways: In December 1928, the Grand Council acquired the right to be consulted over the royal succession and to compile the list from which the monarch would choose the next thehead of government in April 1938, the newly created title First Marshall of the Empire was given to both Victor Emmanuel and Mussolini, which appeared to give the head of state and the head of government equal status in January 1939, the law replacing the Chamber of Deputies with the Chamber of Fasces and Corporations did not mention the king's role in the law-making process in June 1940, Mussolini weakened the king's position as comander-in-chief by assuming operational command of the Italian army 35 of 36 The fascist regime and other groups Mussolini and the King Mussolin confided to senior Fascists in the later 1930s that he wanted to abolish the monarchy he hoped that a successul war, in alliance with Nazi Germany, would boost the popularity of the Fascist system and allow him to remove the Crown's powers Victor Emmanuel, in contrast, was unenthusiastic about the Duce's pro-Axis foreign policy, which made him an obvious potential rallying point for those unhappy with the regime the king concluded that Italy's involvvement in the Second World War would mean the end of the Italian monarchy a Fascist victory would enable Mussolini to dismantle the monarchy defeat, on the other hand, would leave the Crown compromised in the eyes of the Allies because of its association with the dictatorship Mussolini's downfall in 1943, however, indicates that the king contiued to have at least a limited constitutional role, one which assumed greater importance as Mussolini's influence waned with military defeats  36 of 36

Benito Mussolini

Which human-rights organization campaigns for the release of political prisoners worldwide?|

Fascist Italy Fascist Italy Italy before 1919 Italy achieved her unification in 1870. She had a constitutional monarchy like that of Great Britain. But democratic traditions failed to develop in Italy because the government was controlled by corrupt politicians, called the party bosses. They controlled the elections by bribing the voters. Once they were in power, they were more interested in making personal gains for themselves than in solving the social and economic problems of the people. As a result, by 1914 Italy remained a poor and backward country. The franchise was limited to 2.5 per cent of the population until after the election of 1913. Industrial progress was slow. Moreover, Italy was poor in natural resources and lack of fertile land. Many of the farm labourers were landless and were often unemployed. Thus millions of Italians were forced to emigrate abroad. The foreign policy of the Italian governments also lacked the grandeur the days of the Caesars. Although Italy tried to raise her own international prestige by acquiring overseas colonies, she met with no success. She was defeated by Abyssinia, an African state, at the battle of Adowa in 1896. Because of its lack of success in both domestic and foreign affairs, the parliamentary government became a symbol of decadence and corruption— it was neither trusted nor respected by the people. New Problems After The First World War The government was faced with many new problems after the First World War. The first one was the Italian dissatisfaction with the territorial settlement made at the Paris Peace Conference. Most of the Italians had expected big territorial gains when they entered the war. According to the Treaty of London, Italy was promised Trentino, Trieste, Southern Tyrol, Istria, Dalmatia, the coastal districts of Albania, a share in the division of the Ottoman Empire and of the German colonies in Africa. Although the Italians fought bravely and lost 600,000 men, the territories ceded to Italy in the Pairs Peace Conference were not as many as she had originally been promised. Italy was given Trentino, Trieste, Tyrol and Istria, but she did not get any former German colonies nor any land in Asia Minor, Albania and Dalmatia. There was much resentment against the weak and unsuccessful foreign policy of the Italian government. In September 1919, a band of alien patriots, under Gabriele D'Annunzio, took Fiume, a port on the Dalmatian coast, by force in defiance of the decision of the Paris Peace Conference. But the Italians could not enjoy their victory for long because in November 1920 the Italian government had signed the treaty of Rapallo with Yugoslavia, by which Fiume became a free city under the League of Nations and Italy renounced Dalmatia as her sphere of influence. In January 1921, the Italian troops drove D'Annunzio and his followers from Fiume. Many Italians were deeply disappointed with their government which seemed be too weak in its foreign policy. The second problem was general economic distress. Italy was a poor nation. She could only support her war effort by obtaining foreign loans. Immediately after the war, as Europe was exhausted by the war, the Italian tourist trade and export trade came to a standstill and there was large-scale unemployment throughout the country. The problem of unemployment was aggravated by the return of millions of ex-soldiers to Italy and a new immigration law of the U.S. government which restricted entry of immigrants. Moreover, runaway inflation added to the sufferings of the Italians. The lira had only one-fifth of its pre-war value. Encouraged by the success of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, the unemployed workers and peasants stirred up riots and strikes throughout the country. The Red Menace As the government became increasingly unpopular, many Italians turned to support the Socialist Party and the Catholic Popular Party in the elections of 1919. The Socialist Party won more than one-third of all votes and became the largest single party in the Chamber of Deputies. They were followed at a distance by the Popular Party which won one-fifth of all votes on a platform of social reform. The ruling parties (the Liberals and Democrats) lost heavily. Encouraged by the success of the general election, the Socialists were prepared to make more strikes. Socialist agitation reached its climax in September 1920 when the General Confederation of Labour called for a general strike. During the strike the workers took over more than six hundred factories and established soviets on the Russian model to rule a number of industrial towns in northern Italy. Although the Socialists had established their control over a number of towns in the North, they failed to seize power in Italy. There were two reasons which might explain their failure to seize power: (1) The leaders of the General Confederation of Labour were chiefly interested in the improvement of workers' livelihood. When the Italian government promised a 20% wage increase to the workers, the Confederation was satisfied and decided to call off the strike. (2) The Socialists lacked the support of the peasants because they proclaimed socialization of all land. Early in 1921 the Socialist threat was over. The Socialist Party also split into several factions. About one-third of the members withdrew to form a Communist Party. Rise of Mussolini - His Background The 'Red Menace' alarmed the industrialists, landlords and other property holders, while many Italians were discontented with the government which drove D'Annunzio from Fiume. The fear of revolution and the desire for national glory were manipulated to the advantage of a new political group, the Fascists, led by Benito Mussolini. Benito Mussolini was born in 1883. His father was a blacksmith and also an anarchist. His mother was a schoolmistress. His birthplace, Romagna, was known in the 19th century for its rebellious spirit. In his youth, Mussolini did not make much achievement in education. From 1902 onwards, he picked up socialist ideas, particularly the syndicalism of Sorel. After 1904, he became a famous socialist agitator and journalist. His literary and speaking ability made him the editor of a socialist newspaper, Avanti. It is important to note that Mussolini was never a convinced socialist. The views expressed in his newspaper were not consistent. When anarchism was popular among the Italian workers, Mussolini advocated anarchist ideas in his newspaper. This seemed to indicate that he was an opportunist, very interested in winning followers and power for himself. In 1915, Mussolini was attacked by the Socialist Party for favouring war on the side of the Allies. He left the party and served as a soldier until he was wounded. After his recovery, he returned to Milan as an editor of his own newspaper 'The People of Italy'. By the end of the war, through his own experience as an editor, Mussolini had learnt the power of propaganda in mustering support from the masses. In March 1919, he formed the Milan fascio. It had no clear-cut programme except a belief in action. It only had vague ideas about radical reforms. For propaganda purpose, Mussolini advocated universal suffrage, the abolition of the Senate, land for the peasants, improvement of workers' conditions and a strong foreign policy. It seemed that Mussolini had not completely discarded his early socialist thought. The property class did not like his radical party programme. In the elections of November 1919 for the Chamber of Deputies, Mussolini and one of his close associates failed to win a seat for themselves. New Strength For The Fascist Movement The turning-point for the growth of the Fascist movement came by the end of 1920. Three important events were chiefly responsible for bringing new strength to the Fascist movement. The first event was that after D'Annunzio and his followers were driven from Fiume by the end of 1920, many Italian nationalists took Mussolini as their leader for he had always advocated a strong foreign policy and the annexation of Fiume and Dalmatia. The second event was that during 1919-1920, governments in Italy changed rapidly and yet all of them failed to find effective solutions to the most urgent problems of the day—the problems of economic inflation and social unrest. The third event was that after the General Strike in 1920, as stated earlier, the property class became haunted by the spectre of a Communist revolution and wanted a strong government to restore law and order in the country. With some support from the property class, Mussolini formed the National Fascist Party in 1921. In the elections of May 1921, Fascists were able to gain 35 seats out of 355 - a tremendous gain in contrast to their total failure only 18 months ago. The Seizure of Power by the Fascists From May 1921 to 1922, Mussolini changed his tactics to suit the different circumstances with the aim of seizing political power as soon as possible. After his initial success, Mussolini became more violently anti-Bolshevik than ever in order to win more support from the property class. He stopped attacking the monarchy, the Catholics and capitalists. He promised a strong government which could suppress the socialists' disturbances and a strong foreign policy which could bring national glory to Italy. Economically, he championed economic liberalism and an improvement in the conditions of the workers. As a result of Mussolini's new tactics, finances poured in from the industrialists. Fascist membership jumped up from 20,000 in 1920 to 248,000 in 1921, and to 300,000 in 1922. From the early spring of 1921, the Fascists, the Black Shirts, carried out a systematic terrorist campaign against the Socialist and Communist groups. During 1922 the Fascists and Communists fought bitter street battles against each other. The government army officers were friendly to the Fascists and equipped the Fascists with arms. Very soon, armed Fascists were ruling some small towns with tacit approval from the government and the property class. To counteract the growing influence of the Fascists, the Socialists and Communists declared a general strike in August 1922. The strike was ill-prepared. It was suppressed by the government troops in cooperation with the Fascists. After the second general strike, the property class relied more and more upon the Fascists to defeat Socialism and Communism by force. March On Rome On October 26, 1922, Mussolini decided to exploit the chaotic situation to seize power. He threatened a 'March on Rome' if he was not accepted into the cabinet. Bands of armed Fascists marched to Rome from various parts of the country. This threat caused genuine alarm to the politicians in Rome, who failed to deal with the emergency. The Liberal Premier resigned almost at once. King Victor Emmanuel refused to call out the army to resist the Fascists partly because he was anxious to avoid civil war, and partly because he wanted a strong government to restore law and order. The King asked Mussolini to form a new government. On October 31, Mussolini became Prime Minister in a coalition government of Fascists, Nationalists, Catholics, and right-wing Liberals. Power was thus put into Mussolini's hands. There were a number of reasons which might explain the rapid rise of Fascists to power: (i) the constitutional government was disliked by the Italians long before the First World War; (ii) there was increasing discontent with the Italian government after the First World War because of its failures in both foreign and domestic affairs; (iii) the threat of a socialist revolution made many Italians desire for a strong government which could impose law and order in the country; (iv) Mussolini was an opportunist and he could always change his party programme to win favour from the people—particularly the property class; and (v) the Liberal government and King Victor Emmanuel feared Fascism less than Socialist revolution and they capitulated at the threat of a 'March on Rome'. The Meaning Of Fascism The word Fascism has a dual origin. It comes in part from the word 'fasces', a bundle of rods round an axe carried by the magistrates in ancient Rome as a symbol of power and authority. It comes also from the Italian word, fascio, meaning band or group. The basic concept of Fascism, as elaborated by Mussolini, was that the State was absolute before which individuals and groups were all relative. Politically, to the Fascists, parliamentary democracy could only lead to inefficiency and corrupt government; and so the whole parliamentary system must be discarded. In the words of Mussolini, national strength was conceived qualitatively and not quantitatively. For the strength of the nation, it should be ruled by a well-disciplined party elite, which, under the guidance of an inspired and unquestioned leader, would restore order and stability for the nation and lead it forward to greatness. Economically, Mussolini preferred state control to laissez faire. Labour and capital must work together under the direction of the state. Socially, Mussolini condemned Marxism for dividing the nation into classes and causing class war which would sap the strength of a nation. Thus he demanded that the people should subject themselves to the absolute authority of the state. People could find their own worth only when they were serving the state. As a result, freedom of assembly and thinking were wiped out in Italy. In foreign policy, since Fascism promised national glory, it was natural for Mussolini to adopt an expansionist foreign policy from the beginning of his rule. Mussolini's ultimate goal was to revive the glories of the old Roman Empire. In short, a Fascist state was a totalitarian state, controlling all the political, economic and social activities of its people. Mussolini always proclaimed, "Everything within the state, nothing against the state, nothing outside the state." The masses should only "believe, obey and fight." N.B. It must be emphasized that Fascism was an opportunistic philosophy. In its early days 'action' was the only watch-word. Mussolini could always adjust his philosophy to appeal to all discontented groups. Political Dictatorship Under Mussolini Politics from 1922 to 1929 Mussolini was not satisfied with a coalition government. He aimed to be the ruler of one-party totalitarian state. From 1922 to 1929, slowly but gradually, he destroyed all effective opposition at home. From, 1922 to 1923, Mussolini steadily built up his own power in the government. He placed loyal Fascists in key government positions, created the Voluntary Fascist Militia for National Security, and promoted the Grand Council of Fascism (the highest authority of the Fascist Party) into an organ of state. In July 1923, Mussolini was able to secure a new electoral law from the parliament. The new law provided that any party, having 25% of the votes in a general election, should receive two-thirds of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Mussolini immediately arranged for elections to the Chamber of Deputies in April 1924. In an atmosphere of intimidation and violence, with the Fascist Militia using strong-arm methods, the 'National List' presented by the Fascists obtained 63% of the roses. In June 1924 when the new Parliament convened, the Socialist leader, Giacomo Matteotti, denounced the Fascists of the use of force in the recent elections. He was immediately murdered by the Fascists. Matteotti's murder led to an outcry against Mussolini. The parties in opposition to Mussolini's government withdrew from the parliament. This was called the Aventine Secession. The Aventine Secession only strengthened Mussolini's determination to use force to wipe out all his opponents. In 1926, a law on association outlawed all political opposition, and a secret police force was established to arrest political opponents. In 1925-26, more than ten thousand anti-fascists were arrested, sentenced to death and exiled. To strengthen his control of the country, the workers' unions were dissolved and opposition newspapers were closed. In 1928, a new law abolished universal suffrage and restricted parliamentary elections to candidates officially nominated by the Fascist Grand Council. In the 1929 elections, an al1-Pascist Parliament was elected. In the same year, Mussolini, the Duce (the leader) was given power by the pro-Fascist parliament to govern by decrees. He issued a series of decrees which transferred to him complete legislative authority. The King had to accept Mussolini as the permanent Prime Minister of Italy. From this time onwards, all other ministers were appointed, and dismissed by and directed to work under Mussolini alone. Politics from 1929 to 1939 From 1929 to I939, Mussolini completed the building-up of the totalitarian state. In 1938, the Fascist Grand Council abolished the Parliament, and set up in its place an Assembly of Corporations which consisted of representatives from twenty-two industrial and professional corporations. In other words, the parliamentary system in Italy came to an end. In 1939, though Italy remained, in name, a monarchy, Mussolini, as the Duce of the Fascist Party, was the uncrowned King of Italy. He was always right and no one dared to oppose him. The Creation of a Corporate State The basic aim of all economic measures was to bring economic prosperity to Italy. Since 1921 Mussolini continued to adopt the high tariff policy to protect the home market from the competition of foreign goods. The most important economic reform was, however, the formation of the Corporate State. On April 21, 1927 the Labour Charter solemnly expressed the ideas of Fascist Corporate State. According to the Charter, the government would bring both employers and employees of the same trade into one confederation. In 1934 twenty-two corporations were formed. Each corporation consisted of employers' and workers' representatives. The government also sent its representatives to participate in the administration of the corporations. All the corporations were put under the supervision of a National Council of Corporations, of which Mussolini was the Chairman. These Corporations provided accident, unemployment and health insurance for workers. But the workers’ strikes were forbidden. Workers could appeal to the Labour Courts of the Corporations if they had any disputes with the employers. The employers were urged by the government representatives of each corporation to improve the conditions of the workers—there should be no lockouts of workers by employers. Other Economic Reform Besides the system of corporations, Mussolini helped the industries with financial subsidies. The state would buy the national products even though their prices were higher than the foreign products. There were also the improvement of transport and the development of hydro-electricity in the North so as to help the industrial progress of Italy. In agriculture, the most famous reform was the 'Battle of Wheat' : — this was an attempt to make Italy self-sufficient in food. There was also the big land reclamation project in the Pontine Marshes near Rome to provide more farm-land for the peasants. An Assessment of the Economic Reforms In spite of all his efforts Mussolini clearly failed to give economic prosperity to Italy and a real improvement in the standard of living of the workers and peasants. First of all, the corporations benefited only the employers. Workers' interests were sacrificed in the name of national good. To the workers, no strikes were permitted. If they had a wage dispute, they could only appeal to the Labour Courts of the Corporations. But these Labour Courts were dominated by the employers and the state officials who always sided with the employers. Thus workers were forced to work without protest. In agriculture, the Battle of Wheat did increase wheat production. But the cost was uneconomic since wheat could have been brought from the U.S.A. at a much cheaper price. Moreover, land suitable for the growing of other crops such as olive and fruits were used for the growing of wheat. As a result, Italian agricultural production generally declined (except wheat) and people must eat less. To sum up, Mussolini gave to most of the Italians not economic betterment but a decline in their standard of living. Social Policy If economic distress could breed discontent, discontent would lead to social unrest. But social unrest was not possible under Mussolini's regime. In social policy, as narrated in the above paragraphs, the workers' unions were replaced by the Corporations, directly controlled by the replaced by National Council of Corporations. Thus the workers could not organize any political movements against the government. The population as a whole was subject to control by the government through various channels: (i) The secret police was given wide powers. Even the bandits which had been rife in the south for decades were suppressed. (ii) Through education, school children were indoctrinated with Fascist ideas. They were told that "Mussolini is always right. Millions of them were recruited into the youth organizations of the party. In 1931, university professors were forced to swear an oath of loyalty to fascism and to teach according to its principles. (iii) The mass media. — the cinema, the radio, the press, the books and the magazines—were all strictly censored by the government. The Lateran Agreements (1929) Mussolini wanted to secure the support of the Catholics for his regime because most of the Italians were Catholics. Mussolini understood that if he wanted to win over the support of the Catholics, he had to heal the dispute between the Papacy and the Kingdom of Italy. Origin of the dispute between the Papacy and the Italian government The dispute between the Papacy and the Italian Kingdom began in 1870. In that year, when the unification of Italy was achieved, the Papal Kingdom was confiscated by the Italian Kingdom, so the Pope refused to recognize the Italian Kingdom, or to step outside the Vatican City. After long and difficult negotiations between Mussolini and the Pope, the Lateran Agreements of February 1929 were made. They consisted of a Treaty, a Concordat, and a Financial Convention. The Treaty, the Concordat and the Financial Convention: By the Treaty, the state recognized papal sovereignty over the Vatican City, with full diplomatic rights. The state also recognized Catholicism as the national religion. In return, the Papacy declared that it recognized the Kingdom of Italy as the legitimate regime of Italy and surrendered its claim to the greater part of Rome. By the Concordat, the Papacy sought to regulate its relations with the state, such as the appointment of Bishops, marriage laws and education. Finally, by the Financial Convention, the Pope was compensated with ninety million dollars for the loss of Papal territories since 1870. The effects of the Lateran Agreements The Lateran Agreements between the Pope and the state were at best a compromise. But they were beneficial to both sides. For the Pope, the Agreements raised his political prestige in Italy and in the world at large. The King and Queen of Italy visited the Pope. The Pope could also send his ambassadors to various parts of the world. For Mussolini, it was a great personal triumph. By healing the wounds between the Italian Kingdom and the Papacy, Mussolini could get support from the Catholics — they gave support to Mussolini's regime until his fall from power. As the Pope regarded Mussolini as "a man of Providence", this also helped to raise Mussolini's prestige in the eyes of the world. In short, Mussolini, by the Lateran Agreements, had obtained the much-needed support from a broad section of the Italian people for his dictatorial regime. During his rule Mussolini pursued a vigorous foreign policy. The army nearly doubled in size—from 175,000 men to 275,00 men. There were several reasons for this vigorous foreign policy: (1) Mussolini wanted to establish in the Mediterranean a modern Roman Empire, rivalling that of the ancient Caesars. (2) A successful foreign policy might distract the Italians from their miserable conditions at home. (3) Like most of his countrymen, Mussolini was disappointed with the small territorial gains following the First World War and the humiliating treatment by the powers at the Paris Peace Conference. (4) Mussolini wanted more territories to settle the surplus Italian population and to acquire raw materials for her industries. (5) Fascist doctrines preached national glory. Italians should expand to show their national greatness. Mussolini pursued his aggressive foreign policy rather cautiously up to the end of the 1920's because he did not want to arouse great opposition from the Big Powers, France and Britain. In 1923 Mussolini provoked the Corfu Incident. In 1924 he obtained the port Fiume by a treaty with Yugoslavia. In 1926 he began the policy of infiltration into Albania. He made loans to Albania in order to obtain oil concessions. He also sent military advisers to organise the Albanian army. (The climax of all these moves came in April 1939 when the Italian troops overran the country.) Throughout the 1920's, Mussolini also tried to repulse any French attempts to make alliances with Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia but he was unsuccessful. Italian foreign policy was more aggressive in the 1930's because the rise of Nazi Germany had weakened the relative strength of the democratic states. Mussolini first invaded Abyssinia in 1935. This was followed by the formation of Rome-Berlin Axis in November 1936. During the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) Mussolini also gave almost unlimited support to Franco. In 1940, Mussolini declared war on Britain and France. The Italian forces soon met with defeats in their encounters with the Allied forces and suffered heavy losses in their invasion of Libya and East Africa. In 1943, Mussolini was forced to resign by a coup led by King Victor Emmanuel. Fascist Italy: Conclusion Fascism arose in Italy because the liberal parliamentary regime could solve almost none of the perplexing problems arising from the First World War. Under the stress of economic hardships and social unrest, the propertied class turned to support the Fascists. After Mussolini had seized political power in 1922, he maintained himself in power by imposing a strict control of the political, economic and political social life of the Italian people. During the rule of Mussolini (1922-1943), dictatorship Italians enjoyed a long period of stable government but they were deprived of political liberty and economic advancement. Italy remained a poor and backward country. It is no wonder that Italy met with defeats in the Second World War and Mussolini's regime was overthrown by the Italian people in the midst of the war.

i don't know

Which British company was effectively the ruler of much of India until the India Act of 1858?

The British East India Company — the Company that Owned a Nation (or Two) The British East India Company — the Company that Owned a Nation (or Two) George P. Landow , Professor of English and the History of Art, Brown University [ Victorian Web Home —> Victorian Political History —> Victorian Social History —> The Empire > —> The British India ] The East India Company is, or rather was, an anomaly without a parallel in the history of the world. It originated from sub-scriptions, trifling in amount, of a few private individuals. It gradually became a commercial body with gigantic resources, and by the force of unforeseen circumstances assumed the form of a sovereign power, while those by whom its affairs were directed continued, in their individual capacities, to be without power or political influence. — Bentley's Miscellany 43 (1858) One of the strangest parts of the history of the British Empire involves that commercial venture generally known as the East India Company, though its original name when founded by royal charter on the very last day of 1600 was the Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies. As its name suggests, the company was the enterprise of London businessmen who banded together to make money importing spices from South Asia. For centuries the valuable spice trade with the East Indies (as they were long known) relied on land routes across Asia and the Middle East, but by the sixteenth century, the superior navigational technology and skills of the Portuguese for the first time permitted Europeans to cut out intermediaries and hence make themselves far greater profits. The Spanish and Portuguese had a monopoly of the East Indies spice trade until destruction of the Spanish Aramada in 1588, which permitted the British and Dutch to seek their share of this wealthy import business. The company with the long name first entered the spice trade in the form of an old-fashioned or early capitalist venture, essentially conducting each voyage as a separate business venture with its own subsribers or stock-holders. This approach lasted for a dozen years, and then in 1612 the company switched to temporary joint stocks and finally to permanent joint stocks in 1657. Supposedly a monopoly, the company evenentually faced competition from another group of English investors and merchants, and the two merged in 1708 as the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, The company met with opposition from the Dutch in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) and the Portuguese. The Dutch virtually excluded company members from the East Indies after the Amboina Massacre in 1623 (an incident in which English, Japanese, and Portuguese traders were executed by Dutch authorities), but the company's defeat of the Portuguese in India (1612) won them trading concessions from the Mughal Empire. The company settled down to a trade in cotton and silk piece goods, indigo, and saltpetre, with spices from South India. It extended its activities to the Persian Gulf, Southeast Asia, and East Asia. The company's encounters with foreign competitors eventually required it to assemble its own military and administrative departments, thereby becoming an imperial power in its own right, though the British government began to reign it in by the late eighteenth century. Before Parliament created a government-controlled policy-making body with the Regulating Act of 1773 and the India Act eleven years later, shareholders' meetings made decisions about Britain's de facto colonies in the East. The British government took away the Company's monopoly in 1813, and after 1834 it worked as the government's agency until the 1857 India Mutiny when the Colonial Office took full control. The East India Company went out of existence in 1873. During its heyday, the East India Company not only established trade through Asia and the Middle East but also effectively became of the ruler of territories vastly larger than the United Kingdrom itself. In addition, it also created, rather than conquered, colonies. Singapore, for example, was an island with very few Malay inhabitants in 1819 when Sir Stamford Raffles purchased it for the Company from their ruler, the Sultan of Johor, and created what eventually became one of the world's greatest trans-shipment ports. Related Material

East India Company

What offence was former Panamanian leader Manuel Noriega tried for in the USA?

British Rule in India This page is part of © FOTW Flags Of The World website British Rule in India Colonies of the United Kingdom British Rule in India India didn't conform to any of the rules, not being a Dominion, but having some Dominion-like status (it was a member of the League of Nations) and not really being a colony either. Its flag was the Union Jack bearing the insignia of the Order of the Star of India. It had a Blue and Red Ensign, too. Roy Stilling, 6 February 1996 Until 1858 the British possessions in India were fiefdoms of the East India Company (EIC). In that year those territories passed to the Crown, who nevertheless continued to appoint a Governor-General of the whole as the EIC had done. In 1876, at Disraeli's behest, Queen Victoria adopted the title of Empress of India, and henceforth India became known officially as the "Indian Empire" with a Viceroy instead of a Governor-General. In theory, the large numbers of "Princely States" which made up 2/5 of the territory and 1/5 of the population (source: Whitaker's Almanac 1945) of the Indian Empire (the term "British India" was properly reserved for the territories under the British Crown) were independent, sovereign states. However, they all had treaties with the Crown that effectively made them protectorates, and events like the Delhi Durbar of 1910 emphasised the idea that the King-Emperor was suzerain over the whole sub-continent. As a digression, until just a few years ago it was possible to find 1948 shillings in one's change - the last British coins to have "IND. IMP." among the royal titles. That the Princely States had no real freedom was made plain at independence in 1947 when they were ordered to chose absorption into either India or Pakistan (the choice of the Hindu Ruler of mainly-Muslim Kashmir to opt for India is the cause of the tensions there that persist to this day). Only Hyderabad, the largest and most populous State, attempted to re-assert its independence and if I recall correctly it bowed to the inevitable and joined India in 1948. I believe all the States had flags, but don't know of any. Finally, India's special status was recognised within the British government too - from 1858 to 1947 India had its own its own department, the India Office, and Secretary of State, quite separate from the Colonial Office. Roy Stilling, 8 February 1996 Star of India Source: http://www.medals.org.uk/united-kingdom/united-kingdom010.htm The star of the Grand Commander of the Most Exalted Order of the Star of India, the highest class of the Star of India and the star that appears all over the place on British "colonial" flags in India. What I have given is just a line image. Ed Haynes, 28 July 1996 The Most Exalted Order of the Star of India was an Order of Chivalry instituted in 1861 and discontinued in 1947. David Prothero, 8 July 1998 My "Wonder Book of Empire" of 1920 has a colour plate of the arms. [The star of India] consists of a golden sunburst, on which is a light blue garter with the motto "Heaven's Light Our Guide", on which is a silver five-pointed star. These were the insignia and motto of the Order of the Star of India (inaugurated in 1861) and were chosen as being acceptable to all religious groups in India. I guess that the crown is the Tudor crown, which cropped up quite regularly surmounting or within the arms/disks on various flags. Paul Adams, 22 October 1995 "The Most Exalted Order of the Star of India...The circlet of the order...is of light blue inscribed with the motto, "Heaven's light our guide." This in its turn is surrounded by the collar of the order, which is composed of alternate links of the Indian Lotus flower, crossed palm-branches, and the united red and white rose of England. In the centre of the collar is an Imperial crown from which depends the badge of the order, this being an onyx comeo of the effigy of her late Majesty Queen Victoria within the motto of the order, and surmounted by a star, the whole being richly jewelled. The surrounding of the shield by the circle of the order doubtless is a consequence and follows upon the original custom of the armorial use of the garter..." Source: Fox-Davies (1925) Dipesh Navsaria, 27 July 1996 The Star of India and is a combination of a sun and a star and a garter (I think that's the correct term). The centre is a five-pointed star, one point at 12 o'clock, with lines from the centre to each point and from the centre to the indentation between each point, thus giving the star a three-dimensional appearance. Around the star is a circular band, tied at the bottom with a small tidy knot that projects only a little beyond the circumference of the band. The points of the star overlap the inner edge of the band by about one third of its width, and on the band is written in upper case letters with a dot at half height between each word, 'HEAVENS LIGHT OUR GUIDE', starting at the 7 o'clock point of the star and finishing at the 5 o'clock point. Projecting beyond the band are 16 slightly wavy sun's rays, alternating with 16 slightly smaller wavy rays. The proportions are: centre to a point of the star 8.5 units band 5 units short ray 8 units. total radius 22 units (the star overlaps the band) Some versions have 26+26 rays with a greater difference between the length of the long and short rays so that the short rays have in total, a more circular outline with the long rays appearing to project out from the circumference of a circle. The rays and the star are yellow (gold?), and the band and background to the star is pale blue (silver?). On the star there's a certain amount of irregular shading which tends to be concentrated to the left of the lines running from the centre to the points and to the right of the lines running from the centre to the indentations. David Prothero, 26 May 1997 image provided by Bruce Berry, 4 September 2007 This photo is of an actual Star of India badge as used on flags. I was given this badge by Robin Ashburner (Flagmakers in Swansea, Wales) who makes historical flags and uses this badge for the colonial Indian flag. The detail here is not too dissimilar to that shown above. Bruce Berry, 4 September 2007 Flags and Ensigns with the Star of India The badge of the Order was used on three flags: image by Clay Moss, 21 February 2006 Union Flag defaced in the centre with the badge surmounted by a crown, no white disc, no garland: Viceroy and Governor General afloat in Indian Waters c1885 to 1947. Hoisted at main masthead. Hoisted at the foremasthead it indicated the presence of a subordinate Governor, Lieutenant- Governor, Chief Commissioner or Political Officer. Also hoisted at the fore by Political Resident Persian Gulf, or subordinate Political Officer within the limits of his jurisdiction, or on duty elsewhere. image by Martin Grieve, 2 February 2013 Blue Ensign with the badge in the centre of the fly: Ensign of Indian Marine 1879 to 1891. Ensign of Royal Indian Marine 1891 to 11 November 1928. Jack of Royal Indian Marine 1 November 1928 to 1934 (see previous jack ). Jack of Royal Indian Navy 1934 to 1947. Between 1928 and independence in 1947, the Royal Indian Marine was allowed to fly the White Ensign of the Royal Navy (i.e. British White Ensign). The former Ensign was retained, but was then flown, when appropriate, as a Jack at the bow. In 1934 the Royal Indian Marine was re-named the Royal Indian Navy. image by Clay Moss, 1 October 2005 Red Ensign with the badge in the centre of the fly: No Admiralty Warrant was issued for this ensign which was an unofficial, or semi-official land flag. It was used between 1945 and 1947 in the context of India's membership of the United Nations, and possibly used earlier to denote India's membership of the League of Nations. Detail of star Jack of Royal Indian Marine before 1928 image by Martin Grieve, 2 February 2013 The Star of India Blue Ensign did not become the Jack of the Royal Indian Marine until 11th November 1928. Before that date it had been the Ensign, and the Jack had been a Union Jack with a blue border one fifth the width of the flag. Since the whole flag was 1:2, the union jack presumably had proportions of 3:8. David Prothero, 8 May 1999 Sources: Admiralty Flags of All Nations ; Navies of the Empire, F.E.Mcmurtrie; Naval and Maritime Flags of British India, A.Rowand; Colours of the Fleet, M. Farrow; Public Records Office document ADM 1/8726/128. David Prothero, 18 February 1998 Ensign of Local Naval Vessels (Local Maritime Government Ensign) 1884-1904 1:2, image by Martin Grieve, 4 February 2013 Admiralty warrant, granted on 9th April 1884. Martin Grieve, 5 July 2008 The ensign of local naval vessels is a usual defaced blue ensign. The badge is a golden lion rampant guardant holding in front paws a crown. Željko Heimer, 9 November 2001 Indian Government Local Maritime ensign 1884 - 1904 Martin Grieve, 4 February 2013 After 1904 1:2, image by Clay Moss, 20 October 2007 After 1904 the the Victorian blue ensign was replaced by the Tudor crown's introduction. Martin Grieve, 5 July 2008 This was the ensign of Local Maritime Indian Governments. It was not a naval ensign, but the Indian equivalent of a colonial Blue Ensign as used on unarmed vessels. For example until 1937 when responsibility for Aden was transferred from the Government of India to the Colonial Office vessels of the Aden Port Trust had used this ensign. David Prothero, 11 November 2001 In 1880 a Blue Ensign defaced with the badge of the Port Trust of Bombay was sanctioned by the Admiralty. It was followed in 1883 by one for the Port Trust of Calcutta. At the suggestion of Rear Admiral Sir John Hext, the Government of India requested that these ensigns should be withdrawn, and proposed that there should be a general maritime ensign for Indian port or harbour authorities. The Admiralty issued a warrant, dated 9th April 1884, authorising "the Blue Ensign of Her Majesty's Fleet with the Lion Rampant Guardant holding a Crown (the crest of the Honourable East India Company) in the fly thereof. To distinguish vessels of any particular department, a triangular flag or pennant will be flown in bows, with the name inscribed thereon of the department to which vessel belongs or duty on which employed." CUSTOMS in white letters on blue. WATER POLICE in blue letters on white. MEDICAL in black letters on yellow. "Vessels of private bodies are to wear the Red Ensign with such distinguishing triangular flags as they decide upon." These were: PILOT in red letters on white. PORT TRUST in white letters on red. David Prothero, 14 August 2004 Detail of Badge (before 1904) image by Martin Grieve, 4 February 2013 The badge, used on the broad pennant and on the Blue Ensign (above), was the crest of the arms of the East India Company, known colloquially as the monkey and the coconut.  The 1889 Admiralty flag book shows this device encompassed within a circle and presumably, this circle was drawn at 4/9 of the width of the blue ensign which would have been standard procedure at that time and indicated as such to give guidance to contemporary flag manufacturers. Martin Grieve, 5 July 2008 Here is a history of its use: 1:2, image by Željko Heimer 1847. The Superintendent of the Indian Navy, was made Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Navy, and hoisted the broad pennant of a Commodore 1st Class of the Royal Navy on his flag ship in Bombay Harbour. His right to do this was disputed. 1:2, image by Martin Grieve, 2 February 2013 1:2, image by Clay Moss, 3 November 2006 1848. 14th June. The Admiralty authorised a special broad pennant , Commodore 1st Class Indian Navy, for the use of the Commander-in-Chief Indian Navy. The Commander of the Persian Gulf Squadron, who assumed the rank of Commodore 2nd Class, had a similar broad pennant in blue. Both pennants went out of use in 1863 when the Indian Navy was disbanded. 1877. The Bengal Marine and the Bombay Marine, which had each been concerned only with transport, surveying and pilotage, were amalgamated, armed, and given the title Her Majesty's Indian Marine. 1879. 2nd July. Admiralty Letter authorised Blue Ensign defaced with the Star of India as the ensign of H.M. Indian Marine. 1:2, image by �eljko Heimer, 3 September 2007 1884. 21st April. Admiralty Warrant authorised blue bordered Union Jack as the Jack of H.M. Indian Marine. At the same time a Warrant, replacing the letter of 2nd July 1879, confirmed the Blue Ensign defaced with the Star of India as the ensign of the Marine. 1892. Name changed to Royal Indian Marine. 1:2, image by Clay Moss and �eljko Heimer, 3 September 2007 1909. 13th April. Broad Blue Pennant (no St. George's cross) defaced with Star of India introduced as Senior Officer's Pennant. Worn only in port when in company with other vessels of the Royal Indian Marine. Also worn by Port Officers in the Mercantile Marine Department. 1921. The Broad Red Pennant that had been discontinued in 1863 was resurrected as the flag of the Director of the Royal Indian Marine. 1928. 11th November. The White Ensign of the Royal Navy became the ensign of the Royal Indian Marine. Its former ensign, Blue Ensign defaced with the Star of India, replaced the blue bordered Union Jack as its Jack. The Broad Red Pennant was retained, but only for special occasions. 1934. Renamed Royal Indian Navy. 1947. 15th August. Split into Indian Navy with National Flag of India as the Jack, and Royal Pakistan Navy with National Flag of Pakistan as the Jack. 1950. 26th January. India became a republic and Indian Navy Ensign replaced White Ensign. 1956. 23rd March. Pakistan became a republic and Pakistan Navy Ensign replaced White Ensign. David Prothero, 11 November 2001 image by Martin Grieve, 4 February 2013 Also listed as Commodore 1st class of the Indian Navy 1848 - 1904. Martin Grieve, 4 February 2013 1:2, image by Clay Moss, 3 November 2006 The standard of the Director of the Indian Navy when aboard Indian Navy ships is a red swallow-tailed broad pennant with a yellow cross and badge, a golden lion rampant guardant holding in front paws a crown, in canton.

i don't know

Which are the two main political parties in the USA?

Politics1 - Director of U.S. Political Parties DIRECTORY OF U.S. POLITICAL PARTIES THE TWO MAJOR PARTIES: DEMOCRATIC PARTY (DNC) - The Democrats won the White House in 2008 and 2012, won some key governorships (PA, NY, MO, MN, and CA) -- but lost control of the US House in 2010, lost the US Senate in 2014, and lost the White House in 2016 (while still carrying a plurality of the national popular vote by a margin of over 2.5 million votes). Democrats run the wide gamut from the near Euro-style democratic-socialist left ( Barbara Lee and Bernie Sanders , an independent who caucuses with the Dems) and traditional liberals ( Elizabeth Warren , Sherrod Brown , Nancy Pelosi ) to the pragmatic "centrist" moderate-to-liberal style ( Andrew Cuomo , Martin O'Malley , Mark Warner ) to the Dem center-right ( John Hickenlooper and the New Democratic Coalition ) to the dwindling GOP-style center-conservative right ( Joe Manchin , Blue Dog Coalition ). The 2016 presidential nomination contest saw a competitive race between the traditional Democratic establishment (Clinton) and the progressive wing (Sanders), in which the establishment prevailed. Official affiliated national Democratic sites include: College Democrats of America ("College Dems") . REPUBLICAN PARTY (RNC) - Republicans recaptured the Presidency in 2016, following strong off-year elections in 2010 (recapturing majority status in the US House) and 2014 (recapturing US Senate control). The GOP also holds several key Governorships (including TX, OH, FL, GA, MI, IL, WI, MO, MA and MD). Pre-Trump, the Republicans could generally be classified into several different sub-sets: traditional establishment conservatives ( Paul Ryan , John Kasich , Jeb Bush , and the Club for Growth ), the "Religious Right" ( Mike Huckabee , Mike Pence , and the Family Research Council ), libertarians ( Rand Paul and the Campaign for Liberty ), the "paleo-conservative" wing that backs strict anti-immigration controls ( Steve King ), the rapidly dwindling "centrist" or "moderate" wing ( Mark Kirk , Larry Hogan and Charlie Baker ), and the powerful firebrand "Tea Party" movement ( Ted Cruz , Jim Jordan , Mike Lee ). President Donald Trump , however, is a political nationalist and economic populist who does not fit neatly into any of these traditional GOP factions, and in fact handily vanquished 2016 nomination rivals from each of the various other wings of the party. Official, affiliated national GOP sites include: THE "BIG THREE" THIRD PARTIES: (Based upon vote performance over past two election cycles and ballot access) CONSTITUTION PARTY - The Constitution Party is strongly pro-life, anti-gun control, anti-tax, anti-immigration, trade protectionist, "anti-New World Order," anti-United Nations, anti-gay rights, anti-welfare, and pro-school prayer. Former Nixon Administration official and one-time Conservative Coalition chair Howard Phillips founded the party, originally named the US Taxpayers Party (USTP), in 1992. The USTP renamed itself the Constitution Party in 1999. The party has fielded presidential tickets since 1992 and congressional and state candidates since 1994 (but only in a small number of states). The party received a brief boost in the media when conservative US Senator Bob Smith of New Hampshire -- an announced GOP Presidential hopeful -- bolted from the Republican Party to seek the Constitution Party nomination in 2000 (but the erratic Smith quit the Constitution Party race a few weeks later and rejoined the GOP). At the 1999 national convention, the party narrowly adopted a controversial change to the platform's preamble which declared "that the foundation of our political position and moving principle of our political activity is our full submission and unshakable faith in our Savior and Redeemer, our Lord Jesus Christ" -- although the party officially invites "all citizens of all faiths" to become active in the party. Any national candidate seeking the party's nomination is explicitly required to tell the convention of any areas of disagreement with the party's platform. In 2012, former GOP Congressman Virgil Goode was the party's Presidential nominee (5th place - 0.09% - 122,000 votes). Longtime party activist and attorney Darrell Castle was the CP's 2016 Presidential nominee (6th place - 0.15% - 203,000 votes). GREEN PARTY OF THE UNITED STATES - The Green Party -- the informal US-affiliate of the leftist, environmentalist European Greens movement -- is one of the two largest third parties in the nation. The Greens support strict environmental protection laws, stronger labor rights, expanded social programs, and higher taxes on the wealthy and corporations. The party regularly fields candidates for local, state and federal offices in many states, and has established active state affiliate parties in nearly all states. The Greens scored a major political points when it convinced prominent consumer advocate Ralph Nader to run as their first Presidential nominee in 1996. Spending just over $5,000, Nader was on the ballot in 22 states and carried over 700,000 votes (4th place - 0.8%). In 2000, Nader raised millions of dollars, mobilized leftist activists and grabbed national headlines with his anti-corporate campaign message. Nader ignored pleas from liberal Democrats that he abandon the race because he was siphoning essential votes away from Al Gore's campaign. In the end, Nader was on the ballot in 44 states and finished third with 2,878,000 votes (2.7%). Until 2001, the Greens were largely a collection of fairly autonomous state/local based political entities with only a weak (and sometimes splintered) national leadership structure that largely served to coordinate electoral activities. In 2001, the party officially converted into a formal, unified national party organization. Physician and progressive activist Jill Stein was the Green presidential nominee in 2012 (4th place - 0.4% - 470,000 votes) and 2016 (4th place - 1.1% - 1,456,500 votes). Official Green Party links include: Green Pages (newspaper), Global Green Network , Green Party News Center , Campus Greens , Lavender Green Caucus , National Women's Caucus , and Green Party Election Results . The Green Party Platform sets forth the party's official stances. LIBERTARIAN PARTY - The LP, founded in 1971, bills itself as "America's largest third party" (and, along with the Greens, are definitely among the two largest third parties in the nation). The Libertarians are neither left nor right: they believe in total individual liberty (pro-drug legalization, pro-gay marriage, pro-home schooling, pro-gun rights, generally pro-choice, etc.) and total economic freedom (anti-welfare, anti-government regulation of business, anti-minimum wage, anti-income tax, pro-free trade). The LP espouses a classical laissez faire ideology which, they argue, means "more freedom, less government and lower taxes." Over 400 LP members currently hold various -- though fairly low level -- government offices (including lots of minor appointed officials like "School District Facilities Task Force Member" and "Town Recycling Committee Member"). The LP's biggest problem: Congressmen Ron Paul and Paul Broun, humorist/journalist PJ O'Rourke, the Republican Liberty Caucus and others in the GOP who attract ideological libertarians into the political arena by arguing they can bring about libertarian change more easily under the Republican label. In 2012, former GOP New Mexico Governor Gary Johnson was the LP Presidential nominee, had ballot status in 48 states (3rd place - 1% - 1,276,000 votes). The party's 2016 ticket featured again Governor Johnson , joined this time by former GOP Massachusetts Governor Bill Weld as his VP runningmate. Johnson-Weld produce the best finish in the history of the party (3rd place - 3.3% - 4,487,700 votes). Johnson, however, proved to be an unfocused and undisciplined candidate, and he seemingly squandered an opportunity to perform significantly better. The LP has active affiliate parties in every state . The party has been divided for years between two fighting factions: a more purist/hardcore libertarian group and a more moderate "reform" faction. The hardcore group are uncompromising anarchistic-libertarians in the Ayn Rand mold. By contrast, the moderates (like Gary Johnson) are interested in focusing on only a handful of more popular issues (drug decriminalization, gun rights, tax cuts, etc.) in exchange for attracting a larger number of voters. Allies of the hardcore faction firmly held control of the party from the late-1980s until the moderates seized control at the 2006 national convention and somewhat softened the party's platform . Other related LP sites are: the LP News (official LP newspaper), College Libertarians (official student group), LPedia (official LP Wiki history site). SMALLER THIRD PARTIES: AMERICAN PARTY - The AP is a very small, very conservative, Christian splinter party formed after a break from the American Independent Party in 1972. US Senator Jesse Helms (R-NC) and Governor Mel Thomson (R-NH) both flirted with the American Party's presidential nomination in 1976, but both ultimately declined. The party won its strongest finish in the 1976 presidential election -- nominee Tom Anderson carried 161,000 votes (6th place) -- but has now largely faded into almost total obscurity. The party's 1996 Presidential candidate -- anti-gay rights activist and attorney Diane Templin -- carried just 1,900 votes. Former California GOP State Senator Don Rogers -- the 2000 nominee -- did even worse, as he failed to qualify for ballot status in any states. The party, which used to field a sizable amount of state and local candidates in the 1970s, rarely fields any candidates in recent years. Beyond the pro-life, pro-gun, anti-gay and anti-tax views that you'd expect to find, the American Party also advocates an end to farm price supports/subsidies, privatization of the US Postal Service, opposes federal involvement in education, supports abolition of the Environmental Protection Agency, supports repeal of NAFTA, opposes minimum wage laws, opposes land use zoning regulations and opposes convening a Constitutional convention. The AP also opposes the United Nations, the New World Order, communism, socialism and the Trilateral Commission . Note: This party is NOT associated with the American Party of South Carolina -- a one-state only party organization -- which is a moderate/centrist party. AMERICAN FREEDOM PARTY - The American Freedom Party (originally named American Third Position or A3P) is a white supremacist political party (they prefer to call themselves "White Nationalists") founded in 2010. In various policy statements, the AFP state its mission is "to represent White Americans before the political arena." This racist party espouses a non-interventionist foreign policy, calls for strict controls on non-white immigration to the US, and touts the slogan "Diversity is a Codeword for White Genocide." The party began fielding candidates on the ballot in 2011. The AFP nominated white supremaclist activist Merlin Miller for President in 2012, and he achieved ballot status in three states (19th place - 2,714 votes). The party's 2016 nominee, elderly white supremacist Bob Whitaker, failed to achieve any ballot status and captured too few write-in votes to even be tallied by states. The party embraces the Neo-Nazi "Alt-Right" label. AMERICAN INDEPENDENT PARTY - Governor George C. Wallace (D-AL) founded the AIP and ran as the its first Presidential nominee in 1968. Running on a fiery populist, right-wing, anti-Washington, anti-racial integration, anti-communist platform, Wallace carried nearly 10 million votes (14%) and won 5 Southern states. Although Wallace returned to the Democratic Party by 1970, the AIP continued to live on -- but moved even further to the right. The 1972 AIP nominee, John Birch Society leader and Congressman John G. Schmitz (R-CA), carried nearly 1.1 million votes (1.4%). The 1976 AIP Presidential nominee was former Georgia Governor Lester Maddox , an unrepentant segregationist -- but he fell far below Schmitz's vote total. The AIP last fielded its own national Presidential candidate in 1980, when they nominated white supremacist ex-Congressman John Rarick (D-LA) -- who carried 41,000 votes nationwide. Since the mid-1980s, the AIP has only operated and fielded candidates in California -- and they lost party ballot status there after 2012 due to declining registration. From 1992-2007, the AIP was a state affiliate party of the national Constitution Party, but it is entirely independent today of any national parties. The party fielded a few write-in candidates in 2014, not noticible activity in the 2016 cycle. AMERICAN SOLIDARITY PARTY - The American Solidarity Party is founded upon Catholic social teaching. The party is pro-life, anti-death penalty, pro-welfare, anti-gay marriage, pro-universal health care, and anti-military Selective Service/draft. The ASP also wants to cut income taxes on earned wages, while increasing taxes on investment income and corporations. The ASP supports increased banking regulation, wants to end energy and agricultural subsidies, supports clean energy, backs tougher environmental protections, opposes military intervenionism, opposes US arms sales to foreign governments, is anti-pornography, supports decrimnalizations of narcotics, and is pro-labor unions. The ASP's 2016 presidential nominee, Mike Maturen, achieved ballot status in one state and write-in status in several others (16th place - 4,655 votes). The ASP is now trying to establish a few state affiliates. AMERICA'S PARTY - Former Ambassador and frequent GOP Presidential candidate Alan Keyes created this party in 2008, after he quit the Republican race for President and failed to win the Constitution Party's nomination. Originally named America's Independent Party, they shortened their name to America's Party in 2011. The party espouses a social Christian conservative platform: pro-life (no exceptions), anti-gay rights, pro-gun rights, pro-strong military ("peace through strength"), pro-Iraq War, anti-tax (supports total repeal of federal income taxes), and opposes federal spending on any programs not explicitly authorized by the US Constitution. In 2008, Keyes was on the ballot in three states as the party's Presidential nominee and captured a total of 47,768 votes (7th place - 0.04%). In a directly related coup, this party wrested control of the American Independence Party of California away from the Constitution Party, thus capturing ballot status in the state for the 2008/2010 elections. Interestingly, the party does not accept any financial donations. Party national chair Tom Hoefling was the party's 2016 Presidential nominee (17th place - 4,577 votes). Other official site: AmericasPartyNews.com . BETTER FOR AMERICA PARTY - Wealthy conservative GOP donor John Kingston created Better for America as a one-time (2016 election) electoral platform to place an anti-Donald Trump (and anti-Hillary Clinton) center-conservative presidential candidate on state ballots. BFA has already secured ballot status in New Mexico, and is now seeking it "several" more states. Former Gov & GW Bush Administration cabinet member Christie Whitman (R-NJ) is also a leader of the BFA movement. The party did not formally field a 2016 nominee, but many of the BFA leaders generally seemed to support conservative independent Evan McMullin 's late candidacy. Running largely as a #NeverTrump Independent, CIA veteran McMullin finished in an impressive 5th place (715,000 votes). CITIZENS PARTY - Not to be confused with the progressive party by the same name in the 1980s, this new Citizens Party was launched in 2004 as the New American Independent Party. In 2011, the party changed its name to Citizens Party. The CP vows to become a national entity. The CP describe their ideology as a "pragmatic ... mixture of what might appear to be liberal, moderate and conservative views." The party supports fair trade (reciprocity), and opposed free trade policies, NAFTA, CAFTA and the WTO; supports gun ownership rights; supports gay marriage and is pro-choice; wants tougher animal cruelty laws; supports legalizing medically assisted suicide; wants to create tax incentives to bring manufacturing jobs back to the US and protect US family farms; opposed the Wall Street bailout; and opposes a "neo-conservative foreign policy." To date the party has only ballot qualified one candidate under its name: a Pennsylvania state legislative candidate in 2006. COMMUNIST PARTY USA - The CPUSA -- once the slavish propaganda tool and spy network for the Soviet Central Committee -- experienced a forced transformation in recent years. Highly classified Soviet Politburo records, made public after the fall of Soviet communism in the 1990s, revealed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) illegally funneled millions of dollars to the CPUSA to finance its activities from the 1920s to the 1980s. The flow of Soviet dollars to the CPUSA came to an abrupt halt when the Soviet communists were ousted from power in 1991 -- ultimately causing a total overhaul of CPUSA activities. Founded in 1924, the CPUSA reached its peak vote total in 1932 with nominee William Z. Foster (102,000 votes - 4th place). The last national CPUSA ticket -- headed by Stalinist Gus Hall and 60s radical activist Angela Davis -- was fielded in 1984 (36,000 votes - 8th place). While the party has not directly run any candidates since the late 1980s, the CPUSA sometimes backs some candidates in various local elections (often in Northeastern industrial communities) and engages in grassroots political and labor union organizing. As for issues, the CPUSA calls for free universal health care, elimination of the federal income tax on people earning under $60,000 a year, free college education, drastic cuts in military spending, "massive" public works programs, the outlawing of "scabs and union busting," abolition of corporate monopolies, public ownership of energy and basic industries, huge tax hikes for corporations and the wealthy, and various other programs designed to "beat the power of the capitalist class ... [and promote] anti-imperialist freedom struggles around the world." The CPUSA's underlying Marxist ideology remains strong. However, it has evolved now -- after the death of Hall in 2000 -- into a Gorbachev-style "democratic reform communist" movement headed by activist Sam Webb. Under Webb's leadership, the CPUSA now touts a platform of true democratic socialism and trade unionism, and frequently encourages votes for the Democratic presidential nominees as a pragmatic electoral tactic to defeat conservatives. Official CPUSA websites include the People's World party newspaper, Political Affairs monthly party magazine, and the Young Communists League youth organization. FREEDOM SOCIALIST PARTY - The FSP was formed in 1966 by a splinter group of dissident feminist Trotskyists who broke away from the Socialist Workers Party to create a new party in the "tradition of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Trotsky." The FSP has always emphasized "black liberation and social feminsm" -- thus the reason Radical Women is an official alternate name used by the FSP. The FSP describe themselves as a "revolutionary, socialist feminist organization, dedicated to the replacement of capitalist rule by a genuine workers' democracy that will guarantee full economic, social, political, and legal equality to women, people of color, gays, and all who are exploited, oppressed, and repelled by the profit system and its offshoot -- imperialism." The FSP has party organizations in the US, Canada and Australia, and today remains staunchly Trotskyist in ideology. The FSP occasionally fields a handful of local candidates in Washington, California and New York (often in non-partisan elections). The FSP also fielded their first Presidential candidate in 2012: socialist activist Stephen Durham, who ran as a write-in when he failed to achieve ballot status in any state. No candidates in 2016. Official FSP links include the Freedom Socialist newspaper and Red Letter Press (book publishers). INDEPENDENCE PARTY OF AMERICA - After two years of openly feuding with Ross Perot's allies in the Reform Party, Minnesota Governor Jesse Ventura and his supporters bolted from the party to launch the new Independence Party in 2000. While this splinter party shared the Reform Party's call for campaign finance and other political reforms, the IP shared Ventura's disagreement with the more social conservative and trade protectionist views espoused by the Reform Party. The IP -- which describes itself as "Socially Inclusive and Fiscally Responsible" -- is pro-choice, pro-gay rights, pro-medical marijuana, pro-gun rights and fiscally moderate. The IP has fielded crowded slates of Congressional and state candidates in Minnesota in every election since 2000. While Ventura initially said he wanted to take this Minnesota party national and possibly field a Presidential nominee in 2004, few chapter exist in other states and the party to date has never nominated a Presidential ticket. Ventura's gubernatorial retirement in 2002 was a blow to the IP, although former Democratic Congressman Tim Penny was a credible IP nominee for Minnesota Governor in 2002 (but finished a distant third). Also in 2002, IP co-founder Dean Barkley became the first IP member to serve in Congress when Ventura appointed him to the US Senate to complete the two months of a term left open by the death of incumbent Paul Wellstone (D). As for a national party organization, the Independence Party essentially does not really have one. It seemingly consists of a few separately-organized state affiliates with at most a very informal link to the tiny central national organization which doesn't seem to coordinate activities between the states. Thus, each state entity goes its own way -- and support has clearly dwindled over the past decade. Surviving state parties are the Minnesota Independence Party , Independence Party of Florida , and Independence Party of New York State . INDEPENDENT AMERICAN PARTY - The small Independent American Party has existed for years in several Western states, with an ideology grounded in conservative Mormon political beliefs. In fact, the party's name is derived from an 1844 Mormon prophesy by Mosiah Hancock. Converting the unaffiliated IAP state party organizations -- united by a common Religious Right ideology (similar to the Constitution Party) -- into a national IAP organization was an effort started in 1998 by members of Utah IAP. The Idaho IAP and Nevada IAP subsequently affiliated with the fledgling US-IAP in 1998. Since then, the party has established small chapters in some other states, but shows no real signs of any real growth. The bulk of the IAP activities remain concentrated in Utah, Nevada and Oregon. The various IAP state parties endorsed Constitution Party nominee Howard Phillips for President in 1996 and 2000. In December 2000, the IAP's national chairman issued a statement noting third parties in general registered a "dismal" performance in the Presidential election -- and questioned the IAP's future participation in Presidential campaigns. Instead, he suggested that the IAP limit itself to congressional, state and local races in the future. The party routinely fields numerous candidates each election year in Utah and Nevada. Army veteran and frequent candidate Kyle Koptike was the IAP presidential nominee in 2016 (24th place - 1,096 votes). JUSTICE PARTY - Former Salt Lake City Mayor Rocky Anderson , a former Democrat, created this party in 2011 as a new national political vehicle for disgruntled citizens who believed the Democratic Party was not sufficiently progressive. The Justice Party supports universal health care, economic justice to financial disparity, and LGBT equality, backs the Kyoto Protocols to reduce climate change, and opposes "the wars of the Bush-Obama Presidency" and domestic spying programs. The party fielded Anderson as the party's Presidential candidate in 2012, and he obtained ballot statuts in 16 states (43,000 votes - 7th place - 0.03%). The party has also run candidates for US Senate, congress, and other offices. The goal of the Justice Party is to ultimately supplant the Greens as the leading progressive political party in the US. The Justice Party went entirely dormant for 2016, but then issued a statement saying they woud be back with candidates again starting in the 2018 cycle. LIGHT PARTY - The Light Party is a miniscule New Age party almost entirely centered around party founder "Da Vid, M.D., Wholistic Physician, Human Ecologist & Artist." He was also the party's write-in candidate for President in 1992, 1996, 2000, 2004, 2008, 2012 and 2016. The party promotes holistic medicine, national health insurance, organic foods, solar energy, nuclear disarmament and a flat tax. The founder is the only candidate this party has ever fielded for office. MODERN WHIG PARTY - Seizing the name of the long dead Whig Party (1833-1856) of Presidents Zachary Taylor, John Tyler and Millard Fillmore, this new Modern Whig Party was launched in 2008. Nearly all of the party founders and state chairs are Iraq/Afghan War veterans. These new Whigs explain themselves as follows: "We represent moderate voters from all walks of life who cherry-pick between traditional Democratic and Republican ideals in what has been called the Modern Whig Philosophy. This includes general principles of fiscal responsibility, strong national defense and bold social progression." They are centrists -- vaguely claiming they have "tens of thousands of members" -- who support a strong military, energy independence, increased funding of the sciences and education, more spending on veterans and veteran families, and oppose legislating morality. The party has established state party affiliates around the nation and fielded a few candidates for Congress and state legislature. No candidates fielded in the 2016 cycle. OBJECTIVIST PARTY - Founded in 2008, the party "seeks to promote Ayn Rand's philosophy of Objectivism in the political realm." Translation: They support a platform nearly identical to that of the Libertarian Party. Party founder Tom Stevens -- who is also active with the Libertarians, often fighting with party leaders -- was party's nominee for President in 2008 (ballot access in 2 states - 755 votes) and 2012 (ballot access in 2 states - 4,091 votes - 16th place). No candidate nominated in 2016. The Objectivist Party is unaffiliated with the Ayn Rand Institute or any prominent figures from Rand's objectivist movement. PARTY FOR SOCIALISM AND LIBERATION - The Party of Socialism & Liberation (PSL) is alternatately called "a revolutionary Marxist party" created "to be a vehicle for the multinational working class in the struggle for socialism ... Only a multinational party can create the unity necessary to defeat the most powerful capitalist class the world has ever seen ... We aim for revolution in the United States ... We want a revolution; and, we work hard to make it happen." Additionally, the PSL explains that "the most crucial requirement for [PSL] membership is the dedication to undertake this most important and most necessary of all tasks: building a new revolutionary workers party in the heart of world imperialism." The PSL was founded in 2006 by a breakaway faction of the communist revolutionary wing of the Workers World Party. The PSL espouses a pro-Cuba/pro-China view, and the iconic Che Guevarra's call for continual world revolution against capitalism. The PSL fielded its first candidates in 2008: a Presidential ticket and Congressional candidates. Longtime Marxist revolutionary activist Gloria LaRiva was again the PSL presidential nominee in 2016, marking her 7th time on a presidential ticket (18th place - 4,250 votes). The PSL also sponsors and/or directs numerous popular front groups including International ANSWER , People's Power Assemblies , International Action Center , Bail Out the People Network , May 1st Coalition , and many others. The party's offiical newspaper is Liberation and the PSL's campaign website is VotePSL.org . PEACE AND FREEDOM PARTY - Founded in the 1960s as a left-wing party opposed to the Vietnam War, the party reached its peak of support in 1968 when it nominated Black Panther leader Eldridge Cleaver for President. Although a convicted felon and an odious personality, Cleaver carried nearly 37,000 votes (ironically, Cleaver ultimately became a Reagan Republican in the early 1980s, and was later a crack cocaine addict in the late 1980s, before emerging as an environmental activist in the late 1990s). Famed "baby doctor" Benjamin Spock -- a socialist and staunch opponent of the Vietnam War -- was the PFP Presidential nominee in 1972. Since then, the small party has largely been dominated by battling factions of Marxist-Leninists (aligned with the communist Workers World Party (WWP), which later split into the militant revolutionary Party of Socialism & Liberation (PSL)), Trotskyists, and true democratic socialists. The PFP today is small is a self-described "feminist socialist party" with activities centered only in California. In 1996, the PFP successfully blocked an attempt by the WWP to capture the PFP's Presidential nomination (and a California ballot spot) for their party's nominee. In a sign of the party's serious decline in support, the PFP's poor showing in the 1998 statewide elections caused the party to lose its California ballot status. The PFP finally regained California ballot status in 2003 -- and immediately fielded a sizable slate of candidates. Native American activist Leonard Peltier -- an imprisoned cop killer (or innocent political prisoner, depending on your views) -- was the PFP nominee for President in 2004 (ballot status in one state - 27,500 votes). In 2008, the party let consumer activist Ralph Nader use their California ballot line in support of his Independent run for President. In 2009, the party announced plans to try expanding into "a nationwide electoral party dedicated to socialism, feminism, democracy, environmentalism, and racial equality." The communist PSL's candidates captured several key PFP statewide candidate nominations in California in 2010, but then lost control again in 2012 when the PFP nominated comic actress Rosanne Barr for President. Barr was on the ballot in 3 states and captured 67,500 votes (6th place - 0.05%). The PFP did not field their own ticket in 2016, and instead endorsed the nominee of the Party of Socialism & Liberation. PIRATE PARTY - The US Pirate Party is the US affiliate of the European-based Pirate Party International umbrella group, a global movement founded in 2006 with affiliates active in nearly 70 nations. The USPP was founded the same year. The various Pirate parties support reform of copyright laws to reflect open source and free culture values, government transparency, protection of privacy and civil liberties, rolling back corporate personhood and corporate welfare, evidence-based policy, and egalitarianism and meritocracy based on the hacker ethic. "We support the legalization of sharing movies, music and other art online, so our opponents would call us the Pirate Party anyway. We feel it’s better to reclaim that name. Historically, pirate ships had a tradition of egalitarian radical democracy, and provided a refuge for social outcasts and escaped slaves from a society unfriendly to them. We’re anti-establishment, so pirates declaring mutiny seems like a good metaphor for us. We believe politics and activism can have a sense of humor while still being dead serious," they playfully explain. The USPP began fielding political candidates in 2012. The USPP has active chapters in a few states. PROHIBITION PARTY - "If you are a reform-minded conservative and a non-drinker, the Prohibition Party wants you," exclaimed an official party message in 2002. The Prohibition Party -- founded in 1869 and billing themselves as "America's Oldest Third Party" -- espouses a generally ultra-conservative Christian social agenda mixed with anti-drug and international anti-communist views. The party's strongest showing was in 1892, when former Congressman John Bidwell received nearly 273,000 votes (2.3% - 4th place). The late, long-time Prohibition Party's leader Earl Dodge, the party's six-time presidential nominee, scored the all-time low for the party (140 votes in 2004). Party newsletter editor Jim Hedges, a former Pennsylvania town tax assessor, was the party's 2016 presidential nominee (15th place - 5,617 votes). The party also fields one or two local candidates from time to time. Additional party-related web sites are the Partisan Prohibition Historical Society and Facebook: Prohibition Party . REFORM PARTY - Once a rapidly growing and populist third party, the Reform Party first shifted far to the right during 1999-2002, before imploding into insignificance due to factional in-fighting. After the shift, it quickly experienced massive waves of conservative defections away into the Constitution Party and the America First Party in 2002, before withering into an insignificant shadow of its former glory years. First, some history: after running as an Independent in 1992, billionaire Texas businessman Ross Perot founded the Reform Party in 1995 as his vehicle for converting his independent movement into a permanent political party. In 1996, Perot ran as the Reform Party's presidential nominee (8,085,000 votes - 8%). The party originally reflected Perot's center-conservative fiscal policies and anti-GATT/NAFTA views -- while avoiding taking any official positions on social issues. The RP was plagued by a lengthy period of nasty ideological battles in 1998-2000 involving three main rival groups: the "Old Guard" Perot faction, the more libertarian Jesse Ventura faction, and the social conservative Pat Buchanan faction. After several nasty and public battles, the Ventura faction quit the RP in 2000 and the old Perot faction lost control of the party in court to the Buchanan faction later in 2000. That gave the Buchanan faction control of the party's $12.6 million in federal matching funds. Along with Buchanan's rise to power in the party, the party made a hard ideological shift to the right -- an ideological realignment that continues to dominate the tiny RP today. In the aftermath of the 2000 elections, it was clear that Buchanan failed in his efforts to establish a viable, conservative third party organization. Buchanan was on the ballot in 49 states, captured 449,000 votes (4th place - 0.4%), and later told reporters his foray into third party politics was likely a mistake. In 2002, the party splintered further, losing most of its conservative activists to other right-wing third parties. The RP was just about bankrupt by late 2004, having less than $50 remaining in its bank account. Businessman Rocky de la Fuente, who also ran as an Independent candidate in some states, was the party's 2016 nominee (8th place - 33,097 votes). A few isolated state party affiliates remain active, fielding candidates from time to time. SOCIAL DEMOCRATS, USA - The SD-USA has only fielded candidates for local office, and has been only nominally active since the 1980s. The SD-USA is a small group more ideologically centrist, staunchly anti-communist leftists who were more directly aligned with the Democratic Party in the 1970s-1980s than the more traditionally leftist Democratic Socialists of America (DSA). In fact, the views of the SPUSA in 1972 caused the DSA (then named the DSOC) to splinter away in a ideological rift. The SD-USA refused to support George McGovern for President that year because of his opposition to the Vietnam War -- versus the DSOC, which supported McGovern and an immediate end to the war. SD-USA also disputes the claims of DSA and SPUSA to be the true heirs to the legacy of Eugene Debs and Norman Thomas, claiming instead that the SD-USA "is the only legitimate successor" to the party of Debs and Thomas. However, by 2010, SD-USA eventually ceded all rights to the name "Socialist Party USA" to the SPUSA (and, interestingly, retired SPUSA national chair and two-time Presidential nominee David McReynolds now writes columns for the SD-USA's website). The Socialist International stripped SD-USA of full member status in 2007, deeming SD-USA to be a defunct organization. The SD-USA remnant which still functioned was a mere shell of what it once was several decades ago. SD-USA began a reorganizing process in 2009, with a new leadership team. SD-USA held a nation convention in 2012 and is currently focused on rebuilding the group. SOCIALIST PARTY USA - The SPUSA are true democratic socialists -- advocating left-wing electoral change versus militant revolutionary change. Many of the SP members could easily be members of the left-wing faction of the Democratic Party. Unlike most of the other political parties on this page with "Socialist" in their names, the SP has always been staunchly anti-communist. The original Socialist Party USA was founded by labor union leader, ex-Democratic elected official and pacifist Eugene V. Debs in 1900, the SP was once a mighty national third party. Debs himself was the SP nominee for president five times between 1900 and 1920. Debs received over 900,000 votes (6%) in 1912 -- the SP's best showing ever. Former minister and journalist Norman Thomas was the SP Presidential nominee 6 times between 1928 and 1948 -- his best showing being 883,000 votes (2.2%) in 1932. The SP also elected congressmen, mayors and other officials throughout the 20th Century (largely during the 1910s through 1950s). The party withered and splintered so much that, by the last 1972, it barely existed. The Democratic Socialists of American and the Social Democrats USA -- both linked above -- are the other splinter groups from the original Debs/Thomas SP entity. Activists from the old SP reconstituted the party in 1976 and began to again field SPUSA national tickets for the first time in over two decades. SPUSA activist Emidio "Mimi" Soltysik was the party's presidential nominee in 2016 (22nd place - 2,683 votes). The party's youth wing -- the Young People's Socialist League -- has been in existence since the early 1900s. Other SPUSA sites: Socialist National Committee / VoteSocialist.org (campaigns/candidates) and The Socialist . SOCIALIST ACTION - Socialist Action is a Trotskyist political party of "revolutionary socialists" originally founded by expelled members of the Socialist Workers Party. While the SA shares the SWP's pro-Castro views, the SA still tries to retain its Trotskyist ideological roots (versus the SWP, which has drifted away from Trotskyism towards a more Soviet communist ideology). The SA states that they "oppose the Democrats and Republicans, all capitalist political parties, and all capitalist governments and their representatives everywhere ... [and] Stalinist and neo-Stalinist regimes from the ex-Soviet Union to China." This communist party has fielded some local political candidates in the San Francisco Bay area over the years, and ran its first congressional candidate in 2010 (in Connecticut). Other official sites: Youth for Socialist Action and VoteSocialistAction . SOCIALIST ALTERNATIVE PARTY - Socialist Alternative, founded in 1986 and originally named the Labor Militant, split from the Labor Party in the 1990s in order to pursue a more radical leftist and anti-globalization party. The party is the US member of the Committee for a Workers' International (CWI), an international association of Trotskyist political paries from nearly 50 nations. SocAlt is not as radical as some Marxist parties, as they espouse democratic socialism and have formed alliances of convenience with non-socialists for political advantage. for example, the party backed Ralph Nader (Green) for President in each of his four runs because they thought his candidacy would help "accelerate the trend of disintigration of the two-party system." The party wants to build a socialist mass workers movement, and is critical of the Leninist-Stalinist historical dictatorships as a perversion of true Marxism. The party supports a $15 national minimum wage, universal free health care, a guaranteed $500/week minimum income for all, public ownership of major banks, forcing bankrupt companies into public ownership, free college education, and slashing the military budget. In a major upset in 2013, Kshama Sawant became the first party member to win an election when she won a seat on the Seattle City Council -- and another candidate nearly won a seat on the Minneapolis City Council on the same day. The party currently has chapters in at least 15 states. SOCIALIST EQUALITY PARTY - The Socialist Equality Party (SEP) was originally named the Workers League (WL). The WL was founded in 1966 as a Trotskyist communist group closely associated with the electoral campaigns of the Socialist Workers Party (SWP). The goal of these Trotskyist groups was a build a working-class labor party in the US affiliated with the International Committee of the Fourth International (the global Trotskyist umbrella network). They believe that "the egalitarian and internationalist legacy of the Russian Revolution" could have succeeded, but was "betrayed by Stalinism" and its progeny. When the SWP drifted away from Trotskyism in the early 1980s, the WL broke with the SWP and began fielding its own candidates. The WL fielded its first Presidential ticket in 1984. The WL later renamed itself as the Socialist Equality Party in 1994. The Michigan-based SEP regularly fields Congressional and local candidates, mainly in Michigan and Ohio. The SEP is very realistic about its candidates, acknowledging a campaign is an opportunity to "present a socialist alternative to the demagogy and lies of the establishment parties and the mass media." Frequent SEP Presidential nominee Jerry White was again the party's nominee in 2016 (29th place - 385 votes). The SEP's news site -- the World Socialist Web Site (WSWS) -- is updated daily with articles, analysis, history, etc., written with a hardcore internationalist, Trotskyist perspective. SOCIALIST WORKERS PARTY - Originally a pro-Trotsky faction within the Communist Party USA, the SWP was formed in 1938 after the CPUSA -- acting on orders from Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin -- expelled the American Trotskyites. The SWP was for many years the leading voice of Trotskyism in the USA. Since the 1980s, the SWP has drifted away from Trotskyism and moved towards the brand of authoritarian politics espoused by former Cuban leader Fidel Castro's style of Marxism (the SWP sites calls communist Cuba "a shining example for all workers"). The SWP has run candidates for President in every election since 1948 -- plus many federal and local candidates nationwide. Marxist political organizer Alyson Kennedy was the SWP's candidate in 2016 (11th place - 12,465 votes). The party's weekly newspaper The Militant is the SWP's only online presence. TAX WALL STREET PARTY - This party, founded in 2013, appropriated the populist anti-corporate message of the Occupy Wall Street movement -- although the real story of this party is far removed from OWS. The TWSP is run by Webster Tarpley , a vocal conspiracy theorist and longtime activist in the LaRouche political cult . The party supports a 1% sales tax on all Wall Street transactions, wants to "nationalize" the Federal Reserve to make it more responsible to the public, supports single-payer nationalized health care for all, and wants a 15% protectionist tariff (tax) on all imported goods. The party ran a canidate for NYC Mayor in 2013, and a US Senate candidate in Nebraska in 2014 (later disqualified from the ballot). UNITED STATES PACIFIST PARTY - This tiny political party fielded party founder Bradford Lyttle as a write-in candidate for President in 1996, 2000, 2004, and 2012 (and ran a US Senate candidate in Colorado in 1998). In 2008, for the first time, Lyttle achieved ballot status in one state (110 votes), a feat he again matched in 2016 (382 votes). The USPP opposes military actions in all circumstances and wants to transform the US military into "a non-violent defense and humanitarian service corps." The USPP platform advocates generally left-wing political stances and slashing the military budget to "zero." UNITY PARTY OF AMERICA - This small centrist political party was founded after the 2004 elections. For the first decade the party was only active in Colorado, and began fielding candidates there starting in 2006. In 2016, the party began expanding, launching small affiiates in some states and vowing to field a future presidential ticket. The party supports a balanced budget constitutional amendment, federal term limits, replacing the federal income tax with other reveue sources, development of clean alternative energy sources, and ending gerrymandering by having all election districts drawn by nonpartisan panels of judges. VETERANS PARTY OF AMERICA - The Veterans Party was founded in 2003, but legally disolved in 2013. In 2014, the group began a new attemp to reorganize because of their anger over the 2013 federal government shutdown. The party explained it was "formed when Congress chose to balance the budget by reducing the cost of living allowance for military retirees, including those medically retired after sustaining injuries during combat with the enemy." The party describes itself as "moderate and inclusive." USAF veteran Chris Keniston, the party's 2016 presidential nominee, qualified for ballot status in three states (13th place - 7,004 votes). In 2015, the party succeeded in electing their first candidate to office (albeit in a non-partisan race): the Mayor of Commerce, Oklahoma. WORKERS WORLD PARTY - The WWP was formed in 1959 by a pro-Chinese communist faction that split from the Socialist Workers Party. Although the WWP theoretically supports worker revolutions, the WWP supported the Soviet actions that crushed worker uprisings in Hungary in the 1950s, Czechoslovakia in the 1960s and Poland in the early 1980s. The WWP was largely an issue-oriented revolutionary party until they fielded their first candidate for president in 1980. The militant WWP believes that "capitalist democracy produces nothing but hot air" and that "the power of the workers and the oppressed is in the streets, not in Washington." FBI Director Louis Freeh attacked the WWP in his May 2001 remarks before a US Senate committee: "Anarchists and extremist socialist groups -- many of which, such as the Workers World Party -- have an international presence and, at times, also represent a potential threat in the United States" of rioting and street violence. The more revoltionary wing of the WWP broke away in 2006 to form the Party of Socialism & Liberation (PSL). After the WWP-PSL split, the WWP failed to field a Presidential ticket in 2008 and 2012. In 2016, the party nominated longtime party activist Monica Moorhead for President (18th place - 4,250 votes). Moorhead was previously the WWP presidential nominee in 1996 and 2000. Other official site: Workers World (WWP news site). WORKING FAMILIES PARTY - The WFP, founded in 1998 by a coalition of labor unions, was for many years a one-state party which operated only in New York. During 2006-08, the WFP expanded by launching new chapters in a few other states. By 2008, the WFP obtained ballot access and nominated congressional candidates in New York, Connecticut and Oregon. The WFP essentially operates as a "fusion" party which co-nominates candidates of established parties. This fusion move allows WFP candidates -- who are almost exclusively Democrats -- to appear on a second ballot line in the same election. Fusion "gives voters a way to 'vote their values' without spoiling an election," explain the WFP's website. The WFP exists to advance a pro-labor union political agenda focused almost entirely on liberal economic and employment issues. OTHER PARTIES (Parties that have yet to field or endorse any candidates for office) AMERICAN EAGLE PARTY (AMERICAN FREEDOM UNION) - Launched in 2015, the AEP is the political party of the white supremacist splinter group American Freedom Union, which formed from a 2014 split in the American Freedom Party. The AEP/AFU founder is Merlin Miller, who was the AFP's 2012 presidential nominee. Both parties have nearly identical right-wing platforms opposing non-white immigraton to the US, and railing against communism, the "New World Order" and the decline of white "European-American" culture in the US. No candidates fielded to date. AMERICAN PATRIOT PARTY - The APP, established in 2003, was "founded on the basic principals set forth by our founding fathers, that the federal government should only have the powers set forth in the framework of the Constitution and all other power to be delegated back to the states. Although everyone has thier own opinions on all issues, we believe it is up to the states to decide what should and should not be mandated, banned or regulated." The APP supports a crackdown on illegal immigration, making English fluency a requirement of US citizenship, abolishing the IRS and repealing the federal income tax, imposing steeper taxes and tariffs on imported goods, abolition of the centralized Federal Reserve System, withdrawing the US from the Untied Nations, imposing a foreign policy of non-interventionism, and ending federal involvement in education. No candidates fielded to date, but the APP have formed party chapters in several states -- with the Oregon state party group taking the lead in attempting to organize a national effort. The APP vows that their candidates will be "statesmen, not politicians." They endorsed Congressman Ron Paul (R-TX) for President in 2008, but did not nominate a candidate. CANARY PARTY - Founded in 2011, this unusual party is entirely focused upon the issue of health care -- particularly as relates to autism. According to the party's official history, they were founded by "a group of parents of children who were suffering from neurological and autoimmune disorders, and who had been active for years in their efforts to get mainstream medicine to address the causes of, and find treatments for, their children's poor health, faced the realization that while they had been earnest in their engagement of both the private medical industry and government public health officials, the medical establishment was not working in good faith with them." This party believes the pharmaceutical industry -- abetted by government and medical profession silence -- have "launched a massive and uncontrolled experiment on a generation of Americans. In an unprecedented intervention in human immune development, this complex has succeeded in promoting an explosion in medical industry revenues and profits; this explosion has been accompanied, however, by an epidemic of death, disability and chronic disease, much of which can be traced directly to these medical and chemical exposures." This single-issue party wants to address these concerns with federal government action. CENTRIST PARTY / CENTRIST MOVEMENT - Professor Charles Wheelan founded the Centrist Party movement in 2013, based upon ideas espoused in his manifesto book, as a moderate "insurgency of the rational." According to the party's website, they believe their platform "should not be a series of muddling compromises between the two parties; rather, it should take the best of both parties, cut loose the tails, and build something better." The party aspires to run candidates for US Senate, where they believe they can elect candidates by plurality votes in three-way races in key states. By winning just a few Senate seats, the party believes they can control the balance pf power in DC, forcing a shift towards the ideological center between the two major parties. CONSERVATIVE PARTY USA - Founded in 2009, this conservative party has yet to field any candidates. The party's mission statement reads as follows: "To re-establish the limits and boundaries of Government as framed in the Constitution." They claim they were formed as a new party because the GOP cannot be trusted ("The Republican Party has consistently failed to uphold conservative principles ... Trying to change the GOP is like drilling holes in water because they don�t stand for anything except getting elected"). This is how the party describes their agenda: "The primary duty of the President is to protect America from its enemies, both foreign and domestic; Veterans must be honored and supported for their sacrifices; Marriage is between one man and one woman; Life begins at conception; Budget Earmarks must be eliminated and fiscal discipline restored; Illegal immigration must be stopped; Healthcare must include meaningful Tort Reform." Note: This party has no affiliation with the well-established Conservative Party of New York State. DEMOCRATIC SOCIALISTS OF AMERICA - The DSA is the official US full member party of the Socialist International (which includes UK's Labour Party , the French Parti Socialiste and nearly 140 other political parties around the globe). Unlike most other members of the Socialist International, the DSA never fields candidates for office. The DSA explains their mission as follows: "building progressive movements for social change while establishing an openly socialist presence in American communities and politics." Thus, the DSA is less like a traditional US political party and much more like a political education and grassroots activism organization. DSA, Social Democrats USA and the Socialist Party USA each claim to be the one true heir to the ideological legacy of Eugene Debs and Norman Thomas (and DSA disputes the Socialist Party-USA's claim to the title arguing it is a modern-era creation that simply appropriated the older name of the defunct party of Debs/Thomasy). The DSA -- then named the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee (DSOC) -- split from the SD-USA in 1972 in a rift over the Vietnam War (SDUSA supported the war and opposed McGovern for President; DSOC supported McGovern and opposed the war). Official DSA affiliates include: Young Democratic Socialists , Democratic Left (magazine) and DSA Labor Network . PROGRESSIVE LABOR PARTY - The PLP is a New York-based, militant, Stalinist-style communist party dedicated to bringing about a world-wide, armed, communist revolution. The party was formed in 1961 by members of the CPUSA who felt the Soviet Union had betrayed communism and become revisionist and state capitalist. Founders also felt the CPUSA had adopted unforgivable reformist positions such as "peaceful coexistence" with the US, turning to electoral politics, and hiding communist views behind a veneer of reform-oriented front groups. In the 1960s, the PLP heavily infiltrated the radical Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) group. Today, the PLP still abhors democracy, elections, freedom of nearly any sort, capitalism and religion -- and praises dictator Joseph Stalin's Soviet Union as their role model. Because they denounce all elections as "frauds," the PLP vows to never field any candidates for public office (for these guys, its either armed victory or nothing at all). Lots and lots of online ideological articles written in the typical dogmatic communist style ... with titles like "The Hoax of the 1932-33 Ukraine Famine," "Fascism Grows In The Auto Industry," "The Road to Revolution." Articles in English, Spanish, Russian, German, etc. REVOLUTIONARY COMMUNIST COMMUNIST PARTY USA - The RCP is based upon the teachings of the late Chinese Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong -- a form of rigid communism derivative of Leninist-Stalinist Marxism. The party strongly denounces capitalism and advocates a "Marxist-Leninist-Maoist Programme" as "a battle plan for destroying the old and creating the new [and] is a kind of road map for how to win the revolution." Even the RCP's logo is consistent with the proletarian revolutionary theme (i.e., note the red flag flying from a rifle bayonet). The RCP clearly advocates change through revolution (and various popular front groups), not elections -- so don't look for any RCP candidates on the ballot. The RCP's most visible activity is running several branches of a store called Revolution Books. RCP Chairman Bob Avakian and his writings also receive extensive coverage on the party's official site, as he has been the party leader since 1979. WORKERS PARTY, USA - The WP-USA is a hardcore Marxist-Leninist political party founded in 1992 by the late Michael Thorburn. The party was established to "bring the working class out as an independent class force." The WP-USA shares much of the CPUSA's ideology. While the WP-USA has yet to field any candidates, the Chicago-based party publishes a bi-weekly newspaper named The Worker and a quarterly theoretical journal named -- not surprisingly -- The Worker Magazine. The WP-USA site features an extensive on-line archive of dogmatic screeds largely denouncing "monopoly capitalists," Western imperialism, the USA, etc. -- and praising the working class and "revolutionary politics." Thorburn's Anti-Imperialist News Service ("assisting the people's struggles against war and militarism") is also affiliated with the WP-USA. WORLD SOCIALIST PARTY OF THE USA - The WSP-USA are seemingly utopian Marxists. They believe true socialism can only work when it is established worldwide. They renounce violence, Soviet-style totalitarianism, money and all forms of leadership. They advocate a classless, "wageless, moneyless, free access society" without any national borders. They don't run candidates nor endorse other socialist or left candidates as they believe a vote for ANY candidate under the current system is a vote in support of capitalism. Understanding that world socialism "has clearly not yet been established," they believe that "democratically capturing the State through parliamentary elections is the safest, surest method for the working class to enable itself to establish socialism" -- although they have yet to field any US candidates in the period to date since the international WSP was founded in 1904. Follow Us on Twitter:

democrats and republicans

What do the British call the person other countries might call minister of the interior?

Why are there only two mainstream US political parties? - Quora Quora The United States of America Why are there only two mainstream US political parties? Europe has many different political parties, each with very different ideologies. People all over the spectrum have a political party to represent them. Why does the United States only have two?  For nearly all of its history, the US has only had two major, accepted political parties - the conservative/business/upper class party and the small people/lower classes party, from the Federalists to today's GOP, from the Democratic-Republicans to today's Democratic Party. Why doesn't the United States have radicals or reactionaries? Americans, for the most part, always want to keep the current system in place, even in turbulent times. European countries have parties that want to change the whole system or make serious changes, but Americans consistently vote for the two main parties. Why is this so? Update Cancel Question merged Updated Jan 26, 2015 There are profound structural reasons why there are only two electorally viable political parties in the United States.  Most elections in the United States use a plurality voting system with single-member districts .  Plurality voting means that whoever gets the highest percentage of votes wins, even if it's less than 50%.  A single-member district refers to the practice of only electing one elected official per each geographically bounded district.  According to a finding in political science called Duverger's law , a country with a plurality voting system and single-member districts will have a tendency to develop a two-party system, while a country with proportional representation will be more likely to develop a multiparty democracy.  Since the United States has plurality voting with single-member districts for everything from city council races to members of Congress, the party system in the United States behaves just as Duverger's law predicts it would. Third parties find it difficult to take root in systems with plurality voting and single-member districts, because the use of single-member districts places political parties without a strong geographically concentrated base of support at a major disadvantage.  In such systems, you can only get into elective office if your supporters are geographically concentrated in a specific state or district. If your base of supporters is more geographically diffuse, as is the case for many third parties, then your political party will have a much harder time getting the number of supporters necessary to win in any one geographic region. Under these conditions, third parties seeking to preserve themselves often adopted a strategy of electoral fusion . Electoral fusion is the practice of running the same candidate under the banner of more than one political party.  One electoral fusion strategy is to have several minor political parties agree on the same candidate and then pool their resources together in the hopes that the alliance could defeat both of the major parties.  Another electoral fusion strategy is for a third party to ally with a major political party and make the major party dependent on their alliance with a third party in order to win votes. Electoral fusion arrangements of this kind were much more common in the United States in the 19th century, even at the presidential level.  In 1856, the Know Nothing Party and the Whig Party both supported the third-party candidacy of former president Millard Fillmore .  In 1872, the Democrats and the Liberal Republican Party both endorsed Horace Greeley for presidency as their best chance for defeating the Radical Republican faction that backed Ulysses Grant for president.  In 1896, William Jennings Bryan ran with the endorsement of both the Democratic Party and the People's Party (more commonly known as the Populists) in an unsuccessful attempt to keep William McKinley out of the White House.  Electoral fusion at the state or municipal level could be even more complicated.  According to the political scientist Howard Scarrow, the nominee of the Whig Party in the 1854 New York governor's race received endorsements from 11 minor parties, including such short-lived party labels as "Strong Minded Women," "Anti Rent" and "Negro." Fusion tickets of Democrats and Populists elected governors in five states in the 1880s and 1890s, as well as six United States senators.  Elected officials in both major parties considered this Democratic-Populist alliance to be such a political threat that many states passed anti-fusion laws that prohibited a candidate from appearing on the ballot as the candidate of more than one party. Another factor that seriously made it more difficult for third parties in the United States was the introduction of the Australian ballot .  Before the introduction of the Australian ballot in the United States, state and local governments did not print an official electoral ballot, but instead voters received ballots directly from the political parties themselves.  This way, a third party could easily gain new supporters at low cost, especially when employing a fusion strategy that included a major party candidate on their ballot.  After the introduction of the Australian ballot, the fusion strategy became much more difficult, because once the government took the responsibility for printing ballots, the two major parties that dominated the government could impose onerous requirements for third parties to get on the ballot (e.g., expensive filing fees, signature requirements) or ban them from the ballot altogether.  The Australian ballot had several upsides, including reducing the power of corrupt major party political machines, maintaining the secrecy of the ballot, and making it more difficult to stuff ballot boxes, but it also allowed the two major parties to lock down their control over access to the ballot. Anti-fusion laws and the ability of the two major parties to monopolize access to the ballot are still a factor in the U.S. today.  As late as 1996, the Supreme Court ruled in the case of Timmons v. Twin Cities Area New Party that anti-fusion laws that inhibit the growth of third parties do not violate the Constitution.  An improvement in the electoral prospects for third parties in the United States is unlikely to happen in the near future for the simple reason that the rule changes necessary to weaken the two-party monopoly over the electoral system have to be voted on by the major parties themselves. Political parties are simply not going to vote for electoral reforms that loosen their own grasp on power. Source: The information in this post on how anti-fusion laws inhibit the growth of third parties can be found in Howard A. Scarrow, "Duverger's Law, Fusion, and the Decline of American "Third" Parties," The Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 39, No. 4 (Dec., 1986), pp. 634-647. Written Apr 29, 2015 Actually, there are somewhere around thirty-six or so different parties.  The two predominant parties have effective control, and in some cases have alliances with other parties.  As an example, the State of Minnesota does not have a state Democratic Party, but they have an aligned party called the Democrat Farmer Labor Party, or DFL for short.   See List of political parties in the United States for more information.  The Green, Libertarian, and Constitution parties are the largest of the so-called third parties.  In 1912 the Socialist party had probably its best national result ever.  The Communist party used to enjoy considerable support in the early 1900's as well, and the rise of those parties and the political left that resulted eventually in the New Deal of the Roosevelt era was the direct result of the abuses of workers by the so-called Robber Barons of the late 19th century (see Gilded Age, Rockefeller, Carnegie, et al.).  The Triangle Fire signaled a major shift in attitudes about employer privilege and worker rights, when dozens of young girls fell to their deaths some seven stories because their employer had locked them in during working hours for daring to ask for better conditions, and fear they may steal the scraps of cloth for heating fuel. Written Apr 25, 2011 Duverger's Law.  It applies to any democracy that uses a majority-rules or plurality-rules system.  If there are three parties, it will be in the interests of the smaller two to gang up on the third, even if they are wildly at odds.  That's why you get the (very liberal minor party) Social Democrats in the UK making a coalition with the (conservative major party) Tories; it puts the coalition past (center-left major party) Labour. Then, any disputes can be handled (undemocratically) behind the scenes.  Even though the UK nominally has many parties, most of them are in a coalition with one of the two major parties. The "law" is really more of a principle: countries tend to two parties, as coalitions shift and merge, but they need not be there instantly.  Since coalitions shift, they need not always be the same two parties; some groups will remain aloof for a period.  They will, over time, tend to coalesce into precisely two parties.  Groups outside of the major two parties will have little influence, and eventually voters will realize that they have more say as a small part of a major party than a large part of a splinter group. In the US, the parties themselves are rather entrenched, but their coalitions have shifted radically.  Initially, there were the Federalists and Anti-Federalists, who actually corresponded roughly to modern Democrats and Republicans, respectively.  Those parties were intimately tied in to their leadership: the Anti-Federalists died with Alexander Hamilton, and the Federalists with the failure of John Adams as President.  The Democratic-Republicans arose to fill the place of the Anti-Federalists, and then split into the Democrats and Republicans as the Federalist party ended.  (This is a gross oversimplification, by the way.) The coalitions have changed.  Initially, the Democrats appealed in the South, and Republicans in the North.  Over time, they switched places, as each party tried to broaden its appeal to get a few more voters from the other.  The issues have changed, too, further complicating matters.  But since all of the votes eventually come down to either Yes or No, you're either with the party that will win the vote, or you're not.  Thus, it remains with exactly two parties. Third parties arise from time to time, but since they lack a broad coalition, it's practically impossible for them to be on the winning side.  Eventually, they cut a deal with one of the other two, and are subsumed.

i don't know

Which British prime minister fell from office because of his repeal of the Corn Laws?

BBC - History - Sir Robert Peel z Sir Robert Peel   © Peel was twice British prime minister and his period in government saw landmark social reforms and the repeal of the Corn Laws. Robert Peel was born on 5 February 1788 in Bury, Lancashire. His father was a wealthy cotton mill owner, and Peel was educated at Harrow and Oxford, entering parliament as a Tory in 1809. His early political career included appointments as under-secretary for war and colonies (1809) and chief secretary for Ireland (1812). In 1822, he become home secretary, and introduced far-ranging criminal law and prison reform as well as creating the Metropolitan Police - the terms 'bobbies' and 'peelers' come from his name. The Wellington government in which Peel had been home secretary fell in 1830, and Peel was now in opposition to a new administration, headed by Earl Grey. Peel argued passionately against Grey's proposals for parliamentary reform. Nonetheless, in 1832 the Reform Act was passed. The Whig Government of Earl Grey was dismissed in 1834 by William IV, who appointed Peel as the new prime minister. In his Tamworth Manifesto, Peel outlined his support for the Reform Act, a shift which highlighted his adoption of a more enlightened Conservatism. Although in power, Peel's Tories remained a minority in the House of Commons, a situation which Peel found increasingly intolerable, and he resigned in 1835. In 1841, Peel again formed a Conservative administration, and it was during this government that he oversaw the introduction of significant legislation such as the Mines Act of 1842, which forbade the employment of women and children underground and the Factory Act of 1844, which limited working hours for children and women in factories. In 1845, Peel faced the defining challenge of his career, when he attempted to repeal the Corn Laws which had been introduced to protect British agriculture. This was triggered by the need to free up more food for Ireland, where a potato famine was raging. Landowners resisted in the House of Commons what they perceived as an attack on their interests. Peel's Conservative Party would not support him, and the debate lasted for months. Eventually, in June 1846, with support from the Whigs and the Radicals, the Corn Laws were repealed. On the same day, Peel was defeated on another bill, and resigned. He never held office again. Four years later, Peel was badly injured after falling from his horse and died on 2 July 1850 in London.

Robert Peel

Which Conservative MP was a middle-distance runner who won two Olympic gold medals and set eleven world records during the 1970s and 1980s?

European_History 102 - concluded that the Corn Laws simply redistributed European_History 102 European_History 102 - concluded that the Corn Laws simply... SCHOOL View Full Document British Prime Minister Robert Peel The Corn Laws were taxes placed on imported goods to protect Britain's own goods. They forced the British people to buy the more expensive and lower quality British grain by putting a tariff on French grain, which tended to be less expensive and higher quality. The goal was to keep British money in Britain, rather than being spent on importing French grain. The Corn Laws were passed by the members of the Tory party in Parliament. The Tories were populated by the Landed Gentry. The Whigs, which represented the working class, merchants, factory owners, and so forth in Britain, were opposed to the Corn Laws, but because the Tories controlled Parliament, they were unable to stop the passage of the Corn Laws. The expensive price of British grain necessitated a rise in wages, and factory owners such as David Ricardo were forced to pay higher wages so that their workers could afford the food. Ricardo thus This is the end of the preview. Sign up to access the rest of the document. Unformatted text preview: concluded that the Corn Laws simply redistributed wealth from the industrialists to the landowners. In 1819, 80,000 people gathered in Manchester demanding the repeal of the Corn Laws. British soldiers opened fire, killing 11 demonstrators, in what became known as the Peterloo Massacre. As a result, the Anti-Corn Law League was established in Manchester, and used pamphlets, mass demonstrations, and torchlight parades to protest the Corn Laws. In 1846, the Corn Laws were repealed under Prime Minister Robert Peel. The government was still led by Tories, but the Irish Potato Famine led to the repeal, demonstrating the new power of the industrialists in England. The Era of Realpolitik Before 1848, idealism and reason were at the forefront of people's minds. However, after 1848, the concept of Realpolitik and action arose. This new toughness of mind rejected high-minded ideology for action, and marked the end of the Enlightenment.... On the right, Otto von Bismarck of Germany took Realpolitik actions, manipulating the European_History 103

i don't know

What was the racial segregation policy practiced by South Africa's National Party until 1994?

Apartheid - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com A+E Networks Introduction After the National Party gained power in South Africa in 1948, its all-white government immediately began enforcing existing policies of racial segregation under a system of legislation that it called apartheid. Under apartheid, nonwhite South Africans (a majority of the population) would be forced to live in separate areas from whites and use separate public facilities, and contact between the two groups would be limited. Despite strong and consistent opposition to apartheid within and outside of South Africa, its laws remained in effect for the better part of 50 years. In 1991, the government of President F.W. de Klerk began to repeal most of the legislation that provided the basis for apartheid. ‹ › Google Birth of Apartheid Racial segregation and white supremacy had become central aspects of South African policy long before apartheid began. The controversial 1913 Land Act, passed three years after South Africa gained its independence, marked the beginning of territorial segregation by forcing black Africans to live in reserves and making it illegal for them to work as sharecroppers. Opponents of the Land Act formed the South African National Native Congress, which would become the African National Congress (ANC). Did You Know? ANC leader Nelson Mandela, released from prison in February 1990, worked closely with President F.W. de Klerk's government to draw up a new constitution for South Africa. After both sides made concessions, they reached agreement in 1993, and would share the Nobel Peace Prize that year for their efforts. The Great Depression and World War II brought increasing economic woes to South Africa, and convinced the government to strengthen its policies of racial segregation. In 1948, the Afrikaner National Party won the general election under the slogan “apartheid” (literally “separateness”). Their goal was not only to separate South Africa’s white minority from its non-white majority, but also to separate non-whites from each other, and to divide black South Africans along tribal lines in order to decrease their political power. Apartheid Becomes Law By 1950, the government had banned marriages between whites and people of other races, and prohibited sexual relations between black and white South Africans. The Population Registration Act of 1950 provided the basic framework for apartheid by classifying all South Africans by race, including Bantu (black Africans), Coloured (mixed race) and white. A fourth category, Asian (meaning Indian and Pakistani) was later added. In some cases, the legislation split families; parents could be classified as white, while their children were classified as colored. A series of Land Acts set aside more than 80 percent of the country’s land for the white minority, and “pass laws” required non-whites to carry documents authorizing their presence in restricted areas. In order to limit contact between the races, the government established separate public facilities for whites and non-whites, limited the activity of nonwhite labor unions and denied non-white participation in national government. Apartheid and Separate Development Dr. Hendrik Verwoerd, who became prime minister in 1958, would refine apartheid policy further into a system he referred to as “separate development.” The Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act of 1959 created 10 Bantu homelands known as Bantustans. Separating black South Africans from each other enabled the government to claim there was no black majority, and reduced the possibility that blacks would unify into one nationalist organization. Every black South African was designated as a citizen as one of the Bantustans, a system that supposedly gave them full political rights, but effectively removed them from the nation’s political body. In one of the most devastating aspects of apartheid, the government forcibly removed black South Africans from rural areas designated as “white” to the homelands, and sold their land at low prices to white farmers. From 1961 to 1994, more than 3.5 million people were forcibly removed from their homes and deposited in the Bantustans, where they were plunged into poverty and hopelessness. Opposition to Apartheid Resistance to apartheid within South Africa took many forms over the years, from non-violent demonstrations, protests and strikes to political action and eventually to armed resistance. Together with the South Indian National Congress, the ANC organized a mass meeting in 1952, during which attendees burned their pass books. A group calling itself the Congress of the People adopted a Freedom Charter in 1955 asserting that “South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black or white.” The government broke up the meeting and arrested 150 people, charging them with high treason. In 1960, at the black township of Sharpesville, the police opened fire on a group of unarmed blacks associated with the Pan-African Congress (PAC), an offshoot of the ANC. The group had arrived at the police station without passes, inviting arrest as an act of resistance. At least 67 blacks were killed and more than 180 wounded. Sharpesville convinced many anti-apartheid leaders that they could not achieve their objectives by peaceful means, and both the PAC and ANC established military wings, neither of which ever posed a serious military threat to the state. By 1961, most resistance leaders had been captured and sentenced to long prison terms or executed. Nelson Mandela , a founder of Umkhonto we Sizwe (“Spear of the Nation”), the military wing of the ANC, was incarcerated from 1963 to 1990; his imprisonment would draw international attention and help garner support for the anti-apartheid cause. Apartheid Comes to an End In 1976, when thousands of black children in Soweto, a black township outside Johannesburg, demonstrated against the Afrikaans language requirement for black African students, the police opened fire with tear gas and bullets. The protests and government crackdowns that followed, combined with a national economic recession, drew more international attention to South Africa and shattered all illusions that apartheid had brought peace or prosperity to the nation. The United Nations General Assembly had denounced apartheid in 1973, and in 1976 the UN Security Council voted to impose a mandatory embargo on the sale of arms to South Africa. In 1985, the United Kingdom and United States imposed economic sanctions on the country. Under pressure from the international community, the National Party government of Pieter Botha sought to institute some reforms, including abolition of the pass laws and the ban on interracial sex and marriage. The reforms fell short of any substantive change, however, and by 1989 Botha was pressured to step aside in favor of F.W. de Klerk. De Klerk’s government subsequently repealed the Population Registration Act, as well as most of the other legislation that formed the legal basis for apartheid. A new constitution, which enfranchised blacks and other racial groups, took effect in 1994, and elections that year led to a coalition government with a nonwhite majority, marking the official end of the apartheid system. Tags

Apartheid

Which party was led by Adolf Hitler from 1921 to 1945?

Apartheid in South Africa Essay - 1126 Words Apartheid In South Africa APARTHEID Apartheid is the political policy of racial segregation. In Afrikaans, it means apartness, and it was pioneered in 1948 by the South African National Party when it came to power. Not only did apartheid separate whites from non-whites, it also segregated the Blacks (Africans) from the Coloureds (Indians, Asians). All things such as jobs, schools, railway stations, beaches, park benches, public toilets and even parliament. Apartheid also prevented blacks from living in white areas. This brought about the hated "pass laws". These laws required any non-white to carry a pass on him or her. Unless it was stamped on their pass, they were not allowed to stay in a white area for more than 72 hours. Despite the fact that the whites only make up just over 14% of the population, they own 86.3% of the land. However, it must be said that the Afrikaaners are entitled to the Orange Free State and Transvaal as they were first to use it after the Great Trek of 1836. The average South African White earns eight times as much as the average black man. Coloureds earn three times as much as black while colords earn well over half of what whites earn. During Apartheid, media censorship was at an all time high. People were even banned from showing Soweto on television. It was common to see a newspaper shut down, and then start again after being halted by the government. Up until 1985, mixed marriages were banned. This meant that a person of one race cold not marry a person of another race. Apartheid was not only used in theory, but also by law. Every person was classifed, just like an animal, as white, black or coloured. The system of Apartheid began to deteriorate in the mid to late 1980's. In 1985, mixed marriages were allowed, the Pass laws repealed, and a general weakening of petty segregation laws regarding parks and beaches. In 1994, the entire system collapsed after... How Did Nelson Mandela Aid the Downfall of Apartheid Essay ...of Apartheid? Nelson Mandela was born in 1918 in South Africa to a Thembu chief. Thirty years later he would start one of the most famous movements of our time, the anti-apartheid movement. Apartheid was an official policy of forced segregation of the races and was implemented in 1948 by the National Party when it came to power in South Africa. Under apartheid, all black citizens... 2265  Words | 7  Pages Essay on Apartheid in South Africa ... Apartheid was developed after World War II by the Afrikaner- dominated National Party. By definition Apartheid is a system of racial segregation. The National Party (NP) governments enforced Apartheid, through legislation, in South Africa from 1948 to 1994. This new legislation classified inhabitants into four racial groups: black, white, coloured and Indian. (The Indian and coloured groups were further divided into... 659  Words | 3  Pages South Africa Dbq Essay ... Dutch settlers first arrived in South Africa looking for slaves and goods, at the time they were known as Afrikaners. The Berlin Conference controlled the European colonization and trade in Africa by dividing the country into sections. The African efforts to resist European imperialism failed because they were unable to withstand the advanced weapons and other technology possessed by the Europeans. In 1948, a new system of racial segregation... 1371  Words | 4  Pages Apartheid Separateness Essay ...Apartheid  (separateness) was a system of legal racial segregation enforced by the National Party government of South Africa between 1948 and 1993, under which the rights of the majority 'non-white' inhabitants of South Africa were curtailed and minority rule by white people was maintained. Racial segregation in South Africa began in colonial times. However, apartheid as an... 4777  Words | 13  Pages Apartheid the Law of Racial Segregation in South Africa Essay ...Apartheid I have chosen this topic because I find apartheid really interesting and I want to dig deeper in what apartheid is and what it did for sports and the difference Nelson Mandela made. Apartheid was a system of racial segregation in South Africa founded in 1948 to 1994. Under apartheid people were divided into groups of your race the biggest was black, white, colored and Asian. The... 878  Words | 3  Pages Apartheid Essay ...destined to lead as his advisor. In his teenage years, Mandela had consistent education where it taught him of British culture dominates traditional culture. In 1938, at the age of 21, he enrolled at Fort Hare University, the only black university in South Africa. Mandela first encountered Oliver Tambo and became involved in a sec boycott against white administration and disagreements with policies which led to an expulsion from Fort Hare. Mandela’s guardian tried... 2557  Words | 7  Pages Essay on Language Policy in Education in South Africa ...existence of different languages was recognised and perversely celebrated to legitimise the policy of “separate development” that formed the cornerstone of apartheid...The use of language policy as an instrument of control, oppression and exploitation was one of the factors that triggered the two great political struggles that defined South Africa in the twentieth century – the struggle of the Afrikaners against British imperialism and the struggle of... 2396  Words | 7  Pages South Africa Truth and Reconciliation Commission Essay ...After many years of violence, discrimination, and white supremacy, South Africa was finally determined to change its political system from an apartheid government into a democracy. In 1948, with the National Party in power, the apartheid legislation was established. It was not an easy road for those who, since the beginning, wanted to end this political separation. Racial groups were forbidden, in any case, to have any public or private... 2336  Words | 6  Pages

i don't know

How old must you be to vote in a British parliamentary election?

How do I register to vote? - UK Parliament How do I register to vote? Referendums in the UK How do I register to vote? You need to register before you can vote in UK elections. The different ways you can register to vote are listed below. Registering in England, Scotland and Wales Register online You will need your National Insurance number (if you have one). Register by post Who can register to vote? You can register to vote if you are: 16 years old or over (but you cannot vote until you are 18 years old) A British citizen An Irish, Commonwealth or European Union citizen who is resident in the UK Citizens of the European Union who are not Commonwealth citizens can vote in European and local elections in the UK, but are not able to vote in UK general elections. Overseas and service voters About My Vote: Armed Forces (external site) When can I register to vote? You can register to vote , or change your address on the electoral register, at any time throughout the year. However, if you are seeking to vote in a specific election there will be a deadline by which you must have registered that will be determined by when that election is to be held. Am I already registered to vote? To find out whether or not you are registered to vote, you need to contact your Electoral Registration Officer. You can find their details by entering your postcode on the About My Vote website . Further information More information on how to register to vote can be found on the Electoral Commission website or the About My Vote website . Image: iStock Electoral Commission The Electoral Commission is an independent body, accountable directly to the UK Parliament, that regulates elections in the UK, promotes voter awareness and works to build confidence in the electoral process. Parliament is not responsible for the content of external websites. Video: how the General Election works in nearly 60 seconds Watch video on YouTube Living Heritage Before 1918 no women were allowed to vote in parliamentary elections. Discover how the right to vote was extended to different sectors of society over the years.

18

How many readings does an act of Parliament have in the House of Commons before being given royal assent?

Voting procedures - Citizens Advice This advice applies to England. Change country Voting procedures Challenging the outcome of an election Registering to vote You can now register to vote online . You'll need your national insurance number (if you have one) to register, and it only takes about five minutes. To be included on the electoral register, you must: be aged 18 or over, but see below be aged 15 years old or over (and in some cases 14 years old) in Scotland must have one of the types of citizenship listed below be living in the constituency in which you wish to vote - see below. If you’re a British citizen living overseas, see below not be a person who is excluded from voting - see below. Age In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, if you are going to be 18 during the twelve month period after the register is published, you should be entered on the register so that you will be able to vote as soon as you become 18. Your date of birth must be given on the electoral registration form. In Scotland, you can register to vote if you are 15 years old or over (and in some cases 14 years old). From 2016, you will be eligible to vote in Scottish Parliament and Scottish local government elections once you are 16. You will be eligible to vote in UK and European elections once you are 18. Citizenship The following people can register to vote in European parliamentary, British parliamentary elections (this means general and by-elections) and local government elections: British citizens (but see below if you’re a British citizen living abroad) citizens of the Republic of Ireland who are living in the UK British Overseas Territories citizens who are living in the UK Commonwealth citizens who are living in the UK. If you're a Commonwealth citizen or British Overseas Territories citizen who wishes to register to vote, you must either: have leave to enter or remain in the UK; or be someone who does not need leave to enter or remain in the UK. British citizens living overseas can register and vote in European and British parliamentary elections but not elections to the Scottish Parliament or local elections. If you've been living abroad for over 15 years, you might lose this right. Gibraltar nationals can vote only in European parliamentary elections in the UK. If you are not sure what type of citizenship you have, or whether or not you are eligible to vote, you should consult an experienced adviser, for example, a Citizens Advice Bureau. To search for details of your nearest CAB, including those that can give advice by email, click on nearest CAB . EU citizens European Union (EU) citizens have the right to vote in: European parliamentary elections Scottish Parliamentary elections, if they live in Scotland National Assembly for Wales elections, if they live in Wales Northern Ireland Assembly elections, if they live in Northern Ireland. European nationals who are not EU citizens do not have a right to vote in these elections. EU citizens cannot vote in British parliamentary elections. For European parliamentary elections, EU citizens can vote either in their 'home' country, or the EU country in which they are currently living. They cannot vote in both. To be eligible to vote in British local government elections, EU citizens must be included on the electoral register for the constituency in which they vote - see under heading How is the electoral register compiled . Residency To register to vote or declare a local connection, you must be resident in the constituency on the date on which you make the application to register (see under heading Special arrangements for specific groups when registering to vote ). If you are temporarily away from home, for example, if you are studying away from home, you can still vote or declare a local connection in the constituency where you usually live. There are some exceptions to this rule, for example, people who live abroad, some homeless people, remand prisoners and people in psychiatric hospitals – but see below for a fuller explanation. Who cannot vote The following people are not eligible to vote:- anyone who is not on the electoral register on polling day people from abroad, (other than EU citizens, citizens of the Republic of Ireland and qualifying Commonwealth citizens who are resident in the UK - see above) in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, people aged under 18 cannot vote  in Scotland, people under 16 cannot vote in Scottish Parliament or Scottish local government elections and people under 18 cannot vote in UK General elections or European elections. most sentenced prisoners. However, the European Court of Human Rights has decided that this may breach human rights. A prisoner who is not able to vote should get specialist advice. people who are detained in a psychiatric hospital as a consequence of criminal activity certain people convicted of corrupt or illegal electoral practices peers of the realm who remain members of the House of Lords (for British parliamentary elections only) people who have a severe mental illness and are unable to understand the voting procedure. If you are not sure if you are entitled to vote you should consult an experienced adviser, for example, a Citizens Advice Bureau. To search for details of your nearest CAB, including those that can give advice by email, click on nearest CAB . Overseas voters If you live abroad, have been resident in the United Kingdom, and have been registered as a United Kingdom resident elector within the previous 15 years, you can make an annual declaration. This will allow you to be included each year on the electoral register in the constituency where you were last registered before you went abroad. Registration as an overseas voter is voluntary. Once registered, you can vote at any parliamentary or European parliament election which occurs while you are on the register. You cannot vote in local government elections or in elections to devolved assemblies, for example, the National Assembly for Wales, the Scottish Parliament or the Northern Ireland Assembly. If you are now old enough to be included on the register, but you were too young to be included when you left the United Kingdom, you can also make an annual declaration, provided you have lived in the United Kingdom within the last 15 years and your parent or guardian had been included on the electoral register. Anyone who is eligible, and who wishes to register as an overseas elector, must complete the necessary forms, normally available from British consulates and diplomatic posts, or you can download them from the Electoral Commission's website at www.aboutmyvote.co.uk . You must return the completed forms to the electoral registration officer for the constituency in which you were last registered. You must do this annually. The first time the declaration is made, you must give details of your British citizenship (which is the only type of citizenship - see under heading Can you register to vote - that counts to be an overseas voter). You will get a reminder from the registration officer (the chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) to renew your overseas elector declaration. Special arrangements for specific groups when registering to vote There are special arrangements for some groups of people when registering to vote. These groups are:- homeless people (including some travellers) - see below patients in psychiatric hospitals (other than those detained as a consequence of criminal activity) - see below people remanded in custody - see below people resident in more than one constituency - see below. Declaration of local connection A declaration of local connection (declaration) may be made by homeless people, patients in psychiatric hospitals and remand prisoners. This should be used if you are in one of the above groups and do not fulfil the usual residence requirements (see under heading Can you register to vote ), but are otherwise entitled to register to vote. The declaration must:- give your name; and provide an address for correspondence to be sent to, or an undertaking to collect such correspondence from the electoral registration office; and give the date of the declaration; and state that you fall into one of the categories that are allowed to make a declaration and state the relevant category that applies to you; and state that you fulfil the nationality requirements (see under heading Can you register to vote ); and state that you are 18 years old or, if you are not, give your date of birth (see under heading Can you register to vote ). If you enter more than one address, or submit more than one declaration bearing the same date and different addresses, the declaration(s) will be void. You may cancel a declaration at any time. A declaration enables you to apply to register to vote. You must submit the declaration to the registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) within three months of the date on the declaration and you will be treated as being resident at the address you have given. This registration will be valid for twelve months unless cancelled or superseded. Homeless people If you are homeless, you should make a declaration giving the address of a place where you spend a substantial part of your time, or the address of somewhere near to that place. This could include a cafe or drop-in centre. A traveller who is not on a settled site may be able to make a declaration. Patients in psychiatric hospitals People detained in a psychiatric hospital as a consequence of criminal activity are not entitled to vote (see under heading Can you register to vote ). If you are a short-term patient in a psychiatric hospital you can register to vote by completing the usual electoral registration form - see below. You should give your usual address outside the hospital as your place of residence. If you are a short-term patient with no address outside the hospital and are concerned you may not be entered on the electoral register, you should consult an experienced adviser, for example, a Citizens Advice Bureau. To search for details of your nearest CAB, including those that can give advice by email, click on nearest CAB . If you are a long-term patient in a psychiatric hospital when a new electoral register is being drawn up, you are entitled to register to vote. You can register at your address outside the hospital. Alternatively, you can register at the address of the hospital if the registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) considers that you have been, or will be, in the hospital for a long enough period of time for it to be regarded as the your place of residence. If you do not wish to use your home address or the hospital's address, you can make a declaration of local connection - see above. The declaration must give both the name of the psychiatric hospital and the address where you would be living if you were not in the hospital. If you cannot provide your most recent home address, you should provide an address in the United Kingdom where you have lived at any time. If you are detained under the Mental Health Act 1983 (in Scotland, the Mental Health (Care and Treatment) (Scotland) Act 2003 and, in Northern Ireland, the Mental Health (Northern Ireland) Order 1986) you may not vote in person, but must instead vote by post (see under heading How to vote ) or proxy (see under heading How to vote ). People remanded in custody The only prisoners who are entitled to vote are those detained on remand (whether in prison or in hospital) and those convicted but not yet sentenced (see under heading Can you register to vote ). You can register at your address outside the prison. Alternatively, you can register at the address of the prison if the registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) considers that you have been, or will be, on remand in the prison for a long enough period of time for it to be regarded as your place of residence. If you do not wish to use your home address or the prison's address, you can make a declaration of local connection - see above. The declaration must give both the name of the prison and the address where you would be living if you were not in the prison. If you cannot provide your most recent home address, you should provide an address in the United Kingdom where you have lived at any time. People resident in more than one constituency Your position if you have more than one home is complex. Your rights to be included on the register and vote in a particular constituency depend on your circumstances. It will be necessary to consult the electoral registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) in this situation. You can be entered on more than one electoral register if you are resident in more than one constituency. For example, if you are a student you may be registered at one address by your parent/guardian and may also register yourself at your college/university town if you are living away from home. However, in some situations, you may be prevented by the electoral registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) from registering in two places. For example, if you have a holiday home but spend only a few days there each year, you may not be considered to be 'resident' there. However, if you spend most weekends there, the registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) may well consider you are eligible to be included in the register. If you wish to appeal against a decision to exclude you from the register, you should follow the correct procedure (see under heading How is the electoral role register compiled ). Although it is not illegal to be registered in more than one place, it is illegal to vote twice in the same election, for example, a parliamentary general election. However, you can vote in elections for two separate local councils. If you are not in the constituency where you wish to vote on polling day and wish to apply for a proxy vote, you must satisfy the registration officer that you are eligible (see under heading How to vote ). If a proxy vote is refused, there is a right of appeal in the county court (sheriff court in Scotland). You can vote by post without having to meet any specific criteria (see under heading How to vote ). How is the electoral register compiled The electoral register is compiled annually but amended throughout the year. Every local authority has an electoral registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) who is in charge of the process. Individual Electoral Registration The way that you register to vote is changing with the introduction of Individual Electoral Registration (IER). In England and Wales, from 10 June 2014 and in Scotland from 19 September 2014, if you are eligible to vote, you now have to register the details yourself if: you are a new voter, or the details held about you on the current electoral register don’t match with details held on the Department for Work and Pensions database. This is a change from the former system where one person registered everyone eligible to vote in the household on a registration card which was sent back to the local Electoral Registration Office. To prepare for the move to IER, electoral registration officers (EROs) will have written to voters who are already on the current electoral register by 10 August 2014 in England and Wales and by 31 December 2014 in Scotland, to tell them about the changes. They will check the birthdate and National Insurance numbers of people who are already on the current electoral register against the information on the DWP database. If your details match, you will be transferred automatically to IER and there will be no need to do anything. Where there isn’t a match or only some of the details match, the ERO is also able to look at other databases, such as council tax records to confirm your identity. If they are unable to confirm the match through other databases, you will have to register to vote yourself. Nobody will be taken off the current electoral register until after the next General Election on May 7 2015. It's against the law to give false information on the electoral registration form, or on any other document about voting. If the registration officer asks you for more information, you must give it. If you fail to do so, this is also against the law. You can get more information about registering to vote from the Electoral Commission's website at www.aboutmyvote.co.uk . From the information you provide, the electoral registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) compiles a register. This is open for inspection all year round at local council offices and other public places, for example, main post offices and libraries. You can apply to be added to the register or to have your details amended on the register at any time throughout the year, although, when an election is held, registration applications must be received between two to four weeks before polling day, depending on the election timetable. The registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) will either publish notices setting out changes to the register or publish a revised version of the register at any point in the year. Your registration should take no longer than six to eight weeks, except during the period when new registration details are being collected, usually between October and March, when an unregistered person might have to wait up to fifteen weeks before being added to the register. Can you register anonymously You can register anonymously, but only if you feel at risk, for example, from an ex-partner. Otherwise, failure to provide information to the registration staff or to complete the registration form or to give false information may result in you being prosecuted and fined. You have not been included in the register If you consider you are eligible to register, but have not been included in the register, you can now register online to vote at GOV.UK You can also register by post by downloading the Individual Registration Form , completing the form and sending it back to the Electoral Registration Officer at your local council. You can also get a form from the electoral registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) at your local council. Alternatively, you can apply in a letter containing all relevant information. You can make the application or you can ask someone else to do it on your behalf. All additions to, and deletions from, the register are issued by the registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) in a public notice. You can object to any amendment to the register - see below. If the registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) decides to allow your application, your name will be entered on the electoral register with effect from the day the notice is published. However, if your name is added to the register after the close of nomination of candidates, you will not be able to vote in that particular election. You should therefore make sure you register to vote at least 12 working days before the date of the election in which you want to vote. If the registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) decides not to allow an application, you will be notified of the decision and the grounds on which it was made. You then have three days from the date of receiving this notice in which to ask for a hearing - see below. How to object to an inclusion in the register You may wish to object to the inclusion of your name, or someone else's name, in the register, for example, because you believe they are no longer resident in the constituency or are not entitled to vote. You can also object to the inclusion of your details in copies of the register which are sold to commercial organisations. If you wish to object you should contact the electoral registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) and put your objections in writing. The local authority may have a standard form that you can fill in. Any person on the electoral register (not necessarily in the same constituency) may make such an objection. If the registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) decides to disallow your objection immediately, you will be notified of the decision and the grounds on which it was made. You then have three days from the date of the registration officer's notice to ask for a hearing - see below. If there is a hearing, both the objector and the person they are objecting to will be able to present their cases. Hearings of claims and objections Unless a claim or objection is allowed or disallowed immediately, the electoral registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) will set a time and place to hear the claim or objection. At the hearing, you and/or the objector can appear in person or choose to be represented by someone else. You may submit written statements as well as oral evidence. If you are still unhappy with the decision of the registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland), you can appeal against it in the county court (sheriff court in Scotland). How to vote Before polling day, everyone entitled to vote will be sent a polling card, unless a proxy (see below) or postal vote (see below) has previously been agreed. The card will give details of the polling station and the hours it is open. You do not need to take the polling card to the polling station when you go to vote, but it may be more convenient to do so. If you do not want to, or cannot, attend the polling station in person, you can apply for a postal vote (see below), or a proxy vote (see below) if you meet the relevant criteria. For more information about how to vote in Scottish parliamentary elections, see The Scottish Parliament . Help for disabled people If you are disabled, you may be able to vote by post (see below) or by proxy (see below). If you are partially sighted and choose to vote in person, the polling station must display a large print version of the ballot paper to assist you. If you are blind or partially sighted the polling station must also provide a device to enable you to fill in your ballot papers without any need for assistance from anyone else. If you are physically disabled or unable to read, you may take a companion to help you complete the ballot form and put it in the ballot box. Your companion must be aged 18 or over (16 or over if it is a Scottish Parliamentary or local government election in Scotland) and be entitled to vote, and must make a written declaration to this effect. Your companion cannot help more than one disabled voter to vote at that election. The presiding officer has to be satisfied that you need the help of a companion in order to vote. Alternatively, you can ask the presiding officer to mark the ballot paper on your behalf. Postal voters and Individual Electoral Registration Changes to postal voting will happen before the next general election in 2015. If you currently vote by post, your details will be checked against the DWP database. If they match you will be automatically transferred to IER. If your details don’t match you will no longer be able to vote by post until you have registered yourself. The electoral registratio officer will write to you to tell you how to do this. If you have not registered yourself to vote by post at least 12 working days before 7 May 2015, you will not be able vote by post in the next General Election. However, if you are already registered to vote you will be able to vote in person at a polling station because your details will still be on the current electoral register. Once you are registered to vote, you can choose to vote by post at both parliamentary and local government elections for: an indefinite period To make an application for a postal vote, you must: give your full name, date of birth and national insurance number provide the address where you are or will be registered provide the address to which the ballot paper must be sent specify the period or the particular election for which the application is made state whether the application is made for parliamentary elections, local government elections, or both sign and date the application. Complete the application form available from your electoral registration office or from the voting website ( www.aboutmyvote.co.uk ). Only one application form can be used for each person. Alternatively, you can apply in writing, although care must be taken to ensure that the letter contains all the information necessary (see above). It is against the law to give false information about an application for a postal vote. It is also against the law to get the registration officer to send a postal vote application form to an address when the person entitled to vote has not agreed to this. An application for a postal vote has to be received by the registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) at least 12 working days before the date of the poll. If you have already registered to vote by post and then change your mind, for example, you want instead to vote by proxy or to be removed from the record, the registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) must receive your application at least eleven working days before the poll. Once a successful application has been made, you should be added to a section of the register known as the absent voters list. You should receive confirmation that you have been given a postal vote (if there is enough time before the election). You will receive: a ballot paper a postal voting statement that you must sign and on which you must state your date of birth. By signing the statement, you are confirming that you are the person to whom the ballot paper was sent pre-paid envelopes as necessary information about how to obtain guidance on voting in languages other than English, in Braille or in other forms such as audible forms. If you are registered and have applied to vote by post and you do not receive your postal ballot paper by the fourth working day before the day of the poll, you can apply to the registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) for a replacement ballot paper. The application for a replacement ballot paper must include evidence of your identity. You should then be issued with a replacement ballot paper. Proxy votes Voting by proxy means that you appoint someone else to vote on your behalf. The person appointed as a proxy must be eligible to vote (see under heading Can you register to vote ). Once you are registered to vote by proxy, you will be able to do so at both parliamentary and local government elections for either an indefinite period, a particular period or for a particular election. Only specified groups (see below), can apply to vote by proxy for a particular or indefinite period, but anyone can apply to vote by proxy for a particular election. Anyone can apply to vote by proxy for a particular election (see above). However, only the following people may be eligible to vote by proxy for a particular or indefinite period:- people registered as service voters (members of the armed forces) people registered as overseas electors (see under heading Special arrangements for specific groups when registering to vote ). People in this situation cannot vote in local government elections people who cannot go in person to vote without making a journey by sea or air people who cannot reasonably be expected to vote in person because of the general nature of their occupation or that of their spouse or civil partner (evidence is required from their employer) people who are blind or have some other disability and who, as a result, cannot reasonably be expected to vote in person at the allotted polling station or cannot reasonably be expected to vote unaided - see above. If you wish to apply to vote by proxy for a particular election and you are not in one of the groups listed above, you must satisfy the registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) that, on the date of the poll for that election, you cannot reasonably be expected to vote in person at your allotted polling station. This requirement does not apply to people listed above. To make an application for a proxy vote, you must fill in an application form on which you must:- state your full name; and provide the address where you are or will be registered; and provide the full name and address of the proxy together with their family relationship to you, if relevant; and state the grounds on which you claim to be entitled to a proxy vote - see above; and specify the period or the particular election for which the application is made; and state whether the application is made for parliamentary elections, local government elections, or both; and sign and date the application - see below. It is against the law to try and persuade someone to vote by proxy or to give false information about an application for a proxy vote. It is also against the law to get the registration officer to send a proxy vote application form to an address when the person entitled to vote has not agreed to this. An application for a proxy vote has to be received by the registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) at least six working days before the date of the poll. But if you become ill just before polling day, you can apply for an emergency proxy vote if you have medical evidence. If you have already registered to vote by proxy and then change your mind, for example, you want instead to vote by post or to be removed from the record, the registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) must receive notification of this at least eleven working days before the poll. Once a successful application has been made, you should be added to a section of the electoral register known as the absent voters list. You should receive confirmation that you have been given a proxy vote (if there is enough time before the election) confirming the name and address of the proxy and the length of time they may act as your proxy. The proxy will also receive confirmation and, shortly before polling day, will receive a proxy poll card or a proxy postal ballot paper, depending on the chosen method of voting. Proxy vote and disabled voters If you are applying for a proxy vote (for a particular or indefinite period) on the grounds of disability, the application form must be countersigned by a registered healthcare practitioner or social worker. If you live in residential care, a local authority care or nursing home or sheltered accommodation, you can have your application signed by the person in charge. Some people don't have to have their application countersigned – see below. The person who signs the application form has to state that:- they are treating (or providing care to) you for the physical incapacity specified in the application; and you cannot reasonably be expected to go in person to the allotted polling station or to vote there unaided; and the physical incapacity is likely to continue either indefinitely or for the particular period specified in the application. If you are applying for a proxy vote (for a particular or indefinite period) on the grounds of disability, you will not have to fulfil the requirements listed above if you are:- registered blind; or getting the higher rate of the mobility component of disability living allowance, or the enhanced rate of the mobility component of personal independence payment, or armed forces independence payment; or registered with the local authority on grounds of physical and/or mental disability. For more information about disability living allowance, see Benefits for people who are sick or disabled . Appealing against refusal of a postal or a proxy vote If the registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) refuses an application for a postal or proxy vote, you will be notified of this decision and the reasons for it. You can appeal against this decision, but not if you applied to vote by post or proxy in a particular election only. You must give notice of the appeal by letter to the registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) within 14 days of having received the notice of refusal. You must specify the grounds of the appeal. The registration officer (chief electoral officer in Northern Ireland) will forward the notice of appeal to the appropriate county court (sheriff court in Scotland) with details of their decision. Challenging the outcome of an election You can challenge the outcome of a parliamentary or European parliamentary election on the grounds of an irregularity. In the case of a local government election, four or more voters acting together can challenge the outcome. To challenge the outcome, you need to file an election petition at the Election Petitions Office of the Royal Courts of Justice (Court of Session in Scotland). This must be done within 21 days of the election. A fee of £120 will be charged. More information about the procedure for challenging the outcome can be obtained from the Election Petitions Office. The address is:- England and Wales

i don't know

In which city did Karl Marx write Das Kapital?

Karl Marx FAQ  |  Site Map Karl Marx The German philosopher Karl Marx (1818-1883) was one of the most influential political writers in history. Indeed, in the last half of the twentieth century, almost half the people in the world lived in countries governed by principles based on Marx's work. To understand the scope and importance of Marx, we must look to his childhood and to the political situation of his time. Marx grew up in a learned family that prized education. In fact, he came from a long line of rabbis on both sides of the family. In 1835, at the age of 17, Marx went to the University of Bonn to study law. However, Marx's father felt his son should go to a more serious school so, a year later, Marx was sent to the University of Berlin where he studied for four years. Even as a young man, Marx had a thoughtful, philosophical bent. When he was 17 years old, he wrote a letter to his father, in which he pondered the choices that a young person must make when choosing a profession: "...But the chief guide which must direct us in the choice of a profession is the welfare of mankind and our own perfection. It should not be thought that these two interests could be in conflict, that one would have to destroy the other; on the contrary, Man's nature is so constituted that he can attain his own perfection only by working for the perfection, for the good, of his fellow men. If he works only for himself, he may perhaps become a famous man of learning, a great sage, an excellent poet, but he can never be a perfect, truly great man." I have quoted from this letter at such length to show you that Marx was much more than a political philosopher. As he grew older, he developed into a highly educated economist, a historian, a social scientist and, eventually, a revolutionary. In October 1842, not long after finishing his formal education, Marx began to edit a 4-month old liberal newspaper, "Rheinische Zeitung", in the Prussian city of Cologne. (At the time, Prussia was an independent kingdom, the largest and most important of the Germanic states.) Up to now, Marx had looked at the study of the law only as an academic pursuit. However, "Rheinische Zeitung" was an outlet for the region's middle class and intellectuals, people who were strongly opposed to Prussian authoritarianism. As editor, Marx was obliged -- for the first time in his life -- to confront legal and political issues from a practical viewpoint. This led him to turn his attention to economics and, within a short time, he began to develop a progressive, anti- authoritarian philosophy. In November of 1842, Marx met Friedrich Engels, a German writer who was visiting the newspaper on his way to England. Marx and Engels began to collaborate, the start of a fruitful and stimulating partnership that was to last the rest of their lives. Under Marx's guidance and Engels' influence, the newspaper became more and more radical. In March 1843, Marx was forced to resign and, two weeks later, the Prussian government closed down the paper. Marx then traveled to Paris, where he became involved with working-class, socialist groups. At the end of 1844, he was expelled from Paris, and he and Engels went to Brussels, where they stayed for three years. During this interval, Marx devoted himself to an intensive study of history, developing a materialistic conception of the field. In doing so, he took a very important philosophical step. At the time, European metaphysics was dominated by Hegel's philosophy of idealism, based on two ideas. First, that reality is a creation of the mind; second, that history can be explained as an eternal struggle between opposing spiritual forces, a concept known as the Hegelian dialectic. According to Marx, people make social decisions solely in response to their economic needs. Thus, over time, the characteristics of a society are determined by its economic structure. For Marx, reality was material, not spiritual. He rejected Hegel's interpretation of history in favor of a more practical doctrine, which came to be known as Dialectical Materialism. According to Marx, all progress takes place because of a "struggle of opposites", a naturally occurring process that cannot be influenced by individuals. People make social decisions solely in response to their economic needs and, thus, over time, the characteristics of a society are determined by its economic structure. Within a particular culture, classes arise based on people's relationships to the means of production. (For example, there are owners, managers, workers, and so on.) These ideas served as the basis of a complex political doctrine that came to be called Marxism. Briefly, Marxism holds that the history of society is best-understood as "the history of class struggle". In the same way that the old feudal nobility was replaced by the bourgeoisie (that is, the capitalist class), the bourgeoisie itself will, one day, be replaced by the proletariat (the working class). In a capitalist system, the bourgeoisie is able to flourish because it extracts surplus profit from the products produced by the proletariat. However, capitalism has inherent contradictions, fatal weaknesses that, over time, become more and more severe. Eventually, the proletariat will become so impoverished that they will revolt and take control of the means of production, resulting in a completely classless society. Once this happens, the oppressive, coercive capitalist state will be replaced by a society based on rational economic cooperation. While living in Brussels, Marx and Engels joined a newly formed organization of German emigre workers. The organization was based in London and called the Communist League. At the end of 1847, Marx and Engels traveled to London for a Communist League conference, where they were commissioned to write a "succinct declaration" of the organization's principles. The result, published in 1848, was "The Communist Manifesto", arguably the single most influential political statement in history. Within the Communist Manifesto, Marx applied the concepts of dialectical materialism, asserting that social reform -- "the triumph of the working class" -- was not only desirable, but inevitable. In May, 1949, Marx was once again exiled. This time he moved to London, where he would live for the rest of his life. During this time, Marx did a great deal of writing and political organizing. In the 1850s, he studied political economics and wrote weekly articles as a foreign correspondent for the New York Daily Tribune. In 1857, he produced an 800-page manuscript called "The Grundrisse" (Outlines), which was not published until 1941. In the 1860s, he wrote three large volumes, "Theories of Surplus Value", in which he discussed theories of political economics. And in 1864, he and Engels helped found the International Workingmen's Association. From 1867 to 1894, Marx created his greatest work, a three- volume treatise called "Das Kapital" ("Capital"), in which he used Dialectical Materialism to analyze and explain economic and social history. The first volume was published in 1876, and Marx worked on the other two for the rest of his life. On March 14, 1883, Marx died. At his funeral, he was eulogized by Engels: "Fighting was his element. And he fought with a passion, a tenacity and a success such as few could rival... Though he may have had many opponents, he had hardly one personal enemy. His name will endure through the ages, and so also will his work." After Marx's death, Engels edited and published the second and third volumes of "Das Kapital". Although it is true that many of Marx's predictions about the course of the revolutionary movement were wrong (at least, so far), there is no gainsaying that he was a true genius who left a firm, enduring mark on the world in which he lived. Even today, there are many who believe, as Engels did, that, "just as Darwin discovered the law of development of organic nature, so Marx discovered the law of development of human history." As Marx himself wrote in a letter (to Engels in 1868): "It is absolutely impossible to transcend the laws of nature. What can change in historically different circumstances is only the form in which these laws expose themselves." Web:

London

Which party did F W de Klerk represent as South African president?

Biography of Karl Marx Biography of Karl Marx Karl Marx (1818 - 1863)   Marx was born in Trier, a city in southern Germany. Both his grandfathers were rabbis. In fact, on his father�s side his ancestors for numerous generations were all rabbis. His father, Herschel Marx , a lawyer, left Judaism and became a nominal Lutheran because Jews could not be admitted to the bar unless converted to Christianity . Herschel became quite wealthy and entertained many �leading� intellectuals in his home during Karl�s youth. When Karl was only 17 he was admitted to study law at the University of Berlin. Shortly thereafter, he transferred to the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin and earned a doctorate in philosophy in 1841, when he was 23 years old. Marx was heavily influenced by the work of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, whose philosophy followed the works of Immanuel Kant. (If you care to know more about these writers, their works are in any library. If you want only a summary of Kant, Hegel etc. then get MAN�S ASCENT TO REASON by Gerhard Falk. It gives you a few pages on each philosopher�s main arguments.) Hegel taught a dialectic which Marx adopted in an altered version.  After receiving the doctorate, Marx became the editor of a Cologne newspaper. This publication seemed so radical to the German censors that it was closed down in 1843 and Marx was kicked out of Germany for having the wrong views. He moved to France, from where he was also expelled for his writings. He then lived in Belgium, returned to Paris, then returned to Cologne, was expelled again and finally moved to London where he stayed until his death. Marx's earliest publications included his essay ON THE JEWISH QUESTION. This libelous tract was quoted by the Nazi gangsters during the 1930�s and 1940�s. I saw banners strung across the main streets of Hamburg which contained anti-Jewish quotations from Karl Marx and which the Nazi haters happily exhibited as evidence that even Jews hate Jews. During his stay in London, Marx met Friedrich Engels, a German manufacturer, who owned several factories in England. Marx had married the daughter of a German aristocrat, Jenny von Westphalen, with whom he had six children. Marx also had a son by his housekeeper whom he denied throughout his life. In 1848, as a consequence of the German and French revolutions of that year, Marx and Engels published �The Communist Manifesto�, which is his most famous work. His most important work, however, is DAS KAPITAL, which consists of three massive volumes in which Marx analyzed capital, landed property, wage labor, the state, foreign trade and world markets. He also wrote a three volume work entitled THEORIES OF SURPLUS VALUE, which is the foundation of communism in China and Cuba today and which was the principal source of Lenin�s and Stalin�s dictatorship in the old Soviet Union. Nevertheless, it is accurate to hold that Lenin and his followers distorted Marx a great deal. That is also true of the Chinese communists. If you want to do so, please take a look at CAPITAL and compare it with Lenin�s interpretation. The digression is obvious. Marx wrote a great deal more. Because he did not work for money, his friend Friedrich Engels supported him and his family. After his death, Engels published most of Marx�s writings, which then became the driving force behind the worldwide communist movement. There can be little doubt that Marx, along with Freud and Einstein, laid the foundations of Western civilization during the 20th and 21st centuries. These three German speaking Jews are even now the most influential men of the last two hundred years and will always be so remembered because they were the intellectual giants of their day and ours. Marx influenced economics and sociology, political science and history enormously. He believed that all of history is the history of the class struggle. This may be exaggerated. Yet, our knowledge of social stratification stems from the initiative taken by Marx. Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Erich Fromm and Herbert Marcuse were all influenced by Marx. A great deal of criticism has been heaped on Karl Marx. Some of it is truly deserved. Much is the product of ignorance or fear of his perpetual influence. We recognized him as a great Jew whose achievements appear greater and greater the more the distance from his life and work. Why not visit his grave in London�s Hyde Park the next time you visit England? Shalom u�vracha.

i don't know

What is the term used when a sitting MP is removed as the candidate for a forthcoming election?

BBC News - Labour MP Nigel Griffiths to quit at election Labour MP Nigel Griffiths to quit at election Nigel Griffiths has been the Edinburgh South MP for 23 years Former Labour minister Nigel Griffiths has announced he will quit as MP for Edinburgh South at the next election. Mr Griffiths, who has held the marginal seat for 23 years, said he was leaving the Commons to take up a "once in a lifetime job offer". The politician was recently hit with allegations concerning his private life and the Westminster expenses scandal. The announcement brings the number of Scottish Labour MPs stepping down so far to nine. Meanwhile, former West Lothian Council leader Graeme Morrice has been selected as the Labour candidate in Livingston, after sitting MP Jim Devine was deselected by the party's special endorsement panel following a probe of his expenses claims. Brian Taylor Political editor There is always churn at election time, but it does look as if the turnover will be substantial this time around. Thus far, nine Scottish Labour MPs are retiring/departing before a vote is cast. One Lib Dem, John Barrett, has announced that he is to go. The SNP's cohort - with the exception of Alex Salmond - are all seeking re-election as is the solitary Tory. Read Brian Taylor's blog Labour MSP Cathy Jamieson, the former Scottish justice minister, will fight Kilmarnock and Loudoun after former defence and Scottish secretary Des Browne announced he was quitting the seat. And former civil servant and trade union official Michael McCann has been unveiled as the Labour candidate in East Kilbride, Strathaven and Lesmahagow, after former defence minister Adam Ingram also decided to quit as the sitting MP. Labour paid tribute to Mr Griffiths as one of Scotland's most experienced parliamentarians. And the party moved quickly to declare Labour support in Edinburgh South - which is being targeted by the other main parties in the forthcoming election - was "strong and growing". Mr Griffiths, whose new post as director of an international education institution based in London, the United States and India, starts in June, said he firmly believed Labour would hold the seat. The former councillor said: "After 30 years of continuously elected service in Edinburgh, this is a once in a lifetime opportunity. "It would not be right to delay accepting this position, since I want to give the party time to select a new candidate to fight the forthcoming election." Trident protest Mr Griffiths, a long-time friend of Gordon Brown, last year escaped a standards investigation after the News of the World reported he cheated on his wife inside the House of Commons. In a statement following the newspaper's account of events on Remembrance Day in 2008 he said at the time: "I am, of course, ashamed that my conduct did fall below acceptable standards. I have little recollection of the evening but that does not make it right." Last summer it was reported Mr Griffiths tried to defend a £3,600 claim for a television, DVD player and digital radio in his London home by saying he had to listen to "Scottish radio" and watch "Scottish TV". He was said to have told the Commons fees office a flat-screen television was the "sensible option" in a cramped flat, but did not pursue the claim after being told that, while the explanation was understandable, the "level of purchases" remained under question. Mr Griffiths has served as a minister for construction, competition and enterprise. He became deputy Leader of the Commons in 2005, but quit two years later so he could vote against the government on Trident. Bookmark with:

Preselection

Who played the part of Piers Fletcher Dervish, personal assistant to MP Alan B'stard, in the television comedy series The New Statesman?

Glossary of Election Terms. Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) Z Above-the-line Voting At Senate elections, candidates are grouped in columns across the ballot paper. A thick horizontal line runs across the ballot paper, and voters have the option of voting above the line for a single group, or voting below the line indicating preferences for all candidtaes on the ballot paper. Above the line voting is properly known as group ticket voting , but has become more commonly known as above-the-line voting. At Federal elections, roughly 95% of voters will vote above the line. For major parties, the rate is 98-99%, and for minor parties, 80-90%. In Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory, where Hare-Clark voting is used local elections, only 80% of voters use the above the line option. Absent vote Voters who are outside their own electorate on election day but within the same state or Territory can cast an Absent Vote at any polling place. An Absent Vote is a type of Declaration vote . As the voter is outside their electorate, they cannot have their name marked off the electoral roll. Instead, the voter is given a declaration envelope on which they fill in their personal details. After casting their vote, the ballot papers are sealed into the envelope. All Absent votes are returned to their 'home' division within days of polling. The ballot paper will not be opened and admitted to the count until the details on the outside of the envelope have been verified against the electoral roll. Around 850,000 absent votes were issued and around 750,000 admitted to the count in 2001, 6.2% of the total vote. The votes not admitted were for voters who were not on the roll in the electorate they tried to vote for, or where there was some other discrepancy in the declaration. Where a voter was not on the roll in their electorate, but were on the roll at that address within the same state, the Senate ballot paper would be admitted even though the House vote was rejected. Absolute Majority An absolute majority is one where the winning candidate achieves more than half of the vote in the count. An absolute majority is required for victory under preferential voting . This is as opposed to a plurality or simple majority, all that is required under first past the vote electoral systems. Under optional preferential voting, an absolute majority is defined as a majority of the votes remaining in the count after the exclusion of ballot papers with exhausted preferences. Assisted Voting Visually impaired, physically incapacitated or illiterate voters may be assisted in casting their ballot at a polling booth. This assistance may be by a person nominated by the voter, or in special circumstances, by a polling official. Voters who are unable though disability of illness to to enter a polling place may have voting materials taken to them outside the polling places. All votes cast with assistance at polling booths are simply classed as ordinary votes . Return to Top Below-the-line Voting At Senate elections, candidates are grouped in columns across the ballot paper. A thick horizontal line runs across the ballot paper, and voters have the option of voting above the line for a single group, or voting below the line indicating preferences for all candidates on the ballot paper. Above the line voting is properly known as group ticket voting , and voting below the line has become more commonly known as below-the-line voting. Nationally, only 5.1% of voters voted below the line in 2001, with higher rates for minor party voters, and in Tasmania and the ACT where the Hare-Clark electoral system is used for local elections. The difficulty with voting below-the-line is that preferences must be shown for all candidates, a complex task when more than 60 candidates may nominate in the larger states. Formality rules for below-the-line votes allow up to three numbering errors before a vote is declared informal. The preferences of all below-the-line votes are entered into a computer system which is used to both determine the formality of votes and to conduct the complex Senate count. By-election An election in a single electorate in between general elections. Between 1901 and 2004, there were 140 by-elections. Of these, 67 were caused by the death of an MP, 67 as a result of resignation, five by voided elections and one by the expulsion of an MP. Significantly, from 1901 to 1970, 63.3% of by-election were caused by death and 31.6% by resignation. Since 1971, 11.9% have been caused by death and 85.7% by resignation. In the modern era, political parties rarely allow their MPs to continue to serve past 70, and the provision of generous superannuation schemes has allowed MPs to retire rather than serve until death overtakes them. Return to Top Caretaker Government One of the conventions of Australian politics is that once an election is called, the government goes into 'caretaker' mode. Ministers continue to administer the Commonwealth, but are not able to make major policy decisions or appointments. The caretaker period continues after polling day until it is clear who will form the new government. With up to 10 days allowed for the receipt of postal votes, very close elections may extend the caretaker period into the second week after polling day. If no clear majority is produced by the election, the pre-election government may continue in office in caretaker mode until the new parliaments sits and its numbers can be tested in the House of Representatives. The caretaker period in Australia is quite different to the United Kingdom, where in 1997, Tony Blair's clear victory was followed the next morning by the strange site of vans moving out the furniture of John Major from the rear of 10 Downing Street. Casual Vacancy A vacancy in the Senate caused by death or resignation. By-elections are not held for Senate vacancies. Instead, the relevant state or territory appoints a new Senator to fill the vacancy. Usually this is approved by a joint sitting of the state parliament. After the introduction of proportional representation in the Senate in 1949, it became a convention that the state appointed a Senator from the same party as the departing Senator. As well, replacement Senators used to face an election at the next House or Senate election. So at the separate 1972 House election, Neville Bonner faced an election for the single Senate seat he had been appointed to, and in 1974, the appointment of Vince Gair as Ambassador to Ireland was an attempt to change the number of Senate vacancies in Queensland from 5 to 6. (A double dissolution for all 10 seats was called in the end.) Then in 1975, the convention on Senate vacancies was broken. First, NSW Premier Tom Lewis appointed Albury Mayor Cleaver Bunton to the vacancy caused by the elevation of Labor's Lionel Murphy to the High Court. Then Queensland Premier Joh Bjelke-Petersen appointed Pat Field on the death of Labor's Bert Milliner. As a result of these various fiddles of Senate vacancies, the Fraser government put up a referendum in 1977 so that vacancies must go to the party a departing Senator represented at the time of their election. The referendum was passed and faced its first test over the resignation of Senator Steele Hall, elected for the Liberal Movement in 1974, though by 1977 he had re-joined the Liberal Party. The Dunstan government in South Australia appointed Janine Haines to the vacancy, deciding the Australian Democrats were the successor party to the Liberal movement. In 1987, the Labor Party nominated John Devereux for a vacancy caused by the resignation of Don Grimes, but the Tasmanian parliament rejected his nomination and the seat remained vacant until the 1987 election. Note that the casual vacancy goes to the party that held the seat at the time of election, not the party they represent at the time of their departure. Coalition Formally, any political agreement between two or more parties. In Australia, the term Coalition tends to be used as a proper nount to describe the semi-permanent relationship between the two non-Labor Parties. Federally, a Coalition agreement has existed for almost all the time since a the first Coalition government was formed in 1923 between the Nationalist Party and the Country Party. The Nationalist Party later became the United Australia Party and now the Liberal Party, while the Country Party became the National Party and now the Nationals. Generally, the two parties do not contest each others seats if there is a sitting member. Labor seats, and Coalition seat with no sitting MP, are open for both parties to contest, though in recent years the two parties have tended to avoid these three-cornered contests with the Labor Party. Such a long lasting Coalition would have been unlikely without preferential voting , as it allows the two parties to co-operate at the national level even while local branches are competing against each other. Compulsory Voting It is normal shorthand to say that Australia has a system of compulsory voting, but the term is not technically correct. Australians face two compulsions, compulsory enrolment and compulsory attendance at polling places. All Australian citizens 18 years and over must register on the electoral roll. Australia maintains a permanent electoral register with a rolling update, voters able to enrol or change their details at any time, except for the period between the close of rolls and polling day, usually 3-4 weeks. Compulsory electoral enrolment is not unusual, and also exists in other countries such as the United Kingdom. What is unusual in Australia is that once on the electoral roll, a voter must make the effort to vote. You must attend a polling place on election day, or make use of the liberal opportunities to vote by post, ahead of the election at pre-poll voting centres, or by voting absent at booths outside of your electorate. While you must attend, have your name crossed off the roll, accept a ballot paper and deposit it in a ballot box, you are not actually forced to mark a vote on the ballot paper. The ballot is secret, so you cannot be forced to vote. Electors who are not marked off the roll as having voted will receive a penalty notice for a $20 fine. The fine will be waived if a reasonable excuse is offered. Voters also have the option of taking the matter to court, at which stage a $50 fine can be imposed along with court costs. If the voter refuses to pay this fine, the matter becomes one of how the courts in each state deal with non-payment of court imposed fines. The Electoral Commission does not send people to gaol for refusing to vote, but once a voters refuses to pay a court ordered fine, it becomes a matter for the administration of justice. It is extremely rare for voters to take the fine for non-voting so far through the legal system. Technically, voters can also be fined for not putting their name on the electoral roll, but no fine will be levied if the unregistered voter fills in an enrolment form. Return to Top Declaration Vote A Declaration vote is any vote where instead of the voter being marked off the electoral roll when voting, the voter makes a declaration that they are on the roll in their electorate. The voter fills in their personal details on a declaration vote envelope and signs the required declaration. After voting, the ballot papers are then sealed in the envelope. The vote will not be taken from the envelope and counted unless the declaration first matches personal details on the electoral roll. Declaration envelopes can only be opened once the preliminary scrutiny has accepted the voter was entitled to cast a vote. Once the envelope is opened and the vote admitted to the count, the vote cannot be excluded on the basis of details on the declaration envelope. The opening of the envelopes and removal of ballot papers is conducted in such a manner that the secrecy of the ballot is not breeched. Four main types of declaration votes exist. Votes cast prior to election day can be either a Postal Vote , where ballot papers are mailed to the voter, or a Pre-poll Vote cast in person at early voting centres. On election day, voters can vote outside their own division using an Absent Vote , or if they turn up to vote and their name is not on the electoral roll, they can cast a Provisional Vote . At the 2001 election, 84% of votes were ordinary votes , 6% were absent votes, 5%� Pre-poll votes, 4% postal votes and under 1% provisional votes. Deposit An amount of money deposited with a returning officer with the lodgement of a nomination to contest election. The deposit is $350 in the House of Representatives and $700 for each candidate in the Senate. The deposit is returned if the candidate is elected or receives more than 4% of the vote. In the Senate, the test is if the group achieves 4% or a candidate from the group is elected. All deposits not returned are forfeited. Dissolution The technical term for when a house of the parliament is dissolved for an election. This occurs to the House of Representatives at every election, and for the Senate at a double dissolution. Calling an election involves dissolving the House and issuing writs for an election. Generally this is done on the same day, but up to 10 days is allowed between the dissolution of the House and the issue of writs. The House is dissolved by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister. If the House of Representatives has not previously been dissolved, it expires three years after the first sitting following a Federal election. The only election to have taken place following dissolution by the 'effluxion of time' occurred in 1910. Note that a half-Senate election does not involve a dissolution, as Senators are elected for fixed terms and remain after an election until their terms expire. Donkey Vote A vote which simply numbers down the ballot paper starting with 1 for the first candidate. Donkey voting appears to be a consequence of compulsory voting and preferential voting . Many people who in other countries would not bother to vote are forced to turn out and vote in Australia. Then they have to fill in a ballot paper where all candidates are required to be numbered. People with no knowledge of the candidates who simply 'donkey vote' straight down the ballot paper appears to be one of the consequences. Since party names began to be printed on ballot papers, the donkey vote appears to have fallen, voters at least able to distinguish which party a candidate represents. The Donkey vote was once estimated to be 2-3%, but in more recent times appears to be less than one percent. While reduced, this donkey vote effect can still have an impact in close contests, which is why candidates are always keen to be drawn at the top of the ballot paper. Double Dissolution A unique creation of the Commonwealth constitution. At the time of Federation, the small colonies were concerned that the larger colonies would dominate the Parliament, so the American idea of all states having equal representation in the Senate was adopted. However, the larger colonies, especially New South Wales, were not keen on joining a federation in which the smaller states could continually use the Senate to over-ride the will of a popularly elected government in the House of Representatives. The solution was the double dissolution power. If government legislation was blocked, delayed or unacceptably amended by the Senate, and after a period of three months the legislation faced the same blockage, the government had the right to request a double dissolution in which both the House and the whole of the Senate faced the electorate at the same time. If after this election, the Senate still refuses to accept the government's legislation, the government had the right to call a joint sitting of the two houses at which the blocked legislation could be passed into law with a simple majority of the sitting.There have been six double dissolutions. In 1914, the Cook government called the first double dissolution and was defeated. In 1951, the Menzies government called a double dissolution and won a majority in the Senate, so a joint sitting was not required. In 1974, the Whitlam government called a double dissolution, and when the Senate continued to block the bills, the one and only joint sitting was called to pass the blocked bills. In 1975, the Whitlam government was dismissed by the Governor-General and new Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser called a double dissolution based on blocked Whitlam government bills. Fraser won a Senate majority but was not interested in passing the legislation. In 1983, Malcolm Fraser called a double dissolution and was defeated. In 1987, Bob Hawke called a double dissolution based on the blockage of the Australia Card legislation. He won the election but abandoned the legislation amidst rising opposition, it also having become apparent that regulations required for the operation of the Australia Card would be overturned by the new Senate. Return to Top Electoral Commission Commonwealth elections are conducted by an Independent body called the Australian Electoral Commission, the AEC. Each of the states and territories conduct their own elections and have their own electoral bodies, some set up as a commission, others as departments or offices. Where in other countries elections are administered by local government authorities, Australian elections are always administered at the level of government being contested. The AEC administers both the election and the permanent administration of the electoral roll. The roll is maintained by a joint agreement between the AEC and the various state bodies. Electoral Commissions are usually represented on the separate commissions that draw up electoral boundaries. Electorate An electorate is a geographic sub-division which elects members of Parliament. It is also referred to as an electoral district or electoral division or just simply a division. Equivalent overseas terms are 'constituency' in the United Kingdom, 'riding' in Canada and 'district' in the United States.Australia is currently divided into 150 electorates, each of which elects one member to the House of Representatives. Seats are allocated to States and Territories based on formulas set out in the Constitution and the Electoral Act. Original states are guaranteed a minimum of five seats, which means Tasmania is slightly over-represented compared to other states. Electorates are allocated to states on the basis of population, not electoral enrolment. However, boundaries of electorates within each state are drawn to ensure seats have approximately equal electoral enrolment, not equal population. Redistributions take place at regular intervals to maintain electorates within permitted variation from average.In Australia, the word electorate is also often used as a collective noun to describe voters. It is common political shorthand to talk about 'the electorate', as in political leaders 'facing the electorate'. Exhausted Preferences Ballot papers on which it is not possible to determine a next valid preference are said to 'exhaust' their preferences. Under optional preferential voting , this may be simply because no further preferences are shown, and the ballot paper is excluded from the final two-candidate preferred count. Return to Top First Past The Post Voting Plurality or simple majority voting, as used in the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States. The candidate with the highest vote wins, or in horse racing terminology, the first candidate past the post. First past the post voting has not been used for House of Representatives elections since the introduction of preferential voting in 1918. Return to Top Gerrymander A gerrymander is the deliberate drawing of electoral boundaries to gain political advantage. It is not the same as a malapportionment , as electorates can be equal in enrolment and still be gerrymandered. The word 'gerrymander' forever commemorates Elbridge Gerry, elected Governor of the US state of Massachusetts in 1810. Governor Gerry embarked on re-drawing the boundaries of seats in the state Senate to the extent that his party won 29 of the 40 seats despite obtaining only a minority of the vote. One of the new seats drawn bore some resemblance to a salamander, the new word Gerry-mander coined as part of the campaign to discredit the electoral boundaries. Group (Senate) On ballot papers for the Senate, candidates are grouped together in columns. Any party or group of individuals nominating two or more candidates is entitled to their own column, though sitting MPs are given the right to nominate on their own as a group. Groups can consist of Independents nominating together as a group, of members from a single party, or as members from more than one party standing as a single group. For instance, in several state the Liberal and the National Parties nominate a single list of candidates. The order candidates appear within each group is fixed, determined by the party or individuals nominating. While the position of the groups (columns) on the ballot paper is fixed, the order is determined by a random draw. It is generally considered that a position to the left of the ballot paper is advantageous, and drawing the first group on the ballot paper may give and extra half to one percent of the vote. (See donkey vote .) Prior to 1940, group order on the ballot paper was determined by a formula that looked at the alphabetic order of the candidates in each group. At the 1937 NSW Senate election, the Labor Party nominated three candidates whose names all started with 'A', so grabbing the first column on the ballot paper and leading to the introduction of the random draw for position. Elections for the Tasmanian and Australian Capital Territory local parliaments are conducted using a similar system called Hare-Clark voting. Like the Senate, there is a draw used to determine group position on the ballot paper. However, parties cannot nominate the order candidates appear within groups. Instead, the order candidates appear is randomised, with many different combinations of ballot papers being printed, each with the candidates in each group in a different order. This system is deliberately designed to weaken party control over candidates. Group voting ticket Until the 1983 Senate election, voters had to number every square on the ballot paper to have their vote counted. As at some elections there were more than 50 candidates, marking a ballot paper in this way was an onerous task and informal votes above 10% were not uncommon. To overcome this, a new type of voting was introduced in 1984. Now voters have an option. The ballot paper is divided by a thick line, with boxes to vote for candidates shown ' below the line ', or single boxes for groups or parties marked ' above the line '. Voters can vote in the traditional way, marking a preference for every candidate shown 'below the line', or select a single box 'above the line'. While formally known as 'group ticket voting', this has become more commonly known as 'above the line' voting. Group ticket voting works by each group wishing to use the option lodging a full ticket of preferences to all candidates on the ballot paper. This ticket is lodged within a day or two of the close of nominations. When a voter selects a party using the group ticket voting square, the vote is deemed to have the full list of preferences lodged by that group. A group can lodge one, two or three tickets, with votes divided equally between the tickets. Voters using the group ticket voting square cede their right to distribute preferences to the political party. More than 95% of voters use the group ticket voting square, effectively meaning that the distribution of preferences in the Senate is determined largely by deals between political parties. Return to Top Half Senate Election The terms of State Senators are staggered, half of the Senate facing the election each three years. Senate terms are fixed for six years, half the State Senators facing election every three years. Senate election cannot be held until one year before the end of a term. As governments like to avoid separate half Senate elections, the fixed term of the Senate is a restriction on the timing of House of Representatives elections. After double dissolutions elections, all Senate terms are back-dated to the previous July, and the Senate must resolve who is appointed to six year terms, and who gets shorter three year terms. The constitution does not specify a method for this. Note that Senators for the two Territories have different terms, with no rotation, the two Senators for each territory having their terms tied to that of the House of Representatives, facing the electorate at every House election. Hare-Clark One type of the two main types of Quota Preferential Voting used in Australia. While there are technical differences between Hare-Clark and the way votes are counted for the Senate, the main differences occur with the presentation of the ballot paper and the weight given to votes for candidates in Hare-Clark. As for the Senate, candidates are grouped on the ballot paper, with the order groups appear determined by ballot. However, in Hare-Clark, there is no group ticket voting . The compulsory filling in of all preferences is also not required. Within groups, the order candidates appear on the ballot paper is randomised, so that each candidate within a group has an equal chance to appear at the head of the group on any given ballot paper. How-to-vote cards are also banned outside polling places. As a result, candidates within a group must compete with each other for votes, and parties are not able to control which of their candidates are elected. Under Hare-Clark, a sitting MP is as often defeated by a candidate from the same party as one one from an opposing party. Hare-Clark gives greater weight to the vote for candidates than the Senate system, which is essentially a system of proportional representation between parties. Hospital vote Voters living in retirement homes or in long term hospital care are generally visited by electoral officials. Some centres are visited ahead of polling day, and residents cast a pre-poll vote. Other mobile booths are taken around large institutions on polling day and voters are able to cast an ordinary vote. In some states, votes collected by mobile booths are are referred to as 'declared institution' or 'electoral visitor' votes. How-to-vote Card In most countries, how-to-vote cards do not exist. Most voters who turn out to vote know who they are going to vote for. Indeed, many countries ban voters from being approached outside polling places. In Australia, compulsory voting means some voters may not yet have made up their mind who to vote for as late as when they enter the polling place. Compulsory preferential voting also makes filling in the ballot paper more complex. For that reason, Australian elections see polling places surrounded by party and candidate workers handing out how-to-vote cards, simple printed examples of how to fill in a formal vote for a candidate. It fulfils three purposes. First, it is a last bit of campaigning to voters who still have not made up their mind who to vote for. Second, it assists voters make sure their vote is formal. Thirdly, it shows voters for a candidate or party how that candidate would like them to direct preferences.At Federal elections, how-to-vote material does not have to be registered, though it must be authorised. There are examples of groups not contesting elections but interested in influencing the result handing out how-to-vote cards. (eg anti-abortion and environmental groups) Some major parties also try to influence how minor party voters distribute their preferences. (eg Labor authorised how to vote cards for the Greens urging preferences to Labor) Some states now force how-to-vote cards to be registered. South Australia is the only state to go down the path of displaying sample how-to-vote cards in polling places. Tasmania and the ACT have effectively banned how-to-vote cards as part of the Hare-Clark electoral system. Return to Top Indicative preference count A full distribution of preferences is not carried out until all primary votes have been tallied. With up to 10 days allowed for the receipt of postal votes, this can cause some delay for the final determination of the outcome. As the rising vote for minor parties has seen an increase in the number of seats where preferences have to be counted to determine the final result, the Electoral Commission has begun to do indicative preference counts. This count is done in each polling booth between two candidates nominated ahead of the election. The ballot papers for all other candidates are examined to determine which of the two nominated candidates is higher in the preference order. These indicative preference counts are reported on election night and in the week following to assist in determining who has won each seat. In a small number of cases, the wrong two candidates will be nominated for this count, and the final result will have to await a full re-count of the votes. Informal vote One of the consequences of compulsory voting, and also the use of complex preferential voting, is that Australia has a high incidence of 'spoiled' ballot papers. In Australia these are known as 'informal' votes, as opposed to 'formal' votes that meet all the formality requirements to be included in the count. At the 2001 election, 4.8% of all ballot papers were deemed to be informal. Of these, 33.6% had been marked with only a first preferences, 19.9% had other forms of defective numbering and 12.4% had incorrectly used ticks and cross. This roughly means two-thirds of informal votes were due to problems caused by the complexity of preferential voting. Of the rest, 21.4% were blank ballot papers, people who you suspect would in other circumstances not have voted, while 6.3% had no vote marked but slogans or derogatory comments were written on the ballot paper. Another 6.5% were informal or other reasons, such as the voter being identified or slogans obscuring the voters preferences. There is a long history in Australia of voters writing derogatory remarks on ballot papers. This is allowed as long as the remarks do not identify the voter or obscure the voting squares. Return to Top Langer Voting Under compulsory preferential, a ballot paper must have a complete and sequential ordering of preferences. Even if the primary vote on the ballot paper was for a candidate who finished in the final two-candidate preferred count, the ballot paper was informal if higher preferences were invalid. This was the case even if these higher preferences would never be counted. As a result, the Electoral Act was amended before the 1984 election so that votes with all squares numbered, but where a numbering error occurred, could remain in the count, with preferences valid up until the point where the error occurred. The Parliament did not intend that this to become a form of optional preferential voting, so publicising this form of voting was made illegal. However, a Melbourne political activist, Albert Langer, chose to encourage people to vote deliberately in this way, say to vote 1,2,2,2, etc to deny the major parties preferences. He was eventually ordered by the Electoral Commission to stop encouraging these votes, and when he defied the order, was briefly gaoled. As a result, this form of voting has become known as 'Langer voting'. The provision which allowed duplicate numbering to be formal was removed after the 1998 election, and all Langer-style ballot papers are again informal. Return to Top Majority We express the majority as the lead of one party over another. In Parliament, we measure a government's majority against the seats held by all other parties. Going into the 2004 election, the Coalition notionally has 83 of the 150 seats, meaning it has a 16 seat majority over all other parties. Note that only half of this majority is required to be lost before the two sides end up on equal terms. In seats, we tend to talk about the majority of the winning candidate over the defeated candidate in terms of the votes. Again, note that if a candidate had a 2,000 vote majority, it would only take half of these voters to change their mind for the majority to be overturned. Malapportionment A malapportionment is the use of a system of differential electoral quotas that causes an electoral system to diverge from equal enrolments. In Australia, malapportionments have always seen the creation of lower electoral quotas in rural areas compared to urban areas. As late as the early 1970s, all Australian parliaments contained some degree of rural weighting, something that over the years had come to systematically disadvantage the Labor Party. Over the last three decades, these rural malapportionments have been removed in every state except Western Australia, some form of one-vote one-value electoral boundaries now in use in every state. Note that a malapportionment is not the same as a gerrymander , as electoral enrolments may be heavily weighted without necessarily being unfair. Western Australia retains a rural malapportionment, with a country vote having twice the weight of a Perth vote in the lower house, and three times the weight in the upper house. Queensland retains a small number of electorates that a formula allows to be under quota because of their physical extent. Margin We tend to use the term margin to refer to the percentage point lead a candidate or party has on an electorate. So if a candidate won 53.2% of the two-candidate preferred vote at the previous election, we would say they have a 3.2 percentage point margin. That is it would take a 3.2 percentage point swing for the candidate to be defeated. Some people prefer to round this margin up, so in the above case the margin would be 3.3 percentage points, meaning a swing of this size would reduce the candidate's vote below 50%. As a general rule, we tend to talk about the margin in percentage point terms, but the majority in votes. Return to Top Nomination The process of a candidate nominating to appear on the ballot paper for election. The issue of the writ opens the period in which a candidate may nominate, and the writ specifies the date for close of nominations. A candidate cannot nominate before a writ for election is issued, which is why you cannot ring up your local Electoral Office and find out who the candidate are until after the close of nominations. It is only possible to nominate for a single House or Senate contest. Registered political parties have met the requirement of a minimum number of members supporting their aim, and so have the right to lodge bulk nominations for all electorates under the signature of the parties registered officer. Independent and unaffiliated candidates must be nominated by 50 electors eligible to vote at the election being nominated for. If the candidate is a member of a registered political party, they can request an affiliation be shown on the ballot paper. A candidate must agree to being nominated and pay the relevant deposit. In the Senate, the candidate may also apply to be grouped with other candidates. A nomination can be withdrawn up until the close of nominations. Once all nominations have been verified as valid, a random draw is undertaken to determine order on the ballot paper. Return to Top Optional Preferential Voting A system that applies at state elections in New South Wales and Queensland, where only a first preference is required for a formal vote to be cast, with all further preferences on the ballot paper entirely optional. The winning candidate no longer has to achieve a majority of the formal vote, merely a majority of the votes remaining in the count after so-called 'exhausted' preferences are excluded. The Hare-Clark electoral system in the Australian Capital Territory is also optional beyond the first preference. In Tasmania, a voter must indicate as many preferences as their are vacancies to be filled (5 currently). Ordinary vote All votes cast by electors voting in their own constituency that do not involve the filling of a declaration vote . Voters who turn up to vote at a polling place are asked for their full name, address and whether they have already voted. If they successfully answer these questions and their name is on the roll, they are given two ballot papers, one for the House of Representatives and one for the Senate. Using a pencil to mark the ballot papers while shielded from view by a voting screen, the voter indicates their preferences on both ballot papers, and deposit the completed ballot papers in the appropriate ballot box. After the close of polling, all votes are counted and cross checked with the number of people recorded as voting. Once counted. three results are phoned through from the polling booth to the Returning Officer for each division, the total House primary votes, an indicative preference count for the House, and an initial scrutiny of Senate ballot papers. These results are entered into a computer system in the office of the Returning Officer and made available to the media in the Canberra tally room as well as on the internet. Note that all ordinary votes will be re-counted and checked once they have been delivered to the premises of the Returning Officer for the electorate. Return to Top Pendulum An electoral pendulum sets out an election as a two-party contest. Seats for Labor or the Coalition are arrayed on two sides of the track along which the pendulum runs, seats ordered from the most marginal at the point of the pendulum, to the safest seats at the top. A uniform swing one way or the other is viewed as a movement of the pendulum. Assuming a swing is uniform, then in theory, every seat up to the new point of the pendulum would change party. This uniform swing does not always occur, though on average, the number of seats that falls tends to match the number that would have fallen given a uniform swing. Plebiscite Basically, a poll of the electorate's opinion on a subject. In most other countries, the terms plebiscite and referendum are used interchangeably, but in Australia, referendum tends to be reserved for the process by which the Constitution is amended. There have been three Federal plebiscites where all that was required was a majority. In 1916 and 1917, two plebiscites on the introduction of military conscription were defeated. In 1977, a plebiscite was held on changing the national anthem. Plurality A plurality is a simple majority of votes. A simple majority in an election or vote means the candidate with the highest vote wins. This is as opposed to an absolute majority which is required under Australia's preferential voting system. Winning with a plurality of the votes is a feature of first past the post voting . Postal vote Voters unable to attend a polling place on election day are entitled to use a postal vote, which is one type of declaration vote . Ballot papers and a declaration vote envelope are posted to the voter. The voter fills in the declaration envelope and then seals the completed ballot papers inside. Before the vote is admitted to the count, the details of the declaration must match those on the electoral roll. An additional check on Postal Votes compared to other forms of declaration vote is that the signature on the envelope must match that on the original application, and that the name of the witness to the signature must also be on the electoral roll.Some voters in remote areas are on a permanent postal vote register and are sent ballot papers as soon as they are available. Other voters apply for postal votes at the start of the campaign. There has been a substantial rise in postal voting at recent elections as the major political parties now flood the electorate with postal vote applications. These applications usually provide a freepost return address for the political party, and the party then passes the application on to the Australian Electoral Commission. The party then very helpfully sends the voters some how-to-vote material for when their postal vote arrives. Electoral Commissioners are not particularly happy with this arrangement as it has increased the number of postal votes at the expense of more secure pre-poll voting. It also introduces double handling by the political party which introduces a delay in processing. Around 570,000 postal votes were issued in 2001 and around 516,000 received. Around 475,00 were admitted to the count, representing 4.0% of the total vote. Preferential Voting When Australian voters fill in their ballot papers, they mark the voting squares with numbers that indicate a rank ordering of the candidates. This is the 'preference' ordering of candidates. Preferential voting is used in both single member electorates, such as for the House of Representatives, and in multi-member electorates, as for the Senate. However, Australians tend to only refer to the single member form of preferential voting when the use the term. The multi-member version tends to be called quota preferential voting , or Hare-Clark or even simply proportional representation . Just to confuse matters further, what Australians call preferential voting usually goes by other names overseas. In its single member form, it is known overseas and in the academic literature as the alternative vote, or AV for short. In the United States, it is also known as instant run-off voting. The multi-member version is known overseas and academically at the single transferable vote, or STV. A variant of optional preferential voting known as the supplementary vote has come into use in the United Kingdom in recent years, where voters are allowed a second preference, though the count of these second preferences only takes place between the two candidates leading on primary votes. In fact, supplementary voting is merely a re-invention of the system used in Queensland between 1892 and 1942 when it was known as contingent voting. Pre-poll vote Voters unable to attend a polling place on election day are entitled to cast a pre-poll vote at early voting centres set up across the country. A Pre-poll vote is one type of declaration vote . The voter is given a pre-poll vote and a declaration envelope. The voter fills in the declaration envelope, then goes to a voting booth to fill in their ballot paper, and returns to the polling clerk to seal the completed ballot papers into the declaration envelope. The envelope will be forwarded to the returning officer for the relevant electorate. Before the vote is admitted to the count, the details of the declaration must match those on the electoral roll. The declaration envelope will not be opened and counted unless these details match. Around 610,000 pre-poll votes were issued in 2001 and around 578,000 admitted to the count, around 4.8% of the total vote. Pre-selection The process by which a political party chooses a candidate for a seat. This process is controlled entirely by the rules of the political party and does not generally have any oversight by electoral authorities. The term has been borrowed from British politics and had its meaning mangled in the process. In the United Kingdom, pre-selection is a process by which a a party 'pre-selects' a list of possible candidates from which party constituency association choose their candidate. In Australia, this 'pre-selection' phase does not actually take place, and the term simply applies to any process used to choose a candidate. Primary vote The tally of No. 1 preferences recorded by each candidate. If no candidate receives 50% of the total primary vote, then preferences will have to be distributed to determine the winner of the seat. Provisional vote Voters who attend a polling place on election day but do not have their name on the electoral roll can ask for a provisional vote if they believe their name should be on the roll. A provisional vote is one type of declaration vote , and requires the voter to make a declaration of the address at which they believe they were registered. At the preliminary scrutiny of provisional votes, if the Electoral Commission can find a record of the voter at that address and can show that an administrative error resulted in the voter having been taken off the roll, the voter will be re-instated to the roll and the vote counted. If the voter had been correctly deleted, or there is no record of the voter being registered at the address, the provisional vote will not have its envelope opened. Around 165,000 provisional votes were issued in 2001, though only 81,000 were admitted to the count. This represented about 0.7% of the total vote. Proportional Representation An electoral system constructed so that the proportion of representatives elected on behalf of a group or party is in proportion of the vote achieved by that group or party. There are many different varieties of proportional representation, most with the aim of creating proportionality based on the primary vote. In Australia, various forms of quota preferential voting are used, where proportionality is distorted by the use of preferential voting. In fact, Australia's systems of proportional representation tend to be semi-proportional, providing fairer representation than single member electorates, but not proportionality based on the proportion of the primary vote. Proxy vote A form of voting where someone can vote on behalf of an elector unable to attend a polling place. Proxy voting is not allowed at any elections in Australia, with plenty of other options available allowing voters to cast votes for themselves with Absent, Postal and Pre-poll votes. Return to Top Quota The number of votes required for a candidate to be elected under quota preferential voting . Technically, Australian elections use a 'Droop quota', where the quota is determined by dividing the number of formal votes by one more than the number of members to be elected, the resulting value rounded up. In the case of a half-Senate election, where six Senators are elected, the quota is one-seventh of the vote. At the 2001 election, the quota for election in NSW, the largest state, was 554,207 compared to 44,095 in Tasmania, the smallest state. Candidates elected with more than a quota in their own right have the surplus to quota votes distributed to other candidates as preferences. A candidate's quota at election can consist of primary votes, preferences from excluded candidates and surplus to quota preferences from elected candidates. Quota Preferential Voting Australia uses preferential voting in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. In the House it is used in single member electorates. However, in the Senate, it used for multi-member constituencies, as it is in four state upper houses, and the lower house in Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory. This system of preferential voting in multi-member electorates is best referred to as Proportional Representation by Single Transferable Vote, and overseas is often simply called Single Transferable Vote. In Australia, it has in the past often been called Quota Preferential Voting, as a candidate requires a quota to be elected, and preferences play a part in a candidate achieving a quota. Two main variants are used in Australia, the Senate voting system, and a system used for the Tasmanian and Australian Capital Territory assemblies known as Hare-Clark . While some minor counting differences occur between the two systems, the main differences relate to the way more weight is given to vote for candidates in Hare-Clark compared to party vote in the Senate system. Return to Top Re-counts Re-counts are quite rare in Australia, as preferential voting means that by the time the count is completed in an electorate, the votes have already been counted several times. Votes are first counted in the polling booth on election night and the results phoned through to the Returning Officer for the division. The counted ballot papers are then transported to the local electoral office by the Deputy Returning Officer appointed for each polling place. All votes from booths are re-counted to ensure that the totals tally with the count on the night. The count is re-done if any discrepancies are discovered. Once all declaration votes have been determined and included in the totals, a distribution of preferences is performed. The closer the electorate, the more heavily it will be scutineered by representatives of the candidates. As a general rule, the small number of votes where there is a dispute over being admitted to the count will be isolated. By the time the counting process has been completed, there is generally little need for a re-count. Close results that go to the Court of Disputed Returns generally do so over irregularities in the conduct of the election, not over problems with the conduct of the count. Redistribution A periodic re-drawing of electoral boundaries. Boundaries may be re-drawn when a state becomes entitled to a change in seat numbers according to the constitution. Alternatively, every seven years, electorates are re-drawn to bring seats back within average. This process is often known overseas as as redistricting or re-apportionment. Over the last three decades, all states and the Commonwealth have moved to using independent Commissions appointed to draw the electoral boundaries. While these composition of these commissions varies from state to state, they generally involved representation by a judge or retired judge, the Electoral Commissioner, the Surveyor-General or the Auditor-General. Referendum Overseas, the terms referendum and plebiscite are used interchangeably. In Australia, referendum is reserved for the constitutional amendment process defined in Section 128 of the Commonwealth Constitution. A referendum must receive a double majority, recording a majority of the national vote as well as a majority in a majority of the states. As there are six states, this means a majority in four of the six states. Several attempts to change the constitution have recorded a majority across the country but failed on the majority of states test. Some clauses concerning the representation rights of the original states must be passed by all states. Remote Mobiles In remote electorates, some votes are collected by mobile polling teams. In particular, these teams service indigenous communities in areas where an irregular postal service makes postal voting impractical. Polling is conducted in the two weeks prior to polling day. While classed as ordinary vote, remote mobiles are not counted on the night at Federal elections. Run-off Elections Run-off elections are used in countries like France and Indonesia to elect the President. A first round of voting is held, and if no candidate achieves 50% of the vote, a second run-off election is held between the two leading candidates. Some US states use use� run-off elections, and to save costs, some are examining preferential voting as a form of instant run-off elections. Run-off elections were used for New South Wales elections between 1910 and 1916, but abandoned in favour of preferential voting . Note that under preferential voting, unlike in run-off elections, a candidate can win an election from third place. Scrutineer Scrutineers are nominated by candidates to observe the conduct of polling in polling places, to observe the conduct of the count, and to observe the processing and counting of declaration votes . Candidates cannot scrutineer for themselves. At no time must any scrutineer attempt to encourage an elector to vote in a particular way within a polling place or to touch a ballot paper during the count. In recent years, the main roll of party scrutineers on election night has been to try and assess the flow of minor party preferences, but even this function has been superseded by the conduct of indicative preference counts on election night. These days, parties rarely bother to scrutineer the conduct of polling, and put only a limited effort into scrutineering on election night. Most scrutineering is now concentrated on the small number of electorates in doubt at the end of election night. These seats will see the parties send there most experienced scrutineers along to the check counts and the scrutiny of declaration votes . In safe seats, the Electoral Commission is often left to conduct the count with only minimal interference from scrutineers. While electoral officials will often grumble about rude scrutineers (and scrutineers about officious electoral officials), scrutineers play an important roll in ensuring that electoral officials conduct the count correctly. Return to Top Silent Roll Any voter who believes either their security or their family's security would be put at risk by their address appearing on the publicly accessible electoral roll, may apply for a silent enrolment. A silent voter will have their name listed on the roll but no address. On turning up at a polling place, a silent voter will be given a provisional vote, as the voter cannot confirm their place of address. A silent vote will only be admitted if the voters enrolment can be confirmed when provisional votes are given preliminary scrutiny. Supplementary Election Any general election poll which is delayed until a later date. For instance, in Dickson in 1993 and Newcastle in 1998, the election was deferred for a month following the death of a candidate. While new nominations are called for, the roll used at a supplementary election is the same as the original roll from the general election. Note that Senate elections are not deferred by the death of a candidate. Rather, the deceased candidate is excluded as a first phase of the count, and then the normal Senate count proceeds. A supplementary election is not a by-election . Elections that are voided by the courts and re-contested are sometimes called re-elections but fall under the general category of by-elections . Swing - primary The percentage of primary vote recorded by a party or candidate at an election, minus the percentage of vote received at the previous election. If this value is positive, it is a swing to the candidate. If it is negative, it is a swing away from the candidate. The swing is measured in percentage points, though the symbol '%' is often incorrectly appended to the value. Swing . two-party The percentage of two-party preferred vote recorded by a party or candidate at an election, minus the percentage received at the previous election. If this value is positive, it is a swing to the candidate or party. If it is negative, it is a swing away from the candidate. The swing is measured in percentage points, though the symbol '%' is often incorrectly appended to the value. When historical two-party preferred votes for Labor and the Coalition are compared over several elections, it is a common convention for swings to Labor to be shown with a plus sign, swings to the Coalition to be shown with a minus sign. The meaning of the signs should always checked when reading tables. Return to Top Tally room In Australia, the Australian Electoral Commission and its predecessors (and equivalent state bodies) have always taken responsibility for collating results on election day. This arrangement is quite different from many other countries, where local authorities conduct elections and the media collates results to determine national trends. Results are made available to the media and political parties at a central tally room. Note that votes are not actually counted at this centre, merely reported. At Federal elections, the tally room is held at the National Exhibition Centre in Canberra. The tally room is in reality little more than a large shed in which the television networks set up their live broadcast sets. No political leader has attended the tally room since Bob Hawke's dramatic entry after winning the 1983 election. In fact, the only politicians present in the tally room are those the media arrange to be interviewed. In recent years, the need for the tally room has been superseded by the ability to the Electoral Commission to publish results on the Internet. Despite this, the television networks still go to the tally room, and the Electoral Commission continue to use an old fashioned wooden tally board on which results are updated by hand-posting numbers. The public are allowed into the Federal tally room and the tally rooms at some state elections. The result of all this is that Australian election broadcasts have the buzz and atmosphere of a live broadcast, unlike election broadcasts in many other countries, where the program is produced in the sterile confines of a television studio. Three Cornered Contest Most Australian electorates come down to two-party contests between candidates representing the Labor Party and the Liberal National Party Coalition . However, the Coalition agreement between the two parties allows both parties to contest seats where there is not a sitting Coalition MP. These contests between Labor, Liberal and National Party candidates are termed three cornered contests. The impetus for abandoning first past the post voting in 1918 was the formation of the Country Party, preferential voting allowing multiple conservative candidates to compete against each other without delivering victory to the Labor Party. Turnout The total number of votes cast, including both formal and informal ballot papers, expressed as a percentage of voters on the electoral roll. As a result of compulsory voting, the normal turnout for Australian elections is around 95%. Two-Candidate Preferred Once all primary votes have been finalised in the count for an electorate, the candidate with the lowest total is excluded from the count and their ballot papers examined to determine the next valid preference for a candidate continuing in the count. This process is repeated until only two candidates remain in the count. At this stage, primary votes from all other candidates have been distributed to their preferred candidate of the two remaining in the count. These final totals are referred to as the two-candidate preferred count or totals. Where these two-candidate represent the Labor Party and the Liberal-National Party Coalition, this vote is also referred to as the two-party preferred count. In most seats, the two-candidate and the two-party preferred totals are the same. In a seat where an Independent or minor party candidate finishes first or second, the two-party preferred must be determined by a separate count. Note that only the two-candidate preferred count is the actual result for an electorate. It is common to reduce election contests to a two-party contests between Labor and the Coalition, but in seats that were not two-party contests, such a count is a bookkeeping device. A distribution of preferences is only required in electorates where no candidate achieves 50% of the vote. However, the Australian Electoral Commission conducts a full distribution of preferences in every electorate for information purposes. Two-Party Preferred In most seats, the two-party preferred result for an electorate will be the same as the two-candidate preferred result. Australian elections are mainly conducted between the Labor Party and the Liberal-National Party Coalition. In most seats, the final two-candidates after preferences will represent Labor and the Coalition. This was the case in 145 of the 150 electorates in 2001. In the five seats which were not two-party contests, the Electoral Commission conducted a secondary two-party distribution. Two-party preferred counts allow all electorates to be ranked on the scale from very safe Labor to very safe Coalition, and for nationwide two-party totals to be accumulated. Two-party preferred counts are the basis of the familiar electoral pendulum . However, the party that wins the majority of the national two-party preferred vote will not necessarily win the majority of seats, as was shown when the Howard government was re-elected in 1998 with 49.0% of the two-party preferred vote. Return to Top Ungrouped candidates On Senate ballot papers, two or more candidates may apply to appear on the ballot paper as a group, giving them their own column on the ballot paper, and if they choose to lodge a group preference ticket, access to a group voting square or above-the-line vote. Sitting Senators also have the right to their own group if they nominate on their own. All other candidates who are not part of a group will be lumped together in an 'Ungrouped' column on the right-hand side of the ballot paper. Ungrouped candidates do not have the right to lodge a group ticket vote. At state election in South Australia and Western Australia, individual candidates do get access to their own column and a group voting square. Uniform Swing Uniform swing is an assumption we make that a national two-party swing at an election will tend to cause a given number of seats to change party. It is an underlying assumption in the use of electoral pendulums to illustrate the relative margins of� seats. At the 2004 election, we say a uniform 1.5% swing against the Howard government would see it lose eight seats and its majority in parliament. In fact, the swing is never the same in every seat. In 1998, the Labor Party achieved the 5% swing it needed to win government, but that swing did not occur in some of the key marginal seats, allowing the Howard government to be returned to office. At some elections, there are often different swings from state to state, or from region to region, which mean the result for a given national swing is not reflected in the number of seats changing hands. Return to Top Writ A writ is a legal document which commands an electoral official to conduct an election and which specifies the dates for the close of rolls, the close of nominations, the polling and the return of the writ.

i don't know

Which MP entered Parliament as a Tory in 1833, but became Liberal prime minister in 1868?

William Ewart Gladstone | prime minister of United Kingdom | Britannica.com prime minister of United Kingdom Written By: Prime minister of United Kingdom born William Ewart Gladstone, (born December 29, 1809, Liverpool , England —died May 19, 1898, Hawarden , Flintshire, Wales ), statesman and four-time prime minister of Great Britain (1868–74, 1880–85, 1886, 1892–94). William E. Gladstone. Culver Pictures Early life Gladstone was of purely Scottish descent. His father, John, made himself a merchant prince and was a member of Parliament (1818–27). Gladstone was sent to Eton, where he did not particularly distinguish himself. At Christ Church, Oxford, in 1831 he secured first classes in classics and mathematics. He originally intended to take orders in the Church of England , but his father dissuaded him. He mistrusted parliamentary reform; his speech against it in May 1831 at the Oxford Union, of which he had been president, made a strong impression. One of his Christ Church friends, the son of the Duke of Newcastle, persuaded the Duke to support Gladstone as candidate for Parliament for Newark in the general election of December 1832; and the “Grand Old Man” of Liberalism thus began his parliamentary career as a Tory member. His maiden speech on June 3, 1833, made a decided mark. He held minor office in Sir Robert Peel’s short government of 1834–35, first at the treasury, then as undersecretary for the colonies. United Kingdom: Gladstone and Disraeli In July 1839 he married Catherine, the daughter of Sir Stephen Glynne of Hawarden, near Chester. A woman of lively wit, complete discretion, and exceptional charm, she was utterly devoted to her husband, to whom she bore eight children. This marriage gave him a secure base of personal happiness for the rest of his life. It also established him in the aristocratic governing class of the time. The influence of Peel Gladstone’s early parliamentary performances were strongly Tory; but time after time contact with the effects of Tory policy forced him to take a more liberal view. His conversion from conservatism to liberalism took place in prolonged stages, over a generation. Peel made Gladstone vice president of the Board of Trade , and Gladstone’s application astonished even hardworking colleagues. He embarked on a major simplification of the tariff and became a more thoroughgoing free trader than Peel. In 1843 he entered the Cabinet as president of the Board of Trade. His Railway Act of 1844 set up minimum requirements for railroad companies and provided for eventual state purchase of railway lines. Gladstone also much improved working conditions for London dock workers. Early in 1845, when the Cabinet proposed to increase a state grant to the Irish Roman Catholic college at Maynooth, Gladstone resigned—not because he did not approve of the increase but because it went against views he had published seven years before. Later in 1845 he rejoined the Cabinet as secretary of state for the colonies, until the government fell in 1846. While at the Colonial Office, he was led nearer to Liberalism by being forced to consider the claims of English-speaking colonists to govern themselves. Private preoccupations Ringling Bros. Folds Its Tent The Glynne family estates were deeply involved in the financial panic of 1847. For several years Gladstone was concerned with extricating them. He began charitable work, which was open to a great deal of misinterpretation; he often tried to persuade prostitutes to enter a “rescue” home that he and his wife maintained or in some other way to take up a different way of life. Several of Gladstone’s closest Oxford friends were among the many Anglicans who converted to Roman Catholicism under the impact of the Oxford Movement. Gladstone had moved to a High Anglican position in Italy just after leaving Oxford. The suspicion that he was Catholic was used against him by his adversaries, of whom he had many in the University of Oxford , for which he was elected MP in August 1847. He scandalized many of his new constituents at once by voting for the admission of Jews to Parliament. British Culture and Politics Gladstone made his first weighty speech on foreign affairs in June 1850, opposing foreign secretary Lord Palmerston in the celebrated Don Pacifico debate over the rights of British nationals abroad. That autumn he visited Naples , where he was appalled by the conditions that he found in the prisons. In July 1851 he published two letters to Lord Aberdeen describing the conditions, and appealing to all conservatives to set an iniquity right. The Neapolitan prisoners were treated even worse than before, and most conservatives, all over Europe, were deaf to his appeal. But Palmerston circulated the letters to all the British missions on the Continent, and they delighted every liberal who heard of them. Financial policy Editor Picks: Exploring 10 Types of Basketball Movies For nine years after Peel’s death in 1850, Gladstone’s political position was seldom comfortable. As one of the most eminent of the dwindling band of Peelites, he was mistrusted by the leaders of both parties and distrusted some of them—particularly Palmerston and Disraeli —in his turn. He refused to join Lord Derby’s government in 1852. At the end of that year, a brilliant attack on Disraeli’s budget brought the government down and Gladstone rose in public estimation. He then joined Aberdeen’s coalition as chancellor of the Exchequer. In his first budget speech he put forth a bold and comprehensive plan for large reductions in duties, proposed the eventual elimination of the income tax , and carried a scheme for the extension of the legacy duty to real property. His budget provided the backbone of the coalition’s success in 1853, a year in which he spent much time devising a scheme for a competitive civil service system. He defended the Crimean War as necessary for the defense of the public law of Europe; but its outbreak disrupted his financial plans. Determined to pay for it as far as possible by taxation, he doubled the income tax in 1854. When Aberdeen fell in January 1855, Gladstone agreed to join Palmerston’s Cabinet; but he resigned three weeks later, with two other Peelites, rather than embarrass his party by accepting a committee of inquiry into the conduct of the Crimean War. He was, as a result, unpopular in the country; and he made himself more unpopular still by speeches in Parliament in the summer of 1855, in which he held that the war was no longer justified. Gladstone helped to defeat Palmerston in the Commons by a speech on China in March 1857. He twice refused to join Derby’s government in 1858, in spite of a generous letter from Disraeli. In June 1859 Gladstone cast a vote for Derby’s Conservative government on a confidence motion and caused surprise by joining Palmerston’s Whig Cabinet as chancellor of the Exchequer a week later. His sole, but overwhelming, reason for joining a statesman he neither liked nor trusted was the critical state of the Italian question. The triumvirate of Palmerston, Russell, and Gladstone did indeed help, over the next 18 months, to secure the unification of almost all Italy . Connect with Britannica Facebook Twitter YouTube Instagram Pinterest Gladstone was constantly at issue with his prime minister over defense spending. By prolonged efforts, he managed to get the service estimates down by 1866 to a lower figure than that for 1859. A further abolition of import duties was achieved by his budget of 1860. His support of an Anglo-French trade treaty doubled the value of trade. He proposed the abolition of the duties on paper, which the House of Lords declined to do. In 1861 Gladstone included the abolition with all the other budget arrangements in a single finance bill that the Lords dared not amend , a procedure that has been followed ever since. Another useful step was the creation of the post office savings bank. These measures brought him increased popularity with the leaders of working class opinion, as did journeys around the main centres of industry. In the general election of July 1865, Gladstone was defeated at Oxford but secured a seat in South Lancashire. When Palmerston died in October and Russell became prime minister, Gladstone took over the leadership of the House of Commons, while remaining at the Exchequer. Convinced of the need for a further reform of Parliament, he introduced a bill for the moderate extension of the franchise in March 1866, but it foundered in June, and the whole government resigned. Next year Disraeli introduced a stronger Reform Bill that gave a vote to most householders in boroughs. Disraeli became prime minister early in 1868. Russell had resigned from active politics, and Gladstone was the Liberal mentor during the general election at the end of the year. Though Gladstone lost his Lancashire seat, he was returned for Greenwich; and the Liberal Party won handsomely in the country as a whole. His abilities had made him its indispensable leader, and when Disraeli resigned Queen Victoria called on him to form a government. First administration (1868–74) Gladstone’s first Cabinet (1868–74) was perhaps the most capable of the century. Its prime minister tried to supervise the work of each department, devoting his main efforts to Irish and foreign policy . The Irish Protestant church was successfully disestablished in 1869, and a first attempt to grapple with oppressive landlordism in Ireland was made unsuccessfully in 1870; abroad, an attempt to promote disarmament in 1868 failed when Bismarck refused to consider it. The Franco-German War took the government completely by surprise, and the Cabinet would not allow Gladstone to propose to Prussia the neutralization of Alsace and Lorraine. The principal achievements of 1871 and 1872—a London declaration by the great powers that they would not in future abrogate treaties without the consent of all the signatories, and the settlement by arbitration of the “Alabama” claim of the United States—look well in retrospect but were thought pusillanimous at the time. The most useful reforms at home were administrative, except for the Education Act of 1870 and the Ballot Act of 1872. When an Irish University Bill failed to pass the Commons in March 1873, Gladstone resigned but was forced back into office by Disraeli’s refusal to form a government. In August he reshuffled his Cabinet and again took on the chancellorship of the Exchequer himself. He dissolved Parliament in January 1874, but his party was heavily defeated and his government resigned. Gladstone gave up the party leadership (though he remained MP for Greenwich) and retired to Hawarden to write pamphlets attacking papal infallibility and articles on Homer. Bulgarian atrocities Eyjafjallajökull volcano The indifference of Disraeli’s government to the brutality of Turkish reprisals against risings in the Balkans, in 1875–76, brought Gladstone back to active politics. He published a pamphlet, “Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East,” which demanded that the Turkish irregulars should remove themselves from the peninsula. London society and the London mob, the Queen, and the Whiggish elements in his own party all opposed him. Only some radicals really supported him; yet he triumphed. He gave up his Greenwich seat and stood for the Scottish county of Midlothian. In two tremendous outbursts of oratory, in November 1879 and March 1880, Gladstone secured his own return to Parliament, overthrew a government, and secured a large Liberal majority. The Conservative government had to resign. Second administration (1880–85) Gladstone foolishly combined again for two and a half years the duties of prime minister and chancellor of the Exchequer. His large apparent majority in the Commons was unruly. Not until 1884 could he introduce a third Reform Act that nearly doubled the electorate by giving votes to householders in country districts. On the Eastern question, he and Granville , the foreign secretary, managed by a brusque naval threat to compel Turkey to cede Thessaly to Greece. Still graver troubles arose in Ireland. The Irish Land Act of 1881, largely Gladstone’s own work, in the long run promoted the prosperity of the Irish peasant; but violent crime continued. No alternatives to strong police powers were left, and measures to restrict the freedom of Irish members to obstruct the work of the Commons had to be taken. In 1882 the Cabinet was compelled to authorize the occupation of Egypt. Gladstone’s settlement of the Egyptian debt question (1885) was honourable to his belief in the concert of Europe but had the unintended effect of tying British foreign policy to that of the Germans. When he allowed Gen. C.G. Gordon to go to Khartoum in Sudan and then failed to rescue him, his death cost Gladstone much popularity. Firm handling of a dispute with Russia over the border of Afghanistan somewhat restored his prestige; but when the government was defeated on the budget in June 1885, he was glad to resign. He refused an offer of an earldom from the Queen. Irish Home Rule Gladstone appreciated the full force of Irish nationalism . He had for years favoured Irish Home Rule in the form of a subordinate parliament in Dublin. In 1885 a combination of Irish with Conservative votes had defeated him in June, and he waited silently to see what an Irish–Conservative combination would produce. The general election of November–December 1885 returned a Parliament in which the Liberal members exactly equalled the total of Conservatives plus Irish. At this moment, Gladstone’s conversion to Home Rule was revealed, and most Conservatives therefore turned against it. Lord Salisbury’s government was defeated, and Gladstone formed his third Cabinet in February 1886. His Home Rule Bill was rejected in Parliament in June by a large secession of Whigs, and in the country at a general election in July, and Gladstone resigned office. He had kept his Midlothian seat, unopposed, and carried with him into the new Parliament a personal following 190 strong, supported by the National Liberal Federation, the most powerful political machine in the country. He devoted the next six years to an effort to convince the British electorate that to grant Home Rule to the Irish nation would be an act of justice and wisdom. He spoke at many meetings and cooperated with the Irish leader Charles Stewart Parnell . But in 1890 he had a dangerous quarrel with Parnell about the political consequences of the O’Shea divorce. (Gladstone had not believed the rumours about Parnell’s liaison , holding that Parnell would never “imperil the future of Ireland for an adulterous intrigue.”) He never sought to correct the stories Parnell spread about him in Ireland. He sanctioned an extensive program of Liberal reforms drawn up at Newcastle in 1891, because it was headed by Home Rule, and on this platform the Liberals won a majority of 40 in the general election of 1892. Gladstone formed his fourth Cabinet in August 1892. Its members were held together only by awe of him. He piloted another Home Rule Bill through 85 sittings of the Commons in 1893; the Lords rejected it by the largest majority ever recorded there to that time, 419–41. The Cabinet rejected Gladstone’s proposal to dissolve. He disagreed with his colleagues on a large increase in naval expenditure and finally resigned—ostensibly because sight and hearing were failing—on March 3, 1894. He was much mortified by the coolness of his last official interview with the Queen, who by now so frankly detested him that she could hardly conceal her feelings. He retired to Hawarden and busied himself with an edition of the works of Bishop Joseph Butler (3 vol., 1896). Humanitarian to the end, in his last great speech, at Liverpool in September 1896, he denounced Turkish atrocities in Armenia. After a painful illness, he died of cancer of the palate at Hawarden. He was buried in Westminster Abbey . Gladstone was perhaps the greatest British politician of the 19th century. To him above all others goes the credit for creating a political system and state structure that aimed to function beyond the reach of vested interests, particularly those of the upper classes in British society.

Gladstone

Who was the last foreign secretary to serve in Margaret Thatcher's cabinet, an MP who also contested the leadership after her resignation?

BBC - History - British History in depth: Prime Ministers and Politics Timeline On This Day Prime Ministers and Politics Timeline Do you know which prime minister brought 'fallen women' to 10 Downing Street? Or which one fought a duel? Or who was known as 'the Goat'? Take a political journey through nearly 300 years of high ideals and low cunning, from Gordon Brown to the first man to hold prime ministerial powers, Robert Walpole. Margaret Thatcher Conservative, 1979 - 1990 Britain's first female prime minister came to power with the country descending into industrial and economic chaos. A relatively inexperienced politician, she nonetheless adopted a personal style of indomitable self-confidence and brooked no weakness in herself or her colleagues. Derisively dubbed the 'Iron Lady' by the Soviet press, she wore the moniker with pride. Her government's free-market policies included trade liberalisation, deregulation, sweeping privatisation, breaking the power of the unions, focus on the individual and the creation of an 'enterprise culture'. 'Thatcherism' has had a profound and lasting economic and social impact on Britain, and still sharply divides opinion to this day. The first PM to serve three consecutive terms (including two 'landslide' victories) she was eventually toppled by her own party following the disastrous imposition of a 'poll tax'. Nonetheless, she is generally considered to be one of the best peace time prime ministers of the 20th Century. James Callaghan Labour, 1976 - 1979 Callaghan inherited the office of prime minister following the surprise resignation of Harold Wilson. With only a tiny parliamentary majority to support him, he faced an increasingly one-sided confrontation with organised labour in the form of rampant strike action. Things came to a head in the so-called 'Winter of Discontent', a phrase from Shakespeare borrowed by Callaghan himself to describe the events leading up to February 1979. Britain was 'strikebound', with public servants staging mass walk outs, leaving food and fuel supplies undelivered, rubbish uncollected and - most notoriously - bodies unburied. Things became so bad in Hull it was dubbed 'the second Stalingrad'. The tabloid press has since been accused of overstating the severity of the situation (and wrongly quoting him as saying 'Crisis? What Crisis?') but it was enough at the time to sound the death knell for Callaghan's government later in the same year. Harold Wilson Labour, 1974 - 1976 In March 1974, Wilson became prime minister for the third time at the head of a minority government, following the first hung parliament (one where no party holds a majority) for 45 years. Often described as a wily fixer and negotiator, it took all of his skills to hold on to power in the face of economic and industrial turmoil. His party was also sharply divided, with many Labour members of parliament (MPs) bitter about Wilson's manoeuvring against his colleagues. He called another general election in October 1974, thereby ending the shortest parliament since 1681, and was returned to office with a majority of just three seats. He presided over a referendum on Britain's membership of the European Economic Community (EEC), and a collapse in the value of the pound which prompted a humiliating 'rescue operation' by the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Exhausted, Wilson resigned saying 'politicians should not go on and on'. Edward Heath Conservative, 1970 - 1974 Heath succeeded in taking Britain into the European Economic Community (EEC), the precursor to the European Union, despite two previous failed attempts by Britain to gain entry, in 1961 and 1967. But his government was dogged by torrid industrial relations and recurrent economic crises. Things came to a head in January 1974, when industry was put on a 'three-day week' to conserve fuel. Fuel was in dangerously short supply following a combination of domestic industrial action (coal miners on 'work-to-rule') and a quadrupling of prices by Middle Eastern oil exporting nations in the wake of Israel's victory in the Yom Kippur War. In March 1974, Heath called a general election on the question of 'who governs Britain?' - the unions, or the elected representatives of the people. To his surprise the result was a hung parliament (one where no party holds a majority) and he was ousted. Harold Wilson Labour, 1964 - 1970 In 1964, 'Good old Mr Wilson' - an avuncular, pipe-smoking figure - came to power amid much excitement and optimism. He had promised a 'new Britain' forged in 'the white heat of a second industrial revolution'. In reality, his administration never escaped from a cycle of economic crises, vainly battling against further devaluations of the pound. Wilson won a second general election in 1966 (the year England lifted the football World Cup) making him the first Labour PM to serve consecutive terms. In 1967, the government failed in its application for membership of the European Economic Community (EEC) and was also finally forced to devalue sterling. The electorate became disillusioned with Wilson, who lost narrowly to the Conservatives in the 1970 election. Sir Alec Douglas-Home, Conservative, 1963 - 1964 In 1963, a change in the law allowed hereditary peers to disclaim (or 'drop') their titles, which in turn meant they were able to become members of parliament (MPs). The only peer ever to do so and become prime minister was Douglas-Home, formerly the 14th Earl of Home, who assumed the office when Harold Macmillan retired due to ill health. He was the first prime minister in the post-war period not to win his own mandate (be elected or re-elected by popular vote). Harold Macmillan, Conservative, 1957 - 1963 Macmillan came to power at a time when Britain was confronting its loss of world-power status and facing mounting economic troubles. Nonetheless, he successfully associated the Conservatives with a new age of affluence and the burgeoning consumer revolution. But his oft-quoted assurance 'You've never had it so good' actually finishes 'What is beginning to worry some of us is, is it too good to be true?'. His government is principally remembered for the so-called 'Profumo Affair', a sex scandal that erupted in 1963 and contributed to the Conservatives' defeat at the general election the following year. Secretary of State for War John Profumo had been having an affair with a showgirl who was also seeing the Soviet naval attaché to London - a serious transgression at the height of the Cold War. After lying to the House of Commons, Profumo admitted the truth in June 1963 and resigned in disgrace. Macmillan resigned due to ill health in October the same year. Sir Anthony Eden, Conservative, 1955 - 1957 When Sir Winston Churchill retired due to ill health, Eden took over as prime minister. Many years before, Churchill had anointed Eden as his successor, but later acknowledged he had made 'a great mistake'. His opinion was born out as the new PM blundered into the Suez Crisis. Following Egypt's decision to nationalise the Suez canal, Britain (the principal shareholder), France and Israel invaded in October 1956 to near-universal condemnation and the threat of nuclear strikes by the Soviet Union. Within a week, Britain was forced into an embarrassing climb-down. Humiliated and in ill-health, Eden left the country for a holiday at the Jamaican home of James Bond author, Ian Fleming. He returned in mid-December to the sarcastic newspaper headline: 'Prime Minister Visits Britain'. He resigned on 9 January 1957. Sir Winston Churchill, Conservative, 1951 - 1955 Churchill's desire to return to power, despite his assured place in history, had much to do with his belligerent refusal to accept that the British public had rejected him in 1945. Now the electorate was seeking to put behind it the hardships and privations of the post-war years under Clement Atlee and return to a more traditional idea of society - so-called 'housing and red meat' issues. Churchill tried - and failed - to recreate the dynamism of his wartime administration, and he struggled to adjust to the political realities of the Cold War, preferring direct action and personal diplomacy to proxy wars and cabinet consensus. His refusal to retire, despite suffering a stroke, caused mounting frustrations among his colleagues. At the age of 80, he finally conceded to his failing health and stepped down, although he continued to serve as an MP. Clement Attlee, Labour, 1945 - 1951 World War Two had sharply exposed the imbalances in Britain's social, economic and political structures. For a population that had sacrificed so much, a return to the pre-war status quo was simply not an option. In 1942, a report by Sir William Beveridge, chairman of a Ministry of Health committee, had advocated a system of national insurance, comprehensive welfare for all and strategies to maintain full employment. The 'Beveridge Report' formed the basis of Labour pledges in the 1945 election and resulted in a landslide victory. Attlee's government successfully harnessed the wartime sense of unity to create the National Health Service, a national insurance scheme, a huge programme of nationalisation (including the Bank of England and most heavy industries) and a massive building programme. He also made Britain a nuclear-armed power. These sweeping reforms resulted in a parliamentary consensus on key social and economic policies that would last until 1979. But by 1951, a row over plans to charge for spectacles and false teeth had split the cabinet. Party disunity and a struggling economy contributed to Attlee - cruelly dubbed by Churchill 'a modest man with much to be modest about' - losing the next election. Winston Churchill, Conservative, 1940 - 1945 By the time Churchill was asked to lead the coalition government in 1940, he had already enjoyed colourful and controversial careers as a journalist, soldier and politician. He had twice 'crossed the floor' of the House of Commons, the first time defecting from Conservative to Liberal and serving as First Lord of the Admiralty during the early years of World War One. Demoted in the wake of the slaughter at Gallipoli, he preferred to resign and take up a commission fighting on the Western Front. Despite standing against the Conservatives in a 1924 by-election, Churchill was welcomed back into the party that same year and served as Chancellor of the Exchequer for five years under Stanley Baldwin. But personal disagreements and his vehement anti-Fascism would lead to nearly a decade in the political wilderness. Following Neville Chamberlain's resignation in 1940, Churchill finally realised his 'destiny' and accepted the office of prime minister. Promising nothing more than 'blood, toil, tears and sweat', he almost single-handedly restored Britain's desire to fight on in adversity. Despite Churchill's enormous personal popularity, by 1945 the electorate no longer wanted a war leader and the Conservatives lost by a landslide. Neville Chamberlain, Conservative, 1937 - 1940 Rarely has the hyperbole of politicians been as resoundingly exposed as when Neville Chamberlain returned from his 1938 negotiations with Adolf Hitler, brandishing his famous 'piece of paper' and declaring the agreement it represented to be 'peace for our time'. Within a year, Germany had invaded Poland and Britain was plunged into World War Two. With his policy of 'appeasement' towards Hitler utterly bankrupted, Chamberlain resigned in 1940. He was replaced by Winston Churchill. When the issue of honours was discussed, he stated that he wanted to die 'plain Mr Chamberlain, like my father'. His father, Joseph Chamberlain, was the politician who split the Conservatives in 1903 by pushing for tariffs on imported goods. It was this very issue that convinced Churchill to defect to the Liberals, with whom he first achieved high office. Chamberlain died six months after resigning. Stanley Baldwin, Conservative, 1935 - 1937 When Baldwin returned to power in 1935, the financial crisis sparked by the Wall Street Crash six years before appeared to be over. It was to be swiftly replaced by a constitutional crisis brought about by Edward VIII's desire to marry a twice-divorced American, Wallis Simpson. Baldwin advised Edward that Mrs Simpson would not be accepted as Queen by the public, and that the king could not condone divorce as head of the Church of England. The king proposed a 'morganatic' marriage, whereby Mrs Simpson would become his consort, but not Queen. The government rejected the idea and threatened to resign if the king forced the issue. The story then broke in the press, to general disapproval by the public. Rather than break the engagement, Edward abdicated on 11 December 1936. Credited with saving the monarchy, Baldwin is also condemned for failing to begin re-arming when it became clear that Nazi Germany was building up its armed forces. Ramsay MacDonald, Labour, 1929 - 1935 MacDonald began his second term at the head of a minority government (one that does not have an outright majority) and with the economy in deep crisis. Britain was still in the grip of the Great Depression and unemployment soon soared to two million. With fewer people able to pay tax, revenues had fallen as demand for unemployment benefits had soared. Unable to meet the deficit, by 1931 it was being proposed that benefits and salaries should be cut. Labour ministers rejected the plan as running counter to their core beliefs. MacDonald went to the king, George V, to proffer his resignation. George suggested MacDonald to try and form a 'national government' or coalition of all the parties. (This is the last recorded direct political intervention by a British monarch.) The National Government was formed, with MacDonald as prime minister, but Stanley Baldwin, leader of the Conservative Party, the de facto 'power behind the throne'. MacDonald is still considered by many in the Labour Party as their worst political traitor. Stanley Baldwin, Conservative, 1924 - 1929 In May 1926, the Trades Union Congress called for a general walkout in support of a coal miners' protest against threatened wage cuts. It was the first and, to date, only general strike in British history. The strike affected key industries, such as gas, electricity and the railways, but ended after just nine days due to lack of public backing and well-organised emergency measures by Baldwin's government. Far from succeeding in its aims, the General Strike actually led to a decline in trade union membership and the miners ended up accepting longer hours and less pay. It also gave impetus to the 1927 Trade Disputes Act, which curtailed workers' ability to take industrial action. Baldwin's government also extended the vote to women over 21 and passed the Pensions Act, but eventually fell as a result of the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and the Depression that followed. Ramsay MacDonald, Labour, 1924 In 1924, MacDonald briefly became the first Labour prime minister, ending two centuries of Conservative - Liberal domination of British politics. It was the first party to gain power with the express purpose of representing the voice of the 'working class'. An MP since 1906, MacDonald was respected as a thinker, but criticised by many within his own party as insufficiently radical (despite appointing the first female cabinet minister, Margaret Bondfield, in 1929). His opposition to World War One had made him deeply unpopular and he continually suffered a torrid time at the hands of the press. The publication by two newspapers of the 'Zinoviev letter' did much to damage his chances in the run up to the 1924 election. The letter (which he had seen but decided to keep secret) purported to be from Soviet intelligence and urged British communists to commit acts of sedition. He lost by a wide margin. The letter is now widely accepted to be a fraud. Stanley Baldwin, Conservative, 1923 During his very brief first term as prime minister, Stanley Baldwin bumped into an old school friend on a train. Asked what he was doing these days, Baldwin replied: 'I am the prime minister.' Having come to power following Andrew Bonar Law's resignation, he called an election in the hope of gaining his own mandate (election by popular vote), but lost. Andrew Bonar Law, Conservative, 1922 - 1923 Branded the 'unknown prime minister' by his bitter political rival HH Asquith, Canadian-born Bonar Law is principally remembered for a single speech he made in 1922. The Conservatives had been part of a coalition under the Liberal prime minister, David Lloyd George, since 1916. Many were considering joining Lloyd George permanently, but Bonar Law's speech changed their minds. Instead, the Conservatives withdrew from the coalition and Lloyd George was forced to resign. The king, George V, asked Bonar Law to form a new government. Reluctantly he accepted, despite still grieving two sons killed in World War One and - as it turned out - dying of throat cancer. He held office for 209 days before resigning due to ill health. He died six months later and was buried at Westminster Abbey, upon which Asquith commented: 'It is fitting that we should have buried the Unknown Prime Minister by the side of the Unknown Warrior.' David Lloyd George, Liberal, 1916 - 1922 Lloyd George guided Britain to victory in World War One and presided over the legislation that gave women the vote in 1918, but he is remembered as much for his private life as his public achievements. Nicknamed the 'Welsh Wizard', he was also less kindly known as 'The Goat' - a reference to his countless affairs. (Scandalously, he lived with his mistress and illegitimate daughter in London while his wife and other children lived in Wales.) The first 'working class' prime minister, Lloyd George had risen to prominence by solving the shortage of munitions on the Western Front. It was his desire to get to grips with the requirements of 'total war' that led to his split with then Liberal Prime Minister HH Asquith. It also brought him closer to the Conservatives, with whom he formed a new coalition government when Asquith resigned. That coalition would disintegrate six years later in the midst of a scandal. Serious allegations were made that peerages had been sold for as much as £40,000. (One list even included John Drughorn, who had been convicted for trading with the enemy in 1915.) Lloyd George resigned in October 1922. HH Asquith, Liberal, 1908 - 1916 Asquith's government had shown great longevity, but disintegrated in the face of the unequalled disasters of the Somme and Gallipoli. With World War One going badly, fellow Liberal David Lloyd George had seized his chance and ousted Asquith. But in the preceding eight years, the two politicians had together overseen one of the greatest constitutional upheavals of the 20th Century and ushered in some of the predecessors of the Welfare State. Old Age Pensions were introduced and Unemployment Exchanges (job centres) were set up by then Liberal minister Winston Churchill. But when Lloyd George attempted to introduce a budget with land and income taxes disadvantageous to the 'propertied' classes, it was thrown out by the House of Lords. Lloyd George branded the Lords 'Mr Balfour's poodle' (a reference to Conservative leader AJ Balfour's supposed control over the peers). The stand-off resulted in two general elections during 1910, the second of which the Liberals won with a 'peers against the people' campaign slogan. The budget was passed and, in 1911, the Parliament Act became law. The Act stated that the Lords could only veto a Commons bill twice, and instituted five-yearly general elections. Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, Liberal, 1905 - 1908 Arthur James Balfour, Conservative, 1902 - 1905 The nephew of the Marquess of Salisbury, Balfour had none of his uncle's political skills despite a long period of mentoring. He was instead something of a philosopher, publishing several weighty books, including 'A Defence of Philosophic Doubt', 'The Foundations of Belief', and 'Theism and Humanism'. Following a cabinet split Balfour resigned, gambling that the Liberals would be unable to form a government and that he would be returned to power. He was wrong. Marquess of Salisbury, 1895 - 1902, Conservative Salisbury came to power for the third and final time when the weak Liberal government of the Earl of Rosebery fell. The political climate was one of rising resentment among the lower and middle classes, who demanded better conditions, social reforms and proper political representation. Bitterly divided, the Liberals would nonetheless experience a revival as they sought reforms of the squalid, disease-ridden British 'concentration camps' used in the Boer War. But it was the founding of the Labour Representation Committee (LRC) on 27 February 1900 that signalled a quiet, yet highly significant sea-change in British politics. This coalition of socialist groups would win two seats in the 1900 general election and 29 seats in 1906. Later that same year, the LRC changed its name to the Labour Party. Despite failing health, Salisbury agreed to stay on to help Edward VII manage the transition following the death of his mother, Queen Victoria. He resigned in favour of his nephew, AJ Balfour, in the first months of the new King's reign. (Notably, he was the last serving prime minister to sit in the Lords.) Earl of Rosebery, Liberal, 1894 - 1895 Rosebury reluctantly became prime minister on the insistence of Queen Victoria, despite still mourning the loss of his wife. Desperate to have a minister she actually liked, Victoria had taken the unusual step of not consulting the outgoing PM, William Gladstone, about his successor. Rosebery, who always loved horseracing more than the 'evil smelling bog' of politics, was gratefully allowed to resign a year later. Notably, he is the only prime minister to have produced not one, but three Derby winners, in 1894, 1895 and 1905. (Despite his aversion to politics, Rosebery was no stranger to scandal. The Prince of Wales had reputedly once intervened to prevent him from being horsewhipped by the Marquess of Queensbury, with whose son Rosebery was believed to be having an affair. Queensbury's other son was Lord Alfred Douglas, Oscar Wilde's lover.) William Ewart Gladstone, Liberal, 1892 - 1894 Gladstone's fourth term as prime minister was completely overshadowed by his insistence on introducing a third bill on the subject of 'Home Rule' for Ireland. The Conservative-dominated House of Lords threw the bill out and generally obstructed Liberal attempts to pass legislation. With his cabinet split and his health failing, the 'Grand Old Man' stepped down for the last time. The public was, in any case, exhausted with Home Rule and instead wanted reforms to working conditions and electoral practices. (Meanwhile, out on the political fringe, the Independent Labour Party had been set up under Keir Hardie to represent the working class and 'secure the collective ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange'. Leading figures in the party included George Bernard Shaw and Ramsay MacDonald.) Marquess of Salisbury, Conservative, 1886 - 1892 William Ewart Gladstone, Liberal, 1886 Gladstone came to power for the third time with 'Home Rule' (devolution) for Ireland still the dominant issue. A bitter election battle had seen the Conservative government fall after Irish Nationalist members of parliament sided with the Liberals to defeat them. Instead, the Liberals formed a government in coalition with the Irish Nationalists and Gladstone tried to push through his second attempt at a Home Rule bill. The bill split the Liberals and Gladstone resigned. He lost the general election when the 'Liberal Unionists' - those who wanted Ireland to be ruled from Westminster - broke away from Gladstone's Liberals to fight the next election as a separate party. Most Liberal Unionists were of the 'Whig' or propertied faction of the party, which meant that when they went, they took most of the money with them. Marquess of Salisbury, Conservative, 1885 - 1886 William Ewart Gladstone, Liberal, 1880 - 1885 Having failed to force Gladstone to serve under Lord Hartington, Queen Victoria reluctantly accepted 'that half-mad firebrand' as prime minister for the second time. He had only lately returned to politics from retirement after his so-called 'Midlothian Campaign', in which he spoke to large crowds - a practice considered by polite Victorian society to be 'undignified'. His campaign did much to discredit Disraeli's government and had clearly struck a chord with a public eager for social and electoral reform. The Ballot Act in 1872 had instituted secret ballots for local and general elections. Now came the Corrupt Practices Act, which set maximum election expenses, and the Reform and Redistribution Act, which effectively extended voting qualifications to another six million men. There were other burning issues. The United States had just overtaken Britain as the world's largest industrialised economy, and 'Home Rule' (devolution) for Ireland continued to dominate. In seeking support for Home Rule, James Parnell's Irish Nationalists sided with the Conservatives to defeat a Liberal budget measure. Gladstone resigned and was replaced by the 'caretaker government' of the Marquess of Salisbury. Benjamin Disraeli, Conservative, 1874 - 1880 After a brief taste of power in 1868, it had taken Disraeli six years to become prime minister again. He wasted no time in bringing about the social reforms he had envisaged in the 1840s as a member of the radical Young England group. His Acts included measures to provide suitable housing and sewerage, to protect the quality of food, to improve workers rights (including the Climbing Boys Act which banned the use of juveniles as chimney sweeps) and to implement basic standards of education. In 1876, Disraeli was made the Earl of Beaconsfield, but continued to run the government from the Lords. He persuaded Queen Victoria to take the title 'Empress of India' in 1877 and scored a diplomatic success in limiting Russian influence in the Balkans at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. He retired in 1880, hoping to spend his remaining years adding more novels to his already impressive bibliography, but died just one year later. William Ewart Gladstone, Liberal, 1868 - 1874 Upon taking office for the first time Gladstone declared it his 'mission' to 'pacify Ireland' - a prize that was always to elude him. Nonetheless, Gladstone was to become the dominant Liberal politician of the late 19th Century, serving as prime minister four times despite earning Queen Victoria's antipathy early in his career. (She famously complained that 'he always addresses me as if I were a public meeting'.) He had started his career as an ultra-conservative Tory, but would end it as a dedicated political reformer who did much to establish the Liberal Party's association with issues of freedom and justice. But Gladstone also had his idiosyncrasies. He made a regular habit of going to brothels and often brought prostitutes back to 10 Downing Street. In an era when politicians' private lives were very private, his embarrassed colleagues nonetheless felt it necessary to explain his behaviour as 'rescue work' to save 'fallen women'. Benjamin Disraeli, Conservative, 1868 On being asked to become prime minister following the resignation of the Earl of Derby, Disraeli announced: 'I have reached the top of the greasy pole'. He immediately struck up an excellent rapport with Queen Victoria, who approved of his imperialist ambitions and his belief that Britain should be the most powerful nation in the world. Unhappily for the Queen, Disraeli's first term ended almost immediately with an election victory for the Liberals. Despite serving as an MP since 1837 and twice being Chancellor of the Exchequer, Disraeli's journey to the top was not without scandal. In 1835, he was forced to apologise in court after being accused of bribing voters in Maidstone. He also accrued enormous debts in his twenties through speculation on the stock exchange. Disraeli suffered a nervous breakdown as a result, but eventually paid off his creditors by marrying a rich widow, Mary Anne Wyndam Lewis, in 1839. Earl of Derby, Conservative, 1866 - 1868 The introduction of the 1867 Reform Act made Derby's third term as prime minister a major step in the true democratisation of Britain. The Act extended the vote to all adult male householders (and lodgers paying £10 rental or more, resident for a year or more) living in a borough constituency. Simply put, it created more than 1.5 million new voters. Versions of the Reform Act had been under serious discussion since 1860, but had always foundered on Conservative fears. Many considered it a 'revolutionary' move that would create a majority of 'working class' voters for the first time. In proposing the Reform Act, Benjamin Disraeli, Conservative Leader of the House of Commons, had warned his colleagues that they would be labelled the 'anti-reform' party if they continued to resist. The legislation was passed, and also received the backing of the Liberals under their new leader, William Gladstone. Earl Russell, Whig, 1865 - 1866 Viscount Palmerston, Liberal, 1859 - 1865 Earl of Derby, Conservative, 1858 - 1859 The property qualification - the requirement that a man must own property in order to stand as a member of parliament - was finally abolished during Derby's second term as prime minister. It meant that members of parliament (MPs) were no longer drawn exclusively from the 'propertied' classes and could realistically be 'working class'. This fulfilled one of the six conditions set out by the Chartists - supporters of the Third Chartist Petition, written in 1838. It demanded universal male suffrage (votes for all adult men), secret ballots (rather than traditional open ballots), annual parliamentary elections, equal electoral districts (some had less than 500 voters, while others had many thousands), the abolition of a property qualification for MPs, and payment for MPs (which would allow non-independently wealthy men to sit in parliament). Viscount Palmerston, Liberal , 1855 - 1858 Earl of Aberdeen, Tory, 1852 - 1855 It was something of a cruel irony that Aberdeen came to be blamed for blundering into the dreadful Crimean War. As plain George Hamilton Gordon he had made a successful career as a diplomat and had done much to normalise Britain's relationships with its powerful neighbours. Vivid reports from the front by WH Russel of the Times have since led to the Crimean being styled the first 'media war'. His reports publicised the squalor and disease that were claiming more soldiers' lives than the fighting, and inspired Florence Nightingale to volunteer and take the first 38 nurses out to treat the wounded. In 1855, Aberdeen conceded to his critics and resigned. Earl of Derby, Conservative, 1852 Earl Russell, Whig, 1846 - 1851 Confronted by the Irish Potato Famine, declining trade and rising unemployment, Russell still managed to push through trade liberalisation measures and limits on women's working hours. A dedicated reformer, he nonetheless presided over the rejection of the Third Chartist Petition. Set out 1838, it demanded universal male suffrage (votes for all adult men), secret ballots (rather than traditional open ballots), annual parliamentary elections, equal electoral districts (some had less than 500 voters, while others had many thousands), the abolition of a property qualification for members of parliament (MPs), and payment for MPs (which would allow non-independently wealthy men to sit in parliament). Already rejected once by parliament in 1839, the petition had gathered 5 million signatures by 1848. Presented to parliament a second time, it was again rejected. The Chartist movement slowly petered out, even as revolutions blazed across Europe, but many of its aims were eventually realised. Sir Robert Peel, Tory, 1841 - 1846 Peel's second term as prime minister was nothing short of tumultuous. Economic depression, rising deficits, Chartist agitation, famine in Ireland and Anti-Corn League protests crowded in. A raft of legislation was created to stabilise the economy and improve working conditions. The Factory Act regulated work hours (and banned children under eight from the workplace), the Railway Act provided for cheap, regular train services, the Bank Charter Act capped the number of notes the Bank of England could issue and the Mines Act prevented women and children from working underground. But a failed harvest in 1845 provided Peel with his greatest challenge. There was an increasing clamour for repeal of the Corn Laws, which forbade the import of cheap grain from overseas. Powerful vested interests in the Tory Party opposed such a move, but in the end Peel confronted them and called for repeal. After nearly six months of debate, and with the Tories split in two, the Corn Laws were finally repealed. Defeated on a separate issue, Peel resigned the same day, but was cheered by crowds as he left the Commons. (The 'Peelite' faction of the Tories is widely recognised as the foundation of the modern Conservative.) Viscount Melbourne, Whig, 1835 - 1841 Sir Robert Peel, Tory, 1834 - 1835 Invited by William IV to form a new government, Peel immediately called a general election to strengthen his party. Campaigning on his so-called 'Tamworth Manifesto', Peel promised a respectful approach to traditional politics, combined with measured, controlled reform. He thereby signalled a significant shift from staunch, reactionary 'Tory' to progressive 'Conservative' politics. Crucially, he pledged to accept the 1832 Reform Act, which had recently increased the number of people eligible to vote. Peel won the election, but only narrowly. He resigned the following year after several parliamentary defeats. (Peel is probably best remembered for creating the Metropolitan Police in 1829 while Home Secretary in the Duke of Wellington's first government. The nickname 'bobbies' for policemen is derived from his first name.) Duke of Wellington, Tory, 1834 Viscount Melbourne, Whig, 1834 In a bid to repress trade unions, Melbourne's government introduced legislation against 'illegal oaths'. As a result, the Grand National Consolidated Trades' Union failed. In March of the same year, six labourers were transported to Australia for seven years for attempting to provide a fund for workers in need. They became known as the 'Tolpuddle Martyrs'. Melbourne himself was notoriously laid back. When first asked to become prime minister he declared it 'a damned bore'. Having accepted, he would often refuse to allow his cabinet colleagues to leave the room, insisting 'I'm damned if I know what we agreed on. We must all say the same thing.' Earl Grey, Whig, 1830 - 1834 In June 1832, the Reform Act finally passed into law after 15 torrid months of debate. It extended the vote to just 7% of the adult male population, based on a series of lowered property qualifications. Introduced in March 1831, the bill scraped through the Commons by a single vote, but was thrown out at the committee stage (when the bill is debated in detail - sometimes called the 'second reading'). Parliament was dissolved and the general election was fought on the single issue of the Reform Act - an unprecedented event in British political history. The Whigs won the election and passed the bill, but the House of Lords (with a majority of Tories) threw it out, sparking riots and civil disobedience across the country. With the spectre of France's bloody revolution clearly in mind, William IV eventually agreed to create 50 Whig peers to redress the balance in the Lords if the bill was rejected again. The Lords conceded and the Act was finally passed into law. After all his efforts, Earl Grey is principally remembered for giving his name to a fragrant blend of tea. Duke of Wellington, Tory, 1828 - 1830 Wellington's first term in office was dominated by the thorny subject of Catholic emancipation. Catholics were permitted to vote, but were not allowed to sit as members of parliament (MPs) and had restrictions on the property they could own. Initially, the 'Iron Duke' was staunchly in favour of the status quo, but soon came to realise that emancipation might be the only way to end conflict arising from the Act of Union between Britain and Ireland in 1801. He became such an advocate that he even fought a duel with the 10th Earl of Winchilsea over the issue. The Earl had accused him of plotting the downfall of the 'Protestant constitution', but then backed down and apologised. They still had to go through the ritual of the duel at Battersea Fields, with both men deliberately firing high and wide. Wellington eventually drove the legislation through, opening the way for Catholic MPs. Viscount Goderich, Tory, 1827 - 1828 George Canning, Tory, 1827 Canning finally became prime minister after a long career in politics, only to die of pneumonia 119 days later. He had famously fought a duel in 1809 with his bitterest political rival, Lord Castlereagh, and was shot in the thigh. Castlereagh committed suicide with a penknife in 1822, after becoming depressed about his falling popularity. Earl of Liverpool, Tory, 1812 - 1827 Liverpool is the second longest serving prime minister in British history (after Robert Walpole), winning four general elections and clinging on to power despite a massive stroke that incapacitated him for his last two years in office. Liverpool became PM at a time when Britain was emerging from the Napoleonic Wars and the first rumblings of 'working class' unrest were just beginning to be felt. Staunchly undemocratic in his outlook, Liverpool suppressed efforts to give the wider populace a voice. He was unrepentant when, in 1819, troops fired on a pro-reform mass meeting at St Peter's Fields in Manchester, killing eleven - the so-called 'Peterloo Massacre'. Trade unions were legalised by the 1825 Combination Act, but were so narrowly defined that members were forced to bargain over wages and conditions amid a minefield of heavy penalties for transgressions. (Liverpool's one concession to popular sentiment was in the trial of Queen Caroline on trumped up adultery charges. The legal victimisation of George IV's estranged wife, who was tried in parliament in 1820, brought her mass sympathy. Mindful not to provoke the mob in the wake of Peterloo, the charges were eventually dropped.) Spencer Perceval, Tory, 1809 - 1812 Perceval bears a dubious distinction as the only British prime minister to be assassinated. As chancellor of the exchequer he moved in to 10 Downing Street in 1807, before rising to the office of prime minister two years later. His 12 young children - some born while he was in office - also lived in the PM's crowded residence. Against expectations, he had skilfully kept his government afloat for three years despite a severe economic downturn and continuing war with Napoleon. He was shot dead in the lobby of the House of Commons on 11 May 1812 by a merchant called John Bellingham who was seeking government compensation for his business debts. Perceval's body lay in 10 Downing Street for five days before burial. Bellingham gave himself up immediately. Tried for murder, he was found guilty and hanged a week later. Duke of Portland, Tory, 1807 - 1809 Lord Grenville, Whig, 1806 - 1807 William Pitt 'the Younger', Tory, 1804 - 1806 Faced by a fresh invasion threat from Napoleon, George III once again turned to Pitt. A shadow of his former self due to failing health and suspected alcoholism, Pitt nonetheless accepted. He made alliances with Napoleon's continental rivals - Russia, Austria and Sweden - then, in 1805, Admiral Lord Nelson shattered French invasion hopes at the Battle of Trafalgar. Pitt did not have long to savour victory before Napoleon defeated both Russia and Austria to stand astride the whole of Europe. Heartsick, utterly exhausted, penniless and unmarried, Pitt died on 23 January 1806 at the age of 46. Henry Addington, Tory, 1801 - 1804 Addington secured the Peace of Amiens with France in 1802, but would see Britain plunge into war with Napoleon again just two years later. He also passed the first Factory Act into law. The Act was the earliest attempt to reform working conditions in factories. It set a maximum 12 hour working day for children and addressed issues like proper ventilation, basic education and sleeping conditions. (Notably, his government also awarded Edward Jenner £10,000 to continue his pioneering work on a vaccine for smallpox.) But he was generally poorly regarded, prompting the satirical rhyme 'Pitt is to Addington, as London is to Paddington' - a reference to his distinguished predecessor as prime minister, William Pitt. William Pitt 'the Younger', Tory, 1783-1801 Pitt 'the Younger' was the youngest prime minister in British history, taking office at the tender age of just 24. But his youth did not seem to disadvantage him as he threw himself into the manifold problems of government, holding on to the top office for 17 years - fifteen years longer than his father, Pitt 'the Elder'. His first priority was to reduce the National Debt, which had doubled with the loss of the American colonies in 1783. George III's mental illness then threw up the spectre of a constitutional crisis, with the transfer of sovereignty to the erratic Prince of Wales only narrowly averted by the king's recovery. Further threats to the monarchy emanated from across the Channel, with the bloody French Revolution of 1789 and subsequent war with France in 1793. War increased taxes and caused food shortages, damaging Pitt's popularity to the extent that he employed bodyguards out of fear for his safety. In a bid to resolve at least one intractable conflict, he pushed through the Act of Union with Ireland in 1800, but the related Emancipation of Catholics Bill was rejected by the king a year later. Having lost George III's confidence, Pitt was left with no option but to resign. Duke of Portland, Tory, 1783 Earl Shelburne, Whig, 1782 - 1783 Marquess of Rockingham, Whig, 1782 Lord North, Tory, 1770 - 1782 North is chiefly somewhat unfairly remembered as the prime minister who lost the American colonies. Groomed by George III to lead his parliamentary supporters, North was fiercely loyal to his king, whose policy it had been to 'punish' the American colonials. The American War of Independence, reluctantly entered into by both sides, had been prosecuted at the king's behest in retaliation for their refusal to pay more towards their own defence. As hostilities progressed, North's blundering and indecision worsened an already difficult situation, and by 1782 it was clear that the outcome was likely to be a disaster. He begged George III to be allowed to resign, but the king refused to release him until the war was over. North has since become the yardstick for prime ministerial mediocrity, with later PMs being criticised as 'the worst since Lord North'. Duke of Grafton, Whig, 1768 - 1770 An unremarkable prime minister, Grafton had a quite remarkable appetite for extra-marital affairs and openly kept several mistresses. He scandalised polite society in 1764 by leaving his wife and going to live with his mistress, Anne Parsons, also known as 'Mrs Houghton'. (Horace Walpole referred to her derisively as 'everybody's Mrs Houghton'.) Popular opinion had disapproved of Grafton's behaviour, until his wife did something even more shocking. She eloped with the Earl of Upper Ossory and had a child by him. Grafton divorced her in 1769, then abandoned Mrs Houghton and married Elizabeth Wrottesley, with whom he had 13 children. The Mrs Houghton ended up marrying the king's brother. This unsuitable union gave impetus to the Royal Marriages Act of 1772, which decreed that the monarch had to give permission for all royal weddings. Earl of Chatham, Pitt 'The Elder', Whig, 1766 - 1768 Pitt 'the Elder' is widely credited as the man who built the British Empire, although much of this was done in the role of secretary of state under the governments of the Duke of Newcastle. He chose his fights carefully, conducting military campaigns where conditions were best suited to British merchants. Pitt added India, West Africa, the West Indies and the American colonies to Britain's overseas possessions, and was persistently belligerent towards colonial rivals like France and Spain. His relentless imperialism kept the merchants happy but infuriated men like Newcastle who counted the financial cost of his wars. Pitt was a superb public speaker and a master of the devastating put-down, but his career was dogged with recurrent mental illness and gout. Ironically, it was during his term as prime minister that he was at his least effective, often struggling to build support. He collapsed in the House of Lords in October 1768 and died four days later. (Pitt was the MP for a 'burgage borough' - an empty piece of land with no-one living on it. His constituency, Old Sarum, was a mound in Wiltshire. On polling day, seven voters met in a tent to cast their votes.) Marquess of Rockingham, Whig, 1765 - 1766 George Grenville, Whig, 1763 - 1765 Grenville is one of the few prime ministers to have been sacked by the monarch. He was fired after a row with George III over who should rule in his place if his mental health continued to deteriorate. Earl of Bute, Tory, 1762 - 1763 Bute was one of Britain's more unpopular prime ministers. Things came to a head when he failed to lower the taxes he had raised to fight France in the American colonies. Rioting erupted, his effigies were burnt and the windows in his house were smashed. Bute was generally disliked by colleagues and public, and was lampooned for his 'fine pair of legs', of which he was reputed to be extremely proud. His close relationship with the Prince of Wales's widow, the Dowager Princess Augusta, was also the subject of much scurrilous gossip. The nickname 'Sir Pertinax MacSycophant' was a contemptuous reference to the Roman Emperor Publius Helvius Pertinax, who was murdered three months after his meteoric assent by his own bodyguard. Unable to muster support in parliament, Bute resigned in 1763. Duke of Newcastle, Whig, 1757 - 1762 Newcastle healed his rift with Pitt 'the Elder' by inviting him to serve in his government as secretary of state. Effectively a power-sharing coalition of two powerful men, the relationship gave birth to the British Empire. Their government eventually fell as a result of the new king, George III's hostility to Pitt, who had sought to restrict the influence of the monarch in political matters. Duke of Devonshire, Whig, 1756-1757 Duke of Newcastle, Whig, 1754 - 1756 Newcastle became PM after his brother, Henry Pelham, died in office. It is the only instance of two brothers serving as prime minister. Newcastle enraged Pitt 'the Elder' by refusing to promote him in the new government, then compounded the insult by sacking him. Henry Pelham, Whig, 1743 - 1754 Earl of Wilmington, Whig, 1742 - 1743 Sir Robert Walpole, Whig, 1721 - 1742 Walpole is widely acknowledged as the first prime minister, although he never actually held the title. He was also the longest serving, lasting 21 years. But Walpole's first stint in government, as secretary of war, had ended inauspiciously with a six month spell in the Tower of London for receiving an illegal payment. Undeterred, he rose to power again on the back of a collapsed financial scheme in which many prominent individuals had invested. Walpole had the foresight (or luck) to get out early, and as a result was credited with great financial acumen. George I invited him to become chancellor and gave him the powers that came to be associated with the office of prime minister. His owed his longevity in office (and the incredible wealth he accumulated) to a combination of great personal charm, enduring popularity, sharp practice and startling sycophancy. The accession of George II saw him temporarily eclipsed, but he worked hard to win over the new monarch. He was rewarded with both the new King's trust and 10 Downing Street, which remains the official residence of the prime minister to this day. Walpole was eventually brought down by an election loss at Chippenham and died just three years later.

i don't know

Which publication documents all proceedings of the British parliament?

Publications & records - UK Parliament Publications & records Produced by Commons Library, Lords Library and Parliamentary Office Science and Technology The UK’s EU referendum 2016 explained Four staff networks for people to discuss and consider issues. Working in Parliament Find and register for Parliament's free events and training sessions Have your say See some of the sights you’ll encounter on a tour of Parliament Planning an event? Publications & records Publications & records See what is happening today in both Houses, read previous debates in Hansard and get the latest select committee reports. Explore research from the parliamentary libraries and find out how to access the archives.

Hansard

Which British minister of health inaugurated the National Health Service?

Finding Aids and Strategies - British Parliamentary Papers - Research Guides at UCLA Library Finding Aids and Strategies Search UCLA Library and Beyond Limit search to Advanced Search Introduction to British Parliament and Parliamentary Papers The following books from the UCLA Research Library and the links to the UK Parliament Website will provide the novice researcher with further reading about the British Parliamentary Papers. To find diplomatic papers issued by the Foreign Office material was issued as diplomatic "blue books" (not the colonial blue books mentioned later) Ref Z2009.T24C Searching the House of Commons Sessional Papers The Charles E. Young Research Library has indexes to the Sessional Papers in the A-Level Reference Reading Room from call numbers J301.H65 through J301.M3. Indexes are also located at the end of each parliamentary session. All Command Papers are included in the Sessional Papers. The series numbers correspond to the following years. Abbreviations 1–present 1987–present A breviate to parliamentary papers, 1900 - 1954 (3 vols.) Breviates are bibliographies. This database can be searched by Title, Subject, Session, Paper Number, and Date. To browse any one of these categories, move the cursor to the appropriate search box and press ?. Searching the Parliamentary Debates Finding Aids for The Parliamentary Debates until 1803 resources For the print copy Parliamentary or Constitutional History of England from the Earliest Times to the Restoration of Charles II , volume 1 is a general index to the 24 volume set. The same online title available via The Eighteenth Century Online database will also allow you to search the volumes by a keyword search, but the general index is an easier place to start your search. Cobbett's Parliamentary History of England contains a Table of Contents at the beginning of each volume, as well as an index to the speakers at the beginning of each volume. The Making of the Modern World database will also search the text by keyword. Finding Aids for The Parliamentary Debates, 1803 to 1909 (series 1 - 4) resources There is an index at the back of each volume of the debates from this period. Hansard debates were published in series. Therefore, you will see the items listed in the catalog according to series number, volume number, and year. For example, ser.1, vol.002, 1804 stands for Series 1, Volume 2, Year 1804. Beginning with Series 5, the Parliamentary Debates of the House of Commons and House of Lords are published separately. Series 1: 1803–1820

i don't know

What is the name for the group of opposition spokesmen who comment on the policies of government ministers?

What is the name for the group of opposition spokesmen who comment on the policies of government ministers? Sign up View the step-by-step solution to: What is the name for the group of opposition spokesmen who comment on the policies of government ministers? This question was answered on May 22, 2016. View the Answer What is the name for the group of opposition spokesmen who comment on the policies of government ministers? oldprincetutor51 posted a question · May 22, 2016 at 10:32am Top Answer josewriter23 answered the question · May 22, 2016 at 10:33am Other Answers 1 comment The Shadow Cabinet is a feature of the Westminster system of government. It consists of a senior group of opposition spokespeople who, under the leadership of the Leader of the Opposition, form an alternative cabinet to that of the government, and whose members shadow or mark each individual member of the Cabinet.[1] Members of a shadow cabinet are often but not always appointed to a Cabinet post if and when their party gets into government. It is the Shadow Cabinet's responsibility to criticise the policies and actions of the government, as well as offering an alternative program. Yati1987 May 22, 2016 at 10:33am {[ getNetScore(29666534) ]}

Shadow Cabinet

"Who was ""Britain's first ever Labour prime minister in 1924?"

The Opposition in the Canadian House of Commons: Role, Structure, and Powers | Mapleleafweb.com The Opposition in the Canadian House of Commons: Role, Structure, and Powers Government & Institutions | Jan 30, 2008 The opposition is an important element of the Canadian parliamentary tradition and the day-to-day operation of government. This article examines the role, structure and powers of the opposition in Canada’s premier national legislature, the House of Commons. This includes discussions of the basic nature of opposition politics, the powers of the opposition in the House, the role of the Official Opposition (as a component of the opposition), and the disadvantages faced by the opposition in its relationship with the government. Lists of article sources and links to more on this topic Introduction to Opposition Politics in Canada What is the opposition and what does it do? Parliamentary System and the Opposition Opposition politics in Canada stems from the nation’s basic parliamentary system of government. Central to this system is the specific way governments (that is, the Prime Minister and Cabinet ) are chosen. In Canada, citizens do not directly elect their Prime Minister. Instead, citizens elect representatives to the House of Commons, who then select a Prime Minister from amongst themselves. Who becomes Prime Minister and forms the government thus depends on who can muster the most support amongst members of the House. This process of choosing a Prime Minister operates within a strict political party system. Elected representatives in the House usually belong to a federal political party, such as the Liberal Party of Canada , the Conservative Party of Canada or the New Democratic Party of Canada . In selecting who will become Prime Minister and form the government, elected representatives usually support the leader of the political party to which they belong. As such, who becomes Prime Minister, and forms the government, depends on which political party has the most elected members in the House. For more information on Canada’s parliamentary system: Mapleleafweb: Parliamentary Government in Canada: Basic Organization and Practices The House of Commons, therefore, is divided along an important line. On the one hand, there is the government side. This includes the Prime Minister, his/her Cabinet ministers, and all those other members of the legislature who share party allegiance with the Prime Minister and Cabinet. In the 39th Parliament, for example, the Conservative Party of Canada formed the government side in the House. On the other hand, there is the opposition side (also referred to as the “opposition” or the “opposition parties”). This includes all those representatives in the House who belong to political parties not in government. In the 39th Parliament, this included those representatives belonging to the Liberal Party of Canada, the New Democratic Party of Canada and the Bloc Québécois . The Opposition’s Basic Function Under Canada’s parliamentary system, the basic function of the opposition is to oppose the government on a day-to-day basis (hence, the term “opposition”). In this role, the opposition takes on an adversarial role vis-à-vis the government. This includes routinely criticizing government legislation and actions, as well as providing the Canadian public with alternative policies. In some cases, the opposition may even organize to bring down the government, by voting against key pieces of government legislation, such as the annual budget (this is formally referred to as a vote of non-confidence). See the Powers of the Opposition in the House of Commons section of this article for more information on precisely how the opposition may oppose the government. In theory, then, the opposition acts as a check on the government’s power. In practice, however, it can usually do little more than criticize and attempt to publicly embarrass the government. This is due to the level of control the government has over the parliamentary process, as well as the prevalence of majority governments in Canadian politics, which enable the governing political party to dominate votes in the House. See the Limits on the Opposition in the House of Commons section of this article for more on the opposition’s ability to act as a check on government power. The Opposition versus the Official Opposition In Canadian politics, one often hears the terms “opposition” and “Official Opposition.” What is the difference? As stated above, the “opposition” refers to all those elected representatives in the House who belong to political parties not in government. The title of “Official Opposition,” by contrast, is reserved for the largest of these opposition parties; that is, the opposition party that has the most representatives in the House. In the 39th Parliament, for example, the Liberal Party of Canada was the largest political party not in government, and thus became the Official Opposition. While the Official Opposition receives certain special privileges, it does not have any formal authority over the other opposition parties in the House. See The Official Opposition in the House of Commons section of this article for more on the role and powers of the Official Opposition. Powers of the Opposition in the House of Commons How does the House opposition “oppose” the government? Questioning and Debating the Government As discussed above, the opposition criticizes government actions and policies, and offers alternatives to the general public. In this context, the opposition is given several opportunities to question and debate the government. One of most important of these is Question Period, which is officially referred to as “Oral Questions.” During each sitting day of the House of Commons – that is, days in which members of the House convene to discuss business and vote on legislation – 45 minutes is allotted for Question Period. The opposition can use this time to pose questions to the government and to state any criticisms they might have regarding the government’s actions and policies. The government, in turn, is given a chance to respond to these opposition questions and criticisms. These exchanges are typically very adversarial and often lack substantive political debate. The opposition will often attempt to trip up the government into making statements that will make it look bad in public, while the government will often respond in a manner that sidesteps the opposition’s questions. Moreover, Question Period can also involve personal attacks between opposition and government members, as well as heckling on both sides. In addition to Question Period, the opposition may also debate the government during readings of proposed bills in the House. Before any piece of legislation (or “bill”) becomes law, it must undergo several stages of debate (or “readings”) in the House. During these readings, opposition members are usually given an opportunity to debate the government on the merits or weaknesses of the proposed legislation. In some cases, this may involve opposition members criticizing bills proposed by the government; in other cases it may involve supporting bills proposed by the opposition itself. Opposition members may also regularly criticize the government in informal “media scrums” that occur outside of the chamber after a sitting of the House. During these scrums, members of the opposition make statements directly to reporters about House business and the conduct of the government, and also address questions posed to them by the media. Finally, in organizing their questioning of the government, opposition parties often form shadow cabinets, where opposition spokespersons are responsible for criticizing specific cabinet ministries or portfolios. There will be, for example, a recognized opposition critic for national defence, foreign policy, finance, and so forth. Each opposition party usually forms its own shadow cabinet. Introducing Legislation in the House Opposition members also have the power to introduce legislation for consideration by the House of Commons through private members’ bills. Members of the House not in Cabinet are referred to as “private members” – hence the term “private members’ bill.” This includes members of opposition parties, independent members (members that do not belong to a political party), and government backbenchers (members that belong to the governing political party but who are not in Cabinet). Normally, private members’ bills may include any sort of legislation except those dealing with the appropriation of public revenues or taxation. These financial bills may only be introduced by the government; that is, by the Prime Minister or a Cabinet minister. In some rare cases, however, a private member may get special permission to introduce a piece of legislation dealing with government finances. Like any legislation introduced in the House of Commons, private members’ bills go through the normal legislative cycle. In order for them to become law, they must go through several readings and debates within the House. A private members’ bill may also be given to a parliamentary committee for more detailed review. Finally, the bill must be formally approved in both the House and the Senate, as well as receive Royal Assent (approval from the Monarchy or his/her representative, the Governor General). For more information on private member’s bills: Parliament of Canada: Private Members’ Bills – Notice, Introduction and First Reading Opposition Days in the House Opposition members also have the opportunity to influence the formulation of laws and policies during Opposition Days in the House of Commons (also referred to as “Supply Days”). Normally, the government controls the House’s daily agenda, including what motions will be discussed and voted upon by all members. During Opposition Days, however, opposition motions have precedence over government motions. As such, opposition members can effectively control the House’s agenda (hence the term “Opposition Days”). This power to control the agenda, however, does not mean that opposition motions will be passed, it simply means that the opposition members are able to control what motions will be discussed and voted upon. Opposition Days are another holdover from the British or Westminster parliamentary system. Originally, Opposition Days were associated with debates over “supply” and were held prior to the release of budget estimates – hence the interchangeable “Supply Days” moniker. They were created so that opposition members could advance ideas for what should, and should not, be funded by the government. In more recent years, Opposition Days have become known as opportunities for opposition members to draw attention to issues and policy positions the government would not normally discuss. Votes of Non-Confidence One of the opposition’s most important powers is the ability to undertake votes of non-confidence against the government. Central to Canada’s parliamentary system is the requirement that the government maintain the support (or “confidence”) of the House. This support, or lack thereof, is regularly expressed through votes in the House. If a majority of House members vote against a key piece of government legislation, such as the annual budget, then one would say the government has lost the confidence of the House. This usually results in the fall of the government and a general election being held to elect a new government. Opposition members may also initiate a vote of non-confidence by simply introducing a motion declaring the House no longer supports the government, which is then voted upon by all members of the House. Normally, the governing political party has a clear majority in the House, meaning that more than 50 percent of the members of the House belong to the same political party as the Prime Minister and Cabinet (this is referred to as a “majority government”). In these cases, votes of non-confidence are very difficult for the opposition to orchestrate. The Prime Minister can simply use party discipline to ensure that all of his/her party’s members vote in favour of key pieces of government legislation or against opposition motions of non-confidence. In minority governments , however, votes of non-confidence are a much more powerful tool for the opposition. This is because the government only has a minority (less than 50 percent) of the members in the House. As such, the opposition parties can work together to vote down a key piece of government legislation or to pass a vote of non-confidence against the government. In order to protect themselves against votes of non-confidence, minority governments will often work closely with one or more of the opposition parties to ensure that proposed legislation will be acceptable to them, and that they will support it when it comes time to vote in the House. Parliamentary Committees Another way in which the opposition may influence legislation and policy is through the parliamentary committee system. The House of Commons has committees made up by members from all political parties; however, they are usually administered and controlled by the members in the governing political party. The purpose of these committees is to review proposed legislation and government actions, and to offer advice on how to strengthen them. Parliamentary committees do not have the power to force the government to change legislation it proposes. It may only make suggestions, which the government is free to heed or ignore. This is not to suggest that the government will never listen to parliamentary committees, but simply that it is not required to do so. In cases of minority governments, however, the work of parliamentary committees can become much more significant. This is because the governing political party alone does not have enough members in the House to pass legislation, but must rely on the support from one or more opposition parties. As such, it may take seriously the suggestions made by opposition members in parliamentary committees as a way of ensuring that government legislation will be passed when it reaches a final vote in the House. The Official Opposition in the House of Commons Overview of the Official Opposition and the Opposition Leader Who Forms the Official Opposition? Opposition politics in Canada is also characterized by the existence of an Official Opposition. As stated earlier, the title “Official Opposition” is usually given to the largest opposition party. Following the 2006 Canadian federal election, for example, there were three parties in opposition: the Liberal Party, the New Democratic Party, and the Bloc Québécois. Of those three opposition parties, the Liberals had the most seats in the House of Commons, and were thereby recognized as the House’s Official Opposition. It is important to note, however, that a political party can refuse the title of Official Opposition, in which case the next largest opposition party takes on the role. This occurred in 1921 when the Progressive Party of Canada (a distinct party, separate from the Conservative Party at the time) was the largest opposition party, but turned down the chance to form the Official Opposition. Consequently, the Conservative Party, the next largest opposition party, assumed the role. The Official Opposition’s Function The Official Opposition’s function is to take the lead in holding the government accountable for its actions and policies. The Official Opposition does not have authority over the other opposition parties, nor does it control their criticisms of the government. Instead, opposition parties (whether they are the Official Opposition or not) usually review and attack the government independently. The notion of “taking the lead” here simply means that the Official Opposition is often given the first and most extensive opportunity to criticize government policies and actions. This is facilitated through the granting of special rights and privileges to the Official Opposition over other opposition parties (see below). Another important role of the Official Opposition is to take on the image of “government in waiting,” by presenting itself to the public as a viable alternative to the government of the day. The Official Opposition will usually advocate a set of policies which are significantly different from those of the government. Moreover, key members of the Official Opposition, such as the Leader and senior party members, will often present themselves as government leaders in waiting, ready to take over as Prime Minister and Cabinet ministers should the current government fall. The Official Opposition’s Special Privileges The Official Opposition is granted special rights and privileges above those granted to other opposition parties. First, the leader of the political party that forms the Official Opposition is formally recognized as the “Leader of the Opposition” (or “Opposition Leader”). Following the 2006 general election, for example, the Liberal Party became the Official Opposition. As a result, the leader of the Liberal Party becomes the Leader of the Opposition. The position of Opposition Leader was first officially recognized in Canada in 1905, when the occupant of that position was granted a salary equal to that of a Cabinet minister. Although the function of the Opposition Leader is not governed by statute, the role is officially recognized in the procedures of the House of Commons. The Opposition Leader does enjoy certain privileges, which are not extended to other opposition party leaders. S/he has special status at official functions and in parliamentary ceremonies, as well as international standing with foreign governments; foreign dignitaries will often meet with the Opposition Leader during state visits to Canada. In addition to a salary and expense allowance as a Member of Parliament, the Opposition Leader receives other perks, such as a car allowance and an official residence in Ottawa, which is referred to as Stornoway. The Opposition Leader, like the Prime Minister, also receives a large staff and offices in the House of Commons, which other opposition party leaders do not receive. During Question Period, the Official Opposition is permitted to ask more questions of the government more often. The Opposition Leader gets to question the government first, and the Official Opposition’s questions usually come before those of any other opposition party. Moreover, the Official Opposition receives more funding than any other opposition party, which enables it to better organize its opposition to the government. One of the greatest assets of being the Official Opposition is the accompanying publicity that such prominence affords. The Official Opposition and the Opposition Leader usually draw large and regular media and public attention. This, in turn, enables the party and its leader to keep a high public profile, and to more effectively communicate to the public its policies and criticisms of the government. Other opposition parties, especially those with limited members in the House, often struggle to draw public attention. Limits on the Opposition in the House of Commons Can the House opposition effectively oppose the government? To say that that the adversarial relationship between the government and the opposition is a fair fight would be an exaggeration; this is particularly the case when there is a majority (as opposed to a minority) government. This section examines some of the advantages enjoyed by the government, and disadvantages faced by the opposition, in their relationship. Government Power over the Parliamentary Process One key disadvantage the opposition faces is the government’s control over the parliamentary process. For example, with the exception of those limited times and days set aside for the opposition parties, the government controls the parliamentary timetable. As such, the government dictates what sorts of motions and bills the House will hear, debate and vote upon. Moreover, through the use of certain parliamentary powers, such as closure, the government can limit parliamentary debate. This is a particularly powerful tool for the government when it holds a majority in the House because it can close debate, and then use its majority to quickly pass or defeat a motion or bill. Furthermore, as the government has power over key positions in parliamentary committees, it is often able to control the outcomes of the committee process. In addition, the government can simply disregard any advice or conclusions offered by a committee if it so chooses. Government Access to Departments and Ministries Another disadvantage faced by the opposition stems from the government’s access to its department and ministries. As the head of the executive branch of government, the Prime Minister and Cabinet ministers have unlimited access to the staff, resources, and knowledge of their governmental departments and ministers. Moreover, the government can use these large resources when dealing with the criticisms and questions posed by the opposition parties, either in the House or publicly through the media. While opposition parties are provided with publicly funded staff and resources for their own partisan activities (and can also draw on their own internal funds and staff), these never come close to the resources at the disposal of government. Fragmentation of the Opposition in the House Making matters even more difficult for the opposition is the reality that very little solidarity exists between the opposition parties when opposing the government in the House. Each opposition party is its own entity, with its own policies, ideologies, members, and leaders. This, in turn, can degrade cooperation between opposition parties, and even create outright inter-party conflict within the opposition. For example, during the Liberal governments of the 1990s and 2000s, the opposition comprised two right-of-centre conservative parties (which often fought between themselves), a left-wing social democratic party, and a Quebec regional party whose primary purpose was to promote Quebec independence from Canada. As such, there was very little common ground between the opposition parties, and these parties often vigorously opposed one another on key policy questions. By contrast, the government (particularly in the case of a majority government) is a single political party, which is usually very manageable through party discipline. As such, the government can present itself as a united and focused front against the opposition parties, and attempt to take advantage of sharp disagreements and conflicts within the opposition. It is important to note, however, that circumstances can arise in which the governing political party becomes fragmented itself, with particular individuals or groups within the party fighting for control over leadership or party policy. This, in turn, can leave the government open to manipulation by the opposition parties, especially if the opposition can introduce legislation or raise the public profile on issues that will cause a wedge between members of the government. One recent example of this sort of fragmentation was the later stages of Liberal Prime Minister Jean Chrétien’s tenure, in which the governing Liberal Party was highly divided over the rivalry between Prime Minister Chrétien and the Finance Minister Paul Martin. Competition with Other Political Actors Not only does the opposition often face fragmentation within its ranks, it also has to compete with other political actors in society in its opposition to government. Modern Canadian democracy is characterized by the existence of a wide range of well-organized and financed interest groups, lobby and advocacy organizations, and research institutes. These actors, moreover, regularly engage in the activity of publicly criticizing the government and offering alternative public policy choices. In doing so, they will frequently offer well articulated and publicized reports and public policy statements. Opposition parties can find it difficult to compete in this environment, and have their voice and ideas heard above the general hubbub of other political actors. Sources and Links to Further Information Lists of article sources and links to more on this topic Sources Used for this Article Jackson, R. & Jackson, D. Politics in Canada: Culture, Institutions, Behaviour and Public Policy, 6th Edition. Toronto: Pearson Education Canada Inc., 2006. Dyck, R. Canadian Politics: Critical Approaches, 3rd Edition. Scarborough, Ontario: Nelson Thomson Learning., 2000. “Supply Periods.” Parliament of Canada. March 2006. 31 October 2007. < http://www.parl.gc.ca/compendium/web-content/c_d_supplyperiods-e.htm > “Types of Bills.” Parliament of Canada. March 2006. 31 October 2007. < http://www.parl.gc.ca/compendium/web-content/c_d_typesbills-e.htm > “Private Members’ Bills - Notice, Introduction and First Reading.” Parliament of Canada. May 2007. 31 October 2007. < http://www.parl.gc.ca/compendium/web-content/c_d_privatemembersbillsnoticeintroduction1read-e.htm > “Questions.” House of Commons Procedure and Practice (2000 Edition). 31 October 2007. < http://www.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?DocId=1001&Sec=Ch11&Seq=2&Lang=E > Links to More Information

i don't know

"What became known s ""the F-word"" at the 1991 Maastricht summit, where Britain wanted it removed from the treaty?"

European Council, Maastricht (Hansard, 25 November 1991) Lord Cledwyn of Penrhos My Lords, we are grateful to the noble Lord the Leader of the House for setting the scene for the debate and for his comprehensive speech in which he explained some aspects of the Government's policy. A two-day debate on the importance and implications of the Maastricht Summit was held in another place last week. We all followed that discussion with great interest. Today we have the opportunity to express our views on what is without doubt a historic milestone in the history of the Community. There are differences of view on a number of issues between the parties, and within the parties, in this country, as was made very plain in last week's debate in the House of Commons. However, there is overwhelming agreement on one central point; namely, that as a member of the European Community it is our duty in this country to work for solutions which are in the best interests of our people and of the Community as a whole. We must be clear about how we want to see the Community develop and we must work to ensure that Britain is in a position to influence the objectives which we support. There is little doubt that the Community will expand still further. Sweden and Austria are seeking membership and the other EFTA countries will follow, as may two or three Eastern European countries in due course. It is an exciting prospect but it will be an attractive one only if we can ensure that the new association will be democratic and that there will be accountability as between the various levels of administration within the Community—a point upon which the noble Lord expanded. Economic, monetary and political union for Europe is an ambitious concept and a complex and intricate one. The noble Lord said that we cannot set the final shape of Europe now, and I agree with him. It is for that reason that we should tackle each stage of the development with realism and common sense. We know that there have been arguments on a range of issues and we do not know, even at this late stage, whether they will be resolved before the Maastricht Summit takes place. The noble Lord also said that Maastricht will not settle the fate of Europe now. Here again I agree with him. I suggested in the debate on the Address that we should seek to negotiate a package upon which we could all agree at Maastricht while other matters on 1154 which agreement is clearly impossible should be reserved for further consideration. That must be preferable to a pointless and acrimonious haggle there. The impression has been created that Maastricht is a make or break summit. That is a great mistake for it has been plain from the start that there are issues on which total agreement may well be impossible, at least at this stage. As the noble Lord has said, every country in the Community has its own history, ethos, culture and national memory and its policies inevitably reflect that. That has its dangers, as we know all too well. Yugoslavia demonstrates that in an extreme way at this moment. We can thank heaven that the Community came into existence primarily to ensure that the wars which had devastated Europe would never happen again. It is very much to the credit of this House that over the past two years or so it has gone to very great lengths to study and debate the problems implicit in Maastricht. In October 1990 and in July this year our Select Committee on the European Communities, which is presided over by my noble friend Lady Serota, published excellent reports which we debated here at some length. The committee made important recommendations which are very relevant to our debate today. For example, it stressed that the communities must take steps to meet the requirements of democratic principles and that Community institutions must be, and must be seen to be, democratically accountable. It is for that reason that the Commission as at present constituted poses a problem. I must put the question to the noble Earl, Lord Caithness, who is to reply to the debate: why should not the Commission be more accountable to the European Parliament? That is one of the key issues to be resolved at this time. The noble Lord, Lord Waddington, described some reforms which we listened to with interest. We support those proposals, but we should go further. The European Parliament has some limited powers and there is a strong case for extending them as, otherwise, it could develop into an expensive talking shop and nothing else. Its powers should complement but not replace those of national parliaments and it should share some powers to institute legislation with the Commission. A further step in accountability would be to give the Parliament rights of confirmation after hearings for each member of the Commission with, possibly, a right of recall. Such a process would strengthen Community democracy without impairing the power of national parliaments. That is well worth considering. As to the Council itself, we must remember that it decides a good deal of legislation affecting the British people. I agree with the report to this House that: they have a duty to be far more forthcoming about the intentions and the progress of legislation". It has been suggested that national parliaments should receive all Commission proposals for legislation by the Council; that they should also be given adequate time to scrutinise the proposals and appropriate opportunity for discussion; and that Council procedures should 1155 provide adequate opportunity for national scrutiny in advance of final decisions. That seems to me to be very reasonable and sensible. I hope that the Prime Minister and his colleagues will support those suggestions and, if necessary, propose them at Maastricht. When he replies to the debate, perhaps the noble Earl will also comment on that point. Paragraph 115—the last paragraph of our Select Committee's report dated 23rd July of this year—should be borne in mind by us and by the Government at this time. It states: The questions which we have discussed in detail relate to the be lance of power—between the Council and the Parliament and between the Community and its Member States. We believe that any shift in the existing balance of power between the institutions and in the balance of power between the Community and the Member States should take place not in pursuit of a vision or a destiny or under pressure to board some imaginary train, but following an informed debate as to the probable consequences". That seems to me to be a sensible comment relevant to this debate. Another practical point that tends to be overlooked is that Ministers who are members of the Council are so preoccupied with work in their own departments at home that they do not have the necessary time to apply themselves to Council work which then inevitably falls more and more to civil servants. I have immense respect for our civil servants, but the danger and tendency is for the powers of commissioners and civil servants to grow imperceptibly, unless measures are taken to make them accountable at every stage. It is out duty to ensure that the structure is democratic and not bureaucratic. I do not believe or accept that the European Community is intended to be a unitary state or that the objective is to build a superstate. That is something that I am unable to contemplate. The use of the word "federal" has confused matters. When we use it, we in this country think of the United States. When our partners use it, they think of a looser form of association. We must try to find a definition on which all can agree. Since its inception, the Community has developed slowly and, although mistakes have been made, its achievements are considerable. The fact that Sweden and other EFTA nations wish to join is proof of that, but Sweden, like this country, wishes to preserve its own national parliament. We must have openness and democracy in decision-making. The Prime Minister believes in charters. He must go to Maastricht with a charter for democracy and clear proposals for the reform of the Parliament, the Commission and the Council. So far, those have not been clarified and the Government must realise that positive proposals would be better than negative reactions. We know that Mr. John Major has a difficult task on his hands in achieving a reasonable settlement at Maastricht. For the reasons that I have given, it would not be easy for any British Prime Minister of whatever party, but the task has been made infinitely more difficult for him by the attacks upon him by prominent members of his own party, notably Mrs. Margaret Thatcher, who has described his policy as "arrogant" and "wrong". She was referring mainly to his reaction to the call for a referendum. I have some sympathy for 1156 Mr. Major. During her tenure, Mrs. Thatcher was never a great champion of referenda; she always tended to regard her own pronouncements as the equivalent of a referendum. If she was in power now, would she have held a referendum? I think not. Nevertheless, the Government have not been able to handle this preparatory period skilfully. They have lurched from hesitation to uncertainty and there is a lack of clarity on several issues, some of which I have mentioned. My noble friend Lord Williams of Elvel will deal with economic and monetary union when he speaks later, but I must say that I am still uncertain about the Government's policy on the currency issue which is of central importance. Will the noble Earl tell us exactly where Britain stands on EMU? Is it the case that Mr. Major will leave this country "wholly free to reject" a commitment to a single currency? I understand that the Bundesbank is being helpful at this moment, as is the Italian Bank, in sustaining the pound. But we must look to the future, and the possibility that the bankers will control interest rates when neither the Government nor Parliament will have any say in the matter. Many people have asked me to put that point to the noble Earl in the debate. The Times put the matter in a nutshell on 23rd November when it said: The whole enterprise is fraught with risk. An unelected oligarchy of bankers would sooner or later clash with elected politicians … The political conflict might well be aggravated by the fact that the central bankers might no longer be 'ours'. A constitutional impasse over monetary policy could even precipitate the collapse of the Community as a whole". I want to see a constructive settlement at Maastricht, but I also think that Parliament should be given a clearer explanation of Government policy at this time. There are further questions that I should like to put to the noble Earl on matters that we on this side regard as important. Will he explain why, in the Government's view, the other 11 member states have no problems in accepting the principles of the Social Charter? Furthermore, if the Government are so obstinately opposed to much of the legislation based on the charter, why did they subscribe the Government's name to Articles 117 to 119 of the Single European Act? Finally, on the issue of qualified majority voting to which the noble Lord referred, we noted that the Government were in favour of that with regard to measures to facilitate the completion of the single market (Article 100A of the Act). Will the noble Earl tell us what distinction of principle is perceived between that area of policy and those relating to the social dimension and the environment where the Government opposed qualified majority voting? As the House knows, those matters deeply worry my noble friends. I regret that time does not permit me to deal with other matters of substance, although we discussed many of them in the debate on the Address three weeks ago. For example, I made plain then that we believe that NATO is the best guarantor of peace and security in Europe and that the Western European Union should be built up, not as an alternative to NATO, but as its European pillar. Our aim is to build a democratic Community subject to the rule of law 1157 and the freedom of the individual. We must secure those basic rights and principles in every step we take, in every regulation and in every law that we allow to pass. I supported the Community from the start, not for reasons of commerce or trade, important though they are, but, as I said earlier, because Europe in our time was devastated by the two most terrible wars that the world has known. In those wars 50 million people were killed, 6 million Jews died in the Holocaust and there is not a family represented in the Chamber this afternoon that did not lose a loved one in those dreadful hostilities. That is why the European Community came into being; that is what Maastricht is about; and that is why Maastricht must not fail. § 3.40 p.m. Lord Thomson of Monifieth My Lords, I am glad that the noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn, concluded on such a note, reminding us of the great vision that lies behind the need to create an effective European Community. It is a mistake to believe that there is an inherent contradiction between having that wider vision of the longer term goals of the European Community and seeking practical ways to achieve those goals. I recollect being told by a distinguished Foreign Office official that in Brussels I should learn lessons of pragmatism that I had never learnt in the Fabian Society in this country. It is worth remembering that point. As the noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn, said, this debate follows the two-day debate in another place. We are grateful to the noble Lord, Lord Waddington, for giving us some detail of the negotiating position that the Government will seek to adopt at Maastricht. The fact is that there is much common ground around on many of the issues aimed at promoting what the noble Lord, Lord Waddington, called a more efficient and effective Community. There is much in what the noble Lord said, and much has been said in detail elsewhere, which may be debatable but about which there is no reason to be dogmatic. However, in the view of these Benches, there is one fundamental aspect of the Government's approach to the Maastricht Summit that is deeply flawed. It undermines the rest of the Government's approach. Let me put it in terms of the Prime Minister's careful and conscientious analysis in another place of his position. He said, and I agree with him: There are in truth only three ways of dealing with the Community. We can leave it and no doubt we would survive but we would be diminished in influence and prosperity. We can stay in grudgingly, in which case others will lead it; or we can play a leading role in it and that is the right policy". However, in my judgment he went on to make it very difficult for Britain to play that leading role by saying on one of the most sensitive aims of Community policy at the Maastricht Summit—the goal of full economic and monetary union with a single currency and single central bank— We [the Government] are therefore insisting [on] the right, quite separately from any European Council decision, to decide for ourselves [in 1996] whether or not to [join in] … Nothing in the treaty that I sign now will bind us now to the 1158 decision that we must take then … because at this stage we cannot know what the circumstances then will be". [Official Report, Commons, 20/11/91; col. 272.] Nor can any of the other 11 member governments know; yet none of them insists on the opt-out/opt-in clause which the Government are so strangely proud of having, in a preliminary way, negotiated in the preparations for Maastricht. Why cannot the Government see that standing in isolation will at the very least deeply undermine the Prime Minister's professed aim of "playing a leading role" in the Community? Why cannot the Government see that it will lead inexorably to the other possibility that the Prime Minister himself spelt out; namely, staying grudgingly in the Community, in which case others will lead it and shape it to suit their interests and not ours. The reason for the Government's behaviour has little to do with a practical, pragmatic approach to European unity and everything to do with preventing Conservative disunity in the approach to Maastricht. They are not succeeding even in that aim to judge by the reaction of Mrs. Thatcher and those around her, as described by the noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn. Surely Mr. Major, more than most, should have recognised that the lady is not for appeasing. Unless that approach can be corrected, sadly it will perpetuate Britain's role in the Community as the reluctant member and the odd man out. So far, with the honourable exception of Mr. Edward Heath's administration, the attitude to the Community of successive British governments, Conservative or Labour, has been that of the proud Scottish mother watching her son on the parade ground and saying, "My goodness, everybody is out of step except our Jock". The Government are adopting such a short-sighted attitude in an area of policy—banking and financial services—where Britain has every claim to be pre-eminent. Our manufacturing industry, battered and bruised by government policy, may have to take second place to that of the Germans; but the Government have always insisted—I think they are right—that the City of London and Britain generally could benefit greatly from being the financial capital of a wider Europe whatever the efforts of Frankfurt and other places to seek to replace the City of London. Britain should have had the strongest claim to be the seat of the proposed European Monetary Institute, the embryo central bank. But what chance is there of that if in advance we decline to commit ourselves to the possibility of being part of such a bank? Are we to have six years of uncertainty over whether we shall be part of a single currency? Why should investors from the rest of the world want to face over those years all the uncertainties of the foreign exchange position in the City of London when, if they go to Frankfurt or elsewhere, they can be part of a large single currency area? What nonsense it is, when we all know that at the end of the day it is much more than probable that, as so often with European Community policies, the Government will go into the single currency—with which the Prime Minister conceded that he agrees in 1159 principle. Even if we do not do so, we shall end up with an insular, national currency shadowing a powerful ecu. That fundamental flaw at the heart of the Government's approach to Maastricht will diminish our influence in all the other difficult issues which the noble Lord, Lord Waddington, described; namely, the arrangements for political union, striking the right sort of balance between the institutions of the Community and getting right the arrangements for closer cohesion of foreign policy. Those are all very difficult issues and I agree with much of what the noble Lord said about finding solutions. Without a clear commitment to a single currency as the outcome of bringing about convergence of national economies, the shaping of those developments will be dominated by Germany and France. Britain, instead of taking its proper place at the top of the premier division, will have relegated itself to the second division. The noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn, raised the matter of a referendum. In a very real sense that is secondary to the matters which the noble Lord, Lord Waddington, described, such as the major issue of the currency about which I have spoken. The issue of a referendum is now causing a good deal of public debate and raises the question of how the political system in our country can best take its final decisions over Maastricht once the results of the negotiations have emerged. How major constitutional change should be decided in a country without a constitution is not n easy issue to confront. It is not sufficient for the Government or the official Opposition to say that there is no need for a referendum because we are a parliamentary democracy. If we were a more perfect parliamentary democracy there might indeed be no need for a referendum. But we are far from that. Since the last European referendum in 1975, changes in society and increasing polarisation between the two major parties in domestic politics have greatly reduced the fairness of our electoral system and, as a result, the representative quality of the parliament that emerges from it. My noble friends on these Benches will know what I mean, when I say that some of us are inclined to feel prisoners of the past with regard to a referendum. I voted against a European referendum in 1972. I have strong reservations about resorting to the referendum device too frequently on major issues. However, having taken a vigorous part in the referendum campaign of 1975, I found that debate across normal party lines a great deal more impressive and I believe more helpful to the British people than that which had taken place in Parliament. The current debate in another place—I fully exempt debates in your Lordships' House from these remarks—can hardly be said to have risen to the level of the fateful issues at stake. It has been distorted by the divisions within the Conservative Party to which the noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn, referred, and by the usual two party slanging match seeking to score party points on every single issue. The debate is also 1160 disfigured by using character assassination of the Leader of the Opposition as a substitute for serious argument. That is the background against which Mr. Paddy Ashdown, the leader of the Liberal Democrats, the party to which I now belong, has made his case for a post legislative referendum. His motivation is very different from that of Mrs. Thatcher and her supporters. For them the referendum is the last refuge of losers in an internal party battle. We all know that if Mrs. Thatcher had managed to remain Prime Minister and had been able to handbag her party into acquiescence with her views about the European Community, she would have remained as opposed in principle to a referendum as she had been previously. However, underneath the froth of the current arguments and the various public opinions polls, I believe that the common sense of the British people tells them that we are in the Community, that it would be folly to seek to come out, and that therefore the sensible thing is to make the best and the most of our membership. In order to see through the many and complex issues described today by the noble Lord, Lard Waddington, the people need a clear lead from their political leaders. If Mr. Major, even at this late stage, were to abandon his escape clauses on EMU and possibly on political union, which were designed to appease Mrs. Thatcher, and were then to lead a cross-party eleven on to the referendum cricket field, I prophesy that he would knock for six the motley team that he would find on the other side. The result would be at least as decisive as that of 1975 and the voice of the Cassandra of Finchley might be effectively silenced on the issue. Alas, Mrs. Thatcher's latest outburst has made such a change of policy even less likely than it was before. We can therefore only fall back on the old fashioned parliamentary method of a change of government. Fortunately, we should not have to wait long for that. On these Benches, with a long, consistent commitment to a truly united Europe, we shall seek to ensure that an alternative government does a great deal better than their sadly divided predecessor. Perhaps, in conclusion, I may remind your Lordships' House that on 11th December, the day following the end of the Maastricht conference, there is a five-hour debate allocated to these Benches. My noble friend Lord Jenkins of Hillhead will initiate a debate and move a resolution on the results of the Maastricht Summit. That debate will give your Lordships' House the earliest opportunity—perhaps the first opportunity within the Houses of Parliament—to express its views on the results that Her Majesty's Government bring back. § 3.55 p.m. The Duke of Manchester My Lords, the last time a member of my family spoke in this House was in 1903. My grandfather's speech was on a Question to the House relating to the borders of Northern and Southern Ireland. Today I wish to make a short speech on the constitution and sovereignty of our country. 1161 Our fellow countrymen have fought in two world wars with great loss of life to defend this country, our constitution and our monarchy. At the same time, we have gone to the aid of other countries at great personal sacrifice to our nation. That has enabled those countries to enjoy their freedom with the knowledge that Great Britain has always been there to assist them in the hour of need. I believe that unless we go to Maastricht with all parties united to maintain our sovereignty and constitution, we shall be giving away what past and present generations have sacrificed themselves for. I fully appreciate that we must not be outside the European pact as we have so much to offer, being the oldest sitting Parliament in Europe. However, the ultimate agreement must be with all nations united in an agreement which does not sacrifice our collective democracies. I draw your Lordships' attention to the speech of the noble Lord, Lord Carrington, on 6th September 1990, prior to the Gulf War. He stated: I should like to touch on one other matter which, although perhaps not immediately relevant, is something on which the European Community might usefully reflect. This crisis has shown up how far removed the 12 countries are from achieving a closer political association".—[ Official Report, 6/9/90; col. 1813. ] Note should be taken of that statement from such an eminent Member of your Lordships' House. I thank noble Lords for giving me the opportunity of making my maiden speech. § 3.58 p.m. Lord Callaghan of Cardiff My Lords, I hope that it will not be thought that I am losing my grip when I say that I agree with much of what the noble Lord the Leader of the House and the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, said. I believe that there is a great deal in common on these issues. The noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, illustrated the extremely difficult tactical hand which the Prime Minister must play at Maastricht. I do not believe that that has been made any easier by the histrionics of last week but at least the speeches which have taken place in this debate today have shown that it is possible to discuss calmly and rationally those historic issues which will affect our children and our country's welfare as a whole. I almost chuckled when I heard Mrs. Thatcher invoking the symbol of the pound as a symbol of stability and sovereignty. It is ironic that, three or four days after her speech, we are relying on the Bundesbank to prop up sterling in order to ensure that it remains inside the European rate mechanism. I simply cannot accept that the pound is a symbol of either stability—its value has declined consistently since the war—or of sovereignty. Indeed, there is no such thing as pure sovereignty, as we all know. To use the pound as a symbol of our independence and the independence of our monetary policies, especially on a day like today, will do everything to convince the Europeans that we are a backward-looking nation wallowing in nostalgia for the past instead of looking forward to what must lie ahead. I differ from my former noble friend and certainly my personal friend the noble Lord, Lord Thomson of Monifieth, as regards the opt-out clause. He asked why other countries are not insisting on that clause in the way in which we are. If he reflects for a moment he will realise that the situation is different between ourselves and those other countries. Here I make a point with which those on the Government Benches opposite may or may not agree. The difference between us is that the United Kingdom economy is much less capable of standing up to an entry into European monetary union than are most, if not all, the economies of our allies. Indeed it is uncertain whether we shall be able to maintain our position. I very much hope that we shall be able to do that. However, when I look back over the history of recent years, I see that we have squandered the oil revenues and have decimated British industry. I say to the noble Lord, Lord Thomson, that at the depth of a depression we have a balance of payments deficit which has never before been known in our history. Our imports are at their lowest and there is spare capacity in industry which should be taken up in exports—to a minor degree it has been taken up. That deficit has continued not merely for a month or two but over a period of years. I ask myself what will be the position if and when the recession is over not only technically but in reality, when men are being taken on in the factories and workshops and when our industry starts moving upwards again. What will be the shape of our balance of payments deficit then? 1166 Therefore, I say to the noble Lord, Lord Thomson of Monifieth, that there is a case for the opt-out clause. I regret that it should be so. But it is important and imperative, when we come to 1996 or 1997, that this country should have the option. To those whom I may call the "Eurosceptics", I say that it will not be a cause for celebration. It will be a symbol of our internal defeat as a nation; a symbol that we shall continually slide more slowly into a state where we cannot sustain the standards of living of our people relative to other countries and where our influence as a country will decline. The opt-out clause is important. What is important also is that we have four or five years in which to put ourselves into a position from which we can face 1997 with the same equanimity as the Bundesbank. With regard to referenda I say this. I have a history of referenda. During my administration there were two; one went the way the government wanted and the other did not. I cannot say that I am a lover of referenda. One was taken under the influence of the Commons, which was quite right, and the other in order to help the government, which was also right, as I am sure noble Lords opposite will agree. I believe that the results were right. However, where I strongly disagree with Mr. Tebbit is that it would be absurd to hold a referendum after Maastricht, as he proposed. There may or may not be a case—I should want to hear it argued further—for holding a referendum in 1996 or 1997. But we should not hold one immediately after Maastricht when we do not know what the future will hold. The noble Lord, Lord Waddington, referred to the future development of the Community. Will a Community which was devised for six, could accommodate nine, and is rather straining itself with 12, be able to contain, without a change in its structure or practices, a membership of 20 or 25? Who can tell at this stage what will be the shape of the Community in 1996 when this fateful decision for Britain will need to be taken? No one knows. We are in a position of considerable speculation in regard to the future. No one really knows what the shape of the Community will be when we finally take up the challenge of economic and monetary union. No one knows whether this country will be in a position—as I fervently trust—to accept the challenge. I say to all those thinking of a referendum, please use some common sense. Let us see what the change will be over the years that lie ahead. We can then take a decision in the light of the knowledge that we possess at that time. I hope that at the end of the negotiations the Prime Minister is in a position to sign or initial in good faith the single economic and monetary union treaty, with the safeguard of the opt-out clause. As I say, it will be no bed of roses. We shall need to watch the position and the Prime Minister will need to negotiate on a number of issues. There is the whole question of the convergence of our economies to be considered, to which I referred. There is the special position of the regions of Scotland and Wales to take into account. Constitutional possibilities should not be overlooked in relation to either of those two countries and their 1167 relationship with the European Commission. Each may have different thoughts regarding the unity of the United Kingdom in certain circumstances. I do not rule that out. I do not wish to see it come but we are all facing a great many uncertainties in the present situation. Therefore I say to the Prime Minister: sign the treaty in good faith. Work through stage 2 in order to achieve its ends and then through stage 3. However, at the end of the day if we opt out, although it will be a matter of deep regret, at least we will have endeavoured and succeeded in doing what we can. In regard to political union, I agree with the approach of the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield. I do not view the prospect with any enthusiasm at all. However, I disagree with his conclusions for this reason. Germany has taken the concept of political union at too much of a gallop. It has come far too soon. It has not been worked out properly nor thought through properly. The clauses in the treaty—I am sure many noble Lords have read them—are flabby, imprecise and can be interpreted in many ways. Some may argue that that is a case for signing—that we will be able to interpret them in many ways. I am not sure that that is a good way to proceed. Our Prime Minister should not be frightened by the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, into coming back without an agreement on political union. The arguments that he will hear are the arguments that we have all heard ever since 1949 when the Council of Europe was set up. As a young Member of Parliament I was sent by Mr. Attlee to deputise for Mr. Herbert Morrison—as if such a thing were possible! We divided ourselves at that time into federalists and functionalists. The British, of course, were in the functional camp. The Belgians, the Dutch and the other smaller nations were in the federal camp. As far as I can see, over the past 40 years the arguments have not changed and the line-up remains the same. I notice one important difference; that is, that the definition of "federal" has begun to change. I see the noble Viscount, Lord Eccles, is in his place. He will remember those great debates as I do. There were one or two in which M. Spaak, the prominent federalist, took me to task and rebuked me for not seeing matters in the way that he did. The noble Viscount, Lord Eccles, escaped that, although I believe he was really on my side at the time. However, I do not believe we have progressed much further except in the definitions. I do not believe that the Prime Minister should sign a document which contains the word "federal.' because it has a different connotation in this country than elsewhere. It may be that they are right and we are wrong. The plain truth is that it means something different to us. We should therefore not sign at this moment. A dilemma exists. We are torn between the voiced dislike of many ordinary citizens about what has been seen to be and in reality is the growing centralisation of power, and the revolt against that centralised power, and, conversely, the growing realisation that pure sovereignty is no longer possible; that we are not able to solve our problems by ourselves. Somehow that dilemma must he resolved. 1168 I regret to say that I do not take all the statements made by leaders of other countries immediately prior to the negotiations—and perhaps, indeed, not even those of Mr. John Major—at face value. Whatever the French may say in regard to devaluation, I am not sure that, should the time come, they would not devalue again. I have heard them say it before, as has the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield. General de Gaulle said it in the most stringent terms, yet when the moment came they did. Although Chancellor Kohl made the suggestion—no doubt in good faith and with the hope of helping the Conservative Party win the election, which would be a poor bet—that the decision be postponed for six months, I do not believe that that is realistic. Nor should we accept such an offer, even if the Prime Minister thought it would bring him victory in the general election. It is too fundamental a problem. Those issues must be worked out much more thoroughly than they have been at the present time. It may be that the others will go ahead without us. I am not talking about economic and monetary union. I want us to be there, and if the Prime Minister uses the right tactics he will see that he comes to an agreement on that first before they tackle political union. After all, that was on the agenda long before political union. If we get to the point where they go ahead it will be a great disappointment, but it will not necessarily be a catastrophe. In regard to defence, to try to erect a defence pillar without the assistance of the United Kingdom would be ridiculous. It could not he done. Indeed, as long as NATO continues to exist in its present form it would be otiose. As regards the foreign policy aspects, I agree with the quotation given in his maiden speech by the noble Duke, the Duke of Manchester, from the speech of the noble Lord, Lord Carrington; that what was shown by the Gulf situation was our incapacity, when we get into a particular situation, for such a combined foreign policy to be worked out. Therefore, I say that I will be disappointed but that we should not sign up at this stage on a political union that includes defence and foreign policy. Finally, I agree with those who have said that the powers of the Commission need to be restricted. I agree with the Foreign Secretary about the bureaucratic tendency to peer into every nook and cranny of our national life. It must be made more accountable. I thought that the editor of Dimanche Matin put it very well in the Observer yesterday when he said: It is time now to redefine the democratic content of the European Community, to decide on a system of checks and balances in order to counter the technocratic traditions and autocratic temptations of the European Commission. Many of us will say, "Hear, hear". Finally, I hope I have made it clear that I want very much to see this closer union of Europe, but that does not mean that the British, in their usual pragmatic way, should not point out the practical difficulties of what is being proposed on certain issues. We should never forget the hold and imaginative concept of the 1940s, which led to the establishment of the European Community; the reconciliation of ancient enemies; a means of harnessing the immense latent power of 1169 Germany, which is now much strengthened so that it is 80 million strong; the establishment of confidence among her smaller neighbours; and the construction of a powerful economic entity. All those benefits have flowed from the setting up of the Community, and Britain has an essential and fundamental role in that. Its success is the best safeguard of the welfare and safety of those who come after us. § 4.33 p.m. Viscount Tonypandy My Lords, I wish to apologise to the House at once that it may not be possible for me to stay until the end of this debate. I also wish to congratulate the noble Duke, the Duke of Manchester, on his maiden speech. When I was Speaker I loved brief speeches, but when I agreed with every word that was said it made me feel all the better. I want to say to the noble Duke that I hope we shall hear him again. It is an especial privilege for me to follow my noble friend Lord Callaghan of Cardiff. For nearly 40 years we were neighbours with our constituencies in the capital city of Wales. It was a commonplace for us to be on the same platform, sometimes singing slightly different tunes—as indeed may be possible today—but always understanding the sincerity with which the other spoke. The Leader of the Opposition was also my colleague for I think over three decades as a Member of Parliament from the Principality. Therefore, I follow old friends upon an issue that is as old as Parliament itself. I put my name down to speak today because of the office that brought me to this place. For 700 years it has been the privilege and the duty of the Speaker to guard the unwritten constitution and to guard the rights and privileges of the Commons at Westminster. I am reminded that when King Charles I filled Westminster Hall with his troops to intimidate the Commons and he himself marched into the Chamber—the last monarch to set foot inside the Commons Chamber—he took the Speaker's chair. When Charles I looked around for the five Members he wished to arrest and asked the House where they had gone—they had all gone to good schools, so they said—they looked down and would not say anything, and when his Majesty ordered the Speaker to tell him, Mr. Speaker Lenthall said: I have eyes to see and tongue to tell only as this House doth command me. We have to be careful lest future Speakers should reach the position where they will say that they have eyes to see and tongue to tell only as the European Commission will tell them. As everyone knows, I am not an enthusiast. Perhaps I may say that the debate in the other place caused high passions. It will be a sorry day for Britain when emotion as well as intellect does not play its part in the debates in the House of Commons. I shall be the first one to say a kind word about Mrs. Thatcher, who a year ago was ambushed by the people who now would like to silence her. I believe that everyone has a right to be outspoken on an issue that will concern generations yet unborn belonging to these islands. 1170 We can take action that is irreparable and which has effects long term. We have done it from time to time, and sometimes I have regretted my own votes on matters over the years, because as the years unfold we change our opinion; we see evidence of what we have done. On the two issues of economic union and political union, I believe that it was a mistake to go into the ERM at the figure we did, but it was done. It is too late to alter that. It is now an economic fact of life. I think that all of us have been prepared to co-operate—we want to co-operate—with Europe, because the high ideal of breaking down barriers between old enemies appeals to everyone with any common sense at all, but especially to our age group who lived through two world wars. However, I share the views of my noble friend Lord Callaghan of Cardiff when he expresses his deep anxiety—forgive me if I am putting in the word "deep"—about political union. I see in today's edition of The Times the heading: Germany admires its own image in mirror of new Europe. I read it several times with great care. Every one of us in this Chamber knows that within a decade a united Germany will be running Europe and will be the overpowering influence there. We would not be doing our own country justice if we pretended that we were not aware of the growing economic and political strength of Germany in Europe. What of our friends in Europe? It almost amounts to moral blackmail to be told, "All our colleagues in Europe want to go the other way". Many of those countries in Europe are hanging on because they want German money. They are very much linked to the Bundesbank. Every country is looking after its own interests. I believe in every fibre of my being that, before there is any prospect of political union being agreed, it would be right to hold a referendum. My noble friend Lord Callaghan of Cardiff reminded us that his Administration wished to give Wales an assembly, a non-legislative assembly, something fiercely opposed by Mr. Kinnock. He was against it— § He is now. Viscount Tonypandy My Lords, I do not wish to discuss him because I want to remain friends with him. It was considered so important that the Administration said, "This is a constitutional issue affecting the lives of our people in Wales and in Scotland". How can this House decide without knowing the will of the people? When all parties are agreed the people have no opportunity to express their view. If they want on this specific issue to express an opinion there is no alternative to a referendum. If it was right for a Welsh Assembly, surely it will be right if political union threatens 700 years' history in the House of Commons. I believe that Mrs. Thatcher was right to call for a referendum if there is a signature on political union or indeed if other steps are taken at Maastricht which make it impossible for us later to move ground. We have no right to say to tomorrow's world that we shall decide for you on that question. 1171 I have listened with deep interest to every word that has been spoken in the debate and I have agreed with so much of what has been said from both sides of the House. But I know this I heard the expressions of sad anxiety about 1997 and what would poor old Britain do if we were right down in the dumps again. In those circumstances I would rather be the 51st state of the USA than one-twentieth of Europe. I should like it to be clearly known that they share our heritage and our language. We are nearer to them than is Honolulu. There is some logic in that argument but I hope that it does not come to that. I was seeking to apply myself to the argument that Britain can no longer think in terms of independent sovereignty. I hope that our spirit has not gone and that our will has not become so weak that we could look at the world and say, "We cannot stand on our own if it is necessary": I believe that we could. § 4.45 p.m. Lord Joseph My Lords, it is always a privilege to speak in your Lordships' House but I am particularly glad today to speak after the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, and the noble Viscount, Lord Tonypandy. I share the vision of the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, and I am proud to share the historical sense and the understanding of the noble Viscount, Lord Tonypandy, of the importance to the British people of what we are debating today. My vision, which I share with the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, is compatible with a Europe that is not a federal one. Indeed, I am not the only one in your Lordships' House who has a distaste for the concept of and indeed the word "federalism". I support the Bruges approach—l'Europe des patries: the sovereign nations of the Community consulting and cooperating, as they now do, evolving joint policies when suitable. We in Europe, I believe, are nowhere near ready—if we ever will be—to go further and form a single central government. We need to be alert to the appetite both of the Commission and of the European Court to extend their jurisdiction. Mrs. Thatcher was right last week to warn us of a conveyor-belt to federalism. Indeed, I agree strongly with what the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, said about the flabby nature—I was going to say o the debate, but the lack of debate on the word "subsidiarity". This is a crucial subject: the division of powers between nation states and any central instrument of government that they might agree to set up. The approach to defining subsidiarity has illustrated either the frivolity or the stealthy ambitions of the federalists. From the speeches in another place of the Prime Minister and Ministers and from the speech of the noble Lard, Lord Waddington, this afternoon, I judge that the Government are aware of these dangers and are unwilling to sign away at Maastricht any powers crucial ID this country's vital interests. I for my part therefore am content with the Government's stance on political union at Maastricht. On economic and monetary union, however, I very much regret the Government's apparent readiness to sign a treaty in reliance on an opt-in clause enabling us 1172 or our successors to decide whether to join in a single currency later. I am not a banker, nor a financier, nor an economist. My worries are those of a layman. My main worry is that a single currency with a single central bank would involve a single central government—and our Government reject a single central government. Your Lordships should be in no doubt that a single currency and a single central bank lead ineluctably to a single central government. My noble friend Lord Cockfield illustrated this thesis by telling us, warning us, and reminding us that the Germans have said that they will not sign an economic and monetary treaty unless they sign a political treaty. They understand very well that a single central government follows from a single currency and a single central bank. Mr. Heath, speaking last week in another place, must have been trying to be brief when he spoke of single trading areas in the United States and in Japan having single currencies. Yes, indeed, they do, but he failed to say—no doubt to save time—that they also have single governments. A single central bank controlling a single currency would impose such a straitjacket on social and economic conditions in member countries that there would be immense pressure for a single central accountable government or there would be mounting and dangerous nationalist resentments. On this I agree strongly with what Mr. Benn said so eloquently in another place last week. If, therefore, we refuse to sign a political union treaty because we reject a single central government, let us not sign an economic and monetary union treaty that inevitably would involve just such a single central government. To sign an EMU treaty relying on opt-in reservations would undermine our rejection of a single government. Moreover, as Mr. Ridley pointed out in another place, the EMU treaty we would be signing would bring in the whole apparatus of the Treaty of Rome and of the European Court. In my view we should veto the EMU treaty. The question that your Lordships will immediately ask is: would we damage ourselves? As my noble friend Lord Cockfield reminded us, our Prime Minister told us that the 11 would probably immediately set up a single currency in a separate treaty outside the Treaty of Rome. I am not seeking to make them parallel in their current authority. But, in the same debate, Mr. Lawson judged that they would not. I repeat that I am no expert on the matter. An article in The Spectator last week by Tim Congden reminds us of what happened when President Pompidou proclaimed that a single EEC currency would be in force under the Werner Plan a few years later in 1980. What did happen? Nothing happened. Why? Presumably because of the difficulties. However, there is no evidence that those difficulties have been tackled now, let alone overcome. For example, to whom would the single putative central bank lend? Moreover, what would happen to the foreign exchange reserves of Britain and of other member sovereign countries? Will the 11 want to go ahead without any contribution from us—one of the 1173 main contributors of money within the Common Market—towards the heavy subsidies that several member states will be demanding? I am wistful that stable money, with all the blessings in jobs and earnings that it would bring, which might be hoped for from a single currency controlled by a fiercely monetarist single central bank is not available. It would not, any way, be the Bundesbank in charge but a board containing Greeks, Portuguese and Italians. They are noble peoples in their own way, but not ideal people to put in charge of a single central bank. There is no mockery in what I say because they are indeed noble people. But there are too many grave dangers in EMU—the implication of a single central government, the straitjacket and the nationalist dangers. The truth is that we have to squeeze out inflation and sharpen our economic competitiveness by our own efforts. We can do it. My noble friend Lord Cockfield and the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, both told us that the Germans will not sign EMU if they do not get EPU. There was a difference between what the two noble Lords said. My noble friend recommended that we should sign EPU but the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, despite the fact that it would destroy the prospect of Germany signing EMU, recommended that we should not sign EPU. I apologise for these neologisms but even if no EMU means no EPU that would be no tragedy. I agree with the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, that it is far too soon to contemplate a single central government. Therefore, I still urge our Government not to sign EMU even with its opt-in reservation for Britain. It would only undermine their own robust stance on EPU. § 4.55 p.m. Lord McCarthy My Lords, I am not certain what the noble Lord is doing nothing about. If he is talking about the social charter, yes, of course there is an alternative to introducing legislation on minimum hours and minimum wages; but that cannot be justified by talking about subsidiarity. The essence of subsidiarity is that we are saying, "We can do it better at our level than you can at your level." To justify that, we have to propose to do something. The argument is that the proposal may be against employment. The short answer to that argument is that that is not what 11 out of the 12 countries think. That is what the Secretary of State for Employment says as a result of feeding his prejudices into the Treasury computer. He receives that answer. We have told him again and again of the whole range of other research of a different kind which comes to a different conclusion. We must take the view that the Government believe in moving towards European standards where they are the standards that the Government require. The Government are not good Europeans because they are not prepared to accept that there are other countries which place other priorities in other directions. It is for that reason that we cannot support the Government today. § 5.7 p.m. Lord Gladwyn My Lords, my brief remarks will be devoted chiefly to the bogey-word "federalism". As I understand it, we are already firmly committed to an "ever closer union" of European states within the European Community. If that phrase means anything, it means that, every so often, we are bound to take measures which will gradually transform the Community into a political and economic union of some sort; that is to say, investing it increasingly with some supra-national powers. That would seem not to differ much in practice from pursuing a "federal goal". But, of course, it all depends on what one supposes an eventual federation would turn out to be. As I see it, the word might be retained as being of some use in persuading our European partners that we really are sincere in our desire for ever closer union, but it is perhaps dangerous by giving the impression that we agree with those who look towards the formation in Europe of the equivalent of the constitution of the United States of America. That last is, however, something which I believe this country 1177 would never accept; nor would it be acceptable, I suspect, to most of our European partners, if it ever came to the point. Why? The North American states which came together in a union after their successful war against Great Britain, already had, in addition to the fellow feeling resulting from that war, many things in common, notably language, law, cultural traditions and even, to a large extent, religion. It was therefore possible for them eventually to form what was, in effect, something more than a federal union with a President, elected by popular suffrage, able, with the "advice and consent" of a Congress, to conduct among other things, foreign affairs and defence, the component states being substantially left with powers over internal matters only. But who can imagine a similar system being applied to the ancient nation states of Europe, with their different languages, histories, cultures and religions, who have been obliged to come together, not because of a common war against an external foe, but as the result of a series of appalling wars among themselves? Is it, in fact, conceivable that in the foreseeable future we might have a president of Europe, elected—regardless of nationality—for a period of four years, installed in Brussels with his own staff, his own ministries, and in command of a strong, possibly conscripted, force, all wearing a federal uniform and presumably run on a common language? It is barely conceivable. But if so, what is the point of having some kind of Congress, also in Brussels, consisting of a Council of Ministers transformed into a Senate and the present Parliament transformed into a House of Representatives, which clearly could not function in the absence of a central authority of some kind? Unless, of course, it were agreed that the unelected president of the Commission should become the effective president of Europe. But I do not think that such a solution would be likely to appeal to our various democracies. Now it may be argued—and it is argued—that a presidential regime of the kind envisaged would work if the nation states comprising the present European Community voluntarily agreed to become the equivalent of American states, or perhaps if those states broke up into regions which were separately represented in the new federation. Of course it could be—and logically that might be the best solution—acceptable to those who sincerely believe that the nation state itself is the source of all international evil and that it must totally forgo its independence if peace is ever to prevail. What may happen in the future no one can say; what is certain is that if, in present circumstances, the impression grows that we are inevitably moving towards such an abolition of the nation state, there is likely to be an explosion of nationalist sentiment—and not only in this country—that may at least put back further progress towards European unity for several years. It seems to follow, if what I suggest is agreed, that what the Government could well do when they say, as 1178 they do, that they seek to avoid "the development of a federal Europe" is to make clear that what they will not accept is the creation of something like the United States of America. But, as I see it, none of the points which we still apparently object to in the two draft treaties for discussion at Maastricht—and here, differing from the noble Lord, Lord Joseph, I include an eventual monetary union and a social charter—comes into this category at all. We may object to some of them, perhaps along with others, on the grounds, for instance, that they are unworkable or contrary to the general interest, or that the time for them is not ripe, but not that if they were approved they would eventually reduce this great and ancient nation to the rank of an American state. The European Community is an unique organisation, never before attempted, I believe. It was born as a result of a realisation by the nations of Western Europe, almost all of which had been defeated or occupied during the last hideous war, that they must in some way become interdependent if another catastrophe was to be avoided. We felt originally that we could not join them. Had we not won the war? Suez, and our increasing impoverishment, made it impossible for us to stand aside. But the Community's machinery, which we accepted 20 years ago, though it has its defects, has been shown, broadly speaking, to be acceptable and correct. The Council of Ministers and its numerous sub-committees, the Commission, the Parliament and the Court will all, in time, be reformed, but it is on them alone that the future Community must surely be constructed. In particular, the Commission has been unduly criticised in this country. The disastrous CAP is not its fault, but rather that of the Council of Ministers; it, too, must and will be reformed. It is quite right that the Commission should be preparing plans for example, for a common industrial, transport and, yes, a social policy. One would have thought that the principle of subsidiarity alone would prevent it from trying to prescribe the exact meat content of a British sausage, or indeed the precise location of a British road. But it must obviously have an important part to play in initiating plans to provide against, for instance, the poisoning of the atmosphere or the sea. To describe it as a "Belgian Empire" is a silly joke. So, in conclusion the Ministers must be prepared over the next year or two to take more decisions by qualified majority vote, even in some matters affecting foreign affairs, and eventually—more especially if the Americans withdraw from Europe—defence as well. The Parliament must be given some real part to play in the formation of policy and with some control over the Commission. For its part, the Court should, by one means or another, be assured that its decisions are duly observed by all concerned. It will take time for all this to be done, but we should press strongly for it to come about as quickly as possible. With all this in mind, we can surely wish the Government well in the all-important negotiations on which they are about to embark. Undoubtedly, all but a small minority will applaud them if they return with two treaties signed by all concerned. But a similar majority will be filled, I fear, with gloom and 1179 apprehension if, for any reason, they fail—especially if they are found to be in a minority of one. The opportunity for far-reaching decisions, taken in common, is approaching, and they must rise to a great occasion. § 5.20 Lord Aldington My Lords, it is always a pleasure to speak after the noble Lord, Lord Gladwyn, whose experience of these issues extends over so many years. The subject of this debate was covered by two reports of the Select Committee. One report was produced by a sub-committee I chaired and another, more legal report, was produced by the sub-committee chaired by the noble and learned Lord, Lord Oliver. Both reports were welcomed. I stand by the principles and opinions of both reports. Our report, published in 1990, warned against the use of the word "federalism". It came out against a federalist approach and for a step-by-step approach. At the outset of my remarks I wish to say that I support unreservedly the stance taken by the Prime Minister and the Foreign Secretary. That stance was admirably expressed to us by my noble friend Lord Waddington this afternoon. I express my warmest admiration for the way in which the Prime Minister and the Foreign Secretary have handled the negotiations so far, and for the way in which they have kept us in this House and those in another place fully informed. As I support their stance, I shall not make any proposals on any detailed matters they may be negotiating. However, I shall make some general observations. Through my attendance at meetings of European affairs committees of the 12 parliaments and through my visits to a number of our partner countries in the course of Select Committee business, I have been able to form a worm's eye view, as it were, of the problems facing the negotiators. That experience has shown me all too clearly the divergent and often emotional demands and arguments of some—not all—of the parliamentary representatives of other member states. That worm's eye view has given me a chance of understanding the problems that have faced our negotiators better than I understood them in the past. There is the confusion between the fine and historic visions of the future they want for Europe and the practical requirements as regards the choice of what further advances towards political union should be put into the treaty this year. There is the matter of the acceptance of catchwords such as "federal" and "democratic deficit" without working out what the words and concepts mean. I have still to meet any champion of the federal aim today who is ready to say now that his country should give up its international sovereignty and its seat in the United Nations. I have not met all that many enthusiasts for passing joint control of legislative powers to the European Parliament who understand where democratic control of Community legislation lies today; namely, in national parliaments with the European Parliament playing an important but not dominant part in co-operation and other processes. 1180 The fact is that some national parliaments have had little information about Council proceedings and still less say, until quite recently. It is no wonder that Britain has found it difficult to explain our preference for the European Parliament controlling the Commission and not the Council. It is all so logical to us because we believe that the Council is the key decision maker in the Community, and has to be in the foreseeable future. My noble friend referred to the proposals—the Prime Minister has described these proposals—to give the European Parliament much greater powers in other respects. That is a good measure and I support it. It seems to me obvious that the best way to build up unity of thought and action in the Community is by voluntary consensus on policy within the Council. That seems so obvious that I have mistakenly underestimated the force of those who seek to impose unity in policy, as well as in action, by majority vote. I do not understand how it can be supposed that Britain, or for example France, Germany or Italy, can be expected to face a situation in which their foreign ministers, having said that course A in foreign policy is right and course B is wrong, and can then be forced to tell their parliaments, "We have been outvoted and are now required on a vital foreign policy issue to do exactly what we think is wrong". What better way of provoking later Balkanisation of the Community! We have been right to feel our way in the advance towards closer political union. The whole Community has been right up to date in eschewing definitions of the form of union it seeks. The noble Lord, Lord Jenkins of Hillhead, in giving evidence to the Select Committee on 28th June 1990 said: I think we will always be travelling towards rather than arriving at political union … I do not myself envisage it as likely and probably not desirable that we should move towards a complete common polity in the sense the United States is". I agreed with that view, as did the Select Committee. I believe that most noble Lords also agree with it. It would seem to me an enormous mistake in a fast changing world—as the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, said, there is so much we do not know—for the Community to depart from its known, steady, step by step advance which has proved so right in the 35 years since its establishment. However, it would be as serious a mistake to take no forward steps now when quite obviously there is need for more parliamentary control of the Commission's activity, including the implementation of the Council's decisions. There should be more parliamentary control by the European Parliament; a better understanding of the Council's work—more open explanation—more co-operation between individual members of the European Parliament and members of national parliaments; better implementation of laws and decisions of the European Court of Justice and the modernisation of other institutions' powers among other things. I wish to make a few remarks about economic and monetary union where there is also a need for further progress. That objective has been agreed by all member states since 1972. It has been encouraging to watch the success of British Ministers in working with 1181 others to steer the monetary union negotiations into sensible practical channels. The immediate need is for agreement on Stage 2 and the preparatory arrangements for the next stage, whenever that may be and whatever it may consist of. That there is broadly such agreement, as I understand it, is a tribute to the Chancellor of the Exchequer among others. In our EMU and PU report—as it is known—last year we were anxious to ensure that British Ministers took a full and effective part in the discussions about Stage 2 and the preparations for the next stage, whenever that should be. They appear to have achieved that. The noble Lord, Lord Thomson of Monifieth, said we could not influence such preparations. I do not view the matter that way. I do not view the draft treaty that way. I believe that we can and will influence preparations at the right time. Like my noble friend Lord Cockfield I am fully persuaded—whatever my views are on the single currency, which I shall discuss later—that it is right for Britain and indeed for everyone to have the right to delay the decision on whether, as well as when, to embark on a single currency until nearer the time when such a great change is practical. It is much easier to understand the advantages of a single currency at the right time than it is to appreciate the problems of creating the currency and its mechanisms and the full potential of the problems that could be caused to any nation whose economy was not ready for monetary union. Both those problems can be underrated. On the other hand, I believe that the advantages of a single currency to all members of a single market cannot be overrated. I certainly do not believe that Britain could be a successful member of the single market and not be in the single currency union from the outset. That is my view and it is the view of a number of people who are more knowledgeable than I am. However, at present it is not the view of the other place, nor of my noble friend Lord Joseph and many other noble Lords, or of Mr. Benn and others. Some of the reasons for those people taking a different view are political and some are economic. In those circumstances I agree that it would have been quite wrong for the Prime Minister to have accepted any commitment for Britain beyond Stage 2. As I have said before, I do not agree with those who say that that prejudices our ability to influence later events. There is plenty of time to debate the economic and political advantages and problems of a single currency before it would be wise to take a decision in the Community. Those questions can quite properly be resolved several years on. At Maastricht there are other more immediate problems to be resolved. I remain optimistic that they will be resolved. Like other noble Lords I very much hope that they will be resolved. It is very important that they should be but it is equally important that we should not give our backing to going along the wrong road. I say that I am optimistic because our Prime Minister and Foreign Secretary are being listened to once again. Once again we are accepted as full Europeans. That is due most of all to the Prime 1182 Minister's personal commitment, the position which he has won with his fellow heads of government and the support which he commands in our country. § 5.33 p.m. Baroness Ewart-Biggs My Lords, my noble friend is probably right; but when Mrs. Thatcher asked for a referendum it made a great impact. I should like to make three points. First, what would happen if we availed ourselves of the draft EMU treaty's opt-out clause and signed the treaty, retaining the right to decide whether we want a single currency? My noble friend Lord Callaghan gave some reasons why we may be obliged to do that. However, it should be recognised that the sacrifices that we would make would be very great. Such action would place Britain fairly and squarely in the second 1183 division. If we eventually decided not to join a monetary union which went ahead without us, there would be an adverse effect on inward investment into Britain and a likely loss of influence on the development of the EMU. Further—and crucially—how could we expect to make the City of London the financial centre of the Community when we were outside a single currency? Therefore, as my noble friend Lord Callaghan pointed out, there would be considerable problems if we did not sign that treaty. Perhaps the Minister will specify what the Government will do if our European Community partners form a monetary union and Britain remains outside that structure even though convergence is achieved. The noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, gave his interpretation. I hope that the outcome will not be as bad as that suggested by my noble friend Lord Tonypandy—that we would become the 51st state. Many people are not convinced by the economic arguments for EMU. We have heard many of them today. However, surely there is still a great deal to be negotiated. The question is whether Britain will have any serious influence on events after Maastricht if, as William Keegan wrote in the Observer yesterday, we remain beyond the boundary as the permanent twelfth man of Europe. As was also pointed out in the Observer yesterday, at the bottom line lies that 50 dollar question: where else is there for us to go? There has been no suggestion of that in the debate today. I should like to reiterate the Labour Party's view on the matter. The party is in favour in principle of progress towards economic and monetary union and an eventual single currency. However, it believes that economic monetary union must involve members working towards real economic convergence, not just on inflation but on policies to produce sustained growth. My noble friend Lord McCarthy made that very clear. My second point concerns closer co-ordination of European foreign policy. I shall take the topical and tragic events in Yugoslavia to illustrate the need for that. What happened in Dubrovnik shows why we hope aid pray that Maastricht works. There are two reasons for that. First, if European member states had co-ordinated their foreign policies regarding the situation in Yugoslavia, they might not have sent such conflicting messages to Yugoslavia and so avoided the incorrect assumptions made by the different factions in that conflict. Secondly, what has happened points to the need to widen Europe. But how can we widen it without first deepening it via a closer economic and monetary union and the co-ordination of foreign policy? We cannot possibly envisage absorbing the countries that have already been mentioned—Sweden, Norway and Austria—and the eventual involvement of Eastern European countries, together with Russia and various of its republics, without first developing a consistently co-ordinated foreign policy among member states. A vital element in that foreign policy should be to put into practice an idea of the previous French Minister of Justice, M. Badinter; namely, to establish a permanent European Community arbitration commission so that in future we could put conciliation 1184 procedures in place before a conflict got under way. Maastricht gives Europe the opportunity to deepen before it has to face the challenge of widening eastwards. I sometimes wonder whether that becomes clear in British debate which so often seems to be dominated by the most parochial conception of our national interests. My final point, which has already been made today, relates to democracy. Members of another place are bound to equate democracy with British parliamentary sovereignty, but the general public may wonder whether democracy might also mean accountable European institutions and, above all, an elected European Parliament with real powers to control and review the decisions of the Council and the Commission. I was happy to hear the noble Lord, Lord Waddington, state in detail the reforms envisaged. He realises that we would like to go a little further and that we favour the European Parliament being given the power to initiate legislation and to enjoy some form of co-decision with the Council of Ministers. Co-decision would in effect give a degree of legislative power to the European Parliament at the expense of the Commission. That would have a balancing effect on the different powers of those institutions. In conclusion, I am not a born-again European which I understand the Conservatives are calling my colleagues in the House of Commons. Ten years ago I made my maiden speech in your Lordships' House on Britain's position in Europe. I still believe what I said then; namely, that Britain's position in Europe is of great interest and importance to the people of Britain and to the people of Europe as a whole. § 5.43 p.m. Lord Rippon of Hexham I hope to arrive in heaven and I hope that some things will happen after that. My vision of moving forward is a movement toward an every closer union of the peoples of Europe. I do not see that it is necessary to define it much further than that. It is a process to which we must all freely agree at every stage. The goal of European monetary union is clearly of immense importance. As many speakers have pointed out, our response to it may well determine whether our industry thrives or whether we lose London's pre-eminence in financial markets to Frankfurt or Paris. As with NATO and the Western European Union—still, I believe, the basis of our European defence—or any other treaty, we have to surrender a degree of sovereignty. We are not considering some academic concept of sovereignty. We have freely pooled sovereignty in the past whenever we thought that it was in our common interest. I have no doubt that we shall do so again—I hope after Maastricht, but if not I am sure that there will be many more summit conferences in the years ahead. Sometimes we expect too much from them and are needlessly disappointed. I shall be content if some substantial progress is made on this occasion. Above all, I agree with those speakers who emphasised that we must not lose our vision of a truly united Europe. We must be practical and pragmatic. But though we have our feet on the ground we can still look at the stars. I only add that we must watch our step and not try to go too fast; otherwise Europe, like me, may fall flat on its face and break an arm in four places. I am confident that the Prime Minister and the Foreign Secretary will successfully keep their balance and that at Maastricht they will serve both this country and Europe well. § 6 p.m. Lord Harris of High Cross My Lords, it is a pleasure to follow the noble Lord, Lord Rippon, who spoke in such rollicking form. I have no hesitation in agreeing emphatically that the Community should give more priority to completing the market, and that it should be more outward-looking, as the noble and learned Lord said. I confess to mixed feelings in finding so much with which to agree in the previous speeches. For 40 years I have enjoyed engaging in economic disputation as a substitute for physical exercise. When I find so much to agree with, I think that I must re-examine my own view. It was 1189 heartening to hear the noble Lords, Lord Cockfield and Lord Callaghan, candidly expressing in much the same words a lack of enthusiasm for political union. Having heard the very clear speech of the Leader of the House, I am still left with a mystery about Maastricht which deepens as the fateful day draws near. The question that I keep asking is this: what positive, substantial benefits are Her Majesty's Government seeking for Britain in return for the endless and dangerous concessions that our European partners will never cease to demand from us? Until last Wednesday I did not believe that the Prime Minister had been very forthcoming. Indeed, his reticence prompted a magisterial Euro-sceptic leader in The Times last Wednesday which stated that the "stark difference" between them was that Margaret Thatcher "knew where she wanted to lead her country and did not care who else knew it"; and that John Major "appears less sure and is certainly less frank". However, since last Wednesday almost all has been revealed. In a 45 minute oration, the Prime Minister drew up the battle lines: he would never agree to a federal vocation; he opposed conceding more power to the European Parliament beyond monitoring the Commission; he rejected Community interference with our health and education policy; he was against extending the competence of the Brussels Commission; he rejected the more or less indiscriminate extension of qualified majority voting, especially on the mountain of mischief lurking beneath the innocent-sounding "social dimension"; he opposed the subordination of British foreign policy and national defence to the vagaries of the European Council; and, finally, for the foreseeable future he did not want Britain committed to monetary union. What positively does he want? The only tangible benefit that he claimed in his speech came from Britain's membership of "the world's largest single market". I entirely agree with that. But surely this is our dear old forgotten friend the European Economic Community, now more or less banished from polite conversation and, as I understand, a forbidden reference in Hansard. Beneath all the cross-talk about IGCs, successive Luxembourg and Dutch drafts, endless negotiations and photo opportunities, the British Government want nothing more from Maastricht. What they crave above all is an agreement. I fear that this craving will cost us, and indeed Europe, dear. Style and semantics apart, Mr. Major's judgment on the main issues is now revealed as not so very different from that of Mrs. Thatcher. All that remains in doubt is whether he can summon up her candour and courage to see the matter through. The plain fact seems to me that we have a stage-managed political circus coming up at Maastricht. It is a distraction from our greater priority of completing the single market which was brilliantly conceived five or six years ago, by the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield. More seriously, it is a tragic diversion from the Bruges vision of preparing to open that market to the liberated countries of Eastern Europe. The noble Baroness, Lady Ewart-Biggs, said that we must deepen the 1190 Community before we widen it. My anxiety is that in the name of deepening it we shall make it more difficult for other less developed economies to join. The Euro-summitry shows that Britain's overriding aim is damage limitation. The Euro-swells talk of a new dawn, a noble European vision. I do not mind that in the long run. However, the unalluring reality here and now smacks more of murky wheeling and dealing to conjure up a bogus consensus that conceals a fundamental and quite honourable conflict of principles. The familiar Foreign Office strategy is to see how little it must concede to federal folly, how little damage it will risk to long-term British interests and how little appeasement it must offer to the ceaseless importunities of the Euro-zealots. All that, my Lords, is in the cause of keeping at the centre of Europe and on board that ghost train being driven recklessly by people such as Jacques Delors in a direction that few Ministers and not many previous speakers wish to travel. My conundrum for the Euro-élitists who now head all three parties, is this. How can we give a positive lead to nations hellbent on travelling in the wrong direction? I give two examples. First, the present draft treaty enables our partners to impose on us a social programme that among other mischief restores trade union power, enforces minimum wage and holiday requirements, lays down maximum full-time and part-time hours, days and week-ends, only stopping short—for the time being—at prescribing a uniform European bedtime. Yet free trade, which we uphold, depends on differences in costs and circumstances. Free competition and mobility includes choice between alternative jurisdictions. The single market requires the removal of existing obstacles, not the erection of new ones. Labour supporters such as the noble Lord, Lord McCarthy, may like the social charter as a sly way back to the golden age of 1979. But am I guilty of what Sir Geoffrey Howe mocks as a "negative, apprehensive, fearful" approach if I claim that such policies—whatever one thinks of them—should be forever a matter for domestic debate and decision? That is surely the best type of subsidiarity. Like so much else, all that has less to do with Euro-idealism than with the brazen national interest of the stronger economies such as Germany to burden the weaker members with high labour costs, and the effort of the weaker countries such as Spain and Portugal to burden the stronger with the cost of compensating subsidies. So it is with monetary union. The Government are right to oppose membership because it is bad not only for us but for Europe. There are technical, economic reasons why a totally fixed exchange rate is inappropriate for a Europe of economies at differing stages of development, with differing structures, differing rates of growth and differing degrees of flexibility that will never reach the blessed state of convergence. Nor is there any guarantee that the EMU under multi-lingual management will be as stable as the old deutschmark. The only certainty is that one currency would mean in the end one finance minister, as Nigel Lawson said, and the noble Lord, 1191 Lord Joseph, repeated today. There would be no retreat to national moneys when things go wrong, as assuredly they would. The impatience of some partners to join up is based on conflicting or inconsistent aims. For example, in Germany it is to avoid inflation; in France and Italy, it is to avoid deflation; and with Spain and others there is the never-ending prospect of subsidies. Since it is a doomed and costly experiment, why should we sign at Maastricht on condition that we are left out? But we are still left in to pay towards the perpetual subsidies for the worst affected regions. Such doubts held by leading independent, liberal economists throughout Europe are held with the same vigour that I am perhaps displaying. Noble Lords will find them attached to a ringing declaration in the latest paper of the Bruges Group which I strongly commend to your Lordships. Last Wednesday the Prime Minister concluded his speech on the Community by saying simply; The goals were democracy, prosperity and stability in Europe The means were the creation of a single market in goods and services".—[Official Report, Commons, 20/11/91; col. 280.] I agree 100 per cent. with that formulation. I am going to make a suggestion to the Prime Minister that the next time he makes a speech and wants to ring the changes, he should quote Adam Smith who said 215 years ago: Were all nations to follow the liberal system of free exportation and free importation, the different states into which a great continent was divided would so far resemble the different provinces of a great empire". Here is our immediate priority: to combine the economic integration of free trade with the political decentralisation of self-government. Then we can extend Adam Smith's spontaneous, invisible, natural and evolving empire to an ever-widening single market. According to the Guardian poll of 14th November a clear majority of all persuasions, including the Liberal Democrats, want nothing more than completion of the market and the benefits of international free trade. It remains only for our party leaders to learn that while the spread of trade brings people together, forcing the pace on political union would only deepen the divisions among us. § 6.12 p.m. Lord Boardman My Lords, perhaps I may move on to that. If the noble Lord will wait a moment, I will deal with that because I attach much importance to that point. Another factor that would arise with a central bank is that it would have hold and control of the gold and foreign reserves of all the central banks of the nation states who are members, just as the Bank of England does today in holding the reserves to support sterling. My noble friend Lord Joseph made reference to that in his speech. I believe that these essential parts of the central bank—that is to say, fixing interest rates, fiscal policy and the holding of 1193 reserves, are components which are essential to a European central bank with the responsibility for controlling inflation and achieving stability. We well know about the relationship between those factors in our own economy; namely, the control of inflation, interest rates and fiscal matters which are issues which we debate in this House from time to time. There is the further point to achieve the essential convergence and to keep it. That is needed in order that the nation states can be members of a single currency. That will mean very large transfers of aid from the richer to the poorer countries. It will be a multiple of the aid which is provided under the present EC structural funds at the present time. Prosperous economies such as that of the United Kingdom and the businesses in it, will have to provide the resources to build up the economies of poorer nations, such as Greece and others. The result will be a massive and permanent transfer of authority and resources—and to whom? The noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn of Penrhos, raised the question of who is to be responsible for the appointment of the governor and officials of that central bank. Who will be responsible for hiring and firing them? As I understand it, the draft treaty states that they must not be political appointments and that I understand. If that is so, how are the appointments to be made? I was told by a member of the European Parliament that they will be appointed by agreement between the 12 nation states with the approval of the European Parliament. I await with interest to see how that is to be achieved. We read about the 364 economists in this country, at one time writing on how the European economic policy should he conducted. Imagine multiplying that factor throughout the various nation states. There are those who quote the Bundesbank as being the ideal example of political independence from the state. I remind those who make that argument of what happened when the basis of the exchange rate between the East German ostmark and the deutschmark had to be resolved. It was not resolved by the politically independent Bundesbank; the decision was not that of Karl Otto Pöhl, the governor of the Bundesbank. The decision was made by Chancellor Kohl and the German Government. It was they who said what the rate should be, with rather serious consequences on the economy of Germany in the short term. So much for the political independence of the Bundesbank. A single currency within Europe may well evolve. I am not saying that it is unattainable over time but I am saying that that time is not now. We should not forget the larger world outside Europe. We must not believe that Europe contains all our trading relations, political allies and economic enemies. The larger world outside will have its own currencies. We shall still have to contrast and compare ourselves with the dollar and the yen. With a single currency, instead of Wall Street and Tokyo looking to London to make an assessment of pounds sterling, they will have to cast their eyes to that rather more mixed bag which will evolve under the contemplated arrangements. 1194 I believe that the Prime Minister and the Government are taking those points fully into account. I support their refusal to accept a single currency at this stage. I believe that they are right to reserve the right to opt in later if we wish. I shall not develop that argument because it has been discussed earlier and will no doubt be discussed again later. As regards a referendum, I believe strongly that the issues which we are debating here should be decided by the long established parliamentary democracy of which we are part. In my view a referendum would be inappropriate and would be an erosion of the sovereignty of Parliament which I wish to preserve. Lord Weidenfield My Lords, I shall confine myself to the notion of a common foreign policy and majority voting. If I share the Government's reluctance on the question of head counting on vital issues of foreign policy, it is not in spite of but because of a lifelong attachment to the idea of a united Europe, a Europe which sooner or later may embrace all lands between Brest and Brest Litovsk, and one day may stretch even further east. While ever closer union and continuous consultation in the fields of economic, financial, educational and social policy should be the order of the day, there are still wide gaps, too many differentiated interests in the sphere of the foreign policies of Europe's nations, varying priorities and, hence, still scope for independent initiatives within the wider context of European or western values and standards. Had M. Delors had his say at the outset of the Gulf crisis, a majority would probably have voted for concessions to Saddam Hussein. He may have been allowed to keep the islands, to retain his army and air force and by now he would have been further along the road to atomic autarchy. Had German unity been put to the vote, M. Delors would have pleaded, as plead he did, to find an independent birth in the Community for the desolate German Democratic Republic. Conversely, it was the bold, almost reflex, reaction of the British Government in confronting Saddam Hussein from the beginning which swayed the other European nations to follow suit with varying speed and vigour. It was the patient and wise statesmanship of Chancellor Kohl and President Gorbachev which found a peaceful formula of opening and, as it were, "greening" the frontiers between the west and east of Europe. As regards the Yugoslav tragedy, the groping and fumbling for a well-nigh unanimous solution has thwarted important initiatives and has lost us invaluable time as well as human lives. Had Germany and Italy—members of the Community—and Austria (certainly the next in line for membership) been encouraged to follow their first impulse to recognise the sovereignty of Slovenia and Croatia last summer, I submit that the implicit consequences would have deterred the Serbian soldiery and might have saved Vukovar from being razed to the ground and Dubrovnic from being turned into a Venetian ruin. With the Community expanding in stages to 14, 17, 20 or more than 25 ultimately eligible members, and as many languages, we may have to think realistically and imaginatively about how a future Europe could be 1195 run. We may find unity through diversity and not see consensus turn into sluggish compromise, conforming to a kind of Gresham's Law where the basest currency of mean appeasement or masterly inactivity drives out principles, moral values and cherished ideals. The process of European unity in the field of harmonising foreign policy must not be artificially hastened. As I said, there is much more to be done to intensify co-operation in many other fields. There is much need for a deeper understanding of how we perceive our neighbours and how they perceive themselves. If Maastricht, as some have pointed out, is the moment of truth, it is also the moment for plain speaking. Whence derives the feverish drive to settle European institutions so hastily? The Dutch president speaks for one of the smaller nations which, not unnaturally, prefers a system in which it has equal weight with the towering big four or five, as we shall soon include the growing Spanish power. However, the driving force is France—the France of Mitterrand. France seems to be in search of a dominant role in the councils of Europe. It seeks that role through Brussels where the prevailing ethos, the style of leadership of the bureaucracy, is largely influenced by France and reflects the vision of her president. Here is the brilliant, complex, volatile leader whose words, deeds, initiatives and coups de théâtre straddle four centuries of French history; who in his diurnal round echoes the purple eminences of the 17th century and the haughty despot; of the 18th century; the grand visions of the first Napoleon and the buildings of the third Napoleon who, at some moment, joins in spirit the marchers to the Bastille, and at others steps into the shoes of his great gaunt predecessor who more than anyone else moulded the 20th century for France. All those policies and gestures are neatly knotted together by two twin threads: distrust of America and fear of Germany. To marginalise American influence in the fields of foreign policy and defence and to tie Germany to a central institution in which France has a disproportionate weight are accordingly the two primary aims of France's political endeavour. Is that in the national interests of ourselves or Europe? It should be Britain's primary aim to have the closest relations with Germany and Italy and to widen the Franco-German axis which admittedly, when functioning fairly, is the greatest achievement of European history in the half century behind us. However, we should widen it into a close-knit three or four power relationship of growing intimacy and intensive partnership. The Germans are backing the French designs with overt enthusiasm but there must also be misgivings. Germany has an abiding desire to keep America well inside Europe. However, there is also that uncanny doubt which Germany has about her identity. There is the German fear of herself and the wish to allay mistrust and banish the ghosts of the past. To that end the Germans have been ready to overlook some French sorties and sallies. Did not Mitterrand, as the only western statesman, fly to east Berlin and counsel Herr Modrow to reassert the position of the DDR? Did he not fly to Kiev to persuade President 1196 Gorbachev to go slow on German unification or plead in Prague with President Havel to set up a new French inspired cordon sanitaire at Germany's eastern border? The Germans have proved that they can be relied upon. They have a functioning democracy and a sense of responsibility. Their challenge and opportunity in eastern and south eastern Europe are enormous and they are destined to play a leading part in years to come in the rehabilitation process in that part of the Continent. In my view, Britain should be an active partner and should develop ever closer ties with Europe's central power, not at the expense of others but with a single-minded vigour and conviction. There are dangerous portents of political radicalism and inter-communal strife all around us, near and far. That is undeniable. However, we can work with the new Germany to build a better Europe. It is worth the risk but it also requires a new trusting state of mind. If anything can rouse some of the dormant demons in German society, it is a blinkered and prejudiced approach. Only if our Monday Club men go on hissing "Hun", our media Cassandras whisper "Fourth Reich", and defeatist manufacturers go on crying "Wolfsberg" is there a remote chance of prophecies fulfilling themselves. In conclusion, the great variety of traditions and well-tried institutions in Europe need not be an impediment to the unity that we who call ourselves convinced Europeans desire so much. On the contrary, they can be the building blocks not for an unhistorical Europe of cantons; not even for a Federal United States of Europe, but for a United Europe of States which, in the fullness of time, will grow together indissolubly. § 6.30 p.m. Baroness Platt of Writtle My Lords, I must first apologise that I shall not be able to stay to the end of the debate, as I have duties elsewhere. However, I have found the contributions from those far more expert than I most interesting and informative. The debate has shown the House at its best. We are already part of Europe. We signed the Treaty of Rome. Today's arguments are about the pace of change towards a united Europe whatever that may mean, who is to be invited to join, and in which fields we should progress most rapidly. I count myself as British first but also a European. I stayed with a kind and educative French family when I was in my early teens and would describe myself as a Francophile, although their Europeanism today comes into question when they "return to our moutons" in a most unco-operative way. My brother-in-law is Italian and I belong to a county council that has close connections with the Landkreis of Ludwigsburg in Germany. When one visits Holland or Denmark one feels a deep sense of old and long-standing alliances and friendships. However, I agree with my right honourable friend the Foreign Secretary that Europe is interfering more and more in every nook and cranny of national life. We do not need nannying about planning from Brussels. When I travel in Europe I am pleased to meet 1197 variety; to enjoy the idiosyncrasies and variety of national habits. French saucisson, German wurst and Italian salami are all delicious. But I am still pleased to come back to British "bangers and beans". And we certainly do not need a European sausage. My impression is that too many initiatives come from civil servants cocooned from ordinary people in bureaucratic palaces of administration in Brussels. Democratic control from elected members and governments, who are much closer to people's feelings and beliefs, must continue to prevent theory from taking over. I was glad to hear the proposals of my noble friend the Leader of the House on that subject today. Subsidiarity must be based on practical possibilities acceptable to people of each country unless international harmonisation is absolutely essential. As chairman of the Equal Opportunities Commission for five years I was grateful for the influence of the Treaty of Rome in this country in securing progress in equal opportunities between men and women. However, as a member of a European advisory committee on the subject, some of the papers we received were far too abstract and theoretical and we did not adopt them. For too long Europe has been torn apart by succeeding "war war". Now we must pursue the alternative policy of "jaw jaw". At times that can be frustrating and, to the impatient, slow. However, I believe that it is the only way. Rome was not built in a day. In circumstances such as these, impatience leads to hasty and ill-prepared decisions which will create a backlash—literally, more haste less speed. Nevertheless, in a spirit of give and take we must all remember our common heritage—Christianity, love of music, drama and the arts, reliance on science and mathematics, our common humanity and a proper respect for individual freedom. We have much to share for our common good. Patience and perseverance in the search for acceptable common policies must be the name of the game—a step-by-step policy as described earlier by my noble friend the Leader of the House—if we are to succeed in coming closer together. As a great supporter of the right honourable Margaret Thatcher as Prime Minister, I do not agree with her demand for a referendum. These subjects are far too complex for simple straight votes by ordinary laymen and women, among whom I count myself. We would find it extremely difficult properly to take into account all the factors involved. As a European I fully support the Prime Minister in his rejection of that idea and also in his policy of patient negotiation, but at the same time his strong stance for sovereignty for Britain where necessary. He has a difficult task needing all his undoubted carefully balanced judgment. I wish him well at Maastricht. § 6.36 p.m. Lord Ardwick My Lords, my noble friend Lady Ewart-Biggs spoke of the opinion polls and their negative attitude towards the European Community and its present intentions. That is a serious matter. 1198 There is a wide difference between the views of the three major political parties and those of the general public. In 1975 the Prime Minister announced that in the referendum the nation had voted overwhelmingly to remain in the European Community. "And now", he said, "an end has come to 14 years of controversy". We all agreed with Prime Minister Wilson and most of us were relieved, for the controversy was not always edifying. It was fed on one side by Utopian hopes and promises, and on the other by bizarre threats and dire prophecies. It was feared that there were risks to the status of the Queen. There was a fear that we should be turning our backs on 1,000 years of history and we might even be renouncing our language—the language of Chaucer. No longer could we ask our friends what would happen, Whan that Aprille with his shoures sote The droghte of Marche hath perced to the rote". All that would be over if we remained in Europe. And all the barmy proposals made to the Commission by pressure groups in Brussels, or the daft ideas of some junior busybodies working for the Commission would be reported and broadcast as if they were the solid intentions of the Commission. A moment ago it was said that one could not distinguish fact from fiction. We all remember the claim that Bristol Cream Sherry could no longer be sold under that label because it contained no milk fats. Political fears were also raised. The Community was a rich man's club led by Roman Catholics, all too ready to exploit the innocent and guileless British. Even stronger was the view of some of the far Left, that the Community was a cold war instrument supported by the Americans, designed to keep Europe split into two so that Western capitalism could be free from Communist contamination. It is true that much of that nonsense disappeared after the referendum. But some of it stayed around. Since the nation reached what was presumably the final decision, 16 years have passed and a new generation are now hearing some of the old warnings against largely imaginary dangers. That is partly responsible for the opinion polls today. Only this weekend a former Cabinet Minister referred to our fellow Europeans, our colleagues in the Community, as "foreigners", and the former Prime Minister thought it useful to remind us that, unlike other countries, Britain is surrounded by water. It has been said recently more than once that we are to be enticed into an abominable federation and to lose our national distinction for all time in a United States of Europe. So, my Lords, some people—including a lot of Conservatives—are proposing a referendum because they believe that we should reject the Treaty of Maastricht, though what would happen to us and the Community, with which we do over 50 per cent. of our foreign trade, they do not say, but they believe that the result of a referendum would be negative. How has this grown up? It is partly the result of membership of the Community being used as a political card in the internal politics of the United Kingdom. This has fostered throughout the nation 1199 much suspicion of the Community. This Government have done a lot of good things in Europe, and of course signed the Single Act , that most important European gesture. Nevertheless they have chosen to appear to the electors to be the more sceptical member of the Community, the most aggressive, the most nationalistic. And my own party, until quite recently, has played into Conservative hands by its cold hostility or even total opposition. We have always had in the Labour Party a European wing, to which I have always belonged. But the Labour voices heard most frequently and most vehemently in the European debates in another place have been highly critical of the Community. The Liberals can be proud of their consistent support, but it has had little effect on their fortunes or on the public attitude to the European question. Now for virtuous but ill-advised reasons, which I did not understand even when the noble Lord, Lord Thomson, was explaining them today, they are proposing a referendum. It is of course true that what is now proposed, a single currency and closer political union, is as great a leap for its members as was the original act of joining the Community. It is a solemn moment in history and the proposals need to be authoritatively explained and deeply discussed. Surely the Government must show more enthusiasm for the general idea and sound a clarion call to the nation, for there is no doubt about the objectives but only about the means of their achievement. It was a calm, reasoned and rather good speech that the Prime Minister made last week. I thought it was a perfect House of Lords speech rather than a House of Commons speech. But it was designed to cool the party, not to enthuse the nation. He did not explain why he wants to be able to back Maastricht and what its consequences might be. He did not calculate the costs nor estimate the benefits. His party is too frail at this moment for such a vigorous exercise, seeking to deal with an obstinate recession and to hold at bay the discarded mistress of its current economic and social troubles. This criticism of the coldness of the Prime Minister—or should I say the coolness of the Prime Minister—has been made by my own party, but its own enthusiasm is too recent and too unexpected to move the nation. Indeed, it has not yet had a noticeable effect upon our own prominent sceptics. Alas, too, this debate has been more of a precursor to the general election than to the Maastricht agreement. I am talking not about the debate in this House but about the general debate in the country. It is sad indeed that the problem has to be discussed at this moment in the electoral cycle. The great historic events in Europe also complicate the issue. Prosperous countries from the European Free Trade Area are ringing at the front door for admission to the Community, and the new democracies in the East are knocking at the back door and pining for the day when they become associate members. The political side of Maastricht is further complicated by the changes in the role of NATO and the need for the Community to have not a defence policy—for that is NATO's job—but a security policy. 1200 We must take care not to underestimate the difficulties of advancing towards a single currency and political unity. We have heard some important speeches on that subject from expert people in this Chamber tonight. The criteria proposed for adequate economic convergence are simple, but they will require a stricter discipline than some countries might be able or politically willing to enforce. But closer union must come if the powerful German nation and the rest of us are to live easily and happily together. I am most thankful that my party, in the words of one of its senior spokesmen, has come to recognise that the choice for Britain, and France too, is shared sovereignty or no sovereignty, shared influence in Europe or no influence, shared power or no power at all. The danger some people fear of a United States of Europe on the American model with a European all-powerful Washington is a most improbable danger, but the danger of a disintegrated Europe is one to be feared and avoided. § 6.47 p.m. Lord Campbell of Alloway My Lords, I agree with the noble Lord, Lord Ardwick. It is unfortunate that it appears that the party to which he adheres and the party to which I adhere tend to give the impression of using this subject as a political card. There are some other matters that the noble Lord mentioned with which I cannot agree. The main burden of my speech is to support the approach of my right honourable friend the Prime Minister as reported in the Official Report of the other place and as explained by my noble friend the Leader of the House today. I stand by the views expressed by many speakers, including my noble friend Lord Aldington. If my noble friend Lord Boardman is satisfied that the Government have taken into full account the problems of monetary union, as other noble Lords have also stated, that is good enough for me. And if the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, supported by other noble Lords, is satisfied that the Government have taken into full account the problems of political union, that again is good enough for me. It is also the burden of this speech to remind Ministers at Maastricht, and the money markets of the world, that under the aegis of my right honourable friend the Prime Minister decisions of government are a true reflection of the composite wisdom of the Cabinet. We in your Lordships' House should consider all differences in a calm, objective fashion, establish a little more confidence and seek to stabilise the currency so that the negotiations get off to a good start unencumbered by what my noble friend Lord Carrington once described as "foghorn diplomacy". Our destiny lies assuredly with the Economic Community, as it continues to expand by accession or association—in whatever form it may assume, a form as yet not known—so long as in this process of give and take, referred to by my noble friend the Leader of the House, a form of constitutional government under the Queen in Parliament and a substantial measure of residual sovereignty is retained by the state. There are proposals on the table for extending the powers of the Commission and the European Parliament and for 1201 extraneous extensions of qualified majority voting beyond what is already established. If implemented these proposals could reduce the powers and status of the Mother of Parliaments to that of a local authority council chamber. If once our frontiers were on the Rhine, they now march with those of all other member states in the Community, a Community which we have no wish to divide and no claim to rule, a Community in which the states retain their sovereign status and individuals retain their national identities, a Community committed to establishing closer union between the peoples of Europe. The concept of this closer union among the peoples of Europe is not new. Sir Winston Churchill said at The Hague in 1948 that we need not waste time about who originated the concept of a united Europe. We may yield, he said, our pretensions to King Henry of Navarre and to his minister, Sully, who between 1600 and 1607 laboured to set up a permanent committee of the leading Christian states of Europe. It was called the Grand Design. As Sir Winston truly said, we are all, after this long passage of time, servants of that Grand Design. But the process leading gradually to a union with a federal goal, however worded in the draft treaty, would establish a new federal European order. As the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, rightly said, we are not ready for it, and it is not sufficiently worked out. We may take note that, as soon as the ink was dry on the signatures of the Six, a debate arose between those who wished to have a federal structure and those who did not. The debate continues today, not having been resolved in favour of federalism either by the Treaty of Rome or by the Single European Act. We may also take note that the noble and learned Lord, Lord Oliver of Aylmerton, advised that the wording of the draft treaty in this regard is calculated to excite the highest suspicion and that the danger of employing expressions of ultimate objective opens the door to some future positive commitment. Next, one comes to my right honourable friend the Prime Minister. Surely we must take note that he, as a matter of principle, has adopted a fundamental approach which by and large appears so far to have commanded the broad approval of most speakers in this debate. I advert only to three facets of the Motion to which he spoke in another place; first, a constructive approach to economic, monetary and political union which avoids the development of a federal Europe; secondly, preservation of the right of Parliament to decide in the future whether to adopt a single currency; thirdly, the avoidance of intrusive Community measures in social and other areas which are a matter for national decision. My right honourable friend the Prime Minister has a safe pair of hands. My right honourable friend the Foreign Secretary is a skilled and tested professional diplomat. These men of calibre can surely be trusted as to whether they make a deal or do not make a deal; and if they make a deal which involves any substantial surrender of sovereignty, to respect the ballot box and the will of Parliament. I agree with my noble friend Lord Rippon that there is much to be said for 1202 ratification of any treaty on a truly free vote in another place. That is far better than a referendum which, as my noble friend Lord Boardman truly said, is erosive of Parliament and, as my noble friend Lady Platt has just said, is far too complicated for most of us to be able to understand. I include myself with her among that body of people. I have to rely on the expertise of noble Lords of the calibre of my noble friend Lord Boardman. I am not sufficiently expert in these matters to be able to know exactly what I should do. Surely on 9th and 10th December at Maastricht we shall achieve a new spirit of consensus, something to which my noble friend Lord Waddington referred, on the implementation and enforcement of Community measures and on the commitment to defeat Community fraud. Reference is made to our proposals for the Court of Auditors, a matter near and dear to the heart of the noble Lord, Lord Bruce. There will be enhanced co-operation against terrorism and all types of international crime. On defence, in an entirely new dimension, WEU will perhaps be accepted as the bridge between NATO and the European Council. No doubt other proposals for alleviating the fluctuating exchange rates which at the moment only appear to be of benefit to currency speculators are on the table for discussion. As I said, I am not competent to deal with such matters but it is a great source of comfort to think that they will be discussed in an objective and constructive manner. Last of all, something has to be done about the accountability of the Commission. There is much to be achieved in the mutual interests of all member states. For my part, I join with other noble Lords who have expressed good wishes and encouragement to both my right honourable friends on their mission to Maastricht. § 7 p.m. Lord Ezra My Lords, indeed, back to the banks. That is very pleasant for the former friends of the noble Lord, Lord Boardman, or, indeed, for his present friends. 1205 This is a serious problem. Great benefit is to be gained from the single currency proposal. I hope that the Minister will be able to explain why we have made the reservation that we have, as there are already conditions attaching to those who will be eligible to join the single currency when the time comes. I should like to conclude by repeating that I am pleased that the position taken by the Government at present is much more positive than it was previously. There are still some constraints and limitations, as the Prime Minister made clear in his speech in another place, and which were repeated and strongly supported by the noble Lord, Lord Harris of High Cross. There are those constraints and limitations, some of which I am dismayed about. Nonetheless, bearing in mind that the objective is for us to stay at the heart of Europe, and bearing in mind the great skill of our negotiators, I wish them well and every success. § 7.12 p.m. Lord Bethell My Lords, my noble friend is quite right. As a former Member of the European Parliament, he has great expertise in this matter. However, the fact is that, particularly in another place, there does not seem to be the time to tackle these questions when any decision reached by such a group could not be implemented by contact with the Commission or with the Council of Ministers. The link, the nexus, is just not there. That is where we Members of the European Parliament could help members of national parliaments. In other words, I am in favour of a Strasbourg-Westminster axis and against a Whitehall-Brussels or Whitehall-Berlaimont axis. That is how I believe the matter should be regarded. I very much hope that my noble friend the Prime Minister will take note of some of these ideas. As for the legislative side, I believe it is less important. At this stage I do not foresee much greater powers being given to the European Parliament vis-à-vis the Council of Ministers. I wish to do away with that bogyman. I believe that there should be strong powers for the Council of Ministers but not that the powers of the European Parliament should be circumscribed at every point by a non-elected body of commissioners and a large number of "Brussels bureaucrats". We should be allowed to do our job for which we were democratically elected, just as the Ministers do the job for which they were elected. I hope that this is what the Prime Minister will urge. I believe he would still have time between now and the meeting to suggest that if we are really to do our job properly and if we really are to control the men and women in the Berlaimont, who—as his right honourable friend put it—poke their noses into the nooks and crannies of our British way of life, we shall do it much more effectively if we are able to establish our base in the same city as the Commission is sited at present. It will be much easier and mere sensible if that can be done and I hope that the Prime Minister will take the point on board. I wish to echo what other noble Lords have said in truly wishing my right honourable friend well in the Herculean task that he faces over the next few days. 1208 He will be going to Maastricht with the overwhelming support of your Lordships and Members of another place. For heaven's sake, we wish him well. § 7.24 p.m. Lord Skidelsky My Lords, I offer no apology for starting with history, as did the noble Lord, Lord Weidenfeld. We are all both trapped by our history and wish to overcome it at the same time. After attending the Paris peace conference in 1919, Keynes wrote: England still stands outside Europe … Europe is apart and England is not of her flesh and body. But Europe is solid with herself". Our agonised heart-searching in the run up to Maastricht shows how much of that judgment is still true. Every move forward to greater political unity is a crisis in our politics. That is certainly not the case for other members of the Community. For Europe has conceived a project which history has taught us to fear. It is not the single market or even the single currency—I shall come to the single currency later—but the attempt to unite Western and Central Europe into a single state. There have been many attempts in the past to do this by force and we have resisted them. At present, there is an attempt to do it by agreement and we resist that. It is not just that we do not wish to be part of it, but that we do not really want it to happen at all. The noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, believes that had we not joined the Common Market the six would already have formed a political union. I think that we went in partly to prevent that from happening. Many would argue that this fear of European political unity is an out of date historical reflex, that Europe has a federal destiny and we are inescapably part of it. I do not despise reflexes—they often come in quite handy—but I am not sure that people who say this are right on either count. Federalism is only one of the institutional forms which European unity can take, and not necessarily the most attractive or relevant one. France and Germany are also trying to overcome their history and may learn by experience that the world today is very different from the world of the 1940s and the 1950s when the European project was conceived. Nor am I convinced that the best way for us to maximise our talents, our energies and our interests is to box ourselves into a new European state. The Prime Minister talks about us being at the heart of Europe. The fact is that we have been at the centre of the world but rarely at the heart of Europe. Our location precludes us from that. It is still so today and I doubt that it will ever be different. Although we are much reduced, our instinct is still to seek our fortune overseas, not on the continent. All that will change; it is already changing. But we cannot achieve in five minutes that sense of a common fate which it took two world wars—not of our making—to bring about in Europe. We have been slow to grasp the persistence of the European drive to political unity. The former Prime Minister sometimes gives the impression that, like one of the architects of Ceausescu's palace in Bucharest, she woke up every morning to find the horror of another unexpected excrescence added to that grisly 1209 structure. But there has really been no excuse for surprise. The post-war constitutions of most of the original six contain provisions for the transfer of sovereign powers to supranational bodies. So the federalist thrust was there from the start. It was deflected for a time by de Gaulle and his successors, but the competition between the four main Community institutions—theCouncil, the Commission, the Court and the European Parliament—now gives it an internal dynamic which may well prove irresistible. How should we play the hand which history has dealt us? I am as much in favour as the next person of trying to get the best of all worlds and I am not immune to European idealism. It would be extraordinary folly to cut ourselves off from the benefits of the single market and political co-operation in order to hoard a shrinking sovereignty. At the same time we must recognise that we are not nearly as ready to accept a European destiny as many, perhaps most, of the present members of the Community. This suggests to me a fourfold strategy for Maastricht and beyond. Incidentally, I have to agree with the noble Lord the Leader of the House that no strategy is needed, that we must take issues as they come. This leaves the initiative in European affairs to those who do have a strategy. As I have suggested, there are many of them. First, we should do everything in our power to slow down the pace of the advance towards federalism. That means essentially trying to limit the competence of the Community as far as possible to the economic and monetary matters defined in the Treaty of Rome and the subsequent Single European Act. Secondly, I agree completely with the noble Lord, Lord Joseph, that within that area of competence we should fight unremittingly to get the principle of subsidiarity properly defined and taken seriously. Everyone now pays lip service to it, but the Commission often issues its directives as though it had never heard of it. As Samuel Brittan has argued eloquently and frequently in the Financial Times, the enemy here is not federalism but centralisation—the urge of Brussels to interfere, under cover of health and safety, harmonisation, level playing fields and other such issues, in matters which are not its concern. We should oppose the extension of qualified majority voting to the matters contained in the social charter and we should always, with other directives issued under the qualified majority procedure, ask, "Is this required by the principle of subsidiarity?" Incidentally, I find it difficult to understand remarks made by the noble Lord, Lord McCarthy, earlier in the debate. He seemed to be arguing that subsidiarity is all very well if the Government do what he wants, but if that is not the case then Brussels should do it. I would point out to the noble Lord that the issue is not one of what one does, but of where the responsibility for doing it lies. I agreed very much with the noble Lord, Lord Harris of High Cross, when he said that healthy competition between different social systems is what is good, not a grey uniformity. 1210 Thirdly, we should do all we can to make a reality of European co-operation in defence and foreign policy. I feel that what we have lacked in the past is not a federal vocation but a European vocation, as de Gaulle, no federalist himself, never tired of pointing out. It is our uncritical Atlanticism which more than anything else has detached us from France in the past. Had we taken ideas of defence and foreign policy co-operation with the French more seriously in the 1980s we would never have been so isolated as we are today on the issue of majority voting in foreign policy. That is a classic example of how to play a strong hand badly. Fourthly, we should press hard for early widening of the Community to include Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. That is not to stop so-called deepening but because those countries urgently need the political and economic support for freedom and democracy which membership of the Community alone can give them. However, in putting that case for widening we will also expose the hollowness of some of the arguments for centralisation. I wish to say a few words about the single currency. This, like the single market, has to do with economic welfare. Our judgment should turn not on the abstract ground of sovereignty but on whether the arrangements proposed are more or less likely to promote the well-being of our people. By joining the Common Market we renounced the right to put up our own tariffs. By joining a monetary union we renounce the right to devalue, to inflate the currency or to run budget deficits at will. The serious arguments against the surrender of any of these instruments of national economic management take a Keynesian form. It is said that the capitalist economy is inherently unstable and suffers from lack of confidence, and that national governments must retain the power to protect their people from slumps. I appreciate the force of that argument although it comes, rather oddly, from Mrs. Thatcher. I should have preferred a rather looser fiscal rule. However, a perfectly good Keynesian argument can be put on the other side. Instability is largely due to uncertainty. A major cause of uncertainty since the 1970s has been the erratic way national governments have managed their economies. So rules designed to guarantee low inflation, exchange rate stability and prudent fiscal policy will tend in themselves to make economies more stable and allow for a higher level of activity by their effect in reducing the long-term interest rate. That is a prize which has eluded us for over 20 years. Time will tell whether the rules and institutions outlined in the draft treaty on economic and monetary union will work out as intended, but the risk is surely worth taking if the convergence conditions are met. Here I find some of the arguments that have been put forward in this debate a little confusing. The noble Lord, Lord Joseph, argued that economic and monetary union would lead ineluctably to central government; that a central bank would lead ineluctably to a central government. I do not see the logical connection there. Article 107 of the draft treaty states clearly: 1211 When exercising the powers and carrying out the tasks and duties conferred upon them by this Treaty … neither the ECB, nor a national central hank, nor any member of their decision-making bodies shall seek or take instructions from Community institutions or bodies, from any government of a Member State or from any other body". Does the noble Lord, Lord Joseph, believe this will not happen, or what? Where is the connection between the idea of a central bank and the inevitability of a central government? To me the independence of the central bank from political control is the most attractive thing about it. In monetary management I prefer a democratic deficit to a democratic surplus. The noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, says we need an opt-out clause because our economy may be too weak when the time comes. But that surely is a matter of the convergence conditions. If they are properly specified, no opt-out clause is necessary. The noble Lord, Lord Ezra, also asked that question. I shall be interested to hear the reply to it. If the noble Lord, Lord Harris of High Cross, believes that the economies of Europe will never converge enough to make a single currency possible, why is he so worried about us committing ourselves to it? Those are all questions that require answers. Therefore, I take a relaxed view about progress towards a single currency. We have five years to test the hypothesis that this is the best way forward and I see nothing wrong in committing ourselves to the experiment. The noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, has rightly pointed out that any British Government will have a difficult time ahead. We have a small margin for mistakes. However, if our diplomacy is skilful and resolute we have a good chance of obtaining the agreements we want. I have no doubt that in time our European, though not necessarily our federalist, vocation will grow. For those reasons I am in favour of the Government's negotiating stance for Maastricht. § 7.37 p.m. The Earl of Bessborough My Lords, I should have liked to make a separate speech about subsidiarity as it is a subject that interests me greatly. I should also have liked to make a separate speech on convergence, but I shall not do so. The noble Lord who has just spoken made some extremely interesting comments on those two subjects. I merely wish to ask: what is Europe? That is a question which a well known Italian friend of mine, Giovanni Agnelli, asks in a recent article entitled Uniting Europe through Enterprise. He points out that 2,500 years ago Herodotus offered an answer to the question. He said that Europe is one of the three parts into which the world is divided. Understandably, his view of geography was somewhat limited. History does not provide much help either. There never has been a state or political entity which could formally be called Europe. Even the European Community does not provide an answer to the Herodotus question. Too many important elements are missing. One cannot ignore the EFTA countries and the emerging democracies of Eastern Europe. Incidentally, I am glad that the European Community and EFTA are reported to be reaching agreement on 1212 creating a European economic area as a step towards full membership of the Community for the seven EFTA countries. In that connection I was particularly happy to preside recently at a luncheon in honour of the Austrian Vice-Chancellor, Erhard Busek, having also recently had talks with the Austrian ambassador in Washington on the subject of the EC and EFTA, of which Austria is a member. I hope that such a European economic area comes into being. Austria and the other EFTA countries seem keen that it should. Faced with a world order which is moving towards global dimensions, divided into large continental regions, Europe has to be united. I believe that that is an absolute necessity for our political and historical survival. As my right honourable friend the Prime Minister and my noble friend the Leader of the House have said, that does not mean rushing blindly to sign any agreement. Nor does it mean renouncing the different cultures and traditions which make up Europe's rich and varied heritage. As my right honourable friend the Prime Minister said at Blackpool, our aim should be for closer union between states, not a so-called federal merging of states. I wish that we could forget that "F" word: the "U" word (union) makes much more sense. We now have a chance to build on that, to recreate more of a European family, to construct a safe and prosperous home for European generations yet to come. To quote again what my right honourable friend the Prime Minister said, it is a chance we must not miss. As Europeans, we are, I believe, on the threshold of historic decisions. I regret having to say this, but to adopt as negative a line as my right honourable friends Mr. Tebbit and Mr. Ridley would be a disaster. I do not believe that even my right honourable friend the former Prime Minister would altogether go along with them, even if she did take on Sir Alan Walters as an adviser. However, I am glad to learn that the professor now seems to be accepting the inevitable. I am also glad that my right honourable friend Mrs. Thatcher did not vote against the Government last week. Her predecessor, my right honourable friend Mr. Heath, is the staunchest European I know. I agree with his whole stance in regard to Europe. What would we be without the Romans and Normans and many other continental invaders and refugees? From what I have said so far, your Lordships will recognise that I too am a Europhile. That is not merely because I am half French, with an American wife whose country unites so many of those of European stock, nor because my son-in-law, who is a distinguished art expert, is Greek and my niece is married to a notable Italian banker, to say nothing of having Irish, Welsh and Canadian connections and friends in every member state of the Community. I say what I have said because I believe that 2,500 years ago Herodotus was more or less right. I hope that he may prove to be so in the future and that Europe will be the second, third, or perhaps the first great power in the world. Finally, I recognise that there are considerable problems to be resolved in regard to political union 1213 and defence. However, having reflected in some detail on monetary union I can think of no reason why we should not unite with other member states in the stabilisation of currencies and aim ultimately for a single currency. That need not involve dropping the term "pound sterling" even if we also recognise the ecu—as we already do for certain transactions. I agree with what my noble friends Lord Aldington and Lord Rippon said on that subject. Both made excellent speeches. As I have said before in your Lordships' House, I believe that a single European currency will help to keep down inflation and reduce interest rates whatever the slide of sterling vis-à-vis the deutschmark may be today—and I gather that this afternoon sterling has rallied. I feel sure that the Bank of England will be able to deploy its 44 billion dollars of foreign reserves to stave off any fresh assault on the pound and avoid the need for the Government to raise interest rates to defend sterling. Surely my right honourable friend Mrs. Thatcher, whom we all respect as having been a great Prime Minister, having agreed to join the exchange rate mechanism and signed the Single European Act, must have known that those were steps on the way to accepting monetary union. I hope therefore that we shall be able to come to agreement with our 11 friends at Maastricht and not, at least at this stage, have to organise a referendum. Britain is after all itself a parliamentary democracy. As the first British vice-president of the European Parliament, and having played an active part in the 1975 referendum, I hope that the European Parliament, which is democratically elected, may have some of its powers increased. I was glad to hear what my noble friend the Leader of the House said on the subject. He went a long way towards what I consider to be the right type of solution for the European Parliament. I agreed very much with what my noble friend Lord Bethell said. I had the honour to propose him as an MEP in 1973. I have never forgotten it, and he has been a very good Member of that Parliament. I say to the Government: good luck at Maastricht! § 7.48 p.m. Lord Stoddart of Swindon My Lords, I thought that she was asking a rhetorical question but she sees it as a fact. I see it as a fact that the British people are not so much in favour of so-called integration and economic union as our continental partners and that is because, first, our institutions are different. Secondly, the ways in which people relate to those institutions and in which people in this country relate to their politicians are different. Thirdly, and perhaps most importantly, the British people were deceived 1214 and misled when we first entered the Common Market in 1972. We were not told that we were entering a form of economic union. We were told that we were entering a Common Market. During the referendum campaign, we were specifically told that economic and monetary union had been negotiated out of the treaty and that it no longer existed as a policy or as a possibility. As they were deceived at that time, the British people are therefore not as enthusiastic about further integration and unity as my noble friend would like them to be. Maastricht is now revealing the truth; namely, that this country has been led unwittingly into a position which threatens its future as a self-governing nation. Thus, in 19 short years, we have come a long way towards abandoning the institutions built up over hundreds of years to give the British people freedom, democracy and self-government. Apparently, our Government now contemplate signing a treaty that will sooner or later give away British control over economic and monetary policy and perhaps start down the road of ceding power over foreign and defence policy. That will effectively be the end of a self-governing Britain. Judging from our experience so far, our people will instead be governed by a domineering, centralising, soulless, federal super-state within which ordinary people will have little say and over which they will have no influence. People like myself and my noble friend Lord Bruce of Donington, who from the beginning have recognised the real intentions of the Euro-federalist fanatics to create a Western-European super-state, have been insulted, belittled, told that we were misleading the people when we warned of the federalism in store for Britain and have been called Little Englanders and the rest. However, we were right all along and those who did not dare to reveal their true ambitions before are now emboldened to do so. Sir Geoffrey Howe was at it again last week. He described so-called Euro-sceptics as yesterday's men. As always, like all Euro-fanatics, he stood the truth on its head. Yesterday's men are the empire-builders and centralists whose world has collapsed in chaos, recrimination and bloodshed. It is those who see the way forward to peace and stability through determined but willing co-operation between sovereign, self-governing states who are today's men and tomorrow's men, not those who wish to rebuild in Western Europe the centralist monster that has so ignominiously collapsed in Eastern Europe. During his resignation speech, Sir Geoffrey Howe said that sovereignty is not like virginity which you either have or do not have. He believes that sovereignty can be shared. That is another misleading concept. For "sovereignty", substitute "self-government". Now you see that it is like virginity: you either have it or you do not have it. If you allow your decisions to be made by a group of other people or nations voting by a majority, you have not pooled self-government; you have lost it. That is the truth of the matter. We are told, and I should like to believe it, that the Government have no intention of accepting the present proposals for political union. However, they 1215 appear quite ready to sign an agreement on economic and monetary union which would remove from the British Government and Parliament, and therefore the people, a huge tranche of self-government. They say that they will sign the treaty, but will not be bound by it for the present. However, inevitably, once in place, as we have seen time and time again, the inexorable process of economic and monetary union will move on until it envelops all the parties to the treaty within its stifling mantle. Thus, monetary policy will be exercised by a central European bank which will have snaffled all Britain's external reserves. The British Chancellor will be told how large his budget deficit may be or whether he shall have a deficit at all. Every aspect of economic and financial policy will be under the scrutiny and control of Brussels and all countries will have to conform to its diktat. It is said that the object before we attain union must be convergence but, frankly, for "convergence" we could read a form of economic fascism in which all countries have to conform, whether they can or not and regardless of their different backgrounds, to the policy of the strongest state, or else. I understand why such a system might appeal to corporatists like Mr. Heath, but I cannot understand why the Labour Party would wish to be put under such savage restraints, bearing in mind the policies that it wishes to implement. The party's change of mind appears to stem from the Single European Act which was ruthlessly imposed on Parliament and the people by Mrs. Thatcher. Labour opposed that Act because it believed that it eroded Britain's ability to govern itself. It now says, "We have gone so far; we might as well go the whole hog and hand the whole lot over to Brussels". That is not good thinking. It is like a doctor who, having given a patient some medicine which half kills him, decides to carry on prescribing the same medicine until the patient is dead. That is quite wrong. Furthermore, the Labour Party should beware lest it is accused of wishing to gain office merely to give away to others the power bestowed on it by the people, should it win the election. The issue transcends party politics. It has always been country before party and it will remain that way. I have never been prepared to be whipped on this subject in the past and I shall certainly not allow myself to be whipped in the future. That brings me to my final point; namely, the question of a referendum. Mrs. Thatcher has attracted a great deal of criticism, much of it, quite frankly, deserved. However, I find it amazing that the Conservative Party, particularly some of its senior members, should seek to stifle what she says and to tell her that she should not have free speech. I should have thought that that was wrong. It is her right and duty to speak on the subject as she believes. That is the duty of all of us. The case for a referendum in the present circumstances is quite unanswerable. I do not know at what stage it would take place. I agree with many people who have asked at what stage we should have a referendum. We should have a referendum at the stage where it is quite clear that our economic, monetary and perhaps other policies will be controlled 1216 by people other than the British Government and the British Parliament. If all the parties are agreed on a single policy, there is only one way in which the British people can have a voice in resolving what in fact would be a unified parliamentary policy; namely, by referendum. I see no reason why people should be afraid of such a referendum. I sincerely hope that all those in senior positions in all the parties will consider and reconsider the matter and that they will agree that, unless the people are given the opportunity to declare themselves, they will again be dragged reluctantly into the new arrangements by what they will consider to be a conspiracy. That would be damning for Parliament, bad for Government and bad for democracy. Let me say a final word to noble Lords and to the British people. It is not far-fetched to say that we are in danger of losing self-government. I warn that once a people loses self-government, it is a hell of a job to get it back. Therefore, before we lose it, let us make sure that the people give their consent. Better still, let us not agree to lose it at all but keep it for ourselves, for it has protected us over many hundreds of years. § 8.1 p.m. Lord Elibank My Lords, I certainly do not accept everything that Mr. Delors has said; nor do I accept the timetable that he has proposed. He has other motivation for the route that he follows. However, he is clearly on the federalist course. However objectionable that word may be, I believe that if we are looking for a convergence in Europe—or something like it—that is what will come in time. The idea of a policy of convergence sets no timetable. It may look 10 years or 100 years ahead. It is very vague. Personally, I should prefer to see an objective of convergence at approximately the same speed as the other members of the Community. That is where we are inclined to drag our feet. In our negotiations with the EC we always seem to see merit in delay, hanging on and waiting to see what might happen. That way we shall be late again. One aspect that causes the Government a considerable amount of trouble is sniping from the sidelines. I have great sympathy with them. Members of the party, often senior members, ridicule or contradict the Government's efforts forward. I exhort the Government to take a firm and determined line on this issue and disregard such sniping; otherwise, when they go to the negotiating table at Maastricht the impression will be created that they are looking over their shoulders at their enemies or antagonists at home. That will weaken their approach to their negotiating partners in Europe; it will also weaken their chance of convincing the British people that what they are doing is right and best for the nation. Referendums and whether or not they are desirable have also been mentioned. The noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, said that he had instigated two referendums, one of which ended up as he wished while the other did not. I do not understand how the Government can handle a situation in which they have a positive policy which they recommend to the electorate and start to carry through but then have a referendum which might well go against the policy that they advocate. Can they then backtrack or do they hedge? What do they do? That would seem an intolerable situation but one which could possibly arise in the present circumstance. The Government might well have a majority for their policies in both Houses when they return from Maastricht; however, a referendum could show a majority of the British electorate against those policies. The Government would then be in an intolerable position. I think that they do very well to reject referendums at any stage. My last point touches on the issue of sovereignty. It is a very important matter and the motivation behind 1218 much of the caution exemplified by many of the speeches tonight. Fear of the loss of sovereignty is the motivation for proceeding with the utmost caution, in many cases as slowly as possible. Sovereignty, as a number of noble Lords have said, is not an absolute concept. If one considers the last time that we could properly say that we were a sovereign nation I suggest that it was the second half of the last century at the height of the Victorian age. We were probably then the number one power in the world and what we wanted to do with our economy, foreign policy and defence we could do without consultation with others. Since that time our power and sovereignty have diminished. With the occasional upward blip, it has been a steady downward path from the middle of the 19th century until today. There are various reasons for that. Some are arguable. However, most of us would say that a prominent element in that loss of sovereignty has been our willingness to over-pay ourselves for the poor levels of productivity that we have achieved in relation to our competitors. At present, our economy is very much at the mercy of the Japanese, the Americans and the Germans. That is the realistic situation today. It will not change. If we isolate ourselves in Europe and refuse to join, or join belatedly, a number of the institutions we have discussed today, that loss of sovereignty and power can only accelerate. Our only hope is to get into a larger power complex such as Europe and to wield our influence from within. Our economic record over the past 100 years has been so poor that I cannot concede that a union within Europe will cause it any further deterioration. Of course there is an element of risk when we throw the dice. But it seems to me that we have a far better chance of winning than of losing. Fundamentally, unlike the noble Lord, Lord Skidelsky, I believe that the force of history compels us to join Europe. It is inevitable. The only choice that we have is how long we delay in joining any particular institution. It has been said a number of times that in those circumstances it is better to get in early and to set the rules of the club rather than to hang back and have them set for us in a manner that we might find unattractive. § 8.12 p.m. Lord Varley My Lords, at this point in the debate after so many fine speeches I wonder what fresh new material I can give. I am tempted to say, "Ditto to the speeches that have gone before". If I were to forgo my right to speak, I would say, "Ditto to the speech of the noble Lord, Lord Rippon of Hexham", because I agreed with so much that he said. However, I do not intend to forgo my chance to put in my two pennyworth. I was very pleased when my noble friend Lord Cledwyn put the case for the official Opposition so forcefully and cogently when he spoke today. I was delighted that he reinforced the position taken by the Leader of Her Majesty's Opposition in another place, and colleagues such as the Shadow Foreign Secretary and the Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer who have taken courageous lines. I hope that when he goes 1219 to Maastricht the Prime Minister will realise that he is very fortunate in having prominent members of the Opposition in this House and in another place who want to see a successful outcome to the negotiations. In the 1960s I believed that Britain could thrive and prosper outside the Community. I even thought that, but only just, at the time of the referendum in 1975. However, I considered that we could thrive and prosper, perhaps preserve and build on our trade with the Commonwealth, and forge even closer links with the United States. I am sorry to say that that route to increasing prosperity and to building a first class economy proved illusory and mistaken. We are now no more than a medium-sized European power slipping down the world's manufacturing industrial league. Our industrial base has shrunk and our international competitiveness is constantly under threat. Our great abundance of national resources is being squandered, or not used to good effect. My enthusiasm now for the Community stems largely from our appalling decline in industrial influence in the world. For example, since 1979 our manufacturing capacity has increased by only a tiny amount—2 per cent. Consumer spending has increased by about 30 per cent., hence the huge balance of payments deficit, and the fact that we have not used the tremendous resources from the North Sea. It grieves me to see Ministers sometimes almost going down on their bended knee to plead with the Japanese to invest in this country. I do not wish to give the wrong impression; such inward investment is extremely welcome. However, the fact that we are able to do better in vehicle building today in Britain has more to do with Nissan, Honda and Toyota than what remains of our indigenous car industry. We once were proud to claim support for ICL as a wholly owned British computer company. Now that great hope is wholly owned by a Japanese company. Over the past 25 years, we have sought to control our rising unit labour costs either by a statutory or a voluntary incomes policy with all the anguish that that has brought. More latterly we have sought to do so by reducing trade union influence, by restrictive legislation or high unemployment. Our attempt to remain internationally competitive was at the expense of devaluing our currency. The only time in the past decade when sterling currency appreciated was when the world oil prices rose either due to the OPEC cartel, when that body had power, or in a Middle East conflagration. Its appreciation was because of our self sufficiency in energy. That is diminishing all the time. I do not know anyone who wishes to go back to the days of formal incomes policies or trade union power broking and the scope now for anti-trade union legislation hardly exists without violating basic human rights. It will not be long before our indigenous oil and gas start to diminish. Whatever cushion we attain from those fuels at present will decline. Our future is therefore inextricably linked to the European Community. Every examination of the facts points inescapably to our need to play a leading role in its development. 1220 I rejoiced when we joined the exchange rate mechanism because it imposes a discipline on us that we have not had the courage to apply to ourselves over any reasonable length of time. I leave aside whether we joined at the right rate. I assumed that the then Prime Minister, Mrs. Thatcher, who agreed to it, and her Chancellor, the present Prime Minister, knew what they were doing. Perhaps after the recent outbursts from Mrs. Thatcher it was foolish of me to make that assumption. But I assumed if they said it was right that it was right at the time. The present difficulties that sterling is experiencing in the exchange rate mechanism is as much to do with the Government's prevarication about the line to take at Maastricht and the disarray in the Conservative Party than any threat of a rise in German interest rates. Therefore the Government, headed by Mrs. Thatcher, having committed us to a Single European Act and the exchange rate mechanism now have a duty to play a leading part in forging even closer links with our Community partners. It is naive to believe that we can stop the further development of the Community. If the Prime Minister and his senior colleagues find that they cannot sign the treaties at Maastricht, it will lead to their humiliation and it will be disastrous for the country. I can understand why the Motion before this unelected House is to "take note" but on such an important issue I was amazed by the Government's pathetic Motion in another place last week. I believe that Mr. Tebbit described it as "Alice in Wonderland". You could have taken any three pages from that book, put them on the Order Paper and got everybody through the Lobbies on that basis. It would have been far better if our Government had followed the example and courage of the Labour Opposition and set down a Motion on the Order Paper which gave a clear lead. Then at least those in a minority who genuinely and conscientiously did not agree could have registered their opposition. For example, those who take the line of my noble friend Lord Stoddart of Swindon could have gone through the Lobbies or abstained as many of my former colleagues did in the House of Commons. However, my biggest complaint about the Government and some of the Ministers on this issue—I do not necessarily say that that applies to the noble Lord, Lord Waddington, the Leader of the House when he spoke this afternoon—is that they are not making out a logical case for European integration or participating constructively. They seem only to react to what our partners propose and then appear to give the impression that they want to slow down what I believe to be an inevitable process. Of course many aspects of Community power is infuriatingly bizarre and trivial. But as the Government approach the negotiations, we are not talking about whether Cornish pasties can be made in Worcester, but the whole pattern of our trade and industrial power perhaps for the next 30 years. Over 50 per cent. of our exports and 52 per cent. of our imports are with countries in the EC. By the end of this decade the Community of 12 may be 20. To make 1221 sure that we gain our full share in an expanding and prosperous Community, we need currency stability and eventually a common currency link. If our leaders make a hash of the negotiations at Maastricht, we can probably rule out the City of London as Europe's leading financial centre, and the £4,000 million or so that it earns a year will eventually go to Frankfurt or Paris. Therefore, I urge the Prime Minister and his colleagues not to allow themselves to be painted into a corner by Mrs. Thatcher and Mr. Tebbit who try to give the impression that they are saving us from awful foreigners. I believe that it was Samuel Johnson who said, Patriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel". Neither Mrs. Thatcher nor Mr. Tebbit are scoundrels, but they are in the twilight of their House of Commons' careers. I would not be surprised to see them here before too long and as impotent as some of us are. That may be. I believe that the Prime Minister wants to reach an agreement at Maastricht. He should not be looking nervously over his shoulder at a minority in the House of Commons even as eminent as that minority is. If he has the courage to follow his own instincts, he will be doing a great service to the British people. I hope that he reaches agreement, and I wish him well. § 8.23 p.m. Baroness Elles My Lords, I am pleased to hear from my noble friend Lord Harmar-Nicholls that the former Prime Minister did not make that suggestion. I am perhaps mistaken in my understanding. Having read Hansard, there is no doubt that the Official Report of 20th November showed my right honourable friend indicating considerable enthusiasm 1226 for the idea of a referendum. Because she suggests so many things I could not believe that she allowed someone else to suggest the idea and then took it up herself. I must therefore apologise to my noble friend for making that cardinal error. In conclusion, we must recognise that the world is changing. In the past two years we have seen dramatic events in Europe. We do not know what dramatic events we shall see beyond Eastern Europe. We are seeing a new emerging southern Africa. It behoves us in this Parliament to ensure that Britain is in the centre where major decisions will be made affecting not only our future but also the future of the whole of Europe and, indeed, the rest of the world. We know that the European Community is the largest trading bloc. It will be even bigger with EFTA countries coming in and its position will be stronger. I hope that the draft treaty produces all the answers we need to ensure our stability and prosperity. Consequently, I totally support the actions of my right honourable friends the Prime Minister and the Foreign Secretary and wish them well in their task, which will be for the benefit of our people. § 8.41 p.m. Lord Monson My Lords, it is always a pleasure to follow the noble Baroness, Lady Elles, in our debates on the Community, as seems to happen quite often, particularly as on this occasion I warmly agree with one of her later suggestions, to which I shall return. Ten days ago the deputy editor of the Daily Telegraph, Mr. Charles Moore, in an article on the implications of Maastricht, wrote as follows: Bored and perplexed, we [the British people] tend to assume that the European question can be treated pragmatically. We dislike what we call the wilder excesses of the federalists, but we comfort ourselves that the important people in the Community are more moderate. This is false comfort. You have only to talk for half an hour (and I have talked for much, much longer) to senior EC officials and politicians, to realise that they almost all want to supersede the nation state with European government. 'We are building the United States of Europe', one Commissioner told me on Tuesday, and he said it not as a rhetorical challenge, but as a statement of fact". Those who have studied the matter and are honest with themselves must concede that as far as continentals are concerned that is one of the main objectives of the Maastricht Summit. In other words, de Gaulle's noble concept of L'Europe des patries, is effectively chucked aside. That may be what countries which are 19th Century creations want, or countries which were formerly dictatorships or which not so long ago were under the sway of dictatorships, but it is not for us. Our history is different and therefore our psychology is different. That is why those noble Lords like the noble Lord, Lord Elibank, who claim that if we had joined the Community earlier or played a greater or more central role in its deliberations we could have swayed the other 11 members to our way of thinking, are mistaken. It is not merely a question of tradition and sentiment. There are dangers involved, and not for this country alone. We must consider some of the implications of a common foreign policy subject to qualified majority voting, which the noble Lord the 1227 Leader of the House rightly condemned in a vigorous and excellent speech. Suppose, heaven forbid, some years in the future Argentina and Brazil were to go to war with one another. One would expect Portugal to back the Brazilians and Spain and possibly Italy to back the Argentinians. But why on earth should any of the rest of us become involved? Moving to another part of the world, do we really want to become involved in an all too possible future armed conflict between Greece and Turkey? That almost certainly would be the case if there were to be a common foreign and defence policy. Again, we know that many people on the Continent, and not just Madame Edith Cresson, are consumed with resentment for Japan, the United States and, by extension, the English-speaking former dominions. But that is not our attitude and never will be. We have absolutely nothing against the Japanese, provided they are prepared to admit to the atrocities committed by their troops between 1936 and 1945; nothing, apart from occasional minor irritations against the Americans, to whom we are bound by blood And language; and we certainly have nothing against the Canadians, Australians and New Zealanders. On the contrary, we back them up to the hilt, much to the annoyance of the continentals more often than not. As I have mentioned before, French acquaintances of were genuinely affronted that we backed the New Zealanders rather than them over the "Rainbow Warrior" incident, holding that our attitude brands us as not being sufficiently communautaire. I would much rather be right than communautaire. Very belatedly indeed the French at long last apologised to New Zealand for the "Rainbow Warrior" incident, only to spoil it all a few days later by awarding decorations to the two secret service agents who blew up the "Rainbow Warrior" and killed the Portuguese photographer on board. If a common foreign policy had been in place no doubt the French Government would expect the British Government to try to persuade Her Majesty to include the two French agents in the next New Year's Honours List for services rendered to the Community. I do not believe that that would go down particularly well. The most worrying aspect of all, as the right honourable Member for Devonport, Dr. David Owen, hinted at in another place last Wednesday, is that if a uniform foreign policy had been in place last August at the time of the hard-line coup in the Soviet Union, when Britain was supporting Mr. Gorbachev and Mr. Yeltsin but France and Germany seemed to be on the verge of accepting the coup as a fait accompli, Britain might have been outvoted. So with President Bush virtually isolated, a hard-line government might well have been in power in the Soviet Union today, with Mr. Gorbachev and Mr. Yeltsin behind bars or in Siberia. I turn to the question of a single currency. As almost every expert tells us, except the noble Lord, Lord Rippon—I am certainly not an expert—but including Mr. Nigel Lawson, monetary union will accelerate the trend towards economic union and is 1228 also likely to lead inexorably, over a period of time, towards fiscal union, for reasons I shall not go into now. What are the implications of that? There is one grave constitutional implication which, so far as I know, has not been mentioned in either House of Parliament. As the noble Lord, Lord Joseph, emphasised, nobody seriously supposes that any EC central bank which comes into existence will he genuinely independent, any more than the Bundesbank was independent when the West German Government twisted its arm last year and forced it to accept a preposterously out-of-line exchange rate for the östmark. In other words, the different national governments controlling the central bank will have an input into monetary policy just as they will have an input into economic and Community-wide fiscal policy. Suppose by coincidence, as is quite possible, France, Germany, Italy, the Benelux Countries, Spain and Portugal were all due to hold general elections in the autumn and winter of 1993 and the spring of 1994. Suppose, also by coincidence, the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Greece and Denmark had general elections scheduled for the autumn of 1994 or the spring of 1995. Suppose again that a drastic economic crisis blew up in the summer of 1994 and that forthwith the French, German and Italian governments proposed extreme fiscal and monetary corrective measures to remedy the situation; in other words, a short, sharp shock. They would have nothing to worry about because their general elections would be three-and-three-quarters, four-and-a-half or five years away. In vain would the British, Irish, Danish and Greek governments argue that that would he disastrous for their re-election chances six or nine months ahead. They would be outvoted. Rigid austerity measures would be imposed and the incumbent governments in the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland and so on would be thrown out on their ears. I am therefore convinced that the end effect of a single currency and all the implications attached to it will be synchronisation of general elections all over the European Economic Community; not necessarily on the same day but at any rate in the same week. In practice this would entail fixed-term parliaments. I think that the Liberal Democrats would welcome such a move; I am not sure that other parties would do so. There is another aspect to elections taking place on virtually the same day. On the evening of election day when the British public are gathered around their television sets to watch the results coming in first from Cheltenham and then Torbay—or the other way round—then from Bradford, Edinburgh and so on, Mr. Dimbleby will fill in the gaps that there always are between the results coming in by showing the results coming in from Aix-en-Provence, Dortmund, Piacenza, Cordoba, Odense, Coimbra, Zeebrugge, Chania, and so on, and inevitably the British people would begin to realise, if they had not done so already, as would the people in other member states, that the real power in the Community lies not with the national parliaments but in Brussels and Strasbourg. 1229 They would begin to take the view, if they had not done so already, that there was no further point in pressing their Members of Parliament for improvements in their standards of living, or to rectify the wrongs they feel they are suffering. As power now lies at the centre, that is the place to lobby; and there is not much point in turning out for general elections in future since they have become tantamount to local government elections, where you get only a 30 per cent. or 40 per cent. turn out at most. I really wonder whether that is what people in either House of Parliament want. Turning quickly to the powers of the European Parliament, I think it was the noble Lord, Lord Bethel!, who said that it was democratically elected. Certainly it is democratically elected but it is not democratically composed. The people of Luxembourg will have 12½ times as many representatives per capita as will the people of a united Germany: but it is democratically elected. Perhaps there is something to be said for allowing the parliament a veto over new legislation, not least because so much legislation nowadays tends to be interfering, illiberal and often unnecessary the world over, and therefore the more often that it is vetoed the better. There must be one proviso. Reform of the common agricultural policy and action against corruption must be put beyond the reach of any veto by the European Parliament. Finally, the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, rightly cited the resentment that most people in this country feel at interference by Brussels in matters which are no legitimate concern of Brussels, and no legitimate concern of people in any other country. This applies Community wide. The French do not want interference from us any more than we want interference from them. The noble Lord, Lord Beloff, in earlier speeches has on two occasions suggested to us why this should be: too many talented men with too much power and quite a little time on their hands tend to get up to mischief. The noble Lord may well do so again tonight for all I know. I would also suggest that the European court is beginning to act too much like the American Supreme Court, in that it is making quasi-political decisions instead of purely judicial ones. These decisions are always in the direction of interpreting ambiguous statutes, and there are far too many ambiguous ones, in favour of Brussels rather than in favour of individual nation states. Time does not permit me to list all the ridiculous, petty, harmonising directives with which we are lumbered, but I invite your Lordships to read Christopher Monckton on page 7 of the Evening Standard of 20th November. We are apparently even now to have a standardised Euro-condom. It seems that the Commissioners found the Italian ones too small. I am not making this up: your Lordships can read it in most of last week's papers. It is not enough for the Prime Minister, Mr. Major, to say to the other 11, as he must, "Thus far and no further" as regards petty harmonisation. The frontiers of Brussels interference must be rolled back. At the 1230 least we must be as free to control our internal affairs as are Arkansas, New South Wales and Prince Edward Island, which at the moment, in many respects, we are not. In other words, in return, for example, for agreeing to the admirable new directive controlling time-share advertising and marketing—admirable because time-share abuses extend across national frontiers—the Prime Minister should reclaim the right of the British, and of course of others, to decide on the location of their own bridges, motorways, bypasses and so on, which have nothing to do with people in any other country. In order to roll back effectively the frontiers of Euro interference, despite what other noble Lords said, I am afraid that we must throw into the dustbin such vague, amorphous, weasel words as "subsidiarity", which mean all things to all men. Subsidiarity, incidentally, also implies that all power legitimately rests at the centre, which may graciously decide to dole out a little of it to the constituent nation states as and when it so feels inclined. But it does not reside at the centre: power resides with the people and the nation states, and it is up to them to hang on to it and not tamely cede it to Brussels. Instead—and here I greatly welcome what the noble Baroness, Lady Elles, proposed—we need a new treaty that will strictly confine the competence of Brussels and Strasbourg to those matters which genuinely transcend national frontiers, leaving everything else without exception to national parliaments. § 8.57 p.m. § 9.18 p.m. Lord Bruce of Donington My Lords, your Lordships will recall that as recently as 1986 I had the honour of speaking for my party from the Front Bench in total opposition to the Single European Act. One of the principal reasons for that was a conviction which, at that time, I had every reason to believe was shared by my party, the members of which were with me in the Division Lobby. I detected and suspected an unrelenting drive towards federalism and the diminution of the powers of the British people, through their parliamentary democracy, to determine the nature and extent of their own policies and to deal with their own affairs, while at the same time co-operating to the maximum degree of unanimity with our European colleagues. I have not changed the views that I expressed then, which were reflected again in the speech which your Lordships allowed me to make in the debate on the Select Committee's report on economic and monetary union only a few days back. It is not my intention to repeat the reasons that I then gave. Indeed, I shall endeavour, so far as it lies within my power, to make some constructive suggestions to the Government as to how, under present circumstances, they might see fit to proceed. That may be accompanied perhaps by one or two cautions about the kind of things they ought to avoid. Before doing so, however, I wish to deal with one aspect of our affairs which I find highly disturbing. It has been widely represented that Britain—my country and your Lordships'—is somehow the odd man out in Europe. that it is one versus 11. If one looks at the Community flag, one finds 12 stars of equal size. The misconception ought to be subject to a small correction because the odds are not quite as large as it would indicate. It will come as no surprise to your Lordships that the population of the United Kingdom is greater than the combined population of at least seven of the member states: Belgium, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Portugal. Taken together, they have a population 3 million less than that of the United Kingdom. So the odds arc a little shorter than 11 to one which gives the impress on of cold isolation against overwhelming numbers on the continent of Europe. The original treaty and the amended treaty that followed it give sanction to this. The state of Luxembourg has a population of 378,000, and that is the same size as the city of Bristol. Luxembourg has one member on the Council of Ministers and six Members in the European Parliament. If we transpose that into terms of British politics, it would mean that Bristol had 81 Members of the British Parliament. I venture to suggest that that is a slight over-representation. Let us take matters rationally: the odds are not all that overwhelming in terms of 11 to one. Moreover, the seven themselves to which I have referred are not always n agreement with one another. It has been known for Italy, Germany and France to have differences. Please let us not put ourselves in the position of self-isolation. I remember that there was a case in the early part of the war when the American 1236 Ambassador gave a report back to the President of the United States as to the likelihood of Britain being able to endure a conflict against nazi Germany. The report was pessimistic, he said he did not think we would be able to make it. Events have proved him wrong. Therefore, let us take a slightly more objective view in terms of numbers and weight, and the extent of the present disagreements. What is the intergovernmental conference about? Why was it held at all? The Council of Ministers can from time to time meet over a proposal of the Commission, as I shall show. But there is nothing to prevent it meeting from time to time to discuss progress within the European Community. It would obtain a surprising picture if it did that, because the Community so far—although I hope things go well in the future—has not been very impressive. Its rate of growth has been less than that of Japan or of the United States, and its rate of unemployment is higher. There are a whole series of factors to he considered. The EC has almost reached the stage where it compares itself with a single country, Japan, and is busily fortifying itself against possible Japanese commercial invasion. The EC has not been such a profound success. One only has to read—as I have—the annual reports produced by the Commission. They are lengthy but they all reveal the same disappointing picture. The economy of Europe, as Europe, is not doing all that well. I wish it would do better. Moreover, as regards rectifying regional differences, one only has to read the previous Commission report to obtain a review of the whole progress of regional development over the past 10 years. The report admits that regional differences far from having disappeared—no one ever pretended that was the case—have not substantially changed in spite of a massive injection of funds. I could understand the desire to convene a conference to discuss those kinds of matters openly and in public and to discuss whether the Common Market had achieved the free interchange of goods, services and people and how it could be made to operate more efficiently and thereby improve the European economy. However, this intergovernmental conference was convened specifically by the Commission. Exactly the same situation pertains with regard to this conference as pertained in regard to the conferences that preceded the Single European Act. The purpose of the Commission is a structural one to make further progress towards the openly avowed objective of achieving the ultimate super state and a federal union in Europe. The noble Lord, Lord Monson, referred to that aim in his quotation from the Daily Telegraph. It is common knowledge that the Commission has already announced that if it does not get its way at the Maastricht conference, it will convene a further intergovernmental conference a few years later. The Commission will continue to convene conferences until it achieves what it wants. I cannot believe that we in the United Kingdom—I trust that I speak broadly for all parties—want the continuation of these proceedings to be under the relentless pressure of non-elected civil servants, or collegiates, in Brussels with the pure purpose of 1237 enlarging the area of bureaucratic operation. I do not think that is wise or necessary. Are the Government themselves, in negotiating at Maastricht, content to accept a position where they can act only on a proposal from the Commission? One can quite understand that in the earlier stages of the Community, when the politicians got together, it was highly convenient to have a highly trained body of civil servants or academics for the purpose of charting out future progress. It was highly convenient that progress should be made by means of that delegated instrument. But was it the intention of the Council of Ministers that member states could only act on a proposal from the Commission? If that is still the case, I hope I may respectfully suggest to Her Majesty's Government that before they sign any treaty at Maastricht they should make quite sure that the Council itself takes more powers and that the powers of the Commission in relation to the Council are correspondingly reduced. There is a further instance. Your Lordships may not be aware that not only is the situation as I have described it in relation to original proposals, but even when the 12 member states agree that they want a regulation amended that can be vetoed by the Commission. Indeed, Mr. Lilley, in giving public evidence before the Select Committee of your Lordships' House on 22nd October, said in reply to a question from me: It is something not often understood in this country. It gives the Commission the right of veto. In one particular case Britain started off in a minority of one, and managed to persuade all 12 Member States to agree with our position, but the Commission then did not agree, so it could not proceed. They sometimes evoke that right of veto". The question I have to ask the Government is whether in the course of the Maastricht negotiations they intend that position to continue. If they do not intend it to continue, what amendment to the draft treaties do they propose to institute in order to ensure that that does not happen? There are a number of things which the Commission could do. Perhaps one may suggest that if it does not like what it contains, in the free time—free from preparing plans for the next intergovernmental conference following Maastricht —the Council itself brings pressure to bear upon the Commission to make very drastic changes to the common agricultural policy, which, so far as I can gather, both sides of the House (or at least two-and-a-half sides of the House) agree is a bad policy. Without it being a proposal from the Commission, can the Commission suggest that the Council becomes more accountable for public funds? Recent audit inquiries have revealed that in 1990 Italy received £4.22 billion in aid from the Commission for which it cannot account to the Commission. To this day the Commission does not know where that money has gone. Similar observations apply in relation to £151 million of aid to Turkey and a further £3 million to Morocco. That cannot be properly authenticated and the Commission do not know where the money has gone. Will the Council bring pressure to bear or will it 1238 take powers under the treaty to instruct the Commission, which after all is supposed to be the Council's executive arm, to make full and effective investigations into the matter? Again, as the Government know very well, the Court of Auditors is a source of continued irritation to the Commission. At present the Court of Auditors frequently has great difficulty in obtaining the information it requires, not only from member states but sometimes from the Commission itself. I know that because I have spoken to representatives of the Court of Auditors. The financial regulations of the Community, as drafted by the Commission and agreed by the Council, state that the Commission have the right to reply to the Court of Auditors' report prior to the issue of that report to the general public. The Commission's comments, usually about one-third of the size of the report itself, are issued together with the auditor's report. That means that we shall receive the auditors' report for 1990 about mid-December—an unnecessary delay of some three months. I should like to know whether the Government are prepared in negotiating at Maastricht to incorporate within the treaty an undertaking to amend the financial regulations to ensure that the auditors' report is published immediately and independently of any Commission comments on it. I should be grateful if the Government would comment on that matter. In the short time remaining, I should like to deal with changes in the powers of the European Parliament. As I understand it, it is proposed to give the European Parliament powers of co-determination with the Council. I may be wrong and should be glad to be corrected. However, if a situation arises in which the European Parliament has a right to veto any directive or any other measure passed by the European Council, that will undermine the authority of Westminster. In the case of British interests, instead of coming to the Westminster Parliament, powerful lobbies which oppose certain Community proposals will start flocking to Strasbourg in order to lobby there. Power in that regard will automatically depart from the Westminster Parliament. I hope that the noble Earl will consider that matter. I also seek an assurance about the role of bankers. I look almost in terms of affection upon the noble Lord, Lord Boardman, who occupied a high position in the bank with which I entrusted my meagre funds. I read in the draft treaty a proposal for a bank which would be completely independent of all political influence and which would determine the strategic banking and monetary policy throughout the Community without any kind of political control. That is an enlargement of the Liberal Party's proposal to make the Bank of England independent of the Government here. The Liberal Party will always agree with anything that comes out with a European label, so we need not trouble with that any more. I want to know whether the Government agree— § My Lords, has the noble Lord read the constitution of the Bundesbank on 1239 which the independent bank is to be modelled? That constitution states that the Bundesbank must support the economic policy of the German Government. Lord Bruce of Donington My Lords, I have read the text to which the noble Lord refers, but I have a more up-to-date version than that of the noble Lord, Lord Ezra, who speaks from the Front Bench on behalf of his party and who advocates complete independence. Some of my best friends are bankers; but, after the recent history of the banking community throughout the world, not by any means excluding the City of London, with recent banking scandals and manifestly unsound monetary and lending policies, I venture to suggest that any body of politicians which ventures to put strategic economic control in the hands of bankers wants their head examined. Perhaps the Government will comment on that. Finally, it is suggested that, if we do not take part in these arrangements, we shall be relegated to the second division, whatever that may mean. I well appreciate the significance of league tables. On perusing those relating to the excellent game of football, I observe that Wales is not in either the first or the second division. That does not damn Wales in my eyes. In fact, some of my best friends are Welshmen. I sincerely hope that we shall not apply the metaphor too directly, particularly in view of the results at Cardiff Arms Park in the other type of football. I hope that there will be a Welsh national recovery. However, any suggestion that this country is in the second division of anything is a complete insult. My country is a great country. It has been a great country for many years. It has stood for freedom throughout the world at a time when some of the European countries were not always so assiduous in pursuit of that freedom. It has a considerable Commonwealth with which it has very good relations. I do not believe that it has all the virtues, but I am very proud to be a member of it. I am quite sure that whatever is implied by the term second division—I assume that that is a position of inferiority to someone or other—my country never has been and in my view never will he in that kind of position. § 9.40 p.m. Lord Desai My Lords, at this late hour much has been said and it is difficult to know what to add. I voted yes to the 1975 referendum. In past years I have lived with the uncomfortable position of not being in agreement with the Labour Party Front Bench. At last I find myself in the odd situation of being on the right side. The debate has continued for many years. As a schoolboy I was brought up on a Indian nationalist version of the history of the British Empire. I was told—I am sure that it was wrong—that the East India Company reneged on all the treaties that it signed. Obviously that must have been untrue. However, government having signed the treaty in 1973 in which the goal of economic and monetary union was clearly stated, and having passed the Single European Act in which it was made clear that there was an eventual hope of political union, I am astonished that people still express surprise at the situation they face today. The debate is not about whether we should join Europe; the time has long since passed for such debate although I wish later to discuss whether that is inevitable. The debate that has continued for the past 20 years or more is about the modernisation of British society. Over the post-war period we have seen a number of attempts to modernise British society. We have had the white heat of the technological revolution of the noble Lard, Lord Wilson; we have had Selsdon Man; and we have had the tremendous effort of Mrs. Thatcher and her Government, though I am not in sympathy with it. All these have been attempts to launch this country into a modern, dynamic economy and society. If we are still discussing Europe it is because some of us—and more than many of us imagine—find that the best hope of meeting the challenge of modernising British society after 100 years of the "British disease", as it is called, lies in being part of Europe and part of a modern, dynamic community. That is because many of us have doubts that, if left to ourselves, we could be modern. That is a doubt shared by people who do not like the European Community. There is hesitation whether we should opt in or out in 1995 or 1997 to which my noble friend Lord Callaghan referred. Why is there this hesitation that, come 1995 or 1997, we may or may not be able to join? It is because we are not sure that we will be ready to join and that the economy will be strong enough even after six, seven or 10 years of adjustment. We have lost confidence that the economy can survive on its own as a dynamic economy able to make its way. The reason we have lost that confidence is the experience of the past 40 years or more of economic management by different parties with the best of intentions. There was some success and some failure, but at the end of the day we cannot say that we have the political wisdom to say, with hands on our hearts, that left to ourselves we shall make a success of things. The noble Viscount, Lord Tonypandy, said that he 1244 would much prefer being the 51st state of the United States rather than being part of Europe if all the arrangements fell through. We should discuss all the options that are available. We are a sovereign state and we can choose to withdraw from the EC if we wish. We can refuse to sign at Maastricht and say that we do not want any part of it. Let us face that situation and look at it in its true reality. Suppose we withdraw from the EC. What choice do we have? We have many choices. We can join the United States. In the early 1970s the North Atlantic free trade area was much mooted and some people thought that they might be able to join. However, that experiment failed because it was not really credible that such an arrangement would be a viable one. There was no political will or economic case for it. I do not believe at this juncture of our economic history that we could last outside both the EC and what is going to be the North American free trade area comprising Canada, the United States of America and Mexico. I do not believe that anyone seriously thinks, much though we love it, that sovereignty is so valuable to us that we are right now willing to withdraw from the European Community and not join anything else and survive on our own. That is because the economic case for doing so is lacking. Another reason is that we no longer live in a world in which capitalism in one country is possible or feasible. The growth of multinational corporations, the international division of labour and the global financial markets all tell us that sooner or later we shall have to join a club. That club need not be a centralist one. A federation can be non-centralist. The United States of America was non-centralist for a long time and some people may believe that it is still non-centralist. Indeed, the US managed to have a federation with a single currency and without a central bank for much of its history. As the noble Lord, Lord Joseph, said, the US did not have a central bank until about 80 years ago. It had a single currency. Indeed, even after having a central bank it would be false to say that the US had a centralist federation. That happened about 25 years later for totally different reasons. Therefore, one does not necessarily have to take it for granted that a centralist European Community is inevitable. Indeed, I say to my noble friend Lord Bruce that if we do not want a centralist Community—and I do not want that—let us argue more strongly not just that the Council should be more powerful than the Commission but that the European Parliament should be more powerful than the Council. Indeed, if we do not like the European Parliament because we believe that it threatens the sovereignty of Westminster, let us follow the logic of federations around the world and say that democratic deficit is not merely shown by the fact that the European Parliament does not have enough power but that the European Parliament represents only territorial principle and not the principle that members of a federation should have representation as a federation, the principle on which the US Senate is based. 1245 We do not have that. Indeed, we should argue that the European Parliament needs a second chamber which would more properly reflect the federate nature of the European Community. Surprisingly, that argument has not been made but it should be. It is no good believing that by hesitating now, refusing to sign, by making conditions and by delaying, as the noble Lord, Lord Skidelsky, said, we shall gain a more democratic Community or a less centralist Community. If we want that, we must get in there and play an active role. We should not play a recalcitrant and sullen role. Let us propose that our traditions of democratic control, which we know about, should be reflected in the European constitution. My main purpose is not to speak so much about the political problems of the federation but about the economics of monetary union and the single currency. I believe that a single currency would be very good and the sooner it comes the better. I shall explain why I think that. I believe that when we used to have national economies with proper control over monetary and fiscal policies—roughly the period between 1946 and 1971—that was a golden period. We had full employment and moderate inflation. We had good economic growth. It was better in some years than in others but it was fairly good. From 1971 onwards we entered a different era in which individual countries lost their autonomy. There were global financial markets and rapid movement of capital. It is difficult for small single nations to be able to pursue a policy of full employment and good economic growth without becoming subject to rapidly speculative movements of capital and currency. The example of the United States shows that an economy of a sufficient size, such that the proportion of foreign trade is not large, can pursue full employment policies within its territory without having to look over its shoulder constantly for speculative attacks on its currency. The US has been able to pursue an extremely aggressive monetary policy. It has cut interest rates and tried to get a revival not because it does not care about inflation—its inflation record is very good. However, it can pursue such a course with impunity because it is a sufficiently large area of a single currency and custom-free union. We cannot pursue such policies and we have not been able to do so. Rather, when we have done so in 1970–73 or 1986–88, we have had to pay dearly for those policies. I do not mind confessing that I care more about full employment than anything else. I welcome a single currency. I believe that a single currency would allow us, over the Community territory as a whole, to pursue policies of full employment and economic growth which currently we are restricted from pursuing. I differ in one respect from the usual doctrine in regard to the European community, which is that, like my noble friend Lord Bruce, I am not all that thrilled about the autonomy of a central bank. It is a paradox, bearing in mind all we know regarding the Bank of England. The Bank of England was autonomous after 1946. It covered itself in great glory regarding monetary policy. 1246 The idea that autonomous central banks are successful is a recent invention. It arises only from the experience of the Bundesbank. People forget to tell us that the Bundesbank is supported by a sensible wage-bargaining system which sustains it; it is not merely monetary orthodoxy. Monetary orthodoxy often leads to severe deflations whose costs fall on the poorer people. It is all right for central bankers to say that they are autonomous and do not want the currency to slide, and so on. But I shall always believe that proper democratic control is required as much of bureaucracies such as the European Commission as it is of central banks. If we do not have proper democratic control over central banks, then they are likely to do untold damage to the economies, as indeed the Bank of England did to the British economy in the 1920s. I conclude by saying that I do not believe choice is inevitable or unavoidable. But even if we had signed no treaties in the past, if there were no commitments and I was asked what was the best choice facing this economy, I should still say that we should enter economic and monetary union as soon as possible. Let us work towards a proper federal Europe; not a central Europe but a federal democratic Europe in which we can play an active part. § 10.3 p.m. Lord Beloff My Lords, I am not sure what Bavaria needed to do to sign it. It is governed by the Basic Law and does in fact operate under it. It is represented in the Bundesrat and the Bundestag. Having spent some time in Bavaria, I found no one who thought that it was not part of federal Germany. But perhaps the noble Lord has other Bavarian friends who think differently. We know exactly what federalism means. As I have said in the House before, there are moments when one thinks that a proper federal system might be less dangerous than what is available to the European Community at the moment, which seems to be a capacity for extending powers at the centre in a way which in a thoroughgoing federal system it might be easier to check. In particular one has the court always interpreting questions of competence in favour of the centre as a matter of policy, a point to which the noble Lord, Lord Monson, referred. I do not know and no one knows how deep it actually goes in Europe but we are facing at any rate at the level of our dialogue people who are convinced above all that they are swimming with the tide of history. It used to be the future of the proletariat, but now it is the future of European integration. People who believe that they have history on their side are often very difficult to talk to about practical issues. I believe that only yesterday Chancellor Kohl in a television interview compared the march of European integration to the flowing of the River Rhine down to 1249 the sea. Considering the fact that the River Rhine is the major source of pollution in Europe, I thought that that was a singularly unfortunate metaphor. But, on the other hand, I have the greatest confidence in my right honourable friend the Prime Minister and my right honourable friend the Secretary of State. I am sure that when they get to Maastricht they will steer clear of the Lorelei. § 10.15 p.m. Lord Bonham-Carter My Lords, that question was put to Mr. Heath in another place last week. If the noble Lord reads the relevant copy of Hansard, he can read Mr Heath's reply. It is not for me to reply for Mr 1253 Heath. All I can say is that the Liberal Party, which was in favour of joining the Community, never at any moment denied that there was a loss of sovereignty involved and that there would be a supra-national authority to which we would have to conform. However, for the reasons I have already given, I think it is foolish to make federalism a bogy word because one should take seriously into account how the powers are distributed. If one takes that matter seriously, I see no reason why the issue of over centralisation should arise. It seems to me odd that a Government obsessed with subsidiarity—that is really another way of talking about the distribution of powers—should refuse devolution for Scotland. It is rather odd to think that in the likelihood of a Scottish assembly being established—I should think it probable that that will occur within the next decade—this country will become that dread thing, a centralised federation. Further, once there is majority voting, one is on the way towards some kind of federal structure. One is in a federal condition and the precise distribution of powers is a matter of the utmost importance. I shall not detain noble Lords for much longer. What we have witnessed in the whole of this debate and in the whole of this controversy which has occurred over the past few months is a lack of leadership on the part of the Government in relation to public opinion at home and within the Community. The policy the Government have followed appears to be determined more by internal Conservative Party politics than by the interests of the country. The Government have not been manifestly successful in that policy, and as a consequence they have had to ask for the tolerance and understanding of our European colleagues. For that tolerance and understanding we shall in due course have to pay a price. The price will include London being ejected from its position as the financial centre of the Community. The choice of London as the site for the central bank will be put in jeopardy. The dominance of the Franco-German alliance has been strengthened. Those are the prices we have had to pay to keep the Government's policy on line. They are heavy prices to pay. But the most important factor in my view is that we have not been asking the questions within the Community which urgently need answering at this moment. As the noble Baroness, Lady Elles, said, the European Community has been a huge success. It has been a magnet attracting other countries wishing to join, such as the EFTA countries and Central European countries. As the noble Earl, Lord Bessborough, said, it is likely to increase in size from 12 to 20 or more members in the course of the next decade or 15 years. In addition, it has the problem of absorbing the united Germany of 80 million people within its structure. We should be asking ourselves whether the institutions which were devised for six members are appropriate for 20 and whether the consensual arrangements whereby the six and the 12 reached agreements can be transferred just like that to 20 members. 1254 In my view that is exceedingly unlikely. It will require rare political and institutional imagination to adapt those institutions to include the EFTA countries and the countries of Central Europe within their ambit. We should be asking how and proposing ways and means whereby those institutions should be adapted, how the distribution of powers should be arranged, what organisation of foreign and defence policy should be devised, and how we should arrange voting. The idea that one could have unanimity in a Community of 25 powers is unrealistic; that would lead to the situation that existed in the Polish Diet in the past. Those are the urgent questions to which the attention of the country, the Community and the Commission should be directed. If we want to be at the heart of Europe - and I and my colleagues on these Benches believe profoundly that that is the right place for this country, that it is her destiny to be there, that we should be a constructive influence there and, as the noble Lord, Lord Desai, said, we should try to make it work - it is to those questions that we should be addressing ourselves rather than to the old, sterile arguments which we have gone over so many times in the past. § 10.37 p.m. Lord Williams of Elvel My Lords, it is late in the evening and I shall try not to detain your Lordships too long. This has been a very important debate, which has echoed the debate in another place, although not in all expressions of opinion. Strongly held views have been expressed in your Lordships' House, and it is only right that that should be so. I shall try to follow the noble Duke, the Duke of Manchester, in his distinguished maiden speech and seek to discover the common ground between us. The noble Duke is absolutely right. We have been invited by the noble Lord the Lord Privy Seal in his Motion to take note of the negotiations. In doing so we should try to discover the common ground that exists in this House. As a number of noble Lords have said, there is a great deal of common ground, although there is no point in ignoring the fact that there are sharp differences of opinion. As my noble friend Lord Cledwyn said, my job is to talk more about economic and monetary union than about political union. However, I accept the point of the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, that Chancellor Kohl has made it perfectly clear that political and monetary union go together. Whether the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, is right or my noble friend Lord Callaghan is right in casting some doubt on whether that is so or whether it is a negotiating position remains to be seen. However, I accept that there is a political dimension to economic and monetary union even if EPU and EMU do not go together in exactly the way that Chancellor Kohl has indicated. I shall concentrate on EMU while not neglecting the fact that EMU itself is a political matter. The noble Lord the Lord Privy Seal, in what, if it is not impertinent to say so, was a very constructive and interesting opening speech, took us further than the debate in another place last week. He explained some of the background to the negotiations at 1255 Maastricht. As we heard from other speakers, we have had the European Communities Act , the Single European Act and entry into the European exchange rate mechanism. I have some sympathy with my noble friends Lord Bruce and Lord Stoddart—it is probably the only point on which I have some sympathy with them—who said that the Single European Act was pushed through your Lordships' House on a Friday. As I recall, it was whipped and guillotined through another place. I am not sure whether the debate that was held in this House on a Friday, when my noble friend Lord Bruce was in charge, was exactly the kind of debate that we should have had on the Act. Nevertheless, it went through. As my noble friend Lord Cledwyn said, we now find ourselves confronted with the present situation. There are several questions. The first is, as the noble Lord, Lord Bonham-Carter, said, the age-old debate: is this to be a Common Market—in other words, a free trade area—or is this to be a community? That debate has run through the past 20 years or so. Some of us have taken the view from time to time that it should be a common market; in other words, a free trade area. Others have taken the view that it should be a community and, to be perfectly honest, we have changed our minds from time to time. It is only reasonable that, confronted with those problems, we should change our minds. The second question is: if it is to be a community, what happens to what is called the democratic deficit? The noble Lord, Lord Bethell, referred to that factor. The third question is: what happens to the social dimension which many people on the Continent of Europe, and probably all of our partners in the Community, feel is part of the Community rather than something that can be separated from it. My noble friend Lady Ewart-Biggs and the noble Earl, Lord Bessborough, raised a fourth point; namely, the widening of the Community. How do we construct an organisation which can not only answer the three questions that I have put, but allow for entry of Eastern European countries or other countries as and when they wish to enter? All those questions—there is no point in denying it or in bucking the issue—are fundamental questions for the constitution of our country. That is why it is right that your Lordships should discuss the matter this evening. The noble Lord, Lord Gladwyn, and my noble friend Lord Callaghan put their fingers on the point when they said that Maastricht is not the end of the story. No one will come out of Maastrict saying, "That is the final form of the Community. That is where we are for ever and a day and there is nothing that can possibly change". Furthermore, the noble Lord, Lord Gladwyn, said that there is no intention—I cannot conceive of any intention—of trying to turn Europe into something like the United States. In that sense, federalism—here I reply to the point of the noble Lord, Lord Beloff—is almost what you mean it to be. There have been many disputes about what federalism really means. Speaking for myself and for my party, I do not want to go strongly down the "federal" road. I do not think that it is right. I do not wish to have to correct 1256 the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, but de Gaulle did not refer to, "L'Europe des patries"; he referred to, "L'Europe des états". It is important to get that right. It is a Europe of states which come together in a community in which certain matters are decided by qualified majority voting. We certainly envisage qualified majority voting on environmental issues, but we do not envisage qualified majority voting on, for instance, defence policy issues. We believe in NATO. There is an intermediate area in which there are certain issues on which qualified majority voting is in our view right and there are certain issues where it is not right. I turn to economic and monetary union. I was very interested to hear what the noble Lord, Lord Aldington, had to say. I think it was the first time that he has agreed with the Government in almost everything that he said. It was a delight to hear that he agreed with the Government. I am almost speechless, for the noble Lord's speeches, which I admire, always seemed to be constructed against the Government. Maybe I am mistaken and maybe on occasions the noble Lord has spoken against the Government. However, I was interested to hear him say - and he is right - that the Single European Act by itself commits us to economic union. That is in the Preamble, although I accept that there is no timetable for it. But Parliament passed that measure and economic union is in the Preamble of the Single European Act. The Government tried to respond to the difficulty that economic union almost inevitably implies some closer arrangement between currencies—to be logical, in the end economic union requires some locked exchange rates—by what is known as the hard ecu proposal, which was put forward by the Treasury and about which we have heard very little. I ask the noble Earl—it is the only question I put to him - what on earth has happened to the hard ecu proposal? Has it vanished down the pipe or down the stream? Has it been given up? What has happened to it? We heard speeches from the Dispatch Box opposite to the effect that the hard ecu was the right way to proceed. Somehow we no longer hear such speeches. What has happened to that proposal? I should like to concentrate now on the conditions under which we believe that economic and monetary union can work. It is a point that was raised by my noble friend Lord Callaghan and indeed the noble Lord, Lord Joseph, said that the problem is that if we go into economic and monetary union we must have real convergence. I accept that the noble Lord, Lord Joseph, would rather not go into the whole thing, but the point which was emphasised by my noble friends Lord Varley and Lord Callaghan is that the United Kingdom economy at the moment is not strong enough to move into convergence along the lines defined in Article 109f of the draft treaty. If we are to go into economic and monetary union, we must have real convergence rather than the convergence that is set out in the article that I mentioned. It is not enough to have a high degree of price stability. It is not enough to have a sustainable government financial position. It is not enough that member states should have respected the normal 1257 fluctuation of margins provided for by the ERM. And it is not enough that there should be durability of convergence achieved by the member states with participation of the ERM. What has to happen if we are to participate successfully in EMU is real convergence of the real economy; otherwise, we shall have a level of unemployment in this country and a massacre of the rest of manufacturing industry which we cannot sustain. That is the point that we believe very strongly. Secondly, what other condition do we require for entry into EMU? It is political accountability of the institutions that will run that organisation. The noble Lord, Lord Boardman, made the point very clearly. He asked: who will appoint the governor of this European central bank? Who will be responsible for setting the exchange rate of the single European currency? Our view is that that should be the role of ECOFIN. We believe that proper democratic accountability could be achieved through the Economic and Financial Council. I believe my noble friend Lord Bruce of Donington was right on our third condition. We cannot accept EMU unless there is a proper regional policy of distributing the rewards of whatever happens through EMU through the communities so that we do not end up by paying more than we should to the Community. I have made this point on many occasions previously. I do not wish to bore your Lordships by repeating it. My noble friend Lord Callaghan was right; I thought he had been reading the speech I made during the debate on the gracious Address. We are running a deficit at the depth of a depression, whereas on all previous occasions we have come out of a recession with a balance of payments surplus. That is the case in money terms at present. However, if we go into a single European currency, it is no good thinking that that deficit will simply be eliminated. It will be eliminated statistically, but it remains in real terms. It is important to ensure that in 1997 our economy is in balance with other economies in the European Community so that we can say, "In real terms we are holding our own". Under any other conditions EMU will be a loss maker for us. We then come to the penalties for not joining EMU. In other words, it is the same question: what is in it for us? My noble friend Lady Ewart-Biggs spoke of the disadvantage to the City of London, as did the noble Lord, Lord Boardman. There would be severe disadvantages to the financial services industry—as I prefer to call it—if we were not members of this new unit. I do not believe that the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, is right in saying that the markets have bombed out sterling in the expectation that there will be no deal at Maastricht. I believe that there is a problem with the dollar and with possible interest rates in Germany. Those are more responsible than discounting a possible failure at Maastricht. Nevertheless, the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, made a serious point when he said that if we are outside this currency union—in other words, if we do not lock our exchange rate in one way or another, through a single currency, or another way—with the 1258 deutschmark, there will be a deutschmark zone. If there is a deutschmark zone in 1997, it will be so powerful that sterling will inevitably shadow the deutschmark in that zone, like it or leave it. I am afraid that that is the truth of the matter as the markets will see it. I accept what the noble Lord, Lord Boardman, said about transactions charges. He is quite right. We would certainly save money. If we went into EMU seriously we would ensure that we benefited from being the financial centre of Europe. The timetable is this. There would have to be real decisions in 1997. That is where Stage Three really starts to bite. Either we are in or we are out by 1997, unless the Community decides to postpone the whole issue for another two years; that is in the draft treaty. My noble friend Lord Callaghan likes the idea of an opt-out arrangement. I prefer to see the convergence provisions in Article 109f of the draft treaty very much strengthened along the lines that I have recommended. The whole Community then has to decide whether in real terms the economy of one or any country is up to joining this new single currency that is proposed. I do not like the idea of a referendum. I believe that the noble Lord, Lord Beloff, knocked that on the head pretty successfully. I do not see how one can frame a question or what happens if a referendum is lost. I do not see how it can be binding. I simply do not see how it can work. Nevertheless, we have to accept that there are decisions that will be made at Maastricht. As the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, said, there will be give and take. I have no objection to the noble Lord the Lord Privy Seal not revealing the Government's negotiating position. That is absolutely right. We believe that, subject to the points that I have mentioned and subject always to the thought that there is a social dimension to Europe that the Government do not yet accept, that, with the Prime Minister, we should be at the heart of Europe. I have tried to sum up from our side where we see common ground in this House. I accept that there are noble Lords who have different views on the extremes, but I believe there is common ground in this House. It is in that spirit that I say to the Government that we believe that we should be right in there, forming the Community as it is developed. In that I wish the Prime Minister success at Maastricht. § 10.57 p.m. The Earl of Caithness My Lords, this has been, as one would expect of such an important occasion, a most stimulating and encouraging debate. I am grateful to all noble Lords who have taken part. It is indeed a debate that my right honourable friends the Prime Minister, the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs and the Chancellor of the Exchequer will read with great interest. We have heard a range of views expressed generally supportive of the Government's constructive approach to these negotiations and their firm commitment to Community membership. There are those who would like to see the Community do more or to see a re-drawing of the 1259 balance of power between the institutions; more power to the Parliament and less power to the Commission. As my noble friend the Lord Privy Seal stressed at the start of this debate, we must first and foremost always consider the practical implications of any such changes. There is no point erecting gleaming new machinery for enhanced European co-operation if we are not in a position to make it work. The noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn, said that the negotiations would be difficult for any Prime Minister and the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, said much the same. The noble Lords are right. But it is not nearly as difficult as a re-negotiation back into Europe that a Conservative Prime Minister would have had to undertake if a Labour Government had won the last election and taken us out of Europe. While the Labour Party's new-found enthusiasm for Europe is welcomed by many but by no means all of its supporters, as was clear this afternoon, it is sad that those facets which it opposed in the Community are the same ones which have benefited Britain and that its new-found enthusiasm is on the same issues as could do Britain the most damage. § Lord Williams of Elvel My Lords, I tried very hard in my winding up speech not to make a party political broadcast. I tried to unite the discussion that we had in the House. I hope that the noble Earl will follow me in that. The Earl of Caithness My Lords, the noble Lord is right. He made a very constructive speech. I shall make a constructive speech. Various points were made quite legitimately. I am sorry that the noble Lord took offence at what was purely a factual statement by me. I would like to start with economic and monetary union. It is a wide-ranging subject and it needs a little explanation. It comprises three stages. We are already in stage one which only consists of as many member states a possible seeking to join the ERM and efforts to complete the single market next year. The draft treaty says that stage two starts on 1st January 1994. The key points are that monetary policy remains a national responsibility. Contrary to previous plans, the European Central Bank is not set up. The Economic Monetary Institute - the EMI - is established with an advisory, consultative role continuing the work of the committee of the European Central Bank governors which now meets regularly in Basle. The existing process of multi-lateral surveillance of member states' economic policies is set on a formal treaty basis. The finance council has a discretion to register member states' budget deficits and, if it chooses, to declare them excessive. It can issue recommendations but not ceilings or penalties. All member states will make efforts to achieve convergence of economic performance in four areas: inflation, no excessive deficit, long-term interest rates and two years in the ERM narrow band. In answer to the noble Lord, Lord Williams of Elvel, there is agreement that there should be a hardening of the ecu in stage two, as I have just 1260 described it. I noted with interest what my noble friend Lady Elles said about that. She felt that we were already moving in that direction. There is no fixed timetable for stage three. The only rule is that the Commission and the EMI must report on progress on convergence before 31st December 1996. The key points here are that the European Central Bank is established to take over monetary policy. National central banks will be part of the European system of central banks. All would be independent of member states and Community institutions but would be accountable to the European Parliament and the finance council. We do not share common ground with the noble Lord, Lord Williams of Elvel, on that point. It would not be practical for the European Central Bank to take instructions from 12 finance Ministers. The exchange rate policy would be determined by the finance council provided it was compatible with the primary objective of price stability. Member states would not be able to move to stage three until they had passed the convergence tests set out above. At least a certain number - six, seven or eight and we should prefer eight - would have to be ready and willing to move to stage three before it could start. As the noble Lord, Lord Ezra, reminded the House, the United Kingdom has successfully taken the lead in arguing for the importance of prior convergence. Countries which failed the test would be granted temporary derogations, allowing them to join later when they were ready. Under the current proposals any member states, not just the United Kingdom as my noble friend Lady Elles reminded us, would be able to opt for exemption status. If they do not wish to move to stage three, they do not have to do so. The noble Lord, Lord Desai, and the Labour Party would welcome a single currency now. In contrast, we have made it clear that we shall not sign a treaty which would commit us to move to a single currency without a separate decision by the British Government and Parliament. The noble Lord, Lord Thomson of Monifieth, said that that shows that we are grudging members of the Community. I put it to him that he is wrong for the reasons given by the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, and my noble friends Lord Cockfield and Lord Aldington. I must disagree with the view put forward by the noble Lord, which the Liberal Party enunciates, that the only good European is the person who does not query any measures put forward. I do not believe that to be in Europe's interests. To answer the point made by the noble Lords, Lord Ezra and Lord Skidelsky, my right honourable friend the Prime Minister made it clear that it would be wrong to pre-empt a decision as to whether it would be right for the United Kingdom to move to a single currency. That is not a decision for now. It is a decision to be taken by Parliament at the appropriate time in the future. I believe that is also the answer to my noble friend Lord Joseph, to whom I listened with particular care. I can tell the noble Baroness, Lady Ewart-Biggs, that it is envisaged that the existing arrangements for the ERM will continue for any country which is not 1261 part of the single currency although the monetary policy of the European Central Bank would not apply to any exempt member state. We wish to reach satisfactory conclusions to both IGCs at Maastricht. We are working for that result, but I cannot speak for others. I now turn to the other IGC; namely, that on political union. We have heard a great deal this afternoon and this evening about that "F" word -federalism—the federal goal and whether any treaty at Maastricht will set us on a road towards it. Federalism is a red herring. As the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, said, to some it means centralisation and a superstate: to others it means de-centralisation and a structure of subsidiarity. None of us can predict how the Community will develop and whether in 10 years from now it will look more or less like a federal system. As my noble friend the Lord Privy Seal pointed out in opening the debate, the Community has come a long way since we joined it in 1972. But it has done so on the basis of the mutual consent of all its members to broaden and deepen the range of their co-operation. That is the way in which it will continue to develop in the future. Defining any end state can only be unhelpful, especially where a word like "federalism", open to such a wide variety of interpretations, is the specific goal in question. Therefore my noble friend Lord Bessborough will be pleased that the Government have already made perfectly clear that we cannot accept any treaty containing that language, and we are pleased to have the support of my noble friend Lord Aldington on that. In our view the Community should evolve gradually by the consensus of its members. The important thing is to make sure that each step forward is a practical and workable one which will bring benefit to all the Community's members. That is why we have all along advocated a treaty structure which retains the current flexibility and diversity in the forms of co-operation between member states. Much of that co-operation takes place on the basis of provisions and common policies set down in the Treaty of Rome. But there is much useful work that goes on outside that structure in inter-governmental fora. It is no less European for that. It is no less intense, no less co-ordinated and no less useful than work under the treaty. I am glad to say that the present text of the Netherlands treaty recognises that view and maintains areas for inter-governmental co-operation. That approach will allow us to expand the level of our co-operation on a number of sensitive subjects as far as necessary and as quickly as possible. After all, that is what we all want. A number of noble Lords, including my noble friend Lord Campbell of Alloway, raised the important issue of increasing the democratic accountability of the unelected Commission. We have a clear view of the powers of the Commission, and more importantly, of the limits of those powers. It is the Council of Ministers which is the decision-making power in the Community and not the Commission. 1262 The Commission's legislative powers are limited to those delegated to it by the Council of Ministers, and then under carefully drawn conditions. Even so, as my noble friend Lord Rippon of Hexham said, it is still possible for the Commission to stray into the details of everyday life in a way which has antagonised the British people and led to calls for increasing the accountability of the Commission. A number of draft provisions in the treaty to be examined in Maastricht are designed to address that problem. If a treaty is signed, it will contain provisions allowing a European Parliament role of approval on the appointment of the Commission, a more detailed European parliamentary role in the budget discharge procedure, and the right to call the Commission to account, as well as broader rights to set up temporary committees of inquiry to receive petitions and to appoint an ombudsman. That would be a positive gain for Britain and for the rest of the Community. We spent some time a little over a month ago debating in detail the question of expanding the European Parliament's powers in the legislative field. We did so on the basis of an admirable report produced by the European Communities Committee on the law-making powers and procedures of a political union. I remind the House of one of the report's conclusions, which said that the concept of co-decision between the European Parliament and the Council was inherently unworkable. We very much agree, and it seems that our partners do as well. What is now on the table in the latest Dutch treaty text is nothing like earlier ambitious proposals for joint decision-making between the Council and the European Parliament, both having equal weight in the legislative process. Instead, there is the prospect of introducing in certain areas an ultimate power for the European Parliament to block a decision taken by Ministers in the Council. The label "co-decision" is no longer accurate and no longer applies. The Government's position on the developing role of the European Parliament in the Community has been set clearly before the House in the past. The noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn, and the Government are close to being on common ground in that regard. We recognise and encourage the useful work that the parliament can perform in enhancing the accountability of the Commission, in attending to the detail of the Community's accounts to achieve greater efficiency, and in providing a focus for investigating the grievances of European citizens. In addition, in answer to a question of the noble Lord, Lord Bruce of Donington, we are ready to consider introducing the new proposed negative assent procedure into the Community's decision-making process, provided its scope of application is strictly limited. However, the noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn, and we differ in that we believe that there is no case for any more significant increase in the parliament's legislative power so soon after the step change represented by the Single European Act. To the noble Lord, Lord Bruce of Donington, and to my noble friend Lord Bethell, I would add that it is through involving our national parliaments more closely in the Community's work, an area where I know that this House wishes to take 1263 the lead, that we will truly be able to strengthen the democratic accountability of the Community as a whole. On defence, a subject mentioned by the noble Duke, the Duke of Manchester, in his excellent maiden speech which carried all the more weight for being brief, we are negotiating in the IGC on the basis of three broad principles, which I believe command the broad support of the House, including, I hope, the support of the noble Lord, Lord Stoddart of Swindon. First, the importance of the Atlantic Alliance. My noble friend Lady Park will be pleased to know that we are firm that NATO must retain sole responsibility for the defence of NATO territory. The Western European Union should be developed to be the instrument of a European defence identity. It should have links in different ways to both the Union and NATO, but it should be subordinate to neither. The third point is that defence co-operation in Europe should not force our other allies to be periphery, nor should it present them with a fait accompli which they have no choice but to accept or reject. We are confident that an agreement can be reached which protects those three principles at Maastricht. The Anglo-Italian declaration on European defence was widely welcomed, and I would put it to the noble Lord, Lord Varley, that it is but one example of the positive role that we have taken. It has been by no means a reactionary role. Another question that has naturally commanded much attention is the issue of a common foreign policy. This is nothing new. In practice we have been seeking to operate such a common policy for some considerable time. Strengthening the commitment to achieve such a policy is a long-standing British objective. We hope that the mechanisms agreed at Maastricht will deliver one, but I would put it to the noble Lord, Lord Bonham-Carter, that this does not mean putting it within the Treaty of Rome. Thus we do not agree that this need contain any provision for qualified majority voting. A common policy will carry most weight when it is unanimously agreed. Majority voting will not long hide disunity and disarray when it is exposed to the pressures of the real world. I was going to answer a question of the noble Lord, Lord Weidenfeld, at this point, but as he is not in his place, I shall not do so. But let us be clear, nobody is suggesting that majority voting should be introduced for significant issues of principle, but only for implementing decisions of a very secondary nature. I believe that the noble Lord, Lord Monson, would agree that the burden is on the other member states who favour this distinction to convince us that it can ever work in practice. I am not in the least surprised that a number of your Lordships raised the question of a referendum. I appreciate the strongly-held views in all parts of the Chamber. I agree with the sentiments expressed by my right honourable friend the Prime Minister in another place last week and repeated this afternoon by my noble friend the Lord Privy Seal. We believe there is no need for a referendum after Maastricht. I admired very much what my noble friend Lord Beloff said, and 1264 my noble friend Lord Boardman put it more succinctly for us non-academics when he said that we live in a parliamentary democracy. The noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn, asked about social policy, and I am sorry that the noble Lord, Lord McCarthy, is not in his place to hear what I have to say on this particular point. I agree that we do not want to give up so much of what we have achieved in the past 12 years, and it is worth pointing out that just three draft directives in the social action programme, including those on part-time work and working time, would cost British employers up to £6.5 million and lead to the loss of as many as 100,000 jobs. I agree with my noble friend Lord Harmar-Nicholls, whom I am pleased to see is in his place. We need to look at this area with great care. The noble Lord, Lord Bruce of Donington, showed his expertise with regard to the Court of Auditors among the other areas that he mentioned. The Treaty of Rome already provides that the Court of Auditors should be completely independent in the performance of its duties. It is not subservient to the Commission. There are proposals in the draft treaty put forward by the United Kingdom which should improve the workings of the court. I agree with the noble Lord—none is too soon. I shall write to the noble Lord on the details and on the other points that he raised. Finally, I should like to echo the words of my right honourable friend the Prime Minister in another place last week. He made it quite clear that Britain's place is at the heart of Europe, and that the Community's best interests lie in reaching an agreement at Maastricht which will satisfy all of its members. We will not be afraid to argue our corner where we believe our position is right. That has always been our approach. It has worked of course in our own interests, but also in the long-term interests of the Community. Our stands in the Community in the past, calling for sound finances and a reformed common agricultural policy, are in retrospect seen not as wrecking or isolationist but as fundamental good sense. It has not damaged our interests to be a little sceptical, as the noble Lord, Lord Ardwick, described it. For a consensus agreement to be reached at Maastricht, there will need to be give and take on all sides. There are some points we should prefer to see agreed which may not be. But some points are more important than others. I shall summarise what are among the most crucial for us. On EMU, we must see the incorporation in the treaty of strict conditions of economic convergence and a provision which will allow government and Parliament to decide whether and not just when to join a single currency. On political union, we must safeguard NATO as the principal vehicle of our defence, and avoid the creation of any competing European defence structure which would undermine it. On foreign policy, we want stronger and closer co-operation, outside Community competence. But it must not interfere with our ability to take decisions in our own national interest. We need to increase the European Parliament's role in controlling the 1265 Commission, but we should not allow the Parliament to become the legislative equal of the Council in making policy for the Community. We want greater co-operation in Europe in the fights against cross-border crime, drugs, terrorism, illegal immigration and other Home Office issues. This treaty provides a chance to give such intergovernmental co-operation a sound basis in its international law; again this is best pursued outside the framework of the Community. Finally—and here I agree with my noble friend Lord Joseph —we must constrain the extension of Community competence to those areas where Community action makes more sense than national action, or action on a voluntary inter-governmental basis. Again, I was going to say something to the noble Lord, Lord McCarthy, on this subject. This is the approach which we believe will have the support of the majority of people in this country. It is a policy designed to maximise our influence in the Community; and we must use that influence. We must use it to ensure that the Community fills the important role in world affairs which the changes elsewhere in Europe and its growing economic strength dictate it must. We must keep the Community open, liberal, true to its original free-market philosophy; and we must see that the Community does not turn its face away from the newly-emerging democracies of eastern Europe. We should offer them the prospect of 1266 Community membership along with the other applicants in a lengthening queue, once they can satisfy all the conditions of membership. That is the challenge before us. It is a challenge, as I have said, to which the Community can rise only if the structures and procedures we agree at Maastricht for this next stage of the Community's development are workable, practical and command consensus. It is with this vital goal in mind that the British Government approach the Maastricht European Council. We continue to participate forcefully at the heart of debate in helping to shape the structure, the processes and the future development of an organisation which is set to play an ever increasing role in the wider world, and an ever more beneficial one in all of our lives. § On Question, Motion agreed to.

Federalism

Which British actress won the Hampstead and Highgate seat for Labour in the 1992 General Election?

European Council, Maastricht (Hansard, 25 November 1991) Lord Cledwyn of Penrhos My Lords, we are grateful to the noble Lord the Leader of the House for setting the scene for the debate and for his comprehensive speech in which he explained some aspects of the Government's policy. A two-day debate on the importance and implications of the Maastricht Summit was held in another place last week. We all followed that discussion with great interest. Today we have the opportunity to express our views on what is without doubt a historic milestone in the history of the Community. There are differences of view on a number of issues between the parties, and within the parties, in this country, as was made very plain in last week's debate in the House of Commons. However, there is overwhelming agreement on one central point; namely, that as a member of the European Community it is our duty in this country to work for solutions which are in the best interests of our people and of the Community as a whole. We must be clear about how we want to see the Community develop and we must work to ensure that Britain is in a position to influence the objectives which we support. There is little doubt that the Community will expand still further. Sweden and Austria are seeking membership and the other EFTA countries will follow, as may two or three Eastern European countries in due course. It is an exciting prospect but it will be an attractive one only if we can ensure that the new association will be democratic and that there will be accountability as between the various levels of administration within the Community—a point upon which the noble Lord expanded. Economic, monetary and political union for Europe is an ambitious concept and a complex and intricate one. The noble Lord said that we cannot set the final shape of Europe now, and I agree with him. It is for that reason that we should tackle each stage of the development with realism and common sense. We know that there have been arguments on a range of issues and we do not know, even at this late stage, whether they will be resolved before the Maastricht Summit takes place. The noble Lord also said that Maastricht will not settle the fate of Europe now. Here again I agree with him. I suggested in the debate on the Address that we should seek to negotiate a package upon which we could all agree at Maastricht while other matters on 1154 which agreement is clearly impossible should be reserved for further consideration. That must be preferable to a pointless and acrimonious haggle there. The impression has been created that Maastricht is a make or break summit. That is a great mistake for it has been plain from the start that there are issues on which total agreement may well be impossible, at least at this stage. As the noble Lord has said, every country in the Community has its own history, ethos, culture and national memory and its policies inevitably reflect that. That has its dangers, as we know all too well. Yugoslavia demonstrates that in an extreme way at this moment. We can thank heaven that the Community came into existence primarily to ensure that the wars which had devastated Europe would never happen again. It is very much to the credit of this House that over the past two years or so it has gone to very great lengths to study and debate the problems implicit in Maastricht. In October 1990 and in July this year our Select Committee on the European Communities, which is presided over by my noble friend Lady Serota, published excellent reports which we debated here at some length. The committee made important recommendations which are very relevant to our debate today. For example, it stressed that the communities must take steps to meet the requirements of democratic principles and that Community institutions must be, and must be seen to be, democratically accountable. It is for that reason that the Commission as at present constituted poses a problem. I must put the question to the noble Earl, Lord Caithness, who is to reply to the debate: why should not the Commission be more accountable to the European Parliament? That is one of the key issues to be resolved at this time. The noble Lord, Lord Waddington, described some reforms which we listened to with interest. We support those proposals, but we should go further. The European Parliament has some limited powers and there is a strong case for extending them as, otherwise, it could develop into an expensive talking shop and nothing else. Its powers should complement but not replace those of national parliaments and it should share some powers to institute legislation with the Commission. A further step in accountability would be to give the Parliament rights of confirmation after hearings for each member of the Commission with, possibly, a right of recall. Such a process would strengthen Community democracy without impairing the power of national parliaments. That is well worth considering. As to the Council itself, we must remember that it decides a good deal of legislation affecting the British people. I agree with the report to this House that: they have a duty to be far more forthcoming about the intentions and the progress of legislation". It has been suggested that national parliaments should receive all Commission proposals for legislation by the Council; that they should also be given adequate time to scrutinise the proposals and appropriate opportunity for discussion; and that Council procedures should 1155 provide adequate opportunity for national scrutiny in advance of final decisions. That seems to me to be very reasonable and sensible. I hope that the Prime Minister and his colleagues will support those suggestions and, if necessary, propose them at Maastricht. When he replies to the debate, perhaps the noble Earl will also comment on that point. Paragraph 115—the last paragraph of our Select Committee's report dated 23rd July of this year—should be borne in mind by us and by the Government at this time. It states: The questions which we have discussed in detail relate to the be lance of power—between the Council and the Parliament and between the Community and its Member States. We believe that any shift in the existing balance of power between the institutions and in the balance of power between the Community and the Member States should take place not in pursuit of a vision or a destiny or under pressure to board some imaginary train, but following an informed debate as to the probable consequences". That seems to me to be a sensible comment relevant to this debate. Another practical point that tends to be overlooked is that Ministers who are members of the Council are so preoccupied with work in their own departments at home that they do not have the necessary time to apply themselves to Council work which then inevitably falls more and more to civil servants. I have immense respect for our civil servants, but the danger and tendency is for the powers of commissioners and civil servants to grow imperceptibly, unless measures are taken to make them accountable at every stage. It is out duty to ensure that the structure is democratic and not bureaucratic. I do not believe or accept that the European Community is intended to be a unitary state or that the objective is to build a superstate. That is something that I am unable to contemplate. The use of the word "federal" has confused matters. When we use it, we in this country think of the United States. When our partners use it, they think of a looser form of association. We must try to find a definition on which all can agree. Since its inception, the Community has developed slowly and, although mistakes have been made, its achievements are considerable. The fact that Sweden and other EFTA nations wish to join is proof of that, but Sweden, like this country, wishes to preserve its own national parliament. We must have openness and democracy in decision-making. The Prime Minister believes in charters. He must go to Maastricht with a charter for democracy and clear proposals for the reform of the Parliament, the Commission and the Council. So far, those have not been clarified and the Government must realise that positive proposals would be better than negative reactions. We know that Mr. John Major has a difficult task on his hands in achieving a reasonable settlement at Maastricht. For the reasons that I have given, it would not be easy for any British Prime Minister of whatever party, but the task has been made infinitely more difficult for him by the attacks upon him by prominent members of his own party, notably Mrs. Margaret Thatcher, who has described his policy as "arrogant" and "wrong". She was referring mainly to his reaction to the call for a referendum. I have some sympathy for 1156 Mr. Major. During her tenure, Mrs. Thatcher was never a great champion of referenda; she always tended to regard her own pronouncements as the equivalent of a referendum. If she was in power now, would she have held a referendum? I think not. Nevertheless, the Government have not been able to handle this preparatory period skilfully. They have lurched from hesitation to uncertainty and there is a lack of clarity on several issues, some of which I have mentioned. My noble friend Lord Williams of Elvel will deal with economic and monetary union when he speaks later, but I must say that I am still uncertain about the Government's policy on the currency issue which is of central importance. Will the noble Earl tell us exactly where Britain stands on EMU? Is it the case that Mr. Major will leave this country "wholly free to reject" a commitment to a single currency? I understand that the Bundesbank is being helpful at this moment, as is the Italian Bank, in sustaining the pound. But we must look to the future, and the possibility that the bankers will control interest rates when neither the Government nor Parliament will have any say in the matter. Many people have asked me to put that point to the noble Earl in the debate. The Times put the matter in a nutshell on 23rd November when it said: The whole enterprise is fraught with risk. An unelected oligarchy of bankers would sooner or later clash with elected politicians … The political conflict might well be aggravated by the fact that the central bankers might no longer be 'ours'. A constitutional impasse over monetary policy could even precipitate the collapse of the Community as a whole". I want to see a constructive settlement at Maastricht, but I also think that Parliament should be given a clearer explanation of Government policy at this time. There are further questions that I should like to put to the noble Earl on matters that we on this side regard as important. Will he explain why, in the Government's view, the other 11 member states have no problems in accepting the principles of the Social Charter? Furthermore, if the Government are so obstinately opposed to much of the legislation based on the charter, why did they subscribe the Government's name to Articles 117 to 119 of the Single European Act? Finally, on the issue of qualified majority voting to which the noble Lord referred, we noted that the Government were in favour of that with regard to measures to facilitate the completion of the single market (Article 100A of the Act). Will the noble Earl tell us what distinction of principle is perceived between that area of policy and those relating to the social dimension and the environment where the Government opposed qualified majority voting? As the House knows, those matters deeply worry my noble friends. I regret that time does not permit me to deal with other matters of substance, although we discussed many of them in the debate on the Address three weeks ago. For example, I made plain then that we believe that NATO is the best guarantor of peace and security in Europe and that the Western European Union should be built up, not as an alternative to NATO, but as its European pillar. Our aim is to build a democratic Community subject to the rule of law 1157 and the freedom of the individual. We must secure those basic rights and principles in every step we take, in every regulation and in every law that we allow to pass. I supported the Community from the start, not for reasons of commerce or trade, important though they are, but, as I said earlier, because Europe in our time was devastated by the two most terrible wars that the world has known. In those wars 50 million people were killed, 6 million Jews died in the Holocaust and there is not a family represented in the Chamber this afternoon that did not lose a loved one in those dreadful hostilities. That is why the European Community came into being; that is what Maastricht is about; and that is why Maastricht must not fail. § 3.40 p.m. Lord Thomson of Monifieth My Lords, I am glad that the noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn, concluded on such a note, reminding us of the great vision that lies behind the need to create an effective European Community. It is a mistake to believe that there is an inherent contradiction between having that wider vision of the longer term goals of the European Community and seeking practical ways to achieve those goals. I recollect being told by a distinguished Foreign Office official that in Brussels I should learn lessons of pragmatism that I had never learnt in the Fabian Society in this country. It is worth remembering that point. As the noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn, said, this debate follows the two-day debate in another place. We are grateful to the noble Lord, Lord Waddington, for giving us some detail of the negotiating position that the Government will seek to adopt at Maastricht. The fact is that there is much common ground around on many of the issues aimed at promoting what the noble Lord, Lord Waddington, called a more efficient and effective Community. There is much in what the noble Lord said, and much has been said in detail elsewhere, which may be debatable but about which there is no reason to be dogmatic. However, in the view of these Benches, there is one fundamental aspect of the Government's approach to the Maastricht Summit that is deeply flawed. It undermines the rest of the Government's approach. Let me put it in terms of the Prime Minister's careful and conscientious analysis in another place of his position. He said, and I agree with him: There are in truth only three ways of dealing with the Community. We can leave it and no doubt we would survive but we would be diminished in influence and prosperity. We can stay in grudgingly, in which case others will lead it; or we can play a leading role in it and that is the right policy". However, in my judgment he went on to make it very difficult for Britain to play that leading role by saying on one of the most sensitive aims of Community policy at the Maastricht Summit—the goal of full economic and monetary union with a single currency and single central bank— We [the Government] are therefore insisting [on] the right, quite separately from any European Council decision, to decide for ourselves [in 1996] whether or not to [join in] … Nothing in the treaty that I sign now will bind us now to the 1158 decision that we must take then … because at this stage we cannot know what the circumstances then will be". [Official Report, Commons, 20/11/91; col. 272.] Nor can any of the other 11 member governments know; yet none of them insists on the opt-out/opt-in clause which the Government are so strangely proud of having, in a preliminary way, negotiated in the preparations for Maastricht. Why cannot the Government see that standing in isolation will at the very least deeply undermine the Prime Minister's professed aim of "playing a leading role" in the Community? Why cannot the Government see that it will lead inexorably to the other possibility that the Prime Minister himself spelt out; namely, staying grudgingly in the Community, in which case others will lead it and shape it to suit their interests and not ours. The reason for the Government's behaviour has little to do with a practical, pragmatic approach to European unity and everything to do with preventing Conservative disunity in the approach to Maastricht. They are not succeeding even in that aim to judge by the reaction of Mrs. Thatcher and those around her, as described by the noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn. Surely Mr. Major, more than most, should have recognised that the lady is not for appeasing. Unless that approach can be corrected, sadly it will perpetuate Britain's role in the Community as the reluctant member and the odd man out. So far, with the honourable exception of Mr. Edward Heath's administration, the attitude to the Community of successive British governments, Conservative or Labour, has been that of the proud Scottish mother watching her son on the parade ground and saying, "My goodness, everybody is out of step except our Jock". The Government are adopting such a short-sighted attitude in an area of policy—banking and financial services—where Britain has every claim to be pre-eminent. Our manufacturing industry, battered and bruised by government policy, may have to take second place to that of the Germans; but the Government have always insisted—I think they are right—that the City of London and Britain generally could benefit greatly from being the financial capital of a wider Europe whatever the efforts of Frankfurt and other places to seek to replace the City of London. Britain should have had the strongest claim to be the seat of the proposed European Monetary Institute, the embryo central bank. But what chance is there of that if in advance we decline to commit ourselves to the possibility of being part of such a bank? Are we to have six years of uncertainty over whether we shall be part of a single currency? Why should investors from the rest of the world want to face over those years all the uncertainties of the foreign exchange position in the City of London when, if they go to Frankfurt or elsewhere, they can be part of a large single currency area? What nonsense it is, when we all know that at the end of the day it is much more than probable that, as so often with European Community policies, the Government will go into the single currency—with which the Prime Minister conceded that he agrees in 1159 principle. Even if we do not do so, we shall end up with an insular, national currency shadowing a powerful ecu. That fundamental flaw at the heart of the Government's approach to Maastricht will diminish our influence in all the other difficult issues which the noble Lord, Lord Waddington, described; namely, the arrangements for political union, striking the right sort of balance between the institutions of the Community and getting right the arrangements for closer cohesion of foreign policy. Those are all very difficult issues and I agree with much of what the noble Lord said about finding solutions. Without a clear commitment to a single currency as the outcome of bringing about convergence of national economies, the shaping of those developments will be dominated by Germany and France. Britain, instead of taking its proper place at the top of the premier division, will have relegated itself to the second division. The noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn, raised the matter of a referendum. In a very real sense that is secondary to the matters which the noble Lord, Lord Waddington, described, such as the major issue of the currency about which I have spoken. The issue of a referendum is now causing a good deal of public debate and raises the question of how the political system in our country can best take its final decisions over Maastricht once the results of the negotiations have emerged. How major constitutional change should be decided in a country without a constitution is not n easy issue to confront. It is not sufficient for the Government or the official Opposition to say that there is no need for a referendum because we are a parliamentary democracy. If we were a more perfect parliamentary democracy there might indeed be no need for a referendum. But we are far from that. Since the last European referendum in 1975, changes in society and increasing polarisation between the two major parties in domestic politics have greatly reduced the fairness of our electoral system and, as a result, the representative quality of the parliament that emerges from it. My noble friends on these Benches will know what I mean, when I say that some of us are inclined to feel prisoners of the past with regard to a referendum. I voted against a European referendum in 1972. I have strong reservations about resorting to the referendum device too frequently on major issues. However, having taken a vigorous part in the referendum campaign of 1975, I found that debate across normal party lines a great deal more impressive and I believe more helpful to the British people than that which had taken place in Parliament. The current debate in another place—I fully exempt debates in your Lordships' House from these remarks—can hardly be said to have risen to the level of the fateful issues at stake. It has been distorted by the divisions within the Conservative Party to which the noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn, referred, and by the usual two party slanging match seeking to score party points on every single issue. The debate is also 1160 disfigured by using character assassination of the Leader of the Opposition as a substitute for serious argument. That is the background against which Mr. Paddy Ashdown, the leader of the Liberal Democrats, the party to which I now belong, has made his case for a post legislative referendum. His motivation is very different from that of Mrs. Thatcher and her supporters. For them the referendum is the last refuge of losers in an internal party battle. We all know that if Mrs. Thatcher had managed to remain Prime Minister and had been able to handbag her party into acquiescence with her views about the European Community, she would have remained as opposed in principle to a referendum as she had been previously. However, underneath the froth of the current arguments and the various public opinions polls, I believe that the common sense of the British people tells them that we are in the Community, that it would be folly to seek to come out, and that therefore the sensible thing is to make the best and the most of our membership. In order to see through the many and complex issues described today by the noble Lord, Lard Waddington, the people need a clear lead from their political leaders. If Mr. Major, even at this late stage, were to abandon his escape clauses on EMU and possibly on political union, which were designed to appease Mrs. Thatcher, and were then to lead a cross-party eleven on to the referendum cricket field, I prophesy that he would knock for six the motley team that he would find on the other side. The result would be at least as decisive as that of 1975 and the voice of the Cassandra of Finchley might be effectively silenced on the issue. Alas, Mrs. Thatcher's latest outburst has made such a change of policy even less likely than it was before. We can therefore only fall back on the old fashioned parliamentary method of a change of government. Fortunately, we should not have to wait long for that. On these Benches, with a long, consistent commitment to a truly united Europe, we shall seek to ensure that an alternative government does a great deal better than their sadly divided predecessor. Perhaps, in conclusion, I may remind your Lordships' House that on 11th December, the day following the end of the Maastricht conference, there is a five-hour debate allocated to these Benches. My noble friend Lord Jenkins of Hillhead will initiate a debate and move a resolution on the results of the Maastricht Summit. That debate will give your Lordships' House the earliest opportunity—perhaps the first opportunity within the Houses of Parliament—to express its views on the results that Her Majesty's Government bring back. § 3.55 p.m. The Duke of Manchester My Lords, the last time a member of my family spoke in this House was in 1903. My grandfather's speech was on a Question to the House relating to the borders of Northern and Southern Ireland. Today I wish to make a short speech on the constitution and sovereignty of our country. 1161 Our fellow countrymen have fought in two world wars with great loss of life to defend this country, our constitution and our monarchy. At the same time, we have gone to the aid of other countries at great personal sacrifice to our nation. That has enabled those countries to enjoy their freedom with the knowledge that Great Britain has always been there to assist them in the hour of need. I believe that unless we go to Maastricht with all parties united to maintain our sovereignty and constitution, we shall be giving away what past and present generations have sacrificed themselves for. I fully appreciate that we must not be outside the European pact as we have so much to offer, being the oldest sitting Parliament in Europe. However, the ultimate agreement must be with all nations united in an agreement which does not sacrifice our collective democracies. I draw your Lordships' attention to the speech of the noble Lord, Lord Carrington, on 6th September 1990, prior to the Gulf War. He stated: I should like to touch on one other matter which, although perhaps not immediately relevant, is something on which the European Community might usefully reflect. This crisis has shown up how far removed the 12 countries are from achieving a closer political association".—[ Official Report, 6/9/90; col. 1813. ] Note should be taken of that statement from such an eminent Member of your Lordships' House. I thank noble Lords for giving me the opportunity of making my maiden speech. § 3.58 p.m. Lord Callaghan of Cardiff My Lords, I hope that it will not be thought that I am losing my grip when I say that I agree with much of what the noble Lord the Leader of the House and the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, said. I believe that there is a great deal in common on these issues. The noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, illustrated the extremely difficult tactical hand which the Prime Minister must play at Maastricht. I do not believe that that has been made any easier by the histrionics of last week but at least the speeches which have taken place in this debate today have shown that it is possible to discuss calmly and rationally those historic issues which will affect our children and our country's welfare as a whole. I almost chuckled when I heard Mrs. Thatcher invoking the symbol of the pound as a symbol of stability and sovereignty. It is ironic that, three or four days after her speech, we are relying on the Bundesbank to prop up sterling in order to ensure that it remains inside the European rate mechanism. I simply cannot accept that the pound is a symbol of either stability—its value has declined consistently since the war—or of sovereignty. Indeed, there is no such thing as pure sovereignty, as we all know. To use the pound as a symbol of our independence and the independence of our monetary policies, especially on a day like today, will do everything to convince the Europeans that we are a backward-looking nation wallowing in nostalgia for the past instead of looking forward to what must lie ahead. I differ from my former noble friend and certainly my personal friend the noble Lord, Lord Thomson of Monifieth, as regards the opt-out clause. He asked why other countries are not insisting on that clause in the way in which we are. If he reflects for a moment he will realise that the situation is different between ourselves and those other countries. Here I make a point with which those on the Government Benches opposite may or may not agree. The difference between us is that the United Kingdom economy is much less capable of standing up to an entry into European monetary union than are most, if not all, the economies of our allies. Indeed it is uncertain whether we shall be able to maintain our position. I very much hope that we shall be able to do that. However, when I look back over the history of recent years, I see that we have squandered the oil revenues and have decimated British industry. I say to the noble Lord, Lord Thomson, that at the depth of a depression we have a balance of payments deficit which has never before been known in our history. Our imports are at their lowest and there is spare capacity in industry which should be taken up in exports—to a minor degree it has been taken up. That deficit has continued not merely for a month or two but over a period of years. I ask myself what will be the position if and when the recession is over not only technically but in reality, when men are being taken on in the factories and workshops and when our industry starts moving upwards again. What will be the shape of our balance of payments deficit then? 1166 Therefore, I say to the noble Lord, Lord Thomson of Monifieth, that there is a case for the opt-out clause. I regret that it should be so. But it is important and imperative, when we come to 1996 or 1997, that this country should have the option. To those whom I may call the "Eurosceptics", I say that it will not be a cause for celebration. It will be a symbol of our internal defeat as a nation; a symbol that we shall continually slide more slowly into a state where we cannot sustain the standards of living of our people relative to other countries and where our influence as a country will decline. The opt-out clause is important. What is important also is that we have four or five years in which to put ourselves into a position from which we can face 1997 with the same equanimity as the Bundesbank. With regard to referenda I say this. I have a history of referenda. During my administration there were two; one went the way the government wanted and the other did not. I cannot say that I am a lover of referenda. One was taken under the influence of the Commons, which was quite right, and the other in order to help the government, which was also right, as I am sure noble Lords opposite will agree. I believe that the results were right. However, where I strongly disagree with Mr. Tebbit is that it would be absurd to hold a referendum after Maastricht, as he proposed. There may or may not be a case—I should want to hear it argued further—for holding a referendum in 1996 or 1997. But we should not hold one immediately after Maastricht when we do not know what the future will hold. The noble Lord, Lord Waddington, referred to the future development of the Community. Will a Community which was devised for six, could accommodate nine, and is rather straining itself with 12, be able to contain, without a change in its structure or practices, a membership of 20 or 25? Who can tell at this stage what will be the shape of the Community in 1996 when this fateful decision for Britain will need to be taken? No one knows. We are in a position of considerable speculation in regard to the future. No one really knows what the shape of the Community will be when we finally take up the challenge of economic and monetary union. No one knows whether this country will be in a position—as I fervently trust—to accept the challenge. I say to all those thinking of a referendum, please use some common sense. Let us see what the change will be over the years that lie ahead. We can then take a decision in the light of the knowledge that we possess at that time. I hope that at the end of the negotiations the Prime Minister is in a position to sign or initial in good faith the single economic and monetary union treaty, with the safeguard of the opt-out clause. As I say, it will be no bed of roses. We shall need to watch the position and the Prime Minister will need to negotiate on a number of issues. There is the whole question of the convergence of our economies to be considered, to which I referred. There is the special position of the regions of Scotland and Wales to take into account. Constitutional possibilities should not be overlooked in relation to either of those two countries and their 1167 relationship with the European Commission. Each may have different thoughts regarding the unity of the United Kingdom in certain circumstances. I do not rule that out. I do not wish to see it come but we are all facing a great many uncertainties in the present situation. Therefore I say to the Prime Minister: sign the treaty in good faith. Work through stage 2 in order to achieve its ends and then through stage 3. However, at the end of the day if we opt out, although it will be a matter of deep regret, at least we will have endeavoured and succeeded in doing what we can. In regard to political union, I agree with the approach of the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield. I do not view the prospect with any enthusiasm at all. However, I disagree with his conclusions for this reason. Germany has taken the concept of political union at too much of a gallop. It has come far too soon. It has not been worked out properly nor thought through properly. The clauses in the treaty—I am sure many noble Lords have read them—are flabby, imprecise and can be interpreted in many ways. Some may argue that that is a case for signing—that we will be able to interpret them in many ways. I am not sure that that is a good way to proceed. Our Prime Minister should not be frightened by the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, into coming back without an agreement on political union. The arguments that he will hear are the arguments that we have all heard ever since 1949 when the Council of Europe was set up. As a young Member of Parliament I was sent by Mr. Attlee to deputise for Mr. Herbert Morrison—as if such a thing were possible! We divided ourselves at that time into federalists and functionalists. The British, of course, were in the functional camp. The Belgians, the Dutch and the other smaller nations were in the federal camp. As far as I can see, over the past 40 years the arguments have not changed and the line-up remains the same. I notice one important difference; that is, that the definition of "federal" has begun to change. I see the noble Viscount, Lord Eccles, is in his place. He will remember those great debates as I do. There were one or two in which M. Spaak, the prominent federalist, took me to task and rebuked me for not seeing matters in the way that he did. The noble Viscount, Lord Eccles, escaped that, although I believe he was really on my side at the time. However, I do not believe we have progressed much further except in the definitions. I do not believe that the Prime Minister should sign a document which contains the word "federal.' because it has a different connotation in this country than elsewhere. It may be that they are right and we are wrong. The plain truth is that it means something different to us. We should therefore not sign at this moment. A dilemma exists. We are torn between the voiced dislike of many ordinary citizens about what has been seen to be and in reality is the growing centralisation of power, and the revolt against that centralised power, and, conversely, the growing realisation that pure sovereignty is no longer possible; that we are not able to solve our problems by ourselves. Somehow that dilemma must he resolved. 1168 I regret to say that I do not take all the statements made by leaders of other countries immediately prior to the negotiations—and perhaps, indeed, not even those of Mr. John Major—at face value. Whatever the French may say in regard to devaluation, I am not sure that, should the time come, they would not devalue again. I have heard them say it before, as has the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield. General de Gaulle said it in the most stringent terms, yet when the moment came they did. Although Chancellor Kohl made the suggestion—no doubt in good faith and with the hope of helping the Conservative Party win the election, which would be a poor bet—that the decision be postponed for six months, I do not believe that that is realistic. Nor should we accept such an offer, even if the Prime Minister thought it would bring him victory in the general election. It is too fundamental a problem. Those issues must be worked out much more thoroughly than they have been at the present time. It may be that the others will go ahead without us. I am not talking about economic and monetary union. I want us to be there, and if the Prime Minister uses the right tactics he will see that he comes to an agreement on that first before they tackle political union. After all, that was on the agenda long before political union. If we get to the point where they go ahead it will be a great disappointment, but it will not necessarily be a catastrophe. In regard to defence, to try to erect a defence pillar without the assistance of the United Kingdom would be ridiculous. It could not he done. Indeed, as long as NATO continues to exist in its present form it would be otiose. As regards the foreign policy aspects, I agree with the quotation given in his maiden speech by the noble Duke, the Duke of Manchester, from the speech of the noble Lord, Lord Carrington; that what was shown by the Gulf situation was our incapacity, when we get into a particular situation, for such a combined foreign policy to be worked out. Therefore, I say that I will be disappointed but that we should not sign up at this stage on a political union that includes defence and foreign policy. Finally, I agree with those who have said that the powers of the Commission need to be restricted. I agree with the Foreign Secretary about the bureaucratic tendency to peer into every nook and cranny of our national life. It must be made more accountable. I thought that the editor of Dimanche Matin put it very well in the Observer yesterday when he said: It is time now to redefine the democratic content of the European Community, to decide on a system of checks and balances in order to counter the technocratic traditions and autocratic temptations of the European Commission. Many of us will say, "Hear, hear". Finally, I hope I have made it clear that I want very much to see this closer union of Europe, but that does not mean that the British, in their usual pragmatic way, should not point out the practical difficulties of what is being proposed on certain issues. We should never forget the hold and imaginative concept of the 1940s, which led to the establishment of the European Community; the reconciliation of ancient enemies; a means of harnessing the immense latent power of 1169 Germany, which is now much strengthened so that it is 80 million strong; the establishment of confidence among her smaller neighbours; and the construction of a powerful economic entity. All those benefits have flowed from the setting up of the Community, and Britain has an essential and fundamental role in that. Its success is the best safeguard of the welfare and safety of those who come after us. § 4.33 p.m. Viscount Tonypandy My Lords, I wish to apologise to the House at once that it may not be possible for me to stay until the end of this debate. I also wish to congratulate the noble Duke, the Duke of Manchester, on his maiden speech. When I was Speaker I loved brief speeches, but when I agreed with every word that was said it made me feel all the better. I want to say to the noble Duke that I hope we shall hear him again. It is an especial privilege for me to follow my noble friend Lord Callaghan of Cardiff. For nearly 40 years we were neighbours with our constituencies in the capital city of Wales. It was a commonplace for us to be on the same platform, sometimes singing slightly different tunes—as indeed may be possible today—but always understanding the sincerity with which the other spoke. The Leader of the Opposition was also my colleague for I think over three decades as a Member of Parliament from the Principality. Therefore, I follow old friends upon an issue that is as old as Parliament itself. I put my name down to speak today because of the office that brought me to this place. For 700 years it has been the privilege and the duty of the Speaker to guard the unwritten constitution and to guard the rights and privileges of the Commons at Westminster. I am reminded that when King Charles I filled Westminster Hall with his troops to intimidate the Commons and he himself marched into the Chamber—the last monarch to set foot inside the Commons Chamber—he took the Speaker's chair. When Charles I looked around for the five Members he wished to arrest and asked the House where they had gone—they had all gone to good schools, so they said—they looked down and would not say anything, and when his Majesty ordered the Speaker to tell him, Mr. Speaker Lenthall said: I have eyes to see and tongue to tell only as this House doth command me. We have to be careful lest future Speakers should reach the position where they will say that they have eyes to see and tongue to tell only as the European Commission will tell them. As everyone knows, I am not an enthusiast. Perhaps I may say that the debate in the other place caused high passions. It will be a sorry day for Britain when emotion as well as intellect does not play its part in the debates in the House of Commons. I shall be the first one to say a kind word about Mrs. Thatcher, who a year ago was ambushed by the people who now would like to silence her. I believe that everyone has a right to be outspoken on an issue that will concern generations yet unborn belonging to these islands. 1170 We can take action that is irreparable and which has effects long term. We have done it from time to time, and sometimes I have regretted my own votes on matters over the years, because as the years unfold we change our opinion; we see evidence of what we have done. On the two issues of economic union and political union, I believe that it was a mistake to go into the ERM at the figure we did, but it was done. It is too late to alter that. It is now an economic fact of life. I think that all of us have been prepared to co-operate—we want to co-operate—with Europe, because the high ideal of breaking down barriers between old enemies appeals to everyone with any common sense at all, but especially to our age group who lived through two world wars. However, I share the views of my noble friend Lord Callaghan of Cardiff when he expresses his deep anxiety—forgive me if I am putting in the word "deep"—about political union. I see in today's edition of The Times the heading: Germany admires its own image in mirror of new Europe. I read it several times with great care. Every one of us in this Chamber knows that within a decade a united Germany will be running Europe and will be the overpowering influence there. We would not be doing our own country justice if we pretended that we were not aware of the growing economic and political strength of Germany in Europe. What of our friends in Europe? It almost amounts to moral blackmail to be told, "All our colleagues in Europe want to go the other way". Many of those countries in Europe are hanging on because they want German money. They are very much linked to the Bundesbank. Every country is looking after its own interests. I believe in every fibre of my being that, before there is any prospect of political union being agreed, it would be right to hold a referendum. My noble friend Lord Callaghan of Cardiff reminded us that his Administration wished to give Wales an assembly, a non-legislative assembly, something fiercely opposed by Mr. Kinnock. He was against it— § He is now. Viscount Tonypandy My Lords, I do not wish to discuss him because I want to remain friends with him. It was considered so important that the Administration said, "This is a constitutional issue affecting the lives of our people in Wales and in Scotland". How can this House decide without knowing the will of the people? When all parties are agreed the people have no opportunity to express their view. If they want on this specific issue to express an opinion there is no alternative to a referendum. If it was right for a Welsh Assembly, surely it will be right if political union threatens 700 years' history in the House of Commons. I believe that Mrs. Thatcher was right to call for a referendum if there is a signature on political union or indeed if other steps are taken at Maastricht which make it impossible for us later to move ground. We have no right to say to tomorrow's world that we shall decide for you on that question. 1171 I have listened with deep interest to every word that has been spoken in the debate and I have agreed with so much of what has been said from both sides of the House. But I know this I heard the expressions of sad anxiety about 1997 and what would poor old Britain do if we were right down in the dumps again. In those circumstances I would rather be the 51st state of the USA than one-twentieth of Europe. I should like it to be clearly known that they share our heritage and our language. We are nearer to them than is Honolulu. There is some logic in that argument but I hope that it does not come to that. I was seeking to apply myself to the argument that Britain can no longer think in terms of independent sovereignty. I hope that our spirit has not gone and that our will has not become so weak that we could look at the world and say, "We cannot stand on our own if it is necessary": I believe that we could. § 4.45 p.m. Lord Joseph My Lords, it is always a privilege to speak in your Lordships' House but I am particularly glad today to speak after the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, and the noble Viscount, Lord Tonypandy. I share the vision of the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, and I am proud to share the historical sense and the understanding of the noble Viscount, Lord Tonypandy, of the importance to the British people of what we are debating today. My vision, which I share with the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, is compatible with a Europe that is not a federal one. Indeed, I am not the only one in your Lordships' House who has a distaste for the concept of and indeed the word "federalism". I support the Bruges approach—l'Europe des patries: the sovereign nations of the Community consulting and cooperating, as they now do, evolving joint policies when suitable. We in Europe, I believe, are nowhere near ready—if we ever will be—to go further and form a single central government. We need to be alert to the appetite both of the Commission and of the European Court to extend their jurisdiction. Mrs. Thatcher was right last week to warn us of a conveyor-belt to federalism. Indeed, I agree strongly with what the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, said about the flabby nature—I was going to say o the debate, but the lack of debate on the word "subsidiarity". This is a crucial subject: the division of powers between nation states and any central instrument of government that they might agree to set up. The approach to defining subsidiarity has illustrated either the frivolity or the stealthy ambitions of the federalists. From the speeches in another place of the Prime Minister and Ministers and from the speech of the noble Lard, Lord Waddington, this afternoon, I judge that the Government are aware of these dangers and are unwilling to sign away at Maastricht any powers crucial ID this country's vital interests. I for my part therefore am content with the Government's stance on political union at Maastricht. On economic and monetary union, however, I very much regret the Government's apparent readiness to sign a treaty in reliance on an opt-in clause enabling us 1172 or our successors to decide whether to join in a single currency later. I am not a banker, nor a financier, nor an economist. My worries are those of a layman. My main worry is that a single currency with a single central bank would involve a single central government—and our Government reject a single central government. Your Lordships should be in no doubt that a single currency and a single central bank lead ineluctably to a single central government. My noble friend Lord Cockfield illustrated this thesis by telling us, warning us, and reminding us that the Germans have said that they will not sign an economic and monetary treaty unless they sign a political treaty. They understand very well that a single central government follows from a single currency and a single central bank. Mr. Heath, speaking last week in another place, must have been trying to be brief when he spoke of single trading areas in the United States and in Japan having single currencies. Yes, indeed, they do, but he failed to say—no doubt to save time—that they also have single governments. A single central bank controlling a single currency would impose such a straitjacket on social and economic conditions in member countries that there would be immense pressure for a single central accountable government or there would be mounting and dangerous nationalist resentments. On this I agree strongly with what Mr. Benn said so eloquently in another place last week. If, therefore, we refuse to sign a political union treaty because we reject a single central government, let us not sign an economic and monetary union treaty that inevitably would involve just such a single central government. To sign an EMU treaty relying on opt-in reservations would undermine our rejection of a single government. Moreover, as Mr. Ridley pointed out in another place, the EMU treaty we would be signing would bring in the whole apparatus of the Treaty of Rome and of the European Court. In my view we should veto the EMU treaty. The question that your Lordships will immediately ask is: would we damage ourselves? As my noble friend Lord Cockfield reminded us, our Prime Minister told us that the 11 would probably immediately set up a single currency in a separate treaty outside the Treaty of Rome. I am not seeking to make them parallel in their current authority. But, in the same debate, Mr. Lawson judged that they would not. I repeat that I am no expert on the matter. An article in The Spectator last week by Tim Congden reminds us of what happened when President Pompidou proclaimed that a single EEC currency would be in force under the Werner Plan a few years later in 1980. What did happen? Nothing happened. Why? Presumably because of the difficulties. However, there is no evidence that those difficulties have been tackled now, let alone overcome. For example, to whom would the single putative central bank lend? Moreover, what would happen to the foreign exchange reserves of Britain and of other member sovereign countries? Will the 11 want to go ahead without any contribution from us—one of the 1173 main contributors of money within the Common Market—towards the heavy subsidies that several member states will be demanding? I am wistful that stable money, with all the blessings in jobs and earnings that it would bring, which might be hoped for from a single currency controlled by a fiercely monetarist single central bank is not available. It would not, any way, be the Bundesbank in charge but a board containing Greeks, Portuguese and Italians. They are noble peoples in their own way, but not ideal people to put in charge of a single central bank. There is no mockery in what I say because they are indeed noble people. But there are too many grave dangers in EMU—the implication of a single central government, the straitjacket and the nationalist dangers. The truth is that we have to squeeze out inflation and sharpen our economic competitiveness by our own efforts. We can do it. My noble friend Lord Cockfield and the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, both told us that the Germans will not sign EMU if they do not get EPU. There was a difference between what the two noble Lords said. My noble friend recommended that we should sign EPU but the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, despite the fact that it would destroy the prospect of Germany signing EMU, recommended that we should not sign EPU. I apologise for these neologisms but even if no EMU means no EPU that would be no tragedy. I agree with the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, that it is far too soon to contemplate a single central government. Therefore, I still urge our Government not to sign EMU even with its opt-in reservation for Britain. It would only undermine their own robust stance on EPU. § 4.55 p.m. Lord McCarthy My Lords, I am not certain what the noble Lord is doing nothing about. If he is talking about the social charter, yes, of course there is an alternative to introducing legislation on minimum hours and minimum wages; but that cannot be justified by talking about subsidiarity. The essence of subsidiarity is that we are saying, "We can do it better at our level than you can at your level." To justify that, we have to propose to do something. The argument is that the proposal may be against employment. The short answer to that argument is that that is not what 11 out of the 12 countries think. That is what the Secretary of State for Employment says as a result of feeding his prejudices into the Treasury computer. He receives that answer. We have told him again and again of the whole range of other research of a different kind which comes to a different conclusion. We must take the view that the Government believe in moving towards European standards where they are the standards that the Government require. The Government are not good Europeans because they are not prepared to accept that there are other countries which place other priorities in other directions. It is for that reason that we cannot support the Government today. § 5.7 p.m. Lord Gladwyn My Lords, my brief remarks will be devoted chiefly to the bogey-word "federalism". As I understand it, we are already firmly committed to an "ever closer union" of European states within the European Community. If that phrase means anything, it means that, every so often, we are bound to take measures which will gradually transform the Community into a political and economic union of some sort; that is to say, investing it increasingly with some supra-national powers. That would seem not to differ much in practice from pursuing a "federal goal". But, of course, it all depends on what one supposes an eventual federation would turn out to be. As I see it, the word might be retained as being of some use in persuading our European partners that we really are sincere in our desire for ever closer union, but it is perhaps dangerous by giving the impression that we agree with those who look towards the formation in Europe of the equivalent of the constitution of the United States of America. That last is, however, something which I believe this country 1177 would never accept; nor would it be acceptable, I suspect, to most of our European partners, if it ever came to the point. Why? The North American states which came together in a union after their successful war against Great Britain, already had, in addition to the fellow feeling resulting from that war, many things in common, notably language, law, cultural traditions and even, to a large extent, religion. It was therefore possible for them eventually to form what was, in effect, something more than a federal union with a President, elected by popular suffrage, able, with the "advice and consent" of a Congress, to conduct among other things, foreign affairs and defence, the component states being substantially left with powers over internal matters only. But who can imagine a similar system being applied to the ancient nation states of Europe, with their different languages, histories, cultures and religions, who have been obliged to come together, not because of a common war against an external foe, but as the result of a series of appalling wars among themselves? Is it, in fact, conceivable that in the foreseeable future we might have a president of Europe, elected—regardless of nationality—for a period of four years, installed in Brussels with his own staff, his own ministries, and in command of a strong, possibly conscripted, force, all wearing a federal uniform and presumably run on a common language? It is barely conceivable. But if so, what is the point of having some kind of Congress, also in Brussels, consisting of a Council of Ministers transformed into a Senate and the present Parliament transformed into a House of Representatives, which clearly could not function in the absence of a central authority of some kind? Unless, of course, it were agreed that the unelected president of the Commission should become the effective president of Europe. But I do not think that such a solution would be likely to appeal to our various democracies. Now it may be argued—and it is argued—that a presidential regime of the kind envisaged would work if the nation states comprising the present European Community voluntarily agreed to become the equivalent of American states, or perhaps if those states broke up into regions which were separately represented in the new federation. Of course it could be—and logically that might be the best solution—acceptable to those who sincerely believe that the nation state itself is the source of all international evil and that it must totally forgo its independence if peace is ever to prevail. What may happen in the future no one can say; what is certain is that if, in present circumstances, the impression grows that we are inevitably moving towards such an abolition of the nation state, there is likely to be an explosion of nationalist sentiment—and not only in this country—that may at least put back further progress towards European unity for several years. It seems to follow, if what I suggest is agreed, that what the Government could well do when they say, as 1178 they do, that they seek to avoid "the development of a federal Europe" is to make clear that what they will not accept is the creation of something like the United States of America. But, as I see it, none of the points which we still apparently object to in the two draft treaties for discussion at Maastricht—and here, differing from the noble Lord, Lord Joseph, I include an eventual monetary union and a social charter—comes into this category at all. We may object to some of them, perhaps along with others, on the grounds, for instance, that they are unworkable or contrary to the general interest, or that the time for them is not ripe, but not that if they were approved they would eventually reduce this great and ancient nation to the rank of an American state. The European Community is an unique organisation, never before attempted, I believe. It was born as a result of a realisation by the nations of Western Europe, almost all of which had been defeated or occupied during the last hideous war, that they must in some way become interdependent if another catastrophe was to be avoided. We felt originally that we could not join them. Had we not won the war? Suez, and our increasing impoverishment, made it impossible for us to stand aside. But the Community's machinery, which we accepted 20 years ago, though it has its defects, has been shown, broadly speaking, to be acceptable and correct. The Council of Ministers and its numerous sub-committees, the Commission, the Parliament and the Court will all, in time, be reformed, but it is on them alone that the future Community must surely be constructed. In particular, the Commission has been unduly criticised in this country. The disastrous CAP is not its fault, but rather that of the Council of Ministers; it, too, must and will be reformed. It is quite right that the Commission should be preparing plans for example, for a common industrial, transport and, yes, a social policy. One would have thought that the principle of subsidiarity alone would prevent it from trying to prescribe the exact meat content of a British sausage, or indeed the precise location of a British road. But it must obviously have an important part to play in initiating plans to provide against, for instance, the poisoning of the atmosphere or the sea. To describe it as a "Belgian Empire" is a silly joke. So, in conclusion the Ministers must be prepared over the next year or two to take more decisions by qualified majority vote, even in some matters affecting foreign affairs, and eventually—more especially if the Americans withdraw from Europe—defence as well. The Parliament must be given some real part to play in the formation of policy and with some control over the Commission. For its part, the Court should, by one means or another, be assured that its decisions are duly observed by all concerned. It will take time for all this to be done, but we should press strongly for it to come about as quickly as possible. With all this in mind, we can surely wish the Government well in the all-important negotiations on which they are about to embark. Undoubtedly, all but a small minority will applaud them if they return with two treaties signed by all concerned. But a similar majority will be filled, I fear, with gloom and 1179 apprehension if, for any reason, they fail—especially if they are found to be in a minority of one. The opportunity for far-reaching decisions, taken in common, is approaching, and they must rise to a great occasion. § 5.20 Lord Aldington My Lords, it is always a pleasure to speak after the noble Lord, Lord Gladwyn, whose experience of these issues extends over so many years. The subject of this debate was covered by two reports of the Select Committee. One report was produced by a sub-committee I chaired and another, more legal report, was produced by the sub-committee chaired by the noble and learned Lord, Lord Oliver. Both reports were welcomed. I stand by the principles and opinions of both reports. Our report, published in 1990, warned against the use of the word "federalism". It came out against a federalist approach and for a step-by-step approach. At the outset of my remarks I wish to say that I support unreservedly the stance taken by the Prime Minister and the Foreign Secretary. That stance was admirably expressed to us by my noble friend Lord Waddington this afternoon. I express my warmest admiration for the way in which the Prime Minister and the Foreign Secretary have handled the negotiations so far, and for the way in which they have kept us in this House and those in another place fully informed. As I support their stance, I shall not make any proposals on any detailed matters they may be negotiating. However, I shall make some general observations. Through my attendance at meetings of European affairs committees of the 12 parliaments and through my visits to a number of our partner countries in the course of Select Committee business, I have been able to form a worm's eye view, as it were, of the problems facing the negotiators. That experience has shown me all too clearly the divergent and often emotional demands and arguments of some—not all—of the parliamentary representatives of other member states. That worm's eye view has given me a chance of understanding the problems that have faced our negotiators better than I understood them in the past. There is the confusion between the fine and historic visions of the future they want for Europe and the practical requirements as regards the choice of what further advances towards political union should be put into the treaty this year. There is the matter of the acceptance of catchwords such as "federal" and "democratic deficit" without working out what the words and concepts mean. I have still to meet any champion of the federal aim today who is ready to say now that his country should give up its international sovereignty and its seat in the United Nations. I have not met all that many enthusiasts for passing joint control of legislative powers to the European Parliament who understand where democratic control of Community legislation lies today; namely, in national parliaments with the European Parliament playing an important but not dominant part in co-operation and other processes. 1180 The fact is that some national parliaments have had little information about Council proceedings and still less say, until quite recently. It is no wonder that Britain has found it difficult to explain our preference for the European Parliament controlling the Commission and not the Council. It is all so logical to us because we believe that the Council is the key decision maker in the Community, and has to be in the foreseeable future. My noble friend referred to the proposals—the Prime Minister has described these proposals—to give the European Parliament much greater powers in other respects. That is a good measure and I support it. It seems to me obvious that the best way to build up unity of thought and action in the Community is by voluntary consensus on policy within the Council. That seems so obvious that I have mistakenly underestimated the force of those who seek to impose unity in policy, as well as in action, by majority vote. I do not understand how it can be supposed that Britain, or for example France, Germany or Italy, can be expected to face a situation in which their foreign ministers, having said that course A in foreign policy is right and course B is wrong, and can then be forced to tell their parliaments, "We have been outvoted and are now required on a vital foreign policy issue to do exactly what we think is wrong". What better way of provoking later Balkanisation of the Community! We have been right to feel our way in the advance towards closer political union. The whole Community has been right up to date in eschewing definitions of the form of union it seeks. The noble Lord, Lord Jenkins of Hillhead, in giving evidence to the Select Committee on 28th June 1990 said: I think we will always be travelling towards rather than arriving at political union … I do not myself envisage it as likely and probably not desirable that we should move towards a complete common polity in the sense the United States is". I agreed with that view, as did the Select Committee. I believe that most noble Lords also agree with it. It would seem to me an enormous mistake in a fast changing world—as the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, said, there is so much we do not know—for the Community to depart from its known, steady, step by step advance which has proved so right in the 35 years since its establishment. However, it would be as serious a mistake to take no forward steps now when quite obviously there is need for more parliamentary control of the Commission's activity, including the implementation of the Council's decisions. There should be more parliamentary control by the European Parliament; a better understanding of the Council's work—more open explanation—more co-operation between individual members of the European Parliament and members of national parliaments; better implementation of laws and decisions of the European Court of Justice and the modernisation of other institutions' powers among other things. I wish to make a few remarks about economic and monetary union where there is also a need for further progress. That objective has been agreed by all member states since 1972. It has been encouraging to watch the success of British Ministers in working with 1181 others to steer the monetary union negotiations into sensible practical channels. The immediate need is for agreement on Stage 2 and the preparatory arrangements for the next stage, whenever that may be and whatever it may consist of. That there is broadly such agreement, as I understand it, is a tribute to the Chancellor of the Exchequer among others. In our EMU and PU report—as it is known—last year we were anxious to ensure that British Ministers took a full and effective part in the discussions about Stage 2 and the preparations for the next stage, whenever that should be. They appear to have achieved that. The noble Lord, Lord Thomson of Monifieth, said we could not influence such preparations. I do not view the matter that way. I do not view the draft treaty that way. I believe that we can and will influence preparations at the right time. Like my noble friend Lord Cockfield I am fully persuaded—whatever my views are on the single currency, which I shall discuss later—that it is right for Britain and indeed for everyone to have the right to delay the decision on whether, as well as when, to embark on a single currency until nearer the time when such a great change is practical. It is much easier to understand the advantages of a single currency at the right time than it is to appreciate the problems of creating the currency and its mechanisms and the full potential of the problems that could be caused to any nation whose economy was not ready for monetary union. Both those problems can be underrated. On the other hand, I believe that the advantages of a single currency to all members of a single market cannot be overrated. I certainly do not believe that Britain could be a successful member of the single market and not be in the single currency union from the outset. That is my view and it is the view of a number of people who are more knowledgeable than I am. However, at present it is not the view of the other place, nor of my noble friend Lord Joseph and many other noble Lords, or of Mr. Benn and others. Some of the reasons for those people taking a different view are political and some are economic. In those circumstances I agree that it would have been quite wrong for the Prime Minister to have accepted any commitment for Britain beyond Stage 2. As I have said before, I do not agree with those who say that that prejudices our ability to influence later events. There is plenty of time to debate the economic and political advantages and problems of a single currency before it would be wise to take a decision in the Community. Those questions can quite properly be resolved several years on. At Maastricht there are other more immediate problems to be resolved. I remain optimistic that they will be resolved. Like other noble Lords I very much hope that they will be resolved. It is very important that they should be but it is equally important that we should not give our backing to going along the wrong road. I say that I am optimistic because our Prime Minister and Foreign Secretary are being listened to once again. Once again we are accepted as full Europeans. That is due most of all to the Prime 1182 Minister's personal commitment, the position which he has won with his fellow heads of government and the support which he commands in our country. § 5.33 p.m. Baroness Ewart-Biggs My Lords, my noble friend is probably right; but when Mrs. Thatcher asked for a referendum it made a great impact. I should like to make three points. First, what would happen if we availed ourselves of the draft EMU treaty's opt-out clause and signed the treaty, retaining the right to decide whether we want a single currency? My noble friend Lord Callaghan gave some reasons why we may be obliged to do that. However, it should be recognised that the sacrifices that we would make would be very great. Such action would place Britain fairly and squarely in the second 1183 division. If we eventually decided not to join a monetary union which went ahead without us, there would be an adverse effect on inward investment into Britain and a likely loss of influence on the development of the EMU. Further—and crucially—how could we expect to make the City of London the financial centre of the Community when we were outside a single currency? Therefore, as my noble friend Lord Callaghan pointed out, there would be considerable problems if we did not sign that treaty. Perhaps the Minister will specify what the Government will do if our European Community partners form a monetary union and Britain remains outside that structure even though convergence is achieved. The noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, gave his interpretation. I hope that the outcome will not be as bad as that suggested by my noble friend Lord Tonypandy—that we would become the 51st state. Many people are not convinced by the economic arguments for EMU. We have heard many of them today. However, surely there is still a great deal to be negotiated. The question is whether Britain will have any serious influence on events after Maastricht if, as William Keegan wrote in the Observer yesterday, we remain beyond the boundary as the permanent twelfth man of Europe. As was also pointed out in the Observer yesterday, at the bottom line lies that 50 dollar question: where else is there for us to go? There has been no suggestion of that in the debate today. I should like to reiterate the Labour Party's view on the matter. The party is in favour in principle of progress towards economic and monetary union and an eventual single currency. However, it believes that economic monetary union must involve members working towards real economic convergence, not just on inflation but on policies to produce sustained growth. My noble friend Lord McCarthy made that very clear. My second point concerns closer co-ordination of European foreign policy. I shall take the topical and tragic events in Yugoslavia to illustrate the need for that. What happened in Dubrovnik shows why we hope aid pray that Maastricht works. There are two reasons for that. First, if European member states had co-ordinated their foreign policies regarding the situation in Yugoslavia, they might not have sent such conflicting messages to Yugoslavia and so avoided the incorrect assumptions made by the different factions in that conflict. Secondly, what has happened points to the need to widen Europe. But how can we widen it without first deepening it via a closer economic and monetary union and the co-ordination of foreign policy? We cannot possibly envisage absorbing the countries that have already been mentioned—Sweden, Norway and Austria—and the eventual involvement of Eastern European countries, together with Russia and various of its republics, without first developing a consistently co-ordinated foreign policy among member states. A vital element in that foreign policy should be to put into practice an idea of the previous French Minister of Justice, M. Badinter; namely, to establish a permanent European Community arbitration commission so that in future we could put conciliation 1184 procedures in place before a conflict got under way. Maastricht gives Europe the opportunity to deepen before it has to face the challenge of widening eastwards. I sometimes wonder whether that becomes clear in British debate which so often seems to be dominated by the most parochial conception of our national interests. My final point, which has already been made today, relates to democracy. Members of another place are bound to equate democracy with British parliamentary sovereignty, but the general public may wonder whether democracy might also mean accountable European institutions and, above all, an elected European Parliament with real powers to control and review the decisions of the Council and the Commission. I was happy to hear the noble Lord, Lord Waddington, state in detail the reforms envisaged. He realises that we would like to go a little further and that we favour the European Parliament being given the power to initiate legislation and to enjoy some form of co-decision with the Council of Ministers. Co-decision would in effect give a degree of legislative power to the European Parliament at the expense of the Commission. That would have a balancing effect on the different powers of those institutions. In conclusion, I am not a born-again European which I understand the Conservatives are calling my colleagues in the House of Commons. Ten years ago I made my maiden speech in your Lordships' House on Britain's position in Europe. I still believe what I said then; namely, that Britain's position in Europe is of great interest and importance to the people of Britain and to the people of Europe as a whole. § 5.43 p.m. Lord Rippon of Hexham I hope to arrive in heaven and I hope that some things will happen after that. My vision of moving forward is a movement toward an every closer union of the peoples of Europe. I do not see that it is necessary to define it much further than that. It is a process to which we must all freely agree at every stage. The goal of European monetary union is clearly of immense importance. As many speakers have pointed out, our response to it may well determine whether our industry thrives or whether we lose London's pre-eminence in financial markets to Frankfurt or Paris. As with NATO and the Western European Union—still, I believe, the basis of our European defence—or any other treaty, we have to surrender a degree of sovereignty. We are not considering some academic concept of sovereignty. We have freely pooled sovereignty in the past whenever we thought that it was in our common interest. I have no doubt that we shall do so again—I hope after Maastricht, but if not I am sure that there will be many more summit conferences in the years ahead. Sometimes we expect too much from them and are needlessly disappointed. I shall be content if some substantial progress is made on this occasion. Above all, I agree with those speakers who emphasised that we must not lose our vision of a truly united Europe. We must be practical and pragmatic. But though we have our feet on the ground we can still look at the stars. I only add that we must watch our step and not try to go too fast; otherwise Europe, like me, may fall flat on its face and break an arm in four places. I am confident that the Prime Minister and the Foreign Secretary will successfully keep their balance and that at Maastricht they will serve both this country and Europe well. § 6 p.m. Lord Harris of High Cross My Lords, it is a pleasure to follow the noble Lord, Lord Rippon, who spoke in such rollicking form. I have no hesitation in agreeing emphatically that the Community should give more priority to completing the market, and that it should be more outward-looking, as the noble and learned Lord said. I confess to mixed feelings in finding so much with which to agree in the previous speeches. For 40 years I have enjoyed engaging in economic disputation as a substitute for physical exercise. When I find so much to agree with, I think that I must re-examine my own view. It was 1189 heartening to hear the noble Lords, Lord Cockfield and Lord Callaghan, candidly expressing in much the same words a lack of enthusiasm for political union. Having heard the very clear speech of the Leader of the House, I am still left with a mystery about Maastricht which deepens as the fateful day draws near. The question that I keep asking is this: what positive, substantial benefits are Her Majesty's Government seeking for Britain in return for the endless and dangerous concessions that our European partners will never cease to demand from us? Until last Wednesday I did not believe that the Prime Minister had been very forthcoming. Indeed, his reticence prompted a magisterial Euro-sceptic leader in The Times last Wednesday which stated that the "stark difference" between them was that Margaret Thatcher "knew where she wanted to lead her country and did not care who else knew it"; and that John Major "appears less sure and is certainly less frank". However, since last Wednesday almost all has been revealed. In a 45 minute oration, the Prime Minister drew up the battle lines: he would never agree to a federal vocation; he opposed conceding more power to the European Parliament beyond monitoring the Commission; he rejected Community interference with our health and education policy; he was against extending the competence of the Brussels Commission; he rejected the more or less indiscriminate extension of qualified majority voting, especially on the mountain of mischief lurking beneath the innocent-sounding "social dimension"; he opposed the subordination of British foreign policy and national defence to the vagaries of the European Council; and, finally, for the foreseeable future he did not want Britain committed to monetary union. What positively does he want? The only tangible benefit that he claimed in his speech came from Britain's membership of "the world's largest single market". I entirely agree with that. But surely this is our dear old forgotten friend the European Economic Community, now more or less banished from polite conversation and, as I understand, a forbidden reference in Hansard. Beneath all the cross-talk about IGCs, successive Luxembourg and Dutch drafts, endless negotiations and photo opportunities, the British Government want nothing more from Maastricht. What they crave above all is an agreement. I fear that this craving will cost us, and indeed Europe, dear. Style and semantics apart, Mr. Major's judgment on the main issues is now revealed as not so very different from that of Mrs. Thatcher. All that remains in doubt is whether he can summon up her candour and courage to see the matter through. The plain fact seems to me that we have a stage-managed political circus coming up at Maastricht. It is a distraction from our greater priority of completing the single market which was brilliantly conceived five or six years ago, by the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield. More seriously, it is a tragic diversion from the Bruges vision of preparing to open that market to the liberated countries of Eastern Europe. The noble Baroness, Lady Ewart-Biggs, said that we must deepen the 1190 Community before we widen it. My anxiety is that in the name of deepening it we shall make it more difficult for other less developed economies to join. The Euro-summitry shows that Britain's overriding aim is damage limitation. The Euro-swells talk of a new dawn, a noble European vision. I do not mind that in the long run. However, the unalluring reality here and now smacks more of murky wheeling and dealing to conjure up a bogus consensus that conceals a fundamental and quite honourable conflict of principles. The familiar Foreign Office strategy is to see how little it must concede to federal folly, how little damage it will risk to long-term British interests and how little appeasement it must offer to the ceaseless importunities of the Euro-zealots. All that, my Lords, is in the cause of keeping at the centre of Europe and on board that ghost train being driven recklessly by people such as Jacques Delors in a direction that few Ministers and not many previous speakers wish to travel. My conundrum for the Euro-élitists who now head all three parties, is this. How can we give a positive lead to nations hellbent on travelling in the wrong direction? I give two examples. First, the present draft treaty enables our partners to impose on us a social programme that among other mischief restores trade union power, enforces minimum wage and holiday requirements, lays down maximum full-time and part-time hours, days and week-ends, only stopping short—for the time being—at prescribing a uniform European bedtime. Yet free trade, which we uphold, depends on differences in costs and circumstances. Free competition and mobility includes choice between alternative jurisdictions. The single market requires the removal of existing obstacles, not the erection of new ones. Labour supporters such as the noble Lord, Lord McCarthy, may like the social charter as a sly way back to the golden age of 1979. But am I guilty of what Sir Geoffrey Howe mocks as a "negative, apprehensive, fearful" approach if I claim that such policies—whatever one thinks of them—should be forever a matter for domestic debate and decision? That is surely the best type of subsidiarity. Like so much else, all that has less to do with Euro-idealism than with the brazen national interest of the stronger economies such as Germany to burden the weaker members with high labour costs, and the effort of the weaker countries such as Spain and Portugal to burden the stronger with the cost of compensating subsidies. So it is with monetary union. The Government are right to oppose membership because it is bad not only for us but for Europe. There are technical, economic reasons why a totally fixed exchange rate is inappropriate for a Europe of economies at differing stages of development, with differing structures, differing rates of growth and differing degrees of flexibility that will never reach the blessed state of convergence. Nor is there any guarantee that the EMU under multi-lingual management will be as stable as the old deutschmark. The only certainty is that one currency would mean in the end one finance minister, as Nigel Lawson said, and the noble Lord, 1191 Lord Joseph, repeated today. There would be no retreat to national moneys when things go wrong, as assuredly they would. The impatience of some partners to join up is based on conflicting or inconsistent aims. For example, in Germany it is to avoid inflation; in France and Italy, it is to avoid deflation; and with Spain and others there is the never-ending prospect of subsidies. Since it is a doomed and costly experiment, why should we sign at Maastricht on condition that we are left out? But we are still left in to pay towards the perpetual subsidies for the worst affected regions. Such doubts held by leading independent, liberal economists throughout Europe are held with the same vigour that I am perhaps displaying. Noble Lords will find them attached to a ringing declaration in the latest paper of the Bruges Group which I strongly commend to your Lordships. Last Wednesday the Prime Minister concluded his speech on the Community by saying simply; The goals were democracy, prosperity and stability in Europe The means were the creation of a single market in goods and services".—[Official Report, Commons, 20/11/91; col. 280.] I agree 100 per cent. with that formulation. I am going to make a suggestion to the Prime Minister that the next time he makes a speech and wants to ring the changes, he should quote Adam Smith who said 215 years ago: Were all nations to follow the liberal system of free exportation and free importation, the different states into which a great continent was divided would so far resemble the different provinces of a great empire". Here is our immediate priority: to combine the economic integration of free trade with the political decentralisation of self-government. Then we can extend Adam Smith's spontaneous, invisible, natural and evolving empire to an ever-widening single market. According to the Guardian poll of 14th November a clear majority of all persuasions, including the Liberal Democrats, want nothing more than completion of the market and the benefits of international free trade. It remains only for our party leaders to learn that while the spread of trade brings people together, forcing the pace on political union would only deepen the divisions among us. § 6.12 p.m. Lord Boardman My Lords, perhaps I may move on to that. If the noble Lord will wait a moment, I will deal with that because I attach much importance to that point. Another factor that would arise with a central bank is that it would have hold and control of the gold and foreign reserves of all the central banks of the nation states who are members, just as the Bank of England does today in holding the reserves to support sterling. My noble friend Lord Joseph made reference to that in his speech. I believe that these essential parts of the central bank—that is to say, fixing interest rates, fiscal policy and the holding of 1193 reserves, are components which are essential to a European central bank with the responsibility for controlling inflation and achieving stability. We well know about the relationship between those factors in our own economy; namely, the control of inflation, interest rates and fiscal matters which are issues which we debate in this House from time to time. There is the further point to achieve the essential convergence and to keep it. That is needed in order that the nation states can be members of a single currency. That will mean very large transfers of aid from the richer to the poorer countries. It will be a multiple of the aid which is provided under the present EC structural funds at the present time. Prosperous economies such as that of the United Kingdom and the businesses in it, will have to provide the resources to build up the economies of poorer nations, such as Greece and others. The result will be a massive and permanent transfer of authority and resources—and to whom? The noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn of Penrhos, raised the question of who is to be responsible for the appointment of the governor and officials of that central bank. Who will be responsible for hiring and firing them? As I understand it, the draft treaty states that they must not be political appointments and that I understand. If that is so, how are the appointments to be made? I was told by a member of the European Parliament that they will be appointed by agreement between the 12 nation states with the approval of the European Parliament. I await with interest to see how that is to be achieved. We read about the 364 economists in this country, at one time writing on how the European economic policy should he conducted. Imagine multiplying that factor throughout the various nation states. There are those who quote the Bundesbank as being the ideal example of political independence from the state. I remind those who make that argument of what happened when the basis of the exchange rate between the East German ostmark and the deutschmark had to be resolved. It was not resolved by the politically independent Bundesbank; the decision was not that of Karl Otto Pöhl, the governor of the Bundesbank. The decision was made by Chancellor Kohl and the German Government. It was they who said what the rate should be, with rather serious consequences on the economy of Germany in the short term. So much for the political independence of the Bundesbank. A single currency within Europe may well evolve. I am not saying that it is unattainable over time but I am saying that that time is not now. We should not forget the larger world outside Europe. We must not believe that Europe contains all our trading relations, political allies and economic enemies. The larger world outside will have its own currencies. We shall still have to contrast and compare ourselves with the dollar and the yen. With a single currency, instead of Wall Street and Tokyo looking to London to make an assessment of pounds sterling, they will have to cast their eyes to that rather more mixed bag which will evolve under the contemplated arrangements. 1194 I believe that the Prime Minister and the Government are taking those points fully into account. I support their refusal to accept a single currency at this stage. I believe that they are right to reserve the right to opt in later if we wish. I shall not develop that argument because it has been discussed earlier and will no doubt be discussed again later. As regards a referendum, I believe strongly that the issues which we are debating here should be decided by the long established parliamentary democracy of which we are part. In my view a referendum would be inappropriate and would be an erosion of the sovereignty of Parliament which I wish to preserve. Lord Weidenfield My Lords, I shall confine myself to the notion of a common foreign policy and majority voting. If I share the Government's reluctance on the question of head counting on vital issues of foreign policy, it is not in spite of but because of a lifelong attachment to the idea of a united Europe, a Europe which sooner or later may embrace all lands between Brest and Brest Litovsk, and one day may stretch even further east. While ever closer union and continuous consultation in the fields of economic, financial, educational and social policy should be the order of the day, there are still wide gaps, too many differentiated interests in the sphere of the foreign policies of Europe's nations, varying priorities and, hence, still scope for independent initiatives within the wider context of European or western values and standards. Had M. Delors had his say at the outset of the Gulf crisis, a majority would probably have voted for concessions to Saddam Hussein. He may have been allowed to keep the islands, to retain his army and air force and by now he would have been further along the road to atomic autarchy. Had German unity been put to the vote, M. Delors would have pleaded, as plead he did, to find an independent birth in the Community for the desolate German Democratic Republic. Conversely, it was the bold, almost reflex, reaction of the British Government in confronting Saddam Hussein from the beginning which swayed the other European nations to follow suit with varying speed and vigour. It was the patient and wise statesmanship of Chancellor Kohl and President Gorbachev which found a peaceful formula of opening and, as it were, "greening" the frontiers between the west and east of Europe. As regards the Yugoslav tragedy, the groping and fumbling for a well-nigh unanimous solution has thwarted important initiatives and has lost us invaluable time as well as human lives. Had Germany and Italy—members of the Community—and Austria (certainly the next in line for membership) been encouraged to follow their first impulse to recognise the sovereignty of Slovenia and Croatia last summer, I submit that the implicit consequences would have deterred the Serbian soldiery and might have saved Vukovar from being razed to the ground and Dubrovnic from being turned into a Venetian ruin. With the Community expanding in stages to 14, 17, 20 or more than 25 ultimately eligible members, and as many languages, we may have to think realistically and imaginatively about how a future Europe could be 1195 run. We may find unity through diversity and not see consensus turn into sluggish compromise, conforming to a kind of Gresham's Law where the basest currency of mean appeasement or masterly inactivity drives out principles, moral values and cherished ideals. The process of European unity in the field of harmonising foreign policy must not be artificially hastened. As I said, there is much more to be done to intensify co-operation in many other fields. There is much need for a deeper understanding of how we perceive our neighbours and how they perceive themselves. If Maastricht, as some have pointed out, is the moment of truth, it is also the moment for plain speaking. Whence derives the feverish drive to settle European institutions so hastily? The Dutch president speaks for one of the smaller nations which, not unnaturally, prefers a system in which it has equal weight with the towering big four or five, as we shall soon include the growing Spanish power. However, the driving force is France—the France of Mitterrand. France seems to be in search of a dominant role in the councils of Europe. It seeks that role through Brussels where the prevailing ethos, the style of leadership of the bureaucracy, is largely influenced by France and reflects the vision of her president. Here is the brilliant, complex, volatile leader whose words, deeds, initiatives and coups de théâtre straddle four centuries of French history; who in his diurnal round echoes the purple eminences of the 17th century and the haughty despot; of the 18th century; the grand visions of the first Napoleon and the buildings of the third Napoleon who, at some moment, joins in spirit the marchers to the Bastille, and at others steps into the shoes of his great gaunt predecessor who more than anyone else moulded the 20th century for France. All those policies and gestures are neatly knotted together by two twin threads: distrust of America and fear of Germany. To marginalise American influence in the fields of foreign policy and defence and to tie Germany to a central institution in which France has a disproportionate weight are accordingly the two primary aims of France's political endeavour. Is that in the national interests of ourselves or Europe? It should be Britain's primary aim to have the closest relations with Germany and Italy and to widen the Franco-German axis which admittedly, when functioning fairly, is the greatest achievement of European history in the half century behind us. However, we should widen it into a close-knit three or four power relationship of growing intimacy and intensive partnership. The Germans are backing the French designs with overt enthusiasm but there must also be misgivings. Germany has an abiding desire to keep America well inside Europe. However, there is also that uncanny doubt which Germany has about her identity. There is the German fear of herself and the wish to allay mistrust and banish the ghosts of the past. To that end the Germans have been ready to overlook some French sorties and sallies. Did not Mitterrand, as the only western statesman, fly to east Berlin and counsel Herr Modrow to reassert the position of the DDR? Did he not fly to Kiev to persuade President 1196 Gorbachev to go slow on German unification or plead in Prague with President Havel to set up a new French inspired cordon sanitaire at Germany's eastern border? The Germans have proved that they can be relied upon. They have a functioning democracy and a sense of responsibility. Their challenge and opportunity in eastern and south eastern Europe are enormous and they are destined to play a leading part in years to come in the rehabilitation process in that part of the Continent. In my view, Britain should be an active partner and should develop ever closer ties with Europe's central power, not at the expense of others but with a single-minded vigour and conviction. There are dangerous portents of political radicalism and inter-communal strife all around us, near and far. That is undeniable. However, we can work with the new Germany to build a better Europe. It is worth the risk but it also requires a new trusting state of mind. If anything can rouse some of the dormant demons in German society, it is a blinkered and prejudiced approach. Only if our Monday Club men go on hissing "Hun", our media Cassandras whisper "Fourth Reich", and defeatist manufacturers go on crying "Wolfsberg" is there a remote chance of prophecies fulfilling themselves. In conclusion, the great variety of traditions and well-tried institutions in Europe need not be an impediment to the unity that we who call ourselves convinced Europeans desire so much. On the contrary, they can be the building blocks not for an unhistorical Europe of cantons; not even for a Federal United States of Europe, but for a United Europe of States which, in the fullness of time, will grow together indissolubly. § 6.30 p.m. Baroness Platt of Writtle My Lords, I must first apologise that I shall not be able to stay to the end of the debate, as I have duties elsewhere. However, I have found the contributions from those far more expert than I most interesting and informative. The debate has shown the House at its best. We are already part of Europe. We signed the Treaty of Rome. Today's arguments are about the pace of change towards a united Europe whatever that may mean, who is to be invited to join, and in which fields we should progress most rapidly. I count myself as British first but also a European. I stayed with a kind and educative French family when I was in my early teens and would describe myself as a Francophile, although their Europeanism today comes into question when they "return to our moutons" in a most unco-operative way. My brother-in-law is Italian and I belong to a county council that has close connections with the Landkreis of Ludwigsburg in Germany. When one visits Holland or Denmark one feels a deep sense of old and long-standing alliances and friendships. However, I agree with my right honourable friend the Foreign Secretary that Europe is interfering more and more in every nook and cranny of national life. We do not need nannying about planning from Brussels. When I travel in Europe I am pleased to meet 1197 variety; to enjoy the idiosyncrasies and variety of national habits. French saucisson, German wurst and Italian salami are all delicious. But I am still pleased to come back to British "bangers and beans". And we certainly do not need a European sausage. My impression is that too many initiatives come from civil servants cocooned from ordinary people in bureaucratic palaces of administration in Brussels. Democratic control from elected members and governments, who are much closer to people's feelings and beliefs, must continue to prevent theory from taking over. I was glad to hear the proposals of my noble friend the Leader of the House on that subject today. Subsidiarity must be based on practical possibilities acceptable to people of each country unless international harmonisation is absolutely essential. As chairman of the Equal Opportunities Commission for five years I was grateful for the influence of the Treaty of Rome in this country in securing progress in equal opportunities between men and women. However, as a member of a European advisory committee on the subject, some of the papers we received were far too abstract and theoretical and we did not adopt them. For too long Europe has been torn apart by succeeding "war war". Now we must pursue the alternative policy of "jaw jaw". At times that can be frustrating and, to the impatient, slow. However, I believe that it is the only way. Rome was not built in a day. In circumstances such as these, impatience leads to hasty and ill-prepared decisions which will create a backlash—literally, more haste less speed. Nevertheless, in a spirit of give and take we must all remember our common heritage—Christianity, love of music, drama and the arts, reliance on science and mathematics, our common humanity and a proper respect for individual freedom. We have much to share for our common good. Patience and perseverance in the search for acceptable common policies must be the name of the game—a step-by-step policy as described earlier by my noble friend the Leader of the House—if we are to succeed in coming closer together. As a great supporter of the right honourable Margaret Thatcher as Prime Minister, I do not agree with her demand for a referendum. These subjects are far too complex for simple straight votes by ordinary laymen and women, among whom I count myself. We would find it extremely difficult properly to take into account all the factors involved. As a European I fully support the Prime Minister in his rejection of that idea and also in his policy of patient negotiation, but at the same time his strong stance for sovereignty for Britain where necessary. He has a difficult task needing all his undoubted carefully balanced judgment. I wish him well at Maastricht. § 6.36 p.m. Lord Ardwick My Lords, my noble friend Lady Ewart-Biggs spoke of the opinion polls and their negative attitude towards the European Community and its present intentions. That is a serious matter. 1198 There is a wide difference between the views of the three major political parties and those of the general public. In 1975 the Prime Minister announced that in the referendum the nation had voted overwhelmingly to remain in the European Community. "And now", he said, "an end has come to 14 years of controversy". We all agreed with Prime Minister Wilson and most of us were relieved, for the controversy was not always edifying. It was fed on one side by Utopian hopes and promises, and on the other by bizarre threats and dire prophecies. It was feared that there were risks to the status of the Queen. There was a fear that we should be turning our backs on 1,000 years of history and we might even be renouncing our language—the language of Chaucer. No longer could we ask our friends what would happen, Whan that Aprille with his shoures sote The droghte of Marche hath perced to the rote". All that would be over if we remained in Europe. And all the barmy proposals made to the Commission by pressure groups in Brussels, or the daft ideas of some junior busybodies working for the Commission would be reported and broadcast as if they were the solid intentions of the Commission. A moment ago it was said that one could not distinguish fact from fiction. We all remember the claim that Bristol Cream Sherry could no longer be sold under that label because it contained no milk fats. Political fears were also raised. The Community was a rich man's club led by Roman Catholics, all too ready to exploit the innocent and guileless British. Even stronger was the view of some of the far Left, that the Community was a cold war instrument supported by the Americans, designed to keep Europe split into two so that Western capitalism could be free from Communist contamination. It is true that much of that nonsense disappeared after the referendum. But some of it stayed around. Since the nation reached what was presumably the final decision, 16 years have passed and a new generation are now hearing some of the old warnings against largely imaginary dangers. That is partly responsible for the opinion polls today. Only this weekend a former Cabinet Minister referred to our fellow Europeans, our colleagues in the Community, as "foreigners", and the former Prime Minister thought it useful to remind us that, unlike other countries, Britain is surrounded by water. It has been said recently more than once that we are to be enticed into an abominable federation and to lose our national distinction for all time in a United States of Europe. So, my Lords, some people—including a lot of Conservatives—are proposing a referendum because they believe that we should reject the Treaty of Maastricht, though what would happen to us and the Community, with which we do over 50 per cent. of our foreign trade, they do not say, but they believe that the result of a referendum would be negative. How has this grown up? It is partly the result of membership of the Community being used as a political card in the internal politics of the United Kingdom. This has fostered throughout the nation 1199 much suspicion of the Community. This Government have done a lot of good things in Europe, and of course signed the Single Act , that most important European gesture. Nevertheless they have chosen to appear to the electors to be the more sceptical member of the Community, the most aggressive, the most nationalistic. And my own party, until quite recently, has played into Conservative hands by its cold hostility or even total opposition. We have always had in the Labour Party a European wing, to which I have always belonged. But the Labour voices heard most frequently and most vehemently in the European debates in another place have been highly critical of the Community. The Liberals can be proud of their consistent support, but it has had little effect on their fortunes or on the public attitude to the European question. Now for virtuous but ill-advised reasons, which I did not understand even when the noble Lord, Lord Thomson, was explaining them today, they are proposing a referendum. It is of course true that what is now proposed, a single currency and closer political union, is as great a leap for its members as was the original act of joining the Community. It is a solemn moment in history and the proposals need to be authoritatively explained and deeply discussed. Surely the Government must show more enthusiasm for the general idea and sound a clarion call to the nation, for there is no doubt about the objectives but only about the means of their achievement. It was a calm, reasoned and rather good speech that the Prime Minister made last week. I thought it was a perfect House of Lords speech rather than a House of Commons speech. But it was designed to cool the party, not to enthuse the nation. He did not explain why he wants to be able to back Maastricht and what its consequences might be. He did not calculate the costs nor estimate the benefits. His party is too frail at this moment for such a vigorous exercise, seeking to deal with an obstinate recession and to hold at bay the discarded mistress of its current economic and social troubles. This criticism of the coldness of the Prime Minister—or should I say the coolness of the Prime Minister—has been made by my own party, but its own enthusiasm is too recent and too unexpected to move the nation. Indeed, it has not yet had a noticeable effect upon our own prominent sceptics. Alas, too, this debate has been more of a precursor to the general election than to the Maastricht agreement. I am talking not about the debate in this House but about the general debate in the country. It is sad indeed that the problem has to be discussed at this moment in the electoral cycle. The great historic events in Europe also complicate the issue. Prosperous countries from the European Free Trade Area are ringing at the front door for admission to the Community, and the new democracies in the East are knocking at the back door and pining for the day when they become associate members. The political side of Maastricht is further complicated by the changes in the role of NATO and the need for the Community to have not a defence policy—for that is NATO's job—but a security policy. 1200 We must take care not to underestimate the difficulties of advancing towards a single currency and political unity. We have heard some important speeches on that subject from expert people in this Chamber tonight. The criteria proposed for adequate economic convergence are simple, but they will require a stricter discipline than some countries might be able or politically willing to enforce. But closer union must come if the powerful German nation and the rest of us are to live easily and happily together. I am most thankful that my party, in the words of one of its senior spokesmen, has come to recognise that the choice for Britain, and France too, is shared sovereignty or no sovereignty, shared influence in Europe or no influence, shared power or no power at all. The danger some people fear of a United States of Europe on the American model with a European all-powerful Washington is a most improbable danger, but the danger of a disintegrated Europe is one to be feared and avoided. § 6.47 p.m. Lord Campbell of Alloway My Lords, I agree with the noble Lord, Lord Ardwick. It is unfortunate that it appears that the party to which he adheres and the party to which I adhere tend to give the impression of using this subject as a political card. There are some other matters that the noble Lord mentioned with which I cannot agree. The main burden of my speech is to support the approach of my right honourable friend the Prime Minister as reported in the Official Report of the other place and as explained by my noble friend the Leader of the House today. I stand by the views expressed by many speakers, including my noble friend Lord Aldington. If my noble friend Lord Boardman is satisfied that the Government have taken into full account the problems of monetary union, as other noble Lords have also stated, that is good enough for me. And if the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, supported by other noble Lords, is satisfied that the Government have taken into full account the problems of political union, that again is good enough for me. It is also the burden of this speech to remind Ministers at Maastricht, and the money markets of the world, that under the aegis of my right honourable friend the Prime Minister decisions of government are a true reflection of the composite wisdom of the Cabinet. We in your Lordships' House should consider all differences in a calm, objective fashion, establish a little more confidence and seek to stabilise the currency so that the negotiations get off to a good start unencumbered by what my noble friend Lord Carrington once described as "foghorn diplomacy". Our destiny lies assuredly with the Economic Community, as it continues to expand by accession or association—in whatever form it may assume, a form as yet not known—so long as in this process of give and take, referred to by my noble friend the Leader of the House, a form of constitutional government under the Queen in Parliament and a substantial measure of residual sovereignty is retained by the state. There are proposals on the table for extending the powers of the Commission and the European Parliament and for 1201 extraneous extensions of qualified majority voting beyond what is already established. If implemented these proposals could reduce the powers and status of the Mother of Parliaments to that of a local authority council chamber. If once our frontiers were on the Rhine, they now march with those of all other member states in the Community, a Community which we have no wish to divide and no claim to rule, a Community in which the states retain their sovereign status and individuals retain their national identities, a Community committed to establishing closer union between the peoples of Europe. The concept of this closer union among the peoples of Europe is not new. Sir Winston Churchill said at The Hague in 1948 that we need not waste time about who originated the concept of a united Europe. We may yield, he said, our pretensions to King Henry of Navarre and to his minister, Sully, who between 1600 and 1607 laboured to set up a permanent committee of the leading Christian states of Europe. It was called the Grand Design. As Sir Winston truly said, we are all, after this long passage of time, servants of that Grand Design. But the process leading gradually to a union with a federal goal, however worded in the draft treaty, would establish a new federal European order. As the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, rightly said, we are not ready for it, and it is not sufficiently worked out. We may take note that, as soon as the ink was dry on the signatures of the Six, a debate arose between those who wished to have a federal structure and those who did not. The debate continues today, not having been resolved in favour of federalism either by the Treaty of Rome or by the Single European Act. We may also take note that the noble and learned Lord, Lord Oliver of Aylmerton, advised that the wording of the draft treaty in this regard is calculated to excite the highest suspicion and that the danger of employing expressions of ultimate objective opens the door to some future positive commitment. Next, one comes to my right honourable friend the Prime Minister. Surely we must take note that he, as a matter of principle, has adopted a fundamental approach which by and large appears so far to have commanded the broad approval of most speakers in this debate. I advert only to three facets of the Motion to which he spoke in another place; first, a constructive approach to economic, monetary and political union which avoids the development of a federal Europe; secondly, preservation of the right of Parliament to decide in the future whether to adopt a single currency; thirdly, the avoidance of intrusive Community measures in social and other areas which are a matter for national decision. My right honourable friend the Prime Minister has a safe pair of hands. My right honourable friend the Foreign Secretary is a skilled and tested professional diplomat. These men of calibre can surely be trusted as to whether they make a deal or do not make a deal; and if they make a deal which involves any substantial surrender of sovereignty, to respect the ballot box and the will of Parliament. I agree with my noble friend Lord Rippon that there is much to be said for 1202 ratification of any treaty on a truly free vote in another place. That is far better than a referendum which, as my noble friend Lord Boardman truly said, is erosive of Parliament and, as my noble friend Lady Platt has just said, is far too complicated for most of us to be able to understand. I include myself with her among that body of people. I have to rely on the expertise of noble Lords of the calibre of my noble friend Lord Boardman. I am not sufficiently expert in these matters to be able to know exactly what I should do. Surely on 9th and 10th December at Maastricht we shall achieve a new spirit of consensus, something to which my noble friend Lord Waddington referred, on the implementation and enforcement of Community measures and on the commitment to defeat Community fraud. Reference is made to our proposals for the Court of Auditors, a matter near and dear to the heart of the noble Lord, Lord Bruce. There will be enhanced co-operation against terrorism and all types of international crime. On defence, in an entirely new dimension, WEU will perhaps be accepted as the bridge between NATO and the European Council. No doubt other proposals for alleviating the fluctuating exchange rates which at the moment only appear to be of benefit to currency speculators are on the table for discussion. As I said, I am not competent to deal with such matters but it is a great source of comfort to think that they will be discussed in an objective and constructive manner. Last of all, something has to be done about the accountability of the Commission. There is much to be achieved in the mutual interests of all member states. For my part, I join with other noble Lords who have expressed good wishes and encouragement to both my right honourable friends on their mission to Maastricht. § 7 p.m. Lord Ezra My Lords, indeed, back to the banks. That is very pleasant for the former friends of the noble Lord, Lord Boardman, or, indeed, for his present friends. 1205 This is a serious problem. Great benefit is to be gained from the single currency proposal. I hope that the Minister will be able to explain why we have made the reservation that we have, as there are already conditions attaching to those who will be eligible to join the single currency when the time comes. I should like to conclude by repeating that I am pleased that the position taken by the Government at present is much more positive than it was previously. There are still some constraints and limitations, as the Prime Minister made clear in his speech in another place, and which were repeated and strongly supported by the noble Lord, Lord Harris of High Cross. There are those constraints and limitations, some of which I am dismayed about. Nonetheless, bearing in mind that the objective is for us to stay at the heart of Europe, and bearing in mind the great skill of our negotiators, I wish them well and every success. § 7.12 p.m. Lord Bethell My Lords, my noble friend is quite right. As a former Member of the European Parliament, he has great expertise in this matter. However, the fact is that, particularly in another place, there does not seem to be the time to tackle these questions when any decision reached by such a group could not be implemented by contact with the Commission or with the Council of Ministers. The link, the nexus, is just not there. That is where we Members of the European Parliament could help members of national parliaments. In other words, I am in favour of a Strasbourg-Westminster axis and against a Whitehall-Brussels or Whitehall-Berlaimont axis. That is how I believe the matter should be regarded. I very much hope that my noble friend the Prime Minister will take note of some of these ideas. As for the legislative side, I believe it is less important. At this stage I do not foresee much greater powers being given to the European Parliament vis-à-vis the Council of Ministers. I wish to do away with that bogyman. I believe that there should be strong powers for the Council of Ministers but not that the powers of the European Parliament should be circumscribed at every point by a non-elected body of commissioners and a large number of "Brussels bureaucrats". We should be allowed to do our job for which we were democratically elected, just as the Ministers do the job for which they were elected. I hope that this is what the Prime Minister will urge. I believe he would still have time between now and the meeting to suggest that if we are really to do our job properly and if we really are to control the men and women in the Berlaimont, who—as his right honourable friend put it—poke their noses into the nooks and crannies of our British way of life, we shall do it much more effectively if we are able to establish our base in the same city as the Commission is sited at present. It will be much easier and mere sensible if that can be done and I hope that the Prime Minister will take the point on board. I wish to echo what other noble Lords have said in truly wishing my right honourable friend well in the Herculean task that he faces over the next few days. 1208 He will be going to Maastricht with the overwhelming support of your Lordships and Members of another place. For heaven's sake, we wish him well. § 7.24 p.m. Lord Skidelsky My Lords, I offer no apology for starting with history, as did the noble Lord, Lord Weidenfeld. We are all both trapped by our history and wish to overcome it at the same time. After attending the Paris peace conference in 1919, Keynes wrote: England still stands outside Europe … Europe is apart and England is not of her flesh and body. But Europe is solid with herself". Our agonised heart-searching in the run up to Maastricht shows how much of that judgment is still true. Every move forward to greater political unity is a crisis in our politics. That is certainly not the case for other members of the Community. For Europe has conceived a project which history has taught us to fear. It is not the single market or even the single currency—I shall come to the single currency later—but the attempt to unite Western and Central Europe into a single state. There have been many attempts in the past to do this by force and we have resisted them. At present, there is an attempt to do it by agreement and we resist that. It is not just that we do not wish to be part of it, but that we do not really want it to happen at all. The noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, believes that had we not joined the Common Market the six would already have formed a political union. I think that we went in partly to prevent that from happening. Many would argue that this fear of European political unity is an out of date historical reflex, that Europe has a federal destiny and we are inescapably part of it. I do not despise reflexes—they often come in quite handy—but I am not sure that people who say this are right on either count. Federalism is only one of the institutional forms which European unity can take, and not necessarily the most attractive or relevant one. France and Germany are also trying to overcome their history and may learn by experience that the world today is very different from the world of the 1940s and the 1950s when the European project was conceived. Nor am I convinced that the best way for us to maximise our talents, our energies and our interests is to box ourselves into a new European state. The Prime Minister talks about us being at the heart of Europe. The fact is that we have been at the centre of the world but rarely at the heart of Europe. Our location precludes us from that. It is still so today and I doubt that it will ever be different. Although we are much reduced, our instinct is still to seek our fortune overseas, not on the continent. All that will change; it is already changing. But we cannot achieve in five minutes that sense of a common fate which it took two world wars—not of our making—to bring about in Europe. We have been slow to grasp the persistence of the European drive to political unity. The former Prime Minister sometimes gives the impression that, like one of the architects of Ceausescu's palace in Bucharest, she woke up every morning to find the horror of another unexpected excrescence added to that grisly 1209 structure. But there has really been no excuse for surprise. The post-war constitutions of most of the original six contain provisions for the transfer of sovereign powers to supranational bodies. So the federalist thrust was there from the start. It was deflected for a time by de Gaulle and his successors, but the competition between the four main Community institutions—theCouncil, the Commission, the Court and the European Parliament—now gives it an internal dynamic which may well prove irresistible. How should we play the hand which history has dealt us? I am as much in favour as the next person of trying to get the best of all worlds and I am not immune to European idealism. It would be extraordinary folly to cut ourselves off from the benefits of the single market and political co-operation in order to hoard a shrinking sovereignty. At the same time we must recognise that we are not nearly as ready to accept a European destiny as many, perhaps most, of the present members of the Community. This suggests to me a fourfold strategy for Maastricht and beyond. Incidentally, I have to agree with the noble Lord the Leader of the House that no strategy is needed, that we must take issues as they come. This leaves the initiative in European affairs to those who do have a strategy. As I have suggested, there are many of them. First, we should do everything in our power to slow down the pace of the advance towards federalism. That means essentially trying to limit the competence of the Community as far as possible to the economic and monetary matters defined in the Treaty of Rome and the subsequent Single European Act. Secondly, I agree completely with the noble Lord, Lord Joseph, that within that area of competence we should fight unremittingly to get the principle of subsidiarity properly defined and taken seriously. Everyone now pays lip service to it, but the Commission often issues its directives as though it had never heard of it. As Samuel Brittan has argued eloquently and frequently in the Financial Times, the enemy here is not federalism but centralisation—the urge of Brussels to interfere, under cover of health and safety, harmonisation, level playing fields and other such issues, in matters which are not its concern. We should oppose the extension of qualified majority voting to the matters contained in the social charter and we should always, with other directives issued under the qualified majority procedure, ask, "Is this required by the principle of subsidiarity?" Incidentally, I find it difficult to understand remarks made by the noble Lord, Lord McCarthy, earlier in the debate. He seemed to be arguing that subsidiarity is all very well if the Government do what he wants, but if that is not the case then Brussels should do it. I would point out to the noble Lord that the issue is not one of what one does, but of where the responsibility for doing it lies. I agreed very much with the noble Lord, Lord Harris of High Cross, when he said that healthy competition between different social systems is what is good, not a grey uniformity. 1210 Thirdly, we should do all we can to make a reality of European co-operation in defence and foreign policy. I feel that what we have lacked in the past is not a federal vocation but a European vocation, as de Gaulle, no federalist himself, never tired of pointing out. It is our uncritical Atlanticism which more than anything else has detached us from France in the past. Had we taken ideas of defence and foreign policy co-operation with the French more seriously in the 1980s we would never have been so isolated as we are today on the issue of majority voting in foreign policy. That is a classic example of how to play a strong hand badly. Fourthly, we should press hard for early widening of the Community to include Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. That is not to stop so-called deepening but because those countries urgently need the political and economic support for freedom and democracy which membership of the Community alone can give them. However, in putting that case for widening we will also expose the hollowness of some of the arguments for centralisation. I wish to say a few words about the single currency. This, like the single market, has to do with economic welfare. Our judgment should turn not on the abstract ground of sovereignty but on whether the arrangements proposed are more or less likely to promote the well-being of our people. By joining the Common Market we renounced the right to put up our own tariffs. By joining a monetary union we renounce the right to devalue, to inflate the currency or to run budget deficits at will. The serious arguments against the surrender of any of these instruments of national economic management take a Keynesian form. It is said that the capitalist economy is inherently unstable and suffers from lack of confidence, and that national governments must retain the power to protect their people from slumps. I appreciate the force of that argument although it comes, rather oddly, from Mrs. Thatcher. I should have preferred a rather looser fiscal rule. However, a perfectly good Keynesian argument can be put on the other side. Instability is largely due to uncertainty. A major cause of uncertainty since the 1970s has been the erratic way national governments have managed their economies. So rules designed to guarantee low inflation, exchange rate stability and prudent fiscal policy will tend in themselves to make economies more stable and allow for a higher level of activity by their effect in reducing the long-term interest rate. That is a prize which has eluded us for over 20 years. Time will tell whether the rules and institutions outlined in the draft treaty on economic and monetary union will work out as intended, but the risk is surely worth taking if the convergence conditions are met. Here I find some of the arguments that have been put forward in this debate a little confusing. The noble Lord, Lord Joseph, argued that economic and monetary union would lead ineluctably to central government; that a central bank would lead ineluctably to a central government. I do not see the logical connection there. Article 107 of the draft treaty states clearly: 1211 When exercising the powers and carrying out the tasks and duties conferred upon them by this Treaty … neither the ECB, nor a national central hank, nor any member of their decision-making bodies shall seek or take instructions from Community institutions or bodies, from any government of a Member State or from any other body". Does the noble Lord, Lord Joseph, believe this will not happen, or what? Where is the connection between the idea of a central bank and the inevitability of a central government? To me the independence of the central bank from political control is the most attractive thing about it. In monetary management I prefer a democratic deficit to a democratic surplus. The noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, says we need an opt-out clause because our economy may be too weak when the time comes. But that surely is a matter of the convergence conditions. If they are properly specified, no opt-out clause is necessary. The noble Lord, Lord Ezra, also asked that question. I shall be interested to hear the reply to it. If the noble Lord, Lord Harris of High Cross, believes that the economies of Europe will never converge enough to make a single currency possible, why is he so worried about us committing ourselves to it? Those are all questions that require answers. Therefore, I take a relaxed view about progress towards a single currency. We have five years to test the hypothesis that this is the best way forward and I see nothing wrong in committing ourselves to the experiment. The noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, has rightly pointed out that any British Government will have a difficult time ahead. We have a small margin for mistakes. However, if our diplomacy is skilful and resolute we have a good chance of obtaining the agreements we want. I have no doubt that in time our European, though not necessarily our federalist, vocation will grow. For those reasons I am in favour of the Government's negotiating stance for Maastricht. § 7.37 p.m. The Earl of Bessborough My Lords, I should have liked to make a separate speech about subsidiarity as it is a subject that interests me greatly. I should also have liked to make a separate speech on convergence, but I shall not do so. The noble Lord who has just spoken made some extremely interesting comments on those two subjects. I merely wish to ask: what is Europe? That is a question which a well known Italian friend of mine, Giovanni Agnelli, asks in a recent article entitled Uniting Europe through Enterprise. He points out that 2,500 years ago Herodotus offered an answer to the question. He said that Europe is one of the three parts into which the world is divided. Understandably, his view of geography was somewhat limited. History does not provide much help either. There never has been a state or political entity which could formally be called Europe. Even the European Community does not provide an answer to the Herodotus question. Too many important elements are missing. One cannot ignore the EFTA countries and the emerging democracies of Eastern Europe. Incidentally, I am glad that the European Community and EFTA are reported to be reaching agreement on 1212 creating a European economic area as a step towards full membership of the Community for the seven EFTA countries. In that connection I was particularly happy to preside recently at a luncheon in honour of the Austrian Vice-Chancellor, Erhard Busek, having also recently had talks with the Austrian ambassador in Washington on the subject of the EC and EFTA, of which Austria is a member. I hope that such a European economic area comes into being. Austria and the other EFTA countries seem keen that it should. Faced with a world order which is moving towards global dimensions, divided into large continental regions, Europe has to be united. I believe that that is an absolute necessity for our political and historical survival. As my right honourable friend the Prime Minister and my noble friend the Leader of the House have said, that does not mean rushing blindly to sign any agreement. Nor does it mean renouncing the different cultures and traditions which make up Europe's rich and varied heritage. As my right honourable friend the Prime Minister said at Blackpool, our aim should be for closer union between states, not a so-called federal merging of states. I wish that we could forget that "F" word: the "U" word (union) makes much more sense. We now have a chance to build on that, to recreate more of a European family, to construct a safe and prosperous home for European generations yet to come. To quote again what my right honourable friend the Prime Minister said, it is a chance we must not miss. As Europeans, we are, I believe, on the threshold of historic decisions. I regret having to say this, but to adopt as negative a line as my right honourable friends Mr. Tebbit and Mr. Ridley would be a disaster. I do not believe that even my right honourable friend the former Prime Minister would altogether go along with them, even if she did take on Sir Alan Walters as an adviser. However, I am glad to learn that the professor now seems to be accepting the inevitable. I am also glad that my right honourable friend Mrs. Thatcher did not vote against the Government last week. Her predecessor, my right honourable friend Mr. Heath, is the staunchest European I know. I agree with his whole stance in regard to Europe. What would we be without the Romans and Normans and many other continental invaders and refugees? From what I have said so far, your Lordships will recognise that I too am a Europhile. That is not merely because I am half French, with an American wife whose country unites so many of those of European stock, nor because my son-in-law, who is a distinguished art expert, is Greek and my niece is married to a notable Italian banker, to say nothing of having Irish, Welsh and Canadian connections and friends in every member state of the Community. I say what I have said because I believe that 2,500 years ago Herodotus was more or less right. I hope that he may prove to be so in the future and that Europe will be the second, third, or perhaps the first great power in the world. Finally, I recognise that there are considerable problems to be resolved in regard to political union 1213 and defence. However, having reflected in some detail on monetary union I can think of no reason why we should not unite with other member states in the stabilisation of currencies and aim ultimately for a single currency. That need not involve dropping the term "pound sterling" even if we also recognise the ecu—as we already do for certain transactions. I agree with what my noble friends Lord Aldington and Lord Rippon said on that subject. Both made excellent speeches. As I have said before in your Lordships' House, I believe that a single European currency will help to keep down inflation and reduce interest rates whatever the slide of sterling vis-à-vis the deutschmark may be today—and I gather that this afternoon sterling has rallied. I feel sure that the Bank of England will be able to deploy its 44 billion dollars of foreign reserves to stave off any fresh assault on the pound and avoid the need for the Government to raise interest rates to defend sterling. Surely my right honourable friend Mrs. Thatcher, whom we all respect as having been a great Prime Minister, having agreed to join the exchange rate mechanism and signed the Single European Act, must have known that those were steps on the way to accepting monetary union. I hope therefore that we shall be able to come to agreement with our 11 friends at Maastricht and not, at least at this stage, have to organise a referendum. Britain is after all itself a parliamentary democracy. As the first British vice-president of the European Parliament, and having played an active part in the 1975 referendum, I hope that the European Parliament, which is democratically elected, may have some of its powers increased. I was glad to hear what my noble friend the Leader of the House said on the subject. He went a long way towards what I consider to be the right type of solution for the European Parliament. I agreed very much with what my noble friend Lord Bethell said. I had the honour to propose him as an MEP in 1973. I have never forgotten it, and he has been a very good Member of that Parliament. I say to the Government: good luck at Maastricht! § 7.48 p.m. Lord Stoddart of Swindon My Lords, I thought that she was asking a rhetorical question but she sees it as a fact. I see it as a fact that the British people are not so much in favour of so-called integration and economic union as our continental partners and that is because, first, our institutions are different. Secondly, the ways in which people relate to those institutions and in which people in this country relate to their politicians are different. Thirdly, and perhaps most importantly, the British people were deceived 1214 and misled when we first entered the Common Market in 1972. We were not told that we were entering a form of economic union. We were told that we were entering a Common Market. During the referendum campaign, we were specifically told that economic and monetary union had been negotiated out of the treaty and that it no longer existed as a policy or as a possibility. As they were deceived at that time, the British people are therefore not as enthusiastic about further integration and unity as my noble friend would like them to be. Maastricht is now revealing the truth; namely, that this country has been led unwittingly into a position which threatens its future as a self-governing nation. Thus, in 19 short years, we have come a long way towards abandoning the institutions built up over hundreds of years to give the British people freedom, democracy and self-government. Apparently, our Government now contemplate signing a treaty that will sooner or later give away British control over economic and monetary policy and perhaps start down the road of ceding power over foreign and defence policy. That will effectively be the end of a self-governing Britain. Judging from our experience so far, our people will instead be governed by a domineering, centralising, soulless, federal super-state within which ordinary people will have little say and over which they will have no influence. People like myself and my noble friend Lord Bruce of Donington, who from the beginning have recognised the real intentions of the Euro-federalist fanatics to create a Western-European super-state, have been insulted, belittled, told that we were misleading the people when we warned of the federalism in store for Britain and have been called Little Englanders and the rest. However, we were right all along and those who did not dare to reveal their true ambitions before are now emboldened to do so. Sir Geoffrey Howe was at it again last week. He described so-called Euro-sceptics as yesterday's men. As always, like all Euro-fanatics, he stood the truth on its head. Yesterday's men are the empire-builders and centralists whose world has collapsed in chaos, recrimination and bloodshed. It is those who see the way forward to peace and stability through determined but willing co-operation between sovereign, self-governing states who are today's men and tomorrow's men, not those who wish to rebuild in Western Europe the centralist monster that has so ignominiously collapsed in Eastern Europe. During his resignation speech, Sir Geoffrey Howe said that sovereignty is not like virginity which you either have or do not have. He believes that sovereignty can be shared. That is another misleading concept. For "sovereignty", substitute "self-government". Now you see that it is like virginity: you either have it or you do not have it. If you allow your decisions to be made by a group of other people or nations voting by a majority, you have not pooled self-government; you have lost it. That is the truth of the matter. We are told, and I should like to believe it, that the Government have no intention of accepting the present proposals for political union. However, they 1215 appear quite ready to sign an agreement on economic and monetary union which would remove from the British Government and Parliament, and therefore the people, a huge tranche of self-government. They say that they will sign the treaty, but will not be bound by it for the present. However, inevitably, once in place, as we have seen time and time again, the inexorable process of economic and monetary union will move on until it envelops all the parties to the treaty within its stifling mantle. Thus, monetary policy will be exercised by a central European bank which will have snaffled all Britain's external reserves. The British Chancellor will be told how large his budget deficit may be or whether he shall have a deficit at all. Every aspect of economic and financial policy will be under the scrutiny and control of Brussels and all countries will have to conform to its diktat. It is said that the object before we attain union must be convergence but, frankly, for "convergence" we could read a form of economic fascism in which all countries have to conform, whether they can or not and regardless of their different backgrounds, to the policy of the strongest state, or else. I understand why such a system might appeal to corporatists like Mr. Heath, but I cannot understand why the Labour Party would wish to be put under such savage restraints, bearing in mind the policies that it wishes to implement. The party's change of mind appears to stem from the Single European Act which was ruthlessly imposed on Parliament and the people by Mrs. Thatcher. Labour opposed that Act because it believed that it eroded Britain's ability to govern itself. It now says, "We have gone so far; we might as well go the whole hog and hand the whole lot over to Brussels". That is not good thinking. It is like a doctor who, having given a patient some medicine which half kills him, decides to carry on prescribing the same medicine until the patient is dead. That is quite wrong. Furthermore, the Labour Party should beware lest it is accused of wishing to gain office merely to give away to others the power bestowed on it by the people, should it win the election. The issue transcends party politics. It has always been country before party and it will remain that way. I have never been prepared to be whipped on this subject in the past and I shall certainly not allow myself to be whipped in the future. That brings me to my final point; namely, the question of a referendum. Mrs. Thatcher has attracted a great deal of criticism, much of it, quite frankly, deserved. However, I find it amazing that the Conservative Party, particularly some of its senior members, should seek to stifle what she says and to tell her that she should not have free speech. I should have thought that that was wrong. It is her right and duty to speak on the subject as she believes. That is the duty of all of us. The case for a referendum in the present circumstances is quite unanswerable. I do not know at what stage it would take place. I agree with many people who have asked at what stage we should have a referendum. We should have a referendum at the stage where it is quite clear that our economic, monetary and perhaps other policies will be controlled 1216 by people other than the British Government and the British Parliament. If all the parties are agreed on a single policy, there is only one way in which the British people can have a voice in resolving what in fact would be a unified parliamentary policy; namely, by referendum. I see no reason why people should be afraid of such a referendum. I sincerely hope that all those in senior positions in all the parties will consider and reconsider the matter and that they will agree that, unless the people are given the opportunity to declare themselves, they will again be dragged reluctantly into the new arrangements by what they will consider to be a conspiracy. That would be damning for Parliament, bad for Government and bad for democracy. Let me say a final word to noble Lords and to the British people. It is not far-fetched to say that we are in danger of losing self-government. I warn that once a people loses self-government, it is a hell of a job to get it back. Therefore, before we lose it, let us make sure that the people give their consent. Better still, let us not agree to lose it at all but keep it for ourselves, for it has protected us over many hundreds of years. § 8.1 p.m. Lord Elibank My Lords, I certainly do not accept everything that Mr. Delors has said; nor do I accept the timetable that he has proposed. He has other motivation for the route that he follows. However, he is clearly on the federalist course. However objectionable that word may be, I believe that if we are looking for a convergence in Europe—or something like it—that is what will come in time. The idea of a policy of convergence sets no timetable. It may look 10 years or 100 years ahead. It is very vague. Personally, I should prefer to see an objective of convergence at approximately the same speed as the other members of the Community. That is where we are inclined to drag our feet. In our negotiations with the EC we always seem to see merit in delay, hanging on and waiting to see what might happen. That way we shall be late again. One aspect that causes the Government a considerable amount of trouble is sniping from the sidelines. I have great sympathy with them. Members of the party, often senior members, ridicule or contradict the Government's efforts forward. I exhort the Government to take a firm and determined line on this issue and disregard such sniping; otherwise, when they go to the negotiating table at Maastricht the impression will be created that they are looking over their shoulders at their enemies or antagonists at home. That will weaken their approach to their negotiating partners in Europe; it will also weaken their chance of convincing the British people that what they are doing is right and best for the nation. Referendums and whether or not they are desirable have also been mentioned. The noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, said that he had instigated two referendums, one of which ended up as he wished while the other did not. I do not understand how the Government can handle a situation in which they have a positive policy which they recommend to the electorate and start to carry through but then have a referendum which might well go against the policy that they advocate. Can they then backtrack or do they hedge? What do they do? That would seem an intolerable situation but one which could possibly arise in the present circumstance. The Government might well have a majority for their policies in both Houses when they return from Maastricht; however, a referendum could show a majority of the British electorate against those policies. The Government would then be in an intolerable position. I think that they do very well to reject referendums at any stage. My last point touches on the issue of sovereignty. It is a very important matter and the motivation behind 1218 much of the caution exemplified by many of the speeches tonight. Fear of the loss of sovereignty is the motivation for proceeding with the utmost caution, in many cases as slowly as possible. Sovereignty, as a number of noble Lords have said, is not an absolute concept. If one considers the last time that we could properly say that we were a sovereign nation I suggest that it was the second half of the last century at the height of the Victorian age. We were probably then the number one power in the world and what we wanted to do with our economy, foreign policy and defence we could do without consultation with others. Since that time our power and sovereignty have diminished. With the occasional upward blip, it has been a steady downward path from the middle of the 19th century until today. There are various reasons for that. Some are arguable. However, most of us would say that a prominent element in that loss of sovereignty has been our willingness to over-pay ourselves for the poor levels of productivity that we have achieved in relation to our competitors. At present, our economy is very much at the mercy of the Japanese, the Americans and the Germans. That is the realistic situation today. It will not change. If we isolate ourselves in Europe and refuse to join, or join belatedly, a number of the institutions we have discussed today, that loss of sovereignty and power can only accelerate. Our only hope is to get into a larger power complex such as Europe and to wield our influence from within. Our economic record over the past 100 years has been so poor that I cannot concede that a union within Europe will cause it any further deterioration. Of course there is an element of risk when we throw the dice. But it seems to me that we have a far better chance of winning than of losing. Fundamentally, unlike the noble Lord, Lord Skidelsky, I believe that the force of history compels us to join Europe. It is inevitable. The only choice that we have is how long we delay in joining any particular institution. It has been said a number of times that in those circumstances it is better to get in early and to set the rules of the club rather than to hang back and have them set for us in a manner that we might find unattractive. § 8.12 p.m. Lord Varley My Lords, at this point in the debate after so many fine speeches I wonder what fresh new material I can give. I am tempted to say, "Ditto to the speeches that have gone before". If I were to forgo my right to speak, I would say, "Ditto to the speech of the noble Lord, Lord Rippon of Hexham", because I agreed with so much that he said. However, I do not intend to forgo my chance to put in my two pennyworth. I was very pleased when my noble friend Lord Cledwyn put the case for the official Opposition so forcefully and cogently when he spoke today. I was delighted that he reinforced the position taken by the Leader of Her Majesty's Opposition in another place, and colleagues such as the Shadow Foreign Secretary and the Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer who have taken courageous lines. I hope that when he goes 1219 to Maastricht the Prime Minister will realise that he is very fortunate in having prominent members of the Opposition in this House and in another place who want to see a successful outcome to the negotiations. In the 1960s I believed that Britain could thrive and prosper outside the Community. I even thought that, but only just, at the time of the referendum in 1975. However, I considered that we could thrive and prosper, perhaps preserve and build on our trade with the Commonwealth, and forge even closer links with the United States. I am sorry to say that that route to increasing prosperity and to building a first class economy proved illusory and mistaken. We are now no more than a medium-sized European power slipping down the world's manufacturing industrial league. Our industrial base has shrunk and our international competitiveness is constantly under threat. Our great abundance of national resources is being squandered, or not used to good effect. My enthusiasm now for the Community stems largely from our appalling decline in industrial influence in the world. For example, since 1979 our manufacturing capacity has increased by only a tiny amount—2 per cent. Consumer spending has increased by about 30 per cent., hence the huge balance of payments deficit, and the fact that we have not used the tremendous resources from the North Sea. It grieves me to see Ministers sometimes almost going down on their bended knee to plead with the Japanese to invest in this country. I do not wish to give the wrong impression; such inward investment is extremely welcome. However, the fact that we are able to do better in vehicle building today in Britain has more to do with Nissan, Honda and Toyota than what remains of our indigenous car industry. We once were proud to claim support for ICL as a wholly owned British computer company. Now that great hope is wholly owned by a Japanese company. Over the past 25 years, we have sought to control our rising unit labour costs either by a statutory or a voluntary incomes policy with all the anguish that that has brought. More latterly we have sought to do so by reducing trade union influence, by restrictive legislation or high unemployment. Our attempt to remain internationally competitive was at the expense of devaluing our currency. The only time in the past decade when sterling currency appreciated was when the world oil prices rose either due to the OPEC cartel, when that body had power, or in a Middle East conflagration. Its appreciation was because of our self sufficiency in energy. That is diminishing all the time. I do not know anyone who wishes to go back to the days of formal incomes policies or trade union power broking and the scope now for anti-trade union legislation hardly exists without violating basic human rights. It will not be long before our indigenous oil and gas start to diminish. Whatever cushion we attain from those fuels at present will decline. Our future is therefore inextricably linked to the European Community. Every examination of the facts points inescapably to our need to play a leading role in its development. 1220 I rejoiced when we joined the exchange rate mechanism because it imposes a discipline on us that we have not had the courage to apply to ourselves over any reasonable length of time. I leave aside whether we joined at the right rate. I assumed that the then Prime Minister, Mrs. Thatcher, who agreed to it, and her Chancellor, the present Prime Minister, knew what they were doing. Perhaps after the recent outbursts from Mrs. Thatcher it was foolish of me to make that assumption. But I assumed if they said it was right that it was right at the time. The present difficulties that sterling is experiencing in the exchange rate mechanism is as much to do with the Government's prevarication about the line to take at Maastricht and the disarray in the Conservative Party than any threat of a rise in German interest rates. Therefore the Government, headed by Mrs. Thatcher, having committed us to a Single European Act and the exchange rate mechanism now have a duty to play a leading part in forging even closer links with our Community partners. It is naive to believe that we can stop the further development of the Community. If the Prime Minister and his senior colleagues find that they cannot sign the treaties at Maastricht, it will lead to their humiliation and it will be disastrous for the country. I can understand why the Motion before this unelected House is to "take note" but on such an important issue I was amazed by the Government's pathetic Motion in another place last week. I believe that Mr. Tebbit described it as "Alice in Wonderland". You could have taken any three pages from that book, put them on the Order Paper and got everybody through the Lobbies on that basis. It would have been far better if our Government had followed the example and courage of the Labour Opposition and set down a Motion on the Order Paper which gave a clear lead. Then at least those in a minority who genuinely and conscientiously did not agree could have registered their opposition. For example, those who take the line of my noble friend Lord Stoddart of Swindon could have gone through the Lobbies or abstained as many of my former colleagues did in the House of Commons. However, my biggest complaint about the Government and some of the Ministers on this issue—I do not necessarily say that that applies to the noble Lord, Lord Waddington, the Leader of the House when he spoke this afternoon—is that they are not making out a logical case for European integration or participating constructively. They seem only to react to what our partners propose and then appear to give the impression that they want to slow down what I believe to be an inevitable process. Of course many aspects of Community power is infuriatingly bizarre and trivial. But as the Government approach the negotiations, we are not talking about whether Cornish pasties can be made in Worcester, but the whole pattern of our trade and industrial power perhaps for the next 30 years. Over 50 per cent. of our exports and 52 per cent. of our imports are with countries in the EC. By the end of this decade the Community of 12 may be 20. To make 1221 sure that we gain our full share in an expanding and prosperous Community, we need currency stability and eventually a common currency link. If our leaders make a hash of the negotiations at Maastricht, we can probably rule out the City of London as Europe's leading financial centre, and the £4,000 million or so that it earns a year will eventually go to Frankfurt or Paris. Therefore, I urge the Prime Minister and his colleagues not to allow themselves to be painted into a corner by Mrs. Thatcher and Mr. Tebbit who try to give the impression that they are saving us from awful foreigners. I believe that it was Samuel Johnson who said, Patriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel". Neither Mrs. Thatcher nor Mr. Tebbit are scoundrels, but they are in the twilight of their House of Commons' careers. I would not be surprised to see them here before too long and as impotent as some of us are. That may be. I believe that the Prime Minister wants to reach an agreement at Maastricht. He should not be looking nervously over his shoulder at a minority in the House of Commons even as eminent as that minority is. If he has the courage to follow his own instincts, he will be doing a great service to the British people. I hope that he reaches agreement, and I wish him well. § 8.23 p.m. Baroness Elles My Lords, I am pleased to hear from my noble friend Lord Harmar-Nicholls that the former Prime Minister did not make that suggestion. I am perhaps mistaken in my understanding. Having read Hansard, there is no doubt that the Official Report of 20th November showed my right honourable friend indicating considerable enthusiasm 1226 for the idea of a referendum. Because she suggests so many things I could not believe that she allowed someone else to suggest the idea and then took it up herself. I must therefore apologise to my noble friend for making that cardinal error. In conclusion, we must recognise that the world is changing. In the past two years we have seen dramatic events in Europe. We do not know what dramatic events we shall see beyond Eastern Europe. We are seeing a new emerging southern Africa. It behoves us in this Parliament to ensure that Britain is in the centre where major decisions will be made affecting not only our future but also the future of the whole of Europe and, indeed, the rest of the world. We know that the European Community is the largest trading bloc. It will be even bigger with EFTA countries coming in and its position will be stronger. I hope that the draft treaty produces all the answers we need to ensure our stability and prosperity. Consequently, I totally support the actions of my right honourable friends the Prime Minister and the Foreign Secretary and wish them well in their task, which will be for the benefit of our people. § 8.41 p.m. Lord Monson My Lords, it is always a pleasure to follow the noble Baroness, Lady Elles, in our debates on the Community, as seems to happen quite often, particularly as on this occasion I warmly agree with one of her later suggestions, to which I shall return. Ten days ago the deputy editor of the Daily Telegraph, Mr. Charles Moore, in an article on the implications of Maastricht, wrote as follows: Bored and perplexed, we [the British people] tend to assume that the European question can be treated pragmatically. We dislike what we call the wilder excesses of the federalists, but we comfort ourselves that the important people in the Community are more moderate. This is false comfort. You have only to talk for half an hour (and I have talked for much, much longer) to senior EC officials and politicians, to realise that they almost all want to supersede the nation state with European government. 'We are building the United States of Europe', one Commissioner told me on Tuesday, and he said it not as a rhetorical challenge, but as a statement of fact". Those who have studied the matter and are honest with themselves must concede that as far as continentals are concerned that is one of the main objectives of the Maastricht Summit. In other words, de Gaulle's noble concept of L'Europe des patries, is effectively chucked aside. That may be what countries which are 19th Century creations want, or countries which were formerly dictatorships or which not so long ago were under the sway of dictatorships, but it is not for us. Our history is different and therefore our psychology is different. That is why those noble Lords like the noble Lord, Lord Elibank, who claim that if we had joined the Community earlier or played a greater or more central role in its deliberations we could have swayed the other 11 members to our way of thinking, are mistaken. It is not merely a question of tradition and sentiment. There are dangers involved, and not for this country alone. We must consider some of the implications of a common foreign policy subject to qualified majority voting, which the noble Lord the 1227 Leader of the House rightly condemned in a vigorous and excellent speech. Suppose, heaven forbid, some years in the future Argentina and Brazil were to go to war with one another. One would expect Portugal to back the Brazilians and Spain and possibly Italy to back the Argentinians. But why on earth should any of the rest of us become involved? Moving to another part of the world, do we really want to become involved in an all too possible future armed conflict between Greece and Turkey? That almost certainly would be the case if there were to be a common foreign and defence policy. Again, we know that many people on the Continent, and not just Madame Edith Cresson, are consumed with resentment for Japan, the United States and, by extension, the English-speaking former dominions. But that is not our attitude and never will be. We have absolutely nothing against the Japanese, provided they are prepared to admit to the atrocities committed by their troops between 1936 and 1945; nothing, apart from occasional minor irritations against the Americans, to whom we are bound by blood And language; and we certainly have nothing against the Canadians, Australians and New Zealanders. On the contrary, we back them up to the hilt, much to the annoyance of the continentals more often than not. As I have mentioned before, French acquaintances of were genuinely affronted that we backed the New Zealanders rather than them over the "Rainbow Warrior" incident, holding that our attitude brands us as not being sufficiently communautaire. I would much rather be right than communautaire. Very belatedly indeed the French at long last apologised to New Zealand for the "Rainbow Warrior" incident, only to spoil it all a few days later by awarding decorations to the two secret service agents who blew up the "Rainbow Warrior" and killed the Portuguese photographer on board. If a common foreign policy had been in place no doubt the French Government would expect the British Government to try to persuade Her Majesty to include the two French agents in the next New Year's Honours List for services rendered to the Community. I do not believe that that would go down particularly well. The most worrying aspect of all, as the right honourable Member for Devonport, Dr. David Owen, hinted at in another place last Wednesday, is that if a uniform foreign policy had been in place last August at the time of the hard-line coup in the Soviet Union, when Britain was supporting Mr. Gorbachev and Mr. Yeltsin but France and Germany seemed to be on the verge of accepting the coup as a fait accompli, Britain might have been outvoted. So with President Bush virtually isolated, a hard-line government might well have been in power in the Soviet Union today, with Mr. Gorbachev and Mr. Yeltsin behind bars or in Siberia. I turn to the question of a single currency. As almost every expert tells us, except the noble Lord, Lord Rippon—I am certainly not an expert—but including Mr. Nigel Lawson, monetary union will accelerate the trend towards economic union and is 1228 also likely to lead inexorably, over a period of time, towards fiscal union, for reasons I shall not go into now. What are the implications of that? There is one grave constitutional implication which, so far as I know, has not been mentioned in either House of Parliament. As the noble Lord, Lord Joseph, emphasised, nobody seriously supposes that any EC central bank which comes into existence will he genuinely independent, any more than the Bundesbank was independent when the West German Government twisted its arm last year and forced it to accept a preposterously out-of-line exchange rate for the östmark. In other words, the different national governments controlling the central bank will have an input into monetary policy just as they will have an input into economic and Community-wide fiscal policy. Suppose by coincidence, as is quite possible, France, Germany, Italy, the Benelux Countries, Spain and Portugal were all due to hold general elections in the autumn and winter of 1993 and the spring of 1994. Suppose, also by coincidence, the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Greece and Denmark had general elections scheduled for the autumn of 1994 or the spring of 1995. Suppose again that a drastic economic crisis blew up in the summer of 1994 and that forthwith the French, German and Italian governments proposed extreme fiscal and monetary corrective measures to remedy the situation; in other words, a short, sharp shock. They would have nothing to worry about because their general elections would be three-and-three-quarters, four-and-a-half or five years away. In vain would the British, Irish, Danish and Greek governments argue that that would he disastrous for their re-election chances six or nine months ahead. They would be outvoted. Rigid austerity measures would be imposed and the incumbent governments in the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland and so on would be thrown out on their ears. I am therefore convinced that the end effect of a single currency and all the implications attached to it will be synchronisation of general elections all over the European Economic Community; not necessarily on the same day but at any rate in the same week. In practice this would entail fixed-term parliaments. I think that the Liberal Democrats would welcome such a move; I am not sure that other parties would do so. There is another aspect to elections taking place on virtually the same day. On the evening of election day when the British public are gathered around their television sets to watch the results coming in first from Cheltenham and then Torbay—or the other way round—then from Bradford, Edinburgh and so on, Mr. Dimbleby will fill in the gaps that there always are between the results coming in by showing the results coming in from Aix-en-Provence, Dortmund, Piacenza, Cordoba, Odense, Coimbra, Zeebrugge, Chania, and so on, and inevitably the British people would begin to realise, if they had not done so already, as would the people in other member states, that the real power in the Community lies not with the national parliaments but in Brussels and Strasbourg. 1229 They would begin to take the view, if they had not done so already, that there was no further point in pressing their Members of Parliament for improvements in their standards of living, or to rectify the wrongs they feel they are suffering. As power now lies at the centre, that is the place to lobby; and there is not much point in turning out for general elections in future since they have become tantamount to local government elections, where you get only a 30 per cent. or 40 per cent. turn out at most. I really wonder whether that is what people in either House of Parliament want. Turning quickly to the powers of the European Parliament, I think it was the noble Lord, Lord Bethel!, who said that it was democratically elected. Certainly it is democratically elected but it is not democratically composed. The people of Luxembourg will have 12½ times as many representatives per capita as will the people of a united Germany: but it is democratically elected. Perhaps there is something to be said for allowing the parliament a veto over new legislation, not least because so much legislation nowadays tends to be interfering, illiberal and often unnecessary the world over, and therefore the more often that it is vetoed the better. There must be one proviso. Reform of the common agricultural policy and action against corruption must be put beyond the reach of any veto by the European Parliament. Finally, the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, rightly cited the resentment that most people in this country feel at interference by Brussels in matters which are no legitimate concern of Brussels, and no legitimate concern of people in any other country. This applies Community wide. The French do not want interference from us any more than we want interference from them. The noble Lord, Lord Beloff, in earlier speeches has on two occasions suggested to us why this should be: too many talented men with too much power and quite a little time on their hands tend to get up to mischief. The noble Lord may well do so again tonight for all I know. I would also suggest that the European court is beginning to act too much like the American Supreme Court, in that it is making quasi-political decisions instead of purely judicial ones. These decisions are always in the direction of interpreting ambiguous statutes, and there are far too many ambiguous ones, in favour of Brussels rather than in favour of individual nation states. Time does not permit me to list all the ridiculous, petty, harmonising directives with which we are lumbered, but I invite your Lordships to read Christopher Monckton on page 7 of the Evening Standard of 20th November. We are apparently even now to have a standardised Euro-condom. It seems that the Commissioners found the Italian ones too small. I am not making this up: your Lordships can read it in most of last week's papers. It is not enough for the Prime Minister, Mr. Major, to say to the other 11, as he must, "Thus far and no further" as regards petty harmonisation. The frontiers of Brussels interference must be rolled back. At the 1230 least we must be as free to control our internal affairs as are Arkansas, New South Wales and Prince Edward Island, which at the moment, in many respects, we are not. In other words, in return, for example, for agreeing to the admirable new directive controlling time-share advertising and marketing—admirable because time-share abuses extend across national frontiers—the Prime Minister should reclaim the right of the British, and of course of others, to decide on the location of their own bridges, motorways, bypasses and so on, which have nothing to do with people in any other country. In order to roll back effectively the frontiers of Euro interference, despite what other noble Lords said, I am afraid that we must throw into the dustbin such vague, amorphous, weasel words as "subsidiarity", which mean all things to all men. Subsidiarity, incidentally, also implies that all power legitimately rests at the centre, which may graciously decide to dole out a little of it to the constituent nation states as and when it so feels inclined. But it does not reside at the centre: power resides with the people and the nation states, and it is up to them to hang on to it and not tamely cede it to Brussels. Instead—and here I greatly welcome what the noble Baroness, Lady Elles, proposed—we need a new treaty that will strictly confine the competence of Brussels and Strasbourg to those matters which genuinely transcend national frontiers, leaving everything else without exception to national parliaments. § 8.57 p.m. § 9.18 p.m. Lord Bruce of Donington My Lords, your Lordships will recall that as recently as 1986 I had the honour of speaking for my party from the Front Bench in total opposition to the Single European Act. One of the principal reasons for that was a conviction which, at that time, I had every reason to believe was shared by my party, the members of which were with me in the Division Lobby. I detected and suspected an unrelenting drive towards federalism and the diminution of the powers of the British people, through their parliamentary democracy, to determine the nature and extent of their own policies and to deal with their own affairs, while at the same time co-operating to the maximum degree of unanimity with our European colleagues. I have not changed the views that I expressed then, which were reflected again in the speech which your Lordships allowed me to make in the debate on the Select Committee's report on economic and monetary union only a few days back. It is not my intention to repeat the reasons that I then gave. Indeed, I shall endeavour, so far as it lies within my power, to make some constructive suggestions to the Government as to how, under present circumstances, they might see fit to proceed. That may be accompanied perhaps by one or two cautions about the kind of things they ought to avoid. Before doing so, however, I wish to deal with one aspect of our affairs which I find highly disturbing. It has been widely represented that Britain—my country and your Lordships'—is somehow the odd man out in Europe. that it is one versus 11. If one looks at the Community flag, one finds 12 stars of equal size. The misconception ought to be subject to a small correction because the odds are not quite as large as it would indicate. It will come as no surprise to your Lordships that the population of the United Kingdom is greater than the combined population of at least seven of the member states: Belgium, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Portugal. Taken together, they have a population 3 million less than that of the United Kingdom. So the odds arc a little shorter than 11 to one which gives the impress on of cold isolation against overwhelming numbers on the continent of Europe. The original treaty and the amended treaty that followed it give sanction to this. The state of Luxembourg has a population of 378,000, and that is the same size as the city of Bristol. Luxembourg has one member on the Council of Ministers and six Members in the European Parliament. If we transpose that into terms of British politics, it would mean that Bristol had 81 Members of the British Parliament. I venture to suggest that that is a slight over-representation. Let us take matters rationally: the odds are not all that overwhelming in terms of 11 to one. Moreover, the seven themselves to which I have referred are not always n agreement with one another. It has been known for Italy, Germany and France to have differences. Please let us not put ourselves in the position of self-isolation. I remember that there was a case in the early part of the war when the American 1236 Ambassador gave a report back to the President of the United States as to the likelihood of Britain being able to endure a conflict against nazi Germany. The report was pessimistic, he said he did not think we would be able to make it. Events have proved him wrong. Therefore, let us take a slightly more objective view in terms of numbers and weight, and the extent of the present disagreements. What is the intergovernmental conference about? Why was it held at all? The Council of Ministers can from time to time meet over a proposal of the Commission, as I shall show. But there is nothing to prevent it meeting from time to time to discuss progress within the European Community. It would obtain a surprising picture if it did that, because the Community so far—although I hope things go well in the future—has not been very impressive. Its rate of growth has been less than that of Japan or of the United States, and its rate of unemployment is higher. There are a whole series of factors to he considered. The EC has almost reached the stage where it compares itself with a single country, Japan, and is busily fortifying itself against possible Japanese commercial invasion. The EC has not been such a profound success. One only has to read—as I have—the annual reports produced by the Commission. They are lengthy but they all reveal the same disappointing picture. The economy of Europe, as Europe, is not doing all that well. I wish it would do better. Moreover, as regards rectifying regional differences, one only has to read the previous Commission report to obtain a review of the whole progress of regional development over the past 10 years. The report admits that regional differences far from having disappeared—no one ever pretended that was the case—have not substantially changed in spite of a massive injection of funds. I could understand the desire to convene a conference to discuss those kinds of matters openly and in public and to discuss whether the Common Market had achieved the free interchange of goods, services and people and how it could be made to operate more efficiently and thereby improve the European economy. However, this intergovernmental conference was convened specifically by the Commission. Exactly the same situation pertains with regard to this conference as pertained in regard to the conferences that preceded the Single European Act. The purpose of the Commission is a structural one to make further progress towards the openly avowed objective of achieving the ultimate super state and a federal union in Europe. The noble Lord, Lord Monson, referred to that aim in his quotation from the Daily Telegraph. It is common knowledge that the Commission has already announced that if it does not get its way at the Maastricht conference, it will convene a further intergovernmental conference a few years later. The Commission will continue to convene conferences until it achieves what it wants. I cannot believe that we in the United Kingdom—I trust that I speak broadly for all parties—want the continuation of these proceedings to be under the relentless pressure of non-elected civil servants, or collegiates, in Brussels with the pure purpose of 1237 enlarging the area of bureaucratic operation. I do not think that is wise or necessary. Are the Government themselves, in negotiating at Maastricht, content to accept a position where they can act only on a proposal from the Commission? One can quite understand that in the earlier stages of the Community, when the politicians got together, it was highly convenient to have a highly trained body of civil servants or academics for the purpose of charting out future progress. It was highly convenient that progress should be made by means of that delegated instrument. But was it the intention of the Council of Ministers that member states could only act on a proposal from the Commission? If that is still the case, I hope I may respectfully suggest to Her Majesty's Government that before they sign any treaty at Maastricht they should make quite sure that the Council itself takes more powers and that the powers of the Commission in relation to the Council are correspondingly reduced. There is a further instance. Your Lordships may not be aware that not only is the situation as I have described it in relation to original proposals, but even when the 12 member states agree that they want a regulation amended that can be vetoed by the Commission. Indeed, Mr. Lilley, in giving public evidence before the Select Committee of your Lordships' House on 22nd October, said in reply to a question from me: It is something not often understood in this country. It gives the Commission the right of veto. In one particular case Britain started off in a minority of one, and managed to persuade all 12 Member States to agree with our position, but the Commission then did not agree, so it could not proceed. They sometimes evoke that right of veto". The question I have to ask the Government is whether in the course of the Maastricht negotiations they intend that position to continue. If they do not intend it to continue, what amendment to the draft treaties do they propose to institute in order to ensure that that does not happen? There are a number of things which the Commission could do. Perhaps one may suggest that if it does not like what it contains, in the free time—free from preparing plans for the next intergovernmental conference following Maastricht —the Council itself brings pressure to bear upon the Commission to make very drastic changes to the common agricultural policy, which, so far as I can gather, both sides of the House (or at least two-and-a-half sides of the House) agree is a bad policy. Without it being a proposal from the Commission, can the Commission suggest that the Council becomes more accountable for public funds? Recent audit inquiries have revealed that in 1990 Italy received £4.22 billion in aid from the Commission for which it cannot account to the Commission. To this day the Commission does not know where that money has gone. Similar observations apply in relation to £151 million of aid to Turkey and a further £3 million to Morocco. That cannot be properly authenticated and the Commission do not know where the money has gone. Will the Council bring pressure to bear or will it 1238 take powers under the treaty to instruct the Commission, which after all is supposed to be the Council's executive arm, to make full and effective investigations into the matter? Again, as the Government know very well, the Court of Auditors is a source of continued irritation to the Commission. At present the Court of Auditors frequently has great difficulty in obtaining the information it requires, not only from member states but sometimes from the Commission itself. I know that because I have spoken to representatives of the Court of Auditors. The financial regulations of the Community, as drafted by the Commission and agreed by the Council, state that the Commission have the right to reply to the Court of Auditors' report prior to the issue of that report to the general public. The Commission's comments, usually about one-third of the size of the report itself, are issued together with the auditor's report. That means that we shall receive the auditors' report for 1990 about mid-December—an unnecessary delay of some three months. I should like to know whether the Government are prepared in negotiating at Maastricht to incorporate within the treaty an undertaking to amend the financial regulations to ensure that the auditors' report is published immediately and independently of any Commission comments on it. I should be grateful if the Government would comment on that matter. In the short time remaining, I should like to deal with changes in the powers of the European Parliament. As I understand it, it is proposed to give the European Parliament powers of co-determination with the Council. I may be wrong and should be glad to be corrected. However, if a situation arises in which the European Parliament has a right to veto any directive or any other measure passed by the European Council, that will undermine the authority of Westminster. In the case of British interests, instead of coming to the Westminster Parliament, powerful lobbies which oppose certain Community proposals will start flocking to Strasbourg in order to lobby there. Power in that regard will automatically depart from the Westminster Parliament. I hope that the noble Earl will consider that matter. I also seek an assurance about the role of bankers. I look almost in terms of affection upon the noble Lord, Lord Boardman, who occupied a high position in the bank with which I entrusted my meagre funds. I read in the draft treaty a proposal for a bank which would be completely independent of all political influence and which would determine the strategic banking and monetary policy throughout the Community without any kind of political control. That is an enlargement of the Liberal Party's proposal to make the Bank of England independent of the Government here. The Liberal Party will always agree with anything that comes out with a European label, so we need not trouble with that any more. I want to know whether the Government agree— § My Lords, has the noble Lord read the constitution of the Bundesbank on 1239 which the independent bank is to be modelled? That constitution states that the Bundesbank must support the economic policy of the German Government. Lord Bruce of Donington My Lords, I have read the text to which the noble Lord refers, but I have a more up-to-date version than that of the noble Lord, Lord Ezra, who speaks from the Front Bench on behalf of his party and who advocates complete independence. Some of my best friends are bankers; but, after the recent history of the banking community throughout the world, not by any means excluding the City of London, with recent banking scandals and manifestly unsound monetary and lending policies, I venture to suggest that any body of politicians which ventures to put strategic economic control in the hands of bankers wants their head examined. Perhaps the Government will comment on that. Finally, it is suggested that, if we do not take part in these arrangements, we shall be relegated to the second division, whatever that may mean. I well appreciate the significance of league tables. On perusing those relating to the excellent game of football, I observe that Wales is not in either the first or the second division. That does not damn Wales in my eyes. In fact, some of my best friends are Welshmen. I sincerely hope that we shall not apply the metaphor too directly, particularly in view of the results at Cardiff Arms Park in the other type of football. I hope that there will be a Welsh national recovery. However, any suggestion that this country is in the second division of anything is a complete insult. My country is a great country. It has been a great country for many years. It has stood for freedom throughout the world at a time when some of the European countries were not always so assiduous in pursuit of that freedom. It has a considerable Commonwealth with which it has very good relations. I do not believe that it has all the virtues, but I am very proud to be a member of it. I am quite sure that whatever is implied by the term second division—I assume that that is a position of inferiority to someone or other—my country never has been and in my view never will he in that kind of position. § 9.40 p.m. Lord Desai My Lords, at this late hour much has been said and it is difficult to know what to add. I voted yes to the 1975 referendum. In past years I have lived with the uncomfortable position of not being in agreement with the Labour Party Front Bench. At last I find myself in the odd situation of being on the right side. The debate has continued for many years. As a schoolboy I was brought up on a Indian nationalist version of the history of the British Empire. I was told—I am sure that it was wrong—that the East India Company reneged on all the treaties that it signed. Obviously that must have been untrue. However, government having signed the treaty in 1973 in which the goal of economic and monetary union was clearly stated, and having passed the Single European Act in which it was made clear that there was an eventual hope of political union, I am astonished that people still express surprise at the situation they face today. The debate is not about whether we should join Europe; the time has long since passed for such debate although I wish later to discuss whether that is inevitable. The debate that has continued for the past 20 years or more is about the modernisation of British society. Over the post-war period we have seen a number of attempts to modernise British society. We have had the white heat of the technological revolution of the noble Lard, Lord Wilson; we have had Selsdon Man; and we have had the tremendous effort of Mrs. Thatcher and her Government, though I am not in sympathy with it. All these have been attempts to launch this country into a modern, dynamic economy and society. If we are still discussing Europe it is because some of us—and more than many of us imagine—find that the best hope of meeting the challenge of modernising British society after 100 years of the "British disease", as it is called, lies in being part of Europe and part of a modern, dynamic community. That is because many of us have doubts that, if left to ourselves, we could be modern. That is a doubt shared by people who do not like the European Community. There is hesitation whether we should opt in or out in 1995 or 1997 to which my noble friend Lord Callaghan referred. Why is there this hesitation that, come 1995 or 1997, we may or may not be able to join? It is because we are not sure that we will be ready to join and that the economy will be strong enough even after six, seven or 10 years of adjustment. We have lost confidence that the economy can survive on its own as a dynamic economy able to make its way. The reason we have lost that confidence is the experience of the past 40 years or more of economic management by different parties with the best of intentions. There was some success and some failure, but at the end of the day we cannot say that we have the political wisdom to say, with hands on our hearts, that left to ourselves we shall make a success of things. The noble Viscount, Lord Tonypandy, said that he 1244 would much prefer being the 51st state of the United States rather than being part of Europe if all the arrangements fell through. We should discuss all the options that are available. We are a sovereign state and we can choose to withdraw from the EC if we wish. We can refuse to sign at Maastricht and say that we do not want any part of it. Let us face that situation and look at it in its true reality. Suppose we withdraw from the EC. What choice do we have? We have many choices. We can join the United States. In the early 1970s the North Atlantic free trade area was much mooted and some people thought that they might be able to join. However, that experiment failed because it was not really credible that such an arrangement would be a viable one. There was no political will or economic case for it. I do not believe at this juncture of our economic history that we could last outside both the EC and what is going to be the North American free trade area comprising Canada, the United States of America and Mexico. I do not believe that anyone seriously thinks, much though we love it, that sovereignty is so valuable to us that we are right now willing to withdraw from the European Community and not join anything else and survive on our own. That is because the economic case for doing so is lacking. Another reason is that we no longer live in a world in which capitalism in one country is possible or feasible. The growth of multinational corporations, the international division of labour and the global financial markets all tell us that sooner or later we shall have to join a club. That club need not be a centralist one. A federation can be non-centralist. The United States of America was non-centralist for a long time and some people may believe that it is still non-centralist. Indeed, the US managed to have a federation with a single currency and without a central bank for much of its history. As the noble Lord, Lord Joseph, said, the US did not have a central bank until about 80 years ago. It had a single currency. Indeed, even after having a central bank it would be false to say that the US had a centralist federation. That happened about 25 years later for totally different reasons. Therefore, one does not necessarily have to take it for granted that a centralist European Community is inevitable. Indeed, I say to my noble friend Lord Bruce that if we do not want a centralist Community—and I do not want that—let us argue more strongly not just that the Council should be more powerful than the Commission but that the European Parliament should be more powerful than the Council. Indeed, if we do not like the European Parliament because we believe that it threatens the sovereignty of Westminster, let us follow the logic of federations around the world and say that democratic deficit is not merely shown by the fact that the European Parliament does not have enough power but that the European Parliament represents only territorial principle and not the principle that members of a federation should have representation as a federation, the principle on which the US Senate is based. 1245 We do not have that. Indeed, we should argue that the European Parliament needs a second chamber which would more properly reflect the federate nature of the European Community. Surprisingly, that argument has not been made but it should be. It is no good believing that by hesitating now, refusing to sign, by making conditions and by delaying, as the noble Lord, Lord Skidelsky, said, we shall gain a more democratic Community or a less centralist Community. If we want that, we must get in there and play an active role. We should not play a recalcitrant and sullen role. Let us propose that our traditions of democratic control, which we know about, should be reflected in the European constitution. My main purpose is not to speak so much about the political problems of the federation but about the economics of monetary union and the single currency. I believe that a single currency would be very good and the sooner it comes the better. I shall explain why I think that. I believe that when we used to have national economies with proper control over monetary and fiscal policies—roughly the period between 1946 and 1971—that was a golden period. We had full employment and moderate inflation. We had good economic growth. It was better in some years than in others but it was fairly good. From 1971 onwards we entered a different era in which individual countries lost their autonomy. There were global financial markets and rapid movement of capital. It is difficult for small single nations to be able to pursue a policy of full employment and good economic growth without becoming subject to rapidly speculative movements of capital and currency. The example of the United States shows that an economy of a sufficient size, such that the proportion of foreign trade is not large, can pursue full employment policies within its territory without having to look over its shoulder constantly for speculative attacks on its currency. The US has been able to pursue an extremely aggressive monetary policy. It has cut interest rates and tried to get a revival not because it does not care about inflation—its inflation record is very good. However, it can pursue such a course with impunity because it is a sufficiently large area of a single currency and custom-free union. We cannot pursue such policies and we have not been able to do so. Rather, when we have done so in 1970–73 or 1986–88, we have had to pay dearly for those policies. I do not mind confessing that I care more about full employment than anything else. I welcome a single currency. I believe that a single currency would allow us, over the Community territory as a whole, to pursue policies of full employment and economic growth which currently we are restricted from pursuing. I differ in one respect from the usual doctrine in regard to the European community, which is that, like my noble friend Lord Bruce, I am not all that thrilled about the autonomy of a central bank. It is a paradox, bearing in mind all we know regarding the Bank of England. The Bank of England was autonomous after 1946. It covered itself in great glory regarding monetary policy. 1246 The idea that autonomous central banks are successful is a recent invention. It arises only from the experience of the Bundesbank. People forget to tell us that the Bundesbank is supported by a sensible wage-bargaining system which sustains it; it is not merely monetary orthodoxy. Monetary orthodoxy often leads to severe deflations whose costs fall on the poorer people. It is all right for central bankers to say that they are autonomous and do not want the currency to slide, and so on. But I shall always believe that proper democratic control is required as much of bureaucracies such as the European Commission as it is of central banks. If we do not have proper democratic control over central banks, then they are likely to do untold damage to the economies, as indeed the Bank of England did to the British economy in the 1920s. I conclude by saying that I do not believe choice is inevitable or unavoidable. But even if we had signed no treaties in the past, if there were no commitments and I was asked what was the best choice facing this economy, I should still say that we should enter economic and monetary union as soon as possible. Let us work towards a proper federal Europe; not a central Europe but a federal democratic Europe in which we can play an active part. § 10.3 p.m. Lord Beloff My Lords, I am not sure what Bavaria needed to do to sign it. It is governed by the Basic Law and does in fact operate under it. It is represented in the Bundesrat and the Bundestag. Having spent some time in Bavaria, I found no one who thought that it was not part of federal Germany. But perhaps the noble Lord has other Bavarian friends who think differently. We know exactly what federalism means. As I have said in the House before, there are moments when one thinks that a proper federal system might be less dangerous than what is available to the European Community at the moment, which seems to be a capacity for extending powers at the centre in a way which in a thoroughgoing federal system it might be easier to check. In particular one has the court always interpreting questions of competence in favour of the centre as a matter of policy, a point to which the noble Lord, Lord Monson, referred. I do not know and no one knows how deep it actually goes in Europe but we are facing at any rate at the level of our dialogue people who are convinced above all that they are swimming with the tide of history. It used to be the future of the proletariat, but now it is the future of European integration. People who believe that they have history on their side are often very difficult to talk to about practical issues. I believe that only yesterday Chancellor Kohl in a television interview compared the march of European integration to the flowing of the River Rhine down to 1249 the sea. Considering the fact that the River Rhine is the major source of pollution in Europe, I thought that that was a singularly unfortunate metaphor. But, on the other hand, I have the greatest confidence in my right honourable friend the Prime Minister and my right honourable friend the Secretary of State. I am sure that when they get to Maastricht they will steer clear of the Lorelei. § 10.15 p.m. Lord Bonham-Carter My Lords, that question was put to Mr. Heath in another place last week. If the noble Lord reads the relevant copy of Hansard, he can read Mr Heath's reply. It is not for me to reply for Mr 1253 Heath. All I can say is that the Liberal Party, which was in favour of joining the Community, never at any moment denied that there was a loss of sovereignty involved and that there would be a supra-national authority to which we would have to conform. However, for the reasons I have already given, I think it is foolish to make federalism a bogy word because one should take seriously into account how the powers are distributed. If one takes that matter seriously, I see no reason why the issue of over centralisation should arise. It seems to me odd that a Government obsessed with subsidiarity—that is really another way of talking about the distribution of powers—should refuse devolution for Scotland. It is rather odd to think that in the likelihood of a Scottish assembly being established—I should think it probable that that will occur within the next decade—this country will become that dread thing, a centralised federation. Further, once there is majority voting, one is on the way towards some kind of federal structure. One is in a federal condition and the precise distribution of powers is a matter of the utmost importance. I shall not detain noble Lords for much longer. What we have witnessed in the whole of this debate and in the whole of this controversy which has occurred over the past few months is a lack of leadership on the part of the Government in relation to public opinion at home and within the Community. The policy the Government have followed appears to be determined more by internal Conservative Party politics than by the interests of the country. The Government have not been manifestly successful in that policy, and as a consequence they have had to ask for the tolerance and understanding of our European colleagues. For that tolerance and understanding we shall in due course have to pay a price. The price will include London being ejected from its position as the financial centre of the Community. The choice of London as the site for the central bank will be put in jeopardy. The dominance of the Franco-German alliance has been strengthened. Those are the prices we have had to pay to keep the Government's policy on line. They are heavy prices to pay. But the most important factor in my view is that we have not been asking the questions within the Community which urgently need answering at this moment. As the noble Baroness, Lady Elles, said, the European Community has been a huge success. It has been a magnet attracting other countries wishing to join, such as the EFTA countries and Central European countries. As the noble Earl, Lord Bessborough, said, it is likely to increase in size from 12 to 20 or more members in the course of the next decade or 15 years. In addition, it has the problem of absorbing the united Germany of 80 million people within its structure. We should be asking ourselves whether the institutions which were devised for six members are appropriate for 20 and whether the consensual arrangements whereby the six and the 12 reached agreements can be transferred just like that to 20 members. 1254 In my view that is exceedingly unlikely. It will require rare political and institutional imagination to adapt those institutions to include the EFTA countries and the countries of Central Europe within their ambit. We should be asking how and proposing ways and means whereby those institutions should be adapted, how the distribution of powers should be arranged, what organisation of foreign and defence policy should be devised, and how we should arrange voting. The idea that one could have unanimity in a Community of 25 powers is unrealistic; that would lead to the situation that existed in the Polish Diet in the past. Those are the urgent questions to which the attention of the country, the Community and the Commission should be directed. If we want to be at the heart of Europe - and I and my colleagues on these Benches believe profoundly that that is the right place for this country, that it is her destiny to be there, that we should be a constructive influence there and, as the noble Lord, Lord Desai, said, we should try to make it work - it is to those questions that we should be addressing ourselves rather than to the old, sterile arguments which we have gone over so many times in the past. § 10.37 p.m. Lord Williams of Elvel My Lords, it is late in the evening and I shall try not to detain your Lordships too long. This has been a very important debate, which has echoed the debate in another place, although not in all expressions of opinion. Strongly held views have been expressed in your Lordships' House, and it is only right that that should be so. I shall try to follow the noble Duke, the Duke of Manchester, in his distinguished maiden speech and seek to discover the common ground between us. The noble Duke is absolutely right. We have been invited by the noble Lord the Lord Privy Seal in his Motion to take note of the negotiations. In doing so we should try to discover the common ground that exists in this House. As a number of noble Lords have said, there is a great deal of common ground, although there is no point in ignoring the fact that there are sharp differences of opinion. As my noble friend Lord Cledwyn said, my job is to talk more about economic and monetary union than about political union. However, I accept the point of the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, that Chancellor Kohl has made it perfectly clear that political and monetary union go together. Whether the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, is right or my noble friend Lord Callaghan is right in casting some doubt on whether that is so or whether it is a negotiating position remains to be seen. However, I accept that there is a political dimension to economic and monetary union even if EPU and EMU do not go together in exactly the way that Chancellor Kohl has indicated. I shall concentrate on EMU while not neglecting the fact that EMU itself is a political matter. The noble Lord the Lord Privy Seal, in what, if it is not impertinent to say so, was a very constructive and interesting opening speech, took us further than the debate in another place last week. He explained some of the background to the negotiations at 1255 Maastricht. As we heard from other speakers, we have had the European Communities Act , the Single European Act and entry into the European exchange rate mechanism. I have some sympathy with my noble friends Lord Bruce and Lord Stoddart—it is probably the only point on which I have some sympathy with them—who said that the Single European Act was pushed through your Lordships' House on a Friday. As I recall, it was whipped and guillotined through another place. I am not sure whether the debate that was held in this House on a Friday, when my noble friend Lord Bruce was in charge, was exactly the kind of debate that we should have had on the Act. Nevertheless, it went through. As my noble friend Lord Cledwyn said, we now find ourselves confronted with the present situation. There are several questions. The first is, as the noble Lord, Lord Bonham-Carter, said, the age-old debate: is this to be a Common Market—in other words, a free trade area—or is this to be a community? That debate has run through the past 20 years or so. Some of us have taken the view from time to time that it should be a common market; in other words, a free trade area. Others have taken the view that it should be a community and, to be perfectly honest, we have changed our minds from time to time. It is only reasonable that, confronted with those problems, we should change our minds. The second question is: if it is to be a community, what happens to what is called the democratic deficit? The noble Lord, Lord Bethell, referred to that factor. The third question is: what happens to the social dimension which many people on the Continent of Europe, and probably all of our partners in the Community, feel is part of the Community rather than something that can be separated from it. My noble friend Lady Ewart-Biggs and the noble Earl, Lord Bessborough, raised a fourth point; namely, the widening of the Community. How do we construct an organisation which can not only answer the three questions that I have put, but allow for entry of Eastern European countries or other countries as and when they wish to enter? All those questions—there is no point in denying it or in bucking the issue—are fundamental questions for the constitution of our country. That is why it is right that your Lordships should discuss the matter this evening. The noble Lord, Lord Gladwyn, and my noble friend Lord Callaghan put their fingers on the point when they said that Maastricht is not the end of the story. No one will come out of Maastrict saying, "That is the final form of the Community. That is where we are for ever and a day and there is nothing that can possibly change". Furthermore, the noble Lord, Lord Gladwyn, said that there is no intention—I cannot conceive of any intention—of trying to turn Europe into something like the United States. In that sense, federalism—here I reply to the point of the noble Lord, Lord Beloff—is almost what you mean it to be. There have been many disputes about what federalism really means. Speaking for myself and for my party, I do not want to go strongly down the "federal" road. I do not think that it is right. I do not wish to have to correct 1256 the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, but de Gaulle did not refer to, "L'Europe des patries"; he referred to, "L'Europe des états". It is important to get that right. It is a Europe of states which come together in a community in which certain matters are decided by qualified majority voting. We certainly envisage qualified majority voting on environmental issues, but we do not envisage qualified majority voting on, for instance, defence policy issues. We believe in NATO. There is an intermediate area in which there are certain issues on which qualified majority voting is in our view right and there are certain issues where it is not right. I turn to economic and monetary union. I was very interested to hear what the noble Lord, Lord Aldington, had to say. I think it was the first time that he has agreed with the Government in almost everything that he said. It was a delight to hear that he agreed with the Government. I am almost speechless, for the noble Lord's speeches, which I admire, always seemed to be constructed against the Government. Maybe I am mistaken and maybe on occasions the noble Lord has spoken against the Government. However, I was interested to hear him say - and he is right - that the Single European Act by itself commits us to economic union. That is in the Preamble, although I accept that there is no timetable for it. But Parliament passed that measure and economic union is in the Preamble of the Single European Act. The Government tried to respond to the difficulty that economic union almost inevitably implies some closer arrangement between currencies—to be logical, in the end economic union requires some locked exchange rates—by what is known as the hard ecu proposal, which was put forward by the Treasury and about which we have heard very little. I ask the noble Earl—it is the only question I put to him - what on earth has happened to the hard ecu proposal? Has it vanished down the pipe or down the stream? Has it been given up? What has happened to it? We heard speeches from the Dispatch Box opposite to the effect that the hard ecu was the right way to proceed. Somehow we no longer hear such speeches. What has happened to that proposal? I should like to concentrate now on the conditions under which we believe that economic and monetary union can work. It is a point that was raised by my noble friend Lord Callaghan and indeed the noble Lord, Lord Joseph, said that the problem is that if we go into economic and monetary union we must have real convergence. I accept that the noble Lord, Lord Joseph, would rather not go into the whole thing, but the point which was emphasised by my noble friends Lord Varley and Lord Callaghan is that the United Kingdom economy at the moment is not strong enough to move into convergence along the lines defined in Article 109f of the draft treaty. If we are to go into economic and monetary union, we must have real convergence rather than the convergence that is set out in the article that I mentioned. It is not enough to have a high degree of price stability. It is not enough to have a sustainable government financial position. It is not enough that member states should have respected the normal 1257 fluctuation of margins provided for by the ERM. And it is not enough that there should be durability of convergence achieved by the member states with participation of the ERM. What has to happen if we are to participate successfully in EMU is real convergence of the real economy; otherwise, we shall have a level of unemployment in this country and a massacre of the rest of manufacturing industry which we cannot sustain. That is the point that we believe very strongly. Secondly, what other condition do we require for entry into EMU? It is political accountability of the institutions that will run that organisation. The noble Lord, Lord Boardman, made the point very clearly. He asked: who will appoint the governor of this European central bank? Who will be responsible for setting the exchange rate of the single European currency? Our view is that that should be the role of ECOFIN. We believe that proper democratic accountability could be achieved through the Economic and Financial Council. I believe my noble friend Lord Bruce of Donington was right on our third condition. We cannot accept EMU unless there is a proper regional policy of distributing the rewards of whatever happens through EMU through the communities so that we do not end up by paying more than we should to the Community. I have made this point on many occasions previously. I do not wish to bore your Lordships by repeating it. My noble friend Lord Callaghan was right; I thought he had been reading the speech I made during the debate on the gracious Address. We are running a deficit at the depth of a depression, whereas on all previous occasions we have come out of a recession with a balance of payments surplus. That is the case in money terms at present. However, if we go into a single European currency, it is no good thinking that that deficit will simply be eliminated. It will be eliminated statistically, but it remains in real terms. It is important to ensure that in 1997 our economy is in balance with other economies in the European Community so that we can say, "In real terms we are holding our own". Under any other conditions EMU will be a loss maker for us. We then come to the penalties for not joining EMU. In other words, it is the same question: what is in it for us? My noble friend Lady Ewart-Biggs spoke of the disadvantage to the City of London, as did the noble Lord, Lord Boardman. There would be severe disadvantages to the financial services industry—as I prefer to call it—if we were not members of this new unit. I do not believe that the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, is right in saying that the markets have bombed out sterling in the expectation that there will be no deal at Maastricht. I believe that there is a problem with the dollar and with possible interest rates in Germany. Those are more responsible than discounting a possible failure at Maastricht. Nevertheless, the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, made a serious point when he said that if we are outside this currency union—in other words, if we do not lock our exchange rate in one way or another, through a single currency, or another way—with the 1258 deutschmark, there will be a deutschmark zone. If there is a deutschmark zone in 1997, it will be so powerful that sterling will inevitably shadow the deutschmark in that zone, like it or leave it. I am afraid that that is the truth of the matter as the markets will see it. I accept what the noble Lord, Lord Boardman, said about transactions charges. He is quite right. We would certainly save money. If we went into EMU seriously we would ensure that we benefited from being the financial centre of Europe. The timetable is this. There would have to be real decisions in 1997. That is where Stage Three really starts to bite. Either we are in or we are out by 1997, unless the Community decides to postpone the whole issue for another two years; that is in the draft treaty. My noble friend Lord Callaghan likes the idea of an opt-out arrangement. I prefer to see the convergence provisions in Article 109f of the draft treaty very much strengthened along the lines that I have recommended. The whole Community then has to decide whether in real terms the economy of one or any country is up to joining this new single currency that is proposed. I do not like the idea of a referendum. I believe that the noble Lord, Lord Beloff, knocked that on the head pretty successfully. I do not see how one can frame a question or what happens if a referendum is lost. I do not see how it can be binding. I simply do not see how it can work. Nevertheless, we have to accept that there are decisions that will be made at Maastricht. As the noble Lord, Lord Cockfield, said, there will be give and take. I have no objection to the noble Lord the Lord Privy Seal not revealing the Government's negotiating position. That is absolutely right. We believe that, subject to the points that I have mentioned and subject always to the thought that there is a social dimension to Europe that the Government do not yet accept, that, with the Prime Minister, we should be at the heart of Europe. I have tried to sum up from our side where we see common ground in this House. I accept that there are noble Lords who have different views on the extremes, but I believe there is common ground in this House. It is in that spirit that I say to the Government that we believe that we should be right in there, forming the Community as it is developed. In that I wish the Prime Minister success at Maastricht. § 10.57 p.m. The Earl of Caithness My Lords, this has been, as one would expect of such an important occasion, a most stimulating and encouraging debate. I am grateful to all noble Lords who have taken part. It is indeed a debate that my right honourable friends the Prime Minister, the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs and the Chancellor of the Exchequer will read with great interest. We have heard a range of views expressed generally supportive of the Government's constructive approach to these negotiations and their firm commitment to Community membership. There are those who would like to see the Community do more or to see a re-drawing of the 1259 balance of power between the institutions; more power to the Parliament and less power to the Commission. As my noble friend the Lord Privy Seal stressed at the start of this debate, we must first and foremost always consider the practical implications of any such changes. There is no point erecting gleaming new machinery for enhanced European co-operation if we are not in a position to make it work. The noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn, said that the negotiations would be difficult for any Prime Minister and the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, said much the same. The noble Lords are right. But it is not nearly as difficult as a re-negotiation back into Europe that a Conservative Prime Minister would have had to undertake if a Labour Government had won the last election and taken us out of Europe. While the Labour Party's new-found enthusiasm for Europe is welcomed by many but by no means all of its supporters, as was clear this afternoon, it is sad that those facets which it opposed in the Community are the same ones which have benefited Britain and that its new-found enthusiasm is on the same issues as could do Britain the most damage. § Lord Williams of Elvel My Lords, I tried very hard in my winding up speech not to make a party political broadcast. I tried to unite the discussion that we had in the House. I hope that the noble Earl will follow me in that. The Earl of Caithness My Lords, the noble Lord is right. He made a very constructive speech. I shall make a constructive speech. Various points were made quite legitimately. I am sorry that the noble Lord took offence at what was purely a factual statement by me. I would like to start with economic and monetary union. It is a wide-ranging subject and it needs a little explanation. It comprises three stages. We are already in stage one which only consists of as many member states a possible seeking to join the ERM and efforts to complete the single market next year. The draft treaty says that stage two starts on 1st January 1994. The key points are that monetary policy remains a national responsibility. Contrary to previous plans, the European Central Bank is not set up. The Economic Monetary Institute - the EMI - is established with an advisory, consultative role continuing the work of the committee of the European Central Bank governors which now meets regularly in Basle. The existing process of multi-lateral surveillance of member states' economic policies is set on a formal treaty basis. The finance council has a discretion to register member states' budget deficits and, if it chooses, to declare them excessive. It can issue recommendations but not ceilings or penalties. All member states will make efforts to achieve convergence of economic performance in four areas: inflation, no excessive deficit, long-term interest rates and two years in the ERM narrow band. In answer to the noble Lord, Lord Williams of Elvel, there is agreement that there should be a hardening of the ecu in stage two, as I have just 1260 described it. I noted with interest what my noble friend Lady Elles said about that. She felt that we were already moving in that direction. There is no fixed timetable for stage three. The only rule is that the Commission and the EMI must report on progress on convergence before 31st December 1996. The key points here are that the European Central Bank is established to take over monetary policy. National central banks will be part of the European system of central banks. All would be independent of member states and Community institutions but would be accountable to the European Parliament and the finance council. We do not share common ground with the noble Lord, Lord Williams of Elvel, on that point. It would not be practical for the European Central Bank to take instructions from 12 finance Ministers. The exchange rate policy would be determined by the finance council provided it was compatible with the primary objective of price stability. Member states would not be able to move to stage three until they had passed the convergence tests set out above. At least a certain number - six, seven or eight and we should prefer eight - would have to be ready and willing to move to stage three before it could start. As the noble Lord, Lord Ezra, reminded the House, the United Kingdom has successfully taken the lead in arguing for the importance of prior convergence. Countries which failed the test would be granted temporary derogations, allowing them to join later when they were ready. Under the current proposals any member states, not just the United Kingdom as my noble friend Lady Elles reminded us, would be able to opt for exemption status. If they do not wish to move to stage three, they do not have to do so. The noble Lord, Lord Desai, and the Labour Party would welcome a single currency now. In contrast, we have made it clear that we shall not sign a treaty which would commit us to move to a single currency without a separate decision by the British Government and Parliament. The noble Lord, Lord Thomson of Monifieth, said that that shows that we are grudging members of the Community. I put it to him that he is wrong for the reasons given by the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, and my noble friends Lord Cockfield and Lord Aldington. I must disagree with the view put forward by the noble Lord, which the Liberal Party enunciates, that the only good European is the person who does not query any measures put forward. I do not believe that to be in Europe's interests. To answer the point made by the noble Lords, Lord Ezra and Lord Skidelsky, my right honourable friend the Prime Minister made it clear that it would be wrong to pre-empt a decision as to whether it would be right for the United Kingdom to move to a single currency. That is not a decision for now. It is a decision to be taken by Parliament at the appropriate time in the future. I believe that is also the answer to my noble friend Lord Joseph, to whom I listened with particular care. I can tell the noble Baroness, Lady Ewart-Biggs, that it is envisaged that the existing arrangements for the ERM will continue for any country which is not 1261 part of the single currency although the monetary policy of the European Central Bank would not apply to any exempt member state. We wish to reach satisfactory conclusions to both IGCs at Maastricht. We are working for that result, but I cannot speak for others. I now turn to the other IGC; namely, that on political union. We have heard a great deal this afternoon and this evening about that "F" word -federalism—the federal goal and whether any treaty at Maastricht will set us on a road towards it. Federalism is a red herring. As the noble Lord, Lord Callaghan, said, to some it means centralisation and a superstate: to others it means de-centralisation and a structure of subsidiarity. None of us can predict how the Community will develop and whether in 10 years from now it will look more or less like a federal system. As my noble friend the Lord Privy Seal pointed out in opening the debate, the Community has come a long way since we joined it in 1972. But it has done so on the basis of the mutual consent of all its members to broaden and deepen the range of their co-operation. That is the way in which it will continue to develop in the future. Defining any end state can only be unhelpful, especially where a word like "federalism", open to such a wide variety of interpretations, is the specific goal in question. Therefore my noble friend Lord Bessborough will be pleased that the Government have already made perfectly clear that we cannot accept any treaty containing that language, and we are pleased to have the support of my noble friend Lord Aldington on that. In our view the Community should evolve gradually by the consensus of its members. The important thing is to make sure that each step forward is a practical and workable one which will bring benefit to all the Community's members. That is why we have all along advocated a treaty structure which retains the current flexibility and diversity in the forms of co-operation between member states. Much of that co-operation takes place on the basis of provisions and common policies set down in the Treaty of Rome. But there is much useful work that goes on outside that structure in inter-governmental fora. It is no less European for that. It is no less intense, no less co-ordinated and no less useful than work under the treaty. I am glad to say that the present text of the Netherlands treaty recognises that view and maintains areas for inter-governmental co-operation. That approach will allow us to expand the level of our co-operation on a number of sensitive subjects as far as necessary and as quickly as possible. After all, that is what we all want. A number of noble Lords, including my noble friend Lord Campbell of Alloway, raised the important issue of increasing the democratic accountability of the unelected Commission. We have a clear view of the powers of the Commission, and more importantly, of the limits of those powers. It is the Council of Ministers which is the decision-making power in the Community and not the Commission. 1262 The Commission's legislative powers are limited to those delegated to it by the Council of Ministers, and then under carefully drawn conditions. Even so, as my noble friend Lord Rippon of Hexham said, it is still possible for the Commission to stray into the details of everyday life in a way which has antagonised the British people and led to calls for increasing the accountability of the Commission. A number of draft provisions in the treaty to be examined in Maastricht are designed to address that problem. If a treaty is signed, it will contain provisions allowing a European Parliament role of approval on the appointment of the Commission, a more detailed European parliamentary role in the budget discharge procedure, and the right to call the Commission to account, as well as broader rights to set up temporary committees of inquiry to receive petitions and to appoint an ombudsman. That would be a positive gain for Britain and for the rest of the Community. We spent some time a little over a month ago debating in detail the question of expanding the European Parliament's powers in the legislative field. We did so on the basis of an admirable report produced by the European Communities Committee on the law-making powers and procedures of a political union. I remind the House of one of the report's conclusions, which said that the concept of co-decision between the European Parliament and the Council was inherently unworkable. We very much agree, and it seems that our partners do as well. What is now on the table in the latest Dutch treaty text is nothing like earlier ambitious proposals for joint decision-making between the Council and the European Parliament, both having equal weight in the legislative process. Instead, there is the prospect of introducing in certain areas an ultimate power for the European Parliament to block a decision taken by Ministers in the Council. The label "co-decision" is no longer accurate and no longer applies. The Government's position on the developing role of the European Parliament in the Community has been set clearly before the House in the past. The noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn, and the Government are close to being on common ground in that regard. We recognise and encourage the useful work that the parliament can perform in enhancing the accountability of the Commission, in attending to the detail of the Community's accounts to achieve greater efficiency, and in providing a focus for investigating the grievances of European citizens. In addition, in answer to a question of the noble Lord, Lord Bruce of Donington, we are ready to consider introducing the new proposed negative assent procedure into the Community's decision-making process, provided its scope of application is strictly limited. However, the noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn, and we differ in that we believe that there is no case for any more significant increase in the parliament's legislative power so soon after the step change represented by the Single European Act. To the noble Lord, Lord Bruce of Donington, and to my noble friend Lord Bethell, I would add that it is through involving our national parliaments more closely in the Community's work, an area where I know that this House wishes to take 1263 the lead, that we will truly be able to strengthen the democratic accountability of the Community as a whole. On defence, a subject mentioned by the noble Duke, the Duke of Manchester, in his excellent maiden speech which carried all the more weight for being brief, we are negotiating in the IGC on the basis of three broad principles, which I believe command the broad support of the House, including, I hope, the support of the noble Lord, Lord Stoddart of Swindon. First, the importance of the Atlantic Alliance. My noble friend Lady Park will be pleased to know that we are firm that NATO must retain sole responsibility for the defence of NATO territory. The Western European Union should be developed to be the instrument of a European defence identity. It should have links in different ways to both the Union and NATO, but it should be subordinate to neither. The third point is that defence co-operation in Europe should not force our other allies to be periphery, nor should it present them with a fait accompli which they have no choice but to accept or reject. We are confident that an agreement can be reached which protects those three principles at Maastricht. The Anglo-Italian declaration on European defence was widely welcomed, and I would put it to the noble Lord, Lord Varley, that it is but one example of the positive role that we have taken. It has been by no means a reactionary role. Another question that has naturally commanded much attention is the issue of a common foreign policy. This is nothing new. In practice we have been seeking to operate such a common policy for some considerable time. Strengthening the commitment to achieve such a policy is a long-standing British objective. We hope that the mechanisms agreed at Maastricht will deliver one, but I would put it to the noble Lord, Lord Bonham-Carter, that this does not mean putting it within the Treaty of Rome. Thus we do not agree that this need contain any provision for qualified majority voting. A common policy will carry most weight when it is unanimously agreed. Majority voting will not long hide disunity and disarray when it is exposed to the pressures of the real world. I was going to answer a question of the noble Lord, Lord Weidenfeld, at this point, but as he is not in his place, I shall not do so. But let us be clear, nobody is suggesting that majority voting should be introduced for significant issues of principle, but only for implementing decisions of a very secondary nature. I believe that the noble Lord, Lord Monson, would agree that the burden is on the other member states who favour this distinction to convince us that it can ever work in practice. I am not in the least surprised that a number of your Lordships raised the question of a referendum. I appreciate the strongly-held views in all parts of the Chamber. I agree with the sentiments expressed by my right honourable friend the Prime Minister in another place last week and repeated this afternoon by my noble friend the Lord Privy Seal. We believe there is no need for a referendum after Maastricht. I admired very much what my noble friend Lord Beloff said, and 1264 my noble friend Lord Boardman put it more succinctly for us non-academics when he said that we live in a parliamentary democracy. The noble Lord, Lord Cledwyn, asked about social policy, and I am sorry that the noble Lord, Lord McCarthy, is not in his place to hear what I have to say on this particular point. I agree that we do not want to give up so much of what we have achieved in the past 12 years, and it is worth pointing out that just three draft directives in the social action programme, including those on part-time work and working time, would cost British employers up to £6.5 million and lead to the loss of as many as 100,000 jobs. I agree with my noble friend Lord Harmar-Nicholls, whom I am pleased to see is in his place. We need to look at this area with great care. The noble Lord, Lord Bruce of Donington, showed his expertise with regard to the Court of Auditors among the other areas that he mentioned. The Treaty of Rome already provides that the Court of Auditors should be completely independent in the performance of its duties. It is not subservient to the Commission. There are proposals in the draft treaty put forward by the United Kingdom which should improve the workings of the court. I agree with the noble Lord—none is too soon. I shall write to the noble Lord on the details and on the other points that he raised. Finally, I should like to echo the words of my right honourable friend the Prime Minister in another place last week. He made it quite clear that Britain's place is at the heart of Europe, and that the Community's best interests lie in reaching an agreement at Maastricht which will satisfy all of its members. We will not be afraid to argue our corner where we believe our position is right. That has always been our approach. It has worked of course in our own interests, but also in the long-term interests of the Community. Our stands in the Community in the past, calling for sound finances and a reformed common agricultural policy, are in retrospect seen not as wrecking or isolationist but as fundamental good sense. It has not damaged our interests to be a little sceptical, as the noble Lord, Lord Ardwick, described it. For a consensus agreement to be reached at Maastricht, there will need to be give and take on all sides. There are some points we should prefer to see agreed which may not be. But some points are more important than others. I shall summarise what are among the most crucial for us. On EMU, we must see the incorporation in the treaty of strict conditions of economic convergence and a provision which will allow government and Parliament to decide whether and not just when to join a single currency. On political union, we must safeguard NATO as the principal vehicle of our defence, and avoid the creation of any competing European defence structure which would undermine it. On foreign policy, we want stronger and closer co-operation, outside Community competence. But it must not interfere with our ability to take decisions in our own national interest. We need to increase the European Parliament's role in controlling the 1265 Commission, but we should not allow the Parliament to become the legislative equal of the Council in making policy for the Community. We want greater co-operation in Europe in the fights against cross-border crime, drugs, terrorism, illegal immigration and other Home Office issues. This treaty provides a chance to give such intergovernmental co-operation a sound basis in its international law; again this is best pursued outside the framework of the Community. Finally—and here I agree with my noble friend Lord Joseph —we must constrain the extension of Community competence to those areas where Community action makes more sense than national action, or action on a voluntary inter-governmental basis. Again, I was going to say something to the noble Lord, Lord McCarthy, on this subject. This is the approach which we believe will have the support of the majority of people in this country. It is a policy designed to maximise our influence in the Community; and we must use that influence. We must use it to ensure that the Community fills the important role in world affairs which the changes elsewhere in Europe and its growing economic strength dictate it must. We must keep the Community open, liberal, true to its original free-market philosophy; and we must see that the Community does not turn its face away from the newly-emerging democracies of eastern Europe. We should offer them the prospect of 1266 Community membership along with the other applicants in a lengthening queue, once they can satisfy all the conditions of membership. That is the challenge before us. It is a challenge, as I have said, to which the Community can rise only if the structures and procedures we agree at Maastricht for this next stage of the Community's development are workable, practical and command consensus. It is with this vital goal in mind that the British Government approach the Maastricht European Council. We continue to participate forcefully at the heart of debate in helping to shape the structure, the processes and the future development of an organisation which is set to play an ever increasing role in the wider world, and an ever more beneficial one in all of our lives. § On Question, Motion agreed to.

i don't know

Whose book Inside NO 10 described Harold Wilson's Downing Street years?

The truth about Harold Wilson - after 30 years of scandalous rumours | Daily Mail Online The truth about Harold Wilson - after 30 years of scandalous rumours By ROY HATTERSLEY Last updated at 10:12 24 June 2007 The real Mary Wilson is dramatically different from the dull suburban housewife who was caricatured so ruthlessly during her husband Harold's years of power. Her reputation for doing little more than "standing by her man" was acquired in an era before Prime Ministers' wives became personalities in their own right. It was exacerbated by Mrs Wilson's Diary - a long-running spoof in the satirical magazine Private Eye that mocked her apparent meekness and fondness for composing verse. Mary never complained, and finally faded from public view during the many years she devotedly nursed her husband as he was gradually consumed by Alzheimer's. Scroll down for more...Today, the "little woman" calumny is regurgitated whenever so-called new "revelations" about Wilson's premiership - which ended prematurely in 1976 after he resigned under rather mysterious circumstances - are spewed out by one of his "loyal" lieutenants. But his widow must also take some responsibility for all the nonsense that is so often written, because she adamantly refuses to take on her husband's detractors. An intensely private woman, she despises the cult of personality that has infested modern politics. And she emphatically does not believe in letting her emotions show. Now aged 90, she lives alone in a Westminster flat and observes the world through eyes that have lost none of their sharpness. Despite all her years as a political wife (Harold became an MP in 1945), she has rarely talked to the media and has never given a full-blown newspaper interview. That she is giving one at all now - coincidentally, as yet another Prime Minister prepares to step down before the end of his term - is because we have known each other for more than 40 years. Time after time, she prefaces her words by saying: "I have never told this to anyone before." But equally, time after time, she stops me from delving any further. It is a matter of principle that she will never retaliate against those who tell lies about her husband by telling the discreditable truth about them. Of course, the story that has resurfaced the most persistently pivots on the role of Marcia Williams - now Lady Falkender - who served as Harold Wilson's political secretary for nearly 30 years, including his eight years as Prime Minister. In 2003, Joe Haines, Wilson's former Press secretary, published a book which claimed that Marcia had had an affair with the Prime Minister and that she had treated him with derision. One of his tallest tales - repeated in a BBC drama last year - had Marcia once telling Mary: "I've slept with your husband six times and it wasn't very satisfactory." (Subsequently, the BBC was forced to issue an apology.) Mary Wilson, who combines moral certainty with the no-nonsense approach of a Northerner, says such allegations are beneath contempt and unworthy of comment. When I ask if her disdain for scandal-mongering is built on her knowledge that none of the stories are true, she allows herself a contented smile. To understand Mary Wilson's character, it is necessary to know something of her upbringing as "a daughter of the manse". Her father, a Congregationalist minister, encouraged plain living and high thinking. ("Church twice on Sundays and no novels to be read on the day of prayer," recalls Mary.) Little wonder, then, that the family watchwords were "pride" and "propriety". Her background also goes some way to explaining why she has never complained about the Cabinet Office's decision, regarded by some as a disgrace, to halve her pension - to £15,000 - when her husband died in 1995. All she will say is: "I have a small annuity." Mary Wilson is part of a disappearing generation that is determined to go through life without whining, blaming and emoting. There is not a trace of self-pity when she describes her husband's final, terrible illness, which became evident after he resigned from office in 1976. As she charts his decline, she gives the lie to the persistent rumour that there was something deeply mysterious about his surprise resignation. Among the more sinister whispers was that MI5 had been about to expose him as a KGB agent. At the time, Harold Wilson was a fixture in everyone's lives: the pipe-smoking PM who had devalued "the pound in your pocket", confirmed our membership of the Common Market and predicted the "white heat" of the coming technological revolution. There seemed no reason for him to step down - and no convincing explanation was put forward. But the truth, Mary says, is simple. After his unexpected election victory in 1974, "Harold always meant to go quite quickly". So why did he choose to make his announcement in the spring of 1976? "He'd had enough. There was a seamen's strike, which he had just dealt with. He told me that he could not deal with it with the same level of energy, the same zest . . . and, possibly, he began to feel that his memory was going." We will never know whether Wilson feared the early onset of Alzheimer's or if he thought he was just growing old - though, at 60, he was still a comparatively young prime minister. But the truth is that he felt he could no longer do the job in the way that he wanted. After the hand-over to Jim Callaghan, four good years followed before the brilliant mind began to go. I remind Mary of a story that Callaghan told me about his own investiture as Knight of the Garter in 1980, attended by the Wilsons. Callaghan said: "Mary was marvellous. She spent every moment looking after Harold. Got him in and out of all those robes and chains. She couldn't have enjoyed it much herself." This triggers difficult memories. "I've never told anyone this before," says Mary. "At the beginning, when Harold knew that he couldn't remember, he was very distressed. But the time came when he didn't remember at all and we settled down into a sort of calm. "It was a very quiet time after he got over his anxieties. Sometimes, he would say: 'I must go home. My mother and father [long since dead] aren't well.' "So I would just take him out for a walk round the block. Strangely enough, it became a very calm period." Leading up to that time, there was also the half-world between memory and oblivion when Wilson (by then Lord Wilson of Rievaulx) was still intent on attending the House of Lords. "I'd take him early in the afternoon. Jim Callaghan would make room for him on the [Privy Councillors'] bench. Harold would keep an eye on me, sitting down there with the other peers' wives. After about an hour, I'd give him a thumbs-up sign and he'd come out for me to take him to tea." But then the hard work - she dismisses the notion of suffering or sacrifice - began. It is only when we come to her recollections of Wilson's last few months that there is a rare expression of resentment. "Roy Jenkins was the only one [of his old Cabinet ministers] who came to see him. And he wasn't even still a member of our party." (Jenkins had defected to help found the SDP). My suggestion that people find it hard to deal with Alzheimer's produces a flash of steel. "Then they should try harder!" Yet it was all worth it. "Above all, I didn't want him to go into a home. He stayed here with me right until the last two days, when he had to go into hospital." Her devotion has never wavered. Pictures of him - Oxford don in cap and gown, young President of the Board of Trade, grave and greying Prime Minister - stand on every table and bookshelf in her living room. She shows me the hand-written poem that she composed to mark her husband's funeral in the Scilly Isles, where they had spent many enjoyable family holidays: "My love you have stumbled slowly On the quiet way to death And you lie where the wind blows strongly With a salty spray on its breath For this men of the island bore you Down paths where the branches meet And the only sounds were the crunching grind Of the gravel beneath their feet And the sighing slide of the ebbing tide On the beach where the breakers meet." Mary Wilson has published three volumes of verse and has always turned to poetry during times of crisis and disappointment. The first of these was when she decided not to go to university - because it would have been an expense too far for her father. "I have regretted it all my life," she tells me. "All my life." Instead, she enrolled in a business college and became a secretary in the Lever Brothers soap factory at Port Sunlight. In the summer of 1934, Harold Wilson - preparing to go to Oxford University - visited the tennis club where she was a member. He claimed it was love at almost first sight. But Mary says she took much longer to make up her mind. Harold Wilson and Gladys Mary Baldwin were married in January 1940. He had just been elected a Fellow and she neither expected, nor wanted, to become a political wife. And perhaps that sowed the seeds of her second great regret. "I loved being the wife of a don and would have been happy to remain one all my life," she says. But fate intervened. After wartime service as a high-powered civil servant, Wilson (who had joined the Labour Party as a student) was nominated as candidate for a constituency no one expected him to win. On the crest of the 1945 Labour landslide, he was swept into Westminster - and so began one of the most meteoric careers in parliamentary history. Within months, Wilson was a parliamentary secretary and, in 1947, at the age of 31, was promoted to the Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade. Every step up the ladder came as "rather a shock" to Mary. "I didn't know a thing about [the business of politics]." But she was never the passive little woman of Mrs Wilson's Diary. Indeed, there were spirited arguments with Clement Attlee, Labour's greatest Prime Minister, about historical figures. "Bad choice, bad history," he told her, when she leapt to the defence of her heroes (Bonnie Prince Charlie, Charles II and Lord Byron). And, in 1975, she had the courage to follow her convictions and vote against one of her husband's flagship policies. His government had decided to let the people decide, through a referendum, if Britain should confirm its membership of the Common Market. After the Wilsons had returned to their ministerial car from the polling booth, Mary told her husband: "I couldn't do it. I just couldn't do it." Wilson had voted for Britain to remain in Europe, and his wife had voted to come out. "He was very sweet about it," says Mary. Asked if she still holds the same view, the best she can say about Britain's European destiny is: "You can't unscramble eggs." Mary insists that she enjoyed her role in Downing Street, though she hated the house. "Everybody who has lived there seems to. I missed my real home, where I was cook, mother and gardener." Was that one of the reasons why, after winning the 1974 election, the Wilsons chose to stay at their flat in nearby Lord North Street rather than move back into "that little flat upstairs"? "We knew that even if we moved, we wouldn't be in Downing Street for long," she says, confirming that even at the moment of victory, Harold's departure had already been planned. Despite her dislike of Number 10, Mary Wilson says that she "adored Chequers". Intriguingly, she says she plans to send a letter to Gordon Brown's wife, Sarah (whom she describes as "splendid"), urging her to persuade her husband to change his mind and use the Prime Minister's Buckinghamshire country residence at weekends. She is far too canny and discreet to give her views on Tony Blair, but her comment: "After you've left the bridge, you don't spit on the deck" may provide a clue to her feelings. As, indeed, does her admission that she is "Old Labour". As for how Cherie Blair has performed in the role of Prime Minister's wife, she says: "We all see things differently, and times have changed." Then, conscious this remark sounds frosty, she adds: "Cherie has been very kind to me. I like her very much." Throughout her own years as a prime minister's wife, Mary Wilson was sustained by two great friendships: the poet John Betjeman, who was "a breath of fresh air", and Marcia Falkender, who particularly helped her though the early days. Mary says: "She was a real politician. I wasn't. She knew all the ropes. Marcia never decided my diary - I decided where to go for myself - but she was a great help." The women remain the firmest of friends and lunch together almost every Wednesday - most often in the House of Lords - and talk "both about the old days and what's going on now". The sincerity of her affection for Harold's former political secretary cannot be doubted. Since Lady Falkender had a minor stroke five years ago, I have never met Mary Wilson without being given a bulletin about the health of her long-standing friend. Scroll down for more... So why will she not denounce Lady Falkender's detractors? "I just don't talk about such things," she replies. Once again, her tone is overlaid with contempt. However, she does paint a vivid scene from the Downing Street years that provides a kind of answer. One of Lady Falkender's detractors, she says, once "went absolutely wild" because he was required to canvass during a General Election campaign after a lunch of no more than cold ham. "He was very unpleasant to the Downing Street housekeeper." Clearly, being unpleasant to the staff is regarded by Mary Wilson as unforgivable. But the offender's name, she tells me, must not be mentioned. She holds the view that you cannot complain about character assassination if you wield the assassin's knife. What, I ask Mary, are her happiest memories? The greatest joys, she says, were the births of her two sons. And the worst? Election defeats - but only because of the disappointment they caused Harold. And, of course, the slow realisation that he was suffering from an incurable disease which, she believes, was worsened by a (successful) operation in 1980 for colon cancer. "Afterwards, he was never the same again." How has she coped since his death? Faith has helped, she says. So has the support of her sons and their families. And, of course, her stern upbringing as a daughter of the manse has taught her to face pain with fortitude. But, most important of all have been her memories of Harold, the lasting legacy of a close and happy relationship. She says that during moments of doubt and sorrow, she still "talks" to him. "Sometimes, just inside my head - sometimes, when I am alone, out loud." Three or four times a year, she returns to the Scilly Isles. One of these visits is an annual pilgrimage and act of remembrance, with a service at the Methodist church where Harold's funeral was held. This is followed by a graveside reading from John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. Harold Wilson was lucky to have found Mary. Without him, she might have done more and better in the eyes of the world, but she is in no doubt that she was equally lucky to have found him.

Marcia Falkender, Baroness Falkender

What is the Swedish name of the official who acts for the private citizen in complaints against the government?

The truth about Harold Wilson - after 30 years of scandalous rumours | Daily Mail Online The truth about Harold Wilson - after 30 years of scandalous rumours By ROY HATTERSLEY Last updated at 10:12 24 June 2007 The real Mary Wilson is dramatically different from the dull suburban housewife who was caricatured so ruthlessly during her husband Harold's years of power. Her reputation for doing little more than "standing by her man" was acquired in an era before Prime Ministers' wives became personalities in their own right. It was exacerbated by Mrs Wilson's Diary - a long-running spoof in the satirical magazine Private Eye that mocked her apparent meekness and fondness for composing verse. Mary never complained, and finally faded from public view during the many years she devotedly nursed her husband as he was gradually consumed by Alzheimer's. Scroll down for more...Today, the "little woman" calumny is regurgitated whenever so-called new "revelations" about Wilson's premiership - which ended prematurely in 1976 after he resigned under rather mysterious circumstances - are spewed out by one of his "loyal" lieutenants. But his widow must also take some responsibility for all the nonsense that is so often written, because she adamantly refuses to take on her husband's detractors. An intensely private woman, she despises the cult of personality that has infested modern politics. And she emphatically does not believe in letting her emotions show. Now aged 90, she lives alone in a Westminster flat and observes the world through eyes that have lost none of their sharpness. Despite all her years as a political wife (Harold became an MP in 1945), she has rarely talked to the media and has never given a full-blown newspaper interview. That she is giving one at all now - coincidentally, as yet another Prime Minister prepares to step down before the end of his term - is because we have known each other for more than 40 years. Time after time, she prefaces her words by saying: "I have never told this to anyone before." But equally, time after time, she stops me from delving any further. It is a matter of principle that she will never retaliate against those who tell lies about her husband by telling the discreditable truth about them. Of course, the story that has resurfaced the most persistently pivots on the role of Marcia Williams - now Lady Falkender - who served as Harold Wilson's political secretary for nearly 30 years, including his eight years as Prime Minister. In 2003, Joe Haines, Wilson's former Press secretary, published a book which claimed that Marcia had had an affair with the Prime Minister and that she had treated him with derision. One of his tallest tales - repeated in a BBC drama last year - had Marcia once telling Mary: "I've slept with your husband six times and it wasn't very satisfactory." (Subsequently, the BBC was forced to issue an apology.) Mary Wilson, who combines moral certainty with the no-nonsense approach of a Northerner, says such allegations are beneath contempt and unworthy of comment. When I ask if her disdain for scandal-mongering is built on her knowledge that none of the stories are true, she allows herself a contented smile. To understand Mary Wilson's character, it is necessary to know something of her upbringing as "a daughter of the manse". Her father, a Congregationalist minister, encouraged plain living and high thinking. ("Church twice on Sundays and no novels to be read on the day of prayer," recalls Mary.) Little wonder, then, that the family watchwords were "pride" and "propriety". Her background also goes some way to explaining why she has never complained about the Cabinet Office's decision, regarded by some as a disgrace, to halve her pension - to £15,000 - when her husband died in 1995. All she will say is: "I have a small annuity." Mary Wilson is part of a disappearing generation that is determined to go through life without whining, blaming and emoting. There is not a trace of self-pity when she describes her husband's final, terrible illness, which became evident after he resigned from office in 1976. As she charts his decline, she gives the lie to the persistent rumour that there was something deeply mysterious about his surprise resignation. Among the more sinister whispers was that MI5 had been about to expose him as a KGB agent. At the time, Harold Wilson was a fixture in everyone's lives: the pipe-smoking PM who had devalued "the pound in your pocket", confirmed our membership of the Common Market and predicted the "white heat" of the coming technological revolution. There seemed no reason for him to step down - and no convincing explanation was put forward. But the truth, Mary says, is simple. After his unexpected election victory in 1974, "Harold always meant to go quite quickly". So why did he choose to make his announcement in the spring of 1976? "He'd had enough. There was a seamen's strike, which he had just dealt with. He told me that he could not deal with it with the same level of energy, the same zest . . . and, possibly, he began to feel that his memory was going." We will never know whether Wilson feared the early onset of Alzheimer's or if he thought he was just growing old - though, at 60, he was still a comparatively young prime minister. But the truth is that he felt he could no longer do the job in the way that he wanted. After the hand-over to Jim Callaghan, four good years followed before the brilliant mind began to go. I remind Mary of a story that Callaghan told me about his own investiture as Knight of the Garter in 1980, attended by the Wilsons. Callaghan said: "Mary was marvellous. She spent every moment looking after Harold. Got him in and out of all those robes and chains. She couldn't have enjoyed it much herself." This triggers difficult memories. "I've never told anyone this before," says Mary. "At the beginning, when Harold knew that he couldn't remember, he was very distressed. But the time came when he didn't remember at all and we settled down into a sort of calm. "It was a very quiet time after he got over his anxieties. Sometimes, he would say: 'I must go home. My mother and father [long since dead] aren't well.' "So I would just take him out for a walk round the block. Strangely enough, it became a very calm period." Leading up to that time, there was also the half-world between memory and oblivion when Wilson (by then Lord Wilson of Rievaulx) was still intent on attending the House of Lords. "I'd take him early in the afternoon. Jim Callaghan would make room for him on the [Privy Councillors'] bench. Harold would keep an eye on me, sitting down there with the other peers' wives. After about an hour, I'd give him a thumbs-up sign and he'd come out for me to take him to tea." But then the hard work - she dismisses the notion of suffering or sacrifice - began. It is only when we come to her recollections of Wilson's last few months that there is a rare expression of resentment. "Roy Jenkins was the only one [of his old Cabinet ministers] who came to see him. And he wasn't even still a member of our party." (Jenkins had defected to help found the SDP). My suggestion that people find it hard to deal with Alzheimer's produces a flash of steel. "Then they should try harder!" Yet it was all worth it. "Above all, I didn't want him to go into a home. He stayed here with me right until the last two days, when he had to go into hospital." Her devotion has never wavered. Pictures of him - Oxford don in cap and gown, young President of the Board of Trade, grave and greying Prime Minister - stand on every table and bookshelf in her living room. She shows me the hand-written poem that she composed to mark her husband's funeral in the Scilly Isles, where they had spent many enjoyable family holidays: "My love you have stumbled slowly On the quiet way to death And you lie where the wind blows strongly With a salty spray on its breath For this men of the island bore you Down paths where the branches meet And the only sounds were the crunching grind Of the gravel beneath their feet And the sighing slide of the ebbing tide On the beach where the breakers meet." Mary Wilson has published three volumes of verse and has always turned to poetry during times of crisis and disappointment. The first of these was when she decided not to go to university - because it would have been an expense too far for her father. "I have regretted it all my life," she tells me. "All my life." Instead, she enrolled in a business college and became a secretary in the Lever Brothers soap factory at Port Sunlight. In the summer of 1934, Harold Wilson - preparing to go to Oxford University - visited the tennis club where she was a member. He claimed it was love at almost first sight. But Mary says she took much longer to make up her mind. Harold Wilson and Gladys Mary Baldwin were married in January 1940. He had just been elected a Fellow and she neither expected, nor wanted, to become a political wife. And perhaps that sowed the seeds of her second great regret. "I loved being the wife of a don and would have been happy to remain one all my life," she says. But fate intervened. After wartime service as a high-powered civil servant, Wilson (who had joined the Labour Party as a student) was nominated as candidate for a constituency no one expected him to win. On the crest of the 1945 Labour landslide, he was swept into Westminster - and so began one of the most meteoric careers in parliamentary history. Within months, Wilson was a parliamentary secretary and, in 1947, at the age of 31, was promoted to the Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade. Every step up the ladder came as "rather a shock" to Mary. "I didn't know a thing about [the business of politics]." But she was never the passive little woman of Mrs Wilson's Diary. Indeed, there were spirited arguments with Clement Attlee, Labour's greatest Prime Minister, about historical figures. "Bad choice, bad history," he told her, when she leapt to the defence of her heroes (Bonnie Prince Charlie, Charles II and Lord Byron). And, in 1975, she had the courage to follow her convictions and vote against one of her husband's flagship policies. His government had decided to let the people decide, through a referendum, if Britain should confirm its membership of the Common Market. After the Wilsons had returned to their ministerial car from the polling booth, Mary told her husband: "I couldn't do it. I just couldn't do it." Wilson had voted for Britain to remain in Europe, and his wife had voted to come out. "He was very sweet about it," says Mary. Asked if she still holds the same view, the best she can say about Britain's European destiny is: "You can't unscramble eggs." Mary insists that she enjoyed her role in Downing Street, though she hated the house. "Everybody who has lived there seems to. I missed my real home, where I was cook, mother and gardener." Was that one of the reasons why, after winning the 1974 election, the Wilsons chose to stay at their flat in nearby Lord North Street rather than move back into "that little flat upstairs"? "We knew that even if we moved, we wouldn't be in Downing Street for long," she says, confirming that even at the moment of victory, Harold's departure had already been planned. Despite her dislike of Number 10, Mary Wilson says that she "adored Chequers". Intriguingly, she says she plans to send a letter to Gordon Brown's wife, Sarah (whom she describes as "splendid"), urging her to persuade her husband to change his mind and use the Prime Minister's Buckinghamshire country residence at weekends. She is far too canny and discreet to give her views on Tony Blair, but her comment: "After you've left the bridge, you don't spit on the deck" may provide a clue to her feelings. As, indeed, does her admission that she is "Old Labour". As for how Cherie Blair has performed in the role of Prime Minister's wife, she says: "We all see things differently, and times have changed." Then, conscious this remark sounds frosty, she adds: "Cherie has been very kind to me. I like her very much." Throughout her own years as a prime minister's wife, Mary Wilson was sustained by two great friendships: the poet John Betjeman, who was "a breath of fresh air", and Marcia Falkender, who particularly helped her though the early days. Mary says: "She was a real politician. I wasn't. She knew all the ropes. Marcia never decided my diary - I decided where to go for myself - but she was a great help." The women remain the firmest of friends and lunch together almost every Wednesday - most often in the House of Lords - and talk "both about the old days and what's going on now". The sincerity of her affection for Harold's former political secretary cannot be doubted. Since Lady Falkender had a minor stroke five years ago, I have never met Mary Wilson without being given a bulletin about the health of her long-standing friend. Scroll down for more... So why will she not denounce Lady Falkender's detractors? "I just don't talk about such things," she replies. Once again, her tone is overlaid with contempt. However, she does paint a vivid scene from the Downing Street years that provides a kind of answer. One of Lady Falkender's detractors, she says, once "went absolutely wild" because he was required to canvass during a General Election campaign after a lunch of no more than cold ham. "He was very unpleasant to the Downing Street housekeeper." Clearly, being unpleasant to the staff is regarded by Mary Wilson as unforgivable. But the offender's name, she tells me, must not be mentioned. She holds the view that you cannot complain about character assassination if you wield the assassin's knife. What, I ask Mary, are her happiest memories? The greatest joys, she says, were the births of her two sons. And the worst? Election defeats - but only because of the disappointment they caused Harold. And, of course, the slow realisation that he was suffering from an incurable disease which, she believes, was worsened by a (successful) operation in 1980 for colon cancer. "Afterwards, he was never the same again." How has she coped since his death? Faith has helped, she says. So has the support of her sons and their families. And, of course, her stern upbringing as a daughter of the manse has taught her to face pain with fortitude. But, most important of all have been her memories of Harold, the lasting legacy of a close and happy relationship. She says that during moments of doubt and sorrow, she still "talks" to him. "Sometimes, just inside my head - sometimes, when I am alone, out loud." Three or four times a year, she returns to the Scilly Isles. One of these visits is an annual pilgrimage and act of remembrance, with a service at the Methodist church where Harold's funeral was held. This is followed by a graveside reading from John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress. Harold Wilson was lucky to have found Mary. Without him, she might have done more and better in the eyes of the world, but she is in no doubt that she was equally lucky to have found him.

i don't know

Which US president introduced the New Deal in 1933 to counter the depression?

The Great Depression and the New Deal The Great Depression and the New Deal John Hardman Poverty & Prejudice: Social Security at the Crossroads In his first inaugural address, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt, made some attempt to assess the enormous damage: "The withered leaves of industrial enterprise lie on every side; farmers find no markets for their produce; the savings of many years in thousands of families are gone. More important, a host of unemployed citizens face the grim problem of existence, and an equally great number toil with little return." He was speaking of the Great Depression of 1929 to 1940, which began and centered in the United States but spread quickly throughout the industrial world. Despite describing the Great Depression with grim words, this economic catastrophe and its impact defied description. The United States had never felt such a severe blow to its economy. President Roosevelt's New Deal reshaped the economy and structure of the United States, however, in order to end the poverty during the crisis. The New Deal programs would employ and give financial security to millions of Americans. These programs would prove to be effective and extremely beneficial to the American society as some still provide the economic security and benefits today. The Great Depression The Great Depression began by the complete collapse of the stock market on October 24th, 1929 when about 13 million shares of stock were sold. The damage was extended on Tuesday, October 29 when more than 16 million shares were sold making the day forever known as Black Tuesday. The value of most shares fell sharply, leaving financial ruin and panic in its wake. There has never been a collapse in the market that has had such a devastating and long-term effect on the economy. Businesses closed and banks failed by the hundreds due to the collapse, putting millions out of work. Wages for those still fortunate enough to have work fell sharply. The value of money decreased as the demand for goods declined. In Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal by William E. Leuchtenburg, the economic plight of the Depression is seen. "In the three years of Herbert Hoover's Presidency, the bottom had dropped out of the stock market and industrial production had been cut more than half.. By 1932, the unemployed numbered upward of thirteen million. Many lived in the primitive conditions of a preindustrial society stricken by famine."1 1 Leuchtenburg, pg. 1 Most of the agricultural segment of the economy had been in serious trouble for years. The arrival of the depression nearly eliminated it altogether, and the drought that created the 1930s Great Plains Dust Bowl greatened the damage. The government itself was sorely pressed for income at all levels as tax revenues fell; and the government during this period was more limited in its ability to respond to economic crises than it is today. The international structure of world trade also collapsed, and each nation sought to protect its own industrial base by imposing high tariffs on imported goods. This only made matters worse. Social Impact of the Great Depression By 1932 United States industrial output had been cut in half. One fourth of the labor force--about 15 million people--was out of work, and there was no such thing as unemployment insurance. Hourly wages had dropped by about 50 percent. Hundreds of banks had failed. Prices for agricultural products dropped to their lowest level since the Civil War. There were more than 90,000 businesses that failed completely. Statistics, however, can only partially give an account of the extraordinary hardships that millions of United States citizens endured For nearly every unemployed person, there were dependents who needed to be fed and housed Such massive poverty and hunger had never been known in the United States before. Former millionaires stood on street corners trying to sell apples at 5 cents apiece. Hundreds of pitiful shantytowns--called Hoovervilles in honor of the unfortunate Republican president who presided over the disaster--sprang up all over the country to shelter the homeless People slept under "Hoover blankets" --old newspapers--in the out-of-doors. People waited in bread lines in every city, hoping for something to eat In 1931 alone more than 20,000 Americans committed suicide. Anyone who had even a little money was extremely lucky. A new home could be bought for less than $3,000. A man's suit cost about $10, a shirt less than 50 cents, and a pair of shoes about $4. Milk was 10 cents a quart, a pound of steak only 29 cents, and a loaf of bread a nickel. For a dime one could go to the movies, buy a nickel bag of popcorn, and even win prizes given away by the theater. Not many lucky enough to be working had much change to spend after paying rent and buying food. To turn to the government, at least during the Hoover years, was useless. There was no federally financed "safety net" of welfare programs to keep the working class from falling into poverty. The New Deal In 1931 the new president, Franklin Roosevelt, brought an air of confidence and optimism that quickly rallied the people to the banner of his program, known as the New Deal "The only thing we have to fear is fear itself," the president declared in his inaugural address to the nation. He was determined to make effective changes during his presidency. "Roosevelt moved swiftly to deal with the financial illness that paralyzed the nation. On his very first night in office, he directed Secretary of the Treasury William Woodin to draft an emergency banking bill, and gave hi less than five days to get it ready."2 The New Deal, in a certain sense, merely introduced types of social and economic reform familiar to many Europeans for more than a generation. Moreover, the New Deal represented the culmination of a 1ong-range trend toward abandonment of "laissez-faire" capitalism, going back to the regulation of the railroads in the 1880s, and the flood of state and national reform legislation introduced in the Progressive era of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson. What was truly novel about the New Deal, however, was the speed with which it accomplished what previously had taken generations. Many of the reforms were hastily drawn and weakly administered with some actually contradicting others. During the entire New Deal era, public criticism and debate were never interrupted or suspended; in fact, the New Deal brought to the individual citizen a sharp of interest in government.. When Roosevelt took the presidential oath, the banking and credit system of the nation was in a state of paralysis. With astonishing rapidity the nation's banks were first closed -- and then reopened only if they were solvent. The administration adopted a policy of moderate currency inflation to start an upward movement in commodity prices and to afford some relief to debtors. New governmental agencies brought generous credit facilities to industry and agriculture. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (EDIC) insured sayings-bank deposits up to $5,000, and severe regulations were imposed upon the sale of securities on the stock exchange. 2 Leuchtenburg, pg. 42 Unemployment By 1933 millions of Americans were out of work Bread lines were a common sight in most cities. Hundreds of thousands roamed the country in search of food, work and shelter. "Brother, can you spare a dime?" went the refrain of a popular song. Ah early step for the unemployed came in the form of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), a program enacted by Congress to bring relief to young men between 18 and 25 years of age. The CCC was run in a semi-military style and enrolled jobless young men in work camps across the country for about $30 per month. About 2 million young men took part in this program during the 193Os. During their time in the CCC, they participated in a variety of conservation projects such as "planting trees to combat soil erosion and maintain national forests; eliminating stream pollution; creating fish, game and bird sanctuaries; and conserving coal, petroleum, shale, gas, sodium and helium deposits."3 The Civil Works Administration was a work relief program that gave jobs to many unemployed people. Although this program was criticized as "make work," the jobs funded ranged from ditch digging to highway repairs to teaching. It was Created in November 1933,and was abandoned only a few months later in the spring of 1934. Roosevelt and his key officials, however, continued to favor unemployment programs based on work relief rather than welfare. Agriculture The New Deal years were characterized by a belief that greater regulation would solve many of the country’s problems. In 1933 Congress passed the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) to provide economic relief to farmers. The AAA had a core to plan to raise crop prices by paying farmers a subsidy to compensate for voluntary cutbacks in production. The funds for the payments would be generated by a tax levied on industries that processed crops. By the time the act had become law, however, the growing season was well underway, and the AAA encouraged farmers to plow under their abundant crops Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace called this activity a "shocking commentary on our civilization." Nevertheless, through the AAA and the Commodity Credit Corporation, a program which extended loans for crops kept in storage and off the market, output dropped. 3 Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia Between 1932 and 1935, farm income increased by more than 50 percent, but only partly because of federal programs. During the same years that farmers were being encouraged to take land out of production, which would displace tenants and sharecroppers, the farm production was significantly reduced due to a severe drought hit the Great Plains states. Violent wind and dust storms ravaged the southern Great Plains in what is known as the "Dust Bowl," throughout the 193Os, but particularly from 1935 to 1938 The damages were immense People and animals were harmed, crops were destroyed, cars and machinery were ruined. Approximately 800,000 people; often called "Okies," left Arkansas, Texas, Missouri and Oklahoma during the 1930s and 1940s Most of these travelers headed further west to California, the land of myth and promise. The migrants were not only farmers, but also professionals, retailers and others whose livelihoods were connected to the health of the farm communities. California didn't live up to their expectations, however, as conditions in the sunny state were just as bad as those in the places from which the migrants fled. Most migrants ended up competing for seasonal jobs picking crops at extremely low wages. Although the AAA had been mostly successful, it was abandoned in 1936; when the tax on food processors was ruled unconstitutional. Six weeks later Congress passed a more effective farm-relief act, which authorized the government to make payments to farmers who reduced plantings of soil-depleting crops -- thereby achieving crop reduction through soil conservation practices. By 1940 nearly 6 million farmers were receiving federal subsidies under the farm relief act. The new act likewise provided loans on surplus crops, insurance for wheat and a system of planned storage to ensure a stable food supply. The prices of agricultural commodities rose, leaving the farmer's with a sense of economic stability. Blacks in the Depression and the New Deal The Great Depression of the 1930s worsened the already black economic situation of black Americans. African Americans were the first people to be fired from their jobs as they suffered from an unemployment rate two to three times that of whites. In early public assistance programs blacks often received substantially less aid than whites, and some charitable organizations even excluded blacks from their soup kitchens. It was an extremely poor and desperate time for most African Americans. The black American's economic struggles sparked major political developments among the blacks. Beginning in 1929, the St. Louis Urban League launched a national "jobs for Negroes" movement by boycotting chain stores that had mostly black customers but hired only white employees. Efforts to unify black organizations and youth groups later led to the founding of the National Negro Congress in 1936 and the Southern Negro Youth Congress in 1937. The Roosevelt Administration’s accessibility to black leaders and the New Deal reforms strengthened black support for the Democratic party Roosevelt bad many black leaders, members of a so-called "black Cabinet," were served as advisers to him. Among them were the educator Mary McLeod Bethune, who served as the National Youth Administration’s director of Negro affairs; William H. Hastie, who in l937 became the first black federal judge; Eugene K. Jones, executive secretary of the National Urban League; Robert Vann, editor of the Pittsburgh Courier; and the economist Robert C Weaver.4 Blacks benefited greatly from New Deal programs though discrimination by local administrators was common. Low-cost public housing was made available to black families. The National Youth Administration and the Civilian Conservation Corps enabled black youths to continue their education. The Work Projects Administration gave jobs to many blacks, and its Federal Writers Project supported the work of many authors, among them Zora Neale Hurston, Arna Bontemps, Waters Turpin, and Melvin B. Tolson. The Congress of industrial Organizations (CIO); established in the mid-1930s, organized large numbers of black workers into labor unions for the first time. By 1940, there were more than 200,000 blacks in the CIO, many of them officers of union locals. The Second New Deal The increasing pressures of the Great Depression caused President Roosevelt to back a new set of economic and social measures Prominent among these were measures to fight poverty, to counter unemployment with work and to provide a social safety net. The Works Progress Administration (WPA), the principal relief agency of the second New Deal, was an attempt to provide work rather than welfare. Under the WPA, buildings, roads, airports and schools were constructed. Actors, painters, musicians and writers were employed through the Federal Theater Project, the Federal Art Project and the Federal Writers Project. In addition, the National Youth Administration gave part-time employment to students, established training programs and provided aid to unemployed youth. Although the WPA only included about three million jobless at a time, it had helped a total of 9 million people when it was abandoned in 1943. 4 Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia Social Security The New Deal's cornerstone according to Roosevelt, was the Social Security Act of 1935. It "reversed historic assumptions about the nature of social responsibility, and it established the proposition that the individual has clear-cut social rights."5 The Social Security Act was signed into law by President Roosevelt on August 14, 1935. "In addition to several provisions for general welfare, the new Act created a social insurance program designed to pay retired workers age 65 or older a continuing income after retirement. Social Security created a system of insurance for the aged, unemployed and disabled based on employer and employee contributions. Social Security was funded in large part by taxes on the earnings of current workers, with a single fixed rate for ail regardless of income To Roosevelt, these limitations on the programs were compromises to ensure that the Act was passed President Roosevelt stated upon signing Social Security Act: "We can never insure one hundred percent of the population against one hundred percent of the hazards and vicissitudes of life, but we have tried to frame a law which will give some measure of protection to the average citizen and to his family against the loss of a job and against poverty-ridden old age." When congress passed the Social Security Act, the most pressing problems were double-digit unemployment and pervasive poverty. "Most families were struggling just to put food on the table and pay the rent; retirement saving was an unaffordable luxury."6 While the Social Security Act slightly affected most of the population in 1935, it began a program that has lasted for 64 years. Although its origins were initially quite modest, Social Security today is one of the largest domestic programs administered by the U.S. government. Millions of people depend on Social Security to protect them in their old age. "Without Social Security, the incomes of approximately 16 million people - about half of the retirees - would fall below official poverty thresholds."7 While the Social Security program is very complex and deals with more than 6 million employers, tens of millions of beneficiaries, and over 100 million taxpayers, its administrative costs are very low - roughly 1 percent of retirement and survivor pension payments - well below those of private pension and insurance plans. The average earnings of Social Security in 1998 were just under $28,000. The benefit that was paid to a worker who retired at the age of 62 whose earnings placed him at the same relative position in the earnings distribution in every year of a thirty-five year career would by $780 per month.8 From its modest beginnings, Social Security has grown to become an essential aspect of modern life. One in seven Americans receives a Social Security benefit, and more than 90 percent of all workers are in jobs covered by Social Security. From 1940, when slightly more than 222,000 people received monthly Social Security benefits, until today, when over 42 million people receive such benefits; Social Security has grown steadily. These graph's show the growth of Social Security in the United States from 1937, two years after the Social Security Act was created, to 1998. They also show the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) which was created in the 1972 Social Security Amendments. The SSI program combined three previous programs that gave need to the needy aged, blind and disabled individuals. 5 Leuchtenburg, pg. 133

Franklin D. Roosevelt

Mario Soares became the first socialist president of which country in 1986?

Roosevelt and the New Deal - North Carolina Digital History North Carolina Digital History Understanding the Great Depression Important Message about LEARN NC LEARN NC is evaluating its role in the current online education environment as it relates directly to the mission of UNC-Chapel Hill School of Education (UNC-CH SOE). We plan to look at our ability to facilitate the transmission of the best research coming out of UNC-CH SOE and other campus partners to support classroom teachers across North Carolina. We will begin by evaluating our existing faculty and student involvement with various NC public schools to determine what might be useful to share with you. Don’t worry! The lesson plans, articles, and textbooks you use and love aren’t going away. They are simply being moved into the new LEARN NC Digital Archive. While we are moving away from a focus on publishing, we know it’s important that educators have access to these kinds of resources. These resources will be preserved on our website for the foreseeable future. That said, we’re directing our resources into our newest efforts, so we won’t be adding to the archive or updating its contents. This means that as the North Carolina Standard Course of Study changes in the future, we won’t be re-aligning resources. Our full-text and tag searches should make it possible for you to find exactly what you need, regardless of standards alignment. 1.6 Roosevelt and the New Deal Provided by U.S. Department of State . You must have javascript and Flash Player to play this video. This newsreel let moviegoers across the country watch Franklin Roosevelt’s inauguration in 1933. Because this sort of news coverage was revolutionary in 1933, the first part of the newsreel explains how Universal Studios made it happen. About the video Download video (Right-click or option-click) In 1933 the new president, Franklin D. Roosevelt, brought an air of confidence and optimism that quickly rallied the people to the banner of his program, known as the New Deal. “The only thing we have to fear is fear itself,” the president declared in his inaugural address to the nation. Laissez-faire is a French phrase meaning “let do” or “let it be.” It usually refers to the belief that government should stay out of the economy and let businesses operate as they see fit. In one sense, the New Deal merely introduced social and economic reforms familiar to many Europeans for more than a generation. Moreover, the New Deal represented the culmination of a long-range trend toward abandonment of “laissez-faire” capitalism, going back to the regulation of the railroads in the 1880s, and the flood of state and national reform legislation introduced in the Progressive era of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson. What was truly novel about the New Deal, however, was the speed with which it accomplished what previously had taken generations. Many of its reforms were hastily drawn and weakly administered; some actually contradicted others. Moreover, it never succeeded in restoring prosperity. Yet its actions provided tangible help for millions of Americans, laid the basis for a powerful new political coalition, and brought to the individual citizen a sharp revival of interest in government. The First New Deal Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Banking and Finance When Roosevelt took the presidential oath, the banking and credit system of the nation was in a state of paralysis. With astonishing rapidity the nation’s banks were first closed – and then reopened only if they were solvent . The administration adopted a policy of moderate currency inflation to start an upward movement in commodity prices and to afford some relief to debtors. New governmental agencies brought generous credit facilities to industry and agriculture. The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) insured savings ‑ bank deposits up to $5,000. Federal regulations were imposed upon the sale of securities on the stock exchange. Unemployment Roosevelt faced unprecedented mass unemployment. By the time he took office, as many as 13 million Americans – more than a quarter of the labor force – were out of work. Bread lines were a common sight in most cities. Hundreds of thousands roamed the country in search of food, work, and shelter. “Brother, can you spare a dime?” was the refrain of a popular song. Members of the Civilian Conservation Corps work to control a wildfire near Angeles National Forest, California, in 1935. About the photograph An early step for the unemployed came in the form of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), a program that brought relief to young men between 18 and 25 years of age. CCC enrollees worked in camps administered by the army. About two million took part during the decade. They participated in a variety of conservation projects: planting trees to combat soil erosion and maintain national forests; eliminating stream pollution; creating fish, game, and bird sanctuaries; and conserving coal, petroleum, shale, gas, sodium, and helium deposits. A Public Works Administration (PWA) provided employment for skilled construction workers on a wide variety of mostly medium- to large-sized projects. Among the most memorable of its many accomplishments were the Bonneville and Grand Coulee Dams in the Pacific Northwest, a new Chicago sewer system, the Triborough Bridge in New York City, and two aircraft carriers (Yorktown and Enterprise) for the U.S. Navy. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), both a work relief program and an exercise in public planning, developed the impoverished Tennessee River valley area through a series of dams built for flood control and hydroelectric power generation. Its provision of cheap electricity for the area stimulated some economic progress, but won it the enmity of private electric companies. New Dealers hailed it as an example of “grass roots democracy.” The Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), in operation from 1933 to 1935, distributed direct relief to hundreds of thousands of people, usually in the form of direct payments. Sometimes, it assumed the salaries of schoolteachers and other local public service workers. It also developed numerous small-scale public works projects, as did the Civil Works Administration (CWA) from late 1933 into the spring of 1934. Criticized as “make work,” the jobs funded ranged from ditch digging to highway repairs to teaching. Roosevelt and his key officials worried about costs but continued to favor unemployment programs based on work relief rather than welfare. Agriculture In the spring of 1933, the agricultural sector of the economy was in a state of collapse. It thereby provided a laboratory for the New Dealers’ belief that greater regulation would solve many of the country’s problems. In 1933, Congress passed the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) to provide economic relief to farmers. The AAA proposed to raise crop prices by paying farmers a subsidy to compensate for voluntary cutbacks in production. Funds for the payments would be generated by a tax levied on industries that processed crops. By the time the act had become law, however, the growing season was well under way, and the AAA paid farmers to plow under their abundant crops. Crop reduction and further subsidies through the Commodity Credit Corporation, which purchased commodities to be kept in storage, drove output down and farm prices up. A farmer and his two sons walk in the face of a dust storm in Cimarron County, Oklahoma in 1936. About the photograph Between 1932 and 1935, farm income increased by more than 50 percent, but only partly because of federal programs. During the same years that farmers were being encouraged to take land out of production – displacing tenants and sharecroppers – a severe drought hit the Plains states. Violent wind and dust storms during the 1930s created what became known as the “Dust Bowl.” Crops were destroyed and farms ruined. By 1940, 2.5 million people had moved out of the Plains states, the largest migration in American history. Of those, 200,000 moved to California. The migrants were not only farmers, but also professionals, retailers, and others whose livelihoods were connected to the health of the farm communities. Many ended up competing for seasonal jobs picking crops at extremely low wages. The government provided aid in the form of the Soil Conservation Service, established in 1935. Farm practices that damaged the soil had intensified the impact of the drought. The service taught farmers measures to reduce erosion. In addition, almost 30,000 kilometers of trees were planted to break the force of winds. Although the AAA had been mostly successful, it was abandoned in 1936, when its tax on food processors was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. Congress quickly passed a farm-relief act, which authorized the government to make payments to farmers who took land out of production for the purpose of soil conservation. In 1938, with a pro-New Deal majority on the Supreme Court, Congress reinstated the AAA. By 1940 nearly six million farmers were receiving federal subsidies. New Deal programs also provided loans on surplus crops, insurance for wheat, and a system of planned storage to ensure a stable food supply. Economic stability for the farmer was substantially achieved, albeit at great expense and with extraordinary government oversight . Industry and Labor The National Recovery Administration (NRA), established in 1933 with the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), attempted to end cut-throat competition by setting codes of fair competitive practice to generate more jobs and thus more buying. Although welcomed initially, the NRA was soon criticized for over-regulation and was unable to achieve industrial recovery. It was declared unconstitutional in 1935. The NIRA had guaranteed to labor the right of collective bargaining through labor unions representing individual workers, but the NRA had failed to overcome strong business opposition to independent unionism. After its demise in 1935, Congress passed the National Labor Relations Act, which restated that guarantee and prohibited employers from unfairly interfering with union activities. It also created the National Labor Relations Board to supervise collective bargaining, administer elections, and ensure workers the right to choose the organization that should represent them in dealing with employers. The great progress made in labor organization brought working people a growing sense of common interests, and labor’s power increased not only in industry but also in politics. Roosevelt’s Democratic Party benefited enormously from these developments. The Second New Deal Huey Long, who served as Lousiana’s governor and later as a U.S. senator, advanced populist ideas. In its early years, the New Deal sponsored a remarkable series of legislative initiatives and achieved significant increases in production and prices – but it did not bring an end to the Depression. As the sense of immediate crisis eased, new demands emerged. Businessmen mourned the end of “laissez-faire” and chafed under the regulations of the NIRA. Vocal attacks also mounted from the political left and right as dreamers, schemers, and politicians alike emerged with economic panaceas that drew wide audiences. Dr. Francis E. Townsend advocated generous old-age pensions. Father Charles Coughlin, the “radio priest,” called for inflationary policies and blamed international bankers in speeches increasingly peppered with anti-Semitic imagery. Most formidably, Senator Huey P. Long of Louisiana, an eloquent and ruthless spokesman for the displaced, advocated a radical redistribution of wealth. (If he had not been assassinated in September 1935, Long very likely would have launched a presidential challenge to Franklin Roosevelt in 1936.) In the face of these pressures, President Roosevelt backed a new set of economic and social measures. Prominent among them were measures to fight poverty, create more work for the unemployed, and provide a social safety net. The Works Progress Administration (WPA), the principal relief agency of the so-called second New Deal, was the biggest public works agency yet. It pursued small-scale projects throughout the country, constructing buildings, roads, airports, and schools. Actors, painters, musicians, and writers were employed through the Federal Theater Project, the Federal Art Project, and the Federal Writers Project. The National Youth Administration gave part-time employment to students, established training programs, and provided aid to unemployed youth. The WPA only included about three million jobless at a time; when it was abandoned in 1943, it had helped a total of nine million people. In addition to providing benefits to people in need, the Social Security Administration also provided employment for many people — like these card punch operators. The New Deal’s cornerstone, according to Roosevelt, was the Social Security Act of 1935. Social Security created a system of state-administered welfare payments for the poor, unemployed, and disabled based on matching state and federal contributions. It also established a national system of retirement benefits drawing on a “trust fund” created by employer and employee contributions. Many other industrialized nations had already enacted such programs, but calls for such an initiative in the United States had gone unheeded. Social Security today is the largest domestic program administered by the U.S. government. To these, Roosevelt added the National Labor Relations Act, the “Wealth Tax Act” that increased taxes on the wealthy, the Public Utility Holding Company Act to break up large electrical utility conglomerates , and a Banking Act that greatly expanded the power of the Federal Reserve Board over the large private banks. Also notable was the establishment of the Rural Electrification Administration, which extended electricity into farming areas throughout the country. A new coalition In the 1936 election, Roosevelt won a decisive victory over his Republican opponent, Alf Landon of Kansas. He was personally popular, and the economy seemed near recovery. He took 60 percent of the vote and carried all but two states. A broad new coalition aligned with the Democratic Party emerged, consisting of labor, most farmers, most urban ethnic groups, African Americans, and the traditionally Democratic South. The Republican Party received the support of business as well as middle-class members of small towns and suburbs. This political alliance, with some variation and shifting, remained intact for several decades. Roosevelt’s second term was a time of consolidation. The president made two serious political missteps: an ill-advised, unsuccessful attempt to enlarge the Supreme Court and a failed effort to “purge” increasingly recalcitrant Southern conservatives from the Democratic Party. When he cut high government spending, moreover, the economy collapsed. These events led to the rise of a conservative coalition in Congress that was unreceptive to new initiatives. From 1932 to 1938 there was widespread public debate on the meaning of New Deal policies to the nation’s political and economic life. Americans clearly wanted the government to take greater responsibility for the welfare of ordinary people, however uneasy they might be about big government in general. The New Deal established the foundations of the modern welfare state in the United States. Roosevelt, perhaps the most imposing of the 20th-century presidents, had established a new standard of mass leadership. No American leader, then or since, used the radio so effectively. In a radio address in 1938, Roosevelt declared: “Democracy has disappeared in several other great nations, not because the people of those nations disliked democracy, but because they had grown tired of unemployment and insecurity, of seeing their children hungry while they sat helpless in the face of government confusion and government weakness through lack of leadership.” Americans, he concluded, wanted to defend their liberties at any cost and understood that “the first line of the defense lies in the protection of economic security.” Previous: The Bonus Army Learn more Works Projects in North Carolina, 1933–1941 The North Carolina State Archives presents this look at New Deal agencies and how they helped North Carolina. The Civilian Conservation Corps The Civilian Conservation Corps literally saved the lives of three million young men in the United States during the Great Depression. This site from PBS' America Experience looks into this time in our history. New Deal agencies A summary of the "alphabet soup" of New Deal agencies, provided by Dr. Quintard Taylor, Jr., of the University of Washington For teachers Lesson plan: F.D.R. and the New Deal America was a troubled land in the 1930s. With a plunging stock market, soaring unemployment rates, and many Americans struggling for basic necessities, Americans gathered in front of the Capitol to watch the inauguration of a new president, Franklin D. Roosevelt. Setting forth a tone of optimism and resolve, F.D.R. strove to raise the spirits of Americans in the inaugural address, and began numerous legislative attempts at improving American life and economics his first day in office. In this lesson from the North Carolina Civic Education Consortium, students will explore F.D.R.’s New Deal programs through reading, discussion, and artistic presentations to classmates. Also use the F.D.R. and the New Deal PowerPoint as an accompaniment. Related topics

i don't know

Who was the first president of France's Fifth Republic?

Fifth Republic | French history | Britannica.com Fifth Republic See Article History Fifth Republic, system of government in France from 1958. Under the constitution crafted by Charles de Gaulle with the help of Michel Debré , executive power was increased at the expense of the National Assembly . In 1959 de Gaulle was inaugurated as the first president of the Fifth Republic, with Debré as his prime minister. In 1962 de Gaulle pushed through a constitutional amendment that provided for direct popular election of the president, and in 1965 he became the first French president elected by popular vote since 1848. He was succeeded by Georges Pompidou (1969–74), Valéry Giscard d’Estaing (1974–81), François Mitterrand (1981–95), Jacques Chirac (1995–2007), Nicolas Sarkozy (2007–12), and François Hollande (2012– ). Learn More in these related articles: France: The Fifth Republic country of northwestern Europe. Historically and culturally among the most important nations in the Western world, France has also played a highly significant role in international affairs, with former colonies in every corner of the globe. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea,... Michel Debré Jan. 15, 1912 Paris, France Aug. 2, 1996 Montlouis-sur-Loire French political leader, a close aide of President Charles de Gaulle; after playing a prominent part in the writing of the constitution of the Fifth Republic, he served as its first premier. 10 References found in Britannica Articles Assorted References creation of French Community (in French Community ) role of Socialist Party (in Socialist Party (PS) ) External Links Corrections? Updates? Help us improve this article! Contact our editors with your feedback. MEDIA FOR: You have successfully emailed this. Error when sending the email. Try again later. Edit Mode Submit Tips For Editing We welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles. You can make it easier for us to review and, hopefully, publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind. Encyclopædia Britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience. You may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered. Any text you add should be original, not copied from other sources. At the bottom of the article, feel free to list any sources that support your changes, so that we can fully understand their context. (Internet URLs are the best.) Your contribution may be further edited by our staff, and its publication is subject to our final approval. Unfortunately, our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions. Submit Thank You for Your Contribution! Our editors will review what you've submitted, and if it meets our criteria, we'll add it to the article. Please note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors, and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed. Uh Oh There was a problem with your submission. Please try again later. Close Date Published: June 21, 2012 URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fifth-Republic-French-history Access Date: December 17, 2016 Share

Charles de Gaulle

Who was dismissed from office as Australian prime minister in 1975 after refusing to call a general election?

France: Government Government France Government Since the Revolution of 1789, France has had an extremely uniform and centralized administration, although constitutional changes in 2003 now permit greater autonomy to the nation's regions and departments. The country is governed under the 1958 constitution (as amended), which established the Fifth French Republic and reflected the views of Charles de Gaulle . It provides for a strong president, directly elected for a five-year term; an individual is limited to two terms as president. A premier and cabinet, appointed by the president, are responsible to the National Assembly, but they are subordinate to the president. The bicameral legislature consists of the National Assembly and the Senate. Deputies to the 577-seat National Assembly are elected for five-year terms from single-member districts. The 348 senators are elected for six-year terms from each department by an electoral college composed of the deputies, district council members, and municipal council members from the department, with one half of the Senate elected every 3 years. France's 22 administrative regions (see above under Land ) each have a directly elected regional council, primarily responsible for stimulating economic and social activity. The regions are further divided into 96 departments (not including the four overseas departments), which are governed by a locally elected general council, with one councilor per canton. Further subdivisions are districts ( arrondisements ), cantons, and communes. The districts and cantons have little power. The communes, however, are more powerful because they are responsible for municipal services and are represented in the national government by the mayor. Sections in this article:

i don't know

What collective name is given to the first ten amendments to the US constitution?

First Ten Amendments - constitution | Laws.com Share Share 0  Tweet 0  +1 0  Share 0  The first ten Amendments to the U.S. Constitution are more commonly referred to as the Bill of Rights. These ten Amendments were introduced to the American Congress in 1789. The purpose of these 10 Amendments is to protect the individuals of the United States–protect their rights to property, their natural rights as individuals, and limit the Government’s power over the citizens.  The ten Amendments that were originally placed into the Constitution were ratified in 1791 through the process of state voting and ratifying them one by one using a three-fourths majority vote of all the states. This was an important movement because it illustrated the way in which the founders had structured the Constitution, making them amendable while still requiring that sufficient time be given to the process in order to make the right choices regarding citizenship.  The first ten Amendments of the U.S. Constitution are ones many individuals are taught when they are kids, but forget as they grow older. Simply stated, these 10 Amendments are:  1. Freedom of speech, religion, press, etc.  2. Right to keep and bear arms.  3. The conditions for quartering soldiers.  4. Right of search and seizure.  5. Provisions regarding the prosecution of an individual.  6. Right to a speedy trial.  7. Right to trial by jury.  8. Provision against excessive bail and cruel punishment before trial.  9. Rule of construction regarding the constitution; and  10. The rights of the states under the Constitution.

Bill of rights

In which year did Mikhail Gorbachev resign as Soviet president?

The Bill of Rights: Its History and its Significance The Bill of Rights: Its History and Significance The Issues:  What is The Bill of Rights? Why were the Bill or Rights enacted?  How should they be interpreted? Introduction & History of the Bill of Rights The original Constitution, as proposed in 1787 in Philadelphia and as ratified by the states, contained very few individual rights guarantees, as the framers were primarily focused on establishing the machinery for an effective federal government.  A proposal by delegate Charles Pinckney to include several rights guarantees (including "liberty of the press" and a ban on quartering soldiers in private homes)  was submitted to the Committee on Detail on August 20, 1787, but the Committee did not adopt any of Pinckney's recommendations.  The matter came up before the Convention on September 12, 1787 and, following a brief debate, proposals to include a Bill or Rights in the Constitution were rejected.  As adopted, the Constitution included only a few specific rights guarantees: protection against states impairing the obligation of contracts (Art. I, Section 10), provisions that prohibit both the federal and state governments from enforcing ex post facto laws (laws that allow punishment for an action that was not criminal at the time it was undertaken) and provisions barring bills of attainder (legislative determinations of guilt and punishment) (Art. I, Sections 9 and 10).  The framers, and notably James Madison, its principal architect, believed that the Constitution protected liberty primarily through its division of powers that made it difficult for an oppressive majorities to form and capture power to be used against minorities.  Delegates also probably feared that a debate over liberty guarantees might prolong or even threaten the fiercely-debated compromises that had been made over the long hot summer of 1787. In the ratification debate, Anti-Federalists opposed to the Constitution, complained that the new system threatened liberties, and suggested that if the delegates had truly cared about protecting individual rights, they would have included provisions that accomplished that.  With ratification in serious doubt, Federalists announced a willingness to take up the matter of  a series of amendments, to be called the Bill of Rights, soon after ratification and the First Congress  comes into session.  The concession was  undoubtedly  necessary to secure the Constitution's hard-fought ratification.  Thomas Jefferson, who did not attend the Constitutional Convention, in a December 1787 letter to Madison called the omission of a Bill of Rights a major mistake: "A bill of rights is what the people are entitled to against every government on earth." James Madison reads his proposed Bill of Rights in the First Congress James Madison was skeptical of the value of a listing of rights, calling it a "parchment barrier."  (Madison's preference at the Convention to safeguard liberties was by giving Congress an unlimited veto over state laws and creating a joint executive-judicial council of revision that could veto federal laws.)  Despite his skepticism, by the fall of 1788, Madison believed that a declaration of rights should be added to the Constitution. Its value, in Madison's view, was in part educational, in part as a vehicle that might be used to rally people against a future oppressive government, and finally--in an argument borrowed from Thomas Jefferson--Madison argued that a declaration of rights would help install the judiciary as "guardians" of  individual rights against the other branches.  When the First Congress met in 1789, James Madison, a congressman from Virginia, took upon himself the task of drafting a proposed Bill of Rights.  He considered his efforts "a nauseous project." His original set of proposed amendments included some that were either rejected or substantially modified by Congress, and one (dealing with apportionment of the House) that was not ratified by the required three-fourths of the state legislatures.  Some of the rejections were very significant, such as the decision not to adopt Madison's proposal to extend free speech protections to the states, and others somewhat less important (such as the dropping of Madison's language that required unanimous jury verdicts for convictions in all federal cases). Some members of Congress argued that a listing of rights of the people was a silly exercise, in that all the listed rights inherently belonged to citizens, and nothing in the Constitution gave the Congress the power to take them away.  It was even suggested that the Bill of Rights might reduce  liberty by giving force to the argument that all rights not specifically listed could be infringed upon.  In part to counter this concern, the Ninth Amendment was included providing that "The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage other rights retained by the people."  Decades later, the Ninth Amendment would be pointed to by some judges, such as Justice Goldberg in his opinion in Griswold v Connecticut (a case recognizing a right of privacy that included a right to use contraceptives), as a justification for giving a broad and liberty-protective reading to the the specifically enumerated rights.  Others, such as rejected Supreme Court nominee Robert Bork, would dismiss the Ninth Amendment as analogous to "an inkblot on the Constitution," a provision so unclear in its significance that judges should essentially read it out of the Constitution. Most of the protections of the Bill of Rights eventually would be extended to state infringements as well federal infringements though the "doctrine of incorporation" beginning in the early to mid-1900s.  The doctrine rests on interpreting the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment as prohibiting states from infringing on the most fundamental liberties of its citizens.  (For more, see page on INCORPORATION DEBATE .) In the end, we owe opponents of the Constitution a debt of gratitude, for without their complaints, there would be no Bill of Rights.  Thomas Jefferson wrote, "There has just been opposition enough" to force adoption of a Bill of Rights, but not to drain the federal government of its essential "energy."  George Washington agreed: "They have given the rights of man a full and fair discussion, and explained them in so clear and forcible manner as cannot fail to make a lasting impression." LINKS

i don't know

How many countries are there in the British Commonwealth?

Member countries | The Commonwealth Member countries Home >Member countries Member countries Fifty two countries are members of the Commonwealth. Our countries span Africa, Asia, the Americas, Europe and the Pacific and are diverse – they are amongst the world’s largest, smallest, richest and poorest countries. Thirty-one of our members are classified as small states – countries with a population size of 1.5 million people or less and larger member states that share similar characteristics with them. All members subscribe to the Commonwealth’s values and principles outlined in The Commonwealth Charter . Leaders of member countries shape Commonwealth policies and priorities. Every two years, they meet to discuss issues affecting the Commonwealth and the wider world at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) . All members have an equal say – regardless of size or economic stature. This ensures even the smallest member countries have a voice in shaping the Commonwealth.

fifty

What is the Irish house of representatives called?

Member countries | The Commonwealth Member countries Home >Member countries Member countries Fifty two countries are members of the Commonwealth. Our countries span Africa, Asia, the Americas, Europe and the Pacific and are diverse – they are amongst the world’s largest, smallest, richest and poorest countries. Thirty-one of our members are classified as small states – countries with a population size of 1.5 million people or less and larger member states that share similar characteristics with them. All members subscribe to the Commonwealth’s values and principles outlined in The Commonwealth Charter . Leaders of member countries shape Commonwealth policies and priorities. Every two years, they meet to discuss issues affecting the Commonwealth and the wider world at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) . All members have an equal say – regardless of size or economic stature. This ensures even the smallest member countries have a voice in shaping the Commonwealth.

i don't know

Who was Pope for only 33 days in 1978?

"Pope Was Poisoned After 33 Days" | Christian Assemblies International "Pope Was Poisoned After 33 Days" Printable PDF Version Book reveals background to death of John Paul I London (ap/dpa) Pope John Paul I, who was head of the Catholic Church for only 33 days in 1978, was murdered, claims the British author David Yallop in his book "In God's Name", which was published in 1984. After 3 years of investigation he has come to this conclusion, having found out that members of the forbidden Italian secret lodge "P2" allowed the pope to be poisoned. Mysterious death 33 days after election: John Paul I John Paul I was found dead in his bed by his private secretary on the morning of 29th September 1978. The official cause of death: heart attack. Yallop, however, says it was murder. He is relying on interviews with "highly positioned sources within the Vatican" and states as evidence a series of inexplicable occurrences which accompanied the pope's death. There was no post-mortem, according to Yallop, although the 65-year-old church leader had never had any heart problems before his death. All his personal belongings, including his last will, were removed from his room and were never seen again. There are conflicting opinions about the exact time of his death, and it was officially stated that the deceased was holding a book in his hand, although it was actually documents, said Yallop. He sees the motive of the murder as being due to the intention of John Paul I to bring an end to the ecclesiastical prohibition of artificial birth control. But most of all he wanted to relieve a few high dignitaries of their offices and to substantiate the finances of the Vatican. Yallop also names suspicious members of the secret union "P2". For instance, the founder of the fascist-orientated Free Mason Lodge, Licio Gelli; or Jean Villot (at that time cardinal-state secretary); or bishop Paul Marcinkus who, as governing head of the Vatican Bank, did fraudulent business with the "Ambrosia" (private bank); or their director Roberto Calvi, who himself lost his life in mysterious circumstances. Translated from the German: "Papst wurde nach 33 Tagen vergiftet" Source: Newspaper article - Munich TZ (12.06.84)

Pope John Paul I

Who was lead singer with the group Queen?

Was Pope John Paul I murdered? John Julius Norwich's burning question... | Daily Mail Online Was Pope John Paul I murdered? John Julius Norwich's burning question... A sealed bed chamber. An archbishop with links to the Mafia. An embalming carried out with indecent-improper-haste... 'The clear impression was that the Vatican was anxious to conceal evidence,' said John Julius Norwich On 26 August 1978, Cardinal Albino Luciani was elected Pope on only the fourth ballot, taking the name of John Paul I. He came from near Belluno, some 80 miles north of Venice, his father passing much of his working life as a seasonal worker – bricklayer and electrician – in Switzerland. Luciani had been Bishop of Vittorio Veneto, and subsequently for nine years Patriarch of Venice; he was however little known outside Italy, and it was a matter of considerable surprise that the 111 voting cardinals – of whom only 27 were Italian – should have chosen him so quickly. The English cardinal Basil Hume had an explanation: ‘Seldom have I had such an experience of the presence of God… I am not one for whom the dictates of the Holy Spirit are self-evident. I’m slightly hard-boiled on that… But for me he was God’s candidate.’ Just 33 days later, on Thursday, September 28, the Pope sat down to dinner in his Vatican apartment with his two secretaries, the Italian Father Diego Lorenzi and the Irishman Father John Magee. It was a simple meal – clear soup, veal, fresh beans and salad. The secretaries had a glass of wine each; the Pope drank only water. When it was over, the three briefly watched a news programme; then, soon after nine, John Paul I retired for the night, setting his old wind-up alarm clock for the hour at which he normally rose, 4.30am. The next morning at exactly that time a nun named Sister Vincenza carried a flask of coffee to his study, as she had done every day for 20 years since his time in Vittorio Veneto, knocking at his bedroom door and bidding him good morning. Most unusually, there was no reply. A quarter of an hour later she returned and knocked again. Still no sound. By now seriously alarmed, she gingerly opened the door. There was the Pope sitting up in bed, wearing his spectacles and with some sheets of paper clutched in his hand. She felt his pulse. There was none; the wrist was icy cold. Panic-stricken, she rushed to wake Lorenzi and Magee, who immediately telephoned the Secretary of State, Cardinal Jean Villot, in his apartment two floors below. Villot took matters in hand. It was now 5am. First he telephoned two or three of his senior colleagues; then he called the papal morticians and embalmers, the Signoracci brothers, telling them that an official car would be leaving at once to collect them and bring them to the Vatican. Finally, having forbidden any of those present to say a word to anyone until he gave them permission, he summoned the deputy head of the Vatican’s health service, Dr Renato Buzzonetti. Buzzonetti had no idea of the Pope’s medical history; as he himself admitted, ‘the first time I saw him in a doctor/patient relationship he was dead’. Nevertheless, after the most cursory of external examinations he unhesitatingly diagnosed a heart attack, putting the time of death at about 11pm. Meanwhile Father Lorenzi, despite Villot’s strictures, telephoned John Paul I’s personal doctor, Giuseppe da Ros, in Venice. Astonished and horrified, da Ros jumped into his car and headed for Rome. He later declared that he had given the Pope, aged 65, a thorough examination as recently as the previous Saturday, and had reported to Lorenzi: ‘Non sta bene, ma benone’ – ‘He’s not well, he’s very well.’ Pope John Paul I's body lies in state in St Peter's Basilica, 1978. The behaviour of the authorities made a striking contrast to the way that the deaths of his predecessors had been handled for a century and more Such are the bare facts of the Pope’s death and the discovery of the body. Why, however, over the next 24 hours, were so many suspicions aroused? First of all, Villot had behaved very strangely. He had instantly pocketed the bottle of pills – Effortil – that the Pope took for his low blood pressure, together with his spectacles, his slippers, and the papers from his study desk. None of these were ever seen again. The Secretary of State had also ordered the whole papal apartment – all 19 rooms of it – to be cleared of all John Paul I’s possessions; by six that evening there was no trace of the dead Pope anywhere to be seen. The apartment was then sealed until the arrival of his successor. That same evening – little more than 12 hours after its discovery – the Signoracci brothers returned to embalm the body. The clear impression – as the Italian press was not slow to emphasise – was that the Vatican was anxious to conceal evidence; and the case against it was strengthened by its categorical refusal to permit any kind of post-mortem. Buzzonetti’s diagnosis was simply not acceptable: a British heart specialist is quoted as saying: ‘For a doctor, any doctor, to diagnose myocardial infarction as the cause of death (when he does not know the patient extremely well) is wrong… He is taking a very grave risk and he certainly would not be entitled to take such a risk and make such a diagnosis in this country. Such a diagnosis can only be given after an autopsy.’ It should be remembered, too, that John Paul I was a lifetime non-smoker, that he drank seldom and sparingly, and that he had a long history of low blood pressure. Anyone less likely to succumb to a sudden, fatal heart attack can hardly be imagined. How Pope John Paul I's death was reported in Corriere Della Sera. The headline reads: 'His smile lasted only 33 days' The Vatican tried to plead that post-mortems for popes were forbidden, which was untrue – they were performed on Pius VIII and Clement XIV for a start – and over the next few days several other official statements were similarly disproved. It was asserted, for example, that the body had been found by Magee rather than by Sister Vincenza; that the Pope had been reading Thomas à Kempis’s Imitation Of Christ; and that he had had a long history of heart trouble (of which his medical history had never revealed the slightest trace). The first two of these claims are not important; they were clearly fabricated simply to improve the image. The last, however, can have been intended only to confirm Buzzonetti’s diagnosis and so make a post-mortem seem unnecessary. One wonders, too, why the embalmers were called at 5am. Was Villot hoping to persuade them to do their job on the spot? To the Italian press it was clear the Vatican had for some reason lost its head. The Pope’s death had admittedly come as a surprise; but the subsequent behaviour of the authorities made a striking contrast to the way that the deaths of his predecessors had been handled for a century and more, when the public announcements and funeral arrangements had always been detailed, dignified and unhurried. No wonder the Corriere Della Sera, the Roman Il Tempo and their fellows started asking awkward questions, to which the Vatican’s L’Osservatore Romano could only bluster in reply. So far we have established that John Paul I’s death had many suspicious circumstances; we have said nothing of motive. Why should anyone have wished to kill this gentle, smiling man, who seemed to overflow with genuine kindness and piety? Many reasons have been suggested. Some of them accuse leading figures in the Church hierarchy – including Villot himself, several other members of the Papal Curia and even Cardinal Cody, the notoriously corrupt Archbishop of Chicago – who with good reason suspected that they were about to be dismissed, transferred or demoted. We now know that John Paul I, who despite his mild appearance never lacked courage, had been appalled at the inefficiency – and worse – in the way that the Vatican was conducting its affairs and had determined to clear out the stables; and that there was more than one highly placed churchman who would have been only too relieved to see him out of the way. Had any of those men really wished to do the job himself, he would have found it easy enough; the Vatican has no police force – the Italian police may enter its territory only if invited, which they weren’t. Moreover the Vatican’s own newspaper had actually published an illustrated map of the Papal Apartments on September 3. It is surely not too naive to doubt that any man of God would go as far as murder. There were others, however, who had just as strong a motive and for whom murder was a way of life: principally the Mafia, which was almost certainly behind a financial racket involving the Banco Ambrosiano of Milan, and, unfortunately, the Istituto per le Opere di Religione, better known as the Vatican Bank, the president of which was an American of Lithuanian extraction, Archbishop Paul Marcinkus. The fact that Marcinkus was born in the Chicago suburb of Cicero, where Al Capone had his headquarters, should obviously not be held against him; despite his many years in Rome, however, he had retained the image of a golf-playing, cigar-chewing American tough guy, which had singularly failed to endear him to his colleagues. ‘You can’t run a Church on Hail Marys’, he used to say; he certainly ran the bank – and a good many quite unrelated companies as well, one of which made the contraceptive pill – with firm efficiency. He also maintained close contacts with Sicilian Mafioso banker Michele Sindona – with whom he was fellow director of a bank in the Bahamas, and who in 1980 was sentenced in New York to 25 years’ imprisonment on 65 counts, including fraud – and the chairman of the  Banco Ambrosiano (the ‘Priests’ Bank’) Roberto Calvi, whose body was found in June 1982 hanging under Blackfriars Bridge. The details of the activities of these men are far too long and complicated to go into here; but John Paul I, who had a remarkably good head for figures and could read a balance sheet like a thriller, was hot on their trail. He had already discovered – and revealed to the world – one nasty financial scandal in Vittorio Veneto; if he were allowed to remain, it was only a question of time before many more guilty heads would roll. In short, there was plenty of motive for murder; plenty of opportunity; and plenty of suspicious circumstances. That is all we can say. There is absolutely  no conclusive proof of anything untoward, and John Paul I may have died a perfectly natural death. Those wishing to know more are referred to two remarkable books: In God’s Name by David Yallop, who believes the worst, and A Thief in the Night by John Cornwell, for whom this is all just another baseless conspiracy theory. Both are the results of deep and meticulous research, yet they reach diametrically opposite conclusions. The mystery remains. ‘The Popes: A History’ by John Julius Norwich is published by Chatto & Windus, priced at £25  

i don't know

Which author had the real name Charles Dodgson?

Lewis Carroll - Alice-in-Wonderland.net Alice-in-wonderland.net About Lewis Carroll Pseudonym The author of “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland” and “Through the Looking Glass” is Lewis Carroll. This is an pseudonym; his real name was Charles Lutwidge Dodgson. (His last name is pronounced with a silent ‘g’.) Dodgson first used ‘B.B.’ to sign his non-professional writings, but in March 1856, when he wanted to publish his poem ‘Solitude’ in the magazine “The Train”, Edmund Yates, a magazine editor, thought that this one was not appropriate. Then Dodgson came up with ‘Dares’ (from Daresbury in Cheshire, his birthplace), but that one was also rejected. Finally he invented Edgar Cuthwellis (composed from the letters of his name), Edgar U.C. Westhill (idem), Louis Carroll (he translated his name to Latin, and back: Lutwidge = Ludovic = Louis, Charles = Carolus) and Lewis Carroll (idem). Yates chose the last one. For his learned mathematic books Dodgson used his own name. Throughout this website I will use both names; when I’m talking about Carroll I am referring to his Alice books and when I call him Dodgson I’m talking about his private life. The life of Dodgson Dodgson was born on 27 January 1832 in the old parsonage at Daresbury, Cheshire. He was the 3rd child and eldest son of Reverend Charles Dodgson and Frances Jane Lutwidge (who were first cousins) and had 3 brothers and 7 sisters. He was very close and protective of them, especially the girls. Even as a child his talent was evident as he clearly enjoyed entertaining his brothers and sisters with stories and games. At the time of his birth, his father, Dr. Dodgson, was the vicar of Daresbury, Cheshire (he later was presented with the Crown living of Croft, Yorkshire, and subsequently became Archdeacon of Richmond and one of the Canons of Ripon Cathedral), and was a distinguished scholar whose favorite study was mathematics. In 1843 they moved to Croft, Yorkshire. At first, Charles was educated by his father. When he was twelve, he was sent to Mr. Tate’s School at Richmond. In 1846 Dodgson was enrolled at a boarding-school in Rugby where he had a miserable time because of his shyness and several illnesses. In May 1850 he matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, where he studied mathematics and took up residence as an undergraduate in January 1851. In 1854 Dodgson gained a 1st class degree in mathematics and one year later he was appointed lecturer in mathematics and Sub-Librarian at Christ Church. Dodgson was not a very inspiring teacher; it is said that his mathematical lessons were quite boring. He taught until 1881. Dodgson was ordained a deacon in the Church of England on December 22, 1861. In 1898 he went to his sisters in Guildford, where he died of pneumonia on 14 January. Religion It is often said that Dodgson was a sincere Christian, although there is reason to believe that he had religious doubts. He was ordained a deacon in 1861. It was the rule on Christ Church that deacons should enter the priesthood (or else they’d loose their job), but Dodgson never did. It might have been because of his stammer, but we do not know for certain why the Dean let him get away with it. Dodgson never got married. Physique Dodgson stuttered and was asymmetric; his blue eyes were not at the same level and one shoulder was higher than the other. His smile was also slightly askew. He was deaf on one ear because of an illness when he was at Rugby School, suffered from insomnia and was very thin because he ate only one meal a day (he was a little obsessed with eating). According to most accounts he was six foot tall. Personality Dodgson was a very precise and punctual man who liked order (he made lists of all kinds of things and even kept track of menus in his diary, so that “people would not have the same dishes too frequently.”). If something was not to his liking, Dodgson was likely to write a letter to the concerning person. He also satirized the academic politics of Oxford in articles, booklets, and leaflets. He felt that by printing his arguments, rather than debating, he could logically arrange his arguments, and his stammer wouldn’t be a hindrance. It is said that he also was prudish and very shy, and only at ease in the company of little girls, but this is not the case. Besides his child-friends, Dodgons also had many adult friends which he visited often. Some of these, like actrice Ellen Terry, were former child-friends. Their friendship endured, even though they had grown up. He loved the company of children, whom he told many stories. He was especially fond of little girls, but it is not true that he disliked boys and babies. He had many child friends, although most of the time he did not keep them very long, and wrote them many letters. If he went on a train journey or to the beach, he always made sure that he had plenty of games and puzzles with him in case he met a new little girl. Alice Liddell was one of his favorite child-friends. Hobbies and other pastimes Dodgson was much more than only a mathematician or clergyman; he was a photographer, writer of books and many letters, pamphleteer, poet and inventor. He also was curator of the senior common room at Christ Church (from 1882 to 1892). He was fond of theatre and opera (although his church disapproved of it). He couldn’t endure it if people made jokes about God. Dodgson was devoted to games as croquet, backgammon, billiards and chess, enjoyed conjuring and card tricks and invented many mathematical and word puzzles, games, ciphers and aids to memory. He was very interested in new inventions and invented many things himself, for example a tool for writing in the dark. Dodgson read and possessed lots of books. He had a diary that consisted of 13 volumes. If he had a particularly lucky day he wrote ‘I mark this day with a white stone’. He also liked writing letters, especially humorous letters to his child-friends. From January 1861 until his death in 1898 he kept a register of all the letters that he wrote. It consisted of 24 volumes and contains 98,721 letters! Dodgson was very interested in photography; he took it up when it was still in its infancy (1856) and was one of the best amateur photographers of his time. He ceased photographing in 1880 for unknown reasons. It is said that he didn’t like the new process of developing the photo’s but that is not certain. He enjoyed sketching or photographing little girls in the nude, because he thought their naked bodies extremely beautiful, but he only did this with their mothers’ permission and if the children were completely at ease with it. He made sure that after his death the pictures would be burned or returned to the mothers. It should be noted that all Victorian artists did studies of child-nudes, which was a trendy subject for the time. Other writings In his life Dodsgon wrote many mathematical books, but also books for children. He even wrote mathematical books especially for little children! His most important work was ‘Euclid and his modern rivals’ (1879). Some other work of his hand: ‘A syllabus of plane algebraical geometry’ (1860); ‘Guide to the mathematical student; elementary treatise on determinants’ (1867); ‘Curiosa mathematica’ (1888); ‘Symbolic logic’ (1896). For children he wrote ‘Phantasmagoria and other poems’ (1869); ‘The hunting of the snark’ (1876); ‘Rhyme? and reason?’ (1883); ‘A tangled tale’ (1885); ‘Sylvie and Bruno’ (1889); ‘Sylvie and Bruno concluded’ (1889). The Alice books made from Dodgson the most quoted author, Shakespeare and the Bible excepted. © Alice-in-Wonderland.net

Lewis Carroll

Who was the Lord Chancellor beheaded for refusing to recognize Henry VIII as head of the church?

Alice in Wonderland creator loathed fame, letter reveals | Books | The Guardian Alice in Wonderland creator loathed fame, letter reveals Charles Dodgson writes that sometimes he wishes he had never written 'Lewis Carroll' books Charles Dodgson in 1885: 'We are not all made on the same pattern.' Photograph: SSPL/Getty Images Alison Flood Close This article is 2 years old Charles Dodgson is known to have been a shy man, but the author of Alice in Wonderland so hated the fame his fiction brought him that he sometimes wished he "had never written any books at all", a letter being auctioned next month shows. The handwritten letter, which is not believed to have been published before, was sent by Dodgson to his friend Mrs Symonds in 1891. By this time, he had been known as the creator of the Alice books – which he wrote under his pseudonym Lewis Carroll – for almost 30 years; even Queen Victoria was said to be a fan. But Dodgson hated the celebrity his writing had brought him. "All that sort of publicity leads to strangers hearing of my real name in connection with the books, and to my being pointed out to, and stared at by, strangers, and treated as a 'lion'. And I hate all that so intensely that sometimes I almost wish I had never written any books at all," Dodgson told his friend. The author loathed giving out his autograph; the year before he wrote to Mrs Symonds, he had The Stranger Circular printed, a letter he would send to fans seeking his autograph in which he refused to have anything to do with works he had published as Lewis Carroll. "Mr Dodgson … neither claims nor acknowledges any connection with any pseudonym, or with any book that is not published under his own name," it ran. "Having therefore no claim to retain, or even to read the enclosed [letter], he returns it for the convenience of the writer who has thus misaddressed it." In his 9 November 1891 letter to Mrs Symonds, Dodgson does admit there are plenty of people "who like being looked at as a notoriety", and many who do not understand his aversion to being stared at. But "we are not all made on the same pattern: & our likes & dislikes are very different," he writes. The letter is due to be auctioned at Bonhams next month, and is expected to fetch up to £4,000. The auction house said there was "no indication" that the missive had previously been published; it does not appear in Dodgson's collected letters.

i don't know

Who led the Free French forces during World War II?

France during World War II France History - France during World War II   France surrendered to Nazi Germany early in World War II (June 24, 1940). Nazi Germany occupied three fifths of France's territory (Northern France and the entire French Atlantic Coast) and on July 10, 1940 established a new French government based at the town of Vichy.  This government, was commonly referred to as Vichy France and was headed by Henri Philippe Pétain, a General during World War One. Its senior leaders acquiesced in the plunder of French resources, as well as the sending of French forced labor to Nazi Germany; in doing so, they claimed they hoped to preserve at least some small amount of French sovereignty.  In the meantime, civilian anti-semites and Vichy officials aided in the concentration and persecution of Jews, in particular those of foreign citizenship. The Nazi German occupation proved costly, however, as Nazi Germany appropriated a full one-half of France's public sector revenue. On the other hand, those who refused defeat and collaboration with Nazi Germany, the Free French, organised resistance movements in occupied and Vichy France and the Free French Forces. The Free French Forces started in exile in and with the support of the UK.  They were led by Charles de Gaulle, under-secretary of state for war and national defence, whose role in the resistance was to pave the way for his immense impact on the future of France, as leader of its provisional government and first President of the French Fifth Republic. After the Allied landings in North Africa (Operation Torch) the German Army occupied southern France as well, leading to the scuttling of the French Fleet at Toulon. After four years of occupation and strife, Allied forces, including Free French Forces, liberated France in 1944.      

Charles de Gaulle

Which battle of 1876 was Custer's last stand?

6/12/2006 • World War II At first the intelligence officers at the headquarters of the French Foreign Legion in Sidi Bel Abbès, Algeria, were puzzled. The Legion had always had a large complement of Germans in its ranks, but now, in spite of the Nazis’ widespread campaign to discourage Germans from enlisting, even larger numbers were pouring in. In the late 1930s, as more and more young Germans were joining that famous fighting force, the German press was violently attacking it, and the Nazi government demanded that recruiting be stopped. Books about the Legion were publicly burned in Germany, and the violence against Legion recruiting reached comic heights when Propaganda Minister Josef Goebbels’ department claimed that innocent young Germans were being hypnotized into joining. In 1938, a professional hypnotist named Albert Zagula was actually arrested in Karlsruhe and charged with the offense. Still the Germans kept joining–until half the privates and 80 percent of the noncommissioned officers in the Legion were German. Eventually, it became evident that this influx had been orchestrated by German intelligence, the Abwehr, to destroy the Legion from within. The new German legionnaires came close to achieving the Abwehr‘s objective. The French Foreign Legion had always attracted the dispossessed of every land, and in the 1930s there were plenty of refugees throughout Europe. First there were Spaniards, the losers in that country’s civil war; then there were the Jews and others fleeing Nazi persecution; later, Czechs and Poles were added to the list as the German army began its march across Europe. These recruits did not mix well with the new Germans in the Legion. The German noncommissioned officers terrorized the non-Germans under their charge. There were frequent fights and courts-martial. The officers could not trust their own noncommissioned officers. Morale in the Legion plummeted, and there was even some talk of disbanding the entire corps. When war was declared in 1939, the situation was critical. To ease the problem, large numbers of German legionnaires were shipped off to desert outposts, and the ranks were filled with additional non-German refugees. But the French authorities still thought that there were too many Germans in the ranks, many possibly loyal Nazis, to risk sending the Legion to fight in Europe. Instead, four more foreign regiments were raised in France and trained by veteran Legion officers from North Africa. These legionnaires garrisoned the Maginot Line, the string of concrete fortresses that the French had built as their main defense against Germany. There, they remained inactive during the so-called ‘phony war, when neither the Allies nor the Germans took any serious offensive action. In spite of the general reluctance to send entire Legion units to France, the French authorities decided that something had to be done with those loyal elements of the Legion that were still marking time in North Africa and itching for a fight. In early 1940, the old Legion was given an active role. Volunteers were called for, and two battalions of 1,000 men each were assembled–one in Fez, Morocco, and the other in Sidi Bel Abbès. Volunteers for those units were carefully screened, and the only Germans left them were veteran Legionnaires of unquestioned loyalty. Those men were given new non-German names and false identity papers to protect them in case they were captured by the Germans. The two battalions were joined into the 13th Demi-Brigade (13e Demi-Brigade de la Legion Etrangere) and put under the command of Lt. Col. Magrin-Verneret, one of those military eccentrics who so often turned up in the Foreign Legion, a hard-bitten graduate of St. Cyr and a veteran of World War I. As a result of wounds received in World War I, he had physical disabilities that should long since have disqualified him from service. Severe head wounds had been crudely operated on and left him with a nasty temper, and surgery on a smashed limb had shortened one leg, causing a noticeable limp. But he was a fighter, and that was all the Legion wanted. When the 13th Demi-Brigade arrived in France, the always-blasé legionnaires showed no surprise when they were issued a strange new type of uniform–and skis. Those veterans of the desert sands were being trained to fight in Arctic snows and outfitted as mountain troops with heavy parkas, boots and snow capes. They were bound for Finland, where the Allies were aiding the Finns in their fight against the invading Soviets, who were at that time in league with the Germans. But before the Legion left France, the Finns bowed to the overwhelming power of the Soviets and accepted the enemy’s terms. The war in Finland was over. But there was another fight. Winston Churchill, then Britain’s first lord of the Admiralty, had urged the mining of the waters around neutral Norway, where the German navy was escorting convoys of iron ore shipped from neutral Sweden to supply the German war machine. At the same time, Adolf Hitler had decided that the Germans must seize Norway, not only to protect the ore shipments but as a naval base for surface raiders and U-boats. Soon fierce sea battles raged between the Royal Navy and the Kreigsmarine, and at sea the British had the upper hand. Strong British land forces were also shipped to Norway, but the Germans invaded the country. By April 1940, the Germans had occupied all of the main Norwegian west coast ports–from Narvik in the north to Kristiansand in the south and around the tip of the peninsula to Oslo, the capital. British and Norwegian forces fought hard, but without success. The British were ordered to evacuate Norway. The Allies had one more card to play. Although they had to abandon southern Norway, the Allies would attempt to wrest the northern port of Narvik from the Germans to prevent ore shipment. An amphibious assault was planned under the overall command of British Lt. Gen. Claude Auchinleck, with the protective guns of the Royal Navy and using mainly French and Polish troops. A key part of this force would be the 13th Demi-Brigade. When his subordinates asked why the 13th Demi-Brigade was going to Norway, Magrin-Verneret’s oft-quoted reply was typical of the legionnaires’ ours-is-not-to-reason-why attitude. Why? My orders are to take Narvik. Why Narvik? For the iron ore, for the anchovies, for the Norwegians? I haven’t the faintest idea. The 13th Demi-Brigade was part of a task force called the 1st Light Division, which was commanded by French General Marie Emile Béthouart. The force also included units of the French 27th Chasseurs Alpins and the Polish 1st Carpathian Demi-Brigade, a mountain corps made up of refugees from conquered Poland. There were also many Norwegian units in the area still able to fight. The plan was to sail up the series of fjords that led to the port of Narvik under the protection of the Royal Navy, which still controlled the Norwegian Sea. The 13th Demi-Brigade was to strike directly at Narvik, with its flanks guarded by the French and Polish mountain troops and the Norwegians. Opposing the legionnaires was the German garrison under General Edouard Dietl, reinforced by the 137th Gebirgsjager regiment, a veteran mountain unit hastily drilled as paratroopers and dropped into the snow-covered hills. These tough, well-trained mountain troops were as proud of their edelweiss insignia as the Legion was of its seven-flamed grenade. They would be hard to crack. Before the 13th Demi-Brigade could attack Narvik itself, the nearby village of Bjerkvik had to be taken, for the high ground behind it dominated the strategic port. On May 13, the 13th Demi-Brigade was landed on the Bjerkvik beaches. At midnight, the big guns of the British battleship Resolution, the cruisers Effingham and Vindictive and five destroyers opened up on the German defenders. Shortly thereafter, the advance troops hit the beaches in infantry and tank landing craft. It was the first time in the war that such combined operations took place in the face of enemy fire. The German reaction was severe. At first light, the Luftwaffe came out, bombing and strafing the ships and beaches. The Legion pushed on in the face of artillery and small-arms fire. Colonel Magrin-Verneret waded ashore, encouraging his legionnaires forward. For a while it was touch and go. Captain Dmitri Amilakvari, a 16-year Legion veteran who was to take a key hill, was held up by furious German fire. Then, shouting A moi la Legion! (the Legion’s traditional version of follow me) to his men, he charged up the slope. The Germans fell back before the savagery of the attack, and the hill was taken. Amilakvari pushed on to Elvenes where he met up with the Chasseurs Alpins on his flank. Bjerkvik, now a smoking ruin, and the surrounding mountains fell to the French. Then the Legion turned its attention to Narvik itself. In a repeat of the Bjerkvik attack, the port was bombarded from the sea while Allied troops poured over the surrounding mountains. Once again the Luftwaffe appeared and bombed the attacking warships, but Royal Air Force Hawker Hurricane fighters arrived on the scene in the nick of time and cleared the sky of German aircraft. On May 28, the 13th Demi-Brigade marched into Narvik and found the town deserted. The Germans had fled. For the next few days, the legionnaires pursued the retreating enemy through the snow-covered mountains toward the Swedish border in sub-zero temperatures. Their aim was to capture Dietl and what was left of his troops or force them over the border into Swedish internment. They were just 10 miles from Sweden when they were ordered to return to France. A few weeks earlier the Germans had begun their invasion of the Low Countries, and the phony war was over. All the troops and equipment in Norway were needed in the defense of France. The 13th Demi-Brigade embarked for Brest happy with its victory, the first Allied success of the war, but disgusted that it had not been permitted to finish the job. Meanwhile, those hastily raised Foreign Legion regiments at the Maginot Line were getting a baptism of fire. Much has been written of the defeat of the French army in 1940, but little is heard of the heroism of many of its beleagured units. One of those heroic units was the 11th Foreign Legion Infantry (REI). The regiment was a cadre of tough legionnaires from North Africa and recent foreign volunteers enlisted in Europe, reinforced by a battalion of unwilling French draftees. The Frenchmen disliked being thrown in with the infamous Foreign Legion, and the result was not pleasant. In training during the phony war period there was much drunkenness, fighting and courts-martial, but when the German panzers broke through in May, the dissension among the 11th REI’s elements disappeared. While other French regiments were caught up in the panic, turned tail and ran before the overwhelming terror of the German tanks and Junkers Ju-87 Stuka dive bombers, the 11th REI stood firm. During two weeks of hard fighting, they held off their attackers while other French units retreated around them. Finally, almost totally surrounded, they were forced to fall back. Colonel Jean-Baptiste Robert burned the regimental standard and buried its tassel, which was later dug up and returned to the Legion. There were only 450 men of the original 3,000 left to return to North Africa with the 11th REI after the armistice. The 97th Foreign Legion Divisional Reconnaissance Group (GERD 97) also attained glory during the 1940 debacle. It was probably the only all-veteran North African outfit of the Legion regiments in France. GERD 97 had been organized from the 1st Foreign Legion Cavalry Regiment, the Legion horse cavalry outfit that had been raised in Africa in the 1920s from the remnants of White Russian General Baron Pyotr Wrangel’s cavalry, which had been all but destroyed in the civil war against the Bolsheviks. Mechanized and outfitted with obsolete armored cars, GERD 97 carried out reconnaissance missions, but its scouting days came to an end when it ran into the powerful German Mark III tanks. In typical Legion style, GERD 97 threw itself against those monsters without hesitation, fighting rear-guard actions to cover the retreating French. GERD 97 managed to survive until June 9, when a final, suicidal charge against the panzers left all the Legion vehicles burning. There were no known survivors. The 13th Demi-Brigade returned to France from Norway, sailing into the harbor at Brest on June 13, almost at the same time the Germans were marching into Paris. Colonel Magrin-Verneret was ordered to form a line as part of the proposed last-ditch Breton Redoubt, but it was no use. The Germans had broken through. While on a forward reconnaissance mission to determine what could be done to delay the enemy, Magrin-Verneret and some of his officers became separated from the main body of the 13th Demi-Brigade, and when they returned to Brest they could not find any trace of the unit. The reconnaissance party assumed that the main body had been over-run, and the colonel determined that he and his companions should try to get to England, where the British planned to fight on. Every boat seemed to have been taken over by fleeing British and French troops, but the Legion officers finally found a launch that took them to Southampton. Miraculously, most of the 13th Demi-Brigade had already found a way to get there. On June 18 General Charles de Gaulle, now himself a refugee in England, announced: France has lost a battle, but France has not lost the war! Magrin-Verneret immediately offered the services of the 13th Demi-Brigade to the new Free French movement, and soon they were in training at Trentham Park Camp near Stoke-on-Trent. On June 25, the French­German­Italian armistice was signed. The men of the 13th Demi-Brigade were given a choice: fight on with de Gaulle, or return to North Africa, which was now under the control of Marshal Henri Philippe Petain’s newly formed Vichy government. The 1st Battalion, strongly influenced by Captain Amilakvari, elected to stay with de Gaulle. The 2nd Battalion went back to Morocco and was disbanded. The French Foreign Legion, like the rest of the French empire, was now sharply divided. The 13th Demi-Brigade had given its allegiance to the Free French, while the rest of the Legion, scattered throughout North Africa, Syria and Indochina, remained under the thumb of the Vichy government, which meant being under the sharp watch of the German Armistice Commission. The Germans demanded that the men they had planted in the Legion be returned to the Reich, and the Legion was not sorry to see them go. But the commission had other, not so welcome demands. They had lists of refugee Jews, Germans, Poles, Czechs, Italians and others who they wanted back, to send to concentration camps. There were many men in the French army in North Africa, particularly in the Legion, who had no sympathy for the Vichy government and hated the Germans. Besides, the Legion had a reputation for taking care of its own. Its intelligence system usually discovered the Armistice Commission’s visits well in advance and knew the names of the legionnaires on the lists. The wanted legionnaires were given with new names, new papers and new identity discs. When the Germans came too close, the refugees would be transferred to far-off Saharan outposts where the commission seldom took the trouble to visit. Part of the armistice agreement required that French forces surrender all but the most basic weapons. The Legion defied this order and buried or otherwise secreted in remote areas much of its more useful materiel. Many of the Legion’s officers and men in North Africa would have liked to join de Gaulle’s forces, but outright desertion did not appeal to them and surrounding mountains and desert prevented them from reaching the Free French in any great numbers. The Legion units in North Africa simply had to bide their time. The two elements of the Legion even took on a different appearance. The main body in North Africa still wore the French army prewar uniform–a baggy tunic and breeches with ancient roll puttees–while the Free French wore British-style battle dress or tropical shorts, plus occasional odds and ends left over from the Norwegian campaign. Both Vichy and Free French Legionnaires wore the traditional white kepi of the Legion and displayed its grenade insignia. The Vichy Legion in North Africa was not only constantly harassed by the Armistice Commission but was short of weapons, gasoline and sometimes even food and tobacco. Legion strength fell to less than 10,000 men, and the Germans continually urged the Vichy authorities to disband it altogether. Morale was at rock bottom, and the rate of desertions and suicides was rising. The 13th Demi-Brigade, on the other hand, was refitted, and new members were added to its ranks. The 13th Demi-Brigade’s first adventure with de Gaulle was a failure. A battalion under Dmitri Amilakvari, now a lieutenant colonel, left Britain on June 28 bound for Dakar, the principal port of French West Africa. It was part of a large convoy escorted by British and French warships, and the battalion was on the same headquarters ship as de Gaulle himself. The French general’s plan was to talk this important colony into supporting the Free French cause and becoming the base for all future operations. But de Gaulle had miscalculated. The governor general of the colony, Pierre Boisson, was loyal to the Vichy government, and a brief but violent naval engagement ensued. Not wanting to risk his ground troops, of which the Legion battalion was a major part, de Gaulle decided not to try an amphibious assault on the heavily fortified port. Bitterly disappointed, he ordered the convoy to sail down the African coast to Douala in the Cameroons, which was already on the Free French side. For months, the 13th Demi-Brigade marked time in the Cameroons while the Allied authorities decided where to send it next. Then in December, the two battalions– reunited under Colonel Magrin-Verneret, now called Colonel Monclar–left on a long sea journey around the Cape of Good Hope, up the east coast of Africa and into the Red Sea. On January 14, the Legionnaires disembarked at Port Sudan, then British territory. A rail trip took them into the desert where they were to prepare to serve as an adjunct to the main British force in an attack on Italian Eritrea. Just south of the Sudan, Eritrea was mostly stark desert. Lieutenant John F. Halsey, an American newly commissioned in the Legion, described the days of training that followed. Sand and heat nagged and plagued us. The air was hot and dry and the sun was merciless. It burned and scorched necks and the exposed skin between the bottoms of shorts and the tops of socks. It glared on desert sand, on the rocky shale bare of vegetation, on the hills. There was no shade. That was how it appeared to a new officer, but to many of the Legion veterans, it seemed like old times. Halsey noted that his men broke into cliques and gathered in circles on the sand at various halts, stretching out, apparently unmindful of the sun and sand. They bore up under the training easily. Had Halsey been with the Legion longer, perhaps he would not have been so surprised. The Eritrean campaign turned out to be a triumph for the 13th Demi-Brigade, but not an easy one. The first Italians they met–in the mountains around Keren–were tough, determined Alpini who resisted the legionnaires with skill and courage. It took several days of hard fighting before the Italians broke and surrendered in large numbers. The Legion seized nearly 1,000 prisoners. After the battle at Keren, the Legion was off to Massawa, the chief Red Sea port of Eritrea and the last principal city in the country to hold out against the Allies. The outskirts of Massawa were protected by a series of fortifications, dominated by Fort Victor Emanuele. After British artillery heavily bombarded the fort, the 13th Demi-Brigade was ordered to take it. First, the legionnaires had to clean out–with bayonet and grenade–Italian machine-gun emplacements in the surrounding hills. Then they scaled the walls of the fort. When the legionnaires gained the fort the defenders, who up to that point had resisted fiercely, lost heart and surrendered. On the afternoon of April 10, 1941, Colonel Monclar and two truckloads of legionnaires entered Massawa. Eritrea was now wholly in Allied hands. After the French army was routed in the Battle of France, the Allies had been somewhat skeptical of the abilities of some French military units. After Keren and Massawa, that attitude changed, and when the situation in Syria became serious, the British did not hesitate to seek the aid of French troops. Syria and Lebanon, the lands known as the Levant, had been under French mandate since World War I. The British had tried to avoid any armed conflict with the Vichy forces that controlled the region. Those forces had variously been estimated at between 35,000 and 80,000 strong, all under the command of General Henri Dentz. Among those forces was the 6th REI, the tough, desert-hardened Foreign Legion regiment that had garrisoned Syria for many years. The Levant was of extreme strategic importance. German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel was threatening Egypt from the west, and if German forces penetrated the Levant, the Suez Canal and the Middle East, with its vital oil, would be menaced. The Germans were demanding the use of ports and airfields in Syria and Lebanon, and the Vichy French were complying. The Allies could not tolerate this. On Sunday, June 8, 1941, a hastily assembled Allied force of about four divisions crossed the Palestine and Jordan borders into Syria. The polyglot army, including British, Australian and Indian troops and a Jewish contingent from Palestine, was later joined by the Free French. The French complement was itself a colorful mixture. Centered around the 13th Demi-Brigade, it was composed of French Marine infantry, Senegalese Tirailleurs, North African spahis and a cavalry unit of Cherkesses. The latter were refugee Circassian Muslims who in past years had fled from czarist persecution and settled in Syria. Led by Frenchmen, they had deserted the Vichy authorities en masse, crossed into Jordan and joined the Free French forces. Dressed in colorful Cossacklike uniforms, they were expert horsemen and fierce fighters. As he had at Dakar, de Gaulle hoped that the Vichy regime in Syria would turn its coat and join the Free French, but it was not to be. Dentz obeyed his orders from Vichy France and resisted the invasion. The battle for Syria was sad for all the French forces, but particularly so for the soldiers of the Foreign Legion. Not only was it Frenchman against Frenchman, but in the case of the 13th Demi-Brigade, it was the Free French Legion against the Vichy Legion. For a military unit whose motto was Legio Nostra Patria, the Legion is our country, it was a family fight. The Free French Legionnaires crossed into Syria from Palestine in the only transport that could be scraped together, a bunch of rickety civilian trucks, cars and buses that kept breaking down at various inopportune moments. The 13th Demi-Brigade, along with elements of the 7th Australian Division, was given the objective of taking Damascus. The march was similar in many ways to the Eritrean experience. Suffocating heat, blowing sand, burning sun, shortages of water all made the march sheer hell–the Legion was in its element. After several days in the desert, the 13th Demi-Brigade reached the hilly country near Damascus, where the fighting began in earnest. The Legion had no air support and no anti-aircraft artillery, and Vichy French planes took a heavy toll. The Legion was bereft of any effective anti-tank weapons, and it appeared they would be overrun by the Vichy tanks, but at the last moment Free French World War I-vintage 75mm artillery came to the rescue, firing point-blank and destroying the tanks. Furious infantry fighting erupted all along the line as the Legion slowly advanced toward Damascus. On the outskirts of the city, the 13th Demi-Brigade met its brother legionnaires of the Vichy 6th REI face to face. The 13th Demi-Brigade hesitated–were the other legionnaires friends or enemies? They stared at each other for what seemed to be a very long time. Finally, the 13th sent out a patrol. As it approached the Vichy outpost, the Vichys turned out a guard who smartly presented arms–then took the patrol prisoner! It was a typically Legionlike gesture, a demonstration of respect from one legionnaire to another. It was also the signal to begin the fight, and attack was followed by counterattack, bayonet charge by grenade assault. In the end, the Vichyites were overpowered, and the 6th REI fell back. On July 21, the 13th Demi-Brigade, battered, bloody and exhausted, marched into Damascus in triumph. There was more heavy fighting before all the Vichy forces in the Levant capitulated. An armistice, signed on July 14, gave the Vichy troops the opportunity to join the Free French. About 1,000 survivors of the 6th Regiment came over to the 13th Demi-Brigade, enough to form a third battalion. The dead of both sides were buried together. That battle was the end of the division in the Legion that had begun with the Nazi infiltration just before the war. The Syrian affair was the last time the Legion was at war with itself. Legion units made a token resistance to the American invasion of North Africa in November 1942, but they soon turned about and marched against the Germans in Tunisia. By that time, the 13th Demi-Brigade had joined the British Eighth Army to defeat the Axis forces and chase Rommel out of Egypt and across North Africa. Rearmed and equipped by the U.S. Army, Legion units fought the Germans in Tunisia, Italy and France. By war’s end, the triumphant notes of the Boudin, the Legion’s marching song, could be heard from the banks of the Danube to the French Alps.   This article was written by Edward L. Bimberg and originally appeared in the September ’97 issue of World War II magazine. For more great articles subscribe to World War II magazine today!

i don't know

Which actor, comedian and singer was born David Daniel Kaminski?

Danny Kaye - Film Actor, Theater Actor, Television Actor, Comedian, Dancer, Singer, Philanthropist, Television Personality - Biography.com “Life is a big canvas; throw all the paint you want at it.” “I became an entertainer not because I wanted to but because I was meant to.” —Danny Kaye Synopsis Danny Kaye was born on January 18, 1911 in Brooklyn, New York. He made his Broadway debut in The Straw Hat Review in 1939. In the 1940s and '50s, he appeared in musicals and other films. During the 1960s, he had his own TV show. Throughout the 1970s, Kaye focused mainly on charity work. He took a few TV roles in the 1980s, before dying of a heart attack on March 3, 1987 in Los Angeles, California. Early Life Entertainer Danny Kaye was born as David Daniel Kaminsky in Brooklyn, New York on January 18, 1911. According to his web site , Kaye's "actual year of birth was 1911, but the birthday he celebrated was 1913." Kaye was his parents' youngest child; he had two older brothers. His father, Jacob Kaminski, and his mother, Clara Nemerovky, were Ukrainian Jewish immigrants. Jacob, a former horse trainer, worked as a tailor while Kaye and his brothers were growing up. When Kaye was 13 years old, he dropped out of high school to take a stab at show biz stardom. Partnered up with a guitarist friend, Kaye hit the road, but before long he abandoned the unsuccessful tour and went home to Brooklyn. There he worked a string of odd jobs–ranging from soda jerk to office clerk, failing miserably in most positions. After he made a costly error as an insurance appraiser and was fired on the spot, Kaye reconsidered forging a career in show business. "I became an entertainer not because I wanted to but because I was meant to," Kaye would later say of his seemingly inevitable career path. Career in Entertainment While still a teen, Kaye found employment as a comedian and general entertainer in the Catskill Mountains. Working his way through the "Borscht Belt" of Jewish resort venues, Kaye left his audiences roaring with laughter. In 1933, Kaye was invited to join a vaudeville act called the "Three Terpsichoreans." He switched from his given name, David Daniel Kaminsky, to his stage name, Danny Kaye, around the time that the group toured Asia. Throughout the 1930s, Kaye persistently worked to make a name for himself in show business, while collaborating with song writer-composer Sylvia Fine. In 1939, he got his big break with a Broadway debut in The Straw Hat Review. Later that year, he achieved his goal of stardom with a crowd-pleasing performance of the silly, nonsensical song "Tchaikovsky" in Lady in the Dark. It was a time of great milestones for Kaye; in 1940, he married Sylvia Fine and she became his manager. During WWII, Kaye supported the troops by performing overseas, in New York nightclubs and on Broadway. In 1944, he accepted a movie contract with Samuel Goldwyn and subsequently appeared in a string of popular Technicolor musicals, including the hit film The Secret Life of Walter Mitty. He is also starred on his own wildly popular variety show on CBS Radio from 1945 to 1946. Kaye made more movies in the 1950s, including the seasonal classic White Christmas (1954) with Bing Crosby and Rosemary Clooney, but his popularity as a film star gradually began to taper off as the decade wound down. In the 1960s, he transitioned to the small screen with TV specials and, eventually, his own series, The Danny Kaye Show, which ran from 1963 to 1967. Always a social activist, Kaye served as ambassador at large for the United Nations Children's Fund in the 1950s. During the 1970s, as his show biz career was lagging, he devoted most of his time to charitable causes. In the early 1980s, Kaye made occasional TV appearances, including on sitcoms like The Cosby Show, and a dramatic made-for-TV movie about a holocaust survivor, Skokie (1981). Skokie marked one of only a few dramatic roles that the comedic performer played during his lifetime. Death and Legacy Kaye died of heart failure in Los Angeles, California on March 3, 1987. Through his lively singing, dancing, impersonations and improvisations, Kaye achieved enormous popularity in equal parts on the stage, across radio waves, and on both TV and movie screens. Fact Check We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us ! Citation Information

Danny Kaye

What nationality was the spy Mata Hari?

Attention:You are browsing our famous burial locations. If you are looking for a non-famous grave, please start from our home page .     b. January 18, 1911  d. March 3, 1987 Actor, Comic, Humanitarian. His multi-talents led him to success in every facet of show business. Danny Kaye excelled at comedy, impersonation, acting and singing both popular and classical music. His career lasted for over fifty years, from acting on stage in the Catskills to Broadway, early radio and then television. His parents were Russian immigrants and he was born David Daniel Kaminski in Brooklyn the third son and the only one born in the United States. He attended P.S.149, then Thomas... [Read More] (Bio by: Donald Greyfield ) Cause of death: Hepatitis     b. January 6, 1912  d. February 6, 1991 Actor, Singer, Producer. His career began as a nightclub comedian with a brief fling in the movies. His greatest success was achieved in television starring in long run sitcom's then a producer responsible for such shows as...Andy Griffith Show, The Dick Van Dyke Show, Gomer Pyle and the Mod Squad. However, his show business career pales in comparison to his role as Humanitarian. As a young man, he embraced as his patron saint, St Jude Thaddeus, one attributed to lost or impossible causes... [Read More] (Bio by: Donald Greyfield (inactive) ) Plot: Danny and Rose Marie Thomas Memorial Garden GPS coordinates: 35.1526413, -90.0442429 (hddd.dddd)       b. August 29, 1913  d. October 28, 1991 Composer. Born and raised in Brooklyn, New York, she made her Broadway debut as the co-composer of the music and lyrics for the �Straw Hat Review� in 1939. Doubling as the audition pianist she met Danny Kaye, who also made his debut in the same show. The pair married in 1940. Fine took a direct role in managing her husband's career, and taking advantage of Kaye�s particular vocal talents, she was responsible for the creation of his signature material including, �Anatole of Paris� and the tongue... [Read More] (Bio by: Iola )     b. January 9, 1924  d. February 17, 2007 Musician. Born Mary Kaaihue, she was descended from the Hawaiian royalty of Queen Liliuokalani, Hawaii's last reigning monarch. The daughter of singer Johnny "Ukulele" Kaaihue, she was an accomplished guitarist by age ten. In the early 1950s, she headed the "Mary Kaye Trio" made up of brother Norman Kaye and Frank Ross. The group began playing at Las Vegas' Frontier Casino Hotel and was a main attraction of the Las Vegas night scene. She is credited, along with Louis Prima as a founder of the... [Read More] (Bio by: John "J-Cat" Griffith ) Cause of death: Heart failure Smith, Lester M.     b. October 21, 1919  d. October 24, 2012 Professional Sports Owner, Businessman. He was one of the original owners of the Seattle Mariners Baseball Club, along with actor/comedian Danny Kaye . A graduate of New York University, he joined the United States Army during the Second World War, serving in George S. Patton's armored tank division in North Africa, Italy and France. During the late... [Read More] (Bio by: Nils M. Solsvik Jr. ) * Find A Grave is currently seeking additional burial information for this individual. Please email with any updates you may have. Thank you!       b. March 13, 1910  d. June 2, 1987 Orchestra Leader. Born Samuel Zarnocay Jr. of Slovak immigrant parents. Samuel excelled in athletics and upon graduation in 1928 from High School received a track scholarship to Ohio University as state low-hurdles champ. He formed a band to earn revenue to pay his way through Ohio University. Samuel Zarnocay became Sammy Kaye, as his band was a regular at a small nickel-a-dance ballroom in the basement of Logan's Book Store located at the gate of the campus. At college, he made the... [Read More] Plot: Section 4 Lot 352 Grave 4   Rapp, Danny     b. May 10, 1941  d. April 5, 1983 Rock/Doo-Wop Musician. A native of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Rapp was the lead singer of the popular 1950s musical group, 'Danny & The Juniors.' The group was formed in a high school in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1955, and besides Rapp included, Frank Maffei, Lennie Baker, Dave White Tricker, Joe Terranova, and Bill Carlucci. Originally known as 'The Juvenairs' the group choreographed their own dance moves, and often performed at after school gigs and local area shows. In 1957, the group... [Read More] (Bio by: K ) Plot: Section N, Lot 36, Path 1 Grave 7   Lockin, Danny     b. July 13, 1943  d. August 21, 1977 Actor and Murder Victim. Danny appeared in "Hello Dolly" as 'Barnaby' and numerous television shows. He also appeared on "Dean Martin presents the Golddiggers." On August 21, 1977, Danny had competed on "The Gong Show." He lived in Orange County and worked for his mother's dance studio at the time. He went to a bar in Garden Grove, California, for a drink. Danny was found murdered in the apartment of Charles Hopkins who had stabbed him 100 times. Police found a "torture diary" under Hopkins'... [Read More] (Bio by: Graving Queen of the OC ) Plot: Block 29, Section 219, Grave 4   Kaye, M. (Mary Margaret) M.     b. August 21, 1908  d. January 30, 2004 Author Mary Margaret Kaye (Hamilton) was born in Simla, India and spent a great part of her life there. Her most famous book, "The Far Pavillions," was set there and has been described as an 'Indian Gone With The Wind.' Among her other works are "Shadow of The Moon" and "The Sun In The Morning." She passed away at her home in Lavenham, England. (Bio by: Kelly Whyte ) Cremated , Ashes scattered , Ashes scattered in Lake Piccola in Udaipur, India.       b. March 21, 1911  d. December 9, 2004 Actress, Best Selling Author. Wife of actor Jim Backus . Best known for her role as 'Cora Dithers' in the 1968 sitcom "Blondie," which co-starred her husband. She also appeared with her husband in a second season episode of "Gilligan�s Island." The pair appeared in several films together including "Don�t Make Waves," "Hello Down There," "Meet Me In Las Vegas" and "The Great Man." Mrs. Backus made her Broadway debut under... [Read More] (Bio by: The Perplexed Historian ) Cause of death: Series of strokes GPS coordinates: 34.0581856, -118.4415131 (hddd.dddd)       b. August 3, 1913  d. November 26, 2007 Screenwriter. After serving in the Canadian Army during World War II, he began to write for Danny Kaye, Danny Thomas, Bob Hope and many other comedians. He got his start in the early days of television co-writing with Lucille Kallen for "The Sid Caesar Show" and "Your Show of Shows". In 1967, he won the Screenwriter's Emmy for "Your Show of Shows Revisited". He was also Emmy-nominated for "Caesar's Hour," "All In The Family" and "Love, Sidney." In addition to writing for "All in the Family" for... [Read More] (Bio by: John "J-Cat" Griffith ) Plot: Columbarium of Equality FF 503     b. January 17, 1920  d. February 28, 1987 Ballerina. Married to director, Herbert Ross. Plot: Section D, Lot 36 GPS coordinates: 34.0591316, -118.4415588 (hddd.dddd)     b. April 25, 1916  d. February 3, 1998 Carry On cast member. * Find A Grave is currently seeking additional burial information for this individual. Please email with any updates you may have. Thank you!   Kaye (Smith), Darwood (Darwood Kenneth)     b. September 8, 1929  d. May 15, 2002 Actor. Fondly remembered for playing the role of 'Waldo' in many "Our Gang" comedy shorts. He became a respected pastor later in life. He was killed by a hit-and-run driver while out walking on a Riverside, California sidewalk. (Bio by: A.J. Marik ) Plot: Garden of Devotion section, Lot 681, Space B       b. August 26, 1946  d. December 29, 1995 Actress. Born in Chicago, Illinois, she started professionally in the 1970s dancing with the Ernie Flatt Dancers on television's "The Carol Burnett Show". As a dancer, she appeared in the films as "Funny Lady" (1975) and "Pennies From Heaven" (1981). She also worked as a choreographer on stage productions at various theme parks throughout the U.S., including Disneyland. She died in Los Angeles, California. (Bio by: John "J-Cat" Griffith ) Butterworth, George Sainton Kaye [cenotaph]    b. July 12, 1885  d. August 5, 1916 Composer, Musicologist. He was a key figure of England's Folk Revival of the early 1900s, and his music was inspired by the sights and sounds of the English countryside. He is best known for his haunting vocal settings of A.E. Houseman's poetry, "Six Songs from 'A Shropshire Lad'" (1911) and "Bredon Hill and Other Songs" (1912), and for the exquisite orchestral miniature "Banks of Green Willow" (1913). Butterworth was born in London into a prosperous family, and raised in Yorkshire. He attended... [Read More] (Bio by: Bobb Edwards ) Plot: Panel Number: Pier and Face 14A and 15C   Elhardt, Kaye Valerie     b. August 28, 1935  d. September 1, 2004 Actress. She was a beautiful leading lady best known for appearing in over fifty television series (1956-70. She was a regular on the series �Perry Mason�, �Maverick�, �Surfside 6�, �77 Sunset Strip�, �Hawaiian Eye�, �My Three Sons� and many more. For feature films, her credits included �The Crimson Kimono� (1959), �Stump Run� (1959), �Violent Midnight� (1963), �Navy vs. the Night Monsters� (1966) and �The Billion Dollar Hobo� (1977). (Bio by: John "J-Cat" Griffith ) Plot: Abbey of the Psalms, Sanctuary of Memories, B-238 (outside)       b. October 8, 1917  d. December 2, 1976 Major League Baseball Player, Manager. Played Major League Baseball as a 2nd Baseman for 9 seasons (1941 to 1943, 1946 to 1951) with the Philadelphia Phillies, Boston Braves and Pittsburgh Pirates. A great fielding, no-hit infielder whose gritty determination allowed him to play longer that his natural skills would have carried him, he led the National League in Stolen Bases (18), as a Rookie in 1941 with the Phillies while hitting only .219. Played as the Phils regular 2nd baseman in 1942 and... [Read More] (Bio by: Russ Dodge ) Cause of death: Stroke Plot: Section 9, Range 67, Lot 137, 3rd from curb       b. December 19, 1939  d. June 13, 2004 Actor. A voice actor, he was the voice of the NBC television network and countless other clients. Known as "Danny Dark," for years he served as the spokesman or voice for Budweiser, RCA, Chevrolet, Kmart, AT&T, Texaco, Whitman's Candies and Keebler Cookies. He was also the voice-over announcer for the television show "Bonanza" and had numerous roles in the cartoon series "Super Friends." He started his career in radio in 1956 in Springfield, Missouri. He worked for two Tulsa radio stations in... [Read More] (Bio by: Joe Walker )

i don't know

"Who said: ""The customer is always right""?"

'The customer is always right' - the meaning and origin of this phrase Search | Phrase Dictionary | The customer is always right The customer is always right Famous Last Words Browse phrases beginning with: The customer is always right Meaning The trading policy that states a company's keenness to be seen to put the customer first. Origin Several retail concern used this as a slogan from the early 20th century onward. In the USA it is particularly associated with Marshall Field's department store, Chicago (established in the late 19th century). The store is an icon of the city, although it is set to lose its name in 2006 when, following a takeover, it becomes renamed as Macy's. In the UK, Harry Gordon Selfridge (1857-1947) the founder of London's Selfridges store (opened in 1909), is credited with championing its use. The Wisconsin born Selfridge worked for Field from 1879 to 1901. Both men were dynamic and creative businessmen and it's highly likely that one of them coined the phrase, although we don't know which. Of course, these entrepreneurs didn't intend to be taken literally. What they were attempting to do was to make the customer feel special by inculcating into their staff the disposition to behave as if the customer was right, even when they weren't. The trading policy and the phrase were well-known by the early 20th century. From the Kansas City Star, January 1911 we have a piece about a local country store that was modelled on Field's/Selfridges: [George E.] "Scott has done in the country what Marshall Field did in Chicago, Wannamaker did in New York and Selfridge in London. In his store he follows the Field rule and assumes that the customer is always right." Whether the phrase was coined by Field or Selfridge it is fair to call it American. What we can't do is credit them with the idea behind it. In 1908 César Ritz (1850-1918), the celebrated French hotelier is credited with saying 'Le client n'a jamais tort' - 'The customer is never wrong'. That's not the phrase that people now remember, but it can hardly be said to be any different in meaning to 'the customer is always right'.

Harry Gordon Selfridge

"What pen name was used by the Spanish orator Dolores Ibarruri, who said ""It is better to die on your feet than to live on your knees""?"

Top 5 reasons why "The Customer Is Always Right" is wrong - The Chief Happiness Officer Blog The Chief Happiness Officer Blog Alexander 493 Comments When the customer isn’t right – for your business One woman who frequently flew on Southwest, was constantly disappointed with every aspect of the company’s operation. In fact, she became known as the “Pen Pal” because after every flight she wrote in with a complaint. She didn’t like the fact that the company didn’t assign seats; she didn’t like the absence of a first-class section; she didn’t like not having a meal in flight; she didn’t like Southwest’s boarding procedure; she didn’t like the flight attendants’ sporty uniforms and the casual atmosphere. Her last letter, reciting a litany of complaints, momentarily stumped Southwest’s customer relations people. They bumped it up to Herb’s [Kelleher, CEO of Southwest] desk, with a note: ‘This one’s yours.’ In sixty seconds, Kelleher wrote back and said, ‘Dear Mrs. Crabapple, We will miss you. Love, Herb.'” The phrase “The customer is always right” was originally coined by Harry Gordon Selfridge, the founder of Selfridge’s department store in London in 1909, and is typically used by businesses to: Convince customers that they will get good service at this company Convince employees to give customers good service Fortunately more and more businesses are abandoning this maxim – ironically because it leads to bad customer service. Here are the top five reasons why “The customer is always right” is wrong. 1: It makes employees unhappy Gordon Bethune is a brash Texan (as is Herb Kelleher, coincidentally) who is best known for turning Continental Airlines around “From Worst to First,” a story told in his book of the same title from 1998. He wanted to make sure that both customers and employees liked the way Continental treated them, so he made it very clear that the maxim “the customer is always right” didn’t hold sway at Continental. In conflicts between employees and unruly customers he would consistently side with his people. Here’s how he puts it: When we run into customers that we can’t reel back in, our loyalty is with our employees. They have to put up with this stuff every day. Just because you buy a ticket does not give you the right to abuse our employees . . . We run more than 3 million people through our books every month. One or two of those people are going to be unreasonable, demanding jerks. When it’s a choice between supporting your employees, who work with you every day and make your product what it is, or some irate jerk who demands a free ticket to Paris because you ran out of peanuts, whose side are you going to be on? You can’t treat your employees like serfs. You have to value them . . . If they think that you won’t support them when a customer is out of line, even the smallest problem can cause resentment. So Bethune trusts his people over unreasonable customers. What I like about this attitude is that it balances employees and customers, where the “always right” maxim squarely favors the customer – which is not a good idea, because, as Bethune says, it causes resentment among employees. Of course there are plenty of examples of bad employees giving lousy customer service. But trying to solve this by declaring the customer “always right” is counter-productive. 2: It gives abrasive customers an unfair advantage Using the slogan “The customer is always right” abusive customers can demand just about anything – they’re right by definition, aren’t they? This makes the employees’ job that much harder, when trying to rein them in. Also, it means that abusive people get better treatment and conditions than nice people. That always seemed wrong to me, and it makes much more sense to be nice to the nice customers to keep them coming back. 3: Some customers are bad for business Most businesses think that “the more customers the better”. But some customers are quite simply bad for business. Danish IT service provider ServiceGruppen proudly tell this story: One of our service technicians arrived at a customer’s site for a maintenance task, and to his great shock was treated very rudely by the customer. When he’d finished the task and returned to the office, he told management about his experience. They promptly cancelled the customer’s contract. Just like Kelleher dismissed the irate lady who kept complaining (but somehow also kept flying on Southwest), ServiceGruppen fired a bad customer. Note that it was not even a matter of a financial calculation – not a question of whether either company would make or lose money on that customer in the long run. It was a simple matter of respect and dignity and of treating their employees right. 4: It results in worse customer service Rosenbluth International, a corporate travel agency, took it even further. CEO Hal Rosenbluth wrote an excellent book about their approach called Put The Customer Second – Put your people first and watch’em kick butt . Rosenbluth argues that when you put the employees first, they put the customers first. Put employees first, and they will be happy at work. Employees who are happy at work give better customer service because: They care more about other people, including customers They have more energy They are happy, meaning they are more fun to talk to and interact with They are more motivated On the other hand, when the company and management consistently side with customers instead of with employees, it sends a clear message that: Employees are not valued That treating employees fairly is not important That employees have no right to respect from customers That employees have to put up with everything from customers When this attitude prevails, employees stop caring about service. At that point, real good service is almost impossible – the best customers can hope for is fake good service. You know the kind I mean: corteous on the surface only. 5: Some customers are just plain wrong Herb Kelleher agrees, as this passage From Nuts! the excellent book about Southwest Airlines shows: Herb Kelleher […] makes it clear that his employees come first — even if it means dismissing customers. But aren’t customers always right? “No, they are not,” Kelleher snaps. “And I think that’s one of the biggest betrayals of employees a boss can possibly commit. The customer is sometimes wrong. We don’t carry those sorts of customers. We write to them and say, ‘Fly somebody else. Don’t abuse our people.'” If you still think that the customer is always right, read this story from Bethune’s book “From Worst to First”: A Continental flight attendant once was offended by a passenger’s child wearing a hat with Nazi and KKK emblems on it. It was pretty offensive stuff, so the attendant went to the kid’s father and asked him to put away the hat. “No,” the guy said. “My kid can wear what he wants, and I don’t care who likes it.” The flight attendant went into the cockpit and got the first officer, who explained to the passenger the FAA regulation that makes it a crime to interfere with the duties of a crew member. The hat was causing other passengers and the crew discomfort, and that interfered with the flight attendant’s duties. The guy better put away the hat. He did, but he didn’t like it. He wrote many nasty letters. We made every effort to explain our policy and the federal air regulations, but he wasn’t hearing it. He even showed up in our executive suite to discuss the matter with me. I let him sit out there. I didn’t want to see him and I didn’t want to listen to him. He bought a ticket on our airplane, and that means we’ll take him where he wants to go. But if he’s going to be rude and offensive, he’s welcome to fly another airline. The fact is that some customers are just plain wrong, that businesses are better of without them, and that managers siding with unreasonable customers over employees is a very bad idea, that results in worse customer service. So put your people first. And watch them put the customers first. UPDATE: Digg “One of the consistent back up statements of “The Customer is Always Right” is the amount of dollars it costs to replace a customer. It costs more to replace a customer than to retain one most times. However, it also costs a lot more to recruit, hire, and train a new employee than it does to keep one happy.” AdultDVDTalk (huh?) “Unfortunately though, most companies in the customer service arena no longer even teach the basics of customer service. They just assume that it is a common-sense thing. Having spent 20 years interviewing job applicants, I can also say that there is no such thing as common sense! Just take a look at the high school and college grads showing up for job interviews in jeans and tee-shirts or chewing gum…or my favorite was the young lady who excused herself to answer her cell phone and carry on a brief but totally unnecessary conversation!” Reddit “On a very, very small number of occasions in my various service roles over the years, I’ve asked customers to leave the establishment because they were incorribly belligerent, hostile and abusive, and flat-out refused to accept any attempt to satisfy them. In these cases, the people were shopping for a fight rather than a commodity.” If you liked this post, there’s a good chance you’ll also enjoy: And if you want more great tips and ideas you should check out our newsletter about happiness at work . It's great and it's free :-) Share this: July 12, 2006 at 7:49 pm In “ Losing My Virginity “, Richard Branson outlined his philosophy of taking care of his employees first, so they would take care of his customers. It was counter-intuitive and yet made so much sense to me. You can’t force good customer service. An employee must have an intrinsic desire to do the right thing on behalf of the company, and the only way to encourage that intrinsic desire is to treat employees right! Jason says: July 18, 2006 at 1:06 am This fact was never more apparent to me than when I compared my job as a camp counsellor teaching sailing to my job as a sales clerk at Wal-Mart. Teaching sailing, I never had problems with my kids, since I had the full authority and trust of my managers behind me… I had more troublesome *adults* at Wal-Mart because they have been led to believe they could act like children whenever they pleased, and there was nothing I could do about it since management would invariably side with the customer. Guess what job I liked more and worked harder at? Chaz says: July 18, 2006 at 1:06 am A moment of truth for this philosophy comes for those firms with a small number of clients holding a large percentage of the revenue. You cannot simply tell a top 5 client to “fly someone else” when there are satisfaction issues. In some respects you are forced to cater to those large clients, sometimes to the detriment of your relationship with your employees. July 18, 2006 at 1:12 am You might as well argue against barking up trees because you’ll loose your voice from all that barking. The phrase “The customer is always right” is an idiom. Arguing against its literal meaning exposes a certain illiteracy in the author. July 18, 2006 at 1:34 am I live from 9-5 on number 2. My boss said to our costumers that they can ask whatever they want (ooops) for our software and that we would implement it in days, if not in hours (oooops number 2). In fact, my boss gets super-mad when a client complains that something they asked is late. Not that we give deadlines, or document, or have any kind of follow-up to requests. I don’t have time to do these stuff. It’s always code, code, code. We can never scale this way. 3 of our clients are *very* “abusive”. They want their stuff, their way. Up to the point that I had to code some conditions, “if client = 1 do ‘X’ else do ‘Y'”. These 3 clients take the majority of my daily activities. When a nice client asks for something and I tell my boss about it, he says something like “But you gotta do X because the client is screaming at us”. So the features asked by the nice clients are put away, until they start to complain. I tell ya, It’s a vicious circle of evil. July 18, 2006 at 3:01 am All good points, for mine, point 2 deserves some more attention. As a consumer and/or business partner I was taught early on that the ‘squeaky wheel gets the oil’. This can be taken at two levels, and there is an important distinction between the two. Face Value = Good customer interaction: At its base level it’s reasonable to assume that speaking up if something’s not as expected is a positive. By another name this is called ‘feedback’ and a clever organisation will act on it appropriately. Manipulation = Bad customer interaction: A caniving customer will use this to accentuate their own service. They do this at the expense of your staff and by extension your other customers. An employee spending time responding to an innapropriate request can not respond to appropriate ones. If a higher level of care is factored in to cater for ‘manipulating squeaky wheels’ this must come from your profit or higher prices imposed on good customer. July 18, 2006 at 4:12 am Excellent post and I agree with everything except the last Continental exec’s excerpt. He/the company have the right to tell the customer to shove-off, every company has that right. However, no matter what you think of the offensivness of the cap, the FAA regulations argument is a pile of crap. When I fly, and I do on a regular basis, I do not give up my first ammendment rights as part of the ‘crew-member instructions” clause. Tim Martin says: July 18, 2006 at 4:58 am Bruce Barr you have the right to walk as well. If you were on my aricraft that is what you would be doing if you think your right to free speach overrides other peoples right to comfort and dignity under my watch. If 20% of my customers are taking 80% of my time, I get rid of them and then have lots of time for my respectfull customers. cmc says: July 18, 2006 at 5:24 am No kidding. Ages ago, I worked customer service for a hardware store (nuts, bolts, ladders, paints, nails, etc.). One customer had the tenacity to argue “isn’t the customer always right?” when was dead wrong about a particular scheme. He was about to injure himself and/or someone else. This clearly falls under #5: “Some customers are just plain wrong.” If a customer wants (even unintentionally) to harm his or herself or someone else, they can go to hell. They still get excellent service, but not assistance to do something stupid. This is not up for debate – nobody has time or the soul for lawsuits that attempt to hold some poor schmuck at $7/hr at the local True Value culpable for the insistent actions of the idiotic customer who really wanted to use his Ryobi nailgun for something other than its approved purpose. July 18, 2006 at 5:30 am In my line of work – we used to ask people the question – “Is the customer always right?” – The point of the question was actually that the real answer is that being “right” is rarely the point. Treat people fairly – both customer and employee – and you’ll come out a lot farther ahead than just listening to griefers. BOB says: July 18, 2006 at 5:36 am Osmanthus, “You might as well argue against barking up trees because you�ll loose your voice from all that barking. The phrase �The customer is always right Joe Idar says: July 18, 2006 at 5:50 am Here’s a twist to your article. I am a salesman at a company which always tells it’s salesman not to give in to customers requests, complaints, gripes and such. So they put us on the front line to draw the fire from the customer, but the instant the customer gets past our defensive line and gets to a manager the company policy becomes “THE CUSTOMER IS ALWAYS RIGHT!!!!”. This makes us look like the bad guys and the manager as the company hero. July 18, 2006 at 6:38 am Aurora, its not so bad that you pedantically pick at a typo (lose,loose), but then you incorrectly say that the word is ‘axiom’; no my dear, the word I mean to use is indeed ‘idiom’. See http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/idiom meanings 1. and also 5. July 18, 2006 at 8:30 am You got some very good points. I usually say “the customer is always right” but I should probably say “the customer is usually right”. I love good customer service and value it highly. But I don’t like stupid and arrogant people to abuse it. And as your post mentions, it happens every now and then I think it’s great to put the employees first as long as it also means great customer service. Some of your quotes in the post are from people famous for outstanding service and working hard to give customers what they want. That gives a lot more credibility to the faulty argument that customers are always right no matter what. AD July 18, 2006 at 8:54 am Customers, like employees are humans who are a mix of good and bad. The fact that employees are screened but there is little choice in selecting customer leads to instances where some customers can be unreasonable. So, it’s always a matter of good judgement when it comes to serving an irate customer. As important as it to treat employees, it’s equally, or more important to ensure the customer service processes are improved. At least twice when I had episodes of bad service due to the ‘process’, and terminated my account, the rep’s final question was ‘Is there anything else we can do for you?’ Osmanthus:…Never mind… July 18, 2006 at 12:18 pm Very interesting debate, I agree that the Customer is Always Right approach probably isn’t. However I have been looking at reputation recently and it seems that we need a customer reputation engine so that the abusive customers can be readily identified and avoided by all businesses, while great customers can be treated properly by all businesses without having to “earn” the right to great service through loyalty to each business. Just a thought… July 18, 2006 at 1:12 pm I used to work in a service department. Well that’s what it was called, when indeed it was more of a repair workshop. I was constantly frustrated because the management wanted me to please everybody but didn’t give me the ability to do that quickly and painlessly, without fear of repercussion later. This is because they were in actuality more concerned with stock levels- having enough stock to supply to potential customers that might possibly pay them, rather than satisfy the people whose money they had already taken. The adage “The customer is always right” should possibly be retaught as “Most customers are worthy of listening to, because they don’t know or care about all your paperwork and procedures, they have just bought something that has ceased to work properly” joe says: July 18, 2006 at 1:42 pm Thanks for all the great comments. I find it interesting that some people say that “This was never meant to be taken literally” while other can tell stories from work where things go badly precisely because it is taken at it’s face value. I agree that it should never be taken seriously – but then why use it at all? I think this is one business maxim that needs to go. Joe Idar: Thanks for your example. That is precisely one of the worst results of “The customer is always right”. Toby: A customer reputation engine. What a great idea! Why are we only rating suppliers and products? In India you have public sector units – Owned by the Govt. The employees are Govt employees paid even if the company is making losses. The customer is right started because of those organisations which did not have to compete. In acompetitive environment interests of employees and customers balance like guns vs butter. You pamper employees you lose customers, you pamper customers you lose employees. Organisations will find their own level depending on the competition and availability of necessary labour. July 18, 2006 at 3:44 pm Actually, the author is missing the point. The Customer (notice the caps) is always right. Not “A Customer”, meaning a single individual, but The Customer, the group. Having held customer service positions for a half dozen companies over a dozen years, in every capacity from front-line-grunt (my characterization) to VP of Customer Services Worldwide, I can agree with everything this author is saying in principle. There are certain situations where A Customer is The Customer and as a result, A Customer is always right. Without that customer, that project, endeavour or initiative is dead on arrival. Granted, sometimes that is not a bad idea. There are situations where your company should never have pursued a project in the first place, but then you need to calculate the costs of abandoning that project. Sometimes costs don’t appear as a line item. One more reason: for any consulting to be of interest, the customer is in need of being right but is currently wrong (at something). That doesn’t make the customer a moron or somebody unworthy of business, but the contrary. seedsoftherebellion says: July 18, 2006 at 3:48 pm This is actually why Starbucks is so sucessful. They have a very employee oriented company policicy, but at the same time do what is needed to make customers happy. At my old job, running photo for a Walgreens, I got chewed out every day, my coworkers as well. And there was nothing we could do about it. However, at Starbucks, I think we’ve had maybe 5 really unhappy people once or twice in my time there. Even those people we were able to get out of the store quickly by just remaking their drinks or whatever the case was. What it boils down to is happy employees= happy customers. Which means the profits the company wants. July 18, 2006 at 3:51 pm About the customer review idea, the one where customers can be identified as someone you should avoid: Here’s another reason I wish that I’d gone into law instead of technology. I would sue the owner of the website into the stone age for slander, libel and a host of other charges. Michael Haymore says: July 18, 2006 at 4:15 pm Instead of “The customer is always right”, I always liked the idea of giving the customer the benefit of doubt. Give them a chance, and see if their demand/request is appropiate and responsible, and then help out the best you can. That is what customer service is really about. For those customers that are always happy, you just do every properly and by the books, and a good employer will protect their own. July 18, 2006 at 5:38 pm I agree with everything on this page. I used to work in a bar in London. A cheap bar, where people would come in to have their skinfull of beer and go clubbing. It was the type of pub where people would demand the earth but pay for dirt. This was the type of pub where the customers were *never* right. Unruly, rude customers would promptly be refused service and shown the door. Polite customers would be served quickly. After a few months of this policy, our number of nice customers went up exponentialy. The nasty ones found elsewhere to get drunk. I ended up working in a very pleasant (but still cheap) pub, with customers I liked. All for telling one or two (or ten) customers to leave. July 18, 2006 at 5:53 pm There seems to be a lack of understanding of what the phrase “The Customer is Always Right” means. If your customers want to fly to Wichita, then they are right — and you are wrong if you insist on flying planes to Tacoma instead. If your customers prefer Pepsi, then they are right — and you are wrong for providing Coke instead. The entire idea of a business is to exchange your goods and services for their money. Therefore, if you want their money, you need to listen to what they want. That is, they are always right. July 18, 2006 at 7:48 pm Osmanthus….dude…why argue with about semantics, and put down the author. If you don’t agree, great. Don’t agree. Whether he was responding to the literal meaning, the implied meaning, the idiomatic meaning, or the voices in his head, doesn’t change the truth in what he was saying, which was….treat people – specifically employees – the way you want to be treated, and you’ll get the best results – specifically then, for the customers. Did you even read the entire article? I’m going to somehow get this article to the principal of our school. We are loosing excellent teachers left and right because she believes the…ahem…idiom/axiom/cliche/call-what-you-want-it-still-doesn’t-respect-the-employees. No one with a healthy self-respect will stay in an environment like that. Andy B says: What does “corteous” mean? It’s not in my dictionary. English is not my native language, and I can’t figure out if it’s a typo. Moby says: July 18, 2006 at 8:19 pm There are some shirts, hats or people I find offensive, but if that flight was in the USA, the first amendment takes precedence over any FAA regulations and the guy should sue the airline for violating his right of free speech. July 18, 2006 at 10:16 pm Chaz said “In some respects you are forced to cater to those large clients, sometimes to the detriment of your relationship with your employees.” …but rarely…and if handled deftly, probably never. Christian says: July 18, 2006 at 10:17 pm Osmanthus, it’s not an idiom. The meaning of “the customer is always right” is most certainly deducible from the phrase’s individual words. An idiom’s meaning cannot be deduced in this way. The reader knows what a customer is and most likely understands what it means to be right. The definition is literal and obvious, and can be extracted by simple examination of the subject and predicate. “Raining cats and dogs” does not mean that there are literally cats and dogs involved. “Barking up the wrong tree” does not mean that there are literally trees involved. “The customer is always right” does in fact mean a customer is involved. It is as the author correctly stated, a maxim: “a short, pithy statement expressing a general truth or rule of conduct.” Andy B says: July 19, 2006 at 12:26 am @Bill Nelson: Bill, I think you’re missing the whole point of the article. Yes, the whole point of the old line TCIAW states that one must listen to their customers, but the point of the article is revolving around customers who abuse it (or are, indeed, just plain wrong), or companies who cater to said customers. As a for instance, FedEx is well known for their overnight deliver services in the United States, but there are a few stipulations: for instance, they’ll deliver by 10:30 tomorrow to Los Angeles from New York (or you get a refund), but if foul weather holds up the planes in Memphis, you can pretty much kiss that guarantee good-bye. Anyone who would argue that point doesn’t understand that it’s just not safe to fly into, say, a hurricane. Re: the guy with the hat says: July 19, 2006 at 1:22 am For everyone screaming about First Amendment rights, you might recall that those aren’t absolute. Certain types of disruptions are not protected, and that concept applies to an extreme in situations like airports and airplanes. You will also note that hate speech is also pretty much not protected. You could be refused service or entry into a public place for wearing the same type of hat or shirt. July 19, 2006 at 2:12 am Alex, I agree, in part, to what you say. As a business owner and a “Mom/Consumer”, I believe 90% of the time cusomers are right (see my recent blog posting if interested) and I’d say 10% the client is typically right. It’s a fine balancing act, and within the last 2 weeks I have 2 excellent examples where the customer was right (me, of course). The tricky part is when you have customers who make complaining a hobby, or a habit. I personally prefer to tell Catalogers who aren’t happy (after I’ve tried to make them happy & satisfied at least 3x) “Thank you for your initial interest, but I don’t think this program is for you. I wish you the best of success for the future.” And I cut my losses and my headaches, all at the same time! Leslie July 20, 2006 at 9:35 am Thanks again for all the great comments. Deva: Good point. Governments, and indeed all large monopolies, have a tendency to be indifferent to the needs of their customers. In other companies that compete in the market, pampering the employees means better customer service means keeping you customers. Ernie: Interesting distinction between “A customer is always right” and “Your customers as a group are always right”. I think that last one can more accurately be phrased as “The market is always right”. Which is of course a tautology because “right” in this case means they select which products become succesful – which is part of the definition of a market. Edd, seedsoftherebellion: Thanks for the great stories! Bill: That’s a nice definition of the maxim. This is how it SHOULD be. Leslie: Exactly! Some customers are just not right – at least for your business. Somewhere out there, another supplier may be a perfect fit for this customer. And if not, at least they will be making life hell for one of your competitors instead of for you :o) July 20, 2006 at 5:24 pm In most businesses, one should at least give the customer some sort of security in order to keep them loyal; however saying that all customers are alike is a fallacy. Some customers are much better to service than others and some customers you may not want at all. This is escalated in the fact that as a web based service provider I have no clue who my customers really are� sure I can check the information they give me when they register, but how many people do you know that lie? Anonymous users have no right to complain, and as long as there are preferred customers there will be dissatisfaction somewhere, from employees or even from other customers. July 21, 2006 at 8:16 pm I tend to find that the level of customer service provided, is based more on the cost effectiveness of the resolving the situation the customer is complaining about. I have worked in a situation where I have to tell a customer they are wrong at least 40% of the time, as they have not understood the product/service they have used. The pricing of the services, the economies of scale, and the logistics mean they don’t get the service they were expecting when they encounter a problem. July 21, 2006 at 8:32 pm Neil- > I can see the wisdom of what you’re talking about, however, as an executive in charge of customer services, I see what you describe as a failure of sales and/or marketing (depending on the market you serve). When customers purchase a product or services with an incorrect understanding of the required performance or deliverable, that creates stress on the customer service organication who are put in the unenviable position of trying to be mediator. This is generally (in my experience) caused by a sales staff who is undertrained or has unrealistic sales quota expectations placed upon them. At the enterprise tools level (software, hardware, whatever), this is most often caused by the sales staff having an incomplete understanding of the capabilities of the product. Often, they are talking with highly technical individuals who may or may not have a tremendous amout of contextural experience and present questions to the sales staff at that level. Some people in sales may answer questions which they are not qualified to answer as they are afraid to appear ill-informed and thereby fail to “punt” to the sales engineers in order to get a signature. Worse (and far more dangerous) is the supervisor (“decision maker”) who feels they have a grasp of the technologies involved, feel very informed and make a decision when nothing could be farther from the truth. neil turpin says: July 21, 2006 at 9:03 pm Ernie > I absolutely agree with everything your saying, and part of the problem could be put down to sales/marketing, and to the companies credit they are trying to improve that. They also have plenty of problems having being a state run monopoly into a profit making company in a deregulated industry as well to deal with. However it is a little bit more complex in the situation I am in. A little difficult to describe without revealing who I work for. This would be a service that almost everybody has used domestically for most of thier life, and taken for granted, an institution. Have used it sometimes Internationally, but it’s usage has increased internationally over recent years. As the customers are so used to using the service domestically, they use it internationally without seeking sales advice, and fail to understand what thier responsibilities are in regards to our company, and the regulations of other bodies/companies involved. Let alone our responsibilities to the hundreds of other countries involved in the service. July 24, 2006 at 8:05 am I manage an athletic footwear store, a franchised chain that is regarded highly throughout Australia as one of the best customer service providers in the country. We have a system of fitting athletic footwear that is tried and tested and 95% of the time ensures the customer/athlete/whatever is in the correct footwear for their particular foot type and whatever their particular requirements for their activity might be. This involves a certain amount of the caveat emptor logic though – sometimes the customer doesn’t like the colour or shape of the product we recommend. In every circumstance that involves this, we inform the customer that… “no, sorry the pink ones won’t be suitable for your foot type. You are certainly most welcome to try them on if you like, but I can guarantee the shoes won’t be as good as the ones you are currently trying on.” At that point, our guarantee of fitting correct footwear is essentially null and void. If the customer persists and decides against all logical argument to buy based on fashion rather than function, it is on their own head. We guarantee our product and service when the customer buys a product we suggest (and we are only ever suggesting product suitable to their needs) after an involved foot-scanning, measuring and qualifying process, when they decide they want something else, they are welcome to it, but the guarantee goes out the window and we put an “SF” on their receipt for “Self Fitted”. What I’m saying here is that the customer is almost always wrong in my industry. I spend most of my time with customers educating them and correcting their misconceptions about feet/footwear before I’ve even looked at their feet. And they welcome it. Andrew: I would say hat is a great way to balance the customers’ needs and your staff’s expertise. Imagine the problems “The customer is always right” would cause in such a system. July 24, 2006 at 9:53 am Andrew, If you subscribe to Bill Nelson’s definition of ‘the customer is always right’ then I don’t think you can argue that the customer is almost always wrong. Rather, you should be making the pink ones in their size/fit. k says: July 24, 2006 at 5:28 pm Said Ernie Jenkins : “About the customer review idea, the one where customers can be identified as someone you should avoid: Here�s another reason I wish that I�d gone into law instead of technology. I would sue the owner of the website into the stone age for slander, libel and a host of other charges.” If you’d gone into law you’d probably know that it’s not slander to make factual statements. On privacy issues, you might be able to make an argument. July 25, 2006 at 4:05 am The thing is, we don’t have to have the pink ones in their fit. We control the sale from start to finish. In time, eventually feedback to our suppliers indicates that some colourways are more positively received than others, but on a case-by-case basis, no one colour scheme is ever “better” perceived than any other. We sell on function, not fashion. Our largest selling product (and by that I mean a shoe in M and W fit that suits a variety of foot types) has come in varied colours and styles over the last five years. Technology updates, colour updates etc. have not hindered the shoe’s sales one bit. If the sales person is confident and well-trained/informed on their product, they will be perceived (generally) as knowing what they are talking about, certainly having superior product knowledge compared to other retailers, and be perceived as an expert in their particular sales field. This inspires a trust in the customer that they will be purchasing a product that suits their needs, regardless of whether or not it matches a gym outfit. How many times have you bought something, or not bought perhaps, where you’ve left a store not entirely confident that you got what you needed, because the sales staff couldn’t give you a direct and confidant sales pitch regarding their product? I digress, but us selling the product in the colour they want gives them a little too much control regarding the actual sales system we use, so we recommend against picking on aesthetics. We rarely, if ever, lose sales based on the colour of the shoe when sticking to the sales system. In summary – the customer is always wrong. WE are always right, because we know more about their feet by looking at them standing than they could know if 50 years of walking around on them, and we have the knowledge and werewithal to make sure that the customer is in the right footwear. Lozza says: July 25, 2006 at 6:08 am In reference to this post. After having worked in customer service and running my own small business I have concluded that the customer is often wrong and needs to be asked to leave or declined further business. I will no longer tolerate being spoken to like a bad dog, nor will I allow my staff. Customer who want to breach privacy laws, have special treatment because they are rich, poor, can shout and jump up and down, throw things around, cause a public disturbance are all welcome to take their business elsewhere, I don’t care if it costs me a commission any more. Resonable people will get great service and great service/compassion when thing go wrong and need a resolution. With reference to a few comments about freedom of speech issues. This wasn’s a discussion about freedom of speech. The world is bigger than Amercia and the rest of us (non Amercians) can feel at time that it is plain silly that you defend the indefensible with a reference to 1st Amendments rights. Dennis Carr says: July 25, 2006 at 7:12 am Lozza: The thing is, I’m not sure where people get off talking about the first amendment when a private citizen tells ’em to shut up. It says, after all, that CONGRESS shall not pass laws that impinge on ones’ freedom of speech. Now, if I tell somebody to shut up, I ain’t congress – let alone passing some gedankin’ law. Do forgive the rantishness of this, it’s just that when people throw the first amendment out like you point out they do, I get upset at the stupidity of it all. Don says: July 26, 2006 at 1:38 am Lozza I would not say that the customer is often wrong. But yes, he is sometimes. However, for companies which have few high worth clients it becomes very difficult to say no to demanding customers. My personal experience something to talk about. The client being a big business group always did things their own way. They wanted us to be at their office whenever they had an idea (no matter how irrelevant or wild they were) to discuss. No talks via telephone. Moreover, whenever we worked on their brief they would insist us to be available throughout the night so they may contact us anytime to give their feedback. I spent many nights on the office lounge in the reception waiting for that fax which gave instructions on what to do further. It was very frustating. No one had the courage to tell the client how we work and ask him to mend ways. The end result I quit the job and took up something which was low paying but did not stretch beyond normal time. Bruce Barr says: July 26, 2006 at 2:10 am Since I started the whole First Amendment point, I will point out to Mr. Carr that I, at least fully understand his point about individuals. I fully believe that the OA (Offended Attendant) and the 1st Officer were making a personal decision about the offending item. What I objected to was the FEDERAL AVIATION AUTHORITY regulation on which they based their order. I do believe there is congressional oversight and that the agency in question is fully part of the government. When does it end. Put it this way: The crew doesn’t like your political candidate and tells you to take off the campaign button. Is that ok? OR Suppose Continental decides that they are incurring personal-injury lawsuit exposure when passengers wear flip-flops on flights. Something goes wrong, passengers get cuts on their feet, they sue the airline (deep pockets) for not warning them. The big C then decides they can force customers to wear alternate footware as a safety issue, based on the FAA crewmember telling you so. Is that ok? At least the last supposition has the pretense of safety, and that is important. Safety is the reason for the regulation and the basis for my relinquishing certain control over my own person during a flight. Period. July 26, 2006 at 12:18 pm First thing…..I really enjoyed reading the 5 points and ALL the comments that followed. Perhaps the phrase should be altered slightly..as we used to say….”the customer is always right……….Except when they are WRONG!!” Re:The First Amendment and the FAA…. Perhaps if the object was so offensive, other customers on the flight might have been getting angry and upset. In this instance, the object may have been the cause of an “air-rage” incident, which may have put ALL of the passengers and the crew in danger. Surely in this instance, the FAA rules would have come into play. (Also, depending on the age of the child, I dread to think of the kind of life they must lead, if the parent saw no problems with them wearing that.) July 26, 2006 at 2:24 pm I worked for Starbucks for a while, and when I was promoted to a supervisor, I let my baristas know that I had their back. Once, when coming out from the back where I’d been washing dishes, I heard the beginnings of an argument between one of my best people and a customer. I stayed out of sight for a moment, to see what the matter was without my interferene. The customer wanted something that–in the time frame she was demanding– violated basic thermodynamics (it had to do with the amount, stiffness, and heat of foam). At least, with the mere espresso machines we had (I’m sure lazers might have helped. . .). I came out and put my hand on my barista’s shoulder, right about hte time the customer said “Well, I don’t have any problem doing it at home!” At which point I responded, “Fine, go back to your home in the Twilight Zone where your expresso machine warps the rules of physics. Rule breaking is against company policy, and I’m sorry we couldn’t help you with this. Would you like a free coffee?” There were many other instances of customers who would steal things, then “bring them back” for a refund, or customers who would come in on our busiest days– Thanksgiving, for one– with the sole purpose of picking a fight so they could get a free drink. Or a lady who wanted us to hurry her drink (after a long line of people) because she’d left her baby in the car. Which is, by the way, illegal in this area. I agree with those who say “Give the customer the benefit of the doubt.” Most of the complaint we got were valid, caused by simple human error, we were properly chagrined, they were polite, and they got coupons and a free drink. But at the Starbucks where I worked, about one in thirty was an ass. Maybe it was just there area (full of aging yuppies), but there you have it. The market may always be right, and one should give the customer the benefit of the doubt. But the employee (if trained at all) is the expert, and is paid because the customer wouldn’t otherwise know what they were doing. July 26, 2006 at 3:16 pm Coyote: Thanks for the great stories, I really like your approach. It seems like Starbucks is one company that gets this and backs up its employees. Is that fair to say or was that just you? :o) Kevin F says: July 26, 2006 at 4:34 pm This has been a valuable discussion. The maxim ‘TCIAR’ is certainly only a useful rule insofar as it appears to address the majority of customers. But the question here rides on the minority of customers who are NOT right. They ask for the impossible, or their behavior is unacceptable. And so far, the advice here has been laudable. However, their is a problem. Some customers are clearly not worth it, and can be easily sloughed off, to the benefit of all. Yet some customers are the lifeblood of the enterprise and need to be catered to, even when they behave like prima donnas. The employer must answer whether it’s worth it in the end, and treat the employees forced to deal with such painful people with extra care (via pay, benefits, etc.), because it’s harder and more valuable work. Otherwise, people who are good at dealing with the demanding customers you want to keep end up getting “rewarded” by receiving MORE such customers. Employees who are bad at it don’t have to do it. (The Tome Sawyer approach, where insolence is rewarded). Good employees leave, and then, likely, so do the painful rich customers. So it depends. An obnoxious customer who can be “fired” without consequence SHOULD be expelled. But how do you manage the obnoxious RICH customer whose work you need, without alienating or buringin out your workers? There’s where true genius lies. Ken says: July 26, 2006 at 6:47 pm When you agree with a customer, you reconfirm their notion that they were right and you were wrong. This confirms their bad impression of you. Sometimes firmly stating the truth about how things are (and the fact that you are not wrong) can change the relationship around for the better. We have found that blunt truth instead of lots of apologise makes things better. jaleach says: Very cool site. I think I’ll bookmark it. Crusader Coyote brings up a very good point, i.e. the illegality and/or impossibility of some customer requests. I worked at a gas station while going to school (I also managed one for a number of years back in the 1990s). One day, a grungy looking chap saunters in demanding a pack of cigarettes. No problem, right? Well, he wanted to pay for them with food stamps. This is blatantly illegal. But the customer is always right, right? I should of just handed over the smokes in exchange for the stamps and wished him a happy day? Get out of here! In the time I worked in retail, I told a very, very small number of people to get the hell out and never come back. These were folks that became emotionally and even physically violent (swearing like a drunken sailor, throwing items in the store at me or the cashier, etc.). My favorite incident involved a shrill young woman who, after flinging packs of cigarettes about, demanded to speak to the manager. I responded, “I am the manager. Now get out before I call the cops.” The look on her face was priceless. The fight went right out of her when she realized she wasn’t going to bully anyone at the store. Fortunately, these folks are the exception. I had far more customers who were friendly, appreciative, and fun to joke around with. I had several who would come in because they knew we could trade good-natured barbs and have a lot of laughs. Then there were the really hot chicks… Anyway, the customer is NOT always right. Not even close. There are limits. If you don’t think there are, you’re either: 1) One of the people who cause problems in retail establishments. 2) Dumber than a box of rocks. Go ahead and throw a fit about your meal at the local restaurant. I shudder to think what will happen to your food back in the kitchen. Go ahead and scream at that clerk who just happens to know your credit card number. Bad behavior can cause some unintentional consequences, let me tell you. Many retail establishments are already cracking down on TCIAR, at least around here. I see more stores adopting the “you MUST have a receipt policy for returns” policy. Why? Because the “always right” customers would take stuff they didn’t even buy at the store back for a “refund.” It’s long past time to discard this hoary old falsehood. Frank Drebbin says: July 26, 2006 at 8:35 pm The boneheads that act as if they discovered a dead-sea scroll when they say not to abuse their own employees are laughable. Typical US MBA types. Literal minded as all get out. (I am american in California). The phrase was coined in a day when “carriage trade” meant something. The customers were for the most part rich enough or prominent enough so they yes, they were always right. They weren’t one of millions. They weren’t wackos wearing KKK uniforms. They were Mr. Bemis who insisted he had paid when he hadn’t and would be treated well, and come back when he realized he was wrong. No one ever said it meant “treat your employees like crap.” The “customer IS always right” in most businesses for the 20% that pay the 80% of the revenue. We’ll do backflips to keep someone like that happy. But no one with a brain ever should have assumed it meant to endlessly indulge the jerks or .000001% revenue generators who are jerks (but we are very nice to the .000001% who are nice). Are you all going to discover now that CPA’s arent the best CEO’s like you thought in the 80’s and that employees aren’t fungible? And maybe the law of gravity? What other blinding discoveries are made here? July 26, 2006 at 8:42 pm This is an extremely interesting article. As one who sells product on the net, I’ve had my dealings with various customer types over the years, and I have to say, in the last 20 years I’ve only blown away one customer who was truly obnoxious. Anyway, someone above mentioned that time-worn phrase “…the squeaky wheel gets the grease…”. Well, I like to follow that up with “…and sometimes the squeaky wheel gets replaced!”. Qbert says: July 26, 2006 at 11:11 pm I loved the article. I used to work for KMart and I remember there would be plenty of customers who came in on a regular basis and abused the employees and complained every time they were there. Why do these people continue to go to places like that? Because the employees getting paid minimum wage try to do their job and when the customer doesn’t get what they want, they throw a fit and the manager of the store comes and gives them whatever they want. As an employee, I always felt betrayed when a manager would step in and go against policy to keep a rude customer. Kevin F: Good point. In the case where your best, biggest and most important customer can’t figure out how to behave my solution would be: 1) Try to educate them about what they do wrong and how it affects others 2) If that doesn’t work, fire them. I’m serious. They’re draining your company’s energy, motivation AND they’re distracting you from finding new, fun customers. If 1 and 2 won’t work, I suggest being open with the employees as in “Hey, we know that customer X is generating all these problems, but without the revenue for them, we’d be out of business in 3 months. Please keep that in mind when dealing with that customer”. Ken: Great point. I remember one situation where I finally blew up at a difficult customer. From that moment on I had their respect and I became their favorite contact at our company. Frank Drebbin: I agree. No one should be taking TCIAR literally. And yet some do, both customers and companies, to the detriment of the employees, the customers AND the bottom line. KrankyOldGuy: The squeaky wheel gets replaced… you’re cracking me up, here! I’m going to remember that one for my presentations on this topic! Qbert: Thanks for the real-life confirmation that these things go on in the real world. That’s exacty the betrayal that Herb Kelleher was talking about. July 27, 2006 at 2:51 am I used to work at Mazzio’s, which stressed the “customer is always right” angle. I thought then, and think now, that it was horseshit. Come on, it’s common sense–the old 80/20 rule. The customers who cause the most trouble are people you’re losing money on anyway. At Mazzio’s all the company literature talked about the cost of the dissatisfied customer’s word of mouth, with elaborate stats about how many friends he’ll tell about it and how much they would have spent otherwise. What the propaganda didn’t mention was that the guy’s “friends” are probably well aware of what an asshole he is, and roll their eyes through his litany of complaints. And if not, they’re probably money drains themselves. A business would be better off *paying* these deadbeats to tell their worthless friends to stay away. We had two regular customers that complained about everything every single time they came in. They complained they were shorted on cheese with their nachos, even though the cheese was weighed on every order. And they were rewarded for those complaints with lifetime 20% discounts. Way to make money! I knew a guy who took a test to become assistant manager. One of the questions involved a group of people who bought pizza and then sat out in the lot with a cooler full of beer, harassing other customers and throwing empty cans on the lot. My friend said he’d warn them of the penalty for loitering. The regional manager, in grading the test, wrote in red ink: “They’re not loitering, they’re *customers*.” In other words, they’re God and you’re shit. July 27, 2006 at 6:55 pm I was talking about this article and someone told me this story: “I was working as a waiter, when one of the clients asked for the check. He payed me with a 50, but when I gave the change to him, he said he paid with a 100. I had to double check but the results were the same.Then he started yelling and complaining all around. I went to the manager and explained the situation. He told me that I shouldn’t worry about a thing. He then went with the client. When the client complained about the missing money, he tooked a 50 from his wallet and gave it to him. When the client left the restaurant, he went to the guy in the door and said -don’t let this guy enter here again-” That’s elegance! jach: That IS elegant, I like it! He backs up his employee and gets rid of a difficult customer at the same time. Nice! Simeon Drakich says: As a small business owner I have always held the philosophy that the customer was always on the scam.Make your worse customer someone else’s customer. Biggie Rection says: August 1, 2006 at 1:50 am My experience in the Wireless Industry, in particular in my current position as store manager has shown me a lot of these examples. I have gone as far as to tell a customer threatening me that I would accept his challenge and go outside with him. The guy comes in once a week now, brings me coffee sometimes, and he has even refered business to me. Sometimes putting your foot down at the right time, and the right way will actually win you additional business. Other times the customer is upset and will not return – I take care of my guys first and foremost. They’re the guys making the company money, they are all intelligent, reasonable people – and i’m not going to have anyone being rude to any one of them. I’d rather have my guys selling than dealing with some idiot who doesn’t understand that they signed a contract and should have read it before they signed it.. Jim Whyte says: August 1, 2006 at 5:28 pm Wise words, Biggie. Axiom from my time in the geotechnical/environmental consulting business: “If the customer was always right, he wouldn’t need a consultant.” I got paid to keep people out of trouble. You wanna stay out of trouble, do as I tell you. Or you’ll end up having to do as your lawyer tells you instead; and he charges more for his time, and has more expensive instructions. August 2, 2006 at 11:34 pm LOTS of replies, but I just wanted to put my two cents worth. This is an awesome article, and after my experience working fast food for 7 years (5 of which as manager while going to college) it is totally dead on. The way I look at it, the customer is choosing to use the services of the establishment, whether it’s a restaurant, airline, train service, store, whatever, and not unlike I have rules at home each business should have their own rules and guidelines. If someone comes into my home and acts like a turd they will be asked to leave, so why don’t businesses do the same? It does go both ways though, and if I go into an establishment and get bad or rude service (without any action from me), I simply leave and choose smoeone else. Sam August 3, 2006 at 4:31 am A business dependent on a few customers has a business-plan problem unless those are great customers. (Great business and great customers are a solid combination.) Some very large companies are too dependent on a few customers. For example, if you make parts for very large airliners there are only two makers: Airbus and Boeing. Some companies do bow out of that squeeze, instead concentrating on smaller makers and military airplanes though those big-two are in military markets as well. But it can happen – years ago in Seattle electrical building contractors were shunning Boeing despite hard times in their industry because Boeing was not treating them properly. …..Keith August 4, 2006 at 12:39 pm OK, try and get the employee to pay the bills instead of the client. The squeaky wheel gets the grease but the quacking duck gets shot but business goes where it’s wanted and it’s cheaper to keep a customer than to find a new one. Truisms. I would suggest to my problem customers that my competition could help them better – I liked to share the pain. Porter says: August 8, 2006 at 7:22 pm I’m glad somebody finally addressed this. I used to work at a hardware store, and like cmc said in a previous post, customers would demand unreasonable and in some cases unsafe things. There is a difference between a customer who has a legitimate and reasonable complaint and goes about lodging their dissatisfaction in a manner that is consistent with a basic respect for civil ethics (ie. being courteous, refraining from swearing etc.) and a customer who feels that he has been “wronged” and proceeds to rave at the company in question with both guns blazing. In my former job, I spent roughly 40% of my day dealing with “problem customers”, that is a small percentage of customers who cause as much trouble as they can because they know they’ll be catered to — discounts, free stuff, and so on to keep them quiet. My superiors never understood that these people were abusing the spirit of customer service, and that ironically by taking up so much of my time, are in fact hurting customer service as a whole. One fellow, a self-professed “handyman” would come into the store at least once a week with some new problem… usually the door he bought wouldn’t fit properly due to a “design flaw” or the windows were deficient in some bizarre manner, like the glass was “too brittle” because the windows I was trying to sell him were “too old”, even though the date of manufacture was clearly stamped on the spacer bar. I would spend two hours out of my week with this one customer who was never satisfied with any purchase he has ever made with the company I worked for. But somehow he could make the doors and windows he bought “work” if we applied a discount or free items. One day I told him to shop my competition because obviously the products we sell aren’t satisfactory. He cried to management and they gave him gift certificates! I ended up quitting. What most consumers don’t understand is that they end up paying for this in the long run. Most stores have a percentage of their budget worked in to placate unreasonable customers, but it is also reflected in the prices you pay, like the same principle with shoplifting. Most stores aren’t going to let these customers eat away at their bottom lines, they’ll just raise prices or cut staff to compensate. All in all, as a consumer I feel that when I go shopping it is an equal exchange. They have something I want, I have something they want. If I feel that the good or service they have is worth my money, I’ll buy it. If not, I’ll shop elsewhere. If I have a bad experience, I won’t complain. I’ll just not patronize their services anymore. Consumers need to educate themselves as to what they want when they go shopping. If I walk into McDonald’s, I don’t expect gourmet cooking. I expect cheap food delivered quickly. I don’t expect service beyond a hello and a thank you. If I go to a five star restaurant, then I expect another level of service, but I also expect to pay for that service. August 8, 2006 at 8:12 pm Btw, Alex, your observation that disrespected employees provide bad service is right on the mark. When I worked at that same Mazzio’s, we mightily resented the company ethos of “The customer is God; you’re lower than dirt.” An awful lot of obnoxious regular customers got some “additives” in their food from people who were sick of their demeaning behavior and not being backed up by management. One guy who worked there was a former bartender, and he used the old trick of putting Visine (tetrahydrozyline is a powerful laxative) in his customers’ drinks. As for the “Nacho Lady” who kept complaining about her nachos (despite the fact that all the ingredients were weighed to spec) until she got a 20% discount, one of us (I’m not saying who) serendipitously discovered where she lived. Needless to say, she got a lot of extra orders of nachos (topped with dog turds, fish hooks, and a lot of other stuff) left at her house. Contra Jeff above, no, the customer is not always right. Commerce is an exchange between equals. And it’s not cheaper to keep a customer than to get a new one when you’re losing money on the one you got. Bill says: August 8, 2006 at 9:50 pm Kevin, That’s the stupidest thing anyone has ever written in a public forum and this is the reason the customer is always right and not the employee. Would anyone want this guy working for him? August 8, 2006 at 11:18 pm Kevin: That’s horrible – I’m never complaining about my food again ever :o) When people are put in a bad situation that they feel powerless to change or escape from, you often see them becoming either apathetic or covertly rebellious. It tends to brings out the worst in people and make them behave badly, immaturely and spitefully. The worst part is that this rarely, if ever, brings a solution any closer. August 12, 2006 at 6:38 am Some customers are really just not worth keeping. One of my friends is a customer account manager with one of the major telcos, and when I was with him once, I actually witnessed him telling the customer off and informing the customer that if he should continue to make unreasonable demands, the company regrets that a business relationship will no longer be possible. NurseJ says: August 14, 2006 at 1:01 pm I’m printing a copy of this article and taking it to work with me tonight! This theory absolutely needs to be applied to healthcare. So many people come into the hospital with demands that are in direct opposition of what my patients “need” in order to get better and go home quickly. Hospitals are even coming up with “service recovery” gifts that we (nurses) have to take to patients if they have a complaint. Now tell me this… with staffing always at critically low levels, would you rather I spend my time being a handmaiden fetching coffee, snacks and making “Dr, I know it’s only 8am, but when will you be coming to see Mrs X today?” calls OR taking the same amount of time to check labs and assessing my patients in order to catch the hemorrhage that’s just starting and the infection setting up? Disgruntled says: August 14, 2006 at 8:42 pm God bless you, Nurse J. I work in a hospital myself. The critically low staffing levels are the same here–and it’s deliberate. The census got low over the summer, and the administration (who all have the MBA Disease of milking the organization and running it into the ground to inflate the quarterly balance sheet) decided to let the staff go down by attrition. And now, even when the census is still pretty low, they’re desperately calling prn people to come in, without luck, because “there’s almost no orderlies left.” And they often have to turn patients away from admitting because there isn’t enough staff to handle them. Of course, the census NEVER goes back up. Stripping an organization of essential categories of personnel when the census is low, and counting on building staff back up “somehow” when the census rises, is a lot like selling your TV at the end of every month to make the rent and then buying a new one after the first of the month. They downsized not only nursing staff, but the night shift ward secretaries and an employee health nurse who had been there for 30 years. “Take your $50 off the dresser and get the hell out–we’re done with you.” And they’ve decimated lab and respiratory tech staffs, that have already been downnsized repeatedly, and were already hurting from the enormous work load. And yet they have the utter gall to spring this filthy, demeaning, manipulative Fish! Philosophy bullshit on us to try to jolly us into enjoying being screwed. The worst of it is, their cost-cutting measures are pennywise, pound foolish. Orderly care amounts to $0.03 on the dollar or less for the daily cost of a bed. Yet we’re the patient’s first line of contact in evaluating the quality of service. Patients are more likely to judge a hospital by how long it takes to get a call light answered than by whether the building looks like a palatial hotel or the landscaping looks like the hanging gardens of babylon. And guess what–all they “save” on staffing is more than made up for by money that they foolishly pour down a rathole for stuff like ill-advised remodeling projects. They spent untold sums of money building a luxury “ACE unit” (Acute Care of the Elderly, the latest gimmick–er, excuse me, “industry trend”), at by far the highest per room building cost in the hospital, and then decided not to open it because it wasn’t designed quite to the doctors’ specs. If they increased orderly staffing by 50% and raised pay by 50%, it would only add another three cents on the dollar to the cost of a bed. And the offsetting savings from that alone would probably make it a net efficiency: the main cause of hospital-acquired MRSA infections, falls, and the like is understaffing. Yet they try to solve all these problems through everything BUT adequate staffing: slogans, cheerleading, micromanagment, more tracking forms, in-services, handouts, revival meetings. Never mind all the crap (like said ACE unit) that they deliberately waste money on instead of staffing. And frankly, the costs from employee disgruntlement probably amount to more than the cost of adequate staffing. I’ve heard more than one employee admit they don’t bother to swipe bar codes to charge supplies to patients. They figure, rightly, that the hospital is saving enough on staffing costs that they might as well save themselves a few seconds of precious time when the call-lights are stacked up six deep. And if they can save themselves even one second at the cost of $100 to the hospital, who cares? After the shitty way management treated the downsized people, casting them off like a bunch of used-up whores, they’re the enemy. God damn them all to hell. I’m about ready for a Pol Pot to come to this country and take out everyone who sits behind a desk or wears a necktie to work. August 25, 2006 at 3:09 pm The problem is that in many customer-contact organizations such as McDonalds or Wal-Mart, is that the employees are considered as expendable as the customer (I’m talking about the U.S. where I live). The difference is that the customer spends money and so it makes some bit of sense to “always” side with the customer. August 26, 2006 at 6:16 pm I work for a major achitectural hardware manufacture as a tecnical services representative. I was recently disciplined for hanging up on a customer who looking more for a fight than he was help with his issue. He was verbally abusive and according to him we were all idiots. I asked the customer twice to calm dowm and be civil as I really did want to help him with his problem. His response was to launch into another tirade at which point I terminated the call. The customer did not give up. He called into the company through another channel after which he was redirected back to me. I informed the csr on the other end that this customerwas on record as being abusive and i would not help him. I almost lost my job for that !! August 28, 2006 at 2:44 pm Ron: That seriously sucks, and it illustrates precisely what is wrong with “The Customer Is Always Right”. An half-way decent option would be to placate the customer while telling you, you did right. An even better option would be to fire the customer. Threatening to fire you is unfair and bad business. Thanks for sharing the story. Dave: You’re exaclly right, as illustrated by Ron’s story. They put all customers, incuding the abusive ones, over their employees and then wonder why they can’t get the employees to give good customer service. NurseJ and disgruntled: Thanks for the input from the health sector. I had never thought it might apply there, but it seems it does. September 10, 2006 at 12:23 am I agree that there’s a time and circumstance when firing the customer is the best decision. Unfortunately, in today’s world, too many employees are firing the customer before the transaction gets started. In a two-hour visit to a large mall today, I faced: 1) a shoe store sales person who was annoyed with me because I couldn’t identify her as the employee while she sat on the banquette with a coat on her lap chatting with friends 2) multiple cashiers who turned their backs to me (and any other customers) so they could continue personal calls on their cell phones 3) a clothing store employee who became increasingly irritated because it took her four tries to fulfill my original request — a pair of dress trousers in wool in the right size 4) a cosmetics clerk who insisted they were out of an item I had called ahead and confirmed was in stock (and which a different clerk found) 5) a luggage salesman who walked away to talk to other people three times in less than five minutes after I had explained that I had to buy a suitcase today And, why was I on such a shopping spree? US Airways lost my large suitcase on the first day of a 17 day business trip…5 suits, 4 pairs of shoes, a brand new briefcase and a variety of other items have to be replaced. I might add that the customer also is right when she insists that outsourced customer service be limited to locations where the employees have sufficient English language skills that they can form grammatically correct sentences — for the anxious owner of lost luggage there is a wold of difference between a sentence about a bag that “was” missing or “is” missing. Abbot & Costello’s “Who’s on First” routine pales in comparison with on my conversations ofthe last five days with customer service reps in Central America! September 21, 2006 at 4:37 pm Here! Here! to Nurse and Disgruntled! I am a nurse and work in a busy ED where the wait to be seen grows longer and longer. We are now reqired to see those who complain and are the most abusive, first, instead of those who are the most ill. This “policy” is the most ridiculous one to date and just plain wrong. This policy flies in the face of what we, as trained professionals, are trying to do in order to ensure the sickest of our patients are seen first. Business people have now become self-proclaimed medical experts and exert their control over every field of medicine and nursing. So much of what “nurse” and “disgruntles” says is true and is the dirty little secret of our industry, of which the public is unaware. Customer service has gone too far in our industry. We are not dealing with faulty merchandise of poorly made retail items. Our product is human beings with serious diseases. No two are alike and not everyone who enters the ED is at the brink of death, quite the contrary. Our primary job is to take care of those who are at the brink of death and not listen to the rantings of irrational individuals who think their stuffy nose or toothache that started 20 minutes ago is a priority. Patients can demand tests and drugs and we are obliged to provide this even if the physician and nurse do not think this necessary. Staff and hospitals are now judged by customer service surveys and have to bend over backwards (or forwards) to comply with obtaiing positive ratings. Sadly, the medical professions have handed over control of patient care to a group of wealthy businessmen who can only see the color green! Great Article….and the comments that follow. This has all proven to be very helpful in researching and writing about customer service. Two comments of my own: To Ken (7/26/06) — EXCELLENT theory…to confirm to your customer that you were wrong, can’t be right. That is not to say that they should not have their concern(s) addressed in some manner; it just doesn’t have to be by acknowledging a “wrong” (whether real or not) To Alexander (7/20) — your comment concerning government and large monopolies rubbed me wrong. As a government employee in an agency that issues permits and licenses to practice a profession, I know that our agency is basically “the only shop in town.” However, poor customer service or demonstrating indifference to a customer’s needs is not tolerated (we all answer to someone)…they may not be able to go elsewhere for what they want, but they still deserve proper customer service. On the flip side, if the “customer” is abusive we need only to inform them that we do not have to tolerate their abusiveness and then end the communication/contact. If they really want or need what we’re offering, they may want to rethink their behavior. Positive communications and fair treatment (customer to vendor, or vendor to customer doesn’t much matter) is just a decent, positive, healthy attitude to proceed with. November 8, 2006 at 4:00 pm When is this outlandish term going to be abolished? I work in customer service for a living, been doing so in the telecommunications industry for 15 years now. Before that, I worked for three years at a major grocery store. In all that time, I have seen and heard so many outlandish requests from customers, and will back up their request with “The customer is always right.” That just doesn’t fly any more. Good example: I was at the local Publix the other day, and this lady was holding up the line because her Nestle coupon was not acceptable to get her a discount on Haagen Daas ice cream. The two companies are not related, yet she insisted and quoted “The customer is always right”. Lo and behold, the managers let her have it! When I questioned them on this, they stated that she did this every week, and this was the best was to get rid of her and get the lines moving again. It’s time to put this ridiculous phrase to rest. Companies worry about losing customers, but this can also hurt the company anyway. If one abusive customer can get away with something, then every one of them will catch on and be allowed to do it as well. This leads to loss of revenue, thereby putting a company out of business. Jack Jones says: November 8, 2006 at 5:17 pm I had earlier mentioned outlandish requests from customers, but did not cite any examples of what I have dealt with over the years. There are two incidents that come to mind, dating at least back within the past ten years or so. I was a toll operator for a major phone company. This lady, who I will never forget, called him totally upset and ugly, demanding that I interrupt a busy line for her. It turned out this was her doctor’s office, and every time she called it, she was immediately routed to an answering service that picked up only when the line was in use. I, trying to keep calm for her, told her it was not a problem, but we could not guarantee the party on the line would agree to clear it for her. I then asked for her name, to which she would only say “Valerie”, but would not provide her last name. I advised her I may need her entire name being the parties on this line may not be familiar with just the first name and therefore may not agree to release the line to call through on. She became enraged and demanded that I provide my entire name. I told her my first name only being due to hostile customers wanting to look up people, I could not provide my entire name. “Well, you said you needed my whole name, so I should be entitled to yours!” She then in an ugly tone of voice demanded I clear the line for her. When I went into the line, the parties would not agree to hang up being it was a patient dealing with an emergency with one of the doctor’s nurses. When I came back to Valerie and advised her, she demanded a supervisor, which I was happy to connect her to. The next thing I know, because “The customer is always right”, I was written up for “abusing” Valerie. She had advised my supervisor that I was rude and condescending to her, saying I was refusing to provide my entire name to her when I “demanded” hers. Of course, I fought it and had this black mark removed, but it took nearly six months of meetings to do it. Meanwhile, it had also turned out that Valerie not only made me pay for her upsetting day, but had also done everything she could to have that nurse fired, the one who would not release the line. It didn’t matter what the nature of the emergency was that this nurse was dealing with, somebody was going to pay with their blood because this woman was having a bad day. She was out to even cost one or more people their careers because of her bad day. Meanwhile, our managers coddled this woman to death, no matter how wrong she was. (It should also be mentioned a month or so later, I got her again, and when I got her, I immediately gave her my supervisor without any preamble). The other incident I recall is the man who had his phone shut off for not paying his bill. My job was customer service, not collections, yet this man did everything he could to get around being connected to that department. I politely advised him that the phone had been shut off for non-payment and that I could connect him to the appropriate person to help him. He interrupted me, saying he had a statement in his hand showing his bill was due later in the month and that we had no right to shut off his service. I explained the bill is correct in that the current charges were due later in the month, but the past due amount was unpaid and needed to be paid to restore his service. He became hostile, told me to stop interrupting him and let him talk. Okay, not a problem. He again proceeded to read the bill (conveniently forgetting a past due notice had been mailed to him) and insisted the bill was showing it needed to be paid later in the month (pause). I responded again with the fact that it related to the current charges. Next thing I know, it was like a bomb had gone off. “You keep interrupting me and calling me a liar!” Trying to keep cool, I advised him that we could connect him to collections to resolve it, to which he said “no, you will deal with this yourself or you will give me a supervisor”. I again told him billing does not handle this type of issue, but collections could. “You’re doing it again, interrupting me and calling me a liar! Get me your supervisor.” By this point, I gave up and went to hunt for a supervisor. It took ten long minutes to do it. Every two minutes, per requirement of the job, I had to come back and tell him we were still waiting to get a supervisor. Each time I came back he would tell me to stop talking to him and get him what he wanted. After ten minutes, one came on to the phone, and I got to listen in. This guy advised my supervisor that I was calling him a liar, kept overtalking him, and kept speaking to him after placing him on hold to tell him about a supervisor was on the way when he told me to stop talking to him. It took five more minutes just for my supervisor to explain the policy of hold times, and employees could be terminated if the customer was on hold for a lengthy amount of time. But, after that, my supervisor apologized for my behavior on the phone, assuring him I would be dealt with accordingly! Also, she agree to turn on his phone, not require him to make a payment, plus waived the reconnect fee normally billed for non paying customers. Meanwhile, this man’s phone history spoke for itself. Every month, he would call in after the phone was shut off, and the moment a courteous person would talk to him, he would purposely become hostile, would not allow the rep to transfer him to collections, and would do the same thing about how rude the rep was to him. In nearly five of these calls, supervisors all sided with this customer, and all of them agreed to provide outlandish things, like two months of free phone service, and no reconnect fee be billed. It didn’t matter in either of these cases how outlandish and unreasonable these two customers were. In each case, managers also sided with the customer for fear of losing their business. As with the second story, that man had cost the phone company a few hundred dollars with the free services he received for his ugly, nasty behavior, and Valerie in the first story got her way no matter what. It makes you wonder if these are the type of people who would commit murder to get what they want. “The customer is always right” should be thrown out the window. It’s costing companies revenue, plus employees careers are being raked over the coals because of it. Jack Jones says: November 8, 2006 at 5:22 pm One thing I wanted to clear up on the Valerie story, I wanted to let you all know I don’t always proofread my remarks. I should say that I did not tell Valerie that she was being hostile and therefore I could not provide my entire name. I only told her that because of company policy, we did not provide our entire names to customers. The policy we did not tell customers was due to security and the possibility of hostile customers wanting to look up certain company employees, we only will provide our first names, and if the customer demands an entire name, we were to refer that to a supervisor. Bill says: November 9, 2006 at 1:00 am How about when you are the customer? Are you ever wrong? How about when you are trying to get the government to do something and you are the customer, wouldn’t it be nice if the government workers thought that you, as the customer, was always right. It all depends on who the customer is. Just maybe you mean, “I’m always right,” and this doesn’t have anything to do with the customer. Do you see what a good company Publix is and how they are a major grocer in Florida. Don’t you see that? Diana B. says: November 10, 2006 at 3:54 pm I just printed out your terrific article “Top 5 Reasons why ‘The Customer is Always Right’ is Wrong.” I am going to give copies of it to our administrator, our director of nursing, and to the clueless empty suits at our ivory tower corporate office. I am a licensed practical nurse at a long-term and rehab facility. Most of our patients and their families are wonderful, considering their circumstances. However, we have our share of rude and obnoxious patients and even more rude and obnoxious family members. When they complain about a staff member, the administration always sides with them and the staff member gets disciplined without recourse. No one advocates for us. Granted, they are under immense physical and emotional stress, but that is no justification to abuse people whose job it is to help them or their relative. I feel like taking some of them by the shoulder, showing them the sign on the front lawn, and telling them, “See that sign out there? It says _______ Health Care, not _______ Hilton.” (Except at the Hilton the food is better and it probably costs alot less!) If the facility had any balls, they would tell these people, “It’s obvious that you feel that your mother isn’t getting the type of care here that you think she requires. Therefore, we will be glad to assist you in placing her in another facility.” Is keeping a bed full worth subjecting your staff to abuse? Ironically, the worst offenders are often health care providers themselves! We had one visitor, an LPN who works for a doctor’s office, blowing up all day at the staff yesterday. Last night, I caught her reading her mother’s chart after apparently going behind the nurses’ station to retrieve it. I told her that this was a violation of HIPAA, the laws that govern confidentiality of patient information, and that if my mother was a patient of her employer, I would hardly be allowed to go into the office to look at her chart. Dragon Lady apologized and said she thought that as her mother’s POA, she would be allowed to look at the chart. This was unprofessional behavior and she completely overstepped her bounds. I left my unit manager a note about this. Thanls for giving me the chance to vent. I’m sure there are countless other health care providers out there who could provide even worse horror stories! Diana B. says: November 10, 2006 at 3:55 pm I just printed out your terrific article “Top 5 Reasons why ‘The Customer is Always Right’ is Wrong.” I am going to give copies of it to our administrator, our director of nursing, and to the clueless empty suits at our ivory tower corporate office. I am a licensed practical nurse at a long-term and rehab facility. Most of our patients and their families are wonderful, considering their circumstances. However, we have our share of rude and obnoxious patients and even more rude and obnoxious family members. When they complain about a staff member, the administration always sides with them and the staff member gets disciplined without recourse. No one advocates for us. Granted, they are under immense physical and emotional stress, but that is no justification to abuse people whose job it is to help them or their relative. I feel like taking some of them by the shoulder, showing them the sign on the front lawn, and telling them, “See that sign out there? It says _______ Health Care, not _______ Hilton.” (Except at the Hilton the food is better and it probably costs alot less!) If the facility had any balls, they would tell these people, “It’s obvious that you feel that your mother isn’t getting the type of care here that you think she requires. Therefore, we will be glad to assist you in placing her in another facility.” Is keeping a bed full worth subjecting your staff to abuse? Ironically, the worst offenders are often health care providers themselves! We had one visitor, an LPN who works for a doctor’s office, blowing up all day at the staff yesterday. Last night, I caught her reading her mother’s chart after apparently going behind the nurses’ station to retrieve it. I told her that this was a violation of HIPAA, the laws that govern confidentiality of patient information, and that if my mother was a patient of her employer, I would hardly be allowed to go into the office to look at her chart. Dragon Lady apologized and said she thought that as her mother’s POA, she would be allowed to look at the chart. This was unprofessional behavior and she completely overstepped her bounds. I left my unit manager a note about this. Thanks for giving me the chance to vent. I’m sure there are countless other health care providers out there who could provide even worse horror stories! Jack Jones says: November 10, 2006 at 6:22 pm Bill, from November 9th. You apparently missed the point I was making. Yes, I am at times also the customer, but I also know the different between right and wrong, and what is reasonable and what is not. I’ve been a disgruntled customer myself on things, and if I paid for something that I was not satisfied with, or I dealt with a rude employee, I would expect some sort of restitution, like an apology or a refund. I use common sense when I am the customer and do not make unreasonable demands such as, “Well, I paid $50 for this product, I hated it and now I want a $100 refund” or “I didn’t get my credit card bill, so I expect your company to just wipe off that $1,000 balance I owe.” Yes, Publix is a great company and my favorite grocery store to shop at. My point on that was it is also the major grocer in South Florida that deals with many of these type of people, and much of the time they give in due to the fact the customers know this. Perhaps you’re a believer of “The customer is always right”, but more into “The customer is always right no matter what and NEVER wrong” Sue says: November 11, 2006 at 11:42 am Having myself subjected to 6years of customer service line has made me realize that that phrase is bullshit. And having employers who side with unreasonable buggers, firing their employees because the customer couldn’t even provide basic details to their problems, is just too much. From clueless idiots to unreasonable buggers, and even people who cuss at you because they are having a bad day or not getting what they want immediately. These people are missing a major point, aren’t we all on a equal standing? Being in service line doesn’t mean we are of poor education or wannabe servants, but yet nowadays even domestic helps are getting more respect than any of the customer service people. I went back to school and during one lesson, my Marketing lecturer stressed on the phrase: “The Customers are ALWAYS right” He even explained an incident where he picked on a receptionist, being unreasonable and stuff, so that he could ‘train’ her to be a more customer-oriented person. After which, he called her superior and complained about not having his calls transferred within 5mins. He’s sick, in my opinion, to actually do all these to someone who’s there to earn a living and feed her family. Humans err. Through communication, we could understand what each individual need and what could be the best solution. But it takes two hands to clap, i hope that both customers and customer service officers could make the effort as well. Diana B. says: The nurse again. i showed the article to several of my co-workers and it was a revelation to them. Finally, someone is on our side! Yest the customer is always right, except they’re rude, offensive, or insist that you do something unethical or illegal. Just a follow up regarding the guy who wouldn’t remove his son’s KKK/Nazi cap: Suppose the hat enraged another passenger so much that he kicked Hitler, Jr. in the family jewels. What would the father do then? Al says: November 19, 2006 at 12:17 pm The idiom was created in the first place because customer service was universally bad at that time. Companies picked up on it because it gave them a competitive advantage. If competition isn’t too bad, CS isn’t going to make or break the company and the employee as the ‘internal customer’ is more important. It seems that the pendulum is swinging back to another equilibrium point – that is, until people get fed up with bad service again, and service once again becomes a competitive advantage. Door Matt says: November 26, 2006 at 3:07 am I too am currently scourged by an antagonistic and boorish purchasing agent (a ‘customer’, I’ll refer to him as ‘John’) that only finds fault with anything myself or my company does as a course of daily business. A little insight; I actually worked with this ‘John’, a miserable s.o.b., in the same company, for the better part of 10 years. His M.O. was to bully fellow employees and vendors into his way about everything under the sun…I was one of the few that had the balls to stand up and not take the bullshit. Vendors, unfortunately, are not so quick to do that for obvious reasons. Now that I have left that company and sell product to them, ‘John’ has made it a point to break my balls every chance he gets. He gets off sending emails detailing how I could do my job better. I guess seeing as though he has so much time to do this, he MUST be incredibly efficient at HIS job (see the ‘I don’t have time’ excuse below). He has been rude to a really nice Customer Service lady that helps me on the inside. He insisted that my company fly in product he wanted from Japan (at our expense, of course) to meet a very short deadline, only to cancel the order after the product he wanted was already en-route. He routinely places PO’s with ‘or else’ style threats if we don’t deliver what he wants on time; numerous requests to this a-hole for project planning sessions (to avoid his ’emergencies’) and so-forth are routinely met with ‘I don’t have time’ or ‘I don’t know’. I’m not sure this person could successfully plan a birthday party. I have great relationships with the 3 other purchasers at this same place, and they and everyone else can’t stand the guy. ‘John’ went as far as to lecture a sales rep for a different vendor that he better ask for him next time and not an engineer, even though the engineer called this vendor for his assistance. Needless to say, ‘John’ has a reputation. Recently, I let ‘John’s’ supervisors know of the continued harassment ( 2 years now) and that I would no longer respond to his constant haranging. My supervisors have been kept copied on all emails and call details with regard to this person. My supervisors are well-aware of ‘John’ and his reputation, as are all of my competitors. Many of them have left the building humiliated and angry because of this man. The customer is always right? I call BULLSHIT. Those that uphold this ridiculous maxim, I submit, are the same ones that would abuse it for their selfish purposes. Lets face it, customers that routinely MANIPULATE others behind the guise of this maxim do it to cover up their own shortcomings, and rarely deserve the ‘hall pass’ they get from disconnected managers/supervisors that often do so because they don’t want to/don’t know how to deal with these dysfunctional people. I have had great success at 99% of my accounts, and am not going to let this prick proceed as he has. He is costing my company money in the long run and doesn’t deserve the attention he demands. Love to hear your suggestions/input. Don says: November 26, 2006 at 5:22 pm I think the ‘customer is always right’ saying is indictitive of what goes on a lot in many companies today, that is to take what is in reality a complex and important task (customer service) and compact it into one saying that doesn’t allow the employee any movement at all to actually do his/her job (serve customers). I work as a materials estimator for a medium-sized building supply company. Everyday I am dealing with customers who want to do their building on the cheap, thus sacrificing quality and safety for the sake of dollars. I have constant battles with the higher-ups because I adhere to one simple policy: I service the customer with what he NEEDS, not what he WANTS. I refuse to put my name on something I know will be unsafe or unsatisfactory. Doing this in the past when I was far more inexperienced cost the company time and money, voiding the initial benefit of the sale by a mile. Working in any customer-related industry, there is a desire to keep customers satisfied. But there is a difference between that and knowingly giving in to a customer’s unreasonable demands. I often have to remind customers that we are in business to make money first and make people happy second. When a customer walks into my office, I view our relationship as a mutually benefical one: he has something we want (money), we have something he wants (materials). I am confident that I can service the customer better than our competitors and that is why I feel the customer has chosen to work with me, rather than someone else. But by sticking to my ethics and not just simply heaping platitudes upon the customer and then selling him whatever he wants, I feel that I am giving him the best customer service for what he is spending. December 6, 2006 at 7:53 pm This is a great post. Now, of course we as business owners can also be wrong, sometimes we are at fault when customers get upset. I know my company’s customer service could definitely be improved. It’s when it becomes a pattern, when you keep seeing the same name over and over again, that you have to let them go. I personally don’t care so much if people are rude, if they don’t cost me money, it’s when they cost you money and are insulting it’s tough to take. On a related note, I just don’t understand why companies almost seem to encourage returns, even offering free return shipping. I find the customers that return things, for the most part, are the most difficult ones and cause my company to lose money. Rather than offering free return shipping and other incentives to convince them to buy, I do the opposite. If people aren’t really sure they want the product, I’d much rather they not buy it. It’s the old fashioned big company mentality, try to make every single sale you can and remove whatever obstacles necessary to do so, without considering if it is actually worthwhile. Foamy says: December 7, 2006 at 1:33 am Sadly, a lot of the customers who use the whole “The customer is always right” excuse are either a) complete morons who’d have trouble finding their own front door b) people who are ticked off at the employee cuz they refused to go against company policy for the customer or c) scammers. That’s how it is in my experience anyway. Sheeraz Awan says: December 18, 2006 at 12:34 am This page has been a breath of fresh air. I have worked at Dairy Queen and a local bank here as a Client Service Representative, and I can tell you I have lost hairs and my health in this stupid client services business. People are totally unreasonable, iodiotic and seems to me that they come from another world. I am trying desperatley to get out and get a job somwehere else, where there will be not much requirements for client services. If I have had it, enough is enough. Seems to me that people find anything to complain about. January 4, 2007 at 10:34 pm I worked at a Petco. There was one customer who had been special ordering a certain hard to find dog food from our store. After I was hired I was placed in charge of the responsibility of ordering her food. She expected us to always have the food in stock, but no hold it for two long. She expected it to be placed onto a cart from the back room, loaded into our car, and rung out while she stood by the door. One time we didn’t have the required food in stock because our regional distribution center was out and all hell broke lose. This is not very available dog food. The total amount of stock in the entire district is less than 10% of what she orders. Regardless of the fact that I had a months worth paperwork detailing the 3 orders, transfer requests, and estimated delivery dates for her dog food she decided to call the company headquatrers and complain about me. I was enraged because there was nothing I could of done besides drive to 500 miles round trip to get her dog food. Apparently that was the appropriate thing to do. So I gathered up the products margins, estimated delivery costs based on national transportation averages, gas prices, etc, time spent ordering and preparing her order and even with conservative estimates found that Petco was actually losing money with her transactions. We even gave her special discounts for the pleasure of her doing business us and the margin of the product was lower than 5%. I threw my docs together and emailed them up the chain of command to receive back more stupid “customer is always right” mantras than I knew what to do with. My attitude and customer service was never the same. Bad customers fuck up your head in retail and the good ones aren’t given the service they deserve. Kevin M says: January 4, 2007 at 11:15 pm My own experience is right on line with the debunking of the The Customer Is Always Right myth. I worked as a floor support technician in a certain large entertainment company (cannot reveal any more info other than that!) There were clear layers of customer support escalation from 1st level, 2nd level, dept management, on up. We lower-level employee techs were pretty-much dictated to by our immediate managers about TCIAR for the other floor employees we provide technical service to. In reality, we had to satisfy four groups: 1) our “regular” customers — e.g., low to mid-level company personnel, 2) the real mid to high-level company VIPs 3) those troublesome/demanding”squeeky wheels” every company seems to have, and 4) our immediate and higher-level managers Our immediate managers certainly MENTIONED TCIAR for groups 1 to 3, but very clearly made it known to all that THEY, group 4, were the ones we really had to please EVEN ABOVE OUR SUPPORTED CUSTOMERS. We floor technicians handled every technical service call from customers coming our way. Usually, service calls were prioritized and handled by the actual needs of group 1’s regular non-VIP company personnel. If a VIP needed any sort of attention or hand-holding for a technical issue, though, we had to drop any other service we were performing for the company and RUN to do the VIPs bidding. This made a certain amount of sense since such VIPs were the “customers” that presumably generated the most company business. We attempted to deal with the constantly-calling employees in group 3 by fanalyzing how many times they called to complain/vent, how many times they tried asking us “to just take a look” at their service issues, and by diagnosing the actual importance of their service needs. A frequently occurring “company politics” issue at this company was trying to balance the trivial needs of a VIP and/or a non-VIP “squeeky wheel” with the urgent and sometimes CRITICAL needs of our company’s regular employees. Managements’ TCIAR slogan was repeated for troublesome “customers” constantly pestering we floor-technicians for attention, and of course for VIPs. In the former cases or where VIPs needed coddling at the expense of non-executive employees with ACTUAL urgent needs, the latter were pretty screwed. By the manager’s dissatisfactorily changing the TCIAR myth for their own uses — in such cases — not only were standard employees sometimes left helpless, but ultimately we floor-technicians who had to revisit these employees had to answer for why we could not help them in their hour of need (and these employees were more often than not ACTUALLY CORRECT in the urgency of their service requests! This management’s pecking chart prioritization of which customers SHOULD be right, ultimately resulted in some bad feelings from the company’s various departments towards our own management, which was then shoveled right back down unto we lower-level floor techs. We were employees too — treated poorly at the expense of troublesome “squeeky wheel” loudmouths — and many of us good floor techs quit the company due to the managers twisting The Customer Is Always Right for their own uses. Kevin M says: January 4, 2007 at 11:19 pm My own experience is right on line with the debunking of the The Customer Is Always Right myth. I worked as a floor support technician in a certain large entertainment company (cannot reveal any more info other than that!) There were clear layers of customer support escalation from 1st level, 2nd level, dept management, on up. We lower-level employee techs were pretty-much dictated to by our immediate managers about TCIAR for the other floor employees we provide technical service to. In reality, we had to satisfy four groups: 1) our “regular” customers — e.g., low to mid-level company personnel, 2) the real mid to high-level company VIPs 3) those troublesome/demanding”squeeky wheels” every company seems to have, and 4) our immediate and higher-level managers Our immediate managers certainly MENTIONED TCIAR for groups 1 to 3, but very clearly made it known to all that THEY, group 4, were the ones we really had to please EVEN ABOVE OUR SUPPORTED CUSTOMERS. We floor technicians handled every technical service call from customers coming our way. Usually, service calls were prioritized and handled by the actual needs of group 1’s regular non-VIP company personnel. If a VIP needed any sort of attention or hand-holding for a technical issue, though, we had to drop any other service we were performing for the company and RUN to do the VIPs bidding. This made a certain amount of sense since such VIPs were the “customers” that presumably generated the most company business. We attempted to deal with the constantly-calling employees in group 3 by first analyzing how many times they called to complain/vent, how many times they tried asking us “to just take a look” at their service issues, and by diagnosing the actual importance of their service needs. A frequently occurring “company politics” issue at this company was trying to balance the trivial needs of a VIP and/or a non-VIP “squeeky wheel” with the urgent and sometimes CRITICAL needs of our company’s regular employees. Managements’ TCIAR slogan was repeated for troublesome “customers” constantly pestering we floor-technicians for attention, and of course for VIPs. In the former cases or where VIPs needed coddling at the expense of non-executive employees with ACTUAL urgent needs, the latter were pretty much screwed. By the manager’s dissatisfactorily changing the TCIAR myth for their own uses — in such cases — not only were standard employees sometimes left helpless, but ultimately we floor-technicians who had to revisit these employees had to answer for why we could not help them in their hour of need (and these employees were more often than not ABSOLUTELY CORRECT in the urgency of their service requests!) Management would often not listen to such customers until their service issues were more forcefully emphasised. This management’s pecking chart prioritization of which customers SHOULD be right, ultimately resulted in some bad feelings from the company’s various departments towards our own management, which was then shoveled right back down unto we lower-level floor techs. We were employees too — treated poorly at the expense of some troublesome “squeeky wheel” loudmouths — and many of us good floor techs quit the company due to the managers twisting The Customer Is Always Right for their own uses. nycoose says: January 5, 2007 at 1:53 am RE: why-the-customer-is-always-right-results-in-bad-customer-service In some cases, certain companies how been known to quote “the customer is always right” mantra at the same time as they get away with doing the opposite extreme. Yes, its true! The IT Support person who wrote the above is no doubt aware, as others reading this certainly are, of the great Microsoft company’s reknown negligence of the customer. One circulating quote is how Microsoft redefines the term “customer”. A customer, according to Microsoft is “A thief in possession of money which is rightfully ours”. (see the piece “Busted! What happens when WGA attacks” at [http://blogs.zdnet.com/Bott/?p=113] and whisperycat’s 08/10/06 talkback on this piece). Another Microsoft anti-customer piece is appropriately called “Microsoft: Screw The Customer”, by The Argoknot.com [http://www.argoknot.com/index.php/site/comments/microsoft_screw_the_customer/] And it is not just Microsoft which is out to completely debunk the “customer is always right” mantra beyond any shred of a doubt. Even as this comment is being written a Diggable blog about the RIAA called the “Recording Industry vs The People” is being highlighted, [http://recordingindustryvspeople.blogspot.com/] Although this blog is subtitled “A blog devoted to the RIAA’s lawsuits of intimidation brought against ordinary working people”, you can just as easily substitute “the customer” for “ordinary working people”. Note that there are other large institutions already noted by other commentators above that practice the same attitude. Again, these widely known current examples will show that certain companies are actually pushing their success based upon presuming that the customer is always WRONG WRONG WRONG, completely opposite from the historical “pro-customer-at-all-costs” position debunked w/in the Top 5 Reasons listed on top. Josh G says: January 5, 2007 at 2:16 am I worked at Wal-Mart, in the sporting goods department, while in school. One day a customer called in about a certain shotgun wanting to know the price. I looked through the cabinet’s glass door and told him. Within an hour he was standing in front of me ready to pay for the gun. Only when I removed it from the cabinet did I discover the tag was twisted around another. The actual price was significantly higher than what I’d read to him over the phone. In fact almost double. No wonder he’d arrived so quickly! Well it didn’t take long before the manager was involved. I tried to explain that the tags were twisted and it *appeared* that the price of the gun next to it was actually the one attached. He wouldn’t hear it. The manager agreed with me, but had to take it up the chain to the district manager. The district manager made the decision that I was at fault and the customer should have the gun at half the regular retail price. I was demoted. Then, I left the company with no more respect for it. February 10, 2007 at 6:11 am Great post. This is real fact. In my 22 years experience in Customer service I have seen that its leteraly impossible to satisfy 100% customers. Some customer’s demand, wish list and requirements are so impractical which is not possible to serve. Therefore its very right not to try to satisfy them with cost of our employee’s satisfaction. leah o'kelly says: February 12, 2007 at 1:51 pm I always buy pampers nappies and have done for 4 years now but i was discusted when i bought a box as usual from my local morrisons store only to open the box to use one an find that most of the nappies were stuck together in the wrong shape, they were size 4 an a box of 88 and only 51 of them was i able to use. i dont expect this to happen as i want quality thanks February 12, 2007 at 7:22 pm Quite frankly, I agree with the phrase; “the customer is always right”…because I define ‘customer’ different than simply someone who shows up to spend money at my establishment. A customer is NOT just someone who shows up to spend money at your place of business. It’s someone who shows up OFTEN. My employees KNOW who my customers are, and my customers KNOW my employees! A TRUE customer would NEVER give attitude to an employee, and they’d NEVER take that arrogant “I’m always right” stance. Many a corporate bottom line has been damaged by companies that adopt that mentality. March 2, 2007 at 10:09 am Had a weird day a work today. We blame it on the full moon. I’d love for all those poorly paid employees at places like Walmart in the USA or Zellers/Bay(Target) in Canada, and I know there are THOUSANDS of you, to just not buy anything from your employer. Just one day a month, all of you choosing the same day. Not one penny spent, not even lunch or coffee or a pack of gum. Buy what you want, but pick it up from a place you know is friendly and respectful to you and to their employees. (Most likely a small, local business) Remember, you are also customers, and hey! the customer is always right! Isn’t that right, Boss? Having said that, most of our clients are lovely, intelligent, reasonable people. A very few, on the other hand, are obviously very unhappy campers. Miserable, selfish, illogical, mean, overbearing, and just plain wrong, wrong, wrong. When a confrontation brews, I’ve figured out that most of the really horrible stuff isn’t about me, or even the product or service. I take great delight in diffusing the bomb by just agreeing with them ‘yes, I understand, I really appreciate how disappointed you are, etc, etc’. (Then I stick to my guns. I’ve been in trouble a few times, but have other plans that don’t include staying with the company much longer). I’ve worked retail, and now I’m in an office environment. And customer service is part of my job. In my 35 years of employment, I can only think of two bosses who actually backed up their front line people when the client clearly had unreasonable expectations. And if we screwed up, or lost our cool, we’d know about it in no uncertain terms. BUT never where the customer could hear. Those two bosses treated us with respect. The issue would later be reviewed, discussed, and possible alternatives were offered. And there was no threat of firing. I think we would have died for those two guys. The other companies lost so much market share from the ‘TCIAR’ policy that they ended up with warehouses literally packed to the rafters with useless, returned product. One was a paint company, so disposal of perfectly good product cost a fortune in expensive, specialized chemical waste treatment. Another went bankrupt because of it. The ex-employees all found work elsewhere or created their own, and we get together once in a while to laugh at the stupidity of middle and upper management. We tell a lot of dumb boss jokes. We think of them with the same contempt and disrespect we were subjected to, when we think of them at all, then we have another beer and go home. Matt A. says: March 8, 2007 at 11:12 pm I enjoyed the article, but you missed something. The Number 1 reason that the customer shouldn’t assume that they are always right is that the expression “The Customer Is Always Right” isn’t a generic rule of thumb or policy for businesses. It was a policy that the founder of Nordstroms came up with when he opened his first store in Seattle, WA……in 1911. The notion that “the customer is always right” is a disease which has caused customers to stop listening to what they’re being told. In particular, Americans abuse people in the service industry, because they incorrectly believe they are above reproach. And I’m an American saying that. April 11, 2007 at 10:10 pm Very interesting posts. I was in the furniture business for almost 20 years, working for a total of 3 companies in that time. I have done everything from cleaning bathrooms to general manager. I used to say “This would be the best job in the world if it weren’t for customers and employees”. There was a lot of truth to that statement, even though it was usually said in jest. As a hiring manager, I always told new employees that if they wouldn’t take it from a sibling, spouse or friend, they don’t have top take it from a customer either. Our mantra was when the customer is right, they’re right and when they’re wrong, they are wrong. Rude and abusive customers were intentionaly given the very minimum service, if any at all. It allowed us the time, energy and MONEY to go above and beyond the call of duty for those that deserved it. I averaged about two calls a year to the police to remove unruly customers. The ones remaining in the store were more than appreciative to see the abuser get the boot. Also, as a manager in an industry that has a tremendously high employee turnover rate, I lost a total of three employees during a ten year period. One was fired for cause. One left to become a full time Mom after the birth of her second child. The third moved out of state. I NEVER lost an employee to a competitor. Why? Because we treated our employees the way we wanted to be treated…with respect and civility. We demanded the same from anyone wanting to do business with us. To illustrate, I’ll give you one example: Saturdays are always a busy time in the store. We rarely delivered on Saturdays, but usually did before most holidays to do our best to get things delivered on time for the occasion. A winter storm had dumped three feet of snow overnight and was going to continue throughout Saturday. Before we opened, I called everyone on the delivery schedule to tell them we would do our best to make it if conditions allowed, but I could not make any promises. One customer re-scheduled and the rest politely accepted the attempt at delivery, knowing we might not make it. The store became very busy throuout the day, despite the weather. Early deliveries were made okay, but as the day ensued, the conditions worsened. I offered my drivers the option to cancel. They declined and kept plugging away. I called each customer on the schedule with an update as the guys made their slow progress. At 4pm, we had only two deliveries left when our truck became stranded in the snow. The first customer understood. Then I called the last customer. Mind you, my store was busy and I had to conduct these calls from the counter in full view of of our customers. The last customer waiting for delivery blew up at me. Fine, I always let someone blow off steam for three to five minutes. She DEMANDED we deliver! RIGHT NOW! I explained I had a tow truck en-route to ours, but I could not deliver RIGHT NOW when my truck was buried in the snow 25 miles away. This went back and forth, on and on to the point that customers had stopped their shopping to listen in. After about ten minutes of this I put her on speakerphone so they could hear her tirade. I had to go back to the handset when she began throwing the f-bomb every third or fourth word. I immediately told her our business relationship had ended. I would not allow her to talk to my employees the way she had talked to me. I was mailing her a refund check for her deposit and she would be arrested for trespassing if she came into our store. Thern I hung up. The store exploded into applause! For two weeks afterwards, the owner recieved calls and letters about how happy they were to see abusive and rude conduct NOT be rewarded. (This was a whole house, $25,000 order…not small change!) The end result made it all worthwhile. The husband called back 15 minutes later to apologize for his wife’s conduct, ask if my guys were ok, and also ask if he could still get his furniture if not that day, then on the next available, I thanked him for his apology and concern for my guys stuck in the snow. I then told him that we would make the delivery on ONE condition: if your wife says ONE NEGATIVE WORD to my drivers, they are out of there, period. Not only was the wife silent during the delivery, but he helped my guys carry-in and set-up and then tipped them each $20. After they left, he again called me with another apology and his appreciation of my guys efforts and professionalism. The only thing that would have been better is if that 2nd call had come from HER. Treat your employees like crap and they will get you back ten times over. Treat them like gold and theyll do handstands for you and your customers. Scott McLean says: April 11, 2007 at 10:49 pm Lucas, Your post should turn on a little light bulb in ANYONE’S head that reads it – you have nailed it!!! Civility, like freedom must be defended. The way you handled the abusive customer was something any manager should learn and embrace. Sometimes in this world you have to demand respect from people that have no idea what it is. Here-here!!! April 27, 2007 at 3:12 pm I work for a direct selling company as a technical support analyst, in our company no matter what these consultants or customers are always right no matter how much disrespect they have for the people who are trying to help them. This has made me despise my job to the point where I am looking for other opportunities whether that means relocation or not. I believe your power is in your people and agree with all that was said in this article. Jaime says: April 27, 2007 at 3:16 pm I believe in everything said in this article. I work for a direct selling company who believes that the customer or consultant is always right regardless of how badly they treat those of us trying to help them (I am a technical support analyst). This has made me hate my job so much I am looking for employment elsewhere even if it means relocation. D. Gallo says: May 8, 2007 at 1:17 pm What you are saying is ” we should only do business with nice customers” or if you are not nice to us we will not be nice to you! If you have a customer that is not “the nicest person” but you can “find a way to deal with them” and be profiatble over time – that is the challange! It’s easy to deal with nice customers…….A good service company should be able to deal with almost any customer. It sounds like you are advocating that the employees should be picking and choosing the customers……..wrong! The old saying that the customer is always right is true……..but, it is a lot harder to deal with. Just because at times it is harder to deal with – doesn’t make it untrue. Lucas says: May 8, 2007 at 1:39 pm D, Gallo…you missed my point. We never failed the attempt at selling difficult customers. Quite the contrary, we were very good at it. However, there is a BIG difference between a difficult customer and an abusive one. Just as much as there is a big difference between a difficult spouse and an abusive one. Our staff was able and eager to sell everyone, secure in the knowledge that the one or two people a year that became abusive would be shown the door. We didn’t pick or choose who to sell. We just empowered the staff to come to us about situations that were detrimental to the staff and the other customers in the store. Would you tell your daughter to remain in an abusive relationship? Of course not, anymore that I would let ANYONE be abused in my presence. It should NOT be a requirement of employment to put up with that. And, quite frankly, the cutomers that would observe such situations were always quick to thank us for dealing with said behavior.\ The customer is NOT always right. The challenge is to have the courage to speak up when the customer is wrong. D. Gallo says: May 8, 2007 at 2:03 pm I understand that there is that exceptional “nut case”…….There is an exception to every rule. That doesn’t mean we have to “junk the rule”. For the most part – the customer is RIGHT is true! Learning how to deal with difficult customers, and how to diffuse and handle sometimes difficult situations that arise is important. I have seen irate and sometimes irrational thinking customers brought around to become satisfied and long term customers. For the exceptional abusive customer that is creating a threat – yes I agree all company’s should have a policy that is documented to deal with that! It is important to protect employees but, hopefully it is the exception…… I have seen many times when the customer service person helps to push a customer toward a negative encounter….Alternatley a well trained and happy customer service person can and should steer the customer away from confrontational behavior…….that to me – is the biggest challange! Lucas says: May 29, 2007 at 11:26 am I worked in customer service in a large telco, we had to obey the privacy laws of the country which prevent disclosure of information to anyone but the person themselves or certain government authorities (the police basically). Penalty was/is 250 000 dollars and five years in prison. Got a customer who refused to say who he was but who wanted information about “his” account. Stayed polite throughout (which he didn’t, then again perhaps I am an arrogant pipsqueak with a hitler complex) and explained that I couldn’t help him without him identifying himself. (full name, password) He asked for my name and I gave it (company policy) and he complained about me. I knew I’d done exactly the right thing exactly how I was taught so I wasn’t worried. Well the customer was right and I was formally reprimanded and told that another instance like that and I would be sacked. So from then on whenever a customer asked for my name or looked like they might complain about something I didn’t try to win them over, I just asked them to hold and hung up on them (and I spent my off time looking for another job). The reason I asked them to hold was because the hold button and release button were both red and right next to each other and I figured if I got caught I’d say I hit the wrong button by mistake. July 30, 2007 at 4:48 am We used to have a sign under our counter that said “The customer is always right…and usually ugly too.” It helped give us a chuckle when someone was being completely offensive. I have to say though that I had an amazing boss at that place who would do what she could to make the customer happy but then look at us and say we did the best we could or just remember you don’t get paid enough to take that kind of abuse so call me, etc. She was wonderful at trying to maintain both relationships. October 18, 2007 at 9:20 pm Thank you SO much for this. My boss apologized to an irate customer I’d stopped from going into a staff area to use the rest room. Since the customer rest rooms are clearly marked and nearby, I thought the customer was confused and escorted her to the bathroom. She took exception, sent my boss a rambling, confused letter and threatened to go to the local paper to complain about her treatment. (I do believe the poor creature is senile since she mentioned in her letter that Jesus told her to take this up as a cause.) She’s written the letter and my boss is concerned. I feel unsupported and could have told her there was nothing we could have done for this poor lady to make her feel better. Cassandra says: I’m appalled by the lack of good CS in all manner of business these days. In the last few years alone: I have been hung up on. I have been given the wrong information and fake names-(first names are ok, just don’t give me a fake one). I have heard rude comments and time-killing talk when they thought they placed me on hold to “go look into that” for me. I have been told absolutely and completely different versions of company policy by each and every different person who answered the phone at the same company. I have had people pause while helping me to turn their backs to me and finish conversations that, again, were not work related-yes I could hear every word about her boyfriend’s hair gel preference and how good it smells. I had a clerk refuse to let me use a public restroom that his co-worker had just come out of, while I was 8 months pregnant and after we had just spent $35 on gas-I don’t know if it was because I am not white or because he didn’t like my shoes, all I do know is that suddenly the restroom was okay for me to use when I said I’d be calling his supervisor about it-and I still called. I’ve even had fraudulent withdrawals attempted on my saving account that I happened to close the day before because I knew the supervisor was being shady–The short version of that story is that I paid off an account for my daughter but didn’t trust the company because of how they spoke both to her and myself, so I got my bank in on it, had them open a special savings account with only the exact amount of the settlement amount. For every customer horror story, there is at LEAST one customer service horror story. Part of the cost of whatever the product or service is decent to excellent customer service. Too many companies cease to think about ongoing service; they sold their product and now it’s on to peddle the next useless thing we don’t need. That is not how consumers think. If I’ve taken money from my account and it’s gone into your company’s pocket, and eventually trickles down into your paycheck…then I’m not going to be okay with being condescended when I call. A CSR is PAID to deliver decent CS. It’s not my problem if you chose a job that doesn’t pay you well or appreciate you enough. If you don’t have the temperament to deal with people, who probably wouldn’t be contacting you at all if there weren’t a problem, then you shouldn’t do it. And it’s not like I have never been in the position of doling out good customer service to people who are pains in the arse. I have done fast food, retail and bartending for many years. I have done childcare where you have to smile and say nice things to parents of horrid little monsters. I’ve dealt with drunks, racists, sexists, the elite, the poor, the liars and the best customers around…and I was kind-at times through clenched teeth-because that was my job. When I grew weary of it, I moved on. A lady (I use the term loosely) who was upset with me because I insisted she hadn’t told me a key bit of information that I needed in order to complete a task in time, told me that I needed to speak to her in a professional manner. Mind you, I hadn’t called her any names or raised my voice–but I was irritated with her calling me a liar. I told her that with all due respect, I wasn’t at work, she was, and it was she who needed to kick in the professionalism. She hung up on me. I called back, told the receptionist that that “lady” and I didn’t get along, could I speak to someone else. The next person listened to my issue with the first lady, handled the situation created by the first lady’s negligence with key information and, GASP, apologized for any inconvenience. All was well. Last but not least, I also notice when I receive outstanding CS. I call to commend good CS, I refer, I fill out the praise cards and I joke around with the really helpful and friendly ones. I’m the same with everyone, so if you think I’m just a pain in the arse customer myself, you would be mistaken, I just mightily dislike inefficiency. October 28, 2007 at 5:02 am As someone who comes across tales of customer misconduct on a daily basis, I definitely agree with your article. Painting customers a single color and expecting to service all of them is foolish, both to the bottom line and for morale. Customers are obviously human, but so are the humans that run the businesses that service them. Fail to address the human factor (on both sides of the coin), and the business itself will suffer. who really cares says: October 28, 2007 at 5:08 am shouldn’t this discussion end? it’s stupid, when the person standing across from you is your customer, visiting your business, you will have a different way of looking at this. When the customer standing across from you just dropped in and you are selling crap that doesn’t work anyway, now in that case everyone is a pain in the ass. joel says: November 1, 2007 at 9:51 pm I cannot but smile at this article , the Great Chef who teach me the trade some 40 years ago once told a very deamnding customer with ever changing last minute decision and yes Madam we will also have yellow toilet paper…..{the colors of that Customer’s Co.} it was a large piece of business for which most would have crawled under the floor , He never second and the business went throughour recession , various economic changes without effect to the contrary , it seems the mmore difficult the situation was the more customer we would have. On the other hand thetre was never ever a compromise for quality ….. I absolutely love this post, and I agree with every word. I was in customer service for a while, and that damn phrase gave customers the license to aggravate me. Nick says: November 7, 2007 at 8:43 pm Customers who complain or disagree with me ARE ALWAYS WRONG. I do my job every day, I know what I’m doing. They come in once and don’t like something and then complain to me because they’re idiots and somehow I’m supposed to cater to their idiocy at the expense of other customers and co-workers. I work at a coffee shop (one of the big ones, you know it) and constantly have people asking me “why did you get rid of this?” or “why don’t you have that?” or “why don’t you do this?” as if I own the company. I’m standing there in an apron making drinks and getting pastries for people and thanking them for bothering me… do I really look like someone who has ANY control over the business? Even my store manager barely controls any aspect of the business. Customers need to not only remember that WE’RE only human, but that they’re supposed to be mature adults and not stupid impatient ill-mannered children. We folks behind the counter are working hard and we’re NOT enjoying ourselves, even when we have to act like we are, so when they stroll in and have to face the task of simply ordering something, paying for it, and getting it, the least they can do is show some manners and respect, or for god’s sake some sympathy for the fact that the person helping them is at work and doesn’t get to be out having a good time shopping and drinking lattes like they are. This is how society is supposed to function, and somehow they’ve strayed from the path of decency. I never complain when I’m at a restaurant or store or coffee shop, it’s not like I own the place. As long as they’re sanitary, honest, and not rude to me, they can run it however the hell they want. It’s about time companies start showing more respect for loyal employees than stupid customers. They need to stop accepting disrespectfulness, and stop apologizing. PHATTY says: November 10, 2007 at 4:58 am your all ignorant. Customers should get whatever they want if they complain enough. Thats what my two dads tought me. I kicked over a movie stand because Walmart wouldnt give me a free movie for my pain and suffering of waiting in line so i pushed over the stand. They gave me the movie for 5 bucks. PHATTY says: November 10, 2007 at 7:42 am Phatty ! thank you oh so true , I got most of the movies for my kid for free from our local video store just for being a good Customer , As for Walmart and with all due respect in 56 years never been in one and never missed them either, they are only a company that promote a form of slavery by looking at the cheaper end of the bargain , this aside they have simply sold out the USA to the Communist Chinese which made no concession on Human right , they will most likely take this post down hopefully you will read it in time . You might want to check out other retailers , if they respect their Employees they will respect you . Laughing too hard says: November 10, 2007 at 1:08 pm Phatty and Joel, You 2 dimwits are exactly why this thread exists. In this country, you have a right to say whatever you want, but you DO NOT have a right to be heard. Phatty, if you really did what you say you did then your picture should be included with the entry of ‘loser’ in the dictionary. If I was waiting in line with you (one thing I never do if I can help it) I would have slapped your sorry ass all over that store for embarrassing yourself and other civilized humans. People just shouldn’t conduct themselves like spoiled children and expect ‘service’. You deserved a spanking, one you probably never got as a child. Ignorant, you say??? Look in the mirror….. Joel, I hope you refrain ‘teaching’ your uninformed and media-biased views of Wal-Mart. I never met anyone that said they were FORCED to work there. The only thing Wal-Mart is guilty of is providing just another choice for people and making some things affordable. Not everyone is a millionaire or can shop at Macy’s. If you have a problem with China’s human rights policy I suggest you take your concerns to their embassy and see how far you get with it. Wal-Mart is not the place for that. Slavery? People are limited only by themselves. Maybe if you left Blockbuster video once in awhile you just might form some intelligent opinions of your own, spawned by your own thoughts, not spoon-fed by Hollywood and the media at large. Put down the remote once in awhile and go outside and do something constructive for Pete’s sake. Deb says: November 10, 2007 at 6:16 pm Nobody is forced to work at Wal-Mart and there is a need for entry level jobs. When Chicago balked at Wal-Mart’s entry in the Chicago market a few years ago due to Chicago being a union town, Wal-Mart built their store in the bordering suburb of Evergreen Park. When Wal-Mart went to staff the store, they needed 325 employees. What was not surprising is that they had 25,000 individuals for those jobs, most of the applicants coming from Chicago. Chicago wised up and Wal-Mart is now in Chicago, providing jobs that lead to something better in some cases, or at the very least, putting a few bucks in the pockets of people who might never hold any job. joel says: November 10, 2007 at 7:30 pm Thank you Deb , you just made my point. Defining entry level job at Walmart ….entry level definition is usually attached to position with a good future , architect , lawyers and the like , unfortunatly by definition and sadly due to the lack or incomplete education they have no where else to go and at large will be stuck in that grove for their life. I have never been in any blockbuster ever and will not miss them either now that they are closing their store …I do have a TV and rarely watch it because of the washed out news,instead I rely on the various news paper ansd publication I recieve , having worked and leaved in 4 differents countries speaking reading to business level 5 languages,ran 1000 plus Employees Business etc… by the way if you care to look closer the largest world holder of US bond and the like is China ,unfortunatly they have slowed down considerably and like the oil producing Country are now investing in the Euro , more than before we need better education and today we rank 14 among all western Country and dropping , India is catching up so fast it is not even funny . Please for your own sake dropp Fox news and read the wall street journal at least it is in English . joel says: could we go back on the subject wich is top reason why Customer is always right is wrong. Deb says: November 10, 2007 at 8:57 pm Joel, entry level can also be defined as any job that gets you working, creating experience that can be applied to a another and better job. While attending college,I worked in the book department of a very prestigious department store (There was a book about the store titled, Give the Lady What She Wants-hint, hint) and was paid minimum wage though the expectations for customer service and professionalism were high.Previous to that, I had worked in a factory and as a waitress, both stepping stones to my job at the store. This led me to higher education and a profession as a librarian. I was the first college grad on both sides of my first generation American family and five of my eight siblings also went on to college and on to advanced degrees. If there had been a Wal-Mart in those days, I would have applied for work there. I respect any employer willing to give an uneducated and unsophisticated individual a chance since the rest is up to the individual. As far as being on topic, the customer is mostly right except when they are wrong and after 35 years of experience in customer service, I can count on both hands the times I have run into true wack jobs and that ain’t bad after thousands of transactions. joel says: November 10, 2007 at 9:25 pm Thanks Deb for further stating my point , Yes the Customer is aways right and yes give the Ldy what ever she want , hint pay up to the nose for it . There is a very Famous Judge who once said to a defendant in court as He was stating customer is always right , she went balistic and told Him if this was His defense He was a Sucker to which she slsammed the gavel and said pay up or else case closed . Obviousely this Gentleman had listen to well to that stupid sentence. Shoul;d customer be always right the house I bought should have come with a valet a banquet room , my vehicle should have been a Bugatti and my Wife would have married the Pope …… Laughing too hard says: November 10, 2007 at 10:35 pm Joel, not everyone goes right into the job of their choice. Many of us ‘peons’ worked our way through ‘entry-level’ jobs of various kinds through ‘higher’ education (leftist indoctrination) and eventually gravitated towards better positions. If there were no such jobs, then tell me just who would clean up after all the ignorant pigs that exist in this country? The ones I speak of are the ones that empty their car cigarette ashtrays/trash in front of small children at stoplights, or just the ones that can’t wait to get back to Blockbuster or kick over displays in WalMart because of an overdue diaper change. Deb is right on the mark. I don’t know what ‘famous judge’ you are talking about, but it must have either been you or Phatty in front of him bleating about the customer always being right. I would have thrown your sorry butt out of my court, too, had it been me. Lets agree on at least this point, considering carefully what ‘who really cares’ had to add, above; as a business owner myself, I am willing to take a CERTAIN DEGREE of your crap. I realize that your crap is usually accompanied by your money. Most everyone’s money is green. However, if you become abusive, disrespectful, or downright ridiculous or unreasonable, it is my right to politely tell you that you can no longer be helped and that the ‘conversation’ is over. Repeat-offender problem customers should be sent without delay to your competition, so that their time can be wasted. Thats economics 101 folks, don’t waste your time on time-wasting activities. Deb says: November 11, 2007 at 1:48 am Thanks, Laughing too hard–you’ve hit the nail on the head. My experience at those lowly jobs made me respect people regardless of economic status and made me a better person and, may I say, a wonderful employee. I can relate to the the welfare mother and to the VIP and my customers (patrons) appreciate me and have made me a success in my field. I never could have imagined that a peon like me could choose a career instead of having a job. Happiness in your profession is catching and people know when you love what you’re doing and care about them. (PS I leave huge tips when I eat out–being a waitress is hard work and I appreciate a great waiter or waitress as I would anyone who has made their job/profession into art.) Nick says: November 11, 2007 at 5:37 pm I agree that there is a need for entry level jobs. There is a need for pretty much every job in the world, including the most miserable of jobs. Someone has to do them. No one has argued otherwise, at least that I’ve read. Therefore, my entire point is, and always has been, that those who are fortunate and lucky enough to have good jobs (YES I AM IMPLYING THAT THERE IS OFTEN A LEVEL OF LUCK INVOLVED, THERE’S NO SKILL OR HARD WORK IN BEING BORN INTO A RICH FAMILY THAT HAS CONNECTIONS AND SENDS YOU TO A TOP COLLEGE), ought to at LEAST be kind and respectful to the people who have to do miserable or demeaning jobs every day. Otherwise, you’re kicking people who are already down, and that’s just low. Cassandra says: November 12, 2007 at 1:06 am I still say that the majority of you are missing the point. If you are a CSR in any capacity whatsoever, it is your job to deal with ALL types of people in a courteous and professional manner. Even the jerks. I’m not saying to be nice to people swearing at you or throwing things, if they are acting like that you should call the appropriate people to handle it. Unless bodily injury is imminent, you should still remain professional and try to detach yourself from the situation; YOU are the one at work, not the person freaking out. But if a customer is “merely” difficult and/or hard to please that does not change one’s job description, it actually heightens it and calls upon you to bring your best game; which, granted, does not always work. It’s often a thankless job and if you don’t like it or aren’t good at it, then you need to find another field. There are plenty of jobs that don’t deal with the public that pay the pittance CS does. There is pride in knowing you gave your best effort from the CEO down to the janitorial staff. It is bothersome that so many people these days don’t care to do their personal best no matter the position they hold. December 6, 2007 at 6:39 am to the spell check expert , thank you for calling me on my spelling , no I did not pay my wat through as your nice email said , however in 40 years of working I have never put any business under to the contrary , the smallest business I ran was 24 Employees , the largest was one thousand one hundred….I have done it in 7 Countries each and every time upgrading without cutting the staff to the contrary which mean aside of english I am fluent in 7 languages and yes I make a typo here and there . What have you done for your fellows co workers , employers and share holder,I made them far more wealthy and happier than they EVER WERE . It’s nice to be able to give all your staff one extra week of paid vacation for their cooperation and performance .come back in 40 years and look back at you work track record , judging by the amount of holidays card I recieve I have not done too bad …… Matt says: December 6, 2007 at 6:43 pm I know several people who work a sporting goods store that have been told flat out “If a single customer complains that you did not smile at them and ask if they were having a nice day, we’ll fire you.” The company also searches employees when they leave, and once searched my girl-friend’s purse twice in a row because it “felt heavy”. joel says: December 6, 2007 at 8:31 pm Matt yes ! searching Employee is common practice in the retail industry ,I do not believe it is legal however, the reason for loss prevention Employee to search terminated employee is more to humiliate them than recover stolen goods, on the other hand the bulk of theft in the retail industry are inside job. Some major retailer do not even search shoplifter by fear of very costly law suit ….I Dpdo not believe body search are legal in most States . January 14, 2008 at 11:47 pm Cassandra, It is you who is missing the point. The point is that it is not worth dealing with a rude customer. As the research plainly shows (do your homework) this type of customer is a detriment to the bottom line. As well no company or CSR has any obligation legally, morally, or as a result of company code or rule to suck it up and eat crap from a rude customer. To reiterate: the very important reason why it is a good idea to “fire” these types of customers (who overwhelmingly happen to be the stupidest people on the planet) is because it is a direct cause of employees giving bad CS. More importantly the ultimate result of appeasing these ignorant childish human beings for the sake of fulfilling some archaic notion of that this is what CSR’s are supposed to do is a direct hit on the downside to the company’s bottom line. It’s just smart business to eliminate the “bad” customer. In the long run this strategy benefits the “good” customers, the company, and its employees. Again Cassandra, do your homework and get a clue. Or perhaps you would rather not because it would blow your notion to bits that dealing with such idiots is a good thing. And why do you feel this way? Probably because you yourself, as you intimated in some of your statements, are one of these self centered, ignorant, consumers who is so deluded that they feel they have the right to act like a child to get what they want. As a marketing consultant for a good number of companies, some of them Fortune 500, I can tell you that twenty years of focusing on your “good” customers and firing the “bad” ones has shown to be an extremely succesful approach to business for a company no matter what type of retail that company may engage in. Again, do your homework and please behave yourself when you go shopping. The world owes you nothing and that includes all those CSR’s who have to deal with you. The good thing is I know that if you do care to take the time and do the research you will find that the companies that have taken this approach have become hugely successful while the others that have chosen to kiss the ass of the rude (aka the B-type customer as labeled in most of the marketing research) customer are either out of business or barely afloat. You might want to start with Bill Gates and Microsoft one of the most successful companies on the planet. Their mantra, one of them, by way of a paraphrase, is that the customer is almost always wrong. Have a nice day and if you are rude we are better off without you-really. Laughing Too Hard says: January 15, 2008 at 12:22 am John Henry, Bravo, you get it!!! See my last post above….sending your ‘problem’ customers to your COMPETITION is a good idea. Let them waste their time. There will be those of you who correctly point out that a difficult customer could potentially be a loyal one; well, difficult is not necessarily the same as stupid, rude, or otherwise. I’ve turned many a ‘difficult’ customer my way by following through and ultimately earning their trust. I’ll usually let someone be rude only 1 time – if it happens a second time, I like to tell them that perhaps they might need to speak to someone else and that my professional standards preclude me from absorbing further abuse. Being a punching bag is generally not in the job description, if you think it is then its likely a ‘you’ problem that suggests a mutual respect deficit. joel says: January 15, 2008 at 4:16 am Customer is always wrong! period You as a customer go to any business for a specific need,you deliver the good and they pay for it that’s it. Abusive customer are not customer but people who need mental counseling , unless your trade is counseling you do not have to deal with it . Can you fire the Customer , absolutly you are not a prostitute , yes they will go somewhere else which will do the same thing, in a long term these customer will be alienated regardless which trade you deal with and regardless the dollar amount , usually all the other customer love it when uou fire these kind of walking garbage = better return . and this make you more profitable. If you choose to work in the trash then don’t complain. February 5, 2008 at 3:29 pm I’ll tell you something from the software development industry. A bad customer can jeopardize the entire project. Software development is an extrememly complex and brittle process, and a customer who constantly demands new features will put the project at high risk. All you can do is be polite and informative to the customer, but if they are unreasonable, sometimes the best course of action is to fire the customer. Courtney says: February 25, 2008 at 8:46 am It was very satisfying to read a discussion on customer service and it�s interaction within the diverse public. I am a 24 year old medical student who is working part time as a cashier in a convenience store. Since being hired, I’ve endured things I never imagined could happen in a public place. Since I only work part time you would think things shouldn’t be that bad-well sadly that belief is mistaken. I’ve been sexually assaulted physically and verbally by men who are “regular” customers and even been called the “N-Word” by some of the most outrages people. What makes things worst is that I cant seem to get my boss to understand that something needs to be done about this. Everything is merely talked about and swept under the rug, and I’m left feeling as if it’s only me speaking in defense for myself. Why haven’t I left? Because I feel that I do need the job for the time being listed as a current job on my resume until I graduate in June. If it weren’t for that, I’d be long gone. What advice can you provide on hanging in there until then?? Laughing Too Hard says: February 25, 2008 at 1:53 pm Courtney, it sounds like it is completely not worth it. Life is too short to put up with the type of abuse you have shared. Your ‘boss’ is complicit in terms of protections he might be able to provide but seems unwilling or unable. If this ‘job’ you have causes you to question what it is you are doing, I suggest you try to find something else. There are plenty of good people to work for (plenty of crummy ones too) and you deserve better. Surely you can find something better, try an upscale department store. Usually you will find a more respectful class of person that goes there than you would in a convenience store. Ask yourself these questions; what is it people are buying in this convenience store? If the answer is lottery tickets and beer/cigarettes, then thats the type of people you will deal with. Are there bars or metal grates on the windows? Probably you should look elsewhere. Do people loiter outside this convenience store? Not a good choice. This is a ‘you’ issue, you don’t have to put up with it. If you don’t want to have fleas, don’t hang with dogs. March 6, 2008 at 3:11 am it was a huge mistake on the part of corporations to sponsor this phrase. It’s like a sign saying: SMOKING IS DISCOURAGED; once you mention it, people start thinking about it. And when they notice it doesn’t say prohibited, they decide to whip out a smoke. Even if you were to say: THE CUSTOMER IS USUALLY RIGHT, people will still think that they’re right, and the salesperson doesn’t want to say no and risk complaints. And don’t even think of saying the customer is never right. Anyone with a brain knows that that would make business plummet. So either way you go, you’re going to get the short end of the stick. Neutrality is the only true answer… its really more of a play be ear instance now. If the employee gets backing from management once, the employees will get a feeling of security, a sort of fall back(‘if you think you’re right, why don’t we ask the manager?’). And if the customer gets backing from management, then the customer goes home happy. It takes one manager to really sort it all out; see who’s really right… a sort of neutral party. March 7, 2008 at 6:38 am Great post! I strive everyday to give top notch customer service. All of my staff is human, when we make a mistake we correct it and apologize. However, when we do not and a customer is unreasonable I have given all my employees the right NOT to reward a nasty customers bad behavior by giving in to unnecessary demands. “NO – we will not take back the 4 potty training pants you used for six months on your twins because the elastic has worn out on one pair and you fear the other three are on their last legs as well.” Ugg! March 14, 2008 at 1:24 am I work in the airport shuttle transportation industry and there have been times that I know the guest is totally wrong and wish I could tell them so. Most of the complaints that I deal with are from guest that just do not understand our system. And when you try to expalin it, they just don’t care and want their money back, even though it was not our fault. On the other hand, yes some of our drivers do not provide excellet customer service (they are more interested in how much money they are making), and it shows in the complaints agaist them. They fail to see the bigger picture, that is 1upset guest tells 10 friends not to use us. Barb says: March 14, 2008 at 4:05 am Hi Mitch, Sometimes I wonder though, if the customer is a jerk, chances are he or she is a jerk with others, including friends, family and co-workers. In which case your company and it’s workers probably have their deepest sympathies! There’s another saying to keep in mind: “Consider the source.” Deborah Beasley says: March 15, 2008 at 12:32 pm Barb, That is so true! I�m able to gauge a persons character by the way they treat service people since I have a cousin who is a total jerk I will not appear in public with him since it�s dreary to have to apologize for his rude behavior, thoughtless remarks, and casual cruelty to anyone he perceives as lowly. Since he�s such a loser, is 56, has never been able to keep a job, and is mostly supported by his mother, I don�t get it. He�s the kind of person you can imagine as a little boy pulling the wings off flies and torturing small animals. He�s a burden at family parties and this past Christmas, he asked my cousin�s 10-year-old son how his father was. Since my cousin�s husband is a drunk, living on the streets, and hasn�t contacted his family in a year, it was just calculated cruelty. He made the little boy cry just because he could. I will no longer attend any family function this slime is invited to. March 29, 2008 at 12:27 am I just wanted to say that in my time working as an average, upper middle class grunt with no college degree I never had as good a job experience as I did when I was working for my local YMCA doing childcare. I felt like the Y really cared about me as a person, they had my back when I would have conflicts with parents, helped me do my job better and consistently tried to help me be happy and successful, even if it meant making a few parents a little miffed. When I would get job offers for more money, or when I would become frustrated with that job I would remind myself that they supported and cared for me. I stayed with them for 3 years and was a real asset to the company. I might have lost them 10 customers over the years but I think I was worth it. I like to think they did too. March 29, 2008 at 5:00 pm I worked at a print shop where my manager would occasionally fire customers. In four years, I think it was 3 people. He told one person, “I won’t have you abuse my employee.” I would have crawled through broken glass for him. It was one of the best employment experiences of my life. Laughing too hard says: March 30, 2008 at 12:30 am Filchyboy’s fuzzy ‘explanation’ only further muddies the water. Granted there are cases where business people are rigid and short sighted; however, the subject matter here is the acceptance/rejection of the misnomer ‘The customer is always right’. This in itself is a very rigid ‘corollary’ that does not allow for customer ignorance or boorish behavior. The fact that this misnomer even exists has emboldened many people to attempt to ply their wants even when they are baseless, leaving many business owners/employees in no-win situations. It is quite to the contrary NOT nonsense to question this misused jargon. Suffice it to say that a business transaction should not be grounds to prove correctness in terms of either the customer or the business owner, but an equitable exchange of goods and services. The customer is only ‘right’ if he/she holds up their end of the transaction (fee for service) and the business person is right if they reciprocate in kind with goods or services expected. The customer is ‘wrong’ if they expect/demand more than what they rightfully deserve for their ‘fee’ voluntarily offered and the business owner is ‘wrong’ if they do not deliver goods/services for said fee. Disputes arise when one of the parties either expect too much or do not deliver. Therefore, it cannot be assumed that the ‘customer is always right’. Would anyone ever accept that ‘The business owner is always wrong’????? Now that of course is nonsense but it makes the point. March 30, 2008 at 6:41 pm I have a lot of sympathy for people working in customer service. I didn’t before I actually worked in it myself. Now, if I complain, I do it very plainly, simply stating what I think is wrong and see if there’s anything they can offer or that I can suggest. I find that usually works fine. After training people in customer service, I realize that a lot of people, as someone mentioned, do not have the common sense and impulse control to handle a lot of unpleasant situations, and stir up a customer from mildly uncomfortable to be complaining in the first place to angry that they’re made to feel wrong about it. I think it’s terrible when companies don’t properly set up for customer service, but still expect under-trained employees and customers who’ve had to complain about the same issue several times beforehand to play nice. I know I’ve phoned in at a major phone provider, and it was obvious that there was no memo system set up. I would tell them “The last time they told me the same thing, and it didn’t work.” and all they could tell me was “It should have worked, it should work this time. It must have been a fluke last time”. I responded that it didn’t work the last four times, that they should escalate the process. “Well, it couldn’t have been four times, sir” was their response. I said “It was exactly four times before this, over the last two weeks. I’ve been keeping track, I have it written down, have you guys kept track?” They obviously hadn’t, and that was absolutely ridiculous to me. If I blew my top at them, it probably wouldn’t help, I wouldn’t feel good about it, and I’d run the risk of them cutting the service off, apparently. If a company is going to decide whether or not to cut my service for complaining too often, they should properly train and coach their people, have a system to keep track of complaints and how long it took to do anything about them, and first blatantly say “we can’t/won’t do this, we don’t want to do it that way, if you keep tying up man hours on this, we’ll cut service”. It shouldn’t be the whim of a “used to having people listen to me, I’m the alpha male type” Ceo cutting vital services off on a whim – What a jackass that airline ceo was. I’ve seen the documentary show about them, and I’m not impressed. March 30, 2008 at 11:51 pm I think this page is great; so many points of view. To those clients who take their frustrations out on the kid behind the counter – your anger, frustration, confusion, cussedness over whatever the issue may be with the product or service of the company, manufacturer or service provider, or simply that you woke up on the wrong side if the bed. Regardless, the kid behind the counter or on the other end of the phone is often the person with the absolute least amount of power in the corporate structure, highly expendable, constantly fearful of dismissal, probably very poorly paid and most likely poorly trained. This is not their product or service, it is the company’s product or service, and you know it!. Their lack of power to change the circumstances and correct the issue is often frustrating for them, too. They may be well aware of the faults of the product but due to pressures you know nothing about, that employee is often behind a rock and a hard place. Wanting to do the right thing and not being able to do it, repeatedly, can wear down even the most honourable and upright employee. Callousness, deliberate ignorance, malicious retaliation or plain indifference to your plight may be the only defence an employee has in order to save their sanity. Sometimes, the client’s expectations are unreasonable. Sometimes, yes, they are subjected to a rip-off. Blaming the messenger for your woes, especially to senior management, may get the kid fired for doing exactly what he or she has been repeatedly told to do. It certainly doesn’t help the next person. And guaranteed, the company is not going to change a multi million dollar machine, labelling process or overseas shipping contract just because you want the widget on the left instead of on the right. I’ve worked in customer service. It sometimes doesn’t matter what you do or say, if management insists there are no exceptions to ‘the Rule’, and you have to tell that to an irate client, believe me the letters and phone calls to upper management can come fast and furious. And then guess who gets the blame? It sure as hell isn’t the supervisor the employee asked for instructions and was told to enforce the rule. Guaranteed, it will be the kid behind the counter or on the other end of the phone, who gets a notation in their file, and is passed over for a raise. This keeps company costs down, right? My advice? When you want something, start as high up the chain of command as you possibly can. Foot soldiers are just there a cannon fodder, they are the shield behind whom the generals hide. Show them some respect, understanding and appreciation and it’s amazing what that same employee will try to do for you. March 31, 2008 at 6:51 pm Danny Meyer, owner of Union Square Caf� and ten other NYC restaurants has said the customer isn’t always right. But they do want to be heard. I think this is a thoughtful and very true turn on the old adage. I’m a reasonable man who thinks good service starts with knowing that I’m valued and heard. March 31, 2008 at 11:07 pm I work in a call center and showed this article to my boss. I’m told that senior managers view the ideas presented here as “silly.” Is it any wonder employees think our company is out to get them? Customers are allowed to verbally abuse our employees and this is supposed to be a sign of great customer service. All the while, lower level managers are directed to keep turnover down. The company doesn’t understand that people are not satisfied in a job where the company supports abuse towards them. Get a clue. April 2, 2008 at 3:35 am As a call center employee I can completely relate to all of the topics mentioned above. The pitiful thing is that the company I work for almost seems to have taken everything that this article says not to do, and did them. “Also, it means that abusive people get better treatment and conditions than nice people. That always seemed wrong to me, and it makes much more sense to be nice to the nice customers to keep them coming back.” That is the honest truth and I know first hand. There is an infamous customer of my company that honestly gets just about anything they want.. The reason for this is they were extremely abusive and kept demanding more and more. Which ultimately resulted in them receiving things that we would never do for a nice customer in a million years. Frankly in my opinion it is absolutely absurd, and I somehow inherited this customer and their outrageous requests from upper management because I am good at my job. Thats a hell of a way to say thank you. Frankly if there are any employers out there reading these responses to find a way to improve their business my suggestion is that a happy employee = a happy customer. I know that first hand and have always said that. I’m no business major or upper management of some fortune 500 company, but I do know this, if im not happy at work, I could care less about the damn customer at that point. Pretty much every job I have ever worked the company treats their employees poorly, doesn’t see the necessity to “waste” money on properly training them, finds it necessary to keep their employees in the dark about things, along with an endless list that ultimately pisses their employees off. Which I can admit makes me not want to go to work everyday, or be bugged by petty customer requests. April 8, 2008 at 5:39 am What refreshing reading! Finally, something on this subject that I have been thinking since I’ve been working at my current employer. When one works for a company of 12-14 employees, including the cleaning people, they begin to think of ways to make it better themselves than look toward the boss for resolve. My present employer (company started in a basement I believe) has minimal people management skills and doesn’t really seem to want to better his skills in this particular area. I have refused to deal with one customer on the basis of bad behavior, bad manners, unreasonable demands, etc. I am getting too old (48) to deal with people who do not respect me as a person. The account was taken away from me and given to another employee. Not my intent for her sake. My boss sheepishly informs the bad customer how his employees are afraid to talk to him. WOW…yeah! My boss said the right thing! I could go on and on…but love the articles here and will return for peace of mind knowing others feel the same. How can a customer be right when they are disrespectful? Sincerely empowered, April 29, 2008 at 1:05 pm �The Customer Is Always Right� for me, it means that you have to treat the customer and choose your words as if he is right; whether true or false. Paul says: May 18, 2008 at 2:57 pm WOW, after coming home and being yelled and abused at by customers this was a very refreshing read. I wish I could print this and stick it in the tea room at work. The thing that REALLY gets up my backside is that my store has set policies and guidelines we all follow. Easy. BUT when a customer is not happy about one of these policies they call head office and they honour the customer, even though we are told to folllow these strict guidelines. It makes us look stupid in the end because that customer got their own way. Why bloddy have these in the first place! The abuse we cop at work is due to one simple thing: STAFF! We are so understaffed, therefore leaving customers waiting long periods. Apprently 3 people waiting per staff member is acceptable. PFFT!!! How can this be right when in my job you can spend up to 45 mintues with one person! They really have no idea. We are right at the bottom of the chain so they don’t listen to us. Sadly my retail job of 5 years has made me hate people. I am only there for my family- to support them. I agree with Steve Spaeth above…. how can they be right if they are disrespectful? Paul says: May 18, 2008 at 3:25 pm Every employee has the right to an abusive and bully-free workplace. We sign agreements at the beginning of the year that we will abide by these rules with each other. Why is it ok to allow customers to bully and abuse us in our place of work? It’s no tollerated amongst employees and it should be the same with customers. Karyn says: May 22, 2008 at 12:32 am A few years back I worked for a theater, selling tickets on the counter. I have always had a perfect customer service record and would never be rude to a customer. I had one lady who wanted something she couldn’t have and was not happy with my reply. So she wrote a letter. That was bad enough. What was worse was that a secretary at work took it upon herself to reply to this woman, apologizing for my bad behavior! Never asked me about the incident, nothing. I happened to find a copy of the letter in the trash can of a communal office and I filed a formal complaint against the secretary. She was ‘spoken to’. Big deal. I quit not long after and they lost a good employee. Mike says: May 30, 2008 at 8:50 pm I think many of you are forgetting that it’s often far easier to replace an employee, than to replace a customer. I’m reading messages by irate Wal Mart and K Mart clerks and laughing my butt off here. Sorry to burst your little self esteem bubbles, but just how long do you think it would take to replace you? Getting customers to come into your store can be hard, getting folks to line up to push cash register buttons is not.. Let’s face it, nothing in life is absolute. And I’m quite confident the originator of this saying had that in mind when he coined it. So, no the customer is not ALWAYS right. The sky is not green because a customer says so. However, the customer IS paying the bills (including your wal mart clerk wages). And if you want to succeed in business, you will never forget this. Poison says: May 31, 2008 at 9:06 pm I hate that I found this article a little too late. I agree with every word! I work in the F&B industry as a part-timer. And the horrible customers we get, let me tell you. Argh. A good example would be the time this customer and her son came to the restaurant. There was already a line and several people in front of her and right then and there, she demanded that she wanted to sit outside. So my manager had no choice but to quickly attend to the others and then her. My friend, F, gave her the menus and usually we give customers time to decide on their choices. Then and there, she demanded that her order be taken. Okay, so F went to take her order. And then, out of the blue, she says that she wants her meals to be vegetarian. WITHOUT EVEN ORDERING ANYTHING YET. So F told her that and painstakingly explained to her the vegetarian items on the menu. The customer then demands her food to be served immediately. Yes, as if the food can be magically made and sent. We had a full house that night so by all accounts, it would be impossible to get the food out immediately. The customer was a great example of an abusive customer. She complained about everything. Even when an ice-cream order was mistakenly placed on her table, instead of a simple “Sorry, I did not order this”, she snapped a “I want this out of my sight NOW.” to my friend. The last straw came when my friend, K, was clearing tables. And the woman’s son demanded something from her and she was unable to attend to his demands because a) she was clearing the table and b) it was a full house, customers were waiting so she needed to clear the table. He blew up at her and started shouting at her to the point where K actually fired back and asked why they were being so rude when she didn’t even do anything wrong. According to F, it stretched K’s limits beyond the point where she was crying. Does that kind of customer deserve great service? Especially when they were rude from the beginning? HELL TO THE NO. These customers are the reasons why I hate working sometimes. Do they think that we enjoy standing around with our feet and back aching? They, of course, don’t feel the pain. They’re too busy sitting down, their butts comfortable and shit. There are definitely more horror stories. Like F getting the bill thrown to her and such. Heck, I myself have been complained about but I’m not too bothered. I’m just glad that my workplace does not believe in the customer is always right motto. Maybe the fact that I haven’t been fired yet is because the restaurant needs more workers. But I’ll just convince myself that it’s because I’m a good worker. Always right? More like rude, selfish and obnoxious. I have worked in customer service for over 20 years. I have done customer service training and management. I currently work in a call center for a nationally-renowned bank in the US. I have told my co-workers repeatedly that “the customer is always right” is wrong. The correct attitude is “The customer is never wrong.” The customer wants overdraft fees reversed? “Yes, sir, you are correct, it would be nice if we could reverse those fees. However, the fact is…” The customer wants X service for free? “Yes, ma’am, I can see how that would be a good idea. However, that service costs us…” It would be nice if my company backed up their employees. We get abuse all day, from people whose biggest problem is that they refuse to keep track of their own purchases, or do not have the slightest ability in simple math, not to mention budgeting. We get sworn at, we get threatened, we get called names. I’ve been accused of racism (by people who can’t even see the color of my skin). And then we go into a meeting with our manager, and get more of the same. Customer service is dead. Few people want customer service (I would estimate less than five percent of our callers); they want punching bags, scapegoats, and welcome mats to scuff their feet on. More and more companies are demanding that customer service be “profitable”. It doesn’t matter how many customers we retain by fixing problems or educating them on how things work. It doesn’t matter how many customers we “talk off the ledge.” We have to sell new products and services they don’t want or need or just plain can’t afford. Companies don’t want to offer better products or services anymore, they want to make money. They’ve lost sight of the fact that better products and services attract more customers, and more customers mean more profits. And they don’t care, either. July 20, 2008 at 12:52 pm I have friend who work n a travel agency here in tagum city philippines, my company name is OKEY TRAVEL CENTER AND QUEENSTAR TRAVEL AND TOUR the okey travel was operating a philippine airlines while the queenstar travel was operating a purely cebu pacific but ii was owned and managed by only one owner., sad to say the manager or the owner of this company belived that customer is alway right., i barely disagree with even though i was’nt work there they used to hurt the feeling of some of their employees come to think about this scene (the have a customer who brought a ticket of cebu pacific it was booked and fulled recaped by her co-worker adnd after full recaped the customer was advice to go to the cashier and after the has paid customer the cashier advice to wait their ticket cause they just going to called you., but you know when the reservation called other family name not the customer’s name who wait on there was the one who stand and sudenlly the releaser do not know who was the passenger cause she’s not the one who booked and entertain the passenger she give a full recaped and give it to the customer., on their company they segregate their work the releaser is the one who print the electronic ticket of the passenger but maybe suddenly she might pick-up the wrong record locator to retrive in the system., she print it out then called the passenger and the passenger who was their was nnot the one she’s calling it stand up and so the releaser give the full recapped and that’s it!, how could you belived the passenger come back that the cebu pacific don’t allowed him to ride the plane., ofcourse they explain him why even though the plain can give a copy and allowed him to flight he left by the schedule and the plane already flown they said i was’nt our fault why you stand-up while your not the called up he said “i beacuse i was just the one alone here”, okey were going to rebooked your ticket but your going to pay this amount but he don’t want to pay he keep-on digging that it was thier fault to make not the story long they rebooked it and the company shoulder the penalty”., the employees thought that the acting manager understand them they don’t expect that it will bring on the owner or the manager so her it happen now by the exact date 19jul08 the manager come to the office nagging and shouting with disrespect to her employees from the front door she until she go inside the office and keep saying why they argue with the customer!,and keep on saying that customer is always right you don’t have a right to fought at them! ) my god what a hill she belived on that fucking idea., she might not consider the customer fault and other part of that respect her employee., for me how could she became a manager cause for me if you are a manager or a owner it’s means that your going to consider even they have mistake i’m just trying to out it that if you are a manager or a owner first your going to protect the dignity of your company and by protecting the company image your going also to protect the image of your employees cause the employees are the soul of the business and they have also a right to be respected., but as far as i see the manager the nag her employees because customer is alway right how could become in that situation., for me it’s was undegreedable and for me the word customer is always right is not a good always right cause it undegreed the employees August 30, 2008 at 7:33 am You know, I find it amazing that a post from over two years ago stirs such strong emotion and thought that it is kept alive to this day. Here I am, thinking that I would be digging up an old topic and I would never get to share my story(ies). I am a young fellow, 26, who looks even younger, 15-18. It’s a mixed blessing. I work in sales with product that I know, love, geek out on, live, eat, breath, etc, etc. I “started” my education in this field when I was 14. My love for the field goes so far that I can tell you about discontinued items from the early 60’s to present as if I owned the gear itself. That said… Every month or so, I get a fellow who reads up on these vast internet user groups and gains enough keywords and phrases to be dangerous. This fellow will sit back and argue with me about product that doesn’t exist and is impossible to exist in the sense that they want. Example, MIDI to 1/4″ cable. Sure, I can make one for you, but it won’t work. These same people will then complain to my boss that I don’t know what I am talking about and down right lying to them. My boss, who will actively tell the customer that he, my boss, knows very little about whatever it is that product pertains to, saying that I am one of the most knowledgeable guys he has, which, in turn, makes the customer even madder. So, that’s the guys that really have too much pride to admit that some “snot nosed kid” knows more about them. I can see that they are afraid of me looking down at them or making fun of them, but really, I have to sell to grandma who knows NOTHING about what they are looking at. So for a story about firing a customer. I should go ahead and say that I work for a large music instrument retailer. We have the list of people that we share with each other that will always be trouble. Three pop into mind, BL, JL, and CP. As an assistant manager for the store, BL would always insist that I hold product for him, with no money down, for up to three or more months. He claimed that others have done it for him before, and I politely told him that the reason why we did that one time was because of the bad travelers checks that he used. We held onto those pieces because he brought them back with the express intent on buying them upon paying off the bad debt. He would have none of it. Then he would ask if I would sell it for X amount. Barging on price is/was part of the game, so no biggie with the exception that the price was way to low of the item and he claimed to have known the true “cost” of the item. When I asked him about how he knows what the “cost” was, he would always say he has a friend that would give him the hook up. Well, I suggested that he stop wasting his time here and go with his friend. After some more back and forth, he finally left. I thought I had rid of this fellow, but he came back a couple of weeks later looking to sell some gear that we could not buy in due to policies. I explained this to him, which he threw a big huff over saying that he talked to someone about us buying in said product. I asked whom he spoke to so I can make sure that everyone is on the same page and he refused. Threw the gear into his car, drove off and called up the store. My boss told me not to deal with BL again. Fine by me. JL was one of those “10 up” guys. If you don’t know the lingo, 10 up means 10% above base cost. Secret to all of those guys who might read this, you don’t know what cost is, and saying you are 10 up to the random guy, with whom you have no relationship with is useless. So after getting this over and over and over again with him returning everything, to discourage him from shopping with us, I made sure that everyone in the store knows who he is and that the tag price is the tagged price. One day, he asked one of the other assistant managers for the price of something. She told him what it was and that’s that. He asked if he could speak to a manager, which she politely told him that she is a manager. “Well, who are you? I’ve never seen you before! And who made YOU manager?” Well, this lovely lady worked there long enough for JL to have seen her, bought from her and in general knew who she is. I over heard this and went around the store telling everyone not to acknowledge this fellow. He later apologized in a round about way, bought what it was, and left. JL came into the store a month after this and talked to my boss asking why he was getting the cold shoulder from everyone, and why no one was willing to deal, read discount, anything for him. My boss at the time told him what all happened. JL, shocked, said that she must’ve been over sensitive because she is a woman, referring to a month earlier, and my boss said to only deal with his “buddy” who work back where I worked. His buddy hooked him up and he left the store again. I was angry, but as my boss explained it, we treat the rockstars like people and the people like rockstars. Makes sense. Not thirty minutes after he left the store, JL called my boss and talked about what kind of price he got. My boss told him that he cannot tell JL what anything cost and that he got a very good deal, which he did. JL asked what if he brings it all back, then what, my boss said, go ahead, but we are done after that. Saw JL recently, and he was extremely polite, Didn’t buy anything. CP is a whole another issue altogether. He was/is what we call a renter. We have a fairly liberal return policy, and he would abuse it. As a “DJ” he would “buy” a whole PA system on Friday, and then have his wife return it on Monday. There’s a restocking fee involved which doesn’t get invoked too often. CP’s kind is the reason why there’s a restocking fee. Since his wife was returning everything, she claimed to have not heard of this fee, complain loudly, and eventually got the return due to us not wanting to put up with it. The last straw for this guy was when he sent in a friend to buy something, two light systems. Another customer had called looking for these system, but we just “sold” them. Two days later, CP’s wife is in the store with the items to return them. I was upset to no end, and not because it was getting returned, but because someone who could have used them and would have kept them missed out. I talked to my boss about this, the same one that delt with JL, and he said to print out a list of every transaction that CP has ever done with us and wait. The next time he comes in, suggest that they go else where due to us loosing money to them. I did. They never kept anything with but the microphones since health code prevents us from taking back microphones. All total, spent $500 bucks with us. Presented the list to them, suggested they take their biz elsewhere and of course, she blew up. My boss said fine, here’s the last transaction. If this comes back to any store, we are done. The items never came back, and neither have they. Sorry for such a long post. There’s a lot really. One thing I learned early on in life is to treat others as you expect to be treated. Treat me like an ass before I open my mouth and you’ll be treated the same way. On the same token, respect is earned not given. You have my respect as a human being, but as a person, that’s different. I always respect any waitress, waiter, sale person, salesclerk, bartender and anyone in the service industry. They have it harder than most people out there job wise. Since I do this, I usually get my drinks faster than anyone else, comped desserts, quicker service times etc. It’s not that hard, if people like you, no matter what the situation is, people will go that extra mile for you. I personally believe that everyone should work at a retail, waiting, CS job for at least 3 months to see what it is like. September 8, 2008 at 12:28 pm I was surprised the article didn’t mention a few times when the customer is parasitic onto a business. A few replies have mentioned some of these. 1. Stealing. You might have purchased something in the past, or even today, but if you have merchandise stuck under your jacket you better return it all pronto and get the h#ck out of the store. 2. Safety. Although the average human being would not consciously put him or her self in danger, some people aren’t too bright. It is always, always better to tick off a customer or even alienate them than to have to explain to the reporters why an 18 year old male was found dead on the property. Check the notorious “Darwin Awards” for examples of ridiculous ways people have caused their own fatality (or injury). 3. It isn’t always feasible. Please, do not request someone answering the phones to be connected to “uh..what’s his name… I don’t know what department…” at “I don’t the…” extension number. Unless you are greeted with “Hello, my name is Nostrodamus” the customer service rep needs some kind of name, department, or extension number. Also- The customer is not right if: -You work at Motel 6 and a guest wants a suite befitting of a European Palace. OR You work at a world-reknowned-five-star-resort and a customer requests to only pay the price they would for a taco bell value meal. -They ask you to defy Gravity–and you don’t work for NASA -They want a product that exists *only* on Star Trek–and they are dead serious about it. Also, As a customer I HATE the complainer who holds up the line for 15 minnutes. With verbally and physically abusive customers they are damaging to a business beyond the fact they run off valuable employees. If someone is screaming obscenities do you really want to be in line with them? If someone is throwing merchandise at the employees, do you want to be within 10 yards of them? Bad customers are just not worth it because too often they make a store unpleasant for good customers. As for wealthy clientele– no business should ever, ever be dependent on an overly narrow customer base. Whether the customers are good or bad doesn’t matter. Customers (when speaking of individuals and not firms) are mortal. If “Mr. Burns” keeps your business afloat and you base your entire profit margin on him, what will you do when he kicks the bucket? And for the comment on changing your production to meet the needs of the customers- this is not always plausible in terms of the costs to produce goods and services. If we have learned anything from the era of diversification it is that companies can go under for over-extending their capabilities. Cost analysis must always, always be done before dramatically changing one’s production. September 25, 2008 at 10:47 am Companies who put their customers first, before their employees, are just plain wrong. I work for a hotel, and had to throw a guest out due to illegal activities occuring in their rooms. The police came, found them engaged in said illegal activity, and took them out (1 of which in handcuffs). On the way out the customer threatened me, an assistant desk manager, vowing they would “get me”. The General Manager, fearing the loss of $35 per night, accepted these people back! When asked why he would hang me out there like that he informed me that he felt as though they were due a second chance, so I got to work in fear because he wanted their $35/night, plus lose all credibility to the guests who were around at that point. I personally do NOT agree at all with the statement “The customer is always right”, and I think it’s time that that statement got put to bed once and for all, for everybodys sake. Nice article. I’ve written a follow-up. TeresaE says: Wow, how sweet it is. In the age of declining sales & revenues, the hardest thing you can do is fire a customer. In my industry, not only is the customer right, they tell you how they are going to buy your products. We, thankfully, figured it out and raised prices and forced adherence to our terms, not theirs. The pain customers (who really cost us more than we could make in profits) fired themselves. Yeah! Recently the “customer” we fired was Chrysler. The sound of shock in the voice of the buyer when we said, “thanks, but no thanks” was a very pleasing sound. Old sales adage: harder the sale, the lousier the customer. October 6, 2008 at 4:05 am It’s simple, guys. Just like everything else there is a balance. 99% of my customers are very agreeable, but there are some that just can’t be pleased. Often, these are the customers that you don’t really want in the long run anyway. What the author is saying is that when you’re dealing with a customer that is tough to get along with it’s better to spend your time on customers that are reasonable or other improvements in the company. If I have a customer that is unreasonable (and by unreasonable I mean absolutely wrong, and not only wrong – wrong, demanding, rude, and childish) I will do everything I can to rectify the situation in order to keep my reputation in good standing. I do believe that a bad experience with a company is shared 10 times as much as a good experience. However, if by some stroke of oddity the customer returns for business later, I must assume that he or she was never really that upset in the first place and was simply being unreasonable in order to abuse our good customer service. This puts them on very thin ice – one hiccup afterwards and we promptly discontinue service. As the owner, it’s a balance between these needy customers and my employees. All one can do in this situation is tell the employee that the customer IS WRONG, but that we are going to meet his or her demands this time and only this time in hopes that the customer doesn’t return and that we can at least salvage our reputation (typically with these kinds of customers it won’t matter anyway). In summary, I do agree with the author. Because we live in such a customer service based nation, it’s easy for the customers to take advantage of the retailer. However, it’s ultimately bad management and lack of owner intervention that has caused this. If the manager or owner took the time to intervene with unruly customers the customer would never have an advantage over the employee. Some customers (roughly 1%) don’t deserve to be taken seriously and the extra time it takes to deal with them should be spent on customers that do deserve special care for being great customers. Just my opinion. the author has a point, sometimes a customer is not always right! WATCH OUT! Sarah says: January 16, 2009 at 9:18 pm I work for a large not-for-profit association in their Member Services division. I found this page because I just got off the phone with a guy who was definitely more interested in picking a fight with me than resolving his (non)issue. His membership packet was delayed because of the Christmas/New Year’s holiday period and he was LIVID. We were shortchanging him an entire month, dammit! He demanded a refund for a membership that SOMEONE ELSE bought for him. If he had been NICE to us, we might have comped him a couple of months on his membership for the inconvenience… February 27, 2009 at 10:20 pm I am a General manager for a fast food franchise. I wish they would support me once in a while. It is to easy for a customer to complaine and get someone into trouble. I have even had video proof, because the company I work for is so affraid of loosing a sale when a guest was being totally out of line cussing at me so I told the guest to quit being an “asshole” and I got suspended with out pay and made to appologise to the guest, give him a refund and free coupons. I feel like Do they even care about me? Dan says: March 24, 2009 at 7:09 pm Absolutely love this post and article! I could not agree more. Don’t know if you heard about the site called Business Beware, but you can actually file complaints against customers, it’s great. Once again, great post, could not have said it any better! May 15, 2009 at 5:37 am As a manager in a customer service based industry. I have been beaten up by the term “Customer is always right”. The younger associates are always pushed around by the squeeky wheels, but those who understand it was one man’s motto for a single company that was taken up by consumer advocates to beat up on companies and employees of those companies to get there way. Those are the same people who might have bullied you out of your lunch money during your school years. I can’t believe how many people try to leverage free or extra privledges everywhere you go. It is sad. June 12, 2009 at 6:41 am I find it amazing that people come in to solicit a service or come in to an establishment for food and totally abuse the staff, complain, and are outright rude. Last time I checked this was my place of business and YOU were the quest. We have overly empowered guests with complaints that will go all the up the ladder until they feel like they have won, once someone complains they do not stop until they get resolution or some sort of gift to keep them as a customer and further empowers them to know every time they throw a fit they will win.It’s competition and fear of losing revenue that scares many companies into bending over and taking one for the team. It ultimately hurts the industry overall by encourging people to be confrontationl assholes to get what they want. America excels in this subhuman treatment of retail employees. Heres an update: Go to Eurpoe and try and pull the same crap, you will be politely (or not so politely) asked to get out and go bother someone else. Those people that are always complaining eventually find no on wants their business and tone down. I’ve always said that to buy from a retail shop or eat in a restuarant you should have to work there first. You’d have a whole new perspective. In the interest of capitalism and greed we have lost our integrity. Nasdaq7 says: June 20, 2009 at 10:27 pm I’m a sales representitive for a computer company. I believe in treating customers in a friendly and fair way. That is why the idiom “the customer is always right” – is a terrible way to run a business – because some “customers” SUCK! You are friendly – they throw the phone down. You smile, they frown. You bend over bankwards for them, they kick you. I know from experience NOT TO TAKE CUSTOMERS SERIOUSLY. Just to do your job. Phatmoney says: July 13, 2009 at 9:37 pm The phrase isn’t about weather they are always right or not. It’s about how the customer wants to be treated which is “always right”. It’s not to be taken literally, and it’s taken years in customer service for me to finally understand that. It’s to help the clerk or whoever is dealing with the customer to remember that they are dealing with a child who understands nothing yet wants everything to go their way. The employee and especially the company should never take this phrase literally or it will be their undoing. Unnamed says: July 21, 2009 at 1:02 am The customers are never right because they always find the wrong things even when you try to make evrything right for them. They are nevr satisfied with what they get, but these kind of customer are the ones that always come back to the same stores after they may have complain that they will never return because they were not satisfied the service they had. These kind of people make it very difficult for employees who always try to follow they values of “the customer is always right”. I say this because I have been doing this for five years. July 30, 2009 at 5:40 pm Proof that when you have a policy of “the customer is always right” it just leads to headaches: Walt Disney World now keeps a list of the complainers and what they receive as compensation for how they were “wronged.” They have to do this because they found out that they were getting the same complainers over and over again AND were giving them lots of free stuff! So now they have to keep track of it to keep the freebies to a minimum. What a nightmare! And the second item of evidence: A fellow cast member of mine at Disney World was listening to a vacationer complain and couldn’t get a word in edgewise. The guy said, “The customer is always right, and I’M the customer.” My co-worker replied with, “No, you’re a GUEST. Now ACT like one.” He got in trouble from management when the “guest” complained, but he was the hero of every one of us who heard the story. PhilG says: August 11, 2009 at 12:59 am My business has been much more successful once I realized that “The customer may be right”. This is not to be dismissive of the customer, but to realize that when they call in with a complaint it is often due to some fault of their own, most often abject laziness or general incompetence with regards to our industry. Of course there are times when we’re wrong and we move quickly to fix it. With those that are operating far behind the pack in terms of the skills of our normal clients, we work hard to help bring them up to speed, but we also realize that at a certain point, we’re fighting a loosing battle. Those that we’re able to educate usually stay with us forever as we do actually provide great customer service and a quality product. But those who insist on the impossible or are irrational, we’re much more happy to give them referrals to our competitors. While it’s sometime necessary to fire employees, there are also times where you gotta fire the customer too. Fire the bad employees so that most customers get excellent product and service and file bad customers so that our good employees can provide excellent products and services without wasting resources in a bottomless pit. morgan says: August 18, 2009 at 5:49 pm My supervisor told me of a time when he worked for a corporate hotel chain that was doing a “satisfaction 100% guaranteed or your money back” campaign and since they were corporately owned they could see what everybody else in the chain was doing. His hotel quickly spotted this couple that was using the campaign to get free rooms right across the country. Needless to say that campaign didn’t last long. At our current hotel we get people trying to ask for rates before Motel 6 or Super 8 or invoking owners who havn’t owned the place in years of think think just because they are customer we HAVE to let them stay if we have rooms. Every business even if doesn’t have the sign out can refuse service to anyone especially if they have been disturbing the other guests before trying to get the room and want to haggle on the price when you are full. Such “customers” are bad news–they will find something to get a reduced rate or even free night. They are simply not worth it. joel says: August 18, 2009 at 7:56 pm As a former Executive Chef , most of my former Employer , most still in business and when sold still profitable , they always , always analyzed the fine line between customer satisfaction and prostitution. Flatlely denying service to some arrogant millionaire or polititian,or newly superstars that wanted every employee at their feet . One in new york used to simply throw them in the street telling them they were an insult to his Customers , Establishement and Employees that extremely succesfull high priced restaurant ran some 30 years on cash basis only. was sold and still in operation while the competition went with the recession. {it was most likely the most expensive restaurant in the 60’s 70’s 80’s } hard to work there but fun ….. September 6, 2009 at 10:38 am Recent experience that demonstrates that ALWAYS giving in to the customer is not a good idea. Guest wanted to swim in our outdoor pool way past operating hours (like 2:00 AM in the morning!) and when they couldn’t get their way they wanted a “code” (only known to the maintenance staff) to get in. Had another person on the line so tried to put them on hold and accidentally hung up on them. They call back to complain and wanted manager’s name and when told he wouldn’t be around for a several days wanted someone else. In short they were looking to create a problem so they would get their way despite their request being in violation of state ordnance regarding Certified operators of public pools and if they had gotten hurt the hotel would have been libel. JerryB says: September 17, 2009 at 6:18 pm Wow, that was some read! I’m fortunate to work for a company that cares about its employees and takes that customer-is-always-right junk with a grain of salt, like it should be. I’ve got about 25 years experience in retail and retail-like sales (including call-center style sales). I pick and choose my customers. Problem customers have distinctive earmarks that they cannot help but display during the sales process. There is an old adage that works about 99 percent of the time: The harder the sale, the more problematic the client. When I get the distinct impression that I’m getting into a high maintainance/low yield situation (and that takes a fair bit for me), I start to UNsell my product. “Well, it isn’t for everybody…” I do so with the full knowledge of my managers and VP of Sales (who has heard me do it!). Essentially, what we have decided is that the perpetually angry and abusive customer is better served elsewhere. And we’re in one of the most competitive industries on the planet. (That’s all I can actually say.) Further, if one of my customers becomes abusive with support staff, they get a WTF call from me and I’m not afraid to lose their business. I’ve never sworn or become abusive with a customer or prospect, but I make the rules of engagement known in no uncertain terms. If they continue to display abusiveness to me, I give them one warning-you curse at me again and I’ll terminate this call and close your account. If they curse at me again, I hang up and close their account. I’ve had to make the threat 3 times in 4 years. I’ve never had to actually do it. I have had a single call in 4 years legitimately escalate to my supervisor because I was not in the office. He has the same attitude I have. And that was a really large account that he took that attitude about…and we STILL have that customer. Sometimes it’s not about right or wrong. It’s about the rules of engagement. I treat everybodey with respect and dignity. If they can’t do the same in reciprocal fashion, I don’t want them in my book of business – and I’m not afraid to lose their business over it. And for all you sales guys out there – in 4 years, it hasn’t happened yet. Though I can think of one time where I had 4 support reps standing around my desk begging me to get a guy banned from the service. It was one of their supervisors who stepped in and saved the account. And this guy is a real piece of work. What they customer wants to feel right about is that their problem is being worked on and solved. I’m very clear when something happens – I will call when I have updates. If they call in before I call them, I won’t have any updates and all it will do is frustrate both of us. Our support department is very good at what it does, and I can count on one hand the number of times they haven’t gotten back to me in a couple of hours with an update for the customer. Customer service isn’t dead at all. It’s alive and well…and isn’t afraid to tell the customer when the process isn’t worthwhile any longer. When everyone knows the rules, things go a little easier. Try to take stuff out of the area of who is to blame and try to get it into the area of how do we fix this…it goes a long way. And we have other ways of catching the sneaks that call in off hours and try to bully support for credits. That’s a whole other class of customer. September 22, 2009 at 4:44 pm Thanks Jerry B. Someone at the aviation air-movement-machinery company Garret-Airesearch once said something to the effect that people understand problems but they don�t understand people who don�t care about problems. Unfortunately it took a long time and serious competition emerging to really get people�s attention there. January 3, 2010 at 12:52 am I really appreciate this article. I am the office manager at a dental office and sometimes no matter what I do, I cannot keep a patient happy. I have gotten to the point where I have to warn my staff to go the extra mile with patients that I know are consistently unhappy, yet keep returning. Then, the entire time the patient is in the office, I am on pins and needles trying to keep them pleased. The worst is when at the end of a wonderful appointment, I find that one in particular STILL had something to complain about. In the end, the patient was dismissed from the practice. I have come to realize that I will always try to keep the customer happy, but at the same time I have to let some go as well for the good of my practice. keppla says: February 2, 2010 at 7:48 pm To me, the question to answer seems to be “about WHAT is the custumer supposed to be right?” What people have in mind as the “What” seems to determine on which side of the right/wrong side they are. Lets take some statements: 1) “Everything in this store is for free, so i dont need to pay” 2) “I’d like to have a coffe” 3) “a ticket to the spaceshuttle, please, i want to visit my relatives in europe” Obviously, the first statement is wrong. If you grant the customer the privilege to be right here, you’ll go bankrupt. The statement is exxagerated, but basically the examples in the comments about customers bitching until they get something of a monetary value are this. In my opinion this are the customers you want to send to the competition: they do not have a problem you can solve. You calculated your prices, according to the product, they basically want the product, but do not want to pay. Yes, maybe one could calculate, that there is still a profit if you give this customer 50%, but i think there are some hidden factors that are mostly ignored this way, besides the impact onto the workers, you send a signal to anyone that they should be bad customers in order to get better prices. The second statement is, in my opinion, the kind where TCIAR should be applied. Do not tell him “no, you want tea, it’s much better”. The customer has a problem, so solve it. You are not the judge of the customers needs. The third statement is a little more complicated, and more real life. The customer has a problem (he wants to visit europeans). This is not for disposition; to tell him, he should visit his chinese friends instead does not help. But he has a wrong idea about the solution (you do not need a spaceshuttle for that). The tricky part is to determine if the customer is one of kind 1 or 2. Simplified, if you rephrase the Problem as something like “i understand you want to go to europe, but a spaceshuttle doesnt bring you there. i could however sell you these flights”, and a discussion about what exactly the problem is and what solutions apply, he is a good customer that should be catered to. If he starts bitching about that he knows better than a peon how to get there, loose him. you wont make any money with him anyway, because after the spaceshuttle did not bring him to europe, he is more likeliy to sue you than to pay you. So, basically, the customer is always right about the target, but, simple things like coffe aside, rarely right about the way. In consulting, in my experience, abusive behaviour comes from the customers who insist on “their” way. It is not only acceptable, but important to fire those, because you cannot solve their problems, and therefore they will never pay you. Abusive behavior is more an indicator than the real reason to get rid of them. Loved the article. I have one more posting to add. :) “One of the consistent back up statements of ‘The Customer is Always Right’ is the amount of dollars it costs to replace a customer. It costs more to replace a customer than to retain one most times.” D’oh!… Here’s how it goes… :)) 1. You get an unreasonable customer. 2. You stick with your employee, because the employee is right. 3. You lose the customer. 4. It costs you a lot to replace the customer. I can understand that. But let’s put it this way; if all business owners would think healthy and not butt-kiss customers when customers happen to be WRONG, then… for whom would your customer leave you? Go where? Go to “not being a customer anymore”? The reason for which now an unreasonable customer leaves is because somewhere else some business owner will be more than happy to take anything from his clients. NO! The customers actually isn’t always right. How could he be? What?… are we selling to Goethe, Einstein, Freud… and I didn’t know about it?… Some customers are plain stupid and could never ever be right. Simple as that. Fair enough, with all my apologies if anyone feels offended. My regards to all. March 4, 2010 at 8:53 am Right on, Parfumuri! Don’t employers ever consider the cost of replacing employees? Obviously not, since it’s standard MBA practice to downsize staff with years of tacit, job-related knowledge just to massage this quarter’s numbers, and then wonder why nobody knows how to do anything three months later. kelly says: Hi, Excellent article! I agree that Customer in not always right. I’ve forwarded it to my manager. However, I want to point out that even the nicest customers get really frustrated sometimes (like being on hold for ever or being transferred 10 times around) and landing on an innocent customer service representative. Who’s fault is it then? March 5, 2010 at 12:57 am Kelly: It’s management’s fault IMO. At every hospital I’ve ever worked at, we get force fed official happy talk about how patient care is our number one priority, the hospital exists to serve the community, we’re all just one big happy family, and all the rest of that happy horse shit–and meanwhile they’re gutting patient care staff to get as much work out of as few people as possible, and then giving themselves bonuses for “increasing productivity.” Management lives in what Scott Adams called “Boss World: where the laws of time, space and logic don’t apply.” There’s no such thing as inadequate staffing levels for the objectives the company assigns us, because by definition the staffing levels the company sets are correct and any failure to achieve our objective must reflect our own laziness and incompetence. If the company devised a staffing matrix with one orderly per hundred patients, if all one hundred of them didn’t get a bath we’d be “counselled” on our “need for improvement.” The company’s objective is customer service, and us peons can provide that service no matter what staffing levels and workloads we’re given–and if we can’t feed five thousand with five loaves and two fishes, or make bricks without straw, we take the blame for doing a bad job. They actually warn us never to tell a patient that we’re understaffed. They want the patients to think they went five days without a bath or lay in their own shit waiting for a bedpan because we’re just lazy assholes doing a shitty job–not because the hospital administration is a bunch of goddamned fucking human filth who used the money for patient care to fund their own third vacation homes. mijoka says: March 5, 2010 at 8:46 pm Kelly at one time we had 70% turn over and nobody care because they kept replacing them with entry wages employees , until they realized shrink cost them millions of dollars in our facility alone , so they enforced the discipline even more creating more turn over , to this day they still have no clue how much that turn over really hurt them . because they have the phylosophie we are the biggest April 9, 2010 at 9:03 pm I did my time in the retail sector and had to put up with abuse, customers deliberately scamming, etc. and “the customer is always right” mentality. (Harry Selfridge had a much higher calibre of customer 100 years ago, by the way) As a result, as a customer, I am much more likely to speak up when I see another customer behaving like a jackass. Several years ago, I witnessed a woman being downright abusive to a clerk in a supermarket. She exclaimed loudly “I’ve never had a problem with this before!” and I piped up “Lady, if you are this stupid and rude all the time, I should think you have problems everywhere!!!” She looked at me – mortified. (I think the fact that I’m 6’5″ and towered over her helped). She practically ran out of the store, and there were other people clapping as she left! I only had a couple of items, so I was only a moment behind her as she was loading up her car – I was parked on the same isle, she looked up – and I just gave her the glare of death. She looked so scared, I think she thought I was going to murder her and stuff her in the trunk of her car. She high-tailed it out of there, and I just laughed! I think she thought twice about bullying clerks after that! April 25, 2010 at 2:54 am I totally agree with this article 1 million%. I’ve only been at my job for a month and my store manager swears and swears to his grave by this terrible motto. To make matters worst, one associate even confided me in on a shocking incident where I was appalled. One night, an associate,who is also a cashier, saw a customer just pulled something off the rack and try to play it off as a return without a receipt. The associate was stunned and did the right thing by refusing the return. But the customer/shoplifter hadn’t had enough and demanded to speak with a manager. So, when the manager arrives, the associate explained the situation and what does the manager do? Accepts the stolen return w/o receipt. So, what does the associate, who is one of the few employees that has an ounce of integrity/ethical principle left and a brain, when both detrimental business elements leave the scene? Post void the return w/o receipt. blacky says: April 30, 2010 at 4:01 am I work for McDs and I saw this customer taking/ stealing coke ( he asked for water) I told him to pay for and then he got upset and told me “f*ck u” and also left the store yelling in front everybody, he called to complaint about it!!!! he was mistreated and abused!!!!! OMG!!!! I am the store manager and I was in shock. Paul says: I’m not gay but I love you for writing this article. Debbie Smith says: June 10, 2010 at 8:56 pm I’m an American and spent some time in England. One thing that really caught my eye, in the best way, was that front line customer service areas had posters saying, against a picture of an employee getting yelled at, “Our employees are here to help our clients, not to take abuse. Let them do their job. If you treat them in an abusive manner, we will put our foot down.” I’m not sure that was the exact wording, but it impressed me, and across the board the employees at those places seemed to try to offer good customer service, including dealing courteously appropriately with a customer whose feathers were genuinely quite ruffled–and the customer was honestly mistaken–and this was not a case of someone acting abusive for free stuff. I don’t work in customer service, but as a customer I miss seeing those posters as a signal that I was working in the place where the management at least gives the impression they treat the people I’m dealing with respectfully. June 10, 2010 at 10:03 pm It stands to reason, Jonathan. When employees constantly receive the message that “The customer is God, you’re not worth scraping off the customer’s shoe, and if you ever complain because a customer spit in your face we’ll apologize to the customer for your face getting in the way,” guess what happens? Employees, rightfully, resent the customer and see him as an enemy, and start looking for every way imaginable to sabotage customer service (in a passive-aggressive way, with a smile on their face). Extraordinary performance in any kind of business requires the employee freely contributing all their skills and hidden knowledge, rather than the bare minimum to avoid getting fired. If you want to find out what it’s like to get cut off at the knees, just turn employees in your customer service business into your enemies. Mr. Rogers says: Still have problems with the article? Check out http://notalwaysright.com/ and marvel at the examples. July 30, 2010 at 5:49 am Know why public utilities in the Philippines don’t perform well? Or why online game companies are struggling? It’s because some of their customers are rude and impatient, and they make the employees of those companies feel like crap, so these employees wind up slacking off or go into flamewars. August 1, 2010 at 5:56 pm Again, this can’t be stressed too much: you can’t get good customer service by treating your employees like some kind of shit that you scraped off your shoe. When employees feel degraded and powerless in the face of customers, I absolutely guarantee they will find some way to get even with the customer. I saw several local pizza franchises destroyed, for example, when a disgruntled employee collected a giant wad of order slips out of the trash and then called the customers anonymously and claimed to have jerked off in their pizza before he delivered it. If you force people to smile through gritted teeth and behave in a cringing, servile manner while you shit on them, you’d better not turn your back or let your attention waver for a second, or they WILL find some way to fuck you over. If you’re a flaming shitheel to the wait staff at a restaurant, I don’t care how spineless and accommodating the manager is — I would bet my immortal soul that you go home with enough strange DNA in your belly to start an FBI crime lab. It doesn’t matter how intrusive or totalitarian the internal surveillance is, there’s always something the boss can’t track or measure. And employees are experts at finding it. COUNT ON IT. Keith Sketchley says: August 27, 2010 at 12:52 am Wish my place of work thought the same way. They agree with the �customer is always right� crap. Well, guess what?�.they�re not! Customers lie to get what they want. I agree with #1 in saying it makes the employees unhappy. I feel like there is no loyalty and don�t feel valued when they kiss the customer�s ass. I wish I could put a sign up where I work that says �yelling or screaming will not be tolerated. If you do so, you will be thrown out immediately�. I do not come to work to be verbally abused. It lowers the morale at the workplace. It�s profit over people where I work. They would rather me take crap from a customer than lose money�really nice! I applaud the Jet Blue flight attendant that didn�t take any crap from the passenger who was giving him a hard time. He did what so many of us would love to do. September 30, 2010 at 5:57 pm Rude customers can actually cost you your good customers if you always side with the customer whether they’re right or wrong. Good customers may see that as a turn off when they’ve been loyal and polite to the company’s workers and go elsewhere. But good customers can also be your defense as they will often stick up for the employees who are treated wrong by a rude customer. I’ve been irritated by how I’ve seem other customers act and said to the employee who was the target of rudeness that they should not have to tolerate that. I say companies should have a costomer code of conduct as well as an employee code of conduct. john tracy says: September 30, 2010 at 6:39 pm The “customer os always right” maxim is the reason why customer service these days is “customer no-service” or “customer dis-service”, because you have to put on the fake smile even for the rude customers you really don’t relish coming into your store. I’m a nice guy, but that doesn’t mean I should have to put up with bullcrap from some jackass. john tracy says: September 30, 2010 at 6:41 pm We reserve the right to refuse service to anyone. That can make people behave themselves as a business is private property, although the difference between a business being private property and one’s home being the same is that a business is open to the public. john tracy says: September 30, 2010 at 6:47 pm Remember, we’re all employees at work and customers where we shop, and sometimes we’re both at the same time. H.E.B. Grocery here in Austin treats its employees well, and the main reason for that is this: being a grocery store, their employees are also their customers, as they shop their own store for groceries with an employee discount. john tracy says: September 30, 2010 at 6:55 pm A little off topic, but when commissioned salespeople don’t think like a customer, that’s bad for business, especially if the salesperson is seen by customers as trying to coerce them into purchasing more expensive goods or services. Would they want to be ripped off or deceived? October 21, 2010 at 9:13 am I believe that the primary role of any sales or customer support people, to remember that you are dealing with people like you, without seeing the money sign on their foreheads, but look into their eyes & see what kind of help you can assist them with.. Money is only and automatic reward for honest help or given service! October 27, 2010 at 9:42 pm I work in healthcare, and that industry has taken the “customer is always right” philosophy to the worst imaginable extreme. With the emphasis on Studer Group manipulation to game satisfaction surveys, the tyranny of the Press-Gainey metric, etc., most of us work in terror that someone might complain about us. I can remember as recently as two years ago, at the hospital where I worked, that I didn’t have to be afraid to tell a really abusive or psychotic patient/visitor that their behavior was inappropriate. Or I could call the night shift nursing supervisor, and she’d have a “come to Jesus” talk with them. If i tried that now, the administration would throw me under the bus to appease the patient. Any complaint at all, unless there are actually witnesses to them spinning their heads and spitting up pea soup, is prima facie proof of your guilt. So no matter how abusive and degrading your treatment at the hands of the patient or visitor, your only permissible response is “Thank you very much, sir. Would you prefer I spit or swallow?” I can tell you from personal observation that such a policy is counter-productive. It breeds resentment and causes the employee to see the customer as an enemy. Once again — you can’t have good customer service if you turn your customer service staff into your enemies. You can bluster all you want about how “that doesn’t happen in MY store–I know!” But if you really believe that, you’re just stupid. If your employees hate you bad enough, they’ll find a way to make you pay — and there’s nothing you can do about it. If you believe otherwise and resort to bravado, you’re just living in a fool’s paradise. The reason customers become disgruntled is because they have reason to. a) They did not get the service or quality they expected. B) They were ignored or wasted time and energy dealing with people who only punch a clock and do not care to listen to the complaint. I have been in the retail and sales for over 40 years. If you treat people right and you sell what you advertise, you will not have disgruntled customers. Yes there are people that no one can please, but they are few and far between. Approaching customers as “complainers” is a big mistake. The loss a company may face with that one in a million complainer is minimal to the loss of those customers because of lazy employees that do not go that extra mile to please the customer. I do not shop at Saks 5th Avenue, because the sales staff treated me as riff-raff and went over to Macys and dropped $2,000. So Saks lost the sales that day because of their employees attitudes. I don�t shop at Safeway because they make one feel like they are a shoplifter and have people watching every move you make. I shop at Walmart, because no one cares or bothers you. I know this up front and don’t expect any help, also I know their quality is iffy and don’t expect things to last very long. So I get what I pay for. I seldom make returns, but when I do, I expect to be respected and valued. If I am mistreated when making a return or exchange – I never make another purchase in that store. so How much is a company willing to lose? My return or exchange item, or my continued business? the problem in todays world is a lack of respect and courtesy! November 24, 2010 at 6:14 pm sfpanama: It’s interesting that you view the customer as presumptively right and abusive customers as “few and far between,” while almost always blaming sales staff for problems. Do obnoxious and disrespectful sales people come from a separate planet, or are they recruited from a different demographic group than customers? Are they never customers at some other establishment? Or do they suddenly stop being obnoxious when they shop on their day off just because a customer, by definition, can never be wrong? Alex says: December 6, 2010 at 10:08 am I’ve had to learn to laugh at a lot of this stuff when I get home for the day. First of all, considering the difficulty in getting enough hours for health insurance or anything of the like, I have bigger concerns on my plate than the customer being mean to me. I’ve also learned to remind myself how little control I have and how the customer is taking advantage of that (in bad situations). For instance, I had a customer yelling at me today about a ‘bad display’ that ‘deceived’ them, asking how I would feel, what I would think, why did I set the ad that way, etc., etc. But I work for a big corporation at the lowly status of a cashier. The person knows I have no control over the things they’re yelling about. I’m a cashier. They’re just venting. Even if they had yelled at my employers, they also do not control this stuff. They are given plans and told what to do by higher ups, who got those instructions from people higher up in corporate. When I was younger I got so incredibly upset. Nowadays I realize most of the time things turn out really well, normally I have pretty good customers and they seem to like me, and in the case where the situation deals with things out of my control I learn to get through that best I can and laugh it off later at home. I’m not going to let someone that takes advantage of my lack of power to refuse their attention ruin my day. Of course I agree with the article – just saying problems with how things work today aren’t going to get in the way of my enjoying work. Of course, in this market (especially where I live) I see the world through the rose-colored glasses of someone who was incredibly happy to realize they had a job, any job at all. Morgan says: December 14, 2010 at 10:17 am Also some “customers” use the always right mantra as way to way to retaliate for their own abusive behavior not working out as planned (ie resulting in the “We reserve the right to refuse service to anyone” clause being invoked). They want your name so they can complain to your supervisor about not getting what they want because they are being abusive jerks. Phone customers can be the worse as unless you have a policy of recording call it becomes a game of he said she said. Customer always right? Yeah sure. With all the mentall illness, narcissism, unmedicated bi-polar, entitlement issues, etc. I don’t think so, not always. Joanne says: February 18, 2011 at 3:29 pm The customer is not always right. I work at a job where the bosses blame the employees if a customer complains. Because I and a few others are the first people a customer speaks to to set up an appointment to come in and see us. I have a speech that I automatically start saying every time the customer tells me they’ve never been here before. I tell them everything they need to do and everything they need to bring before they come in. It’s like a reflex because I’ve said this same speech a thousand times, so I KNOW I don’t miss anything. And I stress it’s importnant for them not to forget those things. Then the boss will come up to me after the customer has had their appointment and they will say that we employees are not doing our jobs by not mentioning those important items the customer brings in. Our boss will ask the customer for those items and the little lying you know whats will say, “Oh, I was never told to bring that!” when they could have just come out and said they forgot them. I told her flat out that’s total baloney because all of the calls are recorded and you can go back and listen to them and find out we DO stress for them to bring those items. She ALWAYS sides with the customers instead of us. Why? Because she wants her money. We do tell her that customers can be little liars because we have the recorded evidence. March 9, 2011 at 1:07 am I was at the grocery store and was behind some d-bag with his left leg amputated but still has his right foot. his right foot was bare, had no shoe on it clerk attempted to enforce the no shoes policy explaining to him he needed to be wearing a shoe on his right foot citing the store policy sign on the door. Before the clerk even finished with what he had to say. the guy interrepted using very foul language and rambling about how they are discriminating against him and how he fought for this country. Many stores have a policy requiring patrons to wear shoes on any feet that come into contact with the floor for safety. This is part of what’s wrong with todays society. Nobody has any respect Deb says: March 10, 2011 at 1:52 pm Rules apply to everyone, I agree. The grocery store I frequent cards everyone when you purchase wine or beer with your pot roast. I am wrinkled of visage, silver-haired and obviously an older babe. Do I argue? I do not and have my ID at the ready since I’m not going to abuse a minimum-wage worker for a store policy that, if the checkout clerk does not apply to everyone, can get them fired. Your customer was wrong in both instances for displaying their footsie and abusing the clerk. In only one instance did I see a manager spring to the defense of a clerk being lambasted by an abusive customer and I cheered. I will continue to shop at that store since the manager did not do the PC thing but the right thing. Rules apply to everyone says: March 12, 2011 at 7:06 pm I work in a hospital, and things have gotten much, much worse — almost beyond imagining — over the past year or so. For several years, they’d been parroting the Quint Studer Kool-Aid Kult. But with new management sent in by corporate last year, they’ve doubled down on it — as well as worshipping at the altar of the Great God Press-Gainey. I mean they are absolutely obsessed with doing whatever it takes to manipulate the patient into filling out a positive satisfaction survey, no matter how irrational their demands or how abusive they are. A year or so ago, when a patient (or visitor!) became really unreasonable or abusive (including screaming and cursing at us) we could call whoever was on duty as hospital nursing supervisor that shift, and she’d have a little “Come to Jesus” talk with them after which they’d either be properly chastened or get escorted out by security. Now, when they pull that crap, we’re afraid to complain, because mgt. will assume that anytime there’s a problem, (in the words of the Bob Jones University slogan) “No doubt the fault lies with you.” Our only proper response is “Thank you, sir. Would you prefer I spit or swallow?” Needless to say, being so devalued and degraded doesn’t do a lot for our ability to empathize with the patients. Rational Keith says: March 12, 2011 at 8:07 pm IMJ that manager handled the jerk properly – such people live by intimidation, the only thing that works is to intimidate them back. Beware however that there is risk of violence, and today legal risk for the manager as the jerk could complain about harassment. Best to document the incident afterwared, with names of witnesses. April 16, 2011 at 11:37 pm While I agree with the author, I’ve personally experienced being abused by company representatives because of this logic. If the company feels that they can get away with abusive behaivor they will sometimes do so. Thankfully I was able to file a complaint with the BBB, funny thing is though that the company refuses to resolve the complaint regardless of how blatantly “wrong” they actually are. Thankfully there is a third party out there to decide which side is right. My complaint has cost them more money than it was worth. Just saying we cannot put a blind eye on employee’s or companies practices either! Morgan says: May 15, 2011 at 9:21 am Recently at our hotel we had a guest complain that his key didn’t work–it turned out he misremembered the room number and made a new key duplicating the one he had. A while later a room calls and someone says their key for the room next door doesn’t work and wanted us to go up and bring them one. Turned out it was the same guy as before STILL trying to get into the WRONG room. We told him that we have to cross reference names with rooms numbers and that someone ELSE was in the room he kept claiming was his. Morgan says: May 16, 2011 at 3:51 am Another example from our hotel was a customer who couldn’t get into his room. Turned out he was trying to get into the wrong room. Several minutes later another room called and it turned out the guy had gotten mixed up again and first gave a room number we didn’t even have and then gave the wrong room number again. Michelle Reid says: I love this site, I’am a Belk employees and we see all kinds of customers to come in the door. Grace says: May 30, 2011 at 10:17 am Great article! I’ve been at both ends of the scale. I’m currently in a call centre where I must do all I can for the customer, but if they are unreasonable, abusive or being massive dicks then we can terminate the call and I get a lot of support as an employee. On the other hand, I once worked in a retail store where I was asked out by a customer who made several inappropriate comments. When I turned him down (as politely as I could as I was at work), he later complained to my my HO. Who did they side with? Not their employee… Shazz says: June 16, 2011 at 7:55 am While I certainly don’t agree with the saying “The Customer is always right”, I also don’t agree with companies immediately siding with employees. There needs to be a balance. Each incident needs to be looked at carefully, in some incidences the customer is completely wrong, and in others it is the employee who is in the wrong. Derek says: I absolutely love this article. There’s so much truth in it. When you work in the food industry, you see this everywhere. It’s easy to spot the same customers coming in, ordering the same things, and complaining about random things because they know your policy is to comp/discount the item. Some complaints are genuine and that’s 100% OK, but you also have to realize that some people know how to work the system to get something free out of it. anton says: ” Alexander” I love to ciomment on this , should my Employer ever find out , I will be immediately terminated without unemployement as it is against their policy.” the Home Depot USA . A book could be written about it , an encyclopedia . Used and Abused says: July 1, 2011 at 8:20 am I’ve worked in the service industry for seven years. I’ve seen all sorts of customers and all sorts of customer service policies. I believe that Harry Selfridge’s slogan “the customer is always right” has dealt damage to the industry that may never be repaired. I also believe that finding and sharing these positive points about supporting your employees is only the first step to finding a solution. We also need to identify the obstacle that prevent us from dumping this tired maxim in favor of something better. Were I to present this article to upper management tomorrow, I believe this is what I would be told: 1. People are more negative than we often give them credit for. Your average person is far less likely to share the story of a good customer experience than they are to share the story of a bad one. If we were to “fire” this abusive customer, chances are he will tell the story to all his friends and family – who are good customers and have not been abusive in any way – and we then risk losing their service as well. 2. A healthy portion of these abusive customers are created by service that is perceived as poor. We would rather push ourselves a little harder to prevent an angry customer before dismissing them becomes an option. 3. In a time where the market is fully saturated and virtually everyone is someone’s customer, sending our customers to the competition puts us at a monetary disadvantage. Doing away with “the customer is always right” can only be fully realized when doing so is universally accepted by all competitors in the industry. And if that arena were to be leveled, we would then gain an advantage if we were to re-adopt the maxim. That last point brings up circular logic that would be especially difficult to overcome. We need reform on a major scale to reach a better customer service experience for both customers and employees. But then that’s just me playing devil’s advocate. July 4, 2011 at 9:31 am Used and Abused: 2. I actually heard the first point made in a training film I watched at a corporate brainwashing session on “customer service” at a Mazzio’s store 20 years ago. My response, then and now, is that if the customer is a big enough asshole that they have to be banned from the store, most of their “friends” probably know very well that they’re assholes. Most people who are jerky enough to get banned are the kind of people with just the right mix of stupid and mean that they’re into it with everybody, and it’s always the other person’s fault. Even the “friends” who tolerate them for the sake of peace will probably take the complainer’s account of what happened with a ton of salt, unless they’re as stupid as he is. 2. Service that is perceived as poor usually occurs in an understaffed shithole where the senior management writes mission statements about “extraordinary customer service,” while simultaneously downsizing half the customer service staff in order to goose their own stock options or give themselves a multi-million dollar “productivity bonus.” And oddly enough, it’s in corporations with such pathological atmospheres that the company takes the attitude of “whenever there’s a problem with a customer, it’s your fault, and we’ll throw you under the bus.” 3. When we send customers who cost more than they’re worth to the competitor, we put the competitor at a monetary advantage. Example: the woman who’d sent her nachos back so many times (she repeatedly claimed they we were short on cheese even though we weighed the ingredients for every single serving on a scale) that the company gave her a 20% lifetime discount to mollify her. And she was a regular customer, coming in every week for her discounted nachos despite the fact that we supposedly made them so badly, for the whole two years that I worked there. And guess what? She was going around telling all her friends that if you complained and made false accusations and sent stuff back enough, you’d get a lifetime 20% discount as a reward. So if customer word-of-mouth is really as important as the pointy-haired boss claims in point no. 1, then we managed to get ourselves a whole bunch of freeloaders who cost us even more money. August 24, 2011 at 12:57 am Customer are always right about their own state of mind. They can be wrong about facts (there is no fly in your soup), but can never be wrong how they feel about the level of service they receive. People’s feelings are their reality and many techniques are available to make sure a customer has positive feelings about your service. We write about this and many other similar topics on Hypotheticorp.org. Andrew says: September 8, 2011 at 5:59 am Customers are always right about what they want, but what they want frequently has no meaningful relationship to what the rest of us refer to as “reality”. The slogan “the customer is always right” gives many customers the impression that they are literally entitled to absolutely *anything* they can imagine, and that it is a failure on the part of the salesperson if their insane demands cannot be satisfied. Why is this? I think it is partly due to the fact that people of low intelligence (both customers and management) interpret the slogan very literally, instead of as a rejoinder to help the customer have a pleasurable shopping experience in every *reasonable* aspect. Bea says: September 18, 2011 at 5:20 pm Woman comes in to business with three children, 8, 6 & 5. Mother leaves kids to use bathroom and kids go insane, screaming, hitting and throwing merchandise. Clerk looks at kids going ape and tells them to behave. Mother comes out of bathroom, kids tell mom how they were abused and mom proceeds to scream at clerk for her “abusive glare” and “unprofessional utterance”. As manager I step in, get clerk off floor and tell mom that I was about to chide her dears for their poor behavior. Mom demands to speak to manager and I tell her I am the manager and the clerk did nothing wrong. Mom get even more furious and I give her the name and number of the owner, who will return the next day. Mom calls, complains, I get called into the owners office and told to call and apologize. I refuse and owner makes his own suck-up call to helicopter mom. My only comfort is that I see this mom in front of the police in a few years explaining away her kids felonious behavior, and it’s coming since these kids are awful. I think owner is a jerk and I did the right thing. Marie says: September 18, 2011 at 11:43 pm This is an interesting article to me as I work in retail now and have worked in other client service businesses in the past. I see less of an attitude from our customers that they are right, more that they are allowed to act however they want. And in the store where I work (health food and supplements) there is an expectation of advice, knowledge, etc. So there are certain patterns of rude behaviors that I think happen to me simply because I’m behind a counter: the money-throwers, people who yell from the opposite side of the store (they probably do this at home too), people that find it too much effort to return a “Hello” and instead just bark a product name, assuming that this encloses a full question. Then there’s the folks that want me to be their doctor. At least with them I can engage a bit and moderate their expectations or point them to other resources. If needed, I do gently remind them of the limits of what I can legally say. Most of these folks just want to be listened to and get some sympathy and attention. The rude, well, they’re everywhere aren’t they? October 5, 2011 at 4:25 am It seems that the focus of the comments have diverted from the circumstances that were the basis of the original posts. In the original cases the customers are stated as being: UNREASONABLE, ABUSIVE, and RUDE. There is never an excuse or “right” reason for this behavior (.) That type of customer does not and will not appreciate your service or care how you provide it. Sometimes they can be won over- but not always. (And if they are, it sets the precedent that you will continue to tolerate that from them- lowering the level of respect and dignity they will give you from that point forward.) Therefore what is to gain? The money? The overall effect of that on your company (morale, employees, reputation, etc.) will cost you more than the money you make from the customer. Do the customer a favor and don’t give them a reason to be more abusive and unreasonable- let them go. Tom (a customer) says: October 18, 2011 at 3:12 pm I would like to state one thing in this wallowing of employee pity. If as an airline or callcentre employee you constantly put regular people in difficult situations, then yes, you deserve grief. I am sorry, but that is the truth. October 31, 2011 at 6:10 am After reading all the comments and the main summary i have concluded that: 100% of the time we are all employees and that about 30% of the time on the clock we spend being customers. When we weight the idea of the customer always being right, we should consider dealing with this unruly customers ourselves. After you confront the idea of dealing with a person that strips you downright of your fourth amendments rights and only then should you consider to have an opinion as you will speak from experience. Let me give you a scenario: You are a customer service reprenstative working for a cable,tv, phone monster company that deals with customers nationaly. At the moment of you taking the responsability of this job you sign over to all your rights and you get this call, as follows: the customer starts screaming to you incenssantly about their many calls to your company they offend you and your mom becuse let me remind you that your mom has nothing to with their problem but the customer is not above making stupid comments.Afterwards the customer starts insulting you directly as an individual and blamind you for all the wrongs in their lifes and their car payments.and then it gets better because he is the customer and he pays a measly 200 dollars for your service he decides that you should waive this months entire bill because you have caused so many grivences to him and YOU personally are at fault. After letting this stupid customer know that you cant waive his entire bill he belittles you and asks to speak to your supervisor. When your supervisor gets done with this customer you end up with a written warning of not complaying with customers request eventhough you dont have the ability to waive this customers entire bill and neither does your supervisor you end up getting burned for this stupid customers attitude. At the end the customer did not get their issue resolved because they were difficult to deal with. The Supervisor was unable to issue a 200$ dollar credit. Finally you get a wrongful writeup that will speak badly of you for the rest of your employment in that hell house. Now lets stop and think about this: Did this line of wrongs make a right? Would you under this circumstances as the employee still stand up for every customer with a bad attitude? And would you love to be penalized for everyones wrong when all you did was have a bad encounter with the crazy bipolar bitch from Witchdisease,New Eva? The honest to god answer is you wouldnt last as a minute dealing with a customer like this. Nevertheless if you are one of those customers making unbeliable claims and harrasing and abusing and bullying employees you are under the constitution committing several crimes which if you did any of those items to a non employee you would be sued. BOTTOM LINE IS: A CUSTOMER REPRESENTATIVE IS A HUMAN TOO! DO NOT EVER FORGET THAT IN YOU SHORT LIFES! This person could be your sister, your mother, your brother,your father, and it could be you. So think twice ALWAYS about being rude to the person on the front desk because he/she COULD BE YOU. You must finally understand the damages that a phsyocotic customer inflicts onto a customer representative: To the least some physcological damage, stress of all sorts,low self-confidece, and possible feelings of resentfullness..I dont think those are the traits that should be glad to see in yourselves or your children. Brian says: November 3, 2011 at 9:55 am I couldn’t agree more with this article, or many of the previous comments. Customers are not always right, and by adopting this policy, a company is only hurting itself. My employer (a large grocery chain) spouts this motto left and right. Indeed, a customer could b*tch and whine because you twitched your nose the wrong way, and end up getting a $20 gift card as compensation while the employee gets written up. Needless to say, this makes the employees feel undervalued. Undervalued employees don’t care about their jobs. It’s really such a stupidly simple concept, yet so many companies don’t understand. We are paid close to minimum wage, and have to all but sell our souls in order to earn that. We get berated and belittled by complete strangers and are forced to endure it and keep our frustration bottled up inside, which is actually very unhealthy. And we are expected to care about our jobs, or our employer and their profits? Customers think that just because they are trading currency for goods and services, they are entitled to act like complete jackasses, and companies do nothing but reinforce this thinking. Customer service is indeed dead. All it is nowadays is coming in, punching the clock, getting force-fed a bunch of crap about how the customer is equivalent to God and we are not even worthy of wiping a customer’s rear end because they chose to come to OUR store to buy their freaking milk and eggs, and going home with our $100 a week paycheck. The icing on the cake is that they (the employer) expect us to shop in their stores. Like hell I will. I can say that for all their preaching about how almighty the customer is and how we can’t afford to lose a single one, they have actually lost one of the most valuable customers there are – someone who has to be there every day anyway and who might as well shop there. On the contrary though, I refuse to give this company any of my money. Deborah says: November 8, 2011 at 12:42 pm Our new director now has his newest flavor-of-the (FOTM) month spying on me. She’s came up behind me a few times when I’m on the computer and cranes her neck to see what I’m doing. All she’s seen is spreadsheets and business related databases since I do not screw around at work but this is really ticking me off. FOTM has been a manager since August, I’ve been a manager for 25 years, my reviews have been excellent and I resent the implication that I’m a slacker since I generate good will in my community, give excellent service and have an excellent reputation in my field. The director has shown active hostility toward my fellow fossils–three of us in the office who have been there almost as long as me–and wants a hip organization. FOTM and the director are always in closed door meetings, going out to lunch and attending conferences together. FOTM is a sly lass who has already canned a subordinate after FOTM went dumpster diving in the company trash and found an unfiled invoice. I now feel like I’m in hell here but realize that the director is ambitious and won’t be here long and FOTM will reap what she sows. In the meantime, any suggestions of how I can control myself enough not to wack FOTM in the eye. Anyone? FOTM hater says: November 16, 2011 at 11:53 am FOTM is sleeping with the “boss” >> Easy to burn both of them if you ask me. Get a little imaginative, and come up with some good blackmail material, they’ll fall right into line after that. If you think this kinda stuff only happens in the movies, you’d be 100% wrong, and from what you wrote, I can almost gurantee they have “something” going on. Maybe they’re both a little too ambitious?! Whatever the case, bust them with some hidden cam or something, send them both a discrete email from an anonymous email account with a clip of the video, and tell them both too cool it on EVERYONE (so they don’t know who sent it), or the video just may end up in their superiors hands, or better yet, on youtube! That may work… Actually, it will! Chelsea says: November 16, 2011 at 6:31 pm This article is such a breath of fresh air and poignant in regards to my current work environment. I work in property management, and often have to endure the onslaught of abuse from unreasonable, rude, and demanding tenants. Yesterday, due to a complaint about my customer service, I had to sit in on this meeting with the disgruntled tenant and my supervisor. The tenant was given the podium and proceeded to personally attack me, make up lies about the way in which I spoke to her, and attributed my “attitude and disrespect” to me “being an arrogant young person who must be on her period.” I had to emotionally restrain myself throughout the meeting while my supervisor made me sit in the dunce chair, unable to comment on the situation. My supervisor essentially enabled that woman’s false sense of entitlement and awful behavior. Needless to say, I’m shopping for a better job! If If I knew that constant customer absue was a part of this job when I applied, I would have at least asked for health insurance! November 19, 2011 at 2:55 am Haha, I wrote a similar article today. The trends I witnessed as a customer service manager spoke for themselves – the customer who believes they are always right, will milk you for everything you are worth. On my last day with a big multi-national company an agent asked me to take a complaint call. The customer called her stupid because she didn’t immediately resolve her problem. The business was IT related, incidentally. So I took the call and the first thing I asked was, “What are your qualifications in IT?” The customer replied, “I don’t have any.” So I went on to chew them out for about ten minutes, asking them what qualified them to make such a brash statement, considering they had no formal IT qualifications. Needless to say the customer was stunned into silence – oh, and the agent was very appreciative of the support. yogesh says: November 21, 2011 at 4:03 pm Two gentlemen came to the restaurant under the influence of alcohol, they ordered a lot of food and had it. When they were to settle the bill they did not have money to pay. One of the gentlemen gave the credit card that unfortunately declined. He started arguing with the manager and said that their credit card machine is not working properly and that there should be no reason why his credit card should decline. Both of them did not have money to settle the bill. Keeping them in view of guests was not a good idea as they were creating a scene at peak business hour – dinner time. What would you do if you were the Manager with this situation to handle? XonImmortal says: November 24, 2011 at 5:44 pm @yogesh 1) Call the police to have the two non-paying gentlemen arrested. They are not customers. Customers pay for what they get. 2) While the police are hand-cuffing the two non-paying gentlemen, announce to the rest of the diners, “Our apologies for the disturbance, folks, somebody thought our food was so good they had to steal it.” Everybody repeat after me: People who steal are not customers. It’s time we start remembering that. January 7, 2012 at 4:28 pm one of the first things that i was taught in customer service is to never be afraid to “fire” a customer. i work in the bar and restaurant business and you get a lot of customers who try and take advantage of you and take up too much time, which is better served helping others. Brad says: January 10, 2012 at 6:13 pm For all those above who think that 1st amendment rights of freedom of speech trump FAA rules, you are mistaken. “Freedom of speech” does not mean “freedom from responsibility.” Just as one would be held accountable for the injuries and deaths associated with yelling “fire” in a crowded theater, the man and son with the hate speech on their clothing must take responsibility for their actions (of discomforting other passengers, not following the wishes of the flight attendant, etc.) The results of shouting “fire” in the movie house may end up being imprisonment. The father and son were lucky the results of their actions were only being ejected from a plane; they could have had the crap beaten out of them by fellow passengers. In other words, you are free to call Mike Tyson a “stupid ugly moron” to his face, but expect the consequences of a major pummeling in return. Companies have a right to refuse business to anyone (even if it is detrimental to business). The point of this article is companies *should* refuse to do business with customers that are unprofitable. February 24, 2012 at 8:05 pm Isnt it funny. 6 years after this was wrote look at our economic landscape (at least in the US) We have consistent chronic unemployment, most of our tech service jobs have been sold to India, Philippines or who knows where. and why? Aside from the fact that corporate CEOs were looking for a cheaper place to conduct business, they also know that “The customer is always right” is not an axiom that those people are familiar with. Look at every single difficult conversation you have been forced to endure with someone from Bangalore or Manilla. Its not that you do not understand their “English is my 4th language” accents that create the language barrier. Its a language barrier of ideologies. These people have absolutely no qualms with telling you NO, your wrong. Compare that to someone native to the US or even canada for that matter. You express even an unreasonable concern, and the Western world CSR will try to figure out how to obtain a happy medium for what the customer wants and what is in corporate best interests. So, On the notion of “the customer is NOT always right” is infinitely worse than the notion of the customer is always right. Because with the Customer is always right you get a happier customer who will be more willing to part with their money, which will make the corporation happy, plus you get to give those unhappy employees who do not want to deal with customers the opportunity for jobs. If your not able to tolerate dealing with irrational and irate customers, you know what? its not the right job for you. Find another one, Dont give the corporation the justification it needs to ship the job elsewhere and screw over someone else who might have had better interpersonal skills to be able to handle the job. March 6, 2012 at 10:37 pm I believe in many things this article has brought up. Managers at my place tell us on the frontline to say no to unreasonable customers all the time, but when they ask to speak to a manager they come down and cave in straight away, then they’re there looking like the hero and we’re the bad guys. There’s one manager however who always sticks up for us, and we all pray he’ll be the one to come down to help. It shouldn’t be this way, it’s like the rude customers always get what they want and the nice ones have to put up with us being grumpy because the rude customers brought us down! Check out my wordpress for more angry ramblings! July 14, 2012 at 9:42 pm Any item that has a 6 year life must be worth reading. I recently sacked a quite large account – trade customer. Obnoxious, everything was our fault and a lsow payer. I’m not saying we’re perfect, we get things wrong too, but this guy, after three years, just tipped me over the edge. When I told teh staff w eno longer dealt with him, that I ad “sacked” him, the staff were so-o-o-o much happier and worked better. The Customer is NOT always right. Some customers you really do want to suggest they buy from your competitor. Jim says: August 27, 2012 at 5:40 pm Unfortunately this story only works with an industry where the customer has no choice but to use you, such as an airline. However, if its an industry where there’s a lot of alternative rival providers, such as restaurants, cafes, hotels, supermarkets and bars, the customer will walk and quite easily give their money to someone else. Your reputation will suffer from word of mouth, so one customer you upset can loose many other potential customers. Also, there seems a lot of employees on here who want paying for nothing. If you want money, there are things you have to put up with in return. Remember, you don’t have to work there, just like the customer doesn’t have to spend their money there. Dudley says: September 9, 2012 at 12:48 am Customers are like cockroaches. Step on one and you still have thousands more to take it’s place. Never ever ever placate an unreasonable or rude customer. If they do not know how to be polite and well mannered then you don’t need them. Some people will always complain no matter how good the service or product is just to get a discount or simply give you grief because they are having a bad day. Cut these kind of people off immediately and don’t lose sleep over it as you are saving yourself hassle and giving it to your competitor. Some people think the world should move and rotate just for them and they should learn that this is not the case. In fact their parents should have taught them as children that you don’t always get what you want in this world. Take no shit from anyone. Anthony Reno says: November 21, 2012 at 11:11 am In the business tier the most important to keep happy are your customers and your employees. If your employees are not happy, then your customers are not happy. You want your employees to keep your present customers happy. The best customer service you can provide your customers is to make them feel like your employees are bending over backwards for them. Meanwhile your employees are following the processes set forth for them by the company they work for. If the customer wants something the company is unable to provide the employee explains that what the customer wants is not provided. Then if the customer is that unhappy you give them a refund. If the pillow is lumpy or dirty that an airline stewardess gives them, it is up to the stewardesses to bend over backwards to get another pillow. If the customer wants a pillow that is made of mink and the airline does not provide that, the employee must tell the customer that the mink pillow is not available. This is in the simplest terms how the customer is always right works. If the company does not treat their employees well, your customers won’t get the best of service. In any of stories above, if a manager has to come and help an employee with a customer who is unruly because they don’t like the answers the employee is giving (who is following company policy), you would expect the manager to give the same exact answers as the employee gave or give a refund. The customer is always right works in the context of company policy. Christine says: December 13, 2012 at 3:42 pm ‘Also, it means that abusive people get better treatment and conditions than nice people.’ Exactly. I think this is why we need to put an end to the “customer is always right” collectively because for many Americans it has turned into a normal practice for savings-shopping. Rarely do I believe these are actually super angry and beside-themselves over something petty or imaginary customers, but instead individuals who see themselves in the same light as “coupon clippers” who know if they throw a tantrum they can get “secret savings” (money % off) or “free stuff.” So housewives put on their best scowl face, make a huge overacted dramatic performance, than leave actually proud of themselves for what they did & how they treated strangers because they did skillful money saving tactics for their family. Horrible. ….One time I was checking into my annual condo at the front desk and a couple who booked one of the non-smoking motel rooms on the propriety was raising hell because they wanted to smoke inside the motel room. The clerk kept trying to say “You can smoke right outside the balcony door” which they kept insisting wasn’t good enough, and when the desk clerk than offered them the refund — they again refused. And kept saying that wasn’t good enough either, because they were “so upset” that they couldn’t smoke inside the motel room they wanted the refund for the motel at the condo than for the condo company to PAY for a new motel room stay somewhere else of their choice or they would get “the lawyer they have on retainer” involved. (Repeatedly dropped the fact they had a “lawyer” over and over) Clearly they were trying to scam the condo company since the beginning. The only reason why I had heard this whole con was because the tantruming couple kept pulling the desk clerk’s attention away from me who was being polite & patient to him so I had to wait extra long just to check in because of these scumbag customers who thought if they made enough threats and acted “angry enough” the condo company would comply to any unreasonable request they had planned out to screw the company. It makes you afraid of starting your own small business because these types of performance-anger unreasonable customers are similar to mobsters trying to get protection money/security tax with coning and bullying businesses for ill gotten gain. We cannot tolerate a society that is functioning like this. May 22, 2013 at 8:02 am Bruce Barr, actually, if you read our legal system…one cannot use their rights to over power and/or disrupt other people’s rights and responsiblities. If your right is preventing the crew from safely and calmly getting people to where they need to be, then what you are doing becomes illegal and a disruption. Etiquette Samurai R says: Wow In my own experience Women mostly are so jealous of other women. I seen this time and time again in Customer Service! When the upper management only sticks up for their own, makes me feel like they don’t want any customers. Employers are always talking bad about customers ALWAYS! If that’s the case get a new job! Just remember your a customer too :D The golden rule do unto others as you want done unto you !! Good advise to live by! October 23, 2013 at 11:07 am I have worked for education agency, online company, hotels, FMCG distributor, … and I understand that the sentence “the customer is always right” is in general, if you do business, you’ll see a Pareto principle ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_principle ) and that sentence is valued to satisfy the group of 20% clients in “80% of your sales come from 20% of your clients”. Furries Rule says: November 3, 2013 at 9:35 pm My god this is so well written. Argumentation and evidence is clear, and I can relate. I am done with my last job because I would be treated like I am less than human and there was nothing that I could do about it because where I worked, the customer was always right. It is so true that employees will be less motivated and will leave when they get the opportunity. My life is too short for me to be dehumanized and put up with it. Why should I? November 13, 2013 at 3:05 am Absolutely right! I am 100% agreed. I can even relate this. ‘Customer is always right’ policy of the company leads to demotivate the employees eventually. And this is exactly why I left my previous job. When I’d try to convince customers with much better and efficient solutions, the boss would interfere me. He’d try to prove that I suck. Then, I thought I’m better off without this job. As I knew it’s not me who really suck, but the customers (sometimes) and the boss, I quit! Anyway, thanks for this post! November 16, 2013 at 3:27 am Well, I’m just biding my time. If the customer is always right, then I’m going in to Wal-Mart, claiming that gravity is just a hoax, then suing their pants off when I’m not floating in mid-air. No, the customer is NOT always right – not when they are being jerks or just don’t understand what they are asking for. It’s a good thing to strive for, but I always felt that “good customer service” implies “good customers.” Bad customers deserve bad service. john says: Trying making a successful business where you don’t care what customers say about you. Chances are most of your customers won’t be returning, see what that does for your business. Furries Rule says: QUOTE “john Said, November 16, 2013 @ 5:25 am Trying making a successful business where you don�t care what customers say about you. Chances are most of your customers won�t be returning, see what that does for your business.” Why the straw man argument John? Why put words into the mouth of the author? The author never said that a business should not care about what the customer says, or that the customer is always wrong. They are simply denying the claim that the customer is always right. In other words, the customer CAN be wrong but is NOT ALWAYS wrong. The author also clearly calls for balance between the customers and the employees. joel says: November 18, 2013 at 5:36 am John , I think that you have mistaken the point , I worked over 35 years in the Hospitality industry , the industry in which the Customer is always right , guess what in all these years I never experienced bankruptcy , slow down , this for one single reason early on I learn to make the distinction between Customers and suckers , to illustrate my point I recall in a very fine restaurant in Los Angeles during lunch time one Customer requested a Mc Donald from down the street just to prove He could get what He wanted , I said yes , get a hamburger and fries lot’s of ketchup , take a taxi get the bill , in between the cab the 99cents burger , the labor which short changed the other customers we handed the Customer a $40 bill , he turned red and we broke it down for Him , He paid , every single Customer in the dining room laughed , we never saw the light of Him again , I seriously doubt He went around bragging that he paid $ 40 for a 99 cents burger , did the business slow down , not at all to the contrary . Toxic Customer poison your other Customers . December 28, 2013 at 5:20 am I agree I was fired 6 hours ago over a customer that complained and before i could say two words to fix the issue she goes off on me and I refused to take that treatment. She wasn’t even a customer she complained so much she was always getting free orders. These corporate restaurants think they are making money by letting customers talk to employees any way they want to and their not. They set a mindset of oh I complain and act crazy I get free product. I’ve seen customers spend $10 and get $20 of free product on their next visit! The company loses $10 every time the customer comes!!! Laughing Alex says: January 10, 2014 at 6:26 pm I think the saying “The customer is always right” is often taken to litterally. It’s meant to really mean “satisfy your customers when possible”, not “the customer is right to do anything he wants and get his way”, but many people often mistake it for the later. Rude customers often drag the morale down for the good customers, and your employees at the same time. So, well, that leaves the good ones disassitisfied, it’s better to just make the executive decision and tell the bad ones no and make it clear to them that they are making it bad for everyone at the place. Darwin Xavier says: January 18, 2014 at 8:30 pm I’m going to guess a lot of the people who posted are here for the same reason I am. You recently experienced unfair treatment at work that once again reminded you how insanely stupid “the customer is always right” is. It’s one of those statements of extremist philosophy that you know is complete bullshit. Like “nothing is impossible” or “any change is good change” or “if you’re not with us then you’re against us”. You probably came here after searching the internet for other people who agreed with you, so that you don’t feel so alone. The bad news is that your problem is not uncommon. Its a deep-rooted cultural failing that people just accept because others have told them to just get over it. The good news is that not everyone is as retarded as your employers. There are plenty of people just like you who have been yelled at, ignored, or even fired because their bosses unquestioningly took the word of a customer complaint over you. You are not alone, and you are totally justified to feel like you’ve been wronged. Anyone who’s ever been called into the office for a misunderstanding or something they didn’t do wrong, and the manager had no real interest in listening to the employee’s side of the story, knows how infuriating, depressing, and hopeless that feels. You might make every attempt to explain why you’re not wrong and why your accuser is wrong, but it falls on deaf ears. Your boss has already decided guilt and you are only there as a formality so that you can be yelled at. Logic and reason mean nothing to him/her, only the irrational feelings of the latest squeaky wheel that comfortably remains anonymous. Its a huge problem in this country because with the low availability of jobs, especially jobs that you’re qualified for, employers are abusing this as an opportunity to pick and choose who they want. Statements like “if you don’t like it, there’s the door”, “you’re lucky to even have a job”, “I should fire all of you and hire all new people”, or “there’s plenty of other applicants just waiting for your job” are all blatantly unsympathetic and disrespectful. I’ve been told several times that I should really think about whether or not customer service is right for me and if I would be happier in another career. This is either total naivety about the pitiful lack of available jobs and the fact that some jobs are just jobs, not careers, or its an attempt to get rid of me without the messy hassle of firing me. Because what loser has ever dreamed and aspired to be a janitor, caddy, grocery clerk, video clerk, busboy, dishwasher, foodservice cashier, whatever. They are just jobs people take to get money, not careers that they’re necessarily enthusiastic about, and yet employers expect you to show passion and enthusiasm for your job. Employers have gotten a taste of power and don’t ever want to give it back. For them, high unemployment in America is a good thing, and if given the chance would do everything they could to keep it this way forever. It’s an ancient toxic attitude to place your own material wealth over the welfare of other people, and then do everything to keep that wealth to yourself. Equally toxic and stupid is the notion that anyone in power deserves to be where they are. We all know for a fact that there’s plenty of retards and assholes in positions of power. Even if managers will never share in the biggest piece of the pie, they’ve been indoctrinated into believing that this is the only way, and that its in their best interest to continue the corrupt system. Why be one of the cattle when you can be one of the master’s pets. And as the master’s pets, these uncaring lackey managers bark the same bullshit as their masters. We’ve probably all encountered these loathsome people at some point in our lives. Human garbage who seek to climb the corporate ladder by stepping on every one of their colleagues that they can, and kiss every ass they can find. Not every manager is like this though, it just seems like they’re everywhere. I’ve had plenty of good managers that behaved with fairness and competence. But bad managers are only half the problem, the other half is bad customers/clients. There’s also a pervasive toxic attitude of customer entitlement in this county. Its the attitude that customers should get whatever/however they want just because they’re paying for something. I’ll have a cheeseburger, along with a side of your dignity and self-esteem, and while we’re at it, listen to my bullshit. A lot of people seem be believe that their dollar gives them the right to treat workers like shit. One reason parents might tell their kids to get a job “because it builds character” is because it usually exposes you to the harsh reality that douchy superiors and entitled customers exist. As you suffer alongside your fellow employees who have to put up with the same bullshit, you’re suppose to develop of sense of comradery and a deep appreciation that the people serving you in daily life are just like you. The barista, mailman, garbage man, bus driver, plumber, store clerk are fellow human beings that deserve your respect as human beings. Unfortunately not everyone gets this important life lesson, and turn into the douchy managers and entitled customers. Customers continue to demand lower prices for their goods and services. The bad customers are appalled when they see workers trying to get fair pay and treatment, because it threatens the customer’s low prices. This kind of selfishness displays a total lack of sympathy for anyone that’s not you. Bad customers also are fully ready to bitch about everything when they don’t get their way. They know that “the squeaky wheel gets the oil” and make sure that they are the squeakiest wheel. Their sense of entitlement makes them believe only their opinion matters. And bad managers are all too ready to kiss their ass. Some bad customers know how the system works and deliberately try to get workers they don’t like in trouble. And of course guess who the bad managers believe. This kind of unjust favoritism leaves workers feeling completely unappreciated and ignored. It makes them think that there’s no point to even try so they only put in minimal effort at best. At worst they’ll seek ways to spite their employers by stealing or sabotaging the business. At very worst this leads to workplace violence or even murder. This is a modern form of indentured servitude that many people don’t see as a problem. It is blatant disrespect for other people that has been made into corporate policy. An average indoctrinated person will tell you to be a man, get over it, shit happens, life sucks then you die. People who feel defeated try to justify their own pain by convincing themselves that it’s never going to change for the better, and feel the need to put others down who are trying to correct that corruption. This whole issue could be solved with more simple empathy and compassion. But the simplest answers are usually the hardest to implement. March 5, 2014 at 9:28 pm I absolutely love this article because it really defines my experiences in ”Customer Service” which was primarily as a Cashier @ two different gas stations, but there was also one @ a dollar store. Either way you are taught to put up with every insult imaginable while at the same time placate an ADULT who chooses to lay out all their drama in public on account that you didn’t ring up everyone in line fast enough or carry their certain product or they read the ‘Sales’ sign wrongly & refuse to pay for an ‘item’ that they think should be on sale simply on account that they WANT it!……People have allowed polite manners to erode on account of ‘being right’ all the time; which is why this article make the most sense & I hope many people really listen to it across the country….We HONESTLY NEED respect for BOTH the Customer & the Employee, but like the article said the EMPLOYEE comes first. March 22, 2014 at 3:21 am I think it’s funny when people say the customer is always right. I see a customer service rep trying as hard as they can and getting nowhere, the whole time sweating because she is expected to make this joker happy. I feel bad and hope management comes out to same them. I am sure a little help from management will would work wanders for moral. September 15, 2014 at 9:49 pm I think the article is right on. As a small business owner, I try to do my best to support my employees whenever possible. I know that if I stand by them, they’ll stand by my business. But more importantly, nobody should have to sacrifice their dignity to get a pay check. However, I am troubled and feel somewhat ambivalent about the example involving the kid with the offensive hat. Although I abhor everything that hat represented, I am concerned about how far we may end up taking the concept of banning something because an employee feels offended or irritated by it. An incident comes to mind, where some passengers were conversing in Spanish. This appeared to have irritated a flight attendant, who told them to speak English. BTW, they were not talking to the flight attendant in Spanish. They were talking among themselves. What if I�m wearing a t-shirt with a logo from something like the Beef Producers of America? Should an offended airline employee who feels that killing animals and eating meat is immoral, be allowed to tell me to go change or cover it up? What if my t-shirt says something about the �right-to-life� or the �right to choose�. I would love to have items like that hat banned from any public display. But then, I wonder how long it�s going to be before someone bans something I want to wear. You can always argue that all these decisions should be made using common sense. But then, who gets to decide what �common sense� is. I hear that it is not very common. The problem with us that we can’t share this blog with our boss otherwise next day we will be fired. :) Ellen says: October 23, 2014 at 8:38 pm In just about every job I have had it was always the customer is always right. When I worked in a fast food joint while in college, they had two rules posted for everyone including the customers to see. 1.) The customer is always right. 2.) If the customer is ever wrong, re-read rule #1. I have seen so many customers get away with getting free food. I also worked at a grocery store that would cater to their loyal customers, or customers who claimed to know the founder/owner. On a frequent basis customers would buy things, and refuse to take the receipt. They would then come back to return the item without the receipt, and they would get the refund. This store did not do store credit/vouchers. When I started working there, they had a weirdly stated policy about checks. If a customer the “WE” know writes a check, we don’t need ID. If am a new employee, I do not know this customer! There was always a problem with overdrawn checks, and sometimes stolen checks. Mind you, this was in the 1980’s 1990’s before the electronic era. An employer should never put an employee in an uncomfortable position by presuming that he/she knows who their loyal customers are, and the less than frequent customers they do not know. The store chain did end up closing the old stores, and there are now two updated stores being run the son of the original owner. He has kept the niches in what the stores offer, but I am hopeful that he is giving his employees good incentives to work there. I think that we need to treat people right so that we will have their business, but we have to draw a line so that customers do not take advantage. If some cutomers keep getting away with getting something for free, then other customers could expect the same treatment, resulting in the business losing significant dollars. Looking at fast food and retail, if customers are getting away with getting freebies when they shouldn’t, that would be one of the reasons why costs are higher and then gets passed on to all customers, including good customers. If there was a mistake or a defect, then it should be replaced, but it should not be for every little thing. Lastly, an employer should not make their employees look bad or foolish in front of the customers. Jake Eagleshield says: November 29, 2014 at 3:54 pm I was in the retail trade for over half a century,and I can tell you,not only is the customer not “always right’,they are seldom right. Most people are decent,and reasonable,and are only looking for a good value for their dollar.But there are always some,who,no matter how well they are served,or treated,they are simply never satisfied. Like the women(mostly college age women) who go into store just to give the sales staff a bad time,as if it were some kind of sport. Or the person who buys a specific item for a specific purpose,use it for everything BUT its designed purpose,(example; dress shoes are just that. They are not designed to take an every day pounding) and then whine that they didn’t hold up. Then they berate the person who sold them the item! That is like getting a bad meal at the diner,and blaming the waitress instead of the cook! I absolutely refused to allow my sales staff to be abused by unreasonable customers. March 27, 2015 at 3:26 pm When a company offers a product or service that you can get nowhere else, and they know it, does that absolve them from the courtesy of returning a telephone call or email should there be a problem, when the customer is told “this is our policy.” Should a customer be asked, “Are you saying he/she/they are lying,” if a customer has asked a company to verify that a service was completed as stated. In the issue of the airline and cap, by consenting to become part of a unique group of people, the rights extend to all on that plane. The best interest of all on the plane, which is for comfort and safety, is the key issue. Deliberately wearing an article of clothing known to incite, (and, in this case, it is clear that the father was using his child to make a statement for him, which, by itself, might cause someone to contact a child protection agency, as by wearing such an inflammatory article, he was, in fact, endangering the child’s welfare and well-being. On the airplane, one agrees to behave. To give the crew every opportunity to be the very best at their job, which is, again, to ensure comfort and safety. Back to the original examples, the answer is, “No.” Companies that change their policies because they have an exceptional customer – and most customers will accept far less than is reasonable and not say a word because they want to avoid entanglements – should not be allowed to do so, and there should be customer recourse, other than posting some vapid comment on the internet. To be asked if you are calling a service person a liar, rather than just going through a verification process, and one that is part of policy, is exactly the kind of response which feeds customer’s erroneous belief that there is “no such thing as good customer service.” It’s a, frankly bizarre, response. Enough of this sort of thing and it increases the frequency with which a customer loses all his or her sensitivity to the plight of the — here’s irony for you — just received a follow-up telephone call regarding a service in question — again, and immediately, the representative was argumentative, when the SOLE question asked was for a recheck. Do the recheck. It is a service we’re paying for. It is not for the representative to suggest that lying is in question, or anything else. So – there it is. And now the matter is accelerated to the next level, and my stomach is churning, and who needs this garbage? Increasingly, responses are given to ‘facts’ in a database, completely removed from the actual experience. This one stated, “We did what you wanted, what else can I do?” Well, you train people to just put in the order for a recheck. Not suggest lying or scheming on anyone’s part. That’s what you do. Jake says: March 27, 2015 at 8:14 pm Received follow-up call from higher up, who left a message to the effect that, “You said the sky was blue. So, to help you with that, we’re sending along our energy-saver pamphlet. If you have any further questions, please dial – 800 number.” I said the sky was “green.” If that message is not conveyed accurately, then frustration mounts. In addition, the 800 number given was a main, general call number, and in no way did it connect to the higher up. A relatively minor issue here, compared with life-critical messages that are taken and then twisted in the relay process to physicians, who, if they return your call at all, say that, ‘I understand you think the sky is blue.” That isn’t your condition at all.” But but but, I said, the sky was “green.” Hand-written messages, or words heard correctly and then dealt with as such would go a long way to get THIS customer service PITA to back off. Gloryboy says: August 23, 2015 at 10:41 pm What I personally find infuriating about the whole “Customer is *always* right” nonsense is that it is often intended as just a conversation stopper. It is equivalent to those trite grade school sayings we all remember that even a child knows are utter nonsense. I had a situation where an incident happened and not the way the customer described. There was a witness that would corroborate my side. It was obvious though that there was no “my side” because (drum roll) the customer is always right. To me, that just says that years of service mean nothing. I was even told to give this customer “preferential treatment” from now on. Translation: Throw a fit like a 2 year old and you’ll get your own way while reasonable customers will have to wait. In fairness, some of this was management trying to protect me in a system where all that matters is the customer complaint regardless of the circumstances or what really happened.

i don't know

For what purpose did Melvil Dewey devise his decimal system in 1876?

Full text of "Major classification systems : the Dewey Centennial" See other formats 020.715 A434 no. 21 Major Classification Systems: The Dewey Centennial LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 020/715 A434 no. 21 Lib. Scl The person charging this material is re- sponsible for its return to the library from which it was withdrawn on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for disciplinary action and may result in dismissal from the University. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN SCfcHCEUBew A'JG 21 1978 OCU 978 w 3 WAR JUL ooD N5V JUN JUN V <8 JAJ^D82007 985 1986 1998 L161 O-1096 ALLERTON PARK INSTITUTE Number 21 Papers Presented at the Allerton Park Institute Sponsored by Forest Press, Inc. and University of Illinois Graduate School of Library Science and University of Illinois Office of Continuing Education and Public Service held November 9-12, 1975 Allerton Park Monticello, Illinois Major Classification Systems: The Dewey Centennial edited by Kathryn Luther Henderson University of Illinois Graduate School of Library Science Urbana-Champaign, Illinois Copyright 1976 by The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois LC Card Number: 76-026331 ISBN: 0-87845-044-0 * r r CONTENTS Foreword vii RICHARD B. SEALOCK Introduction ix KATHRYN LUTHER HENDERSON Library Classification: One Hundred Years After Dewey 1 DAVID BATTY The Historical Development of The Dewey Decimal Classification System , 17 JOHN P. COMAROMI Dewey Today: An Analysis of Recent Editions 32 MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT Summary of a Survey of the Use of the Dewey Decimal Classification in the United States and Canada 47 MARY ELLEN MICHAEL Dewey Today: The British and European Scene 59 JOEL C. DOWNING The Library of Congress Classification Scheme and its Relationship to Dewey 78 GORDON STEVENSON Factors in the Selection of a Classification Scheme for a Large General Library 99 PETER LEWIS Dewey Decimal Classification, Universal Decimal Classification, and the Broad System of Ordering: The Evolution of Universal Ordering Systems 113 HANS H. WELLISCH The Role of Indexing in Subject Retrieval 124 DEREK AUSTIN The Role of Classification in Subject Retrieval in the Future. ... 157 PAULE ROLLAND-THOMAS Contributors 175 Index . .179 VI Foreword One hundred years ago, in 1876, Melvil Dewey anonymously published the first edition of his classification system. Forest Press, publisher of the Dewey Decimal Classification since 1931, could think of no more suitable way to honor the DDC and its author during this centennial year than to bring together librarians interested in classification. It was with great pleasure, therefore, that Forest Press welcomed the opportunity to cosponsor with the University of Illinois Graduate School of Library Science the twenty-first annual Allerton Park Institute. Held on November 9-12, 1975, the topic of the institute was, most appropriately, "Major Classification Systems: the Dewey Centennial." The goal of the Allerton conference was to provide a forum for an in-depth discussion of classification systems in general and of the DDC in particular. Experts in the field from the United States, Canada, and England presented papers on a variety of topics ranging from a look at recent editions of the DDC and a comparison between Dewey and the Library of Congress Classification, to an examination of the role of classification in subject retrieval. The first report on the survey of DDC use in the United States and Canada was also given at the conference. These papers, all original contributions to the classification field, have been collected in the present volume. Forest Press wishes to thank in particular the two people whose diligence and care made the conference possible: Kathryn Luther Henderson, vii viii FOREWORD Associate Professor, Graduate School of Library Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and Chairperson of the Planning Committee; and Herbert Goldhor, Director and Professor, Graduate School of Library Science. We are also very grateful to the participants in the conference, for their essays provide an excellent introduction to the study of classification and constitute a fitting centennial tribute to the Dewey Decimal Classification. RICHARD B. SEALOCK Executive Director Forest Press June 1976 Introduction Not the least of the important events in library history occuring in 1876 was the appearance of a (then) anonymous publication entitled: A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloging and Arranging the Books and Pamphlets of a Library. We now know that the author was Melvil Dewey and, through the years, the work has become known as the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC). The twenty-first annual Allerton Park Institute of the University of Illinois Graduate School of Library Science honored this modest beginning of modern library classification on the eve of its centennial. Forest Press (Albany, N.Y.), publisher of the DDC, served as cosponsor of the conference held from Sunday, November 9, through Wednesday, November 12, 1975, at Allerton Park (the university's conference center) near Monticello, Illinois. From the first conversations concerning the conference, the intention was that the conference concentrate on classification in general and that it should be critical and objective, and not simply expository and laudatory with regard to DDC. Since Dewey 's classification scheme has had a major impact on library classification and subject retrieval systems throughout the world, it was felt that the conference should include papers and discussions from leading experts in the field from the United States, Canada, and England. While the focus remained on Dewey, past, present and future, other major systems were to be noted and compared with DDC. IX x INTRODUCTION Only the formal papers can be included in the published proceedings. Missing is the flavor of the give and take of discussions among the speakers, the more than ninety registered participants and the colleagues from the local library community and library school. Since we were fortunate to have most of the speakers with us for the entire conference, there were many opportunities to learn from them as they gave freely of their time and expertise. In the formal papers that are published here, C. David Batty's keynote address focuses on library classification in general one hundred years after Dewey. He notes the different developments which have contributed to our present philosophy and model of classification as being more similar than dissimilar. The new theories are less a new structure founded on the work of a century than they are a "validation and realization" of the earlier work. He proposes a theoretical model that he finds "at the heart of all fruitful classification and indexing developments of the last one hundred years." Batty traces developments in the works of Dewey, the Universal Decimal Classification, Cutter, Brown, the Library of Congress, Bliss, Ranganathan, and the Classification Research Group. John P. Comaromi concentrates on the history and development of the first sixteen editions of DDC, giving emphasis to the factors which have affected the scheme and to the persons (especially the editors) whose work is reflected in the various editions but who often have remained unrecognized for their influence. The role of the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee and other advisory committees is also noted. Continuing the story of the editions of DDC, Margaret Cockshutt analyzes the trends toward faceting in the most recent editions of the scheme. She points out the influence of Ranganathan and the Classification Research Group. Cockshutt also explains the organization by which the structure of DDC is molded and maintained as it moves more and more toward an international classification. But how is the DDC used? To answer that question, Mary Ellen Michael reports on a study sponsored by Forest Press and which she conducted under the auspices of the Library Research Center, University of Illinois Graduate School of Library Science. This study attempted to assess the use of DDC by libraries and processing centers in the United States and Canada, as well as to determine the extent of the use of DDC by libraries of different sizes and types; to obtain information about the application of DDC to library collections; to determine problem areas in the scheme; and to ascertain to what extent DDC is a part of the educational experiences of library school students. Results pertaining to all aspects except the last are included in her paper. INTRODUCTION xi Joel Downing describes the growing interest in and use of DDC in Great Britain since the late 1960s and relates the acts of study and collaboration both within Great Britain and in the United States which have taken place since that date. In addition, he briefly discusses the possibility of DDC establishing a foothold in Europe. Gordon Stevenson compares DDC with the Library of Congress classification scheme (LCC), finding them competing systems even though the competition has never been fostered by those responsible for either scheme. Stevenson fears that LCC's entrenchment in existing network data bases (geared primarily to the needs of university libraries) will be used as a rationale for structuring similar networks for public and school libraries. He feels that those libraries which have adopted LCC have locked themselves into a system "from which it will be nearly impossible to extricate themselves." To Stevenson, an important problem for the future of classification is how we perceive classification as a tool for subject retrieval. He feels that no person should be given the responsibility for choosing between systems until that person has a thorough grounding in classification and knowledge of the dimensions and structure of the systems, a grounding which has often been lacking in the background of the decision-makers of the past. Peter Lewis served as chairperson of a British Library Working Party which examined the various classification and indexing systems currently in use in the British Library. The main conclusions relating to in-house needs and to services provided for other libraries in Great Britain are discussed in Lewis's paper, while the performances of Bliss, DDC, LCC and UDC are evaluated as to meeting the needs. Although Lewis was not able to be present, his paper was distributed to the participants at the beginning of the conference. During the time scheduled for Lewis's paper, the conferees participated in small group discussions relating to his paper. Following the discussions, transoceanic telephonic communication was established with Lewis. For one-half hour, Lewis responded to discussion, comments, and questions from groups. Hans Wellisch discusses the debt which the Universal Decimal Classifica- tion owes to DDC as well as UDC's reforms and revisions. He notes the work being done toward a Basic Medium Edition in English and the work toward a new class 4. In addition, he speaks of the work being performed on a Broad System of Ordering intended not to supersede existing indexing languages but to serve as a switching language. Unfortunately, the manuscript of John Rather's presentation was not received for publication. As Chief of the Technical Processes Research Office, Processing Department, Library of Congress, Rather gave a preliminary report on investigations made at the Library of Congress which attempted to evaluate the relative efficiency of subject searching in an automated system using xii INTRODUCTION Library of Congress classification notation, Dewey Decimal classification numbers and Library of Congress subject headings. Derek Austin departs from a discussion of classification per se to present the PRECIS system. Austin summarizes his paper as follows: During the 1960s, the Classification Research Group in England investigated the construction of a faceted, highly articulated classifica- tion scheme to serve the dual purposes of (i) library organization, and (ii) the retrieval of relevant items from machine-held files. This research is briefly described, and is seen as evidence that a single classification scheme cannot serve these different purposes. Nevertheless, it was found that the results of the CRG research could be applied to verbal data. In 1969, the British National Bibliography began a research project in this field. This led to the development of PRECIS, the indexing system now used by BNB and a number of other agencies. PRECIS is briefly described from three viewpoints: (a) syntax: that is, the writing of coded input strings of terms, and the structure of index entries (b) semantics: the creation of a machine-held thesaurus which serves as the source of see and see also references (c) management, including indexer performance. Paule Rolland-Thomas looks ahead to the future of subject retrieval as she reports on views expressed by library and other classificationists. Her paper provides the vision for the future. The conference concluded with a panel of reactors to the papers and discussion. Betty M.E. Croft, Catalog Librarian at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, brought her twenty-five years of experience with DDC in one of the nation's largest university libraries into focus as chairperson of the panel. Other members were Grace F. Bulaong, Head of the Cataloging Department, Metropolitan Toronto Central Library, Toronto, Canada; Erma Jean Morgan, Deputy Librarian Technical Services, King County Library System, Seattle, Washington; and Mary Ellen Soper, Assistant Professor, School of Librarianship, University of Washington, Seattle. The panel members brought a variety of experiences in several different types of libraries using both DDC and LCC schemes. The panel discussion is briefly summarized: 1. While it is agreed that catalogs and automated retrieval systems may be more important to the retrieval of subject information in the future than they have been in the past, the need still exists for some shelf browsing capabilities, especially in public library situations. 2. Many difficulties occur in the local library resulting from the issuing of new editions of classification schemes. Most libraries cannot afford to INTRODUCTION xiii reclassify. At the same time, the necessity for the use of cooperative agencies and networks pressures the local library to accept the decisions of the newest edition. The scattering of like or similar subjects causes hardships for library users. A challenge was issued to those charged with revision to find a moderate ground for change that would keep up with new knowledge while remembering the problems of libraries with diminishing budgets. 3. Considering how classification is used in the United States, there is no clear superiority in either DDC or LCC if only the schemes themselves are considered. Each has certain strengths and weaknesses. Reasons for selecting one scheme over the other or for deciding to reclassify from DDC to LCC often have come from factors other than those related to the schemes themselves. Administrative decisions relating to coverage, revision and availability, as well as political reasons such as prestige or following a fad, seem too often to have been deciding factors. 4. In studying the results of developments in classification research in other countries, it becomes apparent that classification is not fully utilized in the United States. Only the surface of its potential contribution has been scratched. The need for browsing capability on the shelf has contributed to the way classification has developed in the United States. The confusion over the function of shelf arrangement and subject analysis needs to be clarified by further study and examination. 5. The needs of library users call us to consider seriously the role of the classification of knowledge as we look to the future. No conference is the work of any one person; this conference was no exception. Beginning with initial conversations between Herbert Goldhor, Director, Graduate School of Library Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and Richard B. Sealock, Executive Director, Forest Press, during the summer of 1974, and continuing through the publication of this volume, two years of work on the part of a number of persons have taken place. Only a few of those persons can be mentioned here, but none of those who contributed and who are not mentioned here should feel excluded from our expression of gratitude. Forest Press should be mentioned for both intellectual and financial support. Many helpful suggestions were received from Richard B. Sealock. Robert L. Talmadge, Director of Technical Services, University of Illinois Library at Urbana-Champaign, represented Forest Press on the Planning Committee and provided further liaison with the cosponsoring agency. Michael Gorman, Head, Bibliographic Standards Office, Bibliographic Services Division, the British Library, London, England, was serving as Visiting Lecturer at the University of Illinois Graduate School of Library Science and was able, as a xiv INTRODUCTION member of the planning committee, to make mai^ suggestions relating to the international scene. Herbert Goldhor also served on the committee, and other faculty and library staff members helped in many ways. Edward C. Kalb and Sara Nelson, of the University of Illinois Conferences and Institutes Office, assisted in numerous ways that relieved the rest of us of responsibilities. It is difficult to recognize fully their contributions to the conference with just these few words of acknowledgment. Arlynn Robertson and Linda Hoffman contributed to the technical editing of this volume. Kathryn Luther Henderson Chairperson, Planning Committee March 1976 DAVID BATTY Professor Graduate School of Library Science McGill University Montreal, Canada Library Classification One Hundred Years After Dewey We shall not cease from exploration And the end of all our exploring Will be to arrive where we started And know the place for the first time. For one hundred years in claim and counterclaim we have developed what have seemed at times to be highly diverse and divergent lines of thought in the theory of library classification. However, I believe not only that these different developments have contributed to our present philosophy and model of classification, but also that their differences were more apparent than real we have often been bewitched by the appearance into paying insufficient attention to the creature beneath. In a very real sense, the most sophisticated modern theory is less a new structure founded on the work of a century ago than it is simply a validation and realization of that work. In order to describe what we have now I must review how we came to have it, since the study of classification is often a matter of hindsight, of determining the principles that are the key to good organization in existing classification schemes. For this reason, I shall propose a theoretical model that seems to lie at the heart of all fruitful classification and indexing 2 DAVID BATTY developments of the last one hundred years. I shall also refer to several episodes in the history of classification and indexing, and draw from those episodes the elements of greatest significance to point out an overall pattern, even though these elements may have seemed of great significance neither to their authors nor to their audiences. In the world of documentary classification we must deal with assemblies of ideas: of objects, the problems or operations that affect them, and their context in time and space. It is not enough to imagine hierarchies of simple units of knowledge; the notations or codes by which we represent these assemblies must themselves be simple enough to be flexible also and indeed flexible enough to be simple. It matters little whether we use words or arbitrary symbols as our codes, as long as the basic elements of the codes are simple, are comprehensible, and permit development and change without inhibiting consistent practice. Within the components of the assemblies it is desirable to have recognizable families of related concepts in order to move easily to unfamiliar levels of detail. Again, it matters little for this argument whether these family relationships, generic or functional, are displayed in explicit hierarchies or revealed implicitly through reference instructions. At the beginning of our history stands one of its greatest landmarks: Dewey's Decimal Classification. Dewey's achievement, on inspection, is almost incredible perhaps not as extensive as Ranganathan's, but infinitely bolder in the context of his era. In Dewey's day the notion of a universal classification scheme was revolutionary. Librarians made their own schemes, according to the vagaries of local academic preference or uncomfortable architecture. They borrowed schemata from philosophy (thereby limiting themselves to unitary organization), and notation from anything from an inchoate mnemonic urge to a reflection of the names of benefactors of parts of their collections. Dewey himself claimed credit for several features of his scheme: its ability to locate books relatively on the shelves, thus overcoming the accidents and limitations of fixed location in different libraries; its easy and mnemonic decimal notation; and its relative index, which encouraged consistent application. He emphasized that the scheme was a classification for documents, although he did not claim this as quite the innovation that it really was. He never specifically claimed credit for one of the most innovative aspects of the documentary basis of the scheme: the combination of more than one kind of idea was allowed and encouraged, reflecting the multitopic nature of documents. All of these features are related. Relative location would be impossible without a notation that did not expand as knowledge grows, without changing the symbols used to represent already established major groupings or classes. The index must have unique and explicable notation to point to. What Dewey called "close classification" is impossible without the combination of ideas not LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION 3 only in explicit enumeration within the scheme, but also implicit in the availability of components whose notation facilitates assembly by the classifier. Dewey's decimal organization and decimal notation have been criticized for the constraints they place on the true structure and division of knowledge. This is particularly true of the decimal notation, although the two have often been confused by intellectually myopic librarians. In fact, the decimal notation rarely inhibits proper division; there are many classes that do not use all of the ten notational divisions available, and others that use them as major groupings in classes with more than ten members the class 970 North America is an example of both cases. The expressive use of the decimal notation with its fractional division contains a powerful mnemonic effect. Although a user may not know the meaning of 621.384152 FM radio systems, he will know that it lies in the field of 621.384 radio engineering, or at least in 621.3 electrical engineering. Dewey's practice of using notation consistently to represent concepts, often in combination with others, offers the effect of scheduled mnemonics, exploited later by the Universal Decimal Classification and Ranganathan's Colon Classification. My thesis, however, concerns the internal organization of subjects, and it is in this connection that Dewey often only half-knowingly, made his greatest contribution in the exploration of the consistent construction of multitopic assemblies. His methods are clearest in the simplest classes, such as language, literature and history. In 400 language, for example, he recognizes that books may be written about two aspects of language (what Ranganathan later called facets of language): (l)the general theoretical aspects of language like structural systems (grammar), and (2) the particular languages, like English. He listed the theoretical aspects first, in 410, and the languages after them in 420-499, to achieve an order on the shelves that proceeds from the general to the particular. But then he went on to admit the subdivision of collections on particular languages, by the theoretical aspects, so that 420 English might include, for example, English grammar, and he arranged for the characteristic notation for 410 to be used to subdivide the language in this case 5 from 415 structural systems (grammar) to create 425. This simple example reveals a model that has scarcely changed for one hundred years: the recognition of the characteristic aspects of the subject, the separate listing of those aspects in general-to-specific order, the availability of the detail from general aspect to divide the specific aspects further, the consequent assembly order of specific aspects divided by general aspects, and the mnemonic effect of the consistent use of simple notation from the two aspects. Dewey made early use of standard subdivisions; in particular, the 09 history subdivision formed geographical subdivisions for any class by introducing further notation from the 900 class with its wealth of 4 DAVID BATTY geographical detail. Before the turn of the century, at least parts of the Decimal Classification offered recognizable and descriptive notational as- semblies to designate entities or events, the problems affecting them or the operations they undertook, and their geographical and chronological context but not always. Dewey's internal class organization was often limited and confused. Sometimes he listed the several aspects in a class in a proper general-to-specific order, but failed to make provision for their combination; sometimes we can discern by hindsight the existence of two or more characteristics in the initial division of a class, but Dewey listed the resulting subdivisions not in ordered groups, but in a confused and confusing order. It is interesting to note that many of those subjects were emergent disciplines in Dewey's day: sociology, education, psychology their features were known but had no recognizable shape. It is also interesting to note that in later editions of the scheme, the clarity of Dewey's unconscious organization was such that reorganization was relatively simple and mostly successful. However, Dewey was limited, as were all classificationists after him, by his contemporary climate of thought. Dewey could not think of a better organization for law or education, because he had no theoretical model against which to match the concepts he observed in those disciplines, and by which to organize them. That theoretical model began to emerge as a result of the study of successful elements of the Decimal Classification, and also in the pragmatic development of its inherent synthetic principles in the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC). The 1895 Brussels conference sought ways to organize collections and bibliographies full of material in a variety of nonbook forms and about increasingly complex topics. The solution was to develop Dewey's Decimal Classification as a universal scheme that emerged as the Universal Decimal Classification in recognizable structure in 1906 and in name and detail in 1928-33. Much has been made of the extensive array of auxiliaries provided in the scheme; auxiliaries of addition and extension, of language and form, and of place, time and race. However, the main contribution in these areas is the use of nondecimal punctuation marks to signal the use of decimal notation already available in Dewey's scheme. This notational signaling allowed what had been done in limited areas in Dewey's scheme to be done in UDC universally without specific instruction. Whereas Dewey sometimes divided a subject by place without his usual indicator 09, but otherwise left it to the classifier to add 09, etc., on his own initiative, UDC created a general auxiliary for place by using Dewey's detail for 940-999 (now the Area Tables) and enclosing the number in parentheses to be used anywhere. Whereas Dewey almost always limited chronological subdivision to places specified in history, UDC created a general auxiliary for time, and enclosed dates, periods and LIBRAR Y CLASSIFICA TION 5 notation for other chronological phenomena like periodicity in quotation marks, and allowed them to be used with any number in the scheme. UDC's two principal contributions were the special auxiliaries and the use of a relational sign (initially the colon) to link any two notational elements. The special auxiliary is a specially notated list, usually of general aspects, theoretical topics, operations or problems with a class, whose members may be used to extend or modify any specific topic in that class. It represents a realization of the model already described as displayed in some of Dewey's classes. The notation of a "short dash" or "point zero" sets the special auxiliary off from the specific topics in the class and allows free assembly of the components. The relational sign offers the same potential, but over the entire range of the classification schedules. There are no listed notational elements; the classifier may use the colon (and later also square brackets) to extend any class number by any other class number. Thus, both 633.491:632.3 and 632.3:633.491 may mean parasitic diseases of potatoes. However, only the former notation uses the thing/problem assembly order usually compelled by a special auxiliary; the classifier must therefore have an accurate perception of the character of the elements to be assembled, especially if more than two elements are involved. UDC itself recognized the dangers inherent in the use of this auxiliary and took away much of the value of the relational sign by the instruction to use both assemblies (an adroit maneuver called "reversing about the colon"). This practice effectively limited the relational sign to assemblies of only two components, and prevented the exploration of the problems of assembly of more than two components. In UDC, complex assemblies used the comparatively unadventurous common auxiliaries to specify the obvious and superficial contextual detail. It was left to Ranganathan to explore the intricacies of assembly order of several aspects internal to a subject. During the nineteenth century the problems of the assembly of the component aspects of a complex subject were the concern also of indexers using natural language. They were, for instance, the predominant concern of Kaiser in his Systematic Indexing of 1911, which dealt with questions left unanswered by Cutter in his 1876 rules for the dictionary catalog. Cutter was mainly preoccupied with subject/place and with thing/kind-of-thing assembly, and with word order in phrase headings; he proposed a quasi-grammatical logic based on the structure of English syntax. Such a feeling was appropriate to an age that sought both the common origin of tongues and a syntax common to all tongues based on an assumption of consistent human cultural behavior. Fenollosa, in Art of the Chinese Written Character as a Medium for Poetry (1910), suggested the natural order of events in the world as the key to a universal syntax, unaware of dissimilarities 6 DAVID BATTY as great as those between Hopi Indian culture and our own such that they have a different concept of time itself and the linear sequence of cause and effect, related to the absence of a verb structure recognizable in our terms. It was left to Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf to explore the complex interaction of language and thought that makes us doubt the simplistic assumption of universal grammar except in the more abstract terms of Bloomfield and Chomsky. Cutter's reliance on natural-language order worked well in noun/noun or adjective/noun assemblies, where in English grammar the modifying term stands first thus producing consistently specific headings. Unfortunately, in an alphabetical index the same principle scatters members of the same group (represented by the second word) to wherever the first words are found. The classifying of any group that traditionally or usefully should stand together thus raises a conflict in the indexer's mind to the point of encouraging a mild professional catatonia that has prevented the development of a coherent body of principle to the present time. The only guide to practice is the Library of Congress subject catalog, affected more by the necessities of logistics and administrative consistency than by the epistemology of the information explosion. The problem grew worse with the increasing occurrence of entity/activity combinations; the conflict was now between adjectival noun/verbal noun and participle/noun, e.g., serials cataloging and cataloging serials. Kaiser's solution was the use of the formula concrete/processan explicit instruction reflecting the entity/activity assembly order already observed in some classes of the Decimal Classification and the Universal Decimal Classification. Kaiser's suggestion was simple enough, but radical in the contemporary tradition of alphabetico-specific indexing based on natural-language order. In the same decade a classification scheme was published that stands out as the strangest and most ironic experiment of all: Brown's Subject Classification. Of all classificationists, Brown, either instinctively or acci- dentally, was the most innovative and visionary, and also most imprisoned by his contemporary climate of thought. Dewey's scheme, the Universal Decimal Classification, Cutter's Expansive Classification and the emerging Library of Congress Classification were all organized around the disciplines then, as now, accepted as the main divisions of knowledge. All works in the field of medicine are grouped together, as are all works on economics, history, or art, but the specific subject "bubonic plague" will find a place in all those classes for its several different aspects. Brown proposed a scheme based on concretes like bubonic plague, that would collect at those concretes all their aspects and problems, like the medical aspect, the historical aspect, the economic aspect, and so on. This organization principle extended the entity/general aspect LIBRAR Y CLASSIFICA TION 7 assembly order to include even the discipline name, as being of the greatest generality. There is a distinct logic in this arrangement denied by the discipline-based schemes; that is, in a discipline-based scheme we may organize a class as: zoology (theoretical aspects) embryology (animals) horses and assemble the components in the retroactive order horses-embryology- -but we do it within zoology. Brown's principle would look higher up the chain of general topics and include in its logical place as a general term: horses-embryology horses-zoology. In Brown's classification scheme all general aspects of all subjects, including the names of disciplines, are included in a single auxiliary table whose members may be used to subdivide any specific concrete. Of course, in Brown's day a classification had to have notational order, and Brown was compelled to organize a sequence of main classes in order to organize his concretes, and also in order to list the disciplines when they stood wholly as themselves and not as aspects of a concrete. The result was a rather simple and limited hierarchical classification in which concretes appeared only once, under what Brown considered their original, basic discipline; all other disciplines where they might otherwise have recurred were left empty of everything except activities and problems peculiar to them. The result was to inhibit the growth of the subject classification in the logical direction of its philosophy, and instead clumsily convert it in development and application (mostly in Britain) into a simple, homespun, discipline-based scheme. Had it not been for the inhibiting effect of contemporary assumptions about classification, Brown might well have anticipated the later work of the British Classification Research Group by fifty years. But like Dewey, he had no theoretical model with which to measure and organize; his work provided the phenomena that others could analyze and build on. Courtesy and stature demand notice of the Library of Congress classification and also of the work of Henry Evelyn Bliss in his books The Organisation of Knowledge and the System of the Sciences and the Organisation of Knowledge in Libraries and, of course, the expression of his theories in his work, A Bibliographic Classification. The Library of Congress Classification is a large and powerful scheme, but its structure and detailed 8 DAVID BATTY organization owe more to the administrative policy of subject departmentaliza- tion in the Library of Congress and to the book collection that it is designed to organize physically, than to a body of principle designed to respond to the epistemological complexities of the world of information today. Almost by definition the Library of Congress Classification (LCC) is a return to the pre-1876 world of in-house classification schemes affected by the physical and political pressures of a single institution, and used by any other library at its own risk. This is in no way to deny the position and power of the LCC scheme; indeed, it may be pertinent to note here that in a generation or so it may be the only scheme still used for shelf classification. If that happens, it will be because of the authoritative position of the Library of Congress and its contribution to catalog information in general libraries, rather than to any internal excellence. As knowledge and information grow quantitatively and change qualitatively, there is less need and even less opportunity for the detailed physical organization of library material on shelves. Even the Library of Congress scheme may ultimately be and probably should be replaced by a general classificatory grouping with simple, repetitive mnemonic notation to prevent the need for the gross movement of readers around the library; subject access to material will be by detailed computerized indexes available in on-line or printed form. In that future, classification will truly be a fundamental study, since its essence has always been that of an organizing principle to assemble or relate the component elements of complex topics; the manifestation of that principle in a single, enumerated hierarchy with a notation is almost secondary. For Bliss, however, the manifestation was paramount. In spite of a historical and philosophical study lasting almost a lifetime, Bliss did not include in his classification scheme many features beyond a developmental order of main classes (lost in a large library), an array of auxiliary schedules as extensive as those of UDC, and a notation whose overriding quality of brevity obscured almost every other advantage of the scheme. As with Dewey's Decimal Classification, the seeds of development and good and flexible order are there, and they may yet be brought out by the work of revision currently in hand at North London Polytechnic, although the revision may be so drastic as to suggest less a facelift than the transmigration of souls. Of all classifiers, only Shiyali Ramanarita Ranganathan has been able to respond pragmatically to classification problems and later to analyze his own work to produce a new body of principle. Of all his achievements this may be the greatest. During the 1920s Ranganathan forsook mathematics for librarianship and, encouraged by the teaching of Berwick Sayers, rejected all existing schemes for their logical and developmental inadequacies, and began to design his own scheme. He used the entity/activity assembly pattern common to Dewey's and Kaiser's methods, and the notion of explicit and LIBRAR Y CLASSIFICA TION 9 detailed auxiliaries from the Universal Decimal Classification. He especially emphasized the relational device of the colon, which he strengthened by using it to link even the component aspects with subjects, and he added two features of his own: a new and more economical way of listing the aspects within subjects, and a consistent order of assembly (and therefore order of the subdivision of complex topics) that simplified access to the scheme or to collections and indexes using it. Ranganathan realized the true potential of Dewey's recognition of two aspects of a subject, and their assembly to describe complex topics. Dewey nearly always specified the assembly by instruction and within a complete notational framework, as when he extended 420 English language to make 425 English syntax by adding the 5 meaning syntax from the 415 syntax general theoretical aspects of language under 410. The Universal Decimal Classification had made it more explicit by the use of the colon to make 420:425, and by going further still in using a special auxiliary to make 420-5, omitting the "41" since the division took place within the class 4. Ranganathan confirmed, extended and generalized this practice. He developed the aspects of subjects separately, calling them the facets of the subjects. Instead of including the more general facets as enumerated subdivisions of the more specific, as Dewey and the Universal Decimal Classification often did, he gave instructions always to combine the individual notation of topics from different facets by a colon. Thus, within the main class T education, the first facet contains educational institutions, and universities has the number 4. A document on university education is given the notation T4. Educational problems and methods belong in another facet, called by Ranganathan the energy facet and prefaced by a colon, where curriculum has the number 2. We may combine these two components (or isolates, as Ranganathan called them) to give T4:2. If we have a general work on curricula we may therefore assign it the class number T:2. Thus the colon becomes a constant indicator of the problem or energy facet. After his first edition, Ranganathan extended the scheme as problems emerged in practical classification, although he sought always to obey the fundamental principles of logical classification, and also to be consistent with logical practices that emerged as the scheme developed. For example, he noted that sometimes members of different levels in a generic hierarchy might need to be used together in assembly, as in buildings and parts of buildings. He consequently recognized two separate facets (or levels of facet) in order to provide for that assembly. He also noted that some operations need agents to perform them, and so an additional facet of agent would be necessary for combination with operations. By the 1940s there were enough different kinds of facets for Ranganathan to identify definite categories, and to propose a consistent scheme of indicators to introduce them at any time. To introduce 10 DAVID BATTY extra levels of the facet of entities (which he called personality) he used a comma; for the facet indicating the material of which an entity might be made he used a semicolon; for the facets listing activities or problems or operations (the energy facet) he used the colon, as he had done from the beginning; and for the facets of geographical and chronological specification he used the period, with different notational symbols with each. This overall categorization of facets gave the formula PMEST (personality, material, energy, space, time), which manifested that same order of increasing generality of the aspects assembled together that we have observed since Dewey and Kaiser a principle which Ranganathan called decreasing concreteness. Not all subjects use all kinds of facets, and some have more than one level in a single kind of facet; indeed, some have pervasive or overriding facets called system or special facets like schools of thought in philosophy or soil-less farming in agriculture. All subject classes are equipped with an explicit formula showing what facets they contain, and in what order isolates from the facets may be assembled. The notation of the main classes is alphabetic, usually a single letter (but sometimes two) and the notation of the facets is numerical in fractional division. Ranganathan also provided for the combina- tion of elements from different subjects. The Universal Decimal Classification had already allowed this through the relational device of the colon, but did not indicate why or how such combination took place, except on an ad hoc basis. Ranganathan identified several kinds of phase relationships; these were to indicate influence, difference, comparison and orientation, as well as a general relationship. He provided a special notation to indicate each kind, and later even provided for phase relationships at different levels of subject division. He also developed an elaborate provision for specifying the form of the document. Ranganathan's habit was to extend his own theory by a critical examination of the pragmatic answers that he had provided as consistently as possible within the theoretical framework developed to that point. By the 1950s he had identified and named many of the principal phenomena of multidimensional classification and had provided a working model of a new type of general classification scheme. Dewey's Decimal Classification and the Library of Congress Classification are usually termed enumerative because they attempt to enumerate specifically all the topics covered by the scheme. The Universal Decimal Classification is often called a synthetic classification because it synthesizes or assembles notation from a general list to represent complex topics not specifically enumerated in the scheme. All schemes that assemble notation for this purpose fall into this category, but Colon Classification and many schemes after it form a special subclass of synthetic schemes called faceted classification schemes, because they assemble elements from separately listed facets within each class; there is no (or very little) LIBRAR Y CLASSIFICA TION 1 1 precoordinated assembly with a single notation. Because the facets themselves have a hierarchical order represented by the order of assembly and contain little hierarchies of isolates in generic groupings, Ranganathan perceived a single chain of increasingly intense subdivision in any assembly of notations, since the faceted classification scheme is only a kit of parts representing an w-dimensional classification. One of his most practical contributions to indexing besides the Colon Classification itself is his method of indexing by chain procedure including alphabetical subject entries for levels indicated by the chain implicit in the class number, whether or not the collection includes any material at that level, in order to facilitate entry into the system for an inquiry at any level. The recommendations of the 1948 Royal Society Conference and the interest of English librarians like Bernard Palmer, A. J. Wells, D. J. Foskett, and Jack Mills led to the establishment in 1950 of the British Classification Research Group (CRG). This group discussed and promulgated Ranganathan's theories, and in doing so translated them for the western world from the more elaborate and philosophical terms of Ranganathan himself. The members of CRG worked out special classification schemes of this new faceted type and in doing so provided a model that is still used today, even after CRG itself has moved on. The definitive expression of their theories is found in the 1957 Proceedings of the International Study Conference on Classification for Information Retrieval, otherwise known as the Dorking Conference, and in Brian Vickery's Faceted Classification, written in 1960 to guide librarians in constructing classification schemes. A. J. Wells became editor of the new British National Bibliography (BNB), and confirmed the new theory in the public library sector as the other members of CRG had for special libraries by insisting on good facet order in applying Dewey Decimal Classification notation to the books in the BNB. He also advocated such order in extending the notation where it fell short in Decimal Classification, and in using chain procedure to construct the index to the Bibliography's classified main listing. A typical special-faceted classification of the type developed by the members of CRG has a core schedule for a single discipline or interdisciplinary area, in which the constituent facets are arranged in increasingly specific order and assembled retroactively in order of the increasing generality of the component terms, so as to represent complex topics. Unlike Ranganathan's scheme the facets are not rigidly assigned to categories, although the PMEST formula is reflected in the developing spectrum they cover. The notation is often alphabetic, because it offers a greater number of symbols and thus shorter notation for any given isolate, and the use of capital letters for the facets and of lowercase letters and sometimes numbers for the detail within them obviates the need for facet indicators. Any isolates may be used in 12 DAVID BATTY combination; the only rule for assembly is that they be assembled in reverse order of the notation, to achieve a proper order of decreasing concreteness. In addition to the core schedule, there may be a fringe schedule which lists areas supportive of the core, although not belonging to it, such as the relationship of computer science or education to library science. The fringe schedules are not usually worked out in great detail, and are not used in combination as often as the core schedule. The significance of the early work of the CRG (apart from introducing Ranganathan's ideas to the western world) was to develop a simple model for faceted classification that acknowledged the principle of decreasing con- creteness for organizing the assembly of components without imposing a limiting categorization. One evidence of this acknowledgment appears outside pure classification in the work of E. J. Coates, a CRG member who had already worked on the BNB and devised a faceted classification for music for the British Catalogue of Music. Coates founded the British Technology Index and used CRG principles to organize natural-language subject headings of considerable complexity. In one sense Coates was heir to Kaiser, since his basic formula (thing/material/action/agent) reflects Kaiser's concrete/process formula, but in another and very real sense Coates's work was closer to the Ranganathan/CRG tradition. Coates's subject-heading formula followed an order of decreasing concreteness, and his automatic construction of references among the natural-language terms in headings relies on the assumption that the decreasingly concrete terms are logical steps in a chain. A significant departure from previous index-language construction came in his abandonment of a controlled vocabulary derived in advance from a study of the literature. Coates relied on his formula and reference structure to control subject statements as they occurred, but the growing index became its own authority file for the vocabulary. Until this development, the classic method had been to (1) analyze a sample set of documents in the field, (2) determine the concepts and their relationships, and (3) determine the best terms to represent them (clearly a necessary operation for classification, with its need to organize even similar terms in an orderly array). For almost the first time, the tools of faceted classification development were used in natural-language indexing and resulted in some new perceptions. During this period another CRG member, Jason Farradane, proposed a system of relational operators that would link terms in index statements without regard for the existence of those terms in any formal arrangements other than the document in hand. Whereas Ranganathan and the CRG had concentrated on assigning terms to facets so that the relationships among terms were implicit in the already announced relationship of the facets, Farradane concentrated on the categories of relationship. His system of operators is complex and almost mystical in its derivation from theories of LIBRAR Y CLASSIFICA TION 1 3 perception and cognition, but handled empirically and admittedly somewhat unfairly, it offers a good working system. It has contributed significantly to the philosophy of the CRG work by Derek Austin on a new general faceted classification, and of course to the new indexing system called PRECIS arising from that work. We should note that throughout the 1960s, work on the automatic generation of index languages attempted to generate classifications or quasi-classifications using statistical analysis of the text of documents or their abstracts. However, in spite of elaborate recalculations, recomparisons, and rematchings of terms against the numbers of documents using them, statistical significance has so far failed to be accepted as semantic significance. Probably the best seminal work was done by Doyle, with applications by Sally Dennis; currently the most interesting work is that done by the Needhams, by Borko and by Salton. Nevertheless, the results still lack the necessary intellectual rigor. I have said almost nothing about the thesauri used in post-coordinate indexing. From the early days of what we might call "free-form" post-coordinate indexing, the field moved toward ever-tighter control over vocabulary and relationships, until with categories, links and roles, infixes, etc., classificatory structure began to emerge. MESH (Medical Subject Headings) added a systematic index that is a broad classification and two thesauri (Thesaurus of Engineering and Scientific Terms, developed by the Engineers Joint Council, and Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors) have a similar apparatus. The prototype ERIC thesaurus devised by Barhydt at Case Western Reserve University had a frankly faceted structure, although the final thesaurus was to be an alphabetically ordered vocabulary; the systematic structure was to aid recognition of new terms and their relationships and development of the reference structure. Possibly the best example of the overt combination of faceted classification and alphabetical thesaurus came with the fourth edition of the English Electric Company's faceted classification for engineering and technology called Thesauro facet, in which each side might act as a main index language, depending on system requirements, with the other acting as a complementary index. Also in the late 1960s began one of the most significant developments in the history of classification and indexing and the third major landmark of the past one hundred years: the work on a general faceted classification funded by NATO and carried out principally by Derek Austin on behalf of the British Classification Research Group. Since Derek Austin's paper elsewhere in this volume describes in detail the development of PRECIS, I shall offer only an outline to support my thesis. After considerable discussion in the 1960s, CRG agreed to simplify the faceted approach even more than they had in the 1950s. From Ranganathan's 14 DAVID BATTY five fundamental but separate categories they moved to a spectrum organized according to the principle of decreasing concreteness. Now they resolved even these shades of distinction into two areas: entities and attributes. With these two categories of meaning they permitted the development of generic groupings by the principle of integrative levels, taken from Joseph Needham, in which collections of similar phenomena appear as an integrated unit at a higher level. The entity and attribute categories do not have a distinct order of priority, although it is typical for an index description to begin with an entity; they are put together by the use of connecting symbols called operators selected from a fairly generous list, in an order whose logic is determined by the semantics of the words in the contexts of the statement. The notational symbols of the operators automatically pull the string of terms (each preceded by its operator) into a useful order. The categories of entity and attribute may have a notation if necessary, or they may remain in natural-language form. PRECIS is an alphabetical indexing system that has grown out of that classificatory basis. To the vocabulary/operator structure is added a presentation format in which the string of terms is presented with each term successively in a lead position, qualified by any more general terms, and with any remaining terms left as a display to complete the "precis" of the article as described by all the indexing terms. To the intellectual elements of the new general faceted classification, PRECIS has added a necessary element, never previously explored, of a physical layout of display to aid the comprehensibility of the index statement. The intellectual elements of this new classification and of PRECIS warrant close scrutiny. The operators, like Farradane's, and unlike Rangana- than's, are independent of the categories or facets to which terms may belong, but they reflect the meanings of those categories of terms dimly discernible in Dewey and developed to a highly sophisticated level by Ranganathan. The categories of entity and attribute seem to be direct descendants of the categories clearly discernible in some classes of Dewey's scheme, and explicitly stated by both Kaiser and Brown. In fact, however, they are an ultimate reduction of the highly sophisticated development by Ranganathan of those early, unformed categories. In the growth of many disciplines we may see a progression from empirical observation, through pragmatic application, to analysis and planned development. Dewey had an almost instinctive perception of the fundamental means to organize classes, although he was limited by the primitive state of the library art to simple, two-part structures. Against the context of his time, however, his seminal contribution seems tremendous. The towering baroque achievement of Ranganathan is at once the full and detailed realization of what Dewey and the UDC attempted, and also the new thematic foundation of a later age of classic simplicity. LIBRA R Y CLA SSI PICA TION 1 5 If this musical metaphor seems lavish, or if you misunderstand my use of the term baroque, let me stress that Ranganathan was not so much the beginning of a new age as the final realization of the potential of the previous one. Ranganathan worked out in detail all the meaning and implication of the intent and attempts of Dewey, Kaiser, Brown, and UDC. He is the Bach of classification; all the contrapuntal experiments of his predecessors pointed to his invention, and in that flowering lay the seed of the next development. With the 1960s comes the age of synthesis, in which the previously apparently incompatible traditions of systematic and alphabetic indexing, and pre- and post-coordinate systems are seen to have a common underlying intellectual structure. The information explosion of the twentieth century has brought not only a quantitative increase in knowledge, but also a qualitative change. Knowledge no longer has the development mechanization or even the same structure it had a century ago. Knowledge now grows by conscious synthesis in inter- and multidisciplinary areas. The essential problems of bibliographic organiza- tionthat books contain a variety of subjects and their aspects are aggravated beyond the point where they may be ignored. Simple hierarchical systems suitable for marking and parking material on shelves will soon outgrow both their usefulness and their viability. General subject groupings, with simple synthesis and an even simpler mnemonic synthetic notation may be the last overt manifestation of the shelf classification. Nevertheless, it would be a mistake to see those shelf classifications only as listing mechanisms; their makers described them explicitly also as a means of naming and locating subjects, and tracing relationships among subjects. Browsing in the future may be easier and more efficient in printed catalogs, or with a computer terminal display, using indexing systems based on our better understanding of the real nature of classification. The world of information has its own dimensions of space and time: we generate knowledge in the vertical hierarchies of accepted disciplines, but we use it in horizontal assemblies of relevant fact and method; we receive knowledge in known patterns from the past, but we must use it always to answer as yet unidentified questions in the future. In such a world, the heritage of systematic classification may be the best way we can rely on to trace our steps in terra incognita. REFERENCES 1. Eliot, T. S. "Little Gidding." In Four Quartets. New York, Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1943, p. 39. 16 DAVID BATTY 1. Bliss, Henry E. The Organisation of Knowledge and the System of the Sciences. New York, H. Holt and Co., 1929; . The Organisation of Knowledge in Libraries and the Subject-approach to Books. New York, H. W. Wilson, 1933; . A Bibliographic Classification. 4 vols. New York, H. W. Wilson, 1940-1953. JOHN P. COMAROMI Associate Professor School of Librarianship Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan The Historical Development of The Dewey Decimal Classification System Melvil Dewey was born on December 10, 1851 on the tenth day of the tenth month.* To this fact I attribute the reason why Dewey conceived his idea of using Arabic numerals decimally to mark the subjects of books. I call this, happily, the "birthday theory." At this early hour you may not embrace this theory. Perhaps you will find more to your liking the "digital-clock-on-the-bar theory." Parched by a long prayer meeting, Dewey repaired to a local tavern to restore his depleted spirits. While staring over his beer at the digital clock on the bar, he conceived his decimal plan. Fortunately, he had stared at the clock after one o'clock, but before ten, and when the hour did not change. This theory has two known flaws: Dewey did not drink, and digital clocks were not then found on bars or anywhere. I sense your reluctance to embrace this theory as well. Nevertheless, there are only two or three views regarding Dewey's conception that are better than the "birthday theory" or the "digital-clock-on-the-bar theory." None has been proposed that is worse, however, so I withdraw both. * Roman calendar, of course. 17 18 JOHN P. COMAROMI Before proposing what I think actually happened, let me first set the historical situation and then review several other possible sources of Dewey's idea. In the early 1870s Dewey was casting about for a career. After rejecting several possible ones, he settled upon librarianship. He had faith that libraries would become vitally important to the education of many Americans. He suspected, however, that since libraries were not central to the process of organized education, they would not receive a large share of the educational budget. He knew that the best ways in which to husband the resources available were through standardization and centralization. Then, in a survey that he made of libraries in the Northeast, it became apparent to him that the common method of shelf arrangement the fixed system in which a book was assigned a number which fixed it in space was uneconomical. In other words, in cataloging a work, each library assigned a locational number particular to that library and subject to change when the library grew out of its original place; of course, the same work was cataloged many, many times. To prevent such unwise use of time and money, Dewey conceived his plan wherein the subject of a book, which does not change, would be indicated by arabic numerals used decimally, to the third digit if necessary, assuring easy expansion of any subject and enabling a book to be located relative to the rest of the collection. Its position was not absolute. Thus, renumbering an item would not be necessary when the library grew beyond its physical limits. Each digit at the "ones" level represented a class; each digit at the "tens" level represented a subclass; and each digit at the "hundreds" level represented a further level of subdivision. It may appear that Dewey devised his scheme, or invented the decimal plan, to facilitate and economize shelf arrangement not quite so. What he actually did was to devise a method for a subject catalog, and the books of the library stood on the shelves in the same order as they were found in the subject catalog. His scheme had this dual purpose from the beginning. The dual purpose, in fact, helps to explain the split personality that Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) users have had to live with for nearly a century. DDC has attempted to provide currency and detail for the classified catalog, and at the same time has attempted to provide stability and short numbers for shelf arrangement. Where did Dewey get his idea? Several proposals have been made. The first that I wish to discuss has been made by John Maass. While Maass was putting the final touches to his work on the Centennial Exhibition held in Philadelphia in 1876, semi-serendipity intervened. He noticed a similarity between Dewey's notation and that of the decimal notation used to arrange the exhibits at the Centennial Exhibition, learned that the system used at the exhibition was proposed before Dewey conceived his idea, suggested that Dewey saw the proposal, and contends that Dewey was inspired by what he HISTORICAL DE VEL OPMENT 1 9 saw to conceive his decimal plan. This is possible, but not probable. The notation of the system used at the exhibition, devised by William Phipps Blake-a man of many parts-had Roman numerals I through X for the departments (classes), within each of which were ten subdivisions numbered 1-10, 11-20, etc. Each of these in turn had 100 subdivisions numbered 1-100, 101-200, etc. It was most certainly a decimal system, but its notation was not the sort that Dewey used, nor used in the manner to which we have become accustomed; that is, a string of arabic numerals beyond a decimal point. Note that in Blake's system the final class could have had the number X 100 1000. (It could also have had just 1000.) Now since 1000 could belong only to 100, and 100 only to 10 and 10 only to X, the notation was both hierarchical and expressive of the content of a class. I do not see, however, how Dewey, whose final class mark was 999, could have been led by Blake's notation to make the mental leap to decimal subdivision by nines, the zero* being the general number. And it is the uniform subdivision by nine that makes Dewey's notation the elegant conception that it was: hierarchically expressive, universally understood, and short-at any rate, shorter than X 100 1000. Consequently, I think that Blake's notation was an unlikely link in Dewey's chain of thought, even if Dewey had seen Blake's proposal, which is putative. The second possible source was the one indicated by Dewey himself in the preface to the first edition of DDC. In it he stated: In his varied reading, correspondence, and conversation on the subject, the author has doubtless received suggestions and gained ideas which it is now impossible for him to acknowledge. Perhaps the most fruitful source of ideas was the Nuovo Sistema di Catalogo Bibliograflco Generate of Natale Battezzati, of Milan. Certainly he is indebted to this system adopted by the Italian publishers in 1871, though he has copied nothing from it. The plan of the St. Louis Public School Library and that of the Apprentices' Library of New York, which in some respects resemble his own, were not seen till all the essential features were decided upon, though not given to the public. In filling the nine classes of the scheme the inverted Baconian arrangement of the St. Louis Library has been followed. And perhaps the most fruitful source was not Battezzati's scheme, whether it was adopted by the Italian publishers in 1871 or not. I suspect that Battezzati's contribution regarding the DDC was to play the role of a red herring. Nothing in his Nuovo Sistema, or in what the Italian publishers adopted, could have provided even one mental molecule in the chain of Dewey's thought. What Battezzati urged upon his fellow booksellers was a system wherein several catalog cards would accompany a new work, these to be used for various bookseller catalogs a sort of Books in Print on cards. The 20 JOHN P. COMAROMI cards for the subject catalog would be color-coded: white for religion, yellow for law, green for the sciences and arts, red for belles-lettres, and blue for history. The structure of the classification that Battezzati used was pure Brunet, the notation a mixture of Roman and arabic numerals and lowercase letters. For instance, V lla indicated history -bibliography; IV 6a indicated belles-lettres-philology. Battezzati's suggestion was actually a step in the process that has advanced as far as our current Cataloging-In-Publication. What Dewey was indebted to Battezzati for was the idea of title-slips, slips of paper possessing catalog copy for the work in hand and to be found with the book when it arrived at a library. He was not indebted to Battezzati for any aspect of the DDC. If there were an identifiable outside source or sources of Dewey's idea (indeed, he could have done it solo) I believe it to have been in either or both of the men referred to after Battezzati in the above acknowledgment: William Torrey Harris of the St. Louis Public School Library and Jacob Schwartz of the Apprentices' Library of New York. From Harris, Dewey drew the structure of the DDC more on this matter later. As Harris employed arabic numerals 1-100 to mark his classes and major subclasses, Dewey may have drawn his decimal idea from him. That is doubtful, however, for history was 79, and British history 93. What Dewey did not see in Harris's notation was the use of arabic numerals to subdivide a subject by nine. This, however, he did see in Schwartz's Catalogue of the New York Apprentices' Library. Schwartz had used capital letters for his classes and 0-9 for the subdivisions of each, being used for the general number of each class, 1-9 for subdivisions. I suggest that Dewey saw Schwartz's catalog before he conceived his own decimal idea, probably during his survey of library practice or during his perusal of library catalogs. Dewey said that he had not seen Schwartz's work, as indicated in the above quotation. Schwartz did not believe Dewey, and a decade later attacked him unmercifully for this very reason. I have been told that Harris, or his relatives, did not believe Dewey either, but I have not seen hard proof of this. Nevertheless, I am inclined toward disbelief. These, then, are three proposals regarding the source of Dewey's idea. Until his secret diary is found and translated, we will each have to choose the proposal most congenial to our several natures. On May 8, 1873, Dewey submitted his plan to the Library Committee of Amherst College, and it was accepted. Dewey was to produce 200 catalogs arranged by his system for use by the students and faculty of the college, the first fifty being for editorial proof. Having a notation and a means of subdivision, but no system, Dewey then cast about for one. He did not have to look far; he already had in mind the system he wanted to use. On the day after his plan was accepted, he wrote Harris for a copy of the catalog of the St. Louis Public School Library, a description of which Dewey had seen in HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 21 Harris's article in Journal of Speculative Philosophy, and the structure of which he eventually used for the DDC. For longer than they should have, scholars reported that Harris merely inverted the Baconian triad of history, poesy, and philosophy which Bacon had considered the three departments of learning that had developed from the three faculties of man's mind, namely memory, imagination, and reason and then expanded his scheme upon the resulting structure. That is an accurate statement of the sequence of events, but it does not explain why Harris did what he did. In the introduction to his catalog, Harris wrote that Bacon was on to a good thing, but not for the reasons given by Bacon. To Harris, the three categories did not represent departments of learning at all, but rather they represented the three forms that literature can take upon a subject. (You might prefer the term mode instead of form.) Harris then analyzed the three modes, or forms, into classes which were for the most part fields of study. The classes and subclasses were assigned arabic numerals through 100 apparently on the basis of literary warrant and without regard for hierarchical expression: 79 for history, 93 for British history. The overall order of his scheme reflected Harris's Hegelian definition of the world as seen through man's eyes. As this view provides the skeleton of Dewey's scheme, let me summarize it. First there are the three modes of dealing with a subject: the scientific, in which conscious system prevails; the artistic, in which unconscious system prevails; and the historical, in which system, if any can be said to exist, results from a concatenation of time and place. Within these three modes the contents of books their subject-matterdetermine the structure of the classification. The three modes unfold in the following way to produce the total Hegelian view. Science unfolds into philosophy, the source of system for all other fields and the most general field of study. Theology, the science of the absolute, and the ultimate field of study of philosophy, comes next. (Religion, which is not scientific but is tributary to theology, is included in theology.) As man achieves his most spiritual role within his society and in relation to the state, the social and political sciences are logically the next fields of study. The political sciences are jurisprudence (in which society puts constraints upon the individual), and politics (in which the individual reacts against the constraints of law, thereby producing perhaps an instance for an alteration of the practical will). The social sciences are political economy (whereby in combination man gains ascendancy over nature and uses it for his ends), and education (by which man is initiated into the society's modus operandi). Placed at the end of the social and political sciences is philology since it is the result of self-conscious thought, a society's best record of itself, and the connecting, link between the spiritual and the natural. JOHN P. COMAROMI The natural sciences now follow, and these are followed by the useful arts. The first unfold the laws of nature; the next apply them to social uses. The point of transition between the two fields is medicine part science, part art, and all expensive. This brings to an end the subjects whose major mode of treatment is the scientific. The second major mode is the artistic. Art unfolds into the fine arts: architecture, sculpture, drawing and painting, engraving, lithography, photo- graphy, collections of pictures, and music. These are followed by poetry, prose fiction, and the last of the artistic forms, literary miscellany. Although this ends the subjects whose major mode of treatment is the artistic, the number of works actually are neither few nor brief. The final mode is the historical history. History is comprised of geography and travels, civil history, and biography and correspondence. Heraldry and genealogy fall here. Harris did append to his catalog a class for works which treated subjects falling in several classes. Within this Appendix, which is what he called it, Harris placed collections, cyclopedias, and periodicals several of the items that fell in Dewey's own generalia class. You no doubt can perceive the structure of the DDC falling within Harris's world view, and hence we see the apparently strange position of language and the reason for the distance between the social sciences and history, the 300s and the 900s. I suspect that the philosophical underpinning of the DDC has contributed considerably to its success. I suspect also that no private detective can be hired to confirm my suspicion. Comprised of a preface of eight pages, tables of twelve pages, and an index of eighteen pages, the first edition of DDC appeared in 1876. Dewey set the number of copies at 1,000 a far cry from the 200 that he had been allowed to produce. The figure is, I think, not inaccurate. Dewey had run an extra "edition" beyond what he had been allowed, and it was published by Ginn and Heath. There were standard subdivisions at the general numbers for the classes. "Divide like" was used for geographical subdivisions, although the process itself was not yet called that. The index was called the "Subject Index" and indexed terms in the tables and often subjects outside the tables. For instance, North Carolina appeared in the index, although not in the tables. Even though it was not called "relative," the index was already behaving in that manner and that was to add to the success of the DDC. For instance, one found moths at 595 and 646; maternity at 136 and 618; tobacco at 615, 178, and 633 yet not one of these terms appeared anywhere in the tables. Dewey said of the index in his preface: "Most names of countries, towns, animals, plants, minerals, diseases, &c., have been omitted, the aim being to furnish an Index of Subjects on which books are written, and not a Gazetteer or a Dictionary of all the nouns in the language." From that day on the index was on a collision course to that distant time when it HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 23 would no longer be possible to provide an "Index of Subjects on which books are written" because there would be too many subjects. In addition to the DDC's intellectual cohesion, simple notation, stability, and helpful index, there were events and conditions that contributed substantially to its success in the next decade: (1) it was elaborately described in the U.S. Bureau of Education's Public Libraries in the United *J States of America and discussed at the 1876 Philadelphia Conference of Librarians; (2) it was one of the few systems available to the public and was the only one advertised in the Library Journal; (3) as one of the editors of the Library Journal (and because of his increasingly important position in American librarianship), Dewey was able to further the progress of the DDC-for instance, marking DDC numbers on the title-slips mentioned above; and (4) lastly, although not the least of all the reasons, Dewey had the opportunity to expand the DDC. During the years preceding the publication of the second edition, Dewey developed his scheme first at Wellesley and then at Columbia College with the assistance of Walter Stanley Biscoe and other scholars. (I must say a few words about Biscoe: he was Dewey's henchman from their days at Amherst until Dewey's death in 1931, and he was the theoretician of the DDC for most of this period. Many important classificatory decisions were made by him.) The second edition appeared in 1885. Its introduction was much fuller, having expanded from eight to twenty-four pages, with approximately thirty additional pages of explanations. There were a great many relocations and much reusing of numbers. To prevent the suspicion that succeeding editions would contain equally unsettling amounts of change, Dewey wrote: "Librarians making the necessary changes for the revised edition need not fear that a series of editions have begun each of which will call for such Q changes.' He kept his word. Although there would be great expansion upon the numbers of the second edition in the years ahead, there would be very few changes that would result in changed meanings of numbers. This policy is called integrity of numbers or stability of numbers. It was to be the guiding principle of the DDC for three-quarters of a century. In the second edition I will not catalog the changes of subsequent editions standard subdivisions, then called form divisions, were applied to subdivisions of classes. "Divide like" had become a standard procedure and part of the classifier's language. The Relativ Index was named this for the first time, and so spelled no final "e." Simplified spelling began in this edition. It was to grow steadily worse as subsequent editors increased its use in the mistaken assumption that it was what Dewey desired. In fact, Dewey did desire it, but he also desired international use of the DDC, and the increasingly atrocious simplified spelling was a decided impediment to this goal. Notes were many and useful. The decimal point appeared. It had not 24 JOHN P. COMAROMI been used in the first edition. (A period had been used above the base line to indicate that the next digit indicated either size or accession number within that class or both. For instance, 973.4.18 would represent the eighteenth work on the quarto shelf for American History. It seems that Joseph Lamed of the Young Men's Association Library of Buffalo was the person responsible for the convention of the decimal after the third digit.) There were now geographical and period subdivisions. There were tables at the end of the volume: one listed subjects divided geographically, one was a list of numbers of the various languages, and the last was a list of the subject divisions of languages. Here was the first auxiliary table, although it was not so called. The index had grown from 2,000 to 10,000 entries. Topics subdivided in the tables were in bold type. Dewey wrote of the index, "This Subject Index is the most important feature of the system." He may even have believed that. Certainly, though, librarians inexpert in a field could place a book reasonably well with the assistance of the index. It was a godsend to the librarian who did not know everything. The second edition was to the first as the chicken is to the egg. The egg is indispensable and holds the promise of a chicken. The first edition was promising; the second edition was the promise fulfilled. I do not think I overstate the case when I say that the second edition of the DDC was the premier achievement in the development of American library classification. During the years of development of the DDC up until 1951 the date of publication of the fifteenth edition there was a steady acceptance of the DDC at home and abroad. By development I mean only that the DDC expanded upon its second edition structure. There was little structural change; it simply grew. New editions came when old ones had been sold or when there was enough new material to justify bringing out a new edition. During the period of growth, certain events took place and certain people became involved; both were important to the development of the DDC and I wish now to turn to a discussion of them. To begin, in the late 1880s May Seymour became editor of the DDC. Dewey and W.S. Biscoe had been responsible for editing it through the first three editions. During Seymour's editorship, from the late 1880s through 1921 (the fourth through the eleventh editions) the DDC doubled in size. From 1921 through 1938, during the editorship of her understudy Dorkas Fellows, (the twelfth through the fourteenth editions) the DDC again doubled in size. I mention the growth in size because I wish to call attention to the achievement in classification of these two relatively unsung women. Still, as formidable as their achievement was in classification, each also found time to accomplish major undertakings. Seymour was Dewey's right-hand woman for more than three decades, and was the major figure in the first ALA list of books for libraries; Fellows compiled one of the best sets of cataloging rules. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 25 At Lake Placid Club, where for many years the editorial work was done, Seymour was known as the "specialist in omniscience," Fellows as the "walking encyclopedia" both were fitting characterizations. In 1896 growth of an international branch from the main trunk of the DDC began. At that time Paul Otlet conceived a plan to compile a universal bibliography to be arranged by a decimal system, preferably a somewhat modified DDC. He asked for and gained Dewey's permission to translate the DDC into French, making a few changes in religion, the social sciences, and technology. This was the beginning of an occasionally fruitful but usually frustrating relationship between the DDC and the family of decimal classifications fathered by Dewey but adopted and fostered by Otlet. The major members of the family have been the Classification decimate and the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC), an English translation of the French translation. The UDC is discussed elsewhere in this volume. Nevertheless, I do want to point out here that the French and American editions had drifted apart on the meaning of some numbers and that Seymour and Fellows were directed to reach concordance between the editions through the third digit. They never quite achieved this, but a good many small yet useful modifications in the DDC took place because of the attempt to reach concordance. At about the same time as Otlet began his work, an important event did not take place. In 1899 Charles Martel of the Library of Congress (LC) approached Dewey and asked whether the DDC could be revised within a year so that it could be used as the classification scheme for the Library of Congress. The necessary revision included updating the sciences and technology classes, moving the social sciences nearer to history, and moving language nearer to literature. (J.C.M. Hanson, then head of the catalog department of LC, had just come from the University of Wisconsin where Cutter's Expansive Classification was used, and he wanted a classification the structure of which was much like Cutter's.) Dewey's promise of little change in the meaning of numbers that he had made in the second edition, his agreement to the French translation of the DDC and, more importantly, Martel's demand of great change in too short a period one year made the suggestion unacceptable to Dewey. I think that Hanson and Martel forced Dewey to refuse. In memory of May Seymour, who had died in 1921, and as he himself was nearing the end of his life, Dewey signed all copyrights of the DDC in 1924 over to the Lake Placid Club Education Foundation, fully expecting the foundation to continue publishing the DDC. In 1933 Forest Press was incorporated, its primary role being to see that the DDC was published. The foundation also set up an internal committee to oversee development. Until his death in 1931, Dewey dominated anything connected with the DDC. After 26 JOHN P. COMAROMI his death his second wife, Emily, was in charge of the committee, but she was clearly incapable of dealing with classification matters, and Dorkas Fellows determined the course of the DDC through her. It was at this time that the American Library Association again attempted to formalize an arrangement whereby librarians could have some input into the development and continuation of the DDC. The ALA quite simply wanted to see to it that the interests of the profession were made known to the foundation. (I say "again" for there had been during World War I an ALA committee called the Decimal Classification Advisory Committee, whose job it was to see that the interests of the profession were met. There were excellent people on the advisory committee, such as Clement Andrews of the John Crerar Library and Dorkas Fellows, to name only two. The advisory committee eventually ceased to function primarily because it was not making much of an impact on the DDC's course of development.) The new committee's name made a three-line entry on a catalog card: American Library Association Committee on Cooperation with the Lake Placid Club Education Foundation Committee on the Decimal Classification. This committee was soon replaced by the Decimal Classification Committee, which was comprised of three members each from ALA and from the foundation, and was chaired by Milton Ferguson, director of the Brooklyn Public Library and a former president of ALA. The committee's purpose was to oversee the development of the DDC, and in one form or another it has done so to the present day. It is now called the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee. In 1938 Dorkas Fellows died, but not before she had done much of the work of expanding the fourteenth edition. Replacing her was Constantin Mazney, a cataloger from the University of Michigan. Myron Getchell, the man who was Fellows's choice to replace her and who had fully expected to gain the position, remained on in a subordinate capacity in order that the "apostolic succession" the experiential link to the past not be broken. Mazney and Getchell finished the work on the fourteenth edition, which was published in 1942 and was nearly 2,000 pages long. For the most part it was a giant second edition. Many still consider it the best edition ever. Just after it was published, Mazney was fired for a variety of reasons mainly inefficiency. Getchell, considered by those who appointed the editor to be timid and ineffectual, was passed over for a second time. He then resigned, and "apos- tolic succession" was broken. There was no longer anyone at the editorial level who knew the old ways, or the reasons for them. During most of the 1930s and 1940s there was an unremitting but fruitless search for an editor: Fellows had come to the end of her career; Mazney had proven incapable; and Getchell was unacceptable. The major reason why someone could not be found was that the foundation was HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 27 unwilling to pay a wage commensurate with the talent and education requisite for a successful editorship. What then transpired has led to an unhappy period for library classification. In the late 1920s, Dewey, his son Godfrey, and Dorkas Fellows had concluded that there should be three editions, or three levels, in the DDC family: (l)a bibliographic edition to handle documentation, (2) a library edition for shelf arrangement of libraries of medium size (or larger if the bibliographic edition was not used for this purpose in the larger libraries), and (3) an abridged edition for the smaller libraries and for library schools. Ten years later the Decimal Classification Committee decided that the fifteenth edition would be the library edition defined above, and by osmosis it came to be called the "standard edition." It was to have all of its classes expanded and then cut back to four, or five, or six digits, whatever was appropriate for a given class for numbering books for shelf arrangement *for libraries of a medium size. The main reason for the tremendous expansion in the fourteenth edition was that it was the first step in preparing for the library, or standard, edition. Although no one could be found for the editorship, someone now had to be found to ensure that the editorial office made progress toward the fifteenth edition. What appeared then to be an appropriate course of action was taken: a director of the editorial office was appointed Esther Potter of the Brooklyn Public Library (a close friend of Milton Ferguson, chairman of the Decimal Classification Committee). Her experience was not in classifi- cation, and consequently it was not believed that she had the ability to be editor, although she was given the charge to find one if she could. She was also given the charge to find out what librarians desired in the way of a "standard edition," the official view, given above, already being known. This she set out to do and many dollars later concluded that librarians wanted an up-to-date scheme with short numbers. (Note that this was not what the original library edition was to have been short numbers, yes, but on the old structure.) She attempted to provide this but proved incapable of doing so. Then, in order to bring the fifteenth edition out as soon as possible Potter's travels and the editorial staffs work having consumed the available funds Milton Ferguson was sent to Washington to finish the edition. He did so and finished just about everything else in the process. The fifteenth edition appeared in 1951 and was an almost unmitigated disaster. It was not the edition it was intended to be. The libraries for which it was intended could not use it in fact, two-thirds of all users could not use it alone, and recourse to an earlier edition was necessary. Although it was 700 pages in length, it was actually only one-tenth to one-fifth the conceptual size of the fourteenth edition; that is, it had only one-tenth to one-fifth as many entries. Ferguson had literally eviscerated the DDC. It was far too abbreviated; 28 JOHN P. COMAROMI there was no provision for building numbers; the meanings of many heavily used numbers had been changed. The index had been compiled by someone from another part of the government, and did not work well which would have been the case no matter who had made it, for the tables had been denuded of up to 90 percent of their contents. A revised fifteenth edition was hurried into print, but about all it managed to do was use up a good deal of what little money and goodwill were left. Did anything good come out of it? Yes: the atrocious simplified spelling had been almost shed; the format was elegant for the first time; a great deal of deadwood had been eliminated; and a few areas, such as sociology, had been improved. But this little good did not begin to compensate for the great evil done. The worst effect was that Forest Press could not finance the sixteenth edition, although I admit that defections to the Library of Congress Classification and a loss of belief in the usefulness of the DDC for shelf arrangement may have been the worst effects. At this crucial point in the history of the DDC the Library of Congress was approached through the American Library Association in the hopes that the library would assist in financing the next edition, for without substantial assistance the DDC would founder long before the sixteenth edition could be prepared. The library agreed to help. The arrangement to produce the sixteenth edition, in which costs were shared by LC and Forest Press, began in January 1954. In the bargain that was made, the library gained the power to appoint the editor. Its first appointee to the editorship was David Haykin, the first person to direct the assigning of DDC numbers to LC cards and a subject heading specialist at LC. At this time another ALA committee, the Special Advisory Committee on the Decimal Classification, was formed to assist the editor and the Editorial Policy Committee in producing the sixteenth edition. It was actually constituted at the request of Godfrey Dewey, who was a member of the governing board of the Lake Placid Club Education Foundation and who thought that the editor and the Editorial Policy Committee could use all the expertise that could be marshaled. Unsaid was his desire to see that another fifteenth edition did not occur. At all times a majority of the advisory committee's members was of the integrity-of-numbers camp. This group desired a return to the line of development of the first fourteen editions and a return to the meanings of the numbers of the fourteenth edition, from which the fifteenth edition had often strayed. On the other hand, David Haykin was of the keeping-pace -with- knowledge camp. Members of this group, which included most of his staff and a minority of the advisory committee, desired to have the structure of the DDC reflect the current view of knowledge. Whereas the conservative integrity-of-numbers camp would have new subjects placed in the old HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 29 structure, the progressive keeping-pace-with-knowledge camp would redo the old structure and provide one better fit to accommodate new and old subjects. Haykin assumed that the progressive steps taken in the fifteenth edition were to continue. The advisory committee assumed that the line of the first fourteen editions was to continue in the sixteenth. If the advisory committee were taken seriously most of them are not a showdown between Haykin and the committee was inevitable. The stature of the committee's ap- pointees and, more importantly, the sheer force of its chairman Janet Dickson gave its opinions the weight necessary for an honest hearing. Its opinion was that Haykin was changing too much and he had to stop. The showdown occurred in 1956. When the smoke cleared, Haykin had resigned to return to another post in the Library of Congress. Thus, it was assured that the sixteenth edition would be primarily a return to the line of development of the first fourteen editions. To replace Haykin, LC appointed Benjamin Custer, head of technical services of the Detroit Public Library, who had demonstrated the requisite general ability and who possessed a conciliatory ability in the degree necessary to bring the sixteenth edition to a successful conclusion and all concerned to a smiling state. This he and Julia Pressey, head of the section that assigned DDC numbers to LC cards, did supremely well. The sixteenth edition was published in 1958 and it vies with the fourteenth in being generally successful and widely respected. It was, in fact, a phenomenal success and much nearer to the idea of the library, or standard, edition discussed earlier. Although physically larger than the fourteenth edition, it had about one-half the number of entries. It was attractive, easy to use and, as Frances Hinton, the current chairman of the Editorial Policy Committee, said of it, it fit like an old slipper. Furthermore, the fifteenth edition had been no competition, the fourteenth was no longer available, and librarianship was riding an ascending spoke of the wheel of fortune. Custer did manage to insert a good deal of new material in the sixteenth edition, and he did some restructuring as well in chemistry at 546 and 547, the sort of thing that had not been allowed in the first fourteen editions. The sixteenth had more of the past in it than it did the present, but I think we should look upon it as the last of the old DDC line and the first of the new modern line. At the time, of course, it was perceived as being a return to what was known and accepted, which indeed it was in part. The view of the conservative librarian when it is not necessary to change, it is necessary not to change had prevailed, and such librarians were happy that the various subjects of their collections were not dispersed by a new view of knowledge. Since the following paper will deal with the seventeenth and eighteenth editions, I do not wish to proceed much further. I am constrained, however, to add two more paragraphs which belong to the thread of this discussion. 30 JOHN P. COMAROMI By the time the seventeenth edition was published in 1965, a stunning reversal of fundamental policy had taken place. No longer was integrity of numbers the guiding principle; keeping pace with knowledge was. Custer was by nature a progressive as far as classification was concerned. It would have been folly, however, for him to do anything other than what he was instructed to do for the sixteenth edition that is, to return to the line of the first fourteen editions. The success of the sixteenth edition, on the other hand, added the dimension of success to his stature, and he was able to convince the Editorial Policy Committee that the future is longer than the past and that the DDC's structure should change when reason sees the need for change. This policy has continued to the present; the phoenix schedules and the new index are results of it. The seventeenth edition was not, predictably, a successful edition. There had been too much change, and librarians who had applauded the sixteenth edition were bitterly disappointed. The idea of classifying by discipline, in which a subject is classed in the discipline in which it is used for study, caused no little difficulty in classfying. The new index, a radical departure from previous practice, received a hostile reception. The index was like a pair of magic shoes that carried the classifier much farther than a normal pair of shoes, but which pinched every step of the way. It proved so unacceptable, in fact, that at great cost to Forest Press, a revised index modeled on the old lines was prepared and distributed free to purchasers of the original index. In fairness it should be said that the original index did not have the time spent on it that it should have had, and that the index to the eighteenth edition is a better example of what the new index can do. On the credit side were many good internal improvements, the development of auxiliary tables, and the continued, now more obvious, movement toward making the DDC a modern library classification which it is now becoming, to most people's satisfaction. REFERENCES 1. Maass, John. "Who Invented Dewey's Classification?" Wilson Library Bulletin 47:335-42, Dec. 1972. 2. Dewey, Melvil. Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and Pamphlets of a Library. Amherst, Mass., Case, Lockwood and Brainard Co., 1876, p. 10. 3. The discussion in the following two paragraphs owes much to ideas suggested to the author by John Metcalfe and to Enzo Bottasso's "Genesi e Intenti della Classificazione Decimale," in La Biblioteca Pubblica. Torino, Italy, Associazione Piemontese dei Bibliotecari, 1973, pp. 177-207. HISTORIC A L DE VEL OPMENT 31 4. Harris, William T. "Book Classification," Journal of Speculative Philosophy 4(2): 114-29, 1870. 5. Leidecker, Kurt. "The Debt of Melvil Dewey to William Torrey Harris," Library Quarterly 15:139-42, April 1945; and Graziano, Eugene E. "Hegel's Philosophy as a Basis for the Dewey Classification Schedule," Libri 9:45-52, 1959. 6. Dewey, op. cit., p. 6. 7. . "Catalogues and Cataloguing; A Decimal Classification and Subject Index." In U.S. Bureau of Education. Public Libraries in the United States of America. Special Report. Pt. I. Washington, D.C., U.S.G.P.O., 1876, pp. 623-48. 8. . Decimal Classification and Relativ Index for Arranging, Cataloging, and Indexing Public and Private Libraries. 2d ed. Boston, Library Bureau, 1885, p. 46. 9. Ibid., p. 32. MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT Associate Professor Faculty of Library Science University of Toronto, Canada Dewey Today: An Analysis of Recent Editions Despite the title of this paper, I do not intend to make a detailed analysis of the subject content of recent editions of the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC). Instead, I shall concentrate on certain classificatory changes within the system, and try to show how these changes seem to spring in part from changes in the editorial development of editions 16-18 of DDC, and in the administrative and editorial frameworks within which the editions appear. In my own research on classification systems, I have become increasingly fascinated by the ways in which the classification systems themselves are determined, shaped and changed by the people who devise and revise them. As has been said many times, the first fourteen editions followed in a largely unbroken line, with some relocations, but basically with expansions. Then came the abortive fifteenth edition. That this edition was recognized as a disaster became obvious with the appearance of the revised fifteenth edition in the following year. This was followed by the contractual arrangement between the Lake Placid Club Education Foundation (LPCEF) and the Library of Congress (LC) that LC should be responsible for the editorial work on future editions, for the length of the contracts. On January 4, 1954, LC began the editorial work, with David Haykin as editor. Benjamin Custer succeeded him as editor in 1956. DDC- 16 seemed to continue the straight-line pattern of DDC-1-14 but did it really? Lucile Morsch, chairman of the Decimal Classification Editorial 32 ANAL YSIS OF RECENT EDITIONS 33 Policy Committee (DCEPC) wrote in the foreword to the edition: "Responsibility for editorial policy rests with the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee, a joint committee of the Lake Placid Club Education Foundation, the American Library Association, and the Library of Congress." While various advisory committees had previously existed, the formal professional responsibility by the editor, an LC staff member, and the advisory function of the DCEPC for editorial policy influenced the intellectual and classificatory changes in DDC-16. In his introduction, Custer recognized that: There is no avoiding the fact that, historically, the DC is based upon a Protestant Anglo-Saxon culture. . . . Yet the editors have considered that they had a prime responsibility for furnishing a satisfactory and useful classification for the libraries of the United States, and solution to the problem of a classification universally acceptable has not yet been found. In spite of this, the present edition has made a start toward providing more useful expansions of topics in which libraries of cultures other than Protestant, Anglo-Saxon, and Western are likely to excel. Problems of the lengthy notation were recognized, "particularly in those areas where whole new disciplines of science have sprung up since the original pattern was establisht." In addition, the degree of expansion for all subjects was linked without explicit reference to E. Wyndham Hulme's principle of literary warrant: "the editors . . . have been guided by the principle that the existence in American libraries of more than twenty titles which would fall in a given number raises a presumption in favor of subdivision." The admission that DDC was not a perfect classification system, that it did indeed reveal national, religious and cultural biases, and that it could be revised according to principles introduced an entirely new aspect for editorial policy and evolutionary development. Yet, the old conflicting DDC principles of the "traditional policy of integrity of numbers" and "the philosophy of keeping pace with knowledge" continued, as they continue still. While facet analysis and faceted classifications were being widely discussed even in North America by 1958, after the founding in 1952 of the Classification Research Group (CRG) in Great Britain, there is little direct evidence of their impact on the DDC-16 yet the seeds are there. They were there, of course, in Melvil Dewey's identification of literature being divided by language, literary form, time period and form division in the 800s; in his organization of the 400 class by language, and then by the linguistic problem. He recognized "facets," although of course he could not anticipate Ranganathan's terminology. DDC-16 permitted a few new facets in a way which had not been evident in earlier editions, through Dewey's "divide like" mechanism. For 34 MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT example, 616.1-616.998 specific diseases, could be divided like 616.07-616.092, largely by what we might now term the "energy" or "action" facet; 331.382-331.3898 child and youth labor could be divided by the major industries in 620-698; and the former one-page form divisions had burgeoned to five pages. Why the very word "facet" should be frightening or suspect to American librarians, I do not know. As we have seen, the concept was known to Dewey and was practiced unknowingly by the use of the "divide like" technique by every classifier. A citation order was used which was inherent, for example, in some of the directional notes in the 800 class (e.g., 82 1.002- .09 form divisions, and types of poetry, from which the classifier was directed to a model in 811.002-.09, where he found additional notes). Nevertheless, the same citation order by directional notes was omitted completely in other parts of the 800 class (e.g., 823 English fiction, where he found permission for division only by a time period). By the seventeenth edition, the editor was firmly stating the aims of a classification system and recognizing the existence of other systems, even of the suspect Colon Classification: the development of an integrated plan . . . will provide systematically for the tens and hundreds of thousands of subjects on which books are and may be written in this age of multiversity and specialization. ... It requires the intense efforts of specialists in librarianship, in subject classification, and in the countless disciplines of which the world of knowledge is composed. . . . For this reason, librarians have generally found it advantageous to follow, with local adaptations where necessary to meet local needs, one or another of the commonly used book classification systems, among the best known of which are Bliss's Bibliographic Classification, Ranganathan's Colon Classification, Dewey's Decimal Classification, Cutter's Expansive Classification, the Library of Congress Classification. Brown's Subject Classification, and the Universal Decimal Classification. Due to the apparent timidity of the editor, the DCEPC or the Forest Press, the dread word facet is cautiously and seldom used: "Only the word 'facet' is of recent origin; Dewey understood the concept." Custer stated: Division of a given subject in DC by more than one principle, or characteristic, is as old as the first edition. ... It is true that editions prior to the present one did not always recognize and make provision for division by more than one principle, even when the literature would seem to have warranted it; and when they did make such provision, they did not always clearly differentiate among the various principles. ANAL YSIS OF RECENT EDITIONS 35 Examples of Application of Several Facets BASIC SUBJECT 617.1 Wounds and injuries .14 *Wounds . 1 5 Fractures .16 * Dislocations SECONDARY FACET 617 Surgery .01 Complications and sequelae .02 Special texts .07 Surgical pathology .073 Surgical nursing .075 Diagnoses Divide like 616.075 PRIMARY FACET Add to each subdivision *; 001-008 Standard subdivisions 01-09 General aspects Divide like 617.01-617.09 TERTIARY FACET 616.075 Diagnoses .0755 Clinical diagnosis .0758 Microscopy in diagnosis Table 1 . Classification of "Clinical Diagnosis in the Surgical Treatment of Wounds." Source: Dewey, Melvil. Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index. 17th ed. rev. Lake Placid Club, N.Y., Forest Press, 1952, Vol. 2, pp. 679-700. To clarify these issues and further to emphasize subject integrity, this edition makes many new provisions for division by more than one principle. 10 Probably the most obvious new facet was the Area Table by which the place facet (with area broadly defined to include socioeconomic regions and groups and persons) * was detached from the 900 class from which it had previously been derived by "divide like." Less obvious facets occurred, with or without specific editorial mention. One such example, not mentioned by the editor, occurred in the 610s (see Table 1). Table 1 shows examples from the schedules to illustrate the various principles or characteristics of division and the resultant problems. It is possible to achieve a precise notation for the complex concept clinical diagnosis in the surgical treatment of wounds: 617.160755. The citation order in which the facets are to be combined is clearly stated in the directions at each step. The use of a facet indicator the retention of the "0" is clearly indicated in the example, e.g., emergency surgery 026, which accompanies the "divide like" instructions for 01-09 General Aspects. The facets are not clear facets; thus, in 617 complications and special texts jostle coordinately with surgical pathology, and the hierarchical relationships are confused in the subordination of surgical nursing (a less preferred option) and diagnoses to 36 MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT Women 331.4 Women ^ 331.42-.43 Specific elements .42 Wages .43 Married women .48 In specific occupations .481 Service and professional Divide like 01 1-999 .4S2-.489 Other Divide like 620-690 Table 2. Table for 331.4. Source: Dewey, MelvH^Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index. 17th ed. Vol. 1. Lake Placid Club, N.Y., Forest Press, 1965-67, p. 296. surgical pathology. The action clinical diagnosis and the agent microscopy in diagnosis are confusing coordinates, subordinate to diagnoses. Nevertheless, the seventeenth edition made a valiant effort in regard to facets. When the same topic is examined in DDC-18, it is apparent that some of the facets have been sorted out, at least by the use of umbrella headings, e.g., 02 special topics and 05-09 other general aspects in the facet under 617 surgery and related topics, but that the confusion under 617.07 surgical pathology and under the extension of 616.075 diagnoses and prognoses remains. Another example of a different type, cited by the editor in his discussion of facets, occurred in DDC-17 at 331.3-.6 special classes of workers. The special classes were grouped as specific age groups, women, substandard wage earners, and other groups. The foci or concepts within the primary facets were normally divided by a secondary facet of occupation, by dividing like 620-690 or 001-999 as appropriate. However 331.62 immigrants had a secondary geographic facet by the use of the area notations for the place of origin, plus "0" as a facet indicator, plus a tertiary geographic facet using the area notations for the place reached. In contrast, 331.63 native-bom nonindigenous ethnic groups achieved an ethnic facet by dividing like 420-490, plus the "0" facet indicator, plus a geographic facet using the area notations for the place reached. Within these four groups the citation order for synthesizing the facets was usually clearly stated, and a table of precedence for the groups at the beginning of the section enabled the classifier to avoid cross-classification for a topic such as "youthful convicts who are married women" (see Table 2). ANAL YSIS OF RECENT EDITIONS 3 7 The basic subject group of 331.4 women, however, revealed the inability to identify facets which would be relevant to the whole section of 331. 3-.6. It should be noted that there was a group for women but not for men, so that a basic or facet division by sex was not possible. Because the facets and their synthesis had not been seriously considered as a problem, how did the classifier cope with topics like "salaries of married women lawyers"? This problem has been solved in DDC-18 by a directional note which requires the use of 331.43 without synthesis, so that the facts of sex and marital status become the deciding factors, rather than the wages, salaries, professions and occupations. With some justification, some members of the DCEPC hurled charges of a sexist bias at the DDC on April 26, 1974; there was subsequently found to be little evidence of sexism, however, and both the editor and the DCEPC will undoubtedly be watchful in examining the subdivisions and terminology of future draft schedules. The clear facet groups in 331.3 and 331.5-.6 in DDC-17 made the deficiencies of 331.4 only too clear in their lack of subject and hierarchical integrity, which were the much-vaunted principles of DDC-17. While true facet analysis the ability to synthesize concepts and notation and a specified citation order may seem academically remote from the needs of working classifiers, their absence throughout much of the DDC intellectual structure makes the subject anomalies, faulty hierarchies, and resulting cross- classification militate against sound consistent classification for the users' needs in shelf groupings and detailed specific classified catalogs, bibliographies and files designed for information retrieval. Many examples of facets from the schedules and tables of DDC-17 might be cited. However, another interesting idea advanced by the editor showed the extent of influence on him of the exponents of faceted classification, spearheaded by the Classification Research Group (CRG). In his discussion of the possible use of DDC in detailed classified files, by the full use of the permitted synthesis, the editor discussed the need for the "0" as the facet indicator, and for the avoidance of cross-classification by various precedence formulae and citation orders. He concluded with the advice: "Class the subject by (1) kinds, (2) parts, (3) materials, (4) properties, (5) processes within it, (6) operations upon it, (7) agents." Anyone who is familiar with the work of the CRG will recognize this as a CRG modification and expansion of Ranganathan's famous PMEST facet formula. This is almost an exact quotation from a statement on citation order in the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC) by Jack Mills, one of the early and most influential members of the CRG. The wording is expanded and examples are added in DDC-18, but the CRG's citation order continued unchanged. The CRG and faceted-school infiltrators went virtually unnoticed by U.S. librarians. Among the many reviews of DDC-17 I have examined, two 38 MARGARET E. COCKS HUTT critics directly commented on the new faceted influence; one was a British 1 O librarian and one was a Canadian. Other reviewers went on to praise the Area Table, damn the index, approve the attempts to remove the Protestant Anglo-Saxon bias, and essentially deplore the attempt to return to "subject integrity." 19 The objections were not to subject and hierarchical integrity per se, but to the relocation of topics by which the integrity must be achieved, and thus to the possible re-use of numbers before the end of the 25-year starvation period which existed at that time. Looking back ten years later on the reviews, I believe that the criticism was not of the principle of subject integrity, nor even of the principle of "keeping pace with knowledge." Rather, it sprang from the hard, pragmatic realization that all the centralized and commercial services, from LC on down, would use the relocations, reassigned numbers and full notational extent of the synthesis resulting from the obvious and hidden facets, and thus that libraries faced devastating problems in their open-stack collections. The desire by librarians for notations shorter than those provided in the LC bibliographic services, coupled with the inability of unsupervised technicians (and possibly of librarians) to cut the notation at meaningful points in the notational string, led LC in 1967 to record in all the LC bibliographic apparatus, centrally assigned DDC numbers in segments by the use of prime marks. If libraries could not cope with the precise notational synthesis which specialized libraries needed for their information retrieval, the Decimal Classification Division (DCD) of LC had to do the work for them. Within individual libraries, in the battle between economy (in time, and therefore in money) and specific subject analysis and retrieval, economy won. The facets and their frightening results which had lurked implicitly in DDC- 17 were glaringly obvious in DDC- 18. One curious anomaly is that the word facet, which had appeared so cautiously in the editor's introduction to DDC-17, seemed to disappear completely from the pages of DDC-18. It is not in the preface, the editor's introduction, the glossary, nor in the Index to Preface, Editor's Introduction, and Glossary. However, the number of faceted auxiliary tables increased from two to seven. As a result, completely faceted synthesis was practiced by librarians with apparent ease in applying Table 4, "Subdivisions of Individual Languages," to asterisked topics in 420-499; and it was attempted with considerably more difficulty by the application of the complex Table 3, "Subdivisions of Individual Literatures," to asterisked topics in 810-890. 21 The faceted auxiliary tables for "Racial, Ethnic, National Groups" (Table 5) and "Persons" (Table 7) were particularly welcomed by librarians. Their use obviated the need for difficult and often inappropriate synthesis by dividing like 420-499, 001-999, or 920.1-928.9, or for the forced acceptance of an imprecise notation because there was no opportunity for synthesis. ANAL YSIS OF RECENT EDITIONS 39 These tables have proved so popular that there have been numerous requests to the editor that their use be permitted with any appropriate number in the schedules. Such a synthesis has long been permitted for geographic areas by the use of standard subdivision -09 plus the area number, where the area number may not be added directly. The same kinds of facet indicators are needed for tables 5 and 7, and the editor and the DCEPC struggled for several meetings, between April 26, 1973 and April 26, 1974, to find suitable facet indicators as leads-in with the shortest possible resulting notation. After several unsuccessful attempts, the DCEPC recommended to the Forest Press Committee (FPC) the use of the -088 s.s. for Table 7 and -089 s.s. for Table 23 5. Screams of anguish over lengthy notation may perhaps be tempered to mild whimpers or even faint expressions of pleasure when the synthesis is desired for one's own local needs. Other less noticeable facets appeared in the schedules of DDC-18 by combinations of notations from several tables, separated by the "0" facet indicator, as at 301.4511 aggregates of general, mixt, North American origins; or from combinations of schedules and tables which might even be derived in multiple stages. For example, consider the precise topic specification, as well as the intellectual gamesmanship of 636.59201 -.59208 turkeys-general principles, which permits synthesis from 636.01 -.08 animal husbandry -general principles or of 636.089 veterinary sciences-veterinary medicine, which permits additional synthesis from 610-619 medical sciences- medicine. Fortunately for the sanity of classifiers and particularly of library school students, the "divide like" instruction gave way to the simple "add to" instruction. With crystal clarity in most cases, the editor's directional note at each stage specifies not only the base number to which the addition is made, but also "the numbers following" from which the succeeding facet notations are derived. Other facets emerged in revised sections of the schedules, as they received routine editorial scrutiny. It would be possible to continue the search through DDC-18 for facets, indicators, citation orders, and other devices to gladden the mind of the theoretician. It is more important to see where we have come from with Dewey since 1873-76, to see where we are now with DDC-18, published in 1971, and to assess the means by which we have come. Figure 1 illustrates a theoretical chain of influence. Dewey's first edition was conceived in 1873 and published anonymously in 1876. In 1895, the Institut International de Bibliographic (IIB) adopted DDC-5 (1894) as the basis for its proposed UDC, with Dewey's consent. However, the two systems apparently went separate ways. UDC in its turn was the intellectual inspiration of S. R. Ranganathan, who from 1925 was busily improving on the potentialities of the UDC. After experiments in the University of Madras Library, Ranganathan began to publish his Colon Classification in 1933. His 40 MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT Figure 1 . Theoretical Chain of Influence Source: Cockshutt, Margaret E. "Professional Involvement in the Evolution of the Dewey Decimal Classification" (EPC Exhibit 71-63). Washington, D.C., 1974, p. 4. sixth edition appeared in 1960, and the seventh is appearing posthumously, in parts, under the aegis of Ranganathan's disciples. In his six editions, frightening to North American pragmatists in their rapid and continual adoption, rejection, and violent change of concepts, notation and classificatory devices, Ranganathan showed the practical and basic importance of both facet analysis and the identification and listing of the fundamental component parts of each subject. He further demonstrated the subsequent grouping of the parts into facets or groups, with each facet possessing only one common characteristic, and the method of synthesizing concepts from facets by a stated citation order, in order to avoid cross-classification . The incredible Ranganathan jargon which appears to be in the English language, but which is really in "Ranganathanese" was new; the simple conceptual facets were long known to Dewey, at least in the 400 and 800 classes, and through him to the developers of UDC. Undaunted by economic pressures, and without the desire for a constant shelf address for a document. Ranganathan continued his theoretical and applied research, always experi- menting and changing. In turn, his theories and devices, such as his "phases" and the formerly named "octave device," circled back to influence the UDC, and moved forward to influence the CRG. Now, somewhat hesitantly in DDC-17 and openly in UDC and DDC-18, the direct impact of the CRG's ANAL YSIS OF RECENT EDITIONS 41 P = Permanent A = Appointed on nomination = formal and informal communication Figure 2. Tripartite Structure Source: Cockshutt, Margaret E. "Professional Involvement in the Evolution of the Dewey Decimal Classification" (EPC Exhibit 71-63). Washington, D.C., 1974, p. 8. faceted experiments can be seen. What began as a chain of influence is now a series of three intersecting loops. The complex present structural control of the system is illustrated in Figure 2. How did this happen? Without doubt Melvil Dewey was the dominant influence on the DDC until his death. By the time DDC-16 appeared, control of the DDC was in the hands of the LPCEF (now the LPEF) and its nonprofit subsidiary, the Forest Press, founded by Dewey in 1922 and incorporated in 1933. The LPCEF had signed its contract with LC for the editorial work to begin in 1954; and beginning with DDC-16 we have the editorial work done by LC's professional staff, under the editorial supervision of a professional 42 MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT librarian. Thus, there was a truly professional involvement in the editorial process, and there was a firm basis for professional evaluation of new classification theories and practices by the editor. Practical assessment was increased by the merger of LC's Decimal Qassification Section and the editorial office in the Decimal Classification Division. In 1937 Godfrey Dewey established the Decimal Classification Com- mittee, on which were represented both the LPCEF and the American Library Association, and which was concerned with both management and editorial policies. After the disastrous DDC-15, the ALA also established a short-lived Special Advisory Committee on the Decimal Classification, which consisted of a group of senior and conservative librarians. In 1952 the Decimal Classification Committee was renamed the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee (DCEPC), and in 1955 it became a joint committee of the LPCEF and the ALA, with additional permanent representatives from what are now the ALA's Cataloging and Classification Section, the FPC and LC (while it continues to edit DDC). In 1973, the 1968 agreement between the Forest Press and the ALA was amended to permit the Library Association also to have a voting member appointed to the DCEPC. Gradually the functions of the DCEPC have changed, so that it now advises the FPC directly on the development and editorial implementation of DDC, and makes rec- ommendations to the FPC on matters needing editorial consideration and on the acceptance of draft schedules of which the DCEPC approves. It also advises the editor informally on ideas presented as trial balloons, more serious formal proposals, and various stages of draft schedules. The present DCEPC is a committee of ten people: three appointed on the nomination of the ALA, three on the nomination of the FPC, one on the nomination of the Library Association, and three permanent members to represent the three official participating organizations. Or we can mix by nationality: one Englishman, one Canadian, eight persons from the United States. Or we can sort by professional contribution: three library school faculty members, three catalogers, four administrators. Or I might venture personally to group by classificatory ideologies: two (sometimes three) theorists, eight (sometimes seven) pragmatists. All are strong-minded, so that the discussion is professional and vigorous. The DCEPC meetings are also attended by the executive director, editor and assistant editor of the Forest Press (all as nonvoting participants), and recently, on invitation, by the staff of the DCD in rotation as observers. As I have perceived the meetings since 1970, the various combinations of the DCEPC and others in attendance are healthy and valuable for the development of DDC. It is essential that the DDC be intellectually and structurally sound, and the input of new ideas by the theorists and the editor should ensure that the DDC editorial staff and the DCEPC are aware of ANAL YSIS OF RECENT EDITIONS 43 current research and trends in classification theory. It is also essential that the DDC be practical in its application and that it fit into current library administrative goals and practices; the catalogers and administrators help to ensure this. The DCD staff should be aware that the proposals are discussed thoughtfully and carefully from all angles, and that the draft schedule criticisms are based on rational arguments rather than on arbitrary whims; the presence of the DCD staff as observers should facilitate this awareness. It is essential that the tripartite bodies are officially informed, through their members and through documents, of the policy recommendations and of the reasons for which they are made. Why do these growths and changes in the editorial process, admini- strative development, and professional involvement matter? They matter because the varying needs of users in libraries of all sizes and types must be represented: users who want broad shelf groupings and location addresses, those who want a detailed specific information retrieval system, skilled original-classifiers, technicians working with derived copy, library school students trying to learn the theoretical base and the practical mastery for use in their new profession, and so on. Contact between "the profession," i.e., the users, and the editor takes place through various formal agreements between the DCD and the British National Bibliography, the Australian National Bibliography, and Canadiana, as well as informally (see Figure 3). There have been various field surveys, questionnaires, draft reviews by subject experts, and official and informal visits by various officials of LPEF, the FPC, the Forest Press, and the editor on this continent and abroad. That DDC is now regarded as a truly international classification, can best be conveyed in the statement now adopted by both the DCEPC and the FPC: The Decimal Classification is an American classification, international in standing and application. In preparing an edition it is desirable to allow positively for the needs, both in detail and in order, of countries outside the U.S. Where there is a conflict between these needs and those of the U.S. the editor should give his preference to the needs of the U.S. but must make provision for an alternative use by libraries outside the U.S. in a manner appropriate to the particular problem. So the editions march on, in English, in French, and in a host of other translations and adaptations. As DDC-18 went to press, plans for DDC-19 began. As Paul Dunkin wrote: "In the making of an edition of Dewey there are many things: emotions, logic, traditions, economics, a Committee what not?' Or, as Heraclitus wrote about 500 B.C., with a sense both of deja vu and of wonder at something new: "Upon those that step into the same rivers, different and different waters flow down." 44 MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT L C PROCESS DEPT. E P C DC DIV. < * C AN X Figure 3. Informal International Involvement (Impressionistic) Source: Cockshutt, Margaret E. "Professional Involvement in the Evolution of the Dewey Decimal Classification" (EPC Exhibit 71-63). Washington, D.C., 1974, p. 13. REFERENCES 1. Dewey, Melvil. Dewey Decimal Classification and Relativ Index. 16th ed. 2 vols. Lake Placid Club, N.Y., Forest Press, 1958; . Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index. 17th ed. 2 vols. Lake Placid Club, N.Y., Forest Press, 1965-67; and . Dewey Decimal Classifi- cation and Relative Index. 18th ed. 3 vols. Lake Placid Club, N.Y., Forest Press, 1971. 2. . Decimal Classification. 15th ed. Lake Placid Club, N.Y., Forest Press, 1951. 3. . Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index. 15th ed. rev. Lake Placid Club, N.Y., Forest Press, 1952. ANAL YSIS OF RECENT EDITIONS 45 4. Morsch, Lucile M. "Foreword." In Dewey, Dewey Decimal Classifi- cation . . .,16th ed., op. cit., vol. 1, p. 1. 5. Custer, Benjamin A. "Editors Introduction." In Dewey, Dewey Decimal Classification . . ., 16th ed., op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 15-16. 6. Ibid., pp. 18-19. 7. Morsch, op. cit., p. 2. 8. Dewey, Dewey Decimal Classification..., 16th ed., op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 89-93. 9. , Dewey Decimal Classification..., 17th ed., op. cit., vol. 1, p. 6. 10. Ibid., p. 45. 11. Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 1265-66. 12. , Dewey Decimal Classification . . ., 18th ed., op. cit., vol. 2, pp. 1073-93. 13. , Dewey Decimal Classification . . ., 17th ed., op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 295-96. 14. , Dewey Decimal Classification . . ., 18th ed., op. cit., vol. 2, pp. 647. 15. Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee. "Minutes of EPC Meeting No. 70, April 25-26, 1974." No. 71-3. Washington, D.C., Editorial Policy Committee, 1974, p. 12. 16. Dewey, Dewey Decimal Classification. . ., 17th ed., op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 25-26. 17. British Standards Institution. Guide to the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC). London, British Standards Institution, 1963, p. 14. (FID No. 345.) 18. Tait, James A. "Dewey Joins the Jet Age," Library Review 20:220-24, Winter 1965; and Cockshutt, Margaret E. "[Review of] Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index, 17th ed.," Ontario Library Review 50:80-82, June 1966. 19. Dewey, Dewey Decimal Classification. . ., 17th ed., op. cit., vol. 1, p. 45. 20. , Dewey Decimal Classification . . ., 18th ed., op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 1-65, passim. 21. Ibid., pp. 375-94. 22. Ibid., pp. 398-406, 420-39. 23. Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee, "Minutes . . .," op. cit., p. 7. 24. Dewey, Dewey Decimal Classification . . ., 18th ed., op. cit., vol. 2, p. 614. 25. Ibid., pp. 1034-1109, passim. 26. . A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and Pamphlets of a Library. Amherst, Mass., 1876. 27. Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee. "Minutes of Meeting No. 69, November 1-2, 1973." No. 70-3. Washington, D.C., Editorial Policy Committee, 1973, p. 1. 28. Library Association. Dewey Decimal Classification, Sub-committee. "British Recommendation for Policy on International Use" (Editorial Policy Committee Exhibit No. 68-1 Ob). Washington, D.C., Editorial Policy Committee, 1973, p. 3. 46 MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT 29. Dunkin, Paul S. "New Wine in an Old Bottle," Library Journal 90:4050, Oct. 1, 1965. 30. "Heraclitus of Ephasus," Collier's Encyclopedia. Vol. 12, 1970, p. 55. MARY ELLEN MICHAEL Consultant Forest Press Lake Placid, New York Summary of a Survey of the Use of the Dewey Decimal Classification in the United States and Canada Within the last ten years, three studies have been performed dealing with the use of Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) outside the North American continent. To date, there has not been a similar survey aimed at assessing the situation in the United States and Canada. In response to this need, Forest Press, publisher of the DDC schedules, has sponsored a survey to measure the use of the DDC by libraries and processing centers in these two countries. This paper highlights some of the findings of this survey. The full report has been published by Forest Press.^ There were four major objectives of the survey: (l)to determine the extent of use of the DDC by U.S. and Canadian libraries of different sizes and types, (2) to obtain information about the application of the DDC to library collections, (3) to determine the problem areas in the application of the DDC for collections in these two countries, and (4) to ascertain to what extent the DDC is taught in library schools and what problems are encountered in teaching it. 47 48 MARY ELLEN MIC HA EL The survey was divided into three phases to meet the above objectives. First, a questionnaire was mailed to a ten-percent sample of all types of libraries school, public, junior college, college, university, and system libraries. This questionnaire was also designed for processing centers, both commercial and nonprofit. Secondly, follow-up visits were made to processing centers and large libraries (those holding 500,000 volumes or more) that had responded to the mail questionnaire. More detailed interviews were conducted with the classifiers at these large DDC-oriented libraries concerning their experiences and problems with the scheme. The third phase consisted of another mail questionnaire sent to instructors in cataloging and classification in all accredited and unaccredited library schools in the United States and Canada. The results of this latter questionnaire are not included in this summary, however. Table 1 lists the libraries and processing centers which completed the questionnaire. The U.S. Postal Service was unable to forward twenty-five of the eighty -four questionnaires to commercial processing centers because they had gone out of business or had no forwarding address. An additional five centers responded that they process books only and do no classifying. Since it was decided to include all larger libraries (500,000 volumes or more) and all commercial processing centers in the survey, the responses of these libraries weight the questionnaire results. Libraries using the Library of Congress Classification (LCC) were eligible to answer several questions. Table 2 compares type of library to classification scheme used. To give a true picture of the use of DDC and LCC in the United States and Canada, a 10 percent sample is given to reflect the total population. In the survey, all libraries over 500,000 volumes were studied. Table 2 lists a 10 percent sample from this group. School and public libraries comprise 69 percent of DDC users. Junior colleges and colleges are more evenly divided between the use of the two classification schemes. LCC is used in universities more frequently than is DDC, while DDC is used more heavily in school, public, and library system libraries and processing centers. (Some noncommercial processing centers are also school, public, or academic libraries.) While Table 2 lists libraries and processing centers that fall in the 10 percent sample, Table 3 details only those libraries of 500,000 volumes or more. As mentioned earlier, all libraries in this size category were sent the questionnaire. Of these 242 libraries, 201 completed the questionnaire. Of the 201 libraries represented in Table 3, 18 are Canadian. Of these eighteen libraries, twelve university libraries use LCC and one library system also uses LCC. All five responding public libraries use DDC. The majority (63 percent) of larger libraries in both countries use the Library of Congress Classification. Fifty-seven percent of these LCC libraries SUMMAR Y OF A SUR VEY 49 United States Canada Total Number Percentage Number Percentage Number Percentage School 135 59.7 91 40.3 226 19.6 Public 473 94.6 27 5.4 500 43.4 Junior college 86 91.5 8 8.5 94 8.2 College 85 97.7 2 2.3 87 7.6 University 158 89.3 19 10.7 177 15.4 Library system 24 85.7 4 14.3 28 2.4 Processing center 33 82.5 7 17.5 40 3.5 Total 994 86.3 158 13.7 1152 100.0 Table 1. Distribution of Respondents by Type of Library. LCC Library Nu mber Percen tage Total 133 14.7 DDC Library Number Percentage School 2 0.2 220 24.6 Public 4 0.4 432 48.4 Junior college 45 5.0 47 5.3 College 44 4.9 35 4.0 University 36 4.0 5 0.5 Library system 1 0.1 22 2.5 Processing center 1 0.1 9 1.0 770 86.7 Table 2. Type of Library Compared to Classification Scheme Used. LCC Library Number Percentage DDC Library Number Percentage School Public Junior college College University Library system Processing center 4 115 1 3.5 2.0 57.2 .5 1 50 14 4 5 0.5 24.9 7.0 2.0 2.5 Total 127 63.2 74 36.9 Table 3. U.S. and. Canadian Libraries of 500,000 Volumes or More and Classification Scheme Used. 50 MAR Y ELLEN MICHAEL are affiliated with universities. Public libraries in this size category are the heaviest users of the DDC scheme. Only 4 percent of LCC libraries as compared with 29.5 percent of DDC libraries do all or most of their own original classifying (see Table 4). Almost 75 percent of LCC respondents do some original classifying, while approximately 45 percent of DDC libraries fall in the same range; 21.3 percent of LCC libraries and 26.9 percent of DDC libraries do little or no original classifying. A substantial proportion of those libraries responding that they do all or most original classifying are smaller libraries that often do their own classifying without resorting to available cataloging services, and large libraries using editions of Dewey Decimal Classification other than the eighteenth. Although this latter group uses many of the numbers given on LC copy, the large libraries still check all numbers against their various practices. Many respondents construed this as original classifying. Only libraries which use DDC for their main collection of books were eligible to answer the next section of the questionnaire. When asked what would constitute the optimum interval for publication of DDC editions, most of the respondents preferred that new editions be published every five years. The larger libraries of 500,000 volumes or more preferred a span of seven years between new editions. Large public libraries accepted new editions more readily than did large academic libraries; the costs entailed in this may account for the latters' reluctance to favor frequent editions. Moreover, academic librarians have wanted new editions to aid in classification of new subjects, not for the updated structure of knowledge. DDC classifiers were asked to indicate their view of the purpose of classification. The greatest number of those answering (356, or 44.1 percent) view classification as educational-efficient, or the process of gathering together those works most used together in a functional grouping. The next largest group (38.2 percent) view classification as primarily subject analysis. Only 9.4 percent of the classifiers think that the main purpose of classification is as a locational device ("mark and park"). The majority (63.6 percent) of those classifiers represented in Table 5 preferred that a classification system maintain stability of numbers, while 31.9 percent thought that a classification system should keep pace with knowledge as reflected in the literature of a subject. Care must be taken here when making inferences. There may have been a false dichotomy posed. It is possible to advocate both keeping pace with knowledge and maintaining stability of numbers; new subjects can be located at existing numbers. Respondents were asked to indicate their attitudes toward a selection of features of the DDC system. The features were pure notation, hierarchical notation, phoenix schedules, continuing revision, stability of numbers, index, SUMMAR Y OF A SUR VEY 51 LCC Library DDC Library Number Percentage Number Percentage All original 4 1.6 88 10.8 Most original 6 2.4 152 18.7 Some original 190 74.8 367 45.1 Little original 47 18.5 164 20.1 No original 7 2.8 43 5.3 Total 254 100.0 814 100.0 Table 4. To What Extent Does Your Library Do Original Classifying? Preference Number Percentage Keeping pace with knowledge that reflects current trends in the literature of a subject 255 31.9 Stability of number, i.e., finding places within the cur- rent structure for new subjects No opinion 508 36 63.6 4.5 Total 799 100.0 Table 5. Keeping Pace With Knowledge vs. Stability of Numbers. and mnemonics. The majority of those libraries expressing an opinion had a positive attitude toward the listed aspects. The index of DDC received the highest positive response (62 percent). It should be noted that as the question is worded, this must be interpreted to be an approval of the inclusion of an index with the scheme (as opposed to LCC's lack of a comprehensive index) rather than being a judgment of the quality of that index. As a method of change in the DDC system, continuing revision was looked upon more favorably than were the phoenix schedules. Related to the question of preference of frequency of new editions are the questions of reclassification and stability of numbers versus keeping pace with knowledge. The most severe form of keeping pace with knowledge would be to redo the entire classification with each new edition. The next most drastic manner is the phoenix schedule. The strictest form of stability of numbers would be to alter nothing, providing locations for new subjects either at old numbers or previously unused numbers. The only change would occur with expansion, and even then there would be little change. 52 MAR Y ELLEN MICHAEL Number of digits to the Libraries right of the decimal Number Percentage one 7 2.2 two 58 18.1 three 175 54.4 four 42 13.1 five 22 6.9 six or more 27 8.4 Total 320 100.0 Table 6. Artificial Limit to Number of Digits to the Right of the Decimal Imposed by DDC Libraries. Revision of the DDC, which most responding libraries favored implies either of the two fundamentally different courses described above: (1) finding a place for a new subject within the old DDC structure, leaving all existing subjects (whether current or not) where they are; or, (2) tearing down the old structure and providing new places for both existing and new subjects, including reuse by old or new subjects of numbers once having other meanings. While almost all university libraries visited in interviews were somewhat positive about continuing revision, five out of six favored stability of numbers as a preferred course as opposed to the phoenix concept. Large academic libraries desire little change. Eighty-seven percent of respondents thought that more instructional notes in the schedules would be helpful. Eighty-four percent also favored greater detail in instructional notes. It appears from the data here and elsewhere that a good deal of work needs to be done to make the contents of the schedules more accessible to catalogers. Next to the phoenix schedules and, perhaps, reworking the index, helping the classifier to use the DDC more accurately should be the first priority for the upcoming nineteenth edition. More and better notes of all sorts are needed, especially those that explain alternate locations for material on a particular subject. Libraries were requested to specify whether they impose an artificial limit on the number of digits to the right of the decimal point of the available DDC number. Such a policy is held by 43.3 percent (353) of the libraries. By size, the groups most commonly imposing an artificial limit are the larger libraries. Of these 353 libraries, 320 specified the artificial limit for number of digits to the right of the decimal (see Table 6). The majority (54.4 percent) of libraries with an artificial limit on number length limit their numbers to three digits to the right of the decimal. SUMMAR Y OF A SUR VEY 53 The 48.7 percent (397) of the libraries which do not impose an artificial limit were asked exactly what factors determine how much a number is shortened. A variety of responses were given, the most common being that the length of the number used is determined by the extent of collection development, or foreseeable development, in each particular subject area; 61 percent of the respondents cited this consideration. Logical sense of number and previous practice were cited by 19 percent. In actuality, the classifier might rely on a combination of factors, but the tendency is to express but one facet on the questionnaire. A few librarians stated that the length of the number is determined by the size of the book spine. Catalogers were asked to what extent they use segmentation of DDC numbers as found on the LC cards, in Publishers' Weekly, and through other services. Approximately 70 percent of the responding libraries use the segmentation provided in these services to some extent. Segmentation is valuable to the smaller libraries but much less so for the larger ones, which use it as a guide, but rarely as more than that. More care is apparently needed in determining breaking points, and perhaps guidelines for segmentation should be examined. Classifiers were asked to indicate, by circling all applicable responses, what methods of treating biography are used in their libraries. The two most widely used ways of dealing with biography are B or 92 (used in 59 percent of the responding libraries), and 920 for collected biography (used by 62 percent of DDC libraries). Classifying biography under subject using standard subdivision -092 is used by 14 percent of the libraries, while 12 percent classify biography under subject without using standard subdivision -092. Evidently, DDC's preferred practice of classifying biography with the subject has not been widely adopted by libraries using DDC. Many libraries marked several choices, indicating that a mixture of several methods of handling biography in a single library is not an uncommon occurrence. The larger libraries indicated several ways of handling biography in the same library. As might be supposed, this is not true of the smaller libraries. The larger libraries have the highest percentages using DDC's preferred practice of classifying biography under subject, while very few of the smaller libraries classify under subject. Most public service librarians in the larger libraries prefer to classify biography with the subject because it keeps the biographies in their divisions. Branch librarians are an exception to this rule, however. No matter how biographies are kept together, biographies of artists, athletes, musicians, etc., usually go with the subject, often without indication that the work is a biography. Several libraries class biographies by subject, but often do not use -.0924 because of the length of the number. The indication B on an LC card is always welcome, but occasionally suspect. 54 MARY ELLEN MICH A EL Yes, class according to the pre- No, depart from prescribed scribed methods of the 800s methods of the 800s Number Percentage Number Percentage School 188 90.4 20 9.6 Public 385 90.0 43 10.0 Junior college 39 86.7 6 13.3 College 34 91.9 3 8.1 University 14 56.0 11 44.0 Library system 21 91.3 2 8.7 Processing center 13 92.9 1 7.1 Total 694 89.0 86 11.0 Table 7. Types of Libraries Which Do or Do Not Class Works of and about Literature According to the Prescribed Methods of the 800s. Libraries were then asked whether DDC should continue to classify biography with the subject as the preferred method. The majority (56 percent) favored its continuation. (Note that the number favoring the continuation of DDC's preferred method of classing biography is quite a bit higher than the number actually using this method.) Classifiers were asked whether they class literature according to the prescribed methods of the 800s; 89 percent answered affirmatively. This percentage holds approximately true for all types of libraries except those in universities, where only 56 percent class literature in the 800s 44 percent do not (see Table 7). Literature and its criticism surely present the greatest difficulty for Dewey libraries of any type. Although most catalogers cut off before the period, thus losing some economy in not accepting LC numbers, their troubles have only begun. A cutter number has to be assigned and criticism indicated, if this assignment is even done. Most processing centers, since they are not providing call numbers for a single collection, do not use cutter numbers. For the most part, the initial of the author's surname or the first three letters of his surname suffice. One-fourth of the larger public libraries also operate in this manner, somewhat to the dissatisfaction of their public service librarians. Both sorts of libraries usually do nothing for fiction in English, other than an F or Fie or SS col for a collection of short stories or SF or M, etc. The indication of type of fiction is usually put on the book's spine by the branches or departments in public service. More often than not, academic libraries use regular methods for classifying fiction. It is with criticism that most problems for the public are found, for criticism and literature are often mixed indiscriminately or the criticism is put in an unlikely place. SUMMAR Y OF A SUR VEY 55 Full Edition Abridged Edition 18th 17th 16th 15th rev. 15th 14th other 10th 9th 8th other School 187 7 3 1 29 4 Public 212 40 25 5 4 5 83 48 26 3 Junior college 36 3 3 1 5 1 College 30 5 2 University 20 3 3 1 1 Library system 19 3 1 4 Processing center 12 4 Total 516 61 37 2 55 5 125 54 26 3 Table 8. Primary Edition Used by Type of Library. Respondents were requested to list the primary edition in use in their library or processing center; Table 8 indicates the results. They could list one of the full and one of the abridged editions if they used both as their primary editions; otherwise, only one could be listed. Seventy-six libraries use two primary editions. Some of these libraries reported that they use the full edition for their adult collection and the abridged one for their juvenile holdings. No colleges reported using any abridged edition of the DDC as their primary one. Only one university library uses an abridged edition for its juvenile collection. More public libraries reported using the abridged than did other types of libraries. Library systems and processing centers use only the most recent edition the tenth abridged. Schools and junior college libraries list the tenth or ninth abridged as their primary editions. Only 11 percent of school libraries report using an abridged edition. One school librarian asserted, "the tenth edition is too abridged even for our elementary schools. We continue to use the bracketed numbers." However, the sample of school libraries in this survey was taken from the mailing list of those schools which receive DC& (Dewey Decimal Classification: Additions, Notes, Decisions). These libraries tend to use the full edition. Further study is being made of school libraries and primary edition used. Most academic libraries did not accept each new edition as it came. Their nonacceptance had variety: one library went from the fourteenth edition to the sixteenth to the eighteenth editions, using a few numbers from the fifteenth and seventeenth. Another has remained with the sixteenth 56 MAR Y ELLEN MICHAEL edition, having retained the author numbers of the fourteenth and abolished whatever fifteenth -edition numbers it had adopted. Processing centers usually accept each edition as it is published, and they accept DDC numbers on LC cards as they come. The reason for such acceptance is simply that processing centers do not have to wrestle with a large working collection immediately beyond their doors. The decisions of processing centers affect a distant client. Thus, decisions regarding change are more easily made and defended. The larger public libraries have, for the most part, begun to behave like processing centers and smaller public libraries in that they are moving toward uncritical acceptance of DDC-18 numbers, and they retain older numbers or older classes. Another question put to classifiers concerned the need for in-service training materials to supplement current and future editions of DDC. The largest percentage (42.8 percent) of those responding would like to receive some type of in-service training material. Twenty-nine percent do not feel they need such materials and an equal number had no opinion. University libraries had the greatest proportion of those desiring in-service training materials (64 percent), while junior colleges are the next largest group (56.5 percent). One-half of the library systems and one-half of the processing centers would like to receive such materials. Colleges were the group least interested in such materials, with 46 percent stating that they have no need for them. Catalogers are cynical about the sort of continuing education they have received, hence the many negative responses concerning in-service training. A significant number, however, see the need for training themselves and the clerical staff who are increasingly taking on cataloging responsibilities, especially at Ohio College Library Center terminals. Many respondents did see the need for explanations of the new aspects of a new edition. Several called for a new guide, one similar to the 1962 Guide to the Use of the Dewey Decimal Classification. One classifier commented: "Such a guide could introduce the DDC system to newcomers. Library school preparation is too general." Libraries were queried concerning their need for discontinued numbers for retrospective material. The majority (51 percent) indicated that they do not need discontinued numbers for retrospective materials. One-fourth of the respondents said that their libraries do need these numbers, while another one-fourth do not know. Library size has little influence on whether discontinued numbers are needed. In only one category is there a majority response indicating the need for discontinued numbers universities (58 percent). The college library category is the only other group with a sizable percentage (44 percent) needing discontinued numbers. SUMMAR Y OF A SURVEY 57 Yes No Total Number Percentage Number Percentage Less than 5,000 2 7.4 25 92.6 27 5, 000 to 10,000 0.0 63 100.0 63 10,000 to 25 ,000 12 11.0 97 89.0 109 25,000 to 50,000 5 10.9 41 89.1 46 50,000 to 100,000 12 17.9 55 82.1 67 100,000 to 250,000 10 30.3 23 69.7 33 250,000 to 500,000 5 35.7 9 64.3 14 500,000 to 1 million 8 36.4 14 63.6 22 1 million or more 19 59.4 13 40.6 32 Total 73 17.7 340 82.3 413 Table 9. Size of Library Compared to Use of Locally Produced Expansions or Variation of Schedules. The majority (51 percent) of respondents indicate satisfaction with the precedence notes for eliminating cross-classification in the DDC schedules. Only 11 percent are not satisfied with the notes, and 37 percent have no opinion. Respondents were then asked if they would like to have more precedence notes, such as: 155.42- 155.45 Observe the following table of precedence, e.g., preschool boys 155.423 Exceptional children By class type, relationships By age groups By sex Although the majority of libraries are satisfied with the present content of DDC's precedence notes, 38 percent of all respondents or 65 percent of those voicing an opinion would like more precedence notes included in the schedules. A final question directed to libraries was: Does your library or processing center use locally produced expansions or variations of schedules? Approximately one-half of the 848 respondents completed this question. All types of libraries (except junior colleges) use locally produced expansions with almost one-half of the colleges, universities and processing centers reporting the heaviest use. Table 9 gives the breakdown by size of library for use of locally produced schedules. All sizes of libraries (except the 5,000 to 10,000 volume 58 MAR Y ELLEN MICHAEL category) use locally produced expansions or variations of schedules. Libraries of one million volumes or more report the highest use of local schedules. Those libraries which have local schedules were requested to specify in what areas they are used. They listed a wide variety of subject areas. Some of the expansions reflect the local area, e.g., "Texas counties"; others cover general subject areas such as literature and history. Most of the libraries visited were suffering from current or impending reductions in staff and/ or book budgets. One-third of the libraries had already become part of a computer network; almost all of the rest expected to become part of a network within the next few years. The reductions and the possibility of networking have brought most of the cataloging staffs of the libraries visited to a reassessment of the roles of classification and cataloging. Although they would like to keep material together, many have given up the attempt to do so. The general, discipline approach at the shelf that was once possible is rapidly disappearing in the bulk of the classification; thus, the public catalog has become much more important in subject searching. General searches must now be done at the catalog. Most, if not all, library users other than librarians are not aware of this and are consequently poorly served. What is not realized is that the subject catalog was devised to allow specific subject searches, and now general searches by discipline are virtually impossible. The degree of disservice to the patron is greater in LCC libraries where the extent of change is not so obvious and is therefore far more insidious. With DDC, at least, the public service librarians can readily perceive a relocation of British history from 942 to 941, or of computers from 651.8 to 001.6. Recognition of change in DDC and ignorance of change in LCC, which is far greater than most librarians realize, contradicts the adage that the baby who cries gets the bottle. In this instance the baby who cries comes to be despised or, at best, is accused of being the only baby in the world who cries. REFERENCES 1. Vann, Sarah K. field Survey of the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) Use Abroad. Albany, N.Y., Forest Press, 1965; Davison, Keith. Classification Practice in Britain. London, Library Association, 1966; and Sweeny, Russell. "Dewey in Britain," Catalogue & Index 30:4-6, Summer 1973. 2. Comaromi, John P., Michael, Mary Ellen, and Bloom, Janet. A Survey of the Use of the Dewey Decimal Classification in the United States and Canada. Albany, N.Y., Forest Press, 1976. JOEL C. DOWNING Director, English Language and Copyright Services Bibliographic Services Division The British Library London, England Dewey Today. The British and European Scene At a point halfway through this institute and at the commence- ment of the second evening session, I am appalled at the problem of making my contribution intellectually stimulating as well as entertaining. I cannot regard my paper as something other than a watershed. Earlier ones have stressed the history of the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) and its place in the North American scene, while I have been invited to survey somewhat wider horizons (with apologies to the North American continent) in the shape of British use and influence, with what I trust will be a suitable appendix on the European scene. My own direct involvement with DDC is relatively recent, although I have a professional relationship which goes back to the twelfth edition. As assistant editor of the British National Bibliography (BNB), 1 became relatively close with Dewey, although again only in an indirect sense as I was particularly responsible for cataloging rather than classification. I became more involved with DDC when, as Secretary of the Cataloguing and Indexing Group of the (British) Library Association, I was asked in 1968 by the Research Committee of the association to assist in the reconstitution of its Decimal Classification Revision Subcommittee. Such a subcommittee had existed in earlier years, and already had some contact with the editor of DDC and the Forest Press. It would be impolitic of me to examine publicly the reasons for the lack of growth in those earlier relations. What should be emphasized here, I think, is 59 60 JOEL C. DOWNING the tremendous degree of good faith that has been established between DDC and British librarianship since then. The first object of my paper is to describe the place of Dewey in Britain in the late 1960s, and then to relate the many acts of collaboration which have taken place since then. Finally, I shall discuss the possibilities of the establishment of a foothold by DDC in Europe. It is my personal view that nearly all the comments and criticisms of Dewey which were generated in Britain during the 1950s and 1960s were fully justified. Unfortunately, during the period when DDC- 16 was in preparation, little notice was taken in America of British representations, particularly as used by BNB. No one in the United States appreciated the significance of the regular production, in BNB, of a classified catalog organized by DDC. If the response had been more spontaneous we could have had a table of standard subdivisions in DDC- 16 and much of the progress established with DDC- 17 and DDC- 18 would have been consolidated at an earlier date. Everyone would thus have gained from a continuous and intimate relationship between DDC and British librarianship well over ten years in advance of the present time. However, during the 1950s and 1960s, we in Britain did not appreciate why our American counterparts were unable to accept our suggestions immediately. We did not fully realize that Forest Press was operating a business enterprise which at the time was suffering financially. Quite justifiably, Forest Press was careful not to upset the market which had provided it up until that time with an established income. In addition, American librarians had little training in the theoretical principles which we in Great Britain had absorbed during the postwar classification renaissance. In fact confusion probably resulted from British ideas on the philosophy of the classified catalog a tool of which, because of the existence of the services of the Library of Congress, U.S. librarians had little experience, and even less need. When our committee began work in 1969, it immediately became clear that there was little we could do to assist in the preparation of the DDC-18, the schedules of which had already been prepared in draft. We were given the opportunity to comment on these draft schedules as they then existed, but there was no possibility of modifying them to any great extent. We therefore concentrated our attention on checking those schedules which would be the subject of considerable British interest, such as government, education, botany, zoology, geography, history and other subjects where terminology between English and American-English is always at variance. This work was interrupted by the news that the editor Benjamin Custer and the executive director of the Forest Press, Richard Sealock, were to visit Britain early in 1969 and were anxious to meet the committee. For this occasion we decided to review our entire relationship with the editorial office THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE 61 in Washington and with the publishers at Forest Press. We listed a number of objectives to discuss in broad terms with the visitors; these were as follows: 1. The committee should encourage discussion and comments on DDC in Britain and act as a channel of communication between the United States and Britain on all aspects of DDC theory and practice. 2. It should receive and coordinate the comments of British librarians for dispatch to DDC. 3. The committee should formulate criticism on topics of British interest present in the schedules. 4. The committee should gather information on inconsistencies in the operation of the schedules and their structure. 5. It should advise DDC on matters of general policy insofar as they reflect British attitudes in the study of classification. 6. It should assist in the preparation of interpretative and instructional aids and manuals for British users. In addition, we wished to learn more of the operational background of DDC, such as: how the Decimal Classification Division (DCD) of the Library of Congress was organized; what the overall policy was in relation to the sequence of editions; how the quantity of relocation in each edition was decided; and what machinery should be set up between British and American agencies to achieve closer cooperation. One of the immediate results of this visit was that we were asked to prepare an outline paper for presentation at the next meeting of the Editorial Policy Committee (EPC). Another suggestion, which was accepted, was that the British committee develop relations with library associations in the British Commonwealth, with whom we already had a strong bond through common systems of professional education. The outline paper which was presented to EPC referred to the previous British subcommittee as acting as an advisory body on matters intrinsic to DDC, whereas the new committee had the intention of serving in the broadest sense as a channel of communication in both directions for all aspects of theory and practice. I might add here that we were already being asked for advice on the British market. We find that we can be of considerable assistance to publishers in this matter. We claimed in our outline paper, dated September 1969, that: British public libraries were all using Dewey Decimal Classification and that a number of university and college libraries were moving in that direction; for historic and academic reasons British library schools paid considerable attention to DDC; and the largest service agency, the British National Bibliography, and a number of other agencies and services were concerned principally with DDC as a means of subject organization of knowledge and the classification of books. 62 JOEL C. DOWNING In this way we stressed the significant user community in Great Britain, which now had a focal point in the form of a British committee. The committee decided that there were both areas and directions of concern which we needed to emphasize. The areas consisted of the use, theory, education and future developments of DDC. The committee decided that it would concentrate specifically on British interests, but it was expected that these interests would have wider implications. There were two directions of concern: (1) toward DDC itself as represented by the Forest Press and the DDC division of the Library of Congress; and (2) toward users of DDC in Britain. We stressed the need for an effectual channel of communication with messages passing both ways. We pointed out that DDC could not expect support and assistance from us unless it was prepared to support us reciprocally. Although these were simple statements, the overall situation was complex. Practicing librarians, library schools, and service agencies all had different needs, but it was agreed that the problems discussed should be resolved on the basis of a coherent view of the classification. The statement was supported by an appendix indicating some of the technical problems which would serve to indicate the nature of British reaction to recent editions of DDC. I think it might be useful to note the principal ones here, at least in an abbreviated form. Those that concerned us seriously were problems relating to the order, detail, universality, and editorial control of the classification. Most of our comments fell under the heading "order." We were troubled by the continuing evidence of bad classification structure, such as the use of the subordinate numbers to express coordinate topics. We also commented on the placing of subordinate subjects in coordinate numbers. Many of the variants from the general to specific in the Dewey Decimal Classification are results of compromise made in order to minimize the quantity of re-used numbers. This is particularly noticeable in the general treatment of transport, which is placed at the head of class 380 commerce, while the different types of transport appear at 385-388. The introduction of centered headings in the seventeenth edition made up of "through" numbers allows for a concept to appear in its correct hierarchy, but the inability to use these numbers notationally reduces their value to absurdity. The British committee suggested that centered headings be regarded as alternative placings, but this was not accepted by the Editorial Policy Committee. Comments were also made on the consistency of detail appearing in related schedules, and the need for consistency in the treatment of subjects of British interest. We did, however, welcome the increase in instructional notes and the general tidying up which was clearly evident in the schedules of the eighteenth edition. THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE 63 Early in 1970, the Library Association received a joint invitation from the Forest Press and the Editorial Policy Committee to send a British representative to the meetings of the Editorial Policy Committee for an experimental period of three years. As chairman of the British committee I was nominated to attend, and I was called for my first meeting to Lake Placid in October 1970. After a visit to Lake Placid, no one can deny the extraordinary, intense energy of the man who did so much to establish librarianship as a profession in America and whose name has since become a household word throughout the library world. It will be useful to repeat parts of the report I presented to EPC in 1970 when I stated that the majority of British libraries depended upon the Dewey Decimal Classification in a way no other group of libraries did, wherever they might be located. Because of the lack of centralized services in Britain during the first half of this century, libraries had adopted different editions of DDC and adapted them to suit their own convenience. It was natural that when a centralized service was created it was impossible to satisfy the particular classification requirements of any one group of libraries, even though they might use the same classification system and even the same edition of that system. In fact, the primary aim of British National Bibliography, established in 1950, was to produce, by the continuous cumulation of material prepared at weekly intervals, a reference tool which would be able to satisfy bibliographical and subject inquiries of considerable depth. The utilization of this information at any local point for the purpose of cataloging and classification was only a secondary objective and was certainly not part of the overall design of the bibliography. It would seem now, more than twenty-five years later, that the secondary objective is of at least equal importance to the first. The establishment of British centralized bibliographical services after World War II coincided with the study, and introduction into Britain, of the ideas of Ranganathan. Whether or not the British National Bibliography had utilized the theories of Ranganathan to strengthen and support the natural choice of the fourteenth edition of DDC for its systematic display of material, the ideas of Ranganathan would have been imported into Britain and developed through the agency of the newly founded library schools. These developments could not be overlooked by anyone concerned with recording the place of the Dewey Decimal Classification in Britain. The full flush of enthusiasm for these new ideas in the United Kingdom and their slower penetration into the North American curriculum led, on both sides, to a lack of appreciation of each other's problems. It had been recognized in Britain, since the inception of the Shared Cataloging Program of the Library of Congress, that bibliographical com- munication needed a standard international format. This was further 64 JOEL C. DOWNING emphasized by the rapid development of computerized services. The successful operation of these services required a closely defined base in both cataloging and classification. It was for this reason that the BNB decided to classify its entries from January 1971 on according to the practice advocated by the DDC editors and also to utilize the eighteenth edition for this purpose. This decision brought considerable advantages to British librarians in that for the first time since the publication of DDC-15, they knew from which specific source BNB chose its classification numbers. The reaction of British libraries to DDC- 18 has been watched by the British subcommittee with interest. We are particularly concerned with gauging subscribers' reactions toward the effort made to maintain a consistent editorial policy with respect to new numbers, relocations and phoenix schedules. Continuity of editorial policy must be apparent from one edition to the next. A regularly published statement of intent in this field is very necessary. The repetition of such a statement encourages present use and strengthens sales potential for the years to come. The permanence of DDC's editorial office is one certain advantage which DDC has over some other published schemes, and every opportunity should be taken to demonstrate the advantages so gained. Some of us in Britain feel that librarians have too long been concerned with maintaining an inflexible set of disciplines for the organization and control of bibliographical information, whether in descriptive cataloging or classification. We suggest a wider appreciation of the philosophy that librarianship and information science are, in fact, the flexible controls over the ever-changing state of knowledge. So many of the problems facing catalogers and classifiers have arisen because librarians are not prepared to change their practices due to the inflexibility of their record. They must be persuaded that the only means by which they can keep their services in line with the demands of their users, and with the development of culture and society, is by incorporating the improvements that are constantly being introduced into their services. It is pointless to produce revised codes of cataloging and new editions of classifications, and to engage their implementation by centralized services if these developments do not receive greater usage at local service points. This message should be continually emphasized by those services occupying strategic positions of influence and persuasion. It will be seen that the British committee has been concerned principally with the image presented by DDC to British subscribers. If one puts aside the different theoretical approaches to classification and the different subject presentation in catalogs which exist between Britain and the North American continent, one cannot ignore the frequent claims made in the past that the DDC has given little hospitality to the British scene its institutions, its vocabulary, its ecology and natural resources to say nothing of the needs of THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE 65 the European continent. We were therefore anxious to improve this image by making suggestions which we thought EPC should consider. It might be useful here to summarize some of the other reactions to DDC which existed in Britain in the mid-1960s in order to give an idea of the very great progress which has been made subsequently. At a public meeting in 1967, A.J. Wells, then editor of BNB, spoke of the considerable disquiet with which DDC-17 had been greeted on both sides of the Atlantic. He was worried by the strong suggestion that DDC-18, when it came along, would countermand much of DDC-17. The absorption of modern theories of classification into the intensively revised subject areas would mean that subsequent editions would eventually bear little relation to the then-present seventeenth edition. He went on to add that BNB had long been asking DDC for facilities for compound number building. When these facilities eventually were provided, it was found that American librarians had no appreciation of them, because of their different approach to subject retrieval. In Britain we would still need to provide supplementary schedules in many underdeveloped areas to support our detailed indexing procedure. All that we could do to satisfy our domestic critics would be to provide, somewhere in our entries, standard numbers drawn from the latest editions and presented in a prescribed form according to DDC editorial rules. This latter suggestion developed from the many criticisms which were supplied in answers to a questionnaire circulated in Great Britain by the Library Association with the financial support of Forest Press. It seemed from the responses that BNB was tackling the impossible. Librarians required short numbers to express specific subjects of great complexity. They wanted to be able to retrieve subject material expertly and exactly by means of BNB indexes and classified sequences, but they were not prepared to use BNB's expansions in their catalogs, nor on their books, nor even long numbers authoritatively derived from DDC schedules. At this point, you will undoubtedly be interested in hearing some of the conclusions of the report: Classification Practice in Britain, which followed the analysis of the responses to the questionnaire just mentioned. Although the editor, Keith Davison, emphasized the value of the statistical analysis, his general conclusions are worth summarizing. It appeared in 1964 that there would be an increasing demand for specificity, particularly in classified catalogs, but also to some extent on the shelves. Specificity should not be obtained at the expense of simplicity of notation. Davison also claimed that users of DDC were generally satisfied with a great deal of the schedules. British librarians wished for increased specificity in the classification of European subjects. It was generally easier for a librarian to reduce long numbers than to carry out his own expansions. It seems that more libraries 66 JOEL C. DOWNING were prepared for major changes than was imagined and would be ready to cope with major reclassification if the result would lead to an obvious overall benefit. He tersely expressed as a final conclusion that the way lay open for anyone who could provide a brief simple classification, with brief simple notation, which would provide absolute specificity for all subjects. This was the perfectionist but impossible demand of many librarians. We at BNB and the DDC editorial staff in Washington both experience continual pressure from these extremities. From the mid-1960s, BNB's philosophy with respect to bibliographical control was changing. It had been chosen in 1966 by LC to serve as the guinea pig for what became the National Program for Acquisition and Cataloging (NPAC). It was gaining international horizons and appreciated that the need for common practices lay beyond national limits. The development of the MARC project immediately after the success of NPAC further encouraged international standardization. It was against this background that we in BNB moved closer to DDC. Here was a meeting of two avenues one originating with the BNB subscribers, requesting (even demanding) the production of "pure" DDC numbers, and the other stretching across the Atlantic Ocean toward LC, via NPAC and MARC. Following a visit from Benjamin Custer, editor of DDC, to BNB in the spring of 1969, it became obvious that we could only achieve compatibility with his division in Washington by forming a more intimate relationship. Together we managed to contrive a system of information exchange which has served us well since then. Moreover, it allowed us more effectively to provide standard DDC- 17 numbers as a supplement to our own modified DDC practice. Classifiers in the two organizations, have dispatched queries and comments to each other, although early in the exchange it appeared that they were writing notes to each other rather than classifying books. Now the documentation has been almost completely reduced, and a remarkable degree of compatibility is maintained. This was attained not only by means of verbal communication; the Forest Press readily agreed in 1972 to the exchange of staff between LC (DCD) and BNB and provided the wherewithal to make this possible. Those involved at levels other than management became acquainted and thus paved the way for a happy and easy relationship between the classifiers on each side of the Atlantic. To some extent our internal organizational problems were resolved by the decision that beginning in 1971, BNB would be computer-produced through the medium of British MARC tapes and computer-controlled typesetting machinery. We would break with the past and use standard DDC numbers taken from the latest edition. For a number of years it has been possible, therefore, for DCD to accept class numbers applied to British books and so help to increase its output. Naturally, there were disagreements at first and as I have indicated, these led to a THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE 67 considerable amount of feedback in both directions. An exchange of catalog cards with appropriate notes was all that was necessary. Even in 1970, DCD estimated it was able to use over 80 percent of the numbers assigned by BNB. BNB also uses DDC numbers taken first from LC cards, and later from Cataloging in Publication material for American titles which appear on the British market. Nearly all of these numbers are accepted by BNB. LC information arriving too late for immediate use regularly highlights differences in classificatory attitudes, although it must be remembered that the number of instances is a very small percentage of the tens of thousands of items handled by both parties. Most of the differences occur when each team ignores a geographic application within its own society and culture, significant to the other team, but taken for granted by the home side. Sometimes the physical format is treated differently in descriptive cataloging practice and this justifiably leads to a variance in subject specificity. At BNB we have no manual of classification practice other than the editor's introduction to DDC-18. We cannot pop our heads round the door and ask for his immediate advice. Inquiries by correspondence have only a retroactive value. It is unheard of for us to stop the machine to await the result of an inquiry. So we make our mistakes publicly in the "Weekly Lists" and correct them afterwards in our cumulations. After the criticism BNB received from its subscribers during the first twenty years of its existence, it is surprising to learn that all did not take kindly to our "pure" Dewey numbers. It was claimed that they were not the same as their own "pure" Dewey numbers, and what was BNB going to do about it? The treatment of nonnarrative history is a case in point. In its original classification practice BNB had enshrined the British attitude toward history. History could be treated in nonnarrative form and still remain history. Geography and travel was used only for books concerned with contemporary description of people and places. We all suffered a traumatic shock when DDC-17, and later DDC-18, placed many works of historical nature in the 910s. As many letters from librarians on the classification of history reached BNB as had earlier reached us on the use of letter notation. BNB's use of DDC-18 is a continuation of the compatible practice developed in using DDC-17. We classify strictly by the schedules and tables and not by privately revealed knowledge of editorial practice. Differences due to subject analysis are to some extent unavoidable. When the schedules provide options we construct numbers according to the editor's preference. Although options may be preferable in local library situations, it is not an easy matter for a national cataloging agency, working in an international format, to prefer particular options. There may, however, be very good reasons for doing so because of a particularly significant local demand. For example, this occurs in Britain with respect to the citation order in class 340. 68 JOEL C. DOWNING Many British librarians would prefer to have the option to class under the jurisdiction used by the national agency, but international agreements in the use of compatible programs at present take no cognizance of such situations. A limited number of options throughout the entire schedules must, I think, be permitted in national machine-readable records in order to make the widest use of these records possible. An interval of several years elapsed between the introduction in BNB of standard DDC numbers as a supplementary service and their use since 1971 for the arrangement of the classified sections of the "Weekly Lists" and "Cumulations." It was a good thing that we had this interval, because we had to provide a link missing from the sequence of our subject retrieval operations. From 1951 until 1970 our subject index was an inversion of our classified display. A specific subject index entry was created for each class number, and, although we admitted synonyms as lead terms, there was no possibility of rotating the constituent elements of a subject index entry to provide alternative approaches. These approaches were met by searching the classified file from a superordinate number down to the number precisely expressing the subject in mind. This might, on many occasions, take us to hypothetical divisions beyond the most specific DDC number available. Such situations occurred, even after 1960, when BNB introduced so many of its own expansions to numbers by letter notation. Users were given one subject index entry, or a related synonymous entry, specific to their needs. If they did not approach from this point they then had to sharpen the focus of their search by working down the classified file. This constitutional weakness in chain indexing had been regarded as unavoidable; however, those who were searching for new indexing techniques saw the possibility of overcoming the defects with the aid of the computer. Until 1970, BNB's subject index had been constructed from the DDC numbers applied to the entries in the classified catalog. The index entries resulting were as relative to DDC as its own Relative Index, even though we did not accept DDC terminology. Our subject index entries demonstrated the strength and the weakness of DDC as well as our ability to use the schedules effectively. Sometimes we contrived to overcome the weaknesses by "unethical" practices (at least to the followers of Ranganathan) of turning the chain: that is, of not expressing the constituent elements of a subject concept in exactly the same order they were stated in the class number. At other times we were embarrassed by the profligate use of digits in DDC numbers which expressed notational hierarchy and little else. Here index construction had to jump deftly from one sought term to the next, ignoring the no-man's land in between. After some experimentation, however, the index and the classified file worked handsomely together for twenty years. THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE 69 Chain indexing in BNB was superseded in 1971 by the newly developed PRECIS indexing system, which provides specific rotated subject entries from all sought terms. PRECIS does not rely on the composition of the class number for the structure of its entries. In contrast, the PRECIS analysis of a subject concept treated in a document guides the classifier in the selection of a DDC number for that document. Elsewhere in this volume, a paper by Derek Austin (principal developer of PRECIS) discusses this development further. There are a number of factors relative to the use made of DDC in Britain which must continually be borne in mind. It is difficult to put them in order of importance and their order in the list is no indication of their relative significance: 1. the development of the UK MARC project in Britain, leading to the machine production of library catalogs through printout, photo typesetting, microform, and on-line services (you will notice that I do not include the card catalog as a continuing feature of our library landscape); 2. the restructuring of local government in Great Britain, which has led to the creation of quite large units capable of utilizing sophisticated computer services. These larger local library units find the task of reconciling the different intellectual systems they have inherited too great for their own individual attention and they are prepared to make far greater use of centralized services; 3. the creation of the British Library, which will surely lead to a greater degree of integration within British librarianship. Peter Lewis's paper (elsewhere in this volume) describes the work that has taken place to assess the Library's own needs within the sphere of classification and indexing. The exact relation between those needs, the requirements of the national bibliography and the users of the centralized services must be correlated. I predict that future editions of DDC will continue to be essential to British librarianship as long as they are restructured in no greater detail than DDC- 18 and as long as they intelligently anticipate the development of new subjects. It must be remembered that Dewey's system lives, not at the Library of Congress, nor at BNB, nor at Forest Press, but in the libraries which are using it on their shelves and in their catalogs. And it lives there, not in a standard and authentic form, but in modifications of infinite variety. This is contrary to the best intentions of the policy of integrity of numbers, which has been maintained to aid consistency of use throughout successive editions. Nonetheless, a degree of integrity in numbers is necessary, but other very positive features should not be completely sacrificed on this altar. The possibility of increased standardization in use is enhanced by mechanization. DDC is produced in one of the world's largest libraries; yet it is not used 70 JOEL C. DOWNING there for subject retrieval. It is employed in many important bibliographical listings, but those publications are rarely associated with the ordered collection of books on the shelves of a library. DDC is created in abstraction, where there is no direct application to a collection of books. The first point at which the practical problems of application are appreciated is in the use made of the classification by individual libraries. Here, I claim, lies the cause of many of the defects which have been introduced into the classification in the past, and which we are trying to eradicate. Let me now relate something of the British DDC Committee's endeavors. Its membership is drawn from public, academic and national libraries, as well as representatives of British library schools. On several occasions it has had the pleasure of the presence of a chairman of Forest Press, its executive director and the editor of the DDC. Such meetings have greatly increased our appreciation of each other's problems and have led to a mutuality of attitudes which can benefit the classification and librarianship all over the world. The renewed relationship between DDC and the British Library Association was so successful during its initial experimental period from 1970 to 1973 that at its conclusion the Forest Press, with the full agreement of the American Library Association, decided to request the appointment of the British representative to the Editorial Policy Committee for a further period of six years, and to give that person the power to vote. In this way British librarianship is now part of the constitution of DDC and I trust that it will continue to be so represented in the future. It is true that as it devotes energy and resources to broadening its horizons DDC may still look anxiously over its shoulder to American librarians. This is because its earlier policies have occasionally led to severe criticism, especially from the home market. The success of DDC-18 has removed a considerable degree of uncertainty, however, and there has been continued improvement in the sales since the appearance of DDC-16. Undoubtedly for this reason, suggestions made by the British committee with respect to DDC-19 have been considered very generously. Perhaps the most significant degree of cooperation was shown in the request made by EPC that the British committee should prepare the editorial rule governing the objective for foreign use. The following draft, submitted by the Library Association committee, was approved by EPC and accepted by Forest Press: The Decimal Classification is an American classification of international standing and application. In preparing an edition it is desirable to allow positively for the needs, both in details and in order, of countries outside the U.S. Where there is conflict between these needs and those of the U.S. the Editor should give his preference to the needs of the THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE 71 U.S., but must make provision for an alternative use by libraries outside the U.S. in a manner appropriate to the particular problem. The Editorial Policy Committee had already accepted some critical comments from the British committee to restrict the use of centered headings (e.g., 385-388 transportation) and to reduce the number of options which occur throughout the schedules, most of which are relics of practice derived from earlier editions of DDC. Our efforts have ensured that the arbitrary selection of subject areas for total revision (i.e., phoenix schedules) should be replaced by a comprehensive review of the whole classification. The Forest Press boldly accepted the revolutionary suggestion that a prospective phoenix schedule for 780 music should be prepared in Britain, and it generously provided funds for the exercise. In 1974 the work was placed under the direction of Russell Sweeney of the Leeds Library School, with the British committee acting in a guiding capacity. The objective of our proposals has been to restructure the class as economically as possible, giving ample facility for synthesis and permitting scores and musical literature to be classified homogeneously. We have worked on the principle that the primary characteristic in musical literature is the composer, and that in this category such a characteristic takes precedence, in the organization of scores, over the natural order of executant, musical form and musical character. One other important area of responsibility which was given to the British committee was the preparation of revised Area Tables for Great Britain, following the reorganization of our local government, which became effective during 1974 and 1975. All the new authorities and their immediate predecessors are included in these tables as well as all significant natural features, so that the British Isles are now treated in the same depth as the United States is treated in DDC-18. The Forest Press has made these tables available to all subscribers in Great Britain as a gratuitous supplementary service. In preparing these tables it was suggested by the British Committee, and accepted by our American colleagues (who, like all Americans', consider Britain and England as synonymous), that it was now necessary to distinguish between England and Wales on the one hand and the British Isles, Great Britain and the United Kingdom on the other. The notation 41 would represent the general areas of the British Isles and Great Britain, while -42 would be limited to England and Wales. This has meant that the number for Scotland is -411, collateral with Ireland at 415. Such a decision has implications in 914 and 940, to the extent that the Area Tables, geography and history schedules now present a consistent structure; consequently, a history of Britain classifies at 941, a history of England at 942, with the existing period divisions applying to each area according to treatment. JOEL C. DOWNING Responses from a number of libraries, to which the British committee submitted its proposals, were most encouraging. The revision gives us a much more rational presentation for local material than we have ever had before in DDC. What might have been a bold and possibly unwarrantable decision, if taken unilaterally by DDC, has the cooperative support of an official Library Association committee and so becomes more acceptable within our shores. It is because of the problems encountered in applying effective notation to the new authorities, and at the same time avoiding the use of excessively long numbers, that caused us to ask DDC to regard the Area Tables for Britain as deserving phoenix treatment. The British committee pressed for some time for an amendment to the eighteenth edition phoenix schedules for 340 law. In the total revision of this schedule, the need to allow for a primary division by jurisdiction was ignored. Many reviewers commented on this defect and were supported by representations from the British committee. Subsequently, this point has been conceded and an option has been created at 342-348, making it possible to arrange legal material first by jurisdiction and then by problem. Similarly, representations have been made concerning the interpretation by DDC of civilization and history, referred to earlier. A reappraisal of these subjects has been made with the object of permitting a less rigid definition of the term history. This has enabled British libraries to resume their traditional practice of classifying non-chronological treatment of historical subjects with other historical works, without conflicting with the general intentions of DDC editorial policy. This was announced in DC&^ and adopted by BNB and LC in January 1975, together with the new Area Tables for Great Britain. As a commercial publication, DDC must continue to absorb as much comment as its market will bear. Now that 45 percent of its sales are to countries other than the United States and 26 percent fall within an area considered by the publishers as being subject to British influence, DDC is doing all it can to remove the impression that it represents a limited range of North American attitudes. It is seeking a new image while endeavoring not to hurt too greatly those who have supported it in the past. For this reason DDC has sought and welcomed the assistance and advice given by the British committee. It sees DDC's use in British libraries, the British National Bibliography and UK MARC as a positive recognition of its continued vigor. With the constant development of automated services, the exploration of all avenues leading toward national and international standardization is essential. The degree of cooperation existing among DDC, the Library Association and the British Library is an expression of hopes and intentions for the future, so much so that it is already being copied in Australia and Canada. At this point it would be useful to summarize the use made of DDC in Britain. The Library Association conducted a second survey on behalf of THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE 73 Forest Press in 1972; I will give a brief analysis of the returns. We had a 92.5 percent response rate to our questionnaire, which was distributed to over 1,000 libraries. Of those libraries, 48 percent were public, 32 percent college, and the remainder was made up of university, national and other libraries. The libraries using DDC represented 79 percent of the total number.* UDC claimed 7 percent, LC and Bliss 4 percent each. Of the 744 using DDC, 59 percent were public libraries, 35 percent were college libraries, while university and other libraries added up to 6 percent. The largest area of non-DDC use was in university libraries, which represented 6 percent of the total libraries responding. At the time of the survey, nearly one-third of DDC libraries were using DDC-16 and nearly one-fourth were using DDC-18. The others used mainly DDC- 17 and DDC- 14. Even at that time more than 200 libraries were considering changing to DDC-18 and I am certain that many have done so since, particularly as they become involved increasingly with centralized services such as BNB and UK MARC. It is only fair to state that the Library Association does not hold a comprehensive list of special libraries; thus, from this survey the apparent use made of UDC in Britain will be misleading. The survey does, however, give a fairly accurate analysis of the attitude of general libraries to classification. There is little evidence of the use of the abridged edition of DDC in the United Kingdom; considerable use has been made however, of the Introduction to the Use of the Dewey Decimal Classification in British Schools, the second edition of which was published in 1968. A newly revised edition is in preparation with the assistance of the British School Library Association. Our DDC committee has been involved as advisers to the Forest Press in this matter, and it is my firm opinion that the third edition will lead to a greater use of DDC in British schools. Regrettably, our schools are not as well endowed with libraries as are those in North America. There is the possibility of a market for the abridged edition when we have more secondary schools with established libraries under the charge of qualified librarians (as distinct from teachers or teacher-librarians). All in all, there is evidence of a growing interest in DDC in Britain which stems from a number of associated factors: (1) the increased response to British needs in the subject content of the classification, (2) the improvements in structure and philosophy which have been increasingly evident from DDC-16 on, (3) the general tendency to standardization in *It will be noticed that this figure differs appreciably from that reported by Lewis on p. 104 in this volume. It appears that there is no one authoritative list of British libraries, and that the British Library survey reported by Lewis was done by Aslib and included all special libraries which were institutional members.-Ed. 74 JOEL C. DOWNING libraries, (4) the acceptance of standard-DDC numbers by BNB, and (5) the broadening interest in UK MARC, with the acceptance of computer-produced catalogs in microform and the potential of on-line services. There appears to be little evidence in Britain of a flight from Dewey. If this came about, it would undoubtedly need to be initiated by the national bibliography. However, there is little likelihood of such an event when so much in the field of Universal Bibliographic Control is modeled on what has happened in Britain in the last twenty-five years. As future security, there is the gradual internationalization of MARC, which is now established as the primary communication format for bibliographic data. We cannot afford a burden of additional systems on our already fully loaded communication format. Those systems already in the field and capable of maintaining their lead will stay in front. The Decimal Classification will continue to serve to organize material on shelves in libraries; it will serve to exploit in bibliographies a wide range of general literature, certainly as long as traditionally published tools are required, but its place as an aid in subject indexing may decline in the face of competition from computer-generated indexing systems such as PRECIS. It will be argued by some that DDC needs no more expansion or rationalization, and that it should achieve and maintain a status quo, thus relieving librarians of the necessity of upgrading their records and changing the class numbers on their books. May I ask those who represent this point of view whether they regard any current classification as being near perfection? Are they content to let the order of material on their open shelves represent outmoded attitudes toward knowledge? Would they still accept DDC- 11 if they accept DDC at all? While we cannot expect a total and instant rationalization of the Decimal Classification, we have seen positive progress toward improvement in the last three editions and we must expect, and demand, a continuation of those achievements in all succeeding editions. That the Decimal Classification has at last appreciated the existence of librarianship outside the North American continent must surely indicate that the profession in America is not unaware of its responsibilities to the world at large. Dewey belongs to all; it escaped from Amherst nearly a century ago. It has crossed oceans and penetrated continents, and cannot afford to be restrained as an isolationist within the heart of the Midwest. Those who avoid issues by ignoring problems are only storing up even greater difficulties for those who succeed them. We must therefore look for the continued growth and maintenance of the classification in spite of that local phenomenon, the flight from Dewey. I cannot believe that any one of the currently used general systems of classification is so near perfection that it does not warrant improvements which must be mirrored in notational changes or dual provision. Those who THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE 75 recommend and accept systems because there is little or no evidence of published modification are deluding themselves. All one can hope is that the changes effected in any general system of classification are compatible, change to change, edition to edition. If not, users and classifiers lose faith. It is perhaps the saddest of ironies that DDC is the only general system of classification which examines itself publicly every few years. In doing so it demonstrates at once both its strengths and its weaknesses. Regrettably, criticism always focuses on the apparently worst defects in any system. The Forest Press must continue to take a positive attitude toward the need for maintenance and revision. DDC could die as quickly from a lack of tonic as it could from too great a dose of aperient. We come now to the appendix Europe. Here, the use of DDC is limited to selected libraries scattered widely throughout the continent. I have circulated a questionnaire to the seventy-five libraries that purchased the English edition of DDC-18. There could, of course, be more who purchased DDC-17 and DDC-16, but some limit had to be placed upon the exercise. The sample is not great enough to generalize. There are public, academic and special libraries that use DDC-18. Approximately one-half of those queried have replied. Of those the larger proportion use DDC-18 for their stock, and there is little evidence of the continued use of earlier editions. Those not using DDC-18 use either their own system or UDC. The libraries using DDC-16 modify or supplement it to varying degrees. The modifications are introduced to satisfy local needs, especially in language, literature or history, and sometimes in public administration, law and topography. You will notice here the similarity to the British committee's early objectives. Naturally some libraries reduce the length of numbers. Among suggested improvements there is a plea for standard English; American terminology and spelling is sometimes very baffling even to British librarians. A simpler introduction might help librarians for whom English is a second language. Less American bias in content is called for by a few libraries, with a plea for greater awareness of European needs in Area Tables, history schedules, and similar topics. Special libraries wish for greater detail in social sciences, education and psychology. Generally, such comments are limited to the social sciences and the humanities. It can be assumed that most libraries specializing in science or technology are using other classification systems. Although we cannot expect a tremendous interest to be created for DDC in Europe generally, it must be remembered that Scandinavia and the Netherlands use English as their second language. Jointly they represent one-half of the European subscribers to DDC-18. The standardization of library services developing through MARC will very probably lead to some increase in the use of Dewey in these countries. In other areas the publication of a standard translation of DDC may well do much to encourage the use of 76 JOEL C. DOWNING the classification. This has been proven by the appearance of the French edition of DDC-18. We know of the considerable interest shown in France, which may lead to the development of a somewhat similar system of bibliographic control to that used in Britain. French public libraries have been using the Dewey Decimal Classification for many years, although I expect that, like in Britain, there are a variety of interpretations. There is little evidence in France of interest in the original English DDC-18, but I am sure that the publication of the French translation will do much to encourage standardization of practice. This will receive further support when it is possible to extend the services of Bibliographic de la France to include DDC class numbers on the catalog cards which it has now begun to issue. It is to be hoped that such a service will commence in 1976, and we can foresee the French library profession taking its place among those responsible for the increasing internationalization of the Dewey Decimal Classification. The production of a further Spanish translation of DDC will undoubtedly affect its development in libraries in South and Central America, but I have no information which would lead one to believe that what may happen in France will occur in Spain. Similarly, there seems to be little possibility of integrated development in Germanic areas, although a small number of technological libraries are showing increasing interest in MARC operations; for instance, Bochum (Germany) University Library extracts subject descriptors and Decimal Classification numbers from the LC and UK MARC tapes. Despite the fact that the use made of DDC in Europe is small compared to use in Britain, one cannot fail to note that in some European countries, national bibliographies are arranged by or contain DDC numbers: Iceland, Italy, Norway, and Turkey. Each presents its entries in a different way. Norway makes its principal list under author with a classified index of entries. Italy and Turkey have arrangements according to DDC classes, the former using DDC-18 and giving considerable specificity in class numbers and order. The Turkish national bibliography, arranged in broad DDC classes, is subdivided alphabetically by author. Italy and Norway are among the largest supporters of DDC in Europe and we should note that each country uses DDC in its national bibliography. While I do not think that a broad frontal approach by DDC toward libraries on the continent of Europe is possible, I do consider it essential that the DDC inform them continually of its development, both in policy and content. The sheer universality of DDC and its implementation in MARC projects in other continents make it essential for libraries in Europe to know something of its nature and its place in the field of Universal Bibliographic Control. It is possible that an enlightened policy maintained and developed by THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE the DDC will lead to a fuller appreciation in the multilingual arena of Europe. One should not see this so much as a marketing policy, but as a contribution in the best interests of information and its place in society. However unusual its spelling practice may be, DDC today is part of the English language heritage and where our language is used, so will be the Dewey Decimal Classification. It is for this reason that the Forest Press has asked the British Library Association to hold, as part of the centennial celebrations during 1976, an international seminar on the Decimal Classification, to which representatives from European countries will be invited; the intention is to include those interested in the present or the prospective use of the classification in its various linguistic forms and editions. It is hoped that such an exchange of ideas will help to identify the problems which the Dewey Decimal Classification must face in the future a challenge which I wish I was young enough to see fulfilled in its entirety. REFERENCES 1. "Farewell to D.C. 17," Catalogue & Index 7:1, 12, July 1967. 2. Davison, Keith. Classification Practice in Britain. London, Library Association, 1966. 3. Austin, Derek. PRECIS: A Manual of Concept Analysis and Subject Indexing. London, BNB, 1974. 4. "Area Tables -41 and -42." In DC&. Vol. 3, Nos. 4/5, p. 6, April 1974. (Supplement to Dewey Decimal Classification, 18th ed. Albany, N.Y., Forest Press, 1971.) (Pamphlet) 5. DC&. Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 4-5, April 1973. 6. DC&. Vol. 3, No. 7, April 1975. 7. Anderson, D. Universal Bibliographic Control. Miinchen, Verlag Dokumentation, 1974. GORDON STEVENSON Associate Professor School of Library Science State University of New York at Albany The Library of Congress Classification Scheme and its Relationship to Dewey It strikes me as an interesting circumstance that I have been given the opportunity to speak about the relationship between the Library of Congress classification (LCC) and the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) on November 11, a day which I will always think of as Armistice Day. There is no armistice for the respective advocates of these two great classification systems; or, if there is an armistice, there should not be one. The long-range implications of the issues surrounding the Dewey/LC debate are too crucial to pretend that differences of opinion over the merits of the two systems are trivial. LCC and DDC are very, very different. They are so different, and they are different in such ways, as to raise the most basic questions about the very purpose of general library classification, its structure, its uses, and its future in the United States. In a very real sense, these are competing systems. Decisions are made, human resources are allocated, and money is invested in one system or the other. This competition was neither asked for nor wanted by the Library of Congress nor the publishers of the Dewey system. But it does exist and has been a rather expensive proposition over the past ten to twenty years, if not longer. At the moment, it seems obvious that Dewey has come out very poorly in the United States insofar as many academic librarians are concerned. 78 LCC'S RELATIONSHIP TO DEWEY 79 Despite its losses, however, a recent report covering the years 1967-71 indicates that of 1,160 accredited, four-year nonspecialized institutions of higher learning, the libraries of more than 400 have remained with Dewey. Although the Dewey-to-LCC movement may have lost its momentum and may be near an end, it is not likely that it will be reversed unless there are drastic changes in the relationship between Dewey and the bibliographic needs of academic librarians. This relationship is changing and has changed consider- ably during the past few years as the Decimal Classification Division of the Library of Congress has increased its annual coverage of the English-language literature from 20-30,000 items to more than 100,000 items during the ^>ast year. However, at the present time I am less concerned with academic libraries than I am with public and school libraries. If, in view of this, I seem to spend a disproportionate amount of time commenting on academic libraries vis-a-vis Dewey, it is only because there is much we can learn from the academic librarian's approach to the problems of classification and reclassification. With the tremendous push toward the development of state, regional, and national bibliographic networks, I am seriously concerned that LCC's firm place in existing and incipient network data bases (which are geared primarily to the needs of university libraries) will be used as a rationale for structuring public and school library networks to use LCC to the exclusion of DDC. This is probably the most important practical issue on which I will comment. What I will try to do here has been done before, most recently by Maurice Tauber and Hilda Feinberg in an article published in the Drexel Library Quarterly in 1974. That article seemed to pull together rather neatly most of the background information which has led many librarians to the inevitable conclusion that the LCC system is the one to which they should commit their money, their energies, and most importantly their networks of automated bibliographic data bases. Heretofore, the advocates of LCC have addressed themselves primarily to the interests of college and university libraries. Tauber and Feinberg, however, have found evidence which has convinced them that public libraries, large and small, will find it advantageous to adopt LCC. We also know that several librarians have urged school libraries to switch to LCC. Granting certain assumptions, one might indeed conclude that LCC is the system we need to take us through the last quarter of the twentieth century. However, I shall argue from different assumptions and try to make a case for the opposite conclusion; that is, that LCC is not the one to which we should commit ourselves at this time. If I have some melancholy thoughts about the Dewey-to-LCC movement, this is not to say that I would presume to tell the Library of Congress what system best serves its needs. This is not the issue at all. With its massive collections of materials and with stacks which, for all practical 80 GORDON STEVENSON purposes, are closed to the public, the problems of the Library of Congress are quite different from problems encountered by the thousands of libraries (including many university libraries) that are the principal means of direct public access to books in the United States. My criticisms are not directed to the LCC system as such, but rather to the value of that system as a national classification scheme to serve the needs of centralized classification and national networks involving all types of libraries. This is a role which the creators of LCC never envisioned. If it is achieving that role, it is a historical accident, a development that is taking place without any analysis of the problem, without thought as to the function of a national system, and certainly without planning. The Library of Congress is in the best position to know what system it needs to organize its collections within the framework of its functions and services. I would only insist that what is good for the Library of Congress is not necessarily good for all libraries in the United States, nor even for all or most academic libraries in the United States. The assumption that whatever the Library of Congress does is ipso facto, good for all libraries has been the most pervasive "truth" invoked by the advocates of LCC. Relationships and Comparisons The point I will emphasize is that the wide adoption of LCC in the United States is going to have a profound impact on the future of general library classification for the next twenty years or more. I say this not because the Dewey system is "better" than LCC (although I believe this to be the case), but because of inherent weaknesses in the LCC system. In other words, it is not so much the fact that academic librarians have abandoned DDC which bothers me, as it is that they have adopted LCC. With their adoption of LCC, academic librarians have locked themselves into a system from which it will be nearly impossible to extricate themselves. Since considerable literature on both systems is available, I will have more to say about the relationship between them than I will about the systems themselves. In addition, since the two systems have been compared extensively (usually in a way which demonstrates that LCC is superior), I will have more to say about the relationship of both systems to classification in general than I will about their structural differences. You will, I hope, pardon me if I slip into the pejorative rhetoric of those who have so vigorously advanced the cause of LCC and with equal vigor have apprised us of the folly of staying with DDC. Obviously, what it is that makes the two systems different is important, although some librarians would argue with me on this point. Some librarians LCC'S RELATIONSHIP TO DEWEY 81 believe that the potential for subject retrieval by any general classification system is of such limited value that neither system, DDC nor LCC, need be evaluated by structural features as they relate to retrieval potential. This is implicit in one of the rationales propounded by Matthis and Taylor for the conversion to LCC: "Any reasonably comprehensive classification system developed and maintained by the considerable means of a federally supported agency, that is, the Library of Congress, is the logical classification system for general library use." Matthis and Taylor believe that if the situation were reversed (i.e., if the Library of Congress used DDC), then the DDC "might serve as the vehicle for a nationwide centralized cataloging and classification program.' Such statements, if you believe them, are calculated to remove the subject of classification from any discussion of reclassification, which is a tactical maneuver of such brilliance that it staggers the imagination. That these and many similar statements have gone unchallenged in the library literature suggests that, as crucial as I think structural differences may be, at this juncture it is much more important to try to understand why so many librarians place so little importance on structural differences. To say that there are no meaningful structural differences is to abandon general library classification as a nineteenth-century anachronism. If the advocates of LCC do indeed believe this, then they are in effect saying: "We don't know what we are doing with classification, but whatever it is we are doing, we can do it a lot more economically and efficiently if we go with LCC rather than with Dewey." I am suggesting that our perception of classification as a tool for subject access is more important for the future of classification than are the differences between LCC and Dewey. Classification systems can be changed for the better if we want to change them. The switch to LCC was not for the better; it was regressive a step back into the nineteenth century. These are the reasons why I think we should come to grips with the deeper implications of the circumstances surrounding the massive change in the United States from Dewey to LC classification, and with the literature which accompanied and encouraged that change. This may be the best way to approach the more specific and more practical problem of comparing and evaluating the two systems in terms of their relative usefulness in serving the needs of different types of libraries. Classification, Libraries, and Librarians The widely accepted conventional wisdom is that LCC is best for academic libraries and DDC is best for school and public libraries. I do not believe that this has been proven in any objective way. It has not been 82 GORDON S TE VENSON supported by hard research data. In any case, the more I think about the differences between Dewey and LCC, and the more I read of the literature on reclassification, the more inclined I am to believe that it is not so much a question of matching specific classification systems with specific types of libraries as it is a question of matching classification systems with different types of librarians. In other words, I do not think that in the end we are dealing with the problem of whether or not DDC, for example, is the best system for academic libraries, or whether or not LCC is the best system for school libraries. Regardless of the type of library in question (academic, school, or public), the choice of either system can be rationalized. If this is true, as I believe it is, then the librarian's understanding of, interpretation of, and expectations about the role of classification in subject control and access are far more significant than the current possibilities and limitations of any specific general classification system. The latter, which are essentially structural and in part mechanical features, can be changed even though such changes are expensive to implement and are a considerable inconvenience at the input end of a system. The former, which are in fact attitudes, are more difficult to understand and change, because we are dealing with subjective evaluations, vested interests, philosophies of library service, and images and perceptions which are deeply ingrained in each librarian's attitude toward classification. In the United States, our expectations about the possibilities of classification have been somewhat circumscribed by certain historical events which took place many decades ago, but which still condition our attitudes about the uses of classification. Bases for Comparison Following are some aspects of classification which we would have to consider in some detail if we were to evaluate the relative merits of the two systems in terms of the needs of libraries today and in the future: 1. Inner structural features This refers to the classification itself, which is a list of concepts arranged in a systematic order so as to display subjects and the relationships between subjects in what our British colleagues call "a helpful order." This is what classification is all about, but various auxiliary devices are needed to make a system operational. 2. Exterior structural features The notation is the exterior feature and represents the inner structure. The notation may be a symbolic language revealing the inner structure (as in DDC), or it may simply provide a location tag (as in LCC). What we want from a classification system will determine what sort of notation we want. LCC'S RELA TIONSHIP TO DEWEY 83 3. Ancillary features These are structural features which, although obviously quite important, are not really integral to a system. These can be changed without actually affecting anything really basic about the system. This category includes indexes, the physical layout of the schedules on the printed page, updating services, guides, directions for input, etc. When any of these are inadequate or lacking, there is no reason why they cannot be improved or developed. 4. Efficiency To analyze and compare the efficiency of systems is clearly a most basic aspect of our problem. This is to ask: Does it work? How well does it work? Does it do what a classification system is supposed to do? These are difficult questions to answer, and surprisingly little research has been done with either LCC or DDC. This involves studying a system at the output phase, at the point where the user interacts with the system. 5. Input If systems create problems at the input stage, this may be caused by inner structural inadequacies or it may simply mean that the classifier does not have the information needed to interpret the schedules. 6. Automation Another mechanical aspect of great importance is the extent to which the system can exploit the potentials of the computer. When we use the computer with a classification system, does it provide new approaches to subject access, or does it only replicate our manual systems? If it does the latter, then the computer is little more than a very efficient and extremely expensive typewriter. 7. Historical aspects An examination of the history of classification might not seem to be of much help in solving current problems. On the other hand, I believe that a thorough study of the history of classification in the United States would tell us much about the singular lack of imagination we have brought to recent classification problems. 8. Flexibility One would like to know to what extent a given system is flexible enough to adapt to the changing nature of knowledge, and also to what extent it permits flexibility in its application at the local level. How this flexibility is achieved is important. Of these various bases for comparison, the one which will be considered the least significant by many academic librarians, network propagandists, and administrators is the potential for flexibility at the local level. The trend to standardization and centralization assumes that the needs of classification and its uses are the same for all types of libraries and for all sizes of libraries; this proposition strikes me as patently absurd. 9. Costs The last thing I would consider is the cost of a system, not because I do not realize how crucial this factor is, but because I would want first to know exactly what I would be paying for. Also, I would try to find some way of estimating the costs (or at least the value) of the system at 84 GORDON STEVENSON the output stage. All cost estimates I have seen so far are costs which result at the input stage; estimating cost is a difficult problem. How can one translate the value of expressive notation to the reference librarian into hard cost data? Interpretation of Differences Any librarian contemplating changing from DDC to LCC should carefully consider each of the above points. Furthermore, in considering costs one should distinguish between the costs of descriptive cataloging (including subject description) and the costs of classification. It would seem to me that no one should be given the responsibility for choosing one system over the other until that person has a thorough grounding in classification theory and a detailed knowledge of the practical dimensions and structural features of both systems. I have met too many librarians who have switched to LCC only to discover that they do not know how to interpret the LCC geographical tables, that they do not understand LCC's use of preempted cutter numbers, or even the structural implications of a strictly ordinal notation of the type used in the LCC system. The problem we have with these various aspects of classification when we use them as the basic for comparison and evaluation is that we do not all agree on their function or importance. For example, in examining and evaluating structural features, I would place great importance on expressive notation and synthetic features of the systems. But if, for whatever reasons, we believe that expressive notation and synthesis are of little value (or, indeed, may be negative features), it is clear that we have reached an impasse. Another structural feature is the use of logic in the construction of classes and subclasses. Some prominent librarians have praised LCC because it is not logical, and have criticized DDC because it is logical, claiming that nonlogical systems can adapt more easily to changes in the structure of knowledge. Another criterion used to evaluate a classification system is the extent to which it somehow manages to present a useful version of the world as it is (or at least a reasonable facsimile thereof). Even in such a seemingly noncontroversial set of subclasses such as those representing political or geographical areas, there are strong differences of opinion as to the need for currentness. The recent change in the political organization of England brought forth a supplement to the DDC schedules which provided a list of the new political units and a revised notation to represent these units. Not everyone was happy with this change in DDC, and many would have preferred that the system not be changed. It is at such times that one can sympathize with the editors of DDC (or, for that matter, with the editors of any general and widely used system). It is clear that if we ask different things from a LCC'S RELATIONSHIP TO DEWEY 85 classification system, we will use different criteria for comparison and evaluation. Needed Research Obviously, we are concerned about how some of these conflicting ideas can be resolved. Is there some objective way of evaluating and comparing DDC and LCC? We do not know because we have never tried to find out. We have been too busy comparing costs to ask what it is we are paying for or why we are paying for it. We did not really try to answer the hard questions and they are hard questions, ones which would involve new types of behavioral research. The one dimension of each system which lends itself to research relatively easily is notation: To what extent do enumerative hierarchical and ordinal notations lend themselves to on-line subject searching? One reason we may not have done this research what work has been done has been accomplished by John Rather at the Library of Congress-is that it would prove that the DDC notation does have a future in on-line systems, whereas LCC does not. Other areas of needed research are these: 1. The librarian's use of classification in reference and other readers' services the extent to which the librarian, in functioning as a mediator between a library user and a local collection, uses a classification system as a way of thinking about the collection. Does the system provide a search strategy? 2. What versatility do different systems have in generating different types of references (i.e., can both broad and narrow bibliographies be generated)? 3. How can different systems be used in constructing user profiles for SDI (Selective Dissemination of Information) services and current-awareness services? 4. What actually happens at the output end of the system when a library user searches the shelves? We have established traditions of catalog use studies, but there is no comparable tradition in classification use studies. I believe that librarians who have examined DDC and LCC from the point of view of their library needs have not considered all or even most of these basic questions about classification. If this is the case, how can we account for the "death of Dewey" in college and university libraries? A post-mortem is in order, but to understand what happened and why it happened we need to turn briefly to topics which at first may seem unrelated to the issue at hand. 86 GORDON STEVENSON Understanding the Great Switch If we were to examine the literature produced in the United States on general library classification during the past ten to twenty years, we would find that one of the major preoccupations of librarians was not classification at all, but reclassification. That we should have been so preoccupied with reclassification rather than classification is, I think, an interesting commentary on the general state of classification in the United States. If I wanted to be uncharitable to both systems, I would say that what we have seen is the spectacle of thousands of librarians spending millions of dollars to the end of reclassifying from one nineteenth-century system to another, perhaps even more antiquated, nineteenth-century system. But that sort of characterization, although there is something to be said for it, would not do justice to the extent to which each system has partially escaped its nineteenth-century roots. On the other hand, it seems obvious that most librarians, when they felt they had to make a choice as to which classification system to use, never seriously considered that there might be some alternative system, or that it might be more advisable to construct an entirely new scheme. We need to consider why this was the case. I do not believe that the DDC-to-LCC movement can be understood unless it is considered against the whole intellectual, professional, and educational climate within which it took place. The movement from Dewey to LCC was surely one of the most time-consuming projects undertaken by U.S. librarians during the past several decades. Such a vast undertaking invites a detailed analysis. Such an analysis has not yet been made, and I will do little more here than to suggest approaches which might be appropriate. If a postmortem were made, I think it would tell us quite a lot about things other than classification it would tell us something about how librarians go about solving some of their problems. The questions that such a study would ask would have very little to do with the checklist of classification features I have mentioned above. Rather, it would ask why change took place, how it was disseminated, and what factors were so compelling as to set us on a course of action that will alter the future of classification longer than any of us can imagine. There surely must have been compelling reasons for this change. I am seriously going to suggest that the change from Dewey to LCC had very little to do with classification. We could compare DDC with LCC in the most minute detail, and in the end would still not understand what has happened nor why it has happened. What is needed in this case is not research in classification at all, but research in the chemistry of change and in the rhetoric and motivation for change. Precedents, and indeed tools and models, for the needed research are available in that broad group of sociological LCC'S RELATIONSHIP TO DEWEY 87 studies identified as studies in the diffusion of innovations. These classic studies in the process of change have a long history in the United States, dating back well into the 1930s. The techniques involved have been used in dozens of different fields, but not as far as I know in any aspect of librarianship. In suggesting studies in the dynamics of change, I am aware that there are some differences between the types of problems dealt with by E.M. Rogers and other specialists in this field and those with which we must deal. Diffusion studies emerged when the U.S. Department of Agriculture wanted to find out why some farmers in Iowa readily accepted new strains of hybrid corn, while other farmers either did not accept them or did so at relatively long intervals after they were introduced. Acceptance patterns were studied, and farmers fell into various groups, such as early adopters, late adopters, etc. These results were correlated with a number of variables to identify opinion leaders and other dimensions of change patterns. If this seems like a farfetched source for the study of change in classification, it at least has this in common with our problem: the corn was the same, the differences were among the adopters. Note also that the research was about change as it resulted from innovative ideas. All well and good, but in the case of classification change, it is obvious that the LC Qassification was almost as old as the product it replaced. Furthermore, the institutional setting of classification use suggests other ways that diffusion research in classification would differ somewhat from more customary types of diffusion research. Anyone interested in exploring this idea further would also want to consider some types of marketing research. We are talking about a change in behavior. Advertising research is obviously interested in why people adopt one brand of soap rather than another, why they switch brands, and how something called "brand identification" is achieved. Advertising researchers know that many factors which influence consumers in their decisions have very little to do with the quality of the product or whether the consumer really needs the product. (If you have not read much in advertising research, I would not encourage you to do so unless you are already rather cynical, or unless you are prepared for considerable disillusionment about those friendly folks that bring you your favorite television shows.) About fifteen years ago, Bardin H. Nelson wrote what has since became a classic statement of the assumptions on which advertising is based. He called his article "Seven Principles in Image Formation." Here is the first of his seven principles: "People are not 'exclusively' rational creatures.' This is the conclusion one could come to after delving into the literature on reclassification. How else can one respond to reasoning such as this: Inasmuch as there seems little possibility of developing a classificatory language which will satisfy the demands of the super-specialist as well as 88 GORDON S TE VENSON of the general reference librarian, it would seem that we must opt for the most workable tool at present available to carry forward the mundane but needful task of moving books and records from catalog department to shelves and catalog. The needs of the super-specialists (whoever they may be) have never been the issue, and the dichotomy between specialists and reference librarians is a straw man in the context of general library classification. Even if the dkhotorny 4 were accepted as valid (which it is not), the conclusion "to opt for the most workable tool" does not logically result from the premise. The author of the above statement has confused ends and means, and has done so in such a way that if you do not accept his conclusion, then you put yourself in the position of being opposed to the "mundane but needful task" of making materials available to your library users as quickly as possible. And what is one to make of this statement by Matthis and Taylor: "Essentially the argument has now moved beyond theoretical discussions of the 'best' classification system and settled upon the real issue the promise and prospect of centralized cataloging and classification"?^ Anyone with even a passing acquaintance with classification theory knows that the arguments cannot possibly have moved beyond theoretical discussions for the simple reason that such discussions have never taken place. From the very beginning, the issues were practical and focused principally on economic factors of technical processing. On those few occasions when the advocates of DDC have tried to talk about structural features of classification systems, they have been accused of talking "theory" or, what is worse, of raising esoteric questions of philosophy: "These questionings of philosophical assumptions, once raised, tend to vitiate the impetus given to the spirit of change." By raising such questions (which, of course, have nothing to do with theory or philosophy, but with structure, function, and use) one can thus initiate "a preposterous dialogue of 'pro' this system and 'con' that." Indeed, such questions, once raised, could vitiate the spirit of change; but whether the resulting dialog would be preposterous would depend on whether you are buying a product or selling it. Without much further comment, I will quote a few more of Nelson's principles, and those of you who have critically read the literature on reclassification will see the connections. Nelson's second principle states that "People respond to situations in ways which appear to them to protect their self-images." * * I have an idea that in the world of academic librarianship, self-images loom large in the decision-making process. The fifth principle tells us: "If an image is marked by doubt, uncertainty, or insecurity, utilize additional means for creating further doubts. Present the new image in a form whereby it will dispel anxiety or doubts." His sixth principle is widely used LCC'S RELATIONSHIP TO DEWEY 89 by network developers: "Place the desired image in the most favorable setting. If at all possible, clothe the new image in the already accepted values of the people." 13 Does all of this strike you as somewhat peripheral to a consideration of the change from DDC to LCC? Perhaps. But you will admit that the image of DDC was changed, that it was badly damaged, and that this set the stage for serious setbacks in its credibility as a viable classification system. Parenthetically, I might add that the types of research which I have proposed might also be useful in understanding other library-type games and diversions, such as dividing the catalog, working for faculty status, changing administrative structures, joining OCLC, or whatever movement is currently substituting for the real problems of improving library service. If I have underestimated the depth to which advocates of change have explored some of the basic issues, I can only say that they did not state their case very well in the library literature. The central issue is the purpose of classification. Purpose There are two extreme views on the purpose of classifying books. On the one hand, some librarians consider classification to be an important device in providing access to library collections. Some of them have described classification as a map which guides the user through the collection, a device for discovering not only what one wants but what one did not know existed. In this ideal version of the purpose of classification, it is in fact a dynamic device of great importance in the learning process and in the acquisition of new knowledge. The other extreme says essentially that classification is not much more than a simple parking device: we mark and we park. The user's basic guide to the collection is the alphabetical subject heading catalog, and this catalog serves as an index to the classification system which organizes the books on the shelves. Those librarians who subscribe to the mark-and-park school will probably prefer the LC Classification. On the other hand, those librarians who place more importance on classification as a direct subject access device will probably prefer the expressive notation and modest use of synthesis available in DDC, since these offer a search strategy for open -stack collections. Implementation In the United States the purpose of classifying material is accomplished almost solely by using classification to organize books on shelves. This is supplemented by Cutter's alphabetico-specific subject heading catalog in its 9 GORDON S TE VENSON straight A-Z form or in its divided form. These well-known facts need to be brought up in considering the future of classification in the United States. If, for the foreseeable future, classification is to function only as a system of shelving books, then we are dealing with one problem. However, with the use of the computer in organizing bibliographical data, we have a new tool which can be a very powerful search tool. In other words, the classified catalog, which for all practical purposes has been a dead issue in the United States since around 1900, may be in for a new lease on life. To me, one of the most exciting possibilities for the immediate future of the DDC is found in the extent to which we can use it for on-line subject searching. This issue has been completely ignored or misunderstood in all of the literature on reclassification which I have consulted. Tauber and Feinberg, in the report mentioned above, state that "LC can be programmed to do all that we have required of an enumerative scheme up. to the present" (emphasis added). "All that we have required"-but in terms which might be relevant to computer potential we have required nothing, since our shelflists have been used only for inventory control. We can now ask a lot more than that. This is where the notation of LCC and DDC have very great significance in terms of potential computer application. To understand the possibilities and limitations of each, we need to consider the nature of nonexpressive, nonhierarchical notation of the sort used in LCC. In such a system, the only approach is to a specific subject class. With an expressive notation we can pull out blocks of material; if the computer is programmed properly we can enter the system at any level and all of its subdivisions. This almost self-evident potential of DDC is one that has yet to be fully explored. Dewey also has the potential for further refinements in subject searching if a system of facet indicators can be established. Consider, for example, the possibilities of searching local subdivisions in LCC and DDC. With DDC, a run of the computer could pull out all classes starting, for example, with the number 78, the class for music. If one wanted only books about music in England, then a second run (using the local subdivision number from the Area Tables) would pull out relevant titles. Or, rather, it could if a consistent facet indicator were developed for local subdivisions. This, as you know, is a problem now because a standard subdivision may be identified by one or more than one zero. I believe that the Dewey system can adopt some of the synthetic devices used in the Universal Decimal Classification and come up with a system of notation which can both serve as a notation for physically shelving books and at the same time exploit the class numbers with search devices which complement the alphabetico-specific structure of subject headings. Since we are getting Dewey class numbers on MARC tapes, it is possible that even those libraries which use the LCC system to shelve their books will have an on-line searching device by using the Dewey class numbers. LCC'S RELA TIONSHIP TO DEWEY 91 Now, to what extent the LC Classification can provide such access seems to me to be so small as to be virtually beyond hope. The LCC notation was never designed to serve such a purpose and its ordinal notation would probably present insurmountable problems. On the other hand, I would not want to underestimate the imagination and resourcefulness of the Library of Congress staff, and I look forward with great interest to what search devices they will design. Be that as it may, the computer is the challenge which DDC must face. Structural changes will have to be made to go beyond its current potential in on-line searching (which, modest as it may seem, is far superior to what is available with the LCC notation). In placing so much stress on the current and future on-line capability of DDC, I do so within the framework of most libraries currently using the system (and most libraries which have recently switched to LCC). I am aware that information scientists have stated that both DDC and LCC are inappropriate for computer application in subject retrieval. From their point of view this may be the case. An on-line classified catalog using DDC may seem to offer limited possibilities when compared to highly sophisticated special information systems; but for most general library book collections, such access would be a monumental step forward. If I have any doubts about DDC's future in relationship to a revived form of the classified catalog, they are related less to the system itself than to those of us in the United States who know so little about the potential of any classified catalog, manual or automated. There is a historical dimension to this issue of the classified catalog that is just interesting enough to comment on briefly. Dewey himself was an advocate of the classified catalog, and did not look with much enthusiasm on Cutter's dictionary catalog. In 1888 he said, "The dictionary catalog has been a popular fad and will die out.' So much for Dewey as a prophet. In the first edition of his classification system, he noted that it was conceived as a system for organizing entries in catalogs, but could also be used for organizing materials on shelves and in files. When he was librarian at the State Library of New York, his subject catalog was a classified catalog. It may also surprise you to learn that Charles Martel, one of the prime architects of the LCC system, was also a firm believer in the classified catalog. He did indeed accept the alphabetical subject-heading catalog, but believed that any true research library had to supplement this catalog with a classified catalog. It was Martel's idea that the shelf list could be amended with guide cards, cross-references, and added entries in such a way that it could serve both for inventory control and for classified subject access. I do not know to what extent the use of such a catalog affected the evolution of LCC subject headings (although I understand that music librarians find that a shelf list is absolutely essential as a supplement to their subject-heading catalogs). In American library education, I doubt that we have sufficiently stressed the extent to which classified 92 GORDON STEVENSON systems complement the sort of access provided by alphabetical systems. If this distinction is not clear to many librarians in the United States, it is probably because they assume without question that alphabetical systems are for structuring catalogs and classified systems are for shelving books. Although this attitude reflects current practice, its implications for subject cataloging must be reexamined. The technical problems that the Dewey system will have to solve are the result of its dual function as a system for structuring catalogs and a system for shelving books. As we have been told many times, the book is a one -dimensional physical object, and it can be classified in one place and in one place only. But catalogs can provide multiple access points, and there is no reason why a classified catalog should be limited to a one-place system, be it a manual or an automated classified catalog. In the United States, Dewey is used as a system for shelving books, and this is a function which is not likely to change. In other countries, DDC is used for both shelving systems an'd systems for the classified catalog (note, for example, the use of DDC in the British National Bibliography}. If one were dealing with the classified catalog without the restraints of a shelving system, one could indeed develop a highly sophisticated searching tool. But the most valuable feature of the Dewey system is that it not only can be used for both functions, but that it is being widely used for both functions. It seems that for the working librarian this is a tremendous advantage, for one can indeed begin to structure a conceptual map of one's library collection. If knowing one's collection is a prerequisite for good library service, then the Dewey system has to be evaluated in the light of how it helps us to gain some sort of conceptual control over these collections, whether we are working directly with books or references to books in catalogs. To those committed to the LCC system, the potentials of the classified catalog may seem somewhat less exciting than they do to me. But consider for a moment one of the standard working tools of the librarian: Library of Congress Catalog: Books: Subjects. The present structure of this subject supplement to the National Union Catalog is an unfortunate byproduct of our predilection for alphabetically arranged subject headings. As useful as this tool may be, I believe that if it were issued as a classified catalog (even if limited to the simplest form of such a catalog i.e., arranged in shelf list order by the LCC system), it could serve its current function of providing subject access, but at the same time could combine the advantages of the classified approach. Furthermore, it would then give thousands of users of the LCC system what they probably want very much: a guide to LC's shelf-listing practices. A colleague once told me that if a library adopts the LC Classification system, that library is to a certain extent a branch of the Library of Congress. There is a lot of truth in this statement, because the application of the LC LCC'S RELATIONSHIP TO DEWEY 93 Classification schedules, with their extensive use of alphabetically arranged subclasses with a cutter number notation, is in large measure controlled by what is in the Library of Congress collection. Thus, to make use of LCC coincide with its use by the Library of Congress (which, I take it, is one of the main reasons for adopting the system), the librarian must assume that he or she is adding material to the shelf list of the Library of Congress with its millions of entries. However, if the structure of LC's Subject Catalog were to be changed, I think it would not be unreasonable to propose that it be changed to the same form now used by the British National Bibliography. Not only would this be a step toward the standardization of national bibliographies, it would also be a service to the thousands of libraries in the United States and abroad which use DDC; this could be done in such a way that it would considerably improve the utility of Books: Subjects as an access tool. Those librarians now using the LC Classification would lose little, if anything, but those many, many thousands of librarians using DDC would gain tremendously. Academic Librarians and Dewey I am not optimistic that academic librarians who have adopted LCC will in the near future change their ways of thinking about the potentials of library classification. Nor, for that matter, will they recognize the fundamental fallacy of bibliographical networks which simply deliver data without offering the possibilities of on-line subject access based on classification. On the other hand, if those who guide the future of DDC can do a better job of showing librarians how to exploit the system (both as a shelving system and an on-line access tool), then it is not unlikely that librarians already committeed to LCC will make use of the DDC class numbers now available in machine-readable form on MARC tapes. This is one of several reasons why all material going into the MARC system, including all foreign -language material, should be given Dewey class numbers. Those who believe that the future of on-line access lies with a new system of subject descriptors rather than with classification are not taking into account the deep resistance which will come from academic librarians if the Library of Congress attempts to structure a completely new system of subject headings. I believe that academic librarians will strenuously resist such a change for the same reason they adopted the LC Classification system (i.e., the costs of cataloging and classification) and for the same reason they resisted those rules in the Anglo-American Cataloging Rules which adhered to the Paris Principles for the structuring of headings for corporate bodies; this, as some of you now know, was an expensive concession to the status quo, and the Library of Congress is moving ahead with its new policies and with "desuperimposition." 94 GORDON S TE VENSON The "great switch" has some implications for the Library of Congress and its relationship to its own classification system. The LC Classification no longer belongs exclusively to the Library of Congress, or if it does, it soon will not. The thousands of libraries which now use the system will want to have a say in its future development. Even if the Library of Congress wanted to abandon its own system (and it is not clear to me why they need it), it is hardly likely that the combined pressure of academic libraries would permit this to happen. Furthermore, if the system is to provide the economic advantages which have been claimed for it these claims, of course, were never made by the Library of Congress, but by academic librarians from relatively small colleges then librarians will need more from the Library of Congress than they are now getting. They will need access to the Library of Congress shelf list, a continually updated single index to the complete set of schedules (and at a reasonable cost within reach of small college libraries), guides to interpreting the schedules, an on-line authority file, and probably more tools which have been developed at the Library of Congress for the in-house use of catalogers and classifiers. Public and School Libraries Public and school libraries are in a position somewhat different from that of academic libraries. It is possible, however, that the general atmosphere created by the advocates of LCC is one which may have already begun to sow some seeds of doubt in the minds of librarians who direct school and public libraries. These librarians have a longstanding involvement with DDC and there are compelling reasons why I hope this does not change. The LCC system is completely inadequate for their service-oriented philosophies and open-stack collections. Most of the economic advantages claimed for a switch to LCC have probably been largely eliminated by LC's Decimal Classification Division's increased coverage of the current English-language book production. If there should be any savings in cost, I cannot imagine that they would be significant enough to justify what would be lost with a switch to LCC. I am not sure to what extent, in the next few years, public and school librarians will find themselves in the same position in which academic users of DDC found themselves a few years ago that is, under strong pressure from network developers to reclassify to conform to existing bibliographical data bases. This pressure will surely become stronger as we implement network developments advocated by the National Commission on Libraries and Information Science. In the first place, I believe the economic arguments are spurious and were designed to benefit the economic base of the networks, not to benefit the users of the networks. In the second place, any network that LCC'S RELATIONSHIP TO DEWEY 95 attempts to provide a national service is not conceivable unless it includes both LCC and DDC numbers. For one thing, the Dewey numbers give public and school librarians options for close or broad classification which are absolutely impossible within the structure of the LCC notational system. I would encourage public and school librarians to insist that their networks include the Dewey system. Most public and school librarians do not need me to remind them of the advantages of DDC, but what follows may be of some interest to network developers (who should also apprise themselves of the fundamentals of classification) and library administrators who may be too far removed from the public service desk to understand the role of classification in public services. Librarians working with relatively small collections, as compared to the collections of large university libraries, have a completely different relationship to their collections. The universe of knowledge with which they must deal is still one that can be grasped in its larger outlines and in considerable detail by an experienced and educated librarian. The large university libraries are best categorized as collections of special libraries which are administered by subject specialists. (This is consistent with the Library of Congress Classification which has been properly decribed as a collection of largely uncoordinated special classifications which lack unifying structural features.) Perhaps this is why DDC has always been appreciated by public and school librarians and, at one time, by many college and junior college librarians in the United States. The collections with which they deal are general in the sense that they cover wide areas of knowledge which represent many disciplines. As I have noted above, under such circumstances classification can be an indispensable tool for the efficient use of one's collection in providing public services. The notation provides a symbolic language which is quite easy to learn. It permits a type of interaction with the collection and with users of the collection which I do not think is possible in the case of LCC's notational structure. In public and school libraries, one is more likely to find attempts to use a single classification system for different media. Unfortunately, we have little research on just how well DDC works with such diverse materials as sound recordings, slide collections, media kits, and other nonbook media. We know that some libraries have adopted DDC for these materials, and it would seem to be an ideal system for both students and faculty, not to mention public service librarians. Perhaps future editions of DDC should provide some information on how to use the system with these nonbook materials. The available DDC options of broad or close classification would seem to be significant in this case. As for LCC, it has been used by some librarians to classify sound recordings, but does not seem to have much of a future with nonbook media in general. 9 6 GORDON S TE YENS ON International Implications What futures do the two systems have at the international level? DDC, of course, is already somewhat of an international system. The LCC system is not international, and there is no possibility that it will ever be widely used outside of the United States. It is too closely tied to the very specific needs of the Library of Congress, and more specifically to the needs of the Library of Congress as they were conceived between fifty and seventy-five years ago, when the purpose, the plan, and the structure of the system were developed. Thus, the very factor which has been advanced for its wide adoption in the United States is, I would argue, the chief reason it has no future in the international exchange of bibliographical data. To what extent the Dewey system will be seriously considered as an international standard is not yet known. Although its future in this role may not seem promising (despite its tremendous worldwide dispersal), it should not be ruled out yet. If the Library of Congress continues to include DDC numbers on all items issued on MARC tapes as that data base continues to grow, then DDC will be a serious contender at the international level. Certainly, the decisions affecting the British Library will have a bearing on the issue, as will the wider dispersal of DDC in France. Alternatives I have been assuming that the only real choice available is between DDC and LCC. I suppose that right now this is the case. If one were seriously to suggest that what the Library of Congress needs is a new classification, one would be considered quite mad. Such is the way we have been educated to think about classification in the United States. If, ten to fifteen years ago, academic librarians had asked for a new, modern classification system, they probably could have gotten one. But now, having spent millions of dollars converting to LCC and having convinced themselves that it is the best of all possible worlds, the option of a new system has been closed and will remain closed for a long time. The point I am making is this: if (for reasons which they accepted as valid) academic librarians found DDC inadequate, and if there were no ways it could be changed to make it adequate, then they should have switched to something better than LCC. If there were no better system, then either the LCC system should have been completely overhauled or a completely new scheme should have been constructed. Of course, I believe that at that time, DDC could have been changed to serve academic librarians. LCC'S RELATIONSHIP TO DEWEY 97 If you have the impression that I am somewhat skeptical about the wide adoption of the LC Classification by academic librarians and that I find the literature on reclassification completely unconvincing, you could not be closer to the truth. I believe that it is not so much what DDC has lost as what librarians have lost. I am not sure whether I have read a paper or given a sermon, but whatever I have done, these things needed to be said and these questions needed to be asked. If I have produced little or no scientific evidence with which to further the cause of DDC, then I am in good company, for the most vigorous advocates of LCC have given us little more than opinion surveys, cost studies (which I cannot accept), and "good news" from network organizers, for as Marshall McLuhan has said: "Advertising is good news." If there is anything that can keep the Dewey-to-LCC movement alive, it will be our lack of understanding of the potential of general classification in library service. However, if the movement has run its course, we can now turn our attention to the uses of classification rather than reclassification. If we do this, then the future of the Dewey Decimal Classification is assured. REFERENCES 1. Mowery, Robert L. "The 'Trend to LC' in College and University Libraries," Library Resources & Technical Services 19:389-97, Fall 1975. 2. Tauber, Maurice F., and Feinberg, Hilda. "The Dewey Decimal and Library of Congress Classifications; An Overview," Drexel Library Quarterly 10:56-74, Oct. 1974. 3. Matthis, Raimund E., and Taylor, Desmond. Adopting the Library of Congress Classification System. New York, R.R. Bowker, 1971, p. 2. 4. Ibid. 5. Richmond, Phyllis A. "General Advantages and Disadvantages of Using the Library of Congress Classification." In Richard H. Schimmelpfeng and C. Donald Cook, eds. The Use of the Library of Congress Classification. Chicago, ALA, 1968, p. 209. 6. Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations. New York, Free Press, 1962. 7. Nelson, Bardin H. "Seven Principles in Image Formation." In Lee Richardson, ed. Dimensions of Communication. New York, Appleton-Century- Crofts, 1969, p. 55. 8. Matthis, Raimund E. "Moderator's Comments." In Jean M. Perreault, ed. Reclassification: Rationale and Problems (Conference Proceedings from the School of Library and Information Services, University of Maryland, vol. 1). College Park, School of Library and Information Services, University of Maryland, 1968, p. 27. 9. Matthis and Taylor, op. cit., p. 3. 10. Matthis, op. cit., p. 27. 98 GORDON STEVENSON 11. Nelson, op. cit., p. 56. 12. Ibid., p. 58. 13. Ibid., p. 59. 14. Tauber and Feinberg, op. cit., p. 69. 15. "Conference of Librarians, Catskills, Sept. 25-28, 1888... Third Day-Thursday, September 27," Library Journal 13:315, Sept.-Oct. 1888. 16. LaMontagne, Leo E. American Library Classification. Hamden, Conn., Shoe String Press, 1961, p. 316. PETER LEWIS Librarian University of Sussex Brighton, England Factors in the Selection of a Classification Scheme for a Large General Library This paper concerns the British Library; by now it is well known that the British Library consists of more than one large library. One of its components, the British Museum Library, is among the largest in the world; two others, the Science Reference Library in London, and the Lending Division in Yorkshire, both have collections sizable enough to raise problems regarding classification. In fact, however, the Lending Division has long since rejected classification as an operational tool in any other than peripheral uses, and is not a component which enters into the considerations I am making today. In addition to these, there is the Bibliographical Services Division, which is evolving from the formerly separate entity, the British National Biblio- graphy (BNB). This division is the most significant user of classification at the present time. Not only is the British National Bibliography primarily dependent on classification for its arrangement and articulation, but the classification data supplied by BNB is a substantial element of the centralized cataloging service which it gives to all kinds of libraries in Great Britain. One of the functions of the Bibliographical Services Division is to extend this service to cover the needs of in-house bibliographic processing within the British Library itself. 99 100 PETER LEWIS I am therefore dealing not so much with a large general library as with a large and complex national library system. Moreover, this is a system in which all the components have had a prior existence as independent organizations, sometimes with a long history of service and administration of their own. This aspect of the matter creates problems of rationalization which are perhaps unusual in terms of their scale, but which may not be dissimilar from those which arise wherever uniform bibliographic control is to be imposed on any two or more existing libraries which have long-established prior commitments and investments in their own different forms of control. What makes the British Library a particularly interesting case for the classificationist, in my opinion, is that its principal prior commitment is the classification service which it provides for other libraries, through the British National Bibliography and its contributions to the MARC record. Contrast this with the Library of Congress, for example, where classification policies and developments have historically originated primarily to meet in-house require- ments, and have only secondarily been determined by the needs of other libraries using the data. The British Library begins with a service to other libraries, and one of the main questions is whether that commitment can be extended to embrace its own, newly conceived in-house problems. We know what consequences may spring from too close an adherence to the dictum that "what's good for General Motors is good for the country." Essentially, the British Library has to find an answer to the question: Can what is good for the country also be good for General Motors? The Working Party In 1972, a Working Party was established with the following terms of reference: "to examine the various classification and indexing systems currently in use in the various component parts of the British Library and to consider the possibilities of rationalisation, taking into account the need for standardisation nationally and internationally." The Working Party consisted of senior staff members with responsibilities for classification and indexing policies and for programs in each of the various component parts of the British Library (BL) together with two external members: Herbert Coblans a distinguished authority on classification and indexing in the international sphere, and myself, who was honored with an invitation to act as chairman of the Working Party. The research department of Aslib acted as consultants on technical questions. The Working Party delivered its final report to the British Library Board in June 1974; this is projected for publication in 1976, together with the texts of those supporting studies which the Working Party appended to the SCHEME FOR A LARGE GENERAL LIBRARY 101 report. In this paper I am therefore anticipating publication of the report to some extent, but my intention is to draw attention to those findings and conclusions of the report which seem to be of interest to classificationists and library administrators concerned with the problems of rationalization in this field. I must begin this task by making the essential disclaimer that, although the authority for my comments derives from knowledge gained as chairman of the Working Party, nothing in what follows should be regarded as representing the official viewpoint or policy of the British Library Board. For one thing, the selection and interpretation of the Working Party's findings are my own. In addition, the British Library has not yet given a public indication of its endorsement of any of the recommendations made in the report. The Problem The only objective of rationalization is to achieve optimum cost- effectiveness. The ideal state of rationalization is one in which all requirements are met by a single system, generating the necessary data from a single source. The ultimate solution for the British Library would therefore be to find a single classification scheme which would yield maximum efficiency with respect to the following needs: 1. The arrangement of books in the British Museum Library The British Museum Library (BML) previously has used no classification for the arrangement of its stock. However, there are plans for it to move into a new, custom-designed building sometime in the late 1980s; when that happens, it will place on open access approximately one-quarter million volumes in the fields of humanities and social sciences. For these it needs a suitable classification. The great bulk of its vast collections will remain on closed access, but the availability of a class number for all acquisitions would enable it to exercise the greatest flexibility and economy in redetermining the contents of its open-access collections from time to time. 2. The arrangement of books in the Science Reference Library At present, virtually all Science Reference Library (SRL) stock is on open access, and classified in accordance with a special classification developed within the library itself from an earlier Patent Office Library classification. It is presently housed at two separate main sites, but it will eventually occupy one wing of the new British Library building and will thus exist physically next to the British Museum Library, with quick and easy access by readers from one library to the other. 3. The arrangement of bibliographic records in the subject catalogs of both BML and SRL At present, the principal catalogs are the published British 102 PETER LEWIS Museum Subject Index, which covers the fields of the British Museum Library, and at SRL, the card catalogs, arranged in accordance with SRL's own classification scheme. It must be remembered, of course, that BML shares with SRL the task of conserving the British copyright deposit intake, along subject-divided lines, and there is an expectation that the published British Museum Subject Index may be extended in scope to embrace SRL's work in its own fields of responsibility. 4. The arrangement of records in the British National Bibliography Arising largely from this need, and of equal weight in the Working Party's terms of reference, are the two following requirements. 5. National standardization BNB and British MARC act as sources of centralized cataloging and classification data for a large number of academic and public libraries throughout the United Kingdom and elsewhere. The classification data used to arrange BNB, and provided in MARC, should meet the needs of shelf arrangement and bibliographic records in the greatest possible number of other libraries within the national network. 6. International Standards As the principal national library, the British Library is increasingly involved in the interchange of bibliographic information at the international level. Classification and other subject data are a significant aspect of this interchange, in regard to the cost-saving utilization by all exchange partners of the information flowing through the international networks. Indexing and Information Retrieval We began in the sphere of indexing and information retrieval. We examined comprehensively the European and North American literature reporting experimental work or summarizing the present state of the art on mechanized searching and retrieval by means of MARC tapes or by Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC), Library of Congress Classification (LCC), or Universal Decimal Classification (UDC). We also studied problems, such as profile construction, that are raised by the use of classification in these spheres. This is a large and difficult area, on which it would be possible to spend the remainder of this session. I will restrict myself to reporting our conclusions. A satisfactory basis for a machine information retrieval system cannot be established without first identifying comprehensively the range of services which it is to supply, and then investigating the particular problems of each service. At the British Library, the potential demand for such services is very large and diffuse and, at this stage of development of BL's internal and SCHEME FOR A LARGE GENERAL LIBRARY 103 external connections, the problems of coordination and integration seemed to us nearly insurmountable. In addition, we felt that experimental work to date demonstrates that verbal mechanisms are superior to classification^ notation mechanisms in achieving effective specific subject retrieval systems. Undoubtedly this second conclusion was colored by the fact that PRECIS (the Preserved Context Indexing System) already incorporates a "verbal" machine-based indexing system that has been used for four years by the British National Bibliography, and recently by some library institutions, to create subject indexes for classified arrangements of document citations. PRECIS was, in fact, the only available machine-based indexing system that appeared to have the potential to meet whatever future requirements might arise in this spere in the British Library. We saw it first as a means of dealing with the immediate problem of the British Museum Subject Index, the production of which, in its present form, involves expensive manual elements and has been increasingly delayed because of staffing difficulties. A preliminary investigation showed that it was possible to manipulate PRECIS strings to produce mechanically an acceptable subject heading system which could replace the British Museum Subject Index with gains to the user, more efficient indexing information, and without an increase in cost. Further testing was undertaken and (subject to its satisfactory conclusion) we recommended that the PRECIS subject heading system be adopted to provide subject access to the BML collection and elsewhere as required. We saw it as the only means of providing a unified subject index to the BL Reference Division collections, and ultimately PRECIS strings would be added to all the records in the data base of the BL Reference Division. Classification and Interlibrary Relations Turning now to classification policies for the British Library in general, and for the BNB in particular, I have already emphasized that these cannot be determined without reference to the external use of classification schemes, nationally and internationally. The BL is committed to making its bibliographic data base available to other libraries and will itself receive large quantities of bibliographic records from other libraries for its internal use. There is, therefore, a potentially large demand from the library community for the provision of standard classification notations on British Library records. There may also be significant savings in the use of classification marks available on foreign records. The current ferment of activity throughout the library world in these areas suggested that further investigation of develop- ments at a later date, when clearer pictures emerged, would be required before 104 PETER LEWIS a final decision was made. Looking at it now, eighteen months later, I do not think that the pictures have yet become any clearer. For the picture as it appeared then, we collected and analyzed information on the comparative use of the published general classification schemes, in British libraries and in the national bibliographies of thirty-three countries. From our analysis, there is no question of the predominance of DDC in Great Britain. We established that DDC is used by 47 percent of all libraries,* and that it controls the arrangement of 75 percent of all library holdings. In contrast to this, UDC is used by 22 percent of British libraries, but controls the arrangement of only 5 percent of library holdings. As for LCC, particularly favored by British university libraries, it is used by 2 percent of all our libraries and controls the arrangement of 6 percent of library holdings. Internationally, it appeared that DDC and UDC have each an equal number of users at the level of the national bibliography or national library agency. We estimated that the annual output of authoritative machine-readable records which carry DDC numbers was about 131,000; there was a similar quantity of machine-readable records with LCC numbers, but none carried UDC numbers. On this evidence, we made a firm recommendation that the biliographic records created in BL's Bibliographical Services Division should continue to carry both DDC and LCC classmarks, and that they should do so as long as these facilitated the supply of exchangeable MARC records, and the generation of classified catalogs and bibliographies in forms acceptable and useful to public and academic libraries. In recent years, there has been some lobbying in Great Britain for the addition of UDC numbers to the MARC data base, but the evidence we obtained of national usage did not support it very strongly. We concluded that UDC should only be added to DDC and LCC numbers if the British Library found it desirable to do so for its own purposes that is, to facilitate information exchanges with other national libraries in Europe or elsewhere, or to provide a basis for its own shelf arrangement. Classification for Shelf Arrangement We now come to what proved to be the most difficult part of our brief: the determination of classification policies for the two great libraries of the Reference Division the British Museum Library and the Science Reference It will be noticed that this figure differs appreciably from that reported by Down- ing on p. 73 of this volume. It appears that there is no one authoritative list of British libraries, and that the British Library survey reported by Lewis was done by Aslib and in- cluded all special libraries which were institutional members.-Ed. SCHEME FOR A LARGE GENERAL LIBRARY 105 Library. These two libraries have developed quite separately, on separate sites, with quite different histories, and with different operating policies. The British Museum Library's particular need was for a classification scheme appropriate for the open-access collection, covering all fields of humanities and social sciences. Since it has not been classified before, there is no burden of reclassification involved. The Science Reference Library, by contrast, was a postwar creation with its nucleus in the nineteenth-century Patent Office Library, and although its book acquisition programs have been extended to embrace all copyright deposit items in all of its disciplinary fields, it still has the particular task of supplying the requirements of industrial research and the patents com- munitya task which it brought with it from its origins as the Patent Office Library and the National Reference Library for Science and Invention. Furthermore, it has put a large investment of professional energy over the last ten or more years into developing a special classification of its own from an earlier form used in the Patent Office. For convenience we may call this system the SRL scheme. Its collections are arranged by this scheme, and so are its subject catalogs. The problem here, then, is that the Science Reference Library sees itself as continuing to act as a discrete, "mission-oriented" library with its own role, its own identifiable clientele, and its own classification scheme as one of the tools by which it serves that clientele; the fulfillment of this mission is seen by its staff to require little interaction with its future next-door neighbor, the British Museum Library. What is to be gained by reclassifying SRL for the sake of uniformity with the BML next door? There are two answers to that question. One is the proposition that the use of a single classification is cheaper overall than the use of two or more especially when the single classification is one generated from the third corner of the triangle, the Bibliographical Services Division, and is salable, so to speak, to other libraries in the country and overseas. One drawback of the SRL's own scheme is that it is not used by any other library, and that its addition to BL's data base would be merely an additional expense, yielding benefit to none but SRL itself. The other answer to the question is that a single classification for both libraries of the Reference Division will provide flexibility and economy in demarcating the spheres of responsibility for each of the two libraries, as new disciplines and cross-disciplinary literatures emerge in the future. It will allow a uniformity of approach to the changing needs and interests of British Library users in general. Neither of these answers takes account of the quality of particular classifications, however. If one classification scheme is as good as another, the argument for standardization is simply one of cost and administrative 106 PETER LEWIS economy, and the value of classification as a professional method is in some ways diminished. If you regard classification as one of the most important elements in good library service to a particular clientele , you must give weight to the argument that what is gained financially and administratively in a change of classification may be lost in service to readers, if the new classification is less effective than the old one in meeting the needs of those users. It was not for the Working Party to determine whether SRL was to continue its "mission-oriented" role indefinitely, or alternatively to change its identity into a kind of scientific twin of the BML. What we could do, and did, was to examine the case that its present classification was significantly more effective for the control of scientific literature as a whole than any of the general classification schemes, which, being suitable for the BML, might also be used by SRL as an alternative to its own scheme for shelf arrangement. A study was carried out for us by Aslib of four general classification schemes: DDC, UDC, LCC and the Bibliographic Classification (BC). The last of these four was, of course, familiarly known in its original form by the name of its inventor, Bliss. What we studied was the preliminary schedules of the new revised version developed by Mills and others in England as a faceted classification. The four schemes were compared with each other and ranked in terms of seventeen criteria which in summary may be grouped as follows: (1) effectiveness as classifications, as evidenced, for instance, by provision of helpful collocation, level of specificity, up-to-dateness, notational qualities and searchability; (2) ease of use by a classifier; (3) availability of schedules; (4) frequency and extent of revision; (5) mechanisms established for mainten- ance and revision; and (6) extent of present use by libraries and bibliographic services. Judging by most of the criteria related to effectiveness as classifications, and with particular attention to the most recent thought on classification principles (as exemplified, among others, by the Classification Research Group), none of the four schemes was rated very high. We felt that LCC was the scheme that probably met fewest requirements, and BC possibly the most. However, BC has yet to be published in its revised form, and we were assessing it largely on the basis of its authors' claims; the judgment is thus very tentative. DDC and LCC were both rated high for criteria related to ease of use, availability of schedules, and extent of use by libraries as a whole. In addition, DDC was the only scheme of the four that scored high for the criteria related to frequency of revision, and to mechanisms for maintenance and revision. The investigation closely examined all of these questions, and took account of previous studies, such as the ALA Resources and Technical Services Division Classification Committee's "Statement on Types of Classifi- SCHEME FOR A LARGE GENERAL LIBRARY 107 cation Available to New Academic Libraries."! The detailed analysis is to be found in a technical memorandum prepared by Aslib for the Working Party, and this will be included among the appendices of the published report. At the risk of considerable oversimplification, I can attempt here only to summarize our findings on the four schemes as candidates for the role of arranging one-quarter million books on the open shelves of the British Museum Library: BC This was potentially the most progressive and satisfactory system for future needs. It is being developed in its revised form by British classificationists, and is thus distinctive and symbolic as a significant national contribution to modern classification, in advance of all others. However, against this must be balanced the unknown and untried performance characteristics of the new BC and the lack of any determinate policies with respect to all the other criteria related to availability of schedules, revision machinery, and use by other libraries. LCC This is a series of classification schemes used by a significant number of academic and other research libraries, whose general objectives and collections have more in common with the British Library than do those of the British Library with those of other libraries. LCC numbers are also available from the MARC record. Nevertheless, LCC rates low on most modern criteria related to effectiveness as a classification scheme and/or revision mechanism; it was particularly felt that the scheme offered the least possibility for a necessary British Library participation in long-term development and revision in accordance with British needs. UDC In many ways, UDC is the most important scheme in the interests of international standardization, particularly as it is widely used in Europe. On the other hand, it is generally considered seriously out of date and in need of drastic revision, and its future is uncertain. If the British Library adopts UDC, it will be necessary for it to become closely and positively involved in schedule development, and probably to make some financial investment in it. In addition, from the British Museum Library user's point of view, UDC has some disadvantages in its notation, which is designed primarily for the arrangement of document citations, and not for shelf arrangement. DDC This is the scheme that emerged as the most likely candidate for the British Museum Library, not so much from its positive merits as a classification (although it was thought to have no fewer positive merits than any of its rivals) as from the relative absence of drawbacks. Its practical advantages were seen to be: (l)it is more widely used in Great Britain than any other scheme; (2) its schedules and index are complete, widely available, and reasonably easy to use; (3) it is already being applied to British copyright 108 PETER LEWIS materials, as well as to a substantial proportion of other BL acquisitions; (4) there are well-established procedures for its maintenance and revision ; and (5) indications were given to us by British representation on the Editorial Policy Committee, and by recent policy statements from that body, that British and European requirements can be effectively input into the revision machinery in the future. Classification of the SRL From these conclusions relating to BML, we were left logically with only three possibilities to investigate with respect to the Science Reference Library. These were: (l)to retain the present SRL classification, (2) to replace the SRL scheme with UDC, or (3) to replace the SRL scheme with DDC. The debate on the relative merits of DDC, UDC and the SRL schemes tended to revolve around three factors: collocation, specificity, and class occupancy. A study carried out by Aslib compared the extent to which UDC/DDC and the SRL schemes collocated works on related topics, and judged that the schemes were roughly equal in this respect. On the other hand, another study by the staff of the Science Reference Library concluded that the SRL scheme provided significantly better collocation than DDC for searches in the field of technology. Then Aslib undertook a comparison of the specificity of the SRL scheme, the medium edition of UDC, and DDC in three subject areas. Only 54-59 percent of SRL classes had corresponding classes in UDC, while the figures for DDC were 36-38 percent. However, it was felt that it would be wrong to conclude from these results that the medium edition of UDC was less specific than the SRL scheme. A more detailed analysis of the situation, based on the class physical chemistry, showed that whereas only 58 percent of the SRL classes could be located in UDC, only 32 percent of the UDC classes had counterparts in the SRL scheme. Thus, since the overlap between the classifications was much less than might have been expected, there were no clear grounds for concluding that one of the schemes was more specific than another. At this point, the SRL staff introduced the concept of class occupancy, to be measured as the number of documents filed at a single classmark; they defined an overcrowded classmark as one at which more than twenty documents were filed. Two studies were made of class occupancy and overcrowding. These can be compared only in very general terms, because of the different document samples used, and at this level of comparison they appeared to produce conflicting results. The first study by SRL found that, for three selected subject areas, between 3 percent and 24 percent of the SRL SCHEME FOR A LARGE GENERAL LIBRARY 109 collection (classified by the SRL scheme) fell within an overcrowded class. If DDC were to be used, it seemed that this percentage might rise to 56-85 percent. However, this study had unfortunately omitted the facilities for synthesis in DDC, and the second study carried out by the Systems Development Branch of BL analyzed the effects of lifting this limitation, thereby allowing DDC a greater degree of specificity. This second study analyzed a complete set (as much as could be obtained) of all statistical mathematics entries classified by the eighteenth edition of DDC in BNB and LC MARC tapes. The set of 911 records produced 225 unique classmarks. Only 2 percent of the DDC classmarks were found to be overcrowded, but 36 percent of the sample fell within an overcrowded class. A further study of the effect on the full sample of eliminating those items which would not meet the criteria of a postgraduate selection policy would be necessary to measure the realistic level of class occupancy which would result, but it is a safe assumption that such an elimination would reduce significantly the numbers of documents in overcrowded classes. Therefore, from an SRL viewpoint, and again at the risk of oversimplification, the arguments for and against the three schemes studied can be stated as follows: UDC The defects of UDC are the same for the Science Reference Library as they would be for the British Museum Library. Nevertheless, as an admittedly science-oriented general classification, UDC is by tradition the first choice for scientific and technical libraries of many kinds; some beneficial spinoff in the direction of these other libraries might be expected from its adoption by SRL and its consequent inclusion in the central bibliographic record. If it were adopted by SRL, there would be a strong case for it also to be adopted by BML. As with any other classification not already in use at SRL, there would be on the debit side the cost of reclassifying some or all of the present SRL stock. DDC-Again, those merits of DDC indicated for BML requirements would apply also for the Science Reference Library. The adoption of DDC would have the additional advantage of reducing the current work load, since a proportion of SRL's intake would be received with DDC classmarks already assigned. DDC shares with UDC the advantage of being an acceptable classification in principle to form the basis of a unified approach to shelf arrangement within the two libraries of the Reference Division as a whole. On the debit side, as compared with the SRL scheme, there are the costs of reclassifying to DDC some or all of the SRL stock and, in contrast with UDC and the SRL scheme, the relative absence of recognition of DDC by scientists and technologists as a classification particularly well suited to their needs. 110 PETER LEWIS SRL Scheme The SRL scheme has been tailored to the library's requirements during its primary period of growth as the National Reference Library for Science and Invention. Being an "in-house" scheme, it is entirely under the control of SRL staff, and may be modified at need to reflect changing user requirements, changing acquisition policies or changes in the literature as they occur. The retention of the SRL scheme would avoid the immediate cost of reclassifying some or all of the present stock. In the long run, however, some effort would be required to keep it up to date, that is, to avoid the situation of accelerating obsolescence that befalls all "homemade" classification schemes when their originators depart, or that has arisen to a lesser extent with UDC. This effort would not be offset by cost savings in other ways, although it may be that these savings would be relatively small. Retention of the SRL scheme would also involve the addition of extra SRL classmarks to certain categories of material within the BL data base. The picture which emerges from studies of the suitability of DDC, UDC, and the SRL scheme for the Science Reference Library collections was thus unclear. The evidence we gathered did not demonstrate a clear superiority of any one classification scheme over another in terms of collocation, specificity or class occupancy; any decisions for changing from the present SRL scheme will have to be made on other grounds. Two main conclusions followed from the whole investigation of classification schemes. First, if the British Library's two references libraries are to be regarded as a pan-disciplinary collection with a single classification, the choice for shelf arrangement appears to lie between UDC and DDC. Of these, UDC has a wider international authority (in Europe at least), and a more widely participative process of schedule development; but, as far as the national library community is concerned, DDC predominates. Secondly, if the British Library Reference Division is to be regarded as two separate collections with a fairly permanent demarcation between them, different classifications for the two collections can be considered. As there is no intention of carrying over the existing pressmark system into the new BML Reading Room, the best choice of existing schemes there would appear to be DDC. For SRL there is no obvious best choice. The advantages of retaining the in-house scheme must be weighed against the long-term, overall advantages of changing to DDC. We made two further points about the Science Reference Library. The first was that considerable effort had gone into the creation and imple- mentation of its special in-house classification scheme over the previous ten years. However persuasive the arguments of cost-effectiveness might be, the SCHEME FOR A LARGE GENERAL LIBRARY 111 abandonment of the SRL scheme might well be seen by the specialist staff of the Science Reference Library as an unfavorable verdict on their contribution to the library's work. It is difficult to weigh this factor, but there is no doubt that it must in some way be inserted in the equation of the decision-making process. The second point we made perhaps counterbalances the first: the Science Reference Library today puts the greatest emphasis on meeting the needs of those who visit it, and thus rates classification for shelf arrangement high among its professional methods. Looking into the future, we may expect that the SRL will develop rather more into a central component of the developing national and international networks of scientific information transfer, and that it will be better able to perform this function if its classification and indexing systems match those of other components in the network, and follow the lines of the development being pursued within UNISIST. This requirement is likely to outweigh shelf arrangement as an institutional priority, and to reduce the validity of such measures as "class occupancy" in the determination of classification policies. We had little help from the published literature concerning the determination of unit costs. Most of the unit costs quoted were so dependent on the particular circumstances and environment in which they arose that no useful generalizations could be made. There was a considerable amount of internal information in various forms, and the report's appendices included analyses and inferences drawn from them. However, they must be regarded as very tentative, since they were derived from data concerning stock sizes and rates of growth that may already have been out of date at the time we examined them. We had hoped to get more accurate measurements by means of planned diary surveys of operations in various parts of the British Library, but unfortunately these had to be suspended. From what was available to us, we were able to reach certain preliminary conclusions: 1. PRECIS, as well as being more effective, would be significantly cheaper than the present manual system for compiling the British Museum Subject Index. 2. A single classification system for the whole of the British Library would be cheaper to operate than two or more systems. 3. LC Classification probably costs less to apply than any other of the general schemes. 4. DDC appears to cost less to apply than the SRL scheme. Beyond these, there were few positive statements to be made. 112 PETER LEWIS Postscript Since this paper was presented, the British Library has published the Working Party's report ,2 with a preface by the Director-General of the Reference Division stating that BL "accepts the recommendations ... in general." Specifically, DDC is accepted "insofar as a single scheme proves to be necessary . . . [and] will be adopted immediately for certain open access col- lections." At the Science Reference Library, however, adoption is to be post- poned "until the future accommodation pattern becomes clearer" and in the interim "all current intake will ... be classified also by DDC" so as to "mini- mise the work involved in transferring at a later stage to a DDC arrangement, if this proved to be the best decision for a unified collection." The costs of delaying the SRL decision, says the Director-General, "though not negligible, are capable of being accommodated." REFERENCES 1. "Statement on Types of Classification Available to New Academic Libraries," Library Resources & Technical Services 9:104-11, Winter 1965. 2. British Library Working Party on Classification and Indexing. Final Report (BL Research & Development Reports No. 5233). Boston Spa, BL Lend- ing Division, 1975. HANS H. WELLISCH Associate Professor College of Library and Information Services University of Maryland College Park, Maryland Dewey Decimal Classification, Universal Decimal Classification, and the Broad System of Ordering: The Evolution of Universal Ordering Systems O f the three systems named in the title of this paper, the first is familiar to everyone, even outside the profession of librarianship; the second is much less well known; and the last one is probably still a total stranger. Actually, to say that the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC) is little known in the United States is an understatement. Except for a handful of people who actually use the system, the general notion among many librarians in this country seems to be that the UDC is a quaint, even outlandish system, a transmogrification of Dewey performed by some oddballs in the city of Brussels. American textbooks on classification still call it the "Brussels Extension." Such ignorance and neglect is even more deplorable as the UDC is essentially of genuine American descent, being the offspring of the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC). 113 114 HANS H. WELLISCH When we celebrate the Dewey centennial, we can at the same time look back on exactly eighty years of UDC. It was in 1895 that two Belgian lawyers, Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine, decided to adapt the DDC for their plan of the Institut International de Bibliographic (IIB) as a classification system for the worldwide repertory of all knowledge recorded not only in books, but also in articles, reports, and any other kind of documents. Their choice was mainly influenced by the features that were then unique to the DDC: (l)the system dealt with concepts and ideas rather than with books, although it was primarily intended for the arrangement of books on shelves; (2) its purely numerical notation constituted a universally understood metalanguage, independent of any natural language; (3) the decimal principle seemed to allow for unlimited expansion for the accommodation of new subjects; and (4) the synthetic devices of number- building and form divisions allowed for the synthesis of specific subject codes with those for recurrent, common and general topics. It was this last feature which appealed most to Otlet and La Fontaine, and they soon developed it into the versatile and elaborate "Auxiliaries," each introduced by its own symbol, thus creating the first "faceted" classification scheme (although this term was then not used). What was still lacking for their purpose of close classification of minute details was sufficient subdivision in the main tables, and they proceeded immediately to refine the basic scheme. All this was done with the full consent of Dewey himself, who promised his "cooperation and criticizm" for all additions made. So rapid was the pace of adaptation and elaboration that only one year later, in 1896, the UDC tables already contained 40,000 headings, while the DDC (then in its fifth edition) had less than 7,500. Dewey had to admit regretfully that a critical evaluation of these expansions and cooperation in their further development was a task which, for lack of time, he could not take upon himself. For the next three decades, the two systems developed independently, yet more or less in parallel, with the UDC becoming more and more detailed, but still without changes in the basic framework devised by Dewey. In 1924 it was officially agreed upon to "harmonize" the DDC and UDC, so that the expansions made in Europe would also become an integral part of the American scheme, thus allowing for greater indexing specificity for those who wanted or needed it. In his preface to the twelfth edition of DDC, Dewey stated that the project was "well underway," and he praised the features that were most characteristic of the UDC: the Common Auxiliaries, based on his own Form Divisions, and the synthetic device of putting a colon sign between two or more UDC codes to indicate their relationship (a device which had its origin in Dewey 's use of the digit as a number-building device). Dewey 115 stated that "IIB has devized and uzes injenius simbols" and extolled "their vast practical advantajes," concluding that "obviusly these simbols allow *\ subdivision of the same number in many different ways without confuzion. However, despite Dewey's enthusiasm for the UDC and his endeavors to amalgamate the two schemes, developments took a different turn. In the late 1930s, and especially after World War II, the DDC and UDC grew further apart. Ironically, the differences occurred not so much in the "Auxiliaries," the feature that made UDC seem so unlike DDC, but rather in the subdivisions of the main schedules, where minute detail could have been achieved without radical departures from the parent scheme. In retrospect, we can only deplore that this was allowed to happen, not only because it led to much duplication of effort (since both schemes inevitably had to accommo- date new ideas, inventions and phenomena within their basically still-identical frameworks of ten main classes), but also because a unified scheme might have resulted long ago in a worldwide system for the identification and effective retrieval of recorded information independent of language and terminology barriers. Only now is such a worldwide system about to emerge in the shape of the Unesco-sponsored Broad System of Ordering (to which we shall return later), and it is gratifying to observe that it has its roots in the two great decimal systems. Even though DDC and UDC could no longer be reconciled, we are now able to perceive that they continued to influence each other: there is an unmistakable trend in the DDC to become less enumerative and more synthetic, more faceted, especially since the seventeenth edition. The gradual transformation of the Form Divisions into the present Standard Subdivisions, and the creation of the various Tables undoubtedly owe much to the development and mode of application of the Auxiliaries in UDC (even though the principle of general applicability of the Tables throughout the whole system has not yet been fully and consistently applied. For example, the Persons Table is not applicable in class 300, (where it would be most appropriate) because the direct subdivisions for persons are retained according to the principle of "integrity of numbers." Conversely, where DDC was better developed or more elaborate than UDC, e.g., in the historical schedules for the two world wars, or in the history and geography subdivisions for the United States and some other countries, the UDC followed the DDC and adopted its schedules in their entirety rather than developing new ones. The UDC Today The UDC as it presents itself today is undoubtedly vastly different from its parent scheme, although it still retains nine of the ten main classes of 116 HANS H. WELLISCH DDC. The differences lie not only in the very large number of minute subdivisions for almost every subject, but also in the allocation of relative place for several major subjects, especially regarding more recent developments in science and technology such as nuclear science, engineering and computers. Although it has lost some ground to thesauri and specially devised classification schemes, it is still extensively used in Western Europe (particularly in the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium), it is being used by the Soviet Union and other East European countries for all scientific and technical publications, and it is widely used in the Latin American countries. The number of libraries, indexing and abstracting services, and individual users has been estimated to be at least 100,000 perhaps more. Only in the United States has the UDC not met with appreciable success, despite the efforts of several large special libraries and of American and Canadian information scientists who were instrumental in demonstrating the potential of the UDC in computerized information retrieval. Despite its phenomenal growth and apparent success, during the past two decades the UDC has been the subject of severe criticism, both from outside observers (including some who had never been actual users of the scheme and were thus not well qualified to evaluate its merits and demerits) and from within. The minute subdivisions, once thought to be the strength and pride of the system, have been found to be excessive in number, leading to unwanted redundancy and consequently to retrieval failures; classes 5 and 6, devoted to the sciences and technology, are now hopelessly overcrowded (a fate they share with classes 500 and 600 in DDC); finally, the management of the system, while being highly democratic and oriented toward an international clientele, is cumbersome and inefficient, with the result that proposed additions and changes are being made too slowly and infrequently. During the last five years, this criticism has resulted in some significant movement toward change, partly aimed at reform of the existing framework, and partly directed toward radically new solutions to the problem of an international and universal system of information retrieval. Reform Since its beginnings, the UDC has been based on the principle of constant ongoing revision in order to keep pace with new developments and new conceptions of the universe of knowledge. Although this has resulted in a rather unwieldy committee structure which often impedes rather than advances needed revisions, every year hundreds of new and revised codes are added, many obsolete ones are deleted, and major expansions of existing main classes are effected. Of course, sometimes radical surgery would be easier E VOL UTION OF UNI VERSA L ORDERING S YSTEMS 1 1 7 to perform and would give better results, but piecemeal revision and updating are necessary because of the needs of present users, some of which have built up extensive files over the years. Lately, the processes of reform have been brought more in line with the requirements of modern information retrieval, and several specially appointed committees have tried to apply the insights gained from research into the theoretical foundations of classification. Among the tangible results of their work are the following: 1. The procedures for the proposal of additions, deletions or changes and their accomplishment by appropriate committees or experts has been streamlined, leading to a quicker publication of the results. 2. Most parts of class 3 social sciences have been largely remodeled, and now constitute not only the most detailed but probably also the best balanced schemes for this field, which is one of the most difficult to handle in any information retrieval system. The difficulties result from its diffuse, imprecise and constantly changing terminology, and because of the ideological differences and diametrically opposed conceptions held by sociologists, economists, educators and politicians in the West, in the communist countries, and in the Third World. The construction of the revised parts of class 3 was undertaken with the collaboration of experts from capitalist and communist countries alike, which should ensure that it will be a truly international tool for information retrieval in the social sciences. 3. Several large and important subject fields have undergone major revisions, most of which could be made in situ, i.e., without a change in the main code; among these are 51 mathematics, 52 astronomy, 624 civil engineering, 69 building construction, 796 sport, and 903 archeology (this one transferred from 930.26 and entirely new). The Basic Medium Edition (BME) For a long time, the UDC has been published in editions of varying scope. The full editions contain every code (estimated at more than 200,000); the first of these were two French editions, followed by a German one, and now there is also an almost complete (although not entirely updated) full edition in English. Partial full editions exist also in Czech, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Spanish and Japanese. These editions are intended for subject experts who need minutely detailed codes for classing documents in their particular field, but they are not practical for classing documents ranging over all or most fields, e.g., in general library collections or for a comprehensive indexing service. Therefore, more than twenty abridged editions have been published over the years in as many languages, ranging in 118 HANS H. WELLISCH scope from 10 to 15 percent of the codes contained in a full edition. Incidentally, these abridged editions form a kind of multilingual dictionary, in which concepts and their denoting terms in various languages are linked by the same code numbers. Unfortunately, abridged editions soon proved to be sufficient only for small libraries or for rather broad classification. In 1967, a medium-sized edition ("Handausgabe") was published in Germany, comprising about 30 percent of the codes in the full edition, and this was soon followed by a similar French "medium" edition. Although the decision about which codes from the full edition should be included in a medium-sized one cannot be based on percentages alone, and must be carefully considered for each class in the light of user needs and of characteristics of the pertinent literature, it is now generally agreed that an edition containing about one-third of the main codes, plus a complete set of auxiliary tables for the common facets, is the most versatile tool for the practical indexer and classifier. The last English abridged edition was published in 1961, and is now hopelessly out of date. In light of the success of the German and French medium editions, it was decided not to issue another English abridged edition, but to forge ahead with a medium edition which, at the same time, would become the basic master edition on which all others would be modeled. The original goal to produce this Basic Medium Edition (BME) in 1976 as UDC's contribution to the Dewey centennial could unfortunately not be met, but it may be published in 1977. The amount of abridgment for each class has already been established by the general editor in close collaboration with existing committees and subject experts; it will probably have main tables containing about 50,000 codes, to which will be added complete tables of common facets; all additions and changes up until mid- 197 5 will be incorporated. Preparations are presently being made to convert the codes of the BME and their English verbal equivalents into machine-readable form, to be later augmented by German, French, and possibly other language equivalents, and to update the resulting master file whenever revisions are being made. It is possible that this master file will be managed by the Library of the Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule in Zurich, where a machine-readable data base of this kind already exists in abbreviated form (mainly for technical and scientific subjects covered by this library). A copy of the master file will also be kept at the headquarters of the International Federation for Documentation (FID) in the Hague, and the tapes will be made available to other users who could produce their own version of UDC tables for specialized purposes, or in languages not covered by the master tape. The alphabetical index to the BME will be published separately at a later date, and will probably be constructed on the thesaurus principle, thus EVOLUTION OF UNIVERSAL ORDERING SYSTEMS 119 producing another variant of the system originally produced for the field of electrical engineering under the name of Thesaurofacet. A pilot project for the construction of such an index has already been produced by Belgian experts for class 33 economics, and is considered to be better and easier to use than the conventional relative index of the type with which we are familiar in Dewey and in the English abridged edition of 1961. Another possibility is the computer-aided construction of index entries in a KWOC format, recently employed in the index to the Dutch abridged edition, which is much better than the computer-generated index to the German medium edition that was produced by simply extracting keywords from headings without any regard to related terms or synonyms. A New Class 4 A reform measure not yet implemented is the creation of a new class 4. For more than a decade, this class has been vacant, its contents having been amalgamated with class 8, which now comprises both literature and linguistics. The intention had been to make an entire main class available for relocation of scientific and technical subjects now squeezed into the overcrowded classes 5 and 6. Several proposals for the repopulation of class 4 have been made; the most recent, as yet existing only in rough outline, has the following subdivisions: 4 man and his natural environment; material resources 41 man as an individual; medical sciences; anthropology; psychology 42 general biology; botany; zoology 43 agricultural sciences; plants and animals 44 animal biology and husbandry (if 43 for plants and crops only) 45 mineral resources; mining and mineral dressing 46 materials; testing, sampling, etc. 47 handling and transport of materials and persons 48 management: business, household, etc. It is, of course, possible to quarrel with this proposal and its juxtaposition of major subjects as much as with any of the earlier proposals, but it seems to come close to the present general consensus on a helpful collocation of topics clustering around man and his environment. If finally adopted and suitably elaborated, it would make room for the reallocation of subjects now suffering from bad notation and unhelpful placement, among them electrical, nuclear and transportation engineering. 120 HANS H. WELLISCH Drastic Revision and a New UDC The implementation of reform in various parts of the UDC as outlined above will inevitably lead to a complete restructuring and possibly to a New UDC (NUDC). A committee on "drastic revision of the UDC" has been active during the past three years, and its members have produced various outlines for such a reconstruction. The latest version envisages the creation of General Facets which would be applicable throughout the system (similar to, but more systematic than, the present Auxiliaries) such as Attributes, Phenomena, Processes, Methods and Objects; subdivisions of the latter would be Matter, Persons, Organizations, Products, etc., each of which could be further subdivided as needed. There would also be a number of Subject Fields, roughly subdivided into Natural Sciences, Life Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Humanities, and Social Sciences, each further subdivided, but not to the sometimes excessive degree of detail now found in UDC. Common features in each Subject Field would be expressed by Special Facets, i.e., those applicable only to a particular field or topic. All this is, of course, by no means entirely new, and can in fact be traced back to the original ideas on synthesis of numbers as conceived by Dewey, but it would certainly result in a new universal classification scheme which would have little in common with the UDC as we know it now. The new scheme is already well on its way, and at least some of the General Facets have already been elaborated in detail, or will be taken over more or less completely from the present UDC, e.g., the Materials Facet -03, with whose help any object can be classed according to the material of which it is made, independent of where in the UDC the object has been classed. Other General Facets are the Time Facet (now having the notation ". . .") and the Space Facet (. . .), both of which have recently been revised and expanded to cater to the needs not only of geographers and historians, but also of any classifier in need of time, place and space indications. A substantial part of the work with an NUDC will consist in weeding the existing schedules and eliminating direct subdivisions of main codes which can be better expressed by general or special facets. Doing so will make the whole system more flexible and amenable to cope with rapid changes both in science and technology and in the general conceptions of the world we live in. It will be possible, of course, to handle the NUDC by computers for the purpose of automatic retrieval of information from large systems. The present UDC has shown itself to be amenable to automation, and more than sixty working systems (some of them experimental) have been designed and used. Partial retrieval failures or other shortcomings of these systems were almost always due to the fact that the basically faceted structure of UDC is not uniformly applied throughout the system. Straight decimal subdivision of main EVOLUTION OF UNIVERSAL ORDERING SYSTEMS 121 codes (inherited from DDC) is often substituted for synthetic notation, and unnecessary duplication results from denoting recurrent concepts by different kinds of auxiliary notations in various parts of the UDC. The elimination of such incongruencies by judicious weeding of the tables and application of General and Special Facets will make the restructured UDC a much more reliable retrieval tool for mechanized systems. Broad System of Ordering (BSO) The worldwide information systems network created by Unesco under the name of UNISIST recommended in its basic policy statement that an internationally applicable classification system be adopted as a means to organize recorded knowledge independent of the many vernaculars in which it is now published all over the world. It was obvious that the UDC would be considered for this role, but it was also pointed out that it was not acceptable in the form in which it then existed. It soon became clear, however, that if anybody could design a suitable classification system, it would have to be the group of people who had the widest experience with an already existing international scheme. Thus, several prominent members of the Central Classification Committee of UDC, together with other experts, were entrusted with the task of designing a Broad System of Ordering with the instruction to create a tool capable of achieving three main objectives: (1) to serve as a connecting link and a switching mechanism between various information systems, services and centers, each of which may have its own indexing and retrieval language (natural or controlled, verbal or numerical, but in most cases incompatible with that of any other system); (2) to be used for internationally standardized "tagging" of subject fields and their main subdivisions, i.e., to serve as a shallow indexing tool; and (3) to be a referral aid for the identification and location of information sources, centers and services of all kinds. A proposal for BSO was elaborated and submitted to UNISIST in early 1975 for approval and testing. The scheme contains about 2,000 headings, arranged in three levels of hierarchy; approximately 670 of these are in the natural and life sciences (including agriculture and medicine), 530 are in technology, and the rest, about 700, cover the social sciences, humanities and arts. The small number of headings in the BSO (fewer than those in the second edition of Dewey's scheme) was deliberately used in order to keep the system broad, as indicated by its name. BSO is not intended to supersede individual specific headings or codes in existing indexing languages, but to serve primarily as a switching language. An interesting feature in BSO is the separation of the natural sciences from their associated technologies, despite 722 HANS H. WELLISCH the often-voiced criticism of this arrangement in DDC, UDC and other classification schemes, and often attributed to the outmoded conceptions prevailing in the late nineteenth century. Both classificationists and subject experts agreed that, on the whole, the advantages of such a separation outweighed the disadvantages; they made an exception only for the life sciences, because of the close ties between biology and its applications in agriculture and medicine. Throughout the proposed BSO, care was taken to ensure that the individual elements could be freely combined in order to accommodate future developments and new knowledge without frequent drastic restructuring of the scheme. This feature would also compensate to some degree for the separation of sciences and technologies. The scheme is now to be tested by experts in various fields, before final adjustments to the scope and specificity of headings will be made in the light of practical experience. The field trials will test the completeness of coverage and the appropriateness of indexing depth. Initially, the tests will not be aimed at the retrieval of specific documents, but rather at broad groups of documents and "blocks of information" by taking samples from the World Inventory of Indexing and Abstracting Services (published by FID in collaboration with the National Federation of Abstracting and Indexing Services, and available in machine-readable format), from other indexes in machine-readable format, and from national directories of information sources. The designers of BSO wisely refrained from appending a notation to the tentative scheme, in order not to influence the conceptual structure by any constraints exercised by a preconceived ordering device. The notation will be assigned to the headings only after final confirmation of their scope and relative position in the scheme. If and when this happens, the notation may not be purely numerical, and it may not even be decimal, so that on the face of it there seems to be little, if any, connection between BSO and UDC. Because of the broad nature of BSO, however, a system such as UDC with its greater detail and flexibility will be needed to supplement the "roof code" of BSO for the purpose of indexing and retrieving individual and specific documents. More important still, it is probably no exaggeration to say that without UDC, BSO may not have become a reality, or that it would at least have been vastly more difficult to design such a scheme from scratch. After all, the cumulative experience of hundreds of contributors, and the feedback provided by thousands of users throughout the world over a period of eight decades, together with insights gained from research into the theoretical foundations of classification during the last thirty years, has resulted in a tool that, despite its many shortcomings, remains the most universal, versatile and widely used system for indexing and retrieval of information. The UDC in turn would not have been EVOLUTION OF UNIVERSAL ORDERING SYSTEMS 123 possible, but for the genius of Dewey, whose scheme contained the basic building blocks on which all modern retrieval systems have been built. Perhaps the new BSO will achieve, albeit on a very general level, for the subject organization of documents what has already been accomplished to a large extent in the closely related field of descriptive control by the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD) and other appurte- nant elements aimed at standardization in bibliographic control. It may thus become the capstone of the great conception which for 500 years has been the dream of bibliographers and librarians, and which only now is gradually taking shape, namely Universal Bibliographic Control knowing the sum total of all knowledge that has been recorded in whatever form, and knowing what and where those records are. REFERENCES 1. Dewey, Melvil. Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index. 12th ed. Lake Placid Club, N.Y., Forest Press, 1927, p. 40. 2. Ibid., pp. 40-41. 3. Rigby, Malcolm. Computers and the UDC: A Decade of Progress, 1963-1973. The Hague, International Federation for Documentation, 1974. (FID 523) 4. Downey, Maurice W. "Data Collection and Transcription in the Cataloguing Section," Libri 22:58-76, 1972. 5. Aitchison, Jean, et al. Thesauro facet: A Thesaurus and Facetted Classification for Engineering and Related Subjects. Whetstone, England, English Electric Co., 1969. 6. Rigby, op. cit. ADDITIONAL REFERENCES Foskett, Anthony C. The Universal Decimal Classification: The History, Present Status and Future Prospects of a Large General Classification Scheme. Hamden, Conn., Linnet Books, 1973. Schmidt, A. F., and Wijn, J. H. de. "Some Possibilities for a New 'Reformed' UDC (Suitable for Extension of the Standard Reference Code)," DK-Mitteilungen 16:19-21, 1972. Van der Laan, Andre, and Wijn, Jan H. de. "UDC Revision and SRC Project: Relations and Feedback," Unesco Bulletin for Libraries 28:2-9, Jan. -Feb. 1974. Wellisch, H. "UDC: Present and Potential," Drexel Library Quarterly 10:75-89, Oct. 1974. DEREK AUSTIN Head Subject Systems Office The British Library London, England The Role of Indexing in Subject Retrieval On first reading the list of speakers proposed for this institute, I became aware of being rather the "odd man out" for two reasons. Firstly, I was asked to present a paper on PRECIS which is very much a verbal indexing system-at a conference dominated by contributions on classification schemes with a natural bias, as the centenary year approaches, toward the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC). Secondly, I feared (quite wrongly, as it happens) that I might be at variance with one or two of my fellow speakers, who would possibly like to assure us, in an age when we can no longer ignore the computer, that traditional library schemes such as DDC and Library of Congress Classification (LCC) are capable of maintaining their original function of organizing collections of documents, and at the same time are also well suited to the retrieval of relevant citations from machine-held files. In this context, I am reminded of a review of a general collection of essays on classification schemes which appeared in the Journal of Documentation in 1972. Norman Roberts, reviewing the papers which dealt specifically with the well established schemes, deduced that "all the writers project their particular schemes into the future with an optimism that springs, perhaps, as much from a sense of emotional involvement as from concrete evidence." Since I do not believe that these general schemes can play any significant part in the retrieval of items from mechanized files, it appeared that I had been cast in the role of devil's advocate. 124 ROLE OF INDEXING 125 By tradition, the role of devil's advocate (and we should remember that every conference needs one) has to be defended by logical argument. I would therefore like to begin by stating some of my grounds for believing that a library classification, as this term is usually understood, cannot function equally well for the dual purpose of organizing shelves on the one hand, and searching machine-held files on the other. This will then serve as a useful introduction to the topic on which I was primarily invited to speak: the role of the verbal subject index in document retrieval, using PRECIS as the example with which I am familiar. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION The review by Norman Roberts quoted earlier referred to a collection of essays edited by Arthur Maltby, entitled Classification in the 1970's. A rather more direct opinion of this work was expressed by an astute American reviewer, Jean Perreault, who regarded these essays as clear evidence that "the two major purposes of documentary classification, namely for shelf organisation and for mechanised retrieval, are not well served by a single system unless consciously modified to cater for the two purposes.' Perreault does not suggest how this modification might be carried out, though I strongly suspect that any alteration of a scheme to enhance its performance in one of these roles would almost certainly render it less effective in the other. To demonstrate this point, we can consider the relationship between structure and function in a classification scheme, starting with its obvious function of imposing order upon collections of documents. For this purpose, we can stipulate certain desiderata, of which the most important are probably: 1 . brevity of notation this point was heavily stressed by librarians in a survey of classification needs carried out by the (British) Library Association in 1966; 4 2. reasonable collocation, or the bringing together of like-with-like on the shelves, while bearing in mind the disconcerting fact that no library scheme, however well conceived, can ever bring together all the documents which a given reader would regard as belonging to his special field of interest; 3. hospitality and specificity -with the introduction of these two comple- mentary characteristics we can already begin to detect an element of strain (i.e., How can any scheme offer these two characteristics, and still retain a short notation?); 4. standardization becoming increasingly important as international data exchange networks continue to develop. The acceptance of a classification scheme as a general standard could eventually mean that the librarian in 126 DEREK AUSTIN Chicago has no need to reclassify any work which has been handled already by his counterpart in London or Paris. Provided that a decision made in the country of origin of the document accords with standard practice, it should be possible to adopt that decision as soon as it becomes available, either in the form of a magnetic tape record, or via a telecommunication link directly into the foreign data base. I should now like to consider a different set of desiderata: those which apply to a mechanized file intended for tracing relevant documents in response to users' inquiries. In this context, we could stipulate two important characteristics: 1. currency and hospitality that is, we need the ability to identify quickly works on newly emerging concepts, or on new subjects which consist of familiar concepts combined in unfamiliar and even unexpected ways. A good deal of the literature we handle on a day-to-day basis contains emergent knowledge which belongs to one or the other of these two categories; 2. we need to identify, in the most economical way (which in computer terms means as quickly as possible) all the works which may have dealt with a specific concept. For this purpose, a given concept should ideally be represented by just one symbol which can then be used as the key to its retrieval from any part of the file. If we now attempt to compare these two sets of desiderata that is, those for a shelf-order system, and those for a mechanized file we can, perhaps, begin to see why these different needs cannot be satisfied entirely by a single system. Let us consider, for example, the librarian's justifiable need for a short notation, and contrast this with the need, in a mechanized file, to identify each separate element in a compound subject by some unique symbol which could serve as the key to its retrieval from any part of the system. An enumerative classification, such as DDC or LCC, obviously serves the librarian very well in terms of notational economy. A great deal of conceptual information can be packed into a fairly simple class mark such as 621.3, which represents electrical engineering. However, this number is not particularly helpful if we consider it as an aggregate of concepts from the viewpoint of machine retrieval. The symbol .3, attached to the stem number 621, means electrical in this case, but it does not follow (as it should, ideally, in a imechanized system) that the mark .3 continues to express electrical throughout the rest of the schedules. In a different class context, such as 914, for example, an additional .3 denotes Central Europe and Germany. In that case, a given symbol does not consistently represent the same concept. The converse is equally true; that is, a given concept is not ROLE OF INDEXING 127 represented consistently by the same symbol. In fact, it takes approximately one hundred different symbols to represent the concept electrical or electricity in the schedules of the eighteenth edition of DDC. Such a wide range of numbers is partly due to the fact that this scheme is generally enumerative, but it does not follow that the problem has been solved by the makers of faceted classifications. For example, a relatively simple concept such as iron is expressed by at least six entirely different numbers in the abridged edition of the Universal Decimal Classification, and by several different symbols in the Colon Classification. This does not mean that these schemes have no role to play in library organization, but it does cast at least some doubts on their effectiveness as tools for mechanized searching. I have tried, in a different paper, to set out the case for regarding these faceted schemes as less than satisfactory for present-day purposes on the grounds that, in trying to satisfy both the librarian and the data base manager, they may have attempted the impossible and succeeded in neither. THE CRG RESEARCH INTO A NEW GENERAL CLASSIFICATION I might point out that this opinion represents more than a theoretical viewpoint. It is also based on some personal experience in trying to devise a scheme which could function equally well for both library arrangement and mechanized retrieval. An opportunity to explore this ground arose in connection with the NATO-funded research into a new general classification scheme which was carried out by the Classification Research Group (CRG) in London during the 1960s. Partially for the reasons I have outlined, the CRG decided that an entirely new approach to classification was needed one which, it was hoped, would lead to a scheme which could function equally well for both library arrangement and the identification of works on specific concepts. It was assumed from the beginning of this research that any new scheme should be founded upon the basic postulates for an analytico -synthetic classification established by Ranganathan. These postulates are themselves based on two assumptions which together constitute the keystone to modern classification theory: (l)any compound subject is amenable to analysis into discrete conceptual elements, each of which (at least in theory) could be identified by its own unique symbol; and (2) the compound subject, regarded as a whole, could then be reconstituted out of these parts in accordance with a general formula, and the formula itself could be based upon a single set of logical principles which would apply across the whole spectrum of knowledge. 128 DEREK AUSTIN These postulates are all very well in theory, but what about the practice? At the time when the CRG research began, no one had actually attempted to take these ideas to their logical conclusion and construct an entirely analytico-synthetic classification. Even Ranganathan's Colon Classifica- tion is firmly based on a set of main classes, and the notation which represents a given concept can vary from one main class to another. Furthermore, Ranganathan's formula for number building, based on the general categories of Personality, Matter, Energy, Space and Time, is not so generalized at it first appears. In particular, the primary facet, Personality, has caused problems for both teachers and practitioners. Since this is the factor which has to be cited first when building a compound subject from its parts, it is therefore the factor which determines where documents on that subject will be shelved. In practice, however, it has been found that the interpretation of Personality depends upon the main class structure of the scheme in use; even in the Colon Classification system, this can vary from one class to another. Unfortunately, a good deal of modern literature, even at the monograph level, severely strains the concept of main classes. When faced by a subject such as "the use of computers to handle the payroll of teaching staff in American universities," the interpretation of Personality will certainly vary with the frames of reference of the user (as well as the librarian) depending on whether the user is computer-oriented, is an accountant, a personnel manager, or a university administrator. These were the kinds of challenge, which appear to be endemic in both enumerative and faceted classifications, which stimulated the CRG research. The solutions we explored can best be considered as simultaneous attacks on two different but related fronts. The first might be called the semantic approach, and was concerned with the organization of concepts (individual units of information) into basic categories to which they appeared to belong in a definitional sense, without taking any account of the ways in which these concepts might occur in different compound subjects, in the sense in which iron, for example, belongs to a category called metals, and beauty to a general class of human subjective judgments. Once a concept had been assigned to its general class, it would then have been identified by a single notational symbol which would have served two purposes: (1) to label that concept in a once-and- for-all fashion, so that the symbol could be used for locating documents on that concept from any part of a data base; and (2) it would show, through its hierarchically expressive structure, the general class of ideas to which the concept belonged. The other approach we considered is more closely related to syntax than semantics. This was a search for what might be called a set of generalized rules which would constitute a classificatory "grammar," insofar as ROLE OF INDEXING 129 they would determine the order in which concepts should be set down when building any compound subject out of its parts. The first of these tasks the assignment of concepts to general categories obviously called for an explicit act of classification, although not in the library sense. We were here concerned with imposing order on a universe of concepts, not on a universe of subjects. For this reason, I would prefer to use the term categorization to describe what we attempted, leaving the term classification to be used in its familiar or library sense. In terms of methodology, our general approach to this universe of concepts was not radically different from that employed by the maker of a library classification. Each of these tasks calls for a basically similar technique. Certain principles of division have to be established, and these must then be introduced one at a time, each principle being exhausted before a new one is introduced. We first divided concepts into two basic kinds, those which indicate Things, and those which are the Attributes of things. Each of these classes was then further subdivided. The general category of Things, for example, was separated into two new classes, called Naturally Occurring Entities and Artificial Entities; the latter category was again divided into concrete artifacts (such as chairs and aircraft), and mental constructs (such as systems of belief and theoretical models). A similar operation was also carried out for the general cateogry of Attributes. If there had been time to complete this work, the final product would have been what might be called a macrothesaurus dealing with the basic concepts, as they occur in modern literature, which form the quanta from which all compound subjects in any field can be constructed. I should, perhaps, stress that this is not an entirely new approach to the organization of knowledge. Thesauri, as such, have a long and respectable history, with Roget's serving as the obvious model for the kind of macrothesaurus we are now considering. It is also worth noting that several library classification systems, with DDC as the classic example, already operate in this way to some extent. Apart from the fact that compound subjects can be built by using the add instruction, certain classes of general concepts, especially those which are likely to be needed at any point in the schedules, have already been assigned to general categories. These form the auxiliary schedules which now occupy a separate volume in the current edition of DDC, and from which the classifier extracts, as he needs them, commonly occurring factors such as bibliographic forms, places, method- ologies, and so on. The approach considered by the CRG would simply have taken this idea to its logical conclusion that is, all the concepts in the schedules would, in effect, have been assigned to the auxiliary schedules, then notated on a permanent basis, ready for use in number-building whenever the appropriate literature appeared. 130 DEREK AUSTIN The second problem faced by the CRG was that of devising a general formula, based on teachable and logical principles, for building compound subjects out of their parts. We had, of course, started with the classical PMEST formula of Ranganathan, but this was found to be inadequate in some respects. We therefore extended this model in various ways. Following the work of Vickery, we defined the parts of a subject more explicitly in terms of their grammatical roles or functions. For examples, Wholes were distinguished from Parts, and it was stipulated that the whole must always be cited before the part. We also identified specific elements of subjects, such as the product of an action, the object upon which the action was performed, the action itself, and its agent. In order to achieve a reasonable level of consistency among classifiers, each of these roles was identified by a numerical code (called an operator) which was given a built-in filing value. When building a compound subject out of its parts, each separate piece of notation representing a specific concept would have been prefixed by an appropriate operator, and the filing value attached to the operator would have ensured, for example, that the whole was consistently set down before the part, that the object or recipient of the action was written before the action itself, and the action before the agent. In effect, we were searching for a generalized grammar of classification one which could be used as a mental model for regulating the order of concepts in any compound subject. In devising this model, we had deliberately disregarded traditional disciplines as these are usually understood. Nevertheless, the order of concepts had still been selected with a view to providing some kind of helpful collocation in a pan -disciplinary library or bibliography. It would be foolish to claim that anything resembling a new general classification arose from these efforts. Nevertheless, at the end of the research (when we had used up the 5,000 awarded to the CRG by the NATO Science Foundation), I think we had at least demonstrated the feasibility of the approach we had been exploring, both toward the construction of a general thesaurus, and toward the establishment of a generalized grammar for subject building. Near the end of the project, a provisional notation was applied to the outline categories of concepts which had been developed, and the number-building techniques were applied to a sample collection of research reports. The results were then studied by the members of the CRG, who considered them from various viewpoints. From the viewpoint of collocation, the results were surprisingly acceptable. Obviously, the general formula we had developed did not produce groupings of the kind which are usually associated with the traditional disciplines found in schemes such as DDC. Nevertheless, we appeared to have achieved helpful groupings, especially in those emergent fields which tend to cut across the older disciplines. However, there was still one factor we could not ignore. Although this system might have proved well ROLE OF INDEXING 131 suited to the searching of machine-held files, the resulting class numbers were completely unsuitable for library purposes, simply because they were far too long and complicated. As Jack Mills pointed out when reviewing this work: "the code system used . . . conveys the structure of the system succinctly for machine manipulation . . . although it is obvious that the system does constitute a general 'library classification' in the accepted sense." THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRECIS Fortunately, this was not the end of the story. During the CRG search for a number-building formula, concepts had been organized in various ways to test a range of hypotheses. In a number of cases, we had actually used words rather than notational symbols to represent specific concepts, partly because a word conveys a more obvious and immediate message than a symbol, and also because in many cases we were dealing with concepts which had not yet been admitted into the thesaurus. These experiments in term manipulation became more than a matter of expediency, and assumed the status of a new research project when the decision was made, in 1969, to produce the British National Bibliography (BNB) directly from our own MARC tapes. From its first issues, BNB has appeared as a classified bibliography; that is to say, full catalog entries for all British monograph output have been printed under their DDC class numbers in the "front end" of the bibliography, and this systematic arrangement has been supported by one or more separate indexes giving access under the names of authors, titles, subjects, etc. It is necessary, at this point, to stress a lesson of MARC which has still not been fully appreciated by many librarians: MARC, if applied correctly, should mean the end of the concept of the main entry. Provided that all the essential components of a full catalog entry have been assigned to their correct fields in a record, so that each is uniquely identified, the librarian can, through a simple instruction to the computer, ask for these data to be organized in any way which satisfies his requirements. This kind of provision is endemic in MARC itself; nevertheless, it was some time before we fully realized the potential of the system. When BNB first became involved with MARC, our exchange tapes were made as an extra operation, and the national bibliography itself was still being produced by traditional means. It then became clear that many of the sequences found in BNB could, in fact, be extracted directly from the MARC records. For example, it was a simple matter to print full catalog entries under DDC class marks as the front end to the bibliography, since all the necessary data are uniquely tagged in MARC records. Some of the supplementary indexes could also be produced in this 132 DEREK AUSTIN way, especially those giving the names of authors, titles, etc. However, when BNB first became involved with MARC, no satisfactory means existed for producing a subject index directly from these records. The decision was therefore made in 1969 to set up a special research project to study the machine production of a subject index, as a necessary preparation for the fully automated production of BNB. Quite naturally, we tried first to automate the production of the chain index which had been a familiar feature of BNB for some twenty years, but for various reasons this proved to be abortive. We also studied a range of alternative indexing techniques which had already been designed for use with computers, but none seemed entirely capable of producing an index to the standards we felt were necessary in a national bibliography. We therefore made what was probably a courageous decision, and set out to explore some new approach to the production of a subject index directly from machine-readable data. This is the research which led to PRECIS. Certain desiderata for this new index were established as guidelines at the start of the project, and others were added as the work progressed. The principal characteristics for the index can be summarized under five main headings: 1. The computer, not the indexer, should produce all of the index entries, so that a large part of the clerical drudgery of index-making would be handled by the machine. The indexer's task would be limited to preparing an input string of the terms which are the components of index entries, together with instruction codes which indicate to the computer how these terms should be organized into entries; all the entries themselves would be constructed by the machine. 2. Each of the entries constructed in this way should be equally coextensive. In other words, each entry should express in a summary form the full subject of the document as perceived by the indexer. This should be seen in contrast to the chain index, where only the final entry is actually coextensive with the subject of the work in question, and also to a system of subject headings, where a compound subject may have to be expressed by two or more different headings, none of which by itself expresses the whole of the subject. 3. The system should be based on a single set of logical relationships among concepts; these should apply to subjects across the whole spectrum of knowledge. This would mean that terms in input strings, and in the entries produced from these strings, should be organized according to a kind of indexing grammar which would remain valid in fields as diverse as physics and metaphysics. Obviously, this grammar would not necessarily reflect the order in which concepts are introduced into the schedules of any one ROLE OF INDEXING 1 33 classification scheme. However, this notion of classificatory neutrality was also regarded as important in a system carrying a range of different class marks such as MARC, since the same alphabetical index could then be applied to classified sequences organized by any of the schemes in the data base. 4. Index entries should be meaningful according to what might be called the normal frames of reference of the user. In other words, they should not be based on a librarian's conception of grammar, which accepts an inverted heading, such as bridges, concrete, as though it were everyday English. Instead, we should try to come closer to natural language so that the uninitiated reader can use the index with a minimum of instruction. 5. To complement the entries produced from input strings, the system should also be provided with means for constructing references among terms such as synonyms and higher generics, which are semantically related to index entry terms. These see and see also references would be extracted by quoting a suitable code from a machine-held thesaurus. On the face of it, this may appear to be a complex set of criteria; considered on a very elementary level, however, it can be seen that we were actually concerned with only two different kinds of relationships among concepts. Furthermore, both of these had already been studied during the CRG research into a general classification. The earlier work had dealt with the search for a general formula for regulating the order of concepts in a compound class number; we were now concerned with a general model for regulating the order of terms in input strings and index entries. We might call this the search for a generalized syntax for an indexing language. Also, during the CRG research we had studied the ways in which concepts might be organized into categories within a macrothesaurus; we now had the task of creating a machine-held thesaurus of this kind to serve as the source of see and see also references in a printed index. This could be termed the semantic approach to an indexing language. Examples of output from each of these sides of the index system can be seen in the extract from a typical PRECIS index which appears in figure 1. At the top of column 3, the user is redirected by a see reference from the term pelecypoda to its preferred synonym bivalves. This is one kind of semantic relationship. A different kind can be seen at the top of the middle column, where the term particles is linked, through a see also reference, to the names of various species such as alpha particles, atoms, and so on. The same term, particles, also appears farther down in the middle column, but this time it functions as part of an index entry and is syntactically related to terms such as beams and scattering. In this particular index, produced by the British Universities Film Council, the user is then referred, through a UDC number, 134 DEREK AUSTIN I'.rticl,, See Mho Alpha panicles Helecypoda &< Bivalves Penal system Jhrass. Parades. Or. 7 films 943.082 79183 Parade* reiiewed by MM Tie-Tut. Chins Parades to celebrate 1 7th anniversary of communist government 931.0 Parafflas &rAlkaaes Paraiaflaeaza. Man Pathogens Viruses Effects on mammalian cells in vitro 576858.7 Pinlyiii See lisa Myastbenia gravis ParameciuBi 5931714 :ell nuclei of amoebas Effects Seealso Divination Magk Mam. Spirits. Paranormal phenomena Parasites 1m mt IhpiyUobothnum latam Ecaiaocncea. grsnalosa. Ectoparasites Worms. Parasites Fleas, hookworms & rat mites. Behaviour 576 .8.095 Parasites. Alder wood wasps Hymenoplera 59579:57689 Parasites. Cyclorrhapha Mormomella 595.77 Parasites Ephelola gemmipara 593.176 Parasites. Fish Diphyllobothnum lalum Life cycle 595121 Parasites. Herbivores Lancet nukes Vectors: Ants 595 79:595 122 Liver flukes Vectors Mud snails 595122:5943 Parasites. Larvae Cabbage butterflies Aptnteles 591.34:576.89 Echinococcus granulosus Life cycle A control 636.089 Parasites. Man Echinococcus granulosus Life cycle A control 614.44 Head lice 616495:576 895 75 Plasmodium Vectors Mosquitoes 593 19 Parasites Sheep Worms 5951:63631 Parasitic diseases Seealso Diseases caused by flakes Helminthic diseases PareMs Seealso Mothers Parents Interpersonal relationships with children Role in moral development of children 159922.7 Role in learning in babies 15992272 Separation from babies Study examples: Babies in foster care 159.922.7 Separation from babies Study examples: Babies in nursery care 1599227 Separation from children. 2-3 years Study examples: Children in foster care 1 59 922.7 Paresis. Botswana. Shakawe; India Andheri, New Guinea. Buk; Lancashire. Colne A Surrey Esher Interpersonal relationships with children Sociological perspectives Comparative studies 392.31 Pareats. Great Britain Choice of schools 3712 Paris. France Chinese theatre Performances Extracts 792.09 Commune, I!7I 944 081 '1871' National libraries: Bibliolheque Nationale (France) 027(44.36) Students Protest movements. 1961 323 23(443 6) Theatre. Companies: Comedie Francaise Performances of Bourgeois gentilbomme ' 792.09 Theatre Companies: Comedie Francaise Performances of Femmes savantes 792.09 Theatre Companies: Comedie Francaise Performances of Le Tartuffe 792.09 Theatre: Theatre de France Rehearsals of Hamlet with Barraull, Jean Louis 792 09 Theatre: Theatre National Populalre Rehearsals A performances Extracts 792.09 Paris Peace Co.fere.ce, 1919 Treaty of Versailles See Treaty of Versailles, 1919 Parks Seealso National parks Parilaaaeati Seealso Great Britain. Parliament Partial differential equations See a/so Eater's equations Lagrange s equations Particle accelerators Seealso releratc Photon Powiers Psrtkles Beams Scattenng Use in determination of structure of atomic nuclei 539108 Counting A size measurement Use of electronic equipment 621.38 Parties. Politics See Political parties Psnuritio.. Cats 591 16:599 742 7 Psrraririon. Cows. Cattle. Livestock 636082 456 Pvnritio.. Rabbits 591 16:599.325 Contraction of uterus 59116:599325 Utenne contraction after panuntion 591.16:599.325 Uterine contraction before parturition 59116:599.325 Partiritio.. Red kangaroos 591 16:59922 Parturition. Sows s- Farrowing Pascal. Blaise. French philosophy Critical studies 190(44) PUS.TUIS bar. Man Arteries 616321 Passenger transport serrices Seeaho Bus services Pssnger vehicles in me Cm Seealto Caetos CMttroit ftoekes Swallows Passfleld, Beatrice Wee*. Baroness See Webb, Beatrice, Baronet Passfleld Pasteure et tro.pe.ui. Hugo. Victor. Study examples Poetry in French. Romanticism Study examples: Hugo, Victor. Pasteurs et troupeaux, Lamartine, Alphonse de. Lac. Le Jl Vigny. Alfred Victor, comte de Maisoci du berger Critical studies 840-1 Pastimes See Recreation Pastures. Australia Improvement. Role of legumes 633.3 Pathogens. Dysentery Man Entamoeba histolytica 616993.12 PstbogeH. Ectroinelia. Mice Viruses. Effects on mammalian cells in vitro For medicine 576858 Pathogens. Herpes simplex. Man Viruses Effects on mammalian cells in vitro 576 858 1 Pathogen.. Parainfluenza. Man PstBogeu. Poliomyelitis Man Viruses Effects on mammalian cells in vitro 576.858 2 Pathogen. Vaccinia Cattle medicine 576.8581 medicine 5768581 Pathology See also Diseases Paths. Electrons Uniform magnetic fields Patients. Mental hospitals Aggression 61689.0084449 Paving. Motorway M6 Lancashire Concrete paving 625.84 Patio. Ivan Petrovich Theones of conditioned reflexes in animals For medicine 591 182 Theones of reflexes in man 612.833 Pay See Remuneration Peace See also Armistices Peace Pledge I atan. Great Britain Lansbury. George Political speeches. 19.17 942.085(042) Pears, David Francis Theories of free will A determinism 123 Peasants. Rural regions North-east Brazil Nomadic peasants Social conditions 362(81) Peat industries. Fuel industries Ireland (Republic) 622.271 Peck order. Hicks Chickens Pedestrian areas See Vehicle-free i Pediatrics See Paediatrics Pedicular! See also Phryneloi scaher Peek Frean ad Company Factones. ca 1906 Peel. Sir Robert, ban. Great Bnti 1110-1150 Pekingese dogs. Livestock Urinary tract. Calculi. Cystotom Pelecaniformes See also nightie 591.55:598.61 Coupled pendulums Energy transfer 531.539.2 Coupled pendulums Equal masses 531 5392 Coupled pendulums Normal modes 531.539.2 Forced vibration 4 resonance 531.53 Peaidllia Effects on Proteus 576 8 097 Effects on Proteus Time-lapse films 576 8 097 Effects on Streptobacillus momliformts 576 852 Production Rat flask method 615 779402 People s Ukeratio. Army of China See CUaa. People's Liberation Army Peppered moths. Industrial regions Great Britain Variation 57537.7:595.78 Peres See Perch Perception < Aafreciation Mm* Motion perception Visual perceptio. Perception. Animals 591 51 Perception Man 159937 Percepruo-motor skills. Babies Coordination 159.9227 Perch Feeding behaviour 597 Se^ako Areberflsa Haplocaroaais Perch Seethe Drams. Percussion instruments Percussion techniques. Making Blades Stone Age cutting tools 93026 Performing arts See also Acttag Clacmafllsas Dancing MiM Miok Taearre Performiag arts. West Germany Professional education: Folkwang Hochschule 378.9:78/79 Periodic paenomeaa Seealso Oacillators Rhytbms Periodk table SeeaJio Periodicity Periodicals on political events Labour Monthly Personal observations 05 Periodicity. Chemical elements 541 9 Peripkeral equip~m Set also Tenaiaals. Computer systems Peripheral nenoaai system. Dogs 59118 Perissodactyla Seealso Persecution and assassination of Jean-Paul Marat as performed by Ike inmates of the asylum at Charenton under Ike direction of the Marquis tie Safe. Weiss, Peter Drama in German Performances by Royal Shakespeare Theatre Company English texts 79209 Persia Vr Iran Persian CM Petroleum deposits Drilling 622.1 Personal appearance See also Clothing Persoaael Seealso Personnel under Names of specific industries A professions Crews Employment Industrial relations Persons Questioned by police. Gr< Rights Law Pers.ir.tios. Man Per. Manne birds Social behaviour Pesticides avast. Pests Bed bugs Control 61444:595754 Insects Biological control * chemical control 632.7 Pests. Australia Argentine ants Control 632 93:595 79 Pests. Potatoes Eelworms. Control 632.651.32 Pests. Soils Control 6314:632.93 Figure 1. Extract of PRECIS Index ROLE OF INDEXING 135 to a classified sequence where full details of the appropriate films will be found. However, I should point out that this is just one of several options available in PRECIS. In some cases the entry may refer to a separate file of subject headings which have been derived mechanically from the PRECIS input strings. One or two organizations also use PRECIS as a one-stage index that is, they print the relevant citation directly below each index entry. I cannot attempt to describe in detail all the stages in the production of a PRECIS index that would require a series of papers. However, I would like to deal at least briefly with the basic mechanics of the system, partly to demonstrate the extent to which we met the basic requirements for a printed index considered earlier, and also to show how this indexing system relates to a general classification. I shall deal separately with the two aspects of the system, and consider first the syntactical relations between terms in index entries, then briefly touch on the semantics and the making of a machine-held thesaurus. Syntax itself can be considered from two different viewpoints: (1) the format and structure of index entries, and (2) the organization of terms into the strings from which the entries are produced. THE PRECIS ENTRY FORMAT When we set out to establish a suitable format for PRECIS, we found that we had to depart, in some respects, from the concept of a single-line entry which is typically found in systems such as the chain index, KWIC, and subject headings. The reasons for this can be illustrated by referring to the string of terms, and some hypothetical entries, which are shown in figure 2. The string: FRANCE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES SKILLED PERSONNEL TRAINING represents a typical PRECIS input, and justifies some explanation. In the first place, these terms have been organized deliberately so that they form what we call a context-dependent sequence. This means that each term in the string sets the next term into its obviously wider context, in the sense in which France, for example, establishes the environment in which the textile industries, and therefore the rest of the subject, were considered by the author. The next term, textile industries, identifies the context in which skilled personnel were considered, and this new term establishes the class of persons to whom the act of training was being applied. It is worth pointing out that no attempt has been made to organize these terms in such a way that their order reflects their relative importance as shelving factors; we are principally concerned with expressing the meaning of the subject, and we leave the job of indicating shelf position to the classification scheme. o DEREK AUSTIN FRANCE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES SKILLED PERSONNEL TRAINING TRAINING SKILLED PERSONNEL TEXTILE INDUSTRIES FRANCE SKILLED PERSONNEL / FRANCE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES TRAINING --- Heading Figure 2. String of Terms and Hypothetical Entries As a natural consequence of arranging these terms in a context-dependent order, they also form what we call a one-to-one related sequence. This means that each term is directly related to the next term in the string. Both context dependency and one-to-one relations occur in natural language itself, of course, and it may be worth mentioning that the order used in PRECIS was derived from a study of sentence structures. We regard these one-to-one relations as particularly important in conveying the meaning of a subject statement; in deed, in the present example, these relationships are so strong that the meaning of the original string remains unchanged even when the order of terms is reversed, as: TRAINING SKILLED PERSONNEL TEXTILE INDUSTRIES FRANCE It therefore follows that either of these strings could function as an index entry which satisfies most of the criteria considered earlier: they are equally ROLE OF INDEXING 137 coextensive, and they both convey the same message according to common frames of reference. Both could also be derived, by a very simple algorithm, from a single input string. However, we start to encounter problems when we consider the production of an entry under one of the middle terms, such as skilled personnel It would be a simple matter to instruct the computer to lift this term out of its place in the string and print it at the start of the entry, as shown at position 3 of figure 2. An element of ambiguity, however, has then been created: when reading this entry, we can no longer tell with certainty how the skilled personnel are related to the rest of the terms. Are they being trained, or are they employed in training others? It is not a difficult matter to deduce how this ambiguity arose. When this term was shifted from its original position, the mind automatically closed up the space that was left, and created a new set of one-to-one relationships. In a situation such as this, the problem can be expressed as a question: How can we maintain the original one-to-one relationships in an index entry without distorting the meaning, and without losing any of the terms in the process? The approach we adopted is shown in the form of a diagram at position 4: A-B-C-D These four letters represent a sequence of four terms organized as a context-dependent and one-to-one related sequence. As we saw, the problem arose when we tried to make an index entry under one of the middle terms, such as C. As shown at position 5, this is due to the fact the term C is related simultaneously to the terms on either side; that is, B (which sets C into its wider context), and D (which is itself context-dependent on C). In order to make these relationships explicit on the printed page, we devised the two-line and three-position format which is shown at position 6. In this case, the term C functions as the user's access point to the index, and this is followed on the same line by those terms which set the lead into its wider contexts. The final term, D, is indented below on a second line, but remains explicitly related to the entry termC. The layout of terms seen at position 6 shows an obvious two-line and three-position structure, which has now become a typical feature of a PRECIS index. These parts have been separately named, as shown at position 7. The lead is the term which functions as the user's access point, and this is automatically printed in roman bold to give it emphasis. The qualifier follows on the same line, and contains those terms which set the lead into its context, while the display holds the terms which are context-dependent on the lead. Terms in the qualifier and display may be printed in ordinary roman or italic, depending on how they are coded in the input string. The lead and qualifier together constitute what is called the heading. If two or more different strings give rise to the same heading, 138 DEREK AUSTIN France Textile industries Skilled personnel Training FRANCE Textile industries. Skilled personnel. Training TEXTILE INDUSTRIES. France Skilled personnel. Training SKILLED PERSONNEL. Textile industries. France Training TRAINING. Skilled personnel. Textile industries. France Figure 3. Terms Organized in Standard Format so that only the displays are different, the computer automatically cancels the second and subsequent headings, and organizes the displays as an alphabetical column (see figure 1), where the term particles (near the top of the middle column) has two displays, one starting with the term beams, and the other with the term counting. ' The adoption of this format did more than resolve the problem of maintaining the one-to-one relationships between terms. It also gave us the basis for a fairly simple program which would allow us to generate mechanically a full set of entries out of a single input. This is performed by an operation known as shunting; the choice of this name may become clear if we consider the example of index entry construction which is shown in figure 3. At the top of this page we can see the three basic positions in a PRECIS entry, with a set of terms marshaled in the display position. The lead has not yet been occupied, and no entry has yet been produced. At the first stage of the operation, the first term in the display is shunted into the lead, and the remaining terms are then shifted left to a standard indentation position; this gives us the first entry, under the term France, which appears in position 2. In generating the next entry, the term France is shunted across into the qualifier, and its place in the lead is taken by the next term, textile industries; again, the rest of the terms in the display shift across to the standard indentation level. This operation could be repeated twice ROLE OF INDEXING 139 more, to give us the entries under the terms skilled personnel and training. In this particular case, all of the terms in the input string passed through the lead position to give a total of four entries, but it should be pointed out that the generation of entries is not left entirely to the computer. It is, in fact, always under the control of the indexer, who can stipulate, in the form of instruction codes written as prefixes to each of the terms in the string, which terms should appear in the lead, or in any other part of the entry. The entries shown in figure 3 represent terms organized in what is called the standard format. This format, which is produced by a straightforward application of shunting techniques, accounts for most of the entries in any PRECIS index. Two other formats are also available, but I shall not attempt to describe these here they are fully explained in some of the technical accounts of the system. THE TREATMENT OF COMPOUND TERMS The procedures shown in figure 3 demonstrate the treatment of a typical compound subject that is, a subject which consists of a string of several terms. We also found that a basically similar technique could be applied to a compound term that is, a term which has to be expressed in more than one word. The treatment of a term of this type (fibre reinforced plastics) is shown in figure 4. In order to explain this procedure, it is first necessary to make a distinction between the different components of this term. In particular, we need to distinguish clearly between the noun, which is called the focus, and the adjectives, which are called differences. The focus (the word plastics in the present example) identifies the general class of concepts to which the term as a whole belongs. The term difference is used in its strictly logical sense to indicate some characteristic which specifies a subclass of the focal concept. In the present example, we have two differences, fibre and reinforced, each of which has its own logical function. The word reinforced functions as what we call a direct difference it qualifies the focus, and defines a special subclass of the universe of plastics called reinforced plastics. The word fibre, however, has a rather different function, since it does not directly qualify the focus (that is, these are not fibre plastics), but instead qualifies the adjective reinforced in terms of the material used as reinforcement. It therefore functions as what we call an "indirect difference." This distiction is shown in the diagram at position 2 in figure 4. Since these logical functions affect the correct form of term in an index entry, they must be indicated clearly to the computer. This is expressed by 140 DEREK AUSTIN Subject Fibre reinforced plastics Distinguish between focus and difference(s) f Y 1 V FIBRE ^ (REINFORCED) C PLASTICS^ Indirect difference Direct difference Focus String (1) plastics $i reinforced $m fibre Entries PLASTICS Fibre reinforced plastics REINFORCED PLASTICS Fibre reinforced plastics FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTICS Figure 4. Treatment of Compound Terms codes which are written as prefixes to each part of a compound term in the input string. An example of an input is shown at position 3 in figure 4: (1) plastics $i reinforced $m fibre where the focus, plastics, is prefixed by one of the role operators which we shall be considering later, while its status as a lead is indicated by a check. The code $i, which precedes the word reinforced, conveys two instructions to the computer: (1) it indicates that this is a direct difference, and (2) it shows that this word should appear in the lead. The code $m, which precedes fibre, also indicates a lead, but specifies that this word functions as an indirect difference. The output from this string is shown at position 4, and it can be seen that each of these entries is fully coextensive with the original concept. If the term in the lead is incomplete, as it is in the first and second entries, the whole term is printed, in natural-language order, in the display position. ROLE OF INDEXING 141 Using these procedures, it is not possible to produce an inverted heading such as plastics, reinforced. THE SCHEMA OF ROLE OPERATORS So far we have considered the basic mechanics of entry construction, but we have not yet faced the problem of trying to ensure that a team of indexers will consistently achieve the same order of terms in their input strings. As I mentioned earlier, terms in an input string have to be arranged so that they form a context-dependent sequence. However, this is no more than the statement of a guiding principle. We need something more definite if we are to ensure that a team of different and quite human indexers (including the same indexer on different occasions) will consistently achieve this order. To this end, the indexers work within the constraints of a kind of grammar. This is represented in the schema of role operators shown in figure 5. In many respects, this schema possesses some of the functions of the system developed during the CRG research. One of these operators has to be written as a prefix to each of the terms in an input string, and the operators then have two functions: (1) the principal codes (that is, the numbered or main-line operators seen at the top of the list) have built-in filing values, and it is these which determine the overall pattern of terms in a string; and (2) the codes act as computer instructions, and determine not only the format of the index entries, but also the typography of each term and its associated punctuation. It would be quite impossible in the time available to describe in detail the workings of a scheme such as this, which is capable of dealing with compound subjects at any level of complexity. At least I can try to demonstrate how the system operates in practice, using the role operators to carry out an analysis of the subject we considered earlier: the training of skilled personnel in the French textile industries. This analysis is shown in figure 6. During their initial training, indexers are taught to carry out their analyses in a step-by-step fashion, and are advised first to test each subject for the presence of an action. If an action concept is present, it usually determines how the rest of the subject should be handled, in much the same way that the verb tends to dominate the sentence in traditional grammar. In the present example, it is clear that an action is present in the term training. This term could therefore be written first, and prefixed by the operator "2," which represents an action or its effects, as shown at position 2: 142 DEREK AUSTIN Main line operators Environment of observed system Observed system (Core operators) Dependent elements Concept interlinks Coordinate concepts Location 1 Key system: object of transitive action; agent of intransitive action 2 Action/Effect 3 Agent of transitive action; Aspects; Factors Data relating to observer Selected instance Presentation of data tprnnspH nnpratnrs 4 Viewpoint-as-form 5 Sample population/Study region 6 Target/Form p Part/Property q Member of quasi-generic group r Aggregate s Role definer t Author attributed association g Coordinate concept Differencing operators (prefixed by $) h IN on-lead direct difference i Lead direct difference j Salient difference k Non-lead indirect difference m Lead indirect difference n Non-lead parenthetical difference o Lead parenthetical difference d Date as a difference Connectives (Components of linking phrases; prefixed by $) v Downward reading component w Upward reading component Theme interlinks x First element in coordinate theme y Subsequent element in coordinate theme z Element of common theme Figure 5. PRECIS-Schema of Role Operators ROLE OF INDEXING 1 43 ( 1 J Subject: Training of skilled personnel in the French textile industries (2) Check for the presence of an action. Write the appropriate operator (2) training (3) If the action is transitive, and the object is present, code the object as 'key system' (1) skilled personnel (2) training (4) If the key system is part of a whole, code the whole as key system; use 'p' to identify the part (1) textile industries (p) skilled personnel (2) training \5J Establish the environment (0) France (1) textile industries (p) skilled personnel (2) training ( 6 j Entries in 'standard format' (assuming a lead on each term) FRANCE Textile industries. Skilled personnel. Training TEXTILE INDUSTRIES. France Skilled personnel. Training SKILLED PERSONNEL. Textile industries. France Training TRAINING. Skilled personnel. Textile industries. France Figure 6. Analysis of a Compound Subject (2) training The indexer next determines whether the action is transitive or intransitive; if (as in this example) the action is transitive, he establishes whether the object is also present. In this case, the act of training is being applied to the skilled personnel, who therefore represent the object. This concept is frequently coded as the key system, as shown at position 3: (1) skilled personnel (2) training. 144 DEREK AUSTIN However, this particular example contains a circumstance which causes a change to be made in this coding. In fact, the skilled personnel are part of another system (the textile industries), and this whole/part relationship has to be expressed by noting an operator "p" (which introduces a part or property indicator) in front of the name of the part. The numbered operator, "1," is then assigned to the name of the whole, which gives us the revised string seen in position 4: (1) textile industries (p) skilled personnel (2) training One more concept remains to be coded. This is the term France, which establishes the environment in which all the rest of the subject was consid- ered, and therefore should be introduced by the operator "0." The final version of the string is shown at position 5: (0) France (1) textile industries (p) skilled personnel (2) training It can now be seen that we have achieved in a fairly mechanical way exactly the same order of terms as in the earlier analysis, when this subject was considered only from the viewpoints of context-dependency and one-to-one relationships. It is only fair to point out that an experienced indexer would not go through the stages of this step-by-step analysis. Instead, he would write the correct string in an almost intuitive fashion, without necessarily being aware of the mental processes involved. The entries produced from this input are shown at position 6. THE SEMANTIC ASPECTS OF PRECIS I shall turn now to a different side of the system that is, to the construction of the thesaurus which serves as the source of see and see also references in the printed index. This introduces a different set of routines and relationships, many of which involve classification in its taxonomic (rather than its library) sense; I will deal with these only briefly. I should start by pointing out that PRECIS works with an open-ended vocabulary; that is, a new term can be admitted into the system at any time, as soon as it has been encountered in a document. Any term marked as a lead in an input string is assigned as part of a separate operation to a position in a random-access file. ROLE OF INDEXING 145 This position is indicated to the computer by writing a special number as part of each thesaurus input record. This number (the Reference Indicator Number, or RIN) identifies the address where the term will be stored. This address will later be written in a special field on an indexing form, where the presence of this number acts as a machine instruction, and leads automatically to the production of a full set of see and see also references directing the user toward the term which actually occurred in an index entry. In figure 7 we can see a batch of thesaurus input records which have been prepared by an indexer, and are ready to be keyboarded and put into the computer. These are the cards which might be written if the indexer encountered the term penguins in a string for the first time, assuming that none of the other associated terms had previously been admitted into the system. The input record for penguins appears at the bottom of the sequence, and it can be seen that a number of data are recorded on this card. These include special codes, such as $m and $o, which indicate that the term penguins is related, in clearly specified ways, to terms which are held at other random file addresses in the computer, such as its synonym, sphenisci formes, and the higher generic term birds. The codes used for this purpose actually record, in machine-readable form, a range of semantic relationships which has now been established by the International Standards Organisation, and is recorded in a new international standard, IS 2788. These codes and their associated relationships are shown in figure 8; we can see at position 2 that they also determine the kind of reference which should be printed. The code $m produces a see reference from a nonpreferred term to its preferred synonym, while $n and $o both generate see also references. Not all the data on these input records have to be keyboarded. It would be pointless, for example, to keyboard the terms from which references have to be made: it is enough to indicate to the computer the addresses at which these terms have been stored. If we turn to the bottom of figure 7, we can see the relatively small amount of data which is actually assigned to the computer when the card containing the term penguins is being processed. Once keyboarding is finished, the input cards are returned to the indexer, who then stores them alphabetically to form a term authority file. Perhaps it is difficult at first to see any coherent pattern in the set of input records shown in figure 7. Nevertheless, this set of cards contains all of the semantic information needed to record within the computer the network of logically related terms shown in figure 9. Once a network of this kind has been established, it can be used in various ways. For example, the address of any term in the network can be quoted as part of an indexing record as soon as an appropriate document is encountered, and the necessary see and see also references will then be produced automatically. If we had set up this network DEREK A USTIN SCIENCE 024 430 9 1 BIOLOGY 0242128 SCIENCE $o 024 430 9 _ZOOLOGY 024 201 2 BIOLOGY $o 024 212 8 ORNITHOLOGY 0245194 ZOOLOGY $o 024 201 2 ^ V LIVING SYSTEMS 0240184 BIOLOGY $n 024 212 8 FAUNA 024571 2 ANIMALS FAUNA LIVING SYSTEMS 024 317 5 $m 024 571 2 $o 024 018 4 y^ ZOOLOGY $n 024 201 2 t VERTEBRATES 024 526 7 ANIMALS $o 024 317 5 AVES 024 757 X BIRDS AVES VERTEBRATES 0241768 $m024757X $o 024 526 7 ORNITHOLOGY ~ $n 024 519 4 hi SPHENISCIFORMES 0245100 PENGUINS ^ 0247847 -XV_y ^ >^_ .A SPHENISCIFORMES BIRDS $m 024 5100 $o 024 176 8 x-v. t . *. -. ^S^-S~~ > INPUT RECORD FOR 'PENGUINS' 0247847Penguins$ m0245 1 00$ o024 1768* Figure 7. Thesaurus Input Records ROLE OF INDEXING 147 (7) RELATIONAL CODES USED TO LINK TERM ADDRESSES (RINs) Relationships based on IS 2788 $m = EQUIVALENCE RELATIONSHIP Synonyms Quasi-synonyms $o = HIERARCHICAL RELATIONSHIP Genus-species Hierarchical whole-part $n = ASSOCIATIVE RELATIONSHIP (?) MACHINE INSTRUCTIONS BUILT INTO CODES $m = PRINT See REFERENCE, i.e. Aaa See Bbb 5" [ = PRINT See also REFERENCE, i.e. * I A Aaa See also Bbb Ccc Figure 8. PRECIS Thesaurus for penguins, and we later handled a work on vertebrates, we could immediately produce references such as: Animals Zoology see also and see also Vertebrates Animals simply by quoting the RIN 024 526 7 in the appropriate field on the indexing record. We can also quote any of these addresses to link new terms to the names of categories which are already on the file we need to set up the network only once, then leave the rest to the computer. THE MANAGEMENT ASPECTS OF PRECIS Finally, some of the management aspects of PRECIS merit attention. In view of the present conference, particular notice should be taken of its relationship to some of the other subject data appearing on current British MARC records. This immediately introduces the concept of a packet of subject data, which can best be explained through reference to the work-flow diagram which appears in figure 10. 148 DEREK AUSTIN $m 024 571 2 Fauna $m 024 757 X Aves $m 0245100 Sphenisciformes Figure 9. Network of Terms Linked by Thesaural Relationships When documents are processed in the British Library, descriptive and subject cataloging are handled by separate teams of specialists, and a docu- ment enters the subject division after it has been cataloged descriptively. Each document is accompanied by a worksheet containing details of author, title, etc., recorded in the appropriate MARC fields. This worksheet, however, contains no fields for the recognized subject data, such as the PRECIS string or the DDC class mark. It does, however, contain one small box which will later be occupied by a number which will function as the link between the document record and all the appropriate subject data held in a separate file inside the computer. As soon as a document is received from the catalogers, it is handled first by the PRECIS team. They formulate its subject, then check for a precedent in their master file of all past index entries, using any appropriate term as an access point. Let us assume that an indexer, after examining a document, ROLE OF INDEXING 149 DOCUMENT INTO SUBJECT DIVISION PRECIS TEAM SUBJECT ALREADY ON FILE? NO- WRITE PRECIS STRING YES QUOTE SIN ON DOCUMENT RECORD DOCUMENT OUT OF SUBJECT DIVISION CLASS BY DDC ASSIGN LCSH CLASS BY LC CHECK TERMS - ASSIGN RIN's ASSIGN SUBJECT INDICATOR NUMBER (SIN) KEYBOARD. READ OUTPUT Figure 10. Work-flow through Subject Division of British Library cannot find an exact match in the file of past decisions. The PRECIS indexer must then move to the right side of the work-flow diagram, to the point where the indexer writes the PRECIS string. This is recorded in a special field (Field 690) on the subject form which is shown in figure 11; the example shows the string for a document about a programming language called BASIC. The document and the index form then move on together to the DDC team. Working from the string, and if necessary the document, this group 150 DEREK AUSTIN 1 DC class no. J TLC class no. ) ( SIN ^ s 1 / 082 001.6*424 050 QA 76.73.B3 691 004 328 7 690 $ z 1 10 3 0$ a digital computer systems C PRECIS ^v $ z 2 1 1 0$ a programming V^ siring A* $ z 3 1 3 0$ a Basic language $ o$| r o$ i $ o$! $ o$! $ io$! $ o$! "R > , o$! $ ' 5 I 0$ S ' 1 o$i s 1 1 |0$| $! 1 1 0$ i i 692 000 7471 692/1 005 920X 692 692 692 692 692 692 692 C RINs \. LCSH 650 Electronic digital computers $x Programming 650/1 Basic (Computer programming language) 6 6 ( LCSH ^-* Notes Figure 11. Sample of Indexing Input Form assigns the appropriate class number, and records this in Field 082 in the upper left corner of the indexing form. In the majority of cases, they do not expect to find an exact place in the DDC schedules for the subject expressed in the string. A careful analysis of our working methods has shown that only some 15 percent of PRECIS strings can be matched exactly by DDC numbers. We do not regard this in any way as a serious problem. We recognize a clear ROLE OF INDEXING 151 distinction between the function of an index and that of a shelf-order scheme. The index entry should tell us what the document is about; the class number then supplements this information by indicating where it appears on the shelves. The document and form then travel from team to team through the rest of the subject division i.e., down the right side of the flow diagram in figure 10 and at each step, a different decision is recorded on the worksheet, such as the LC class number, Library of Congress subject headings, and the Reference Indicator Numbers (or RINs) which direct the computer to the machine-held thesaurus. Finally, the form is checked by a junior indexer, who ensures that all the necessary fields are occupied and then strikes out the next available random file address number from a machine-produced list. This is the Subject Indicator Number (inevitably shortened to SIN) which is written in Field 69 1 on the top line of the indexing form. The SIN identifies the address in a machine-held file at which all these subject data will be stored, as a package, for future use. The same number is also transcribed onto the catalog form, and then becomes the link between the document record and all its appropriate subject data. The subject form goes on to the keyboarding section, and the data are submitted to the computer, which first carries out a series of validation checks; if these are satisfactory, it then assigns all the data to disk. It also responds by producing a full set of authority file cards of the kind shown in figure 12. These are read for errors such as spelling mistakes, and if they are satisfactory they are filed as a reference tool for the indexers and classifiers. It should be noted that each of these cards contains the whole packet of subject data, including the SIN itself- this is the number 004 3281 which appears on the left side immediately below the index entry. Let us now return to the work-flow diagram in figure 10, and visualize a different situation. Let us assume this time that after examining the docu- ment, the indexer checks the authority file and finds that the subject, as he perceives it, has already been handled in the past. In that case, he can transcribe the SIN directly onto the catalog record, and the process is then completed. The document and its catalog worksheet can now be routed out of the subject division down the left side of the flow diagram. We have kept very careful statistics of the extent to which this left-hand route is used, and calculated that some 55 percent of BNB's total throughput was handled in this way from a three-year-old authority file. Obviously, from a manager's viewpoint, this represents a worthwhile savings of time and intellectual effort. Figures 13-16 show some figures relating to indexer performance and index evaluation, as well as a survey of the present and potential users of PRECIS. Unfortunately, this list is already outdated. I feel that the most satisfying aspect of this survey of users is its sheer diversity. This applies first 152 DEREK AUSTIN \ r Digital computer systems Programming. Basic language 0043281 082010 001.6'424 690000 $zl!030$adigital computer systems$z21010$aprogramming $z31030$aBasic language 692000 0007471 692000 005920X 650000 Electronic digital computers $x Programming 650000 {Basic (Computer programming language) 050000 QA76.73.B3 Programming. Digital computer systems Basic language 0043281 082010 001.6'424 690000 $zl!030$adigital computer systems$z21010$aprogramming $z31030$aBasic language 692000 007471 692000 005920X 650000 Electronic digital computers $x Programming 650000 Basic (Computer programming language) 050000 QA76.73.B3 Basic language. Digital computer systems 0043281 082010 001.6'424 690000 $zl!030$a digital computer systems$z21010$aprogramming $z31030$aBasic language 692000 0007471 692000 005920X 650000 Electronic digital computers $x Programming 650000 Basic (Computer programming language) 050000 QA76.73.B3 001.6'424 QA76.73.B3 0043281 690000 $zl!030$adigital computer systems$z21010$aprogramming Sz31030$aBasic language 692000 0007471 692000 005920X 650000 Electronic digital computers $x Programming 650000 Basic (Computer programming language) Figure 12. Diagnostic Printout on Continuous Card Stationery ROLE OF INDEXING 153 1 Indexing Rates Indexing rate (i.e. string writing) is approximately 30 documents per working day of seven and one-quarter hours, i.e. the average time required to string a document on a new theme is about 18 mins. This figure represents 'elapsed working time', as op- posed to stop-watch times, which would be 37-50 percent shorter. Manipulation coding accounts for less than 10 percent of the total string writing time. 2 Statistical properties of strings Averages (mean) Number of strings per document 1 Number of terms per string 2.7 Number of lead terms per string 1.9 3 Operation of the RIN and SIN systems A. Proportion of documents handled by quoting existing SIN's from a three year file (1971-73) 55% B. Number of terms in thesaurus after theee years 27,000 Figure 13. Indexing Performance Figures Collected at BNB 1 Test environment PRECIS index to 584 journal articles in the field of management. 100 questions; 1 relevant document per question; each question searched once. 28 researchers, mainly students. 2 Success rate of searches No. of successful searches (relevant document retrieved). 83 No. of unsuccessful searches (relevant document missed). 17 Recall ratio 83% 3 Search times Average per question (to nearest 15 sees.) Mean Median Mins. Sees. Mins. Sees. Successful searches 1 30 1 00 Unsuccessful searches 4 00 3 00 All searches 1 45 1 00 Figure 14. Research at Liverpool Polytechnic 154 DEREK AUSTIN Note on symbols: (a) = form and/or frequency of output (b) = production: computer or manual (c) = 1 -stage or 2-stage index (d) = if 2-stage, classification or other address system A) CATALOGUES OF LIBRARIES OR LIBRARY NETWORKS 1 East Sussex Public Libraries - (a) COM; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) DC 2 London Borough of Hillingdon Libraries - (a) COM; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage (d) DC 3 Sheffield College of Education - (a) card; (b) manual; (c) 1 -stage 4 Polytechnic of Central London - (a) card, may experiment with COM; (b) manual, but computer planned; (c) 2-stage; (d) DC 5 Stockwell College of Education (London) - (a) COM; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) DC 6 Media Resources Centre (Inner London Education Authority) - (a) card; (b) manual, but computer planned; (c) 2-stage; (d) DC 1 Aurora High School Library (Ontario, Canada) - (a) card; (b) manual; (c) 1 -stage B) BIBLIOGRAPHIES 1 Australian National Bibliography - (a) printed & cumulating; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) DC 2 British National Bibliography - (a) printed & cumulating; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d)DC 3 British National Film Catalogue - (a) printed & comulating; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) UDC 4 A/V Materials for Higher Education (British Universities Film Council) - (a) printed; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) UDC 5 HELPIS (A/V materials) - (a) printed, intermittent; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) UDC 6 HELPIS-MEDICAL - (a) printed, intermittent; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) UDC 7 Film Catalogue (College Bibliocentre, Ontario) - (a) printed & cumulating; (b) com- puter; (c) 2-stage; (d) broad subject headings + serial numbers 8 British Education Index (from January 1976) - (a) printed & cumulating; (b) com- puter; (c) 2-stage; (d) PRECIS S/H Figure 15. Users of PRECIS ROLE OF INDEXING 155 A) CATALOGUES OF LIBRARIES OR LIBRARY NETWORKS 1 Wollongong University (NSW) - (a) card; (b) manual; (c) 1 -stage 2 S.G.M.E. (Dept. of A/ V Materials, Ministry of Education, Quebec)-(a) printed, French; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) Lamy-Rousseau classification of A/V materials 3 Department of the Environment (GB) - details not settled 4 British Library Reference Division (formerly British Museum Library) - (a) COM, cumulating; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) PRECIS S/H 5 Universite* de Rouen, Section Sciences - (a) printed or COM, French; (b) com- puter; (c) 2-stage; (d) thesis serial number or PRECIS S/H B) BIBLIOGRAPHIES 1 British Catalogue of Music - (a) printed & cumulating; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) details not settled C) BACK-OF-THE-BOOK INDEXES 1 Public Record Office (London) - indexes to calendars etc 2 Scottish Record Office (Edinburgh) - indexes to calendars etc AGENCIES PLANNING PILOT PROJECTS, OR ENQUIRING FOR TRAINING OR PROGRAMS 1 Malaysian National Bibliography 2 South African National Bibliography 3 South African Council for Scientific & Industrial Research 4 Danish Library Centre 5 ONTERIS (Ontario Educational Research Information Service) 6 British Library (Library Association Library) 7 Indian Library Science Abstracts 8 National Film Board of Canada Figure 16. Pilot Projects 156 DEREK AUSTIN to the size of the organizations involved they range from a high school in Canada to two national bibliographies. It also applies to the media being indexed, which range from monographs, through audiovisual materials, to archives held in two public record offices. It is, I think, worth recording that none of these factors has affected the use of the system. REFERENCES 1. Roberts, Norman. "Review of Classification in the 7970V Journal of Documentation 28:184, June 1972. 2. Maltby, Arthur, ed. Classification in the 1970's. Hamden, Conn., Linnet Books, 1972. 3. Perreault, Jean M. "Review of Classification in the 1970's," Interna- tional Classification 1:47-48, 1974. 4. Davison, Keith. Classification Practice in Britain. London, Library Association, 1966. 5. Austin, Derek. "Differences between Library Classifications and Machine-based Subject Retrieval Systems." In Proceedings of the Third International Study Conference on Classification Research, Bombay, 1975. The Hague, FID. (In press.) 6. Vickery, Brian C. Classification and Indexing in Science. 3d ed. London, Butterworths, 1975. 7. Mills, J. "Progress in Documentation: Library Classification," Journal of Documentation 26:138, June 1970. 8. Austin, Derek. "The Development of PRECIS," Journal of Docu- mentation 30:47-102, March 1974. 9. . PRECIS: A Manual of Concept Analysis and Subject Indexing. London, BNB, 1974. PAULE ROLLAND-THOMAS Associate Professor Ecole de Bibliotheconomie Universite de Montreal, Canada The Role of Classification in Subject Retrieval in the Future It always seems befitting that the last speaker at a conference should gaze at a crystal ball and predict the future of the subject that has been discussed; I feel I should quote Confucius by saying that I do not invent, but transmit. In the last ten years, since the Elsinore Conference on Classification Research, classification theory and practice have produced a large body of literature and contributed to meetings such as this one. Major futuristic works, especially Classification in the 1970's,^ which was published early in this decade, provide the reader with a clear insight of what the future holds for each topic covered. J. Mills states of Bliss's Bibliographic Classification that "as a library classification scheme per se, the prospect is clear and bright," but "from the point of view of its future use, the prospect is less predictable. "2 Bibliographic Classification (BC) is being revised because some ninety libraries use it and need a revised edition. Presently, no BC class numbers are provided from centralized cataloging services such as British National Bibliography, MARC tapes, etc. However, Mills asserts that if demand warrants it: "This might involve the development of a 'switching language' whereby the subject analysis and description implicit in the production of PRECIS index entries . . . could be translated quickly and economically into BC numbers."-^ Gopinath writes that the third version of the Colon Classification (CC) is tending to become a freely faceted analytico-synthetic scheme: 157 158 PA ULE ROLLAND-THOMAS It is now possible for the notational system of CC to place any new main subject, or non-main subject simple or compound in any facet in the helpful position determined by the idea plane. . . . Thus during the next decade the development of CC will be approximate to the ideal of a freely-faceted model of classification.^ According to Sarah Vann, the flexibility of notation in Dewey's Decimal Classification (DDC) will contribute to its internationalization: This flexibility is to be 'controlled' through the inclusion of notes telling where to class subjects displaced. How long the 'official' Dewey will remain official in use, therefore, is highly speculative until further study is made. It can be assumed, however, that the use of the basic text both by the British national bibliography and the Decimal Classification division of the Library of Congress will continue to insure authoritative interpretation of notation. -> This prompts me to question the desirability and the practical value of a truly international scheme; varied cultures, national differences, distinct sys- tems of values (even among countries in the Western world) have already shown that DDC is inadequate in some areas, namely the 100s, 200s, and 300s. J.P. Immroth has invested a lot of energy, thought and research on the Library of Congress Classification (LCC).^ He deserves credit, I believe, for the first groundwork in building a theoretical approach to LCC, (fragile as it may be). I feel that the future of this scheme lies in its keeping up with the development of knowledge in its own enumerative manner and not in trying to imitate other schemes. The wealth of words contained in the schedules, the indexes to the schedules, and the lists of subject headings should allow for further research on the homologation and structural model building of the scheme and its ancillaries. The Universal Decimal Classification (UDC) development program for the 1970s has been described by G.A. Lloyd7 Funded partly by the International Federation for Documentation (FID) and partly through UNESCO, the program may be considered in four phrases, in addition to the normal revisions. They are: 1) immediate elaboration of a UDC "roof scheme" capable of fulfilling the role of international switching language in multilingual and multidisciplinary information systems, especially of an international or large-scale nature; 2) extended studies on the use of UDC combined with coordinate- indexing schemes, thesauri or special-subject classifications, and the ROLE OF CLASSIFICA TION 159 compilation of appropriate concordances, as means to improving information retrieval systems generally; 3) short-term priority projects, mainly FID-funded, to improve or rem- edy defective or deficient parts of the existing UDC schedules; 4) further perspectives of structural and notational improvements of a more far-reaching nature.** Although Vickery's paper on classificatory principles in natural-language indexing systems^ presents a sound explanation of the underlying classifica- tory technique in indexing, no new ventures in this particular area are foreseen. In his paper, "Prospects for Classification Suggested by Evaluation Tests Carried Out 1957-1970," E.M. Keen questions the benefits of classificatory index languages on the ground that their logical foundations may be at fault. In providing controlled languages their artificiality and complexity introduce new opportunities for misunderstanding and error. But an- other answer may be that the logical foundation presupposes a false view of the objectives of document retrieval systems. Users rarely require to see every single fully and marginally relevant document in a particular file, and they do not always expect that every non-relevant document in the file can be withheld. * * He concludes that the next decade will see different kinds of information retrieval systems manual, mechanized and new ones approaching automation. Keen deduces: On considerations of retrieval performance there is ample evidence that, in the kind of situations covered by tests so far, relatively uncontrolled languages used at the indexing stage cannot be improved on by controlled languages, and that in many cases even the use of controlled language aids at the search stage will not be necessary. * 1 For the sake of thoroughness, I will summarize Derek Austin's viewpoints as presented in his paper on trends toward a compatible general system." In this paper, he has outlined and discussed postulates and findings of the Classification Research Group as they relate to that group's approach to classification. Plans for research into a new general classification scheme were laid down at the London Conference in 1963.13 Throughout the years, the plans have evolved from a fairly conventional faceted classification scheme to the assignment of concepts "in a once-and-for-all basis to general categories from which they can be selected as needed in the building of any compound subject." 14 1 60 PA ULE ROLLAND-THOMAS PRECIS, as Austin writes, "should be seen rather as an interesting by-product of the continuing search for a general classification scheme."^ Its strings have been rotated to produce sets of entries that are meaningful in languages other than English. Recent developments in linguistics (namely Chomsky's school) have contributed to classification research insofar as it "supports the hypothesis of a deep syntactic structure which is common to all language systems." 1 Therefore, the goal of the CRG research is to produce a "metalanguage which is capable of expressing any subject as a string of notated elements which is neutral with respect to: (a) the placing of the subject in various standard shelf order classifications, (b) the categorial frame- work of the user of the system, and (c) the words and syntax of any one natural language." * ' Robert Freeman concludes his discussion of "Classification in Com- puter-Based Information Systems of the 1970's" with the statement: The matter of switching among existing classifications and indexing languages used in machine-readable data bases probably will continue to be subject of considerable effort throughout the 1970's. A variety of classifications will continue to thrive in the context of computer-based systems, both as file-partitioning and as detailed subject searching devices. Large-scale use of automatic classification techniques is probably at least a decade away.^ We are so close in time to these projections that I find it difficult to assess them. Since no single classification scheme or indexing system can take care of all library situations satisfactorily, the development and improvement of what seem to be competing systems will be with us for some time. Maltby wrote that "there are a number of fundamental questions which profoundly concern the future of classification in general libraries, particularly if by the term 'classification' we really mean a rational sequence of the maximum utility and not simply a convenient pigeonholing system." He believes that "there is an increasing gulf between the type of classification needed for book arrangement and that required for information retrieval." ^ This quotation points to the lack of rigorous usage of terms in librarians' professional jargon. We have often used interchangeably the terms informa- tional retrieval and subject retrieval, treating them as synonyms or near- synonyms. This has given rise to much confusion in teaching classification as well as in applied classification. Many fine minds have formulated their own definitions using one term and ignoring the other one, or using the two terms synonomously. I believe that as librarians, we should be reminded of Henri Bergson's warning: "On est libre de donner aux mots le sens qu'on veut, quand on prend soin de le definir."^ ROLE OF CLASS/PICA TION 1 61 John Metcalfe concludes an article entitled "When is a Subject Not a Subject?" with the statement that "'subject' has not proved a satisfactory term in information retrieval because of ambiguity in its use in information at large. "21 The term is nevertheless here to stay in communication with library users, but generates confusions in meaning with distinctions between the general and the specific, and between object and aspect. "Isolate has had some use to distinguish one of its meanings, but not without ambiguity of what Kaiser called Concrete and Process and what Cutter with more certain breadth of meaning called object and aspect. "^2 For himself, Metcalfe intends to continue the distinction between object and aspect. By doing so, he endorses dialectical epistemology: the knowing subject and the known object aspect, as he uses it, being a restriction at a conscious level of what we want to know about the object. This can be applied to the daily library environment as information retrieval from a subject-matter embodied in a document. I believe that most library classifications have succeeded to some extent in providing subject retrieval by mapping out or listing subjects, but many failed, save those that have introduced facet analysis or similar devices, to produce information retrieval from subjects. The editors of the Dewey Decimal Classification made an interesting and necessary distinction between subject and discipline as a useful device in applying that particular classification scheme. In that case, subject would be equivalent to concept, and discipline would fit the concept in such a priori classification schedules. Robert Fairthorne writes: "The problem of helping those who are ignorant, in detail, of what people have said about things, is therefore solved by defining 'aboutness' in extension. That is by listing the things that are mentioned in a document. . . ."^3 g u t the mere listing of things or entities does not reveal what is said about them, because it is irrelevant to the reader who is necessarily ignorant of what is said. Fairthorne distinguishes two kinds of "aboutnesses": (1) extensional "aboutness" takes into account the environ- ment of the use and the production of a document (thus it is a relation, not an attribute); and (2) intentional "aboutness," which clearly cannot be determined from the study of the text alone: "It entails knowledge of how it is going to be used by what class of readers."^ While not applying entirely William James's pragmatism to library classification, this last quotation from Fairthorne is suggestive not only of a classification of knowledge or the determination of the "aboutness" of a document, but also of a classification of readers. Shera stressed that "the study of habits of use is requisite to the act of classifying," for "there can be no universal library classification because there is no universal library user."25 The term user habits is a catchall to cover the behavior of all kinds of readers, from pre-readers to scholarly users. We must know more about our readers as individuals seeking information and recreation; we must know more 1 62 PA ULE R OLLAND-THOMA S about them as members of a socioeconomic group; we must know more about the civilization or culture to which they belong, and about the values which they cherish. It would be a gross error to overlook differences among peoples and nations even in the Western world; too often library classifications have been forced upon certain groups of readers, making the use of classification as an effective information retrieval tool almost impossible to achieve. The use of classifications for retrieval is not an invention of modem Western man; primitive peoples have through the ages devised taxonomies and classifications for their own benefit. These were by no means mere intellectual exercises, but were implements for their survival, both physical and spiritual. Many distinguished ethnologists have collected and interpreted primitive peoples' classifications, but none has given so much attention to their theories as the great French philosopher and anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss. He synthesizes the examination both of the structure of primitive thought and of the complexity of the organization of primitive collective life. In his book, The Savage Mind/- Levi-Strauss deals extensively with classifications of primitive peoples. At first glance, languages of American Indians and other primitive peoples include few terms to express concepts; lacking words like tree or animal, their classifications are, as a rule, very detailed and enumera- tive. Krause claims that Indians classify and name living organisms in two main categories: useful and harmful.^ ' Anything that does not fall under one of these two categories makes up a third category which we could consider neutral. The study of languages will reveal that names are assigned to things according to the particular needs of each community. The theoretical foundations of totemic classifications, if we may be allowed to use this term, are quite simple: classifications are devised to bring order into the universe. According to Levi-Strauss, "classifying, as opposed to not classifying, has a value of its own, whatever form the classification may take."2 Classification is based on observation leading to a systematic inventory of relations and connections that leads, sometimes, to correct scientific results. One interesting example is classification by smell; modern chemistry has revealed that the presence or absence of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and/or nitrogen will affect smell and taste. Botany separates onions, garlic, cabbage, turnips, radishes, and mustard (some belonging to the liliaceae and others to crucifers), but the olfactory sense confirms that these plants all share one element, sulfur. Simpson has stated that the demand for organization is a need common to art and science and, in consequence, "taxonomy, which is ordering par excellence, has eminent aesthetic value. "^9 Any classification is superior to chaos, even when it is based on external and artificial characteristics; it is a step toward rational ordering and is a tool that makes the building of a memory possible. ROLE OF CLA SSI PICA TION 1 63 Among American Indians, the Navaho, who claim to be great classifiers, have divided living beings into two categories: those endowed with speech and those that are not; the latter includes animals and plants. Animals are then di- vided into three groups: running, flying, and crawling.-^ These species are a far cry from Western zoological taxonomies. Reichard writes that, "since the Navaho regard all parts of the universe as essential to well-being, a major problem of religious study is the classification of natural objects, a subject that demands careful taxonomical attention."^ Of the Guarani of Argentina and Paraguay, Dennler states: In general, native terms can be said to constitute a well-conceived system, and, with a pinch of salt, they can be said to bear some resemblance to our scientific nomenclature. These primitive Indians did not leave the naming of natural phenomena to chance. They assembled tribal councils to decide which terms best corresponded to the nature of species, classifying groups and sub-groups with great precision. The preservation of the indigenous terms for the local fauna is not just a matter of piety and integrity; it is a duty to science. 32 Levi-Strauss regrets that ethnologists disregard these classifications by concluding that they were of no value whatsoever for the study of primitive peoples. He finds that these classifications bear a close resemblance to those devised in ancient times and in the Middle Ages by such men as Galen, Pliny, Hermes Tresmegistus, and Albert the Great, and are very close to Greek and Roman plant emblematism.^^ The study of totemic classifications is fascinating; characteristics of such classifications are quite different from one culture to another. Levi-Strauss states that: "The terms never have any intrinsic significance. Their meaning is one of 'position' a function of the history and cultural context on the one hand and of the structural system in which they are called upon to appear on the other."34 They are built on dichotomies based on values and usefulness and are hierarchical. "The truth of the matter," writes Levi-Strauss, "is that the principle underlying a classification can never be postulated in advance. It can only be discovered a posteriori by ethnographic investigation, that is, by experience."-^ It would be tempting to conclude that totemic classifications are mere listings used to build a collective memory, but relationships between terms make them workable. These relations are most commonly based on contiguity or on resemblance. Formally, contiguity and resemblance play an important part in modern classifications of knowledge; as Levi-Strauss says in regard to Simpson's remarks: contiguity for discovering things which "belong both structurally and functionally ... to a single system" and resemblance, which does not 164 PAULE ROLLAND-THOMAS require membership of the same system and is based simply on the possession by objects of one or more common characteristics, such as all being "yellow or all smooth, or all with wings or all ten feet high."36 Other kinds of relationships may be found on either the sensible level or the intelligible level. Relations will vary from one culture to another; in fact, these civilizations could be labeled richer or poorer "on the basis of the formal properties of the systems of reference to which they appeal in the construc- tion of their classifications."-^ The totemic classifications are not only conceptualized, but lived. By pointing out some aspects of Levi-Strauss's work on totemic classifications, I am not suggesting that we should avail ourselves of primitive classifications, but that we might draw from these "savage minds" their concern for usefulness, both physical and spiritual, relevant to our late- twentieth-century, post-industrial society. We are now familiar with Piaget, Barbel and Inhelder's findings on classification or, more precisely, on classifying. In a contribution to the Shera Festschrift entitled "The Contribution of Classification to a Theory of Librarianship," D. J. Foskett summarizes the Geneva school's findings on classification. There are two ways of forming a class: (l)by analysis (or the separation) of things from a collection by naming their specific properties, and (2) by synthesis (or the grouping) of things which share certain properties. It is clear that separating and grouping can be done on the basis of more than one property or set of properties: "Thus the processes of forming concepts involve multiplicative classifications, or lattices, and not just single hierarchies. Mastery of these processes brings the ability not only to form classes, but also to identify the relations between objects that exist in the real, material world."3 The problem of relations, even though Farradane^" hoped to have solved it twenty years ago, is still very much with us. The PRECIS system's relational operators are effective inasmuch as they are used with that method of indexing, but would they be as effective in another classificatory and/or indexing environment? In a recent article on the future of classification, Phyllis Richmond wrote: "We do not yet have an organizing philosophic basis for current thought in the late twentieth century. The philosophy may be here but unrecognized, or it may be in process but has not yet emerged publicly."^ She regrets that the Classification Research Group has no philosophical system for the projected New General Classification. They give their attention to Francis Bacon's Reason only, leaving aside for the time being, we hope, Memory and Imagination.^ The future of classification in subject retrieval may lie not only in developing a philosophical basis, but also in determining ROLE OF CLA SSI PICA TION 1 65 in which way the different fields of knowledge are interrelated by deciphering the structures of knowledge that comprise knowledge itself. In a remarkable book edited by Jean Piaget, Logique et conncdssance scientifique, Piaget rejects what he calls static classifications, which he considers artificial. The problem is to find epistemological filiations and analogies between different forms of scientific knowledge, and the epistemo- logical meaning of these relations, as classification is considered as a search for noetic filiations. Piaget posits that the dependency relation among the sciences necessarily leads to a linear classification. In reviewing some classifications from Bacon to Kedrov, he finds that according to Spencer's empirical epistemology, knowl- edge comes from the object itself, the forms of the object or phenomena. Knowledge concerning itself with forms only will produce a linear series, where the first term will be the most abstract and the last the most concrete. Spencer seems unaware that the abstract can be drawn not only from the object, but also from the actions of the subject. Piaget recalls that an epistemology is a kind of a dialectical situation between a subject and an object. The object is known only through the subject and the latter knows itself in relation to the object. The setting of the foundations of logic and mathematics must therefore lie with the subject, and the building of a science of the subject requires biology, physics and mathematics. Auguste Comte's intent was to set a linear classification, but epistemologically his system suggests circularity. Relations between genesis and structures are the main problems to be faced in establishing a classification scheme. Are structures a result of a genesis? If so, how do we explain genesis without referring to structures? The first link contains the axiomatic sciences, and the last contains sciences of genesis (or as Comte calls them, dynamiques). Cournot had divided knowledge according to structures and genesis. Disregarding Bacon's human faculties, his classification goes from the least historical mathematics to the most historical the humanities. He also in- troduced a third dimension: the technical or practical series. The latest classification of the sciences has been elaborated by the Soviet epistemologjst, B. Kedrov. Kedrov rejects what Piaget calls static classifications, where a continuity is provided from one science to the other, and he also rejects classifications based on usefulness. Kedrov starts with what he calls the principles of objectivity and of subordination (or development from inferior forms to superior forms). One must consider primarily Kedrov's dialectics as a methodology, not as a philosophy. If one considers dialectics as a methodology stemming from the humanities, or more exactly from psychol- ogy and sociology, the method can go back to the starting point of logic/mathematics to provide structures for the physical sciences and to 1 66 PA ULE ROLLAND-THOMAS I. Logic/mathematics II. Physical sciences III. Biological sciences IV. Psycho-sociological sciences A. Domaine materiel (material scope) B. Domaine conceptuel (conceptual scope) C. Domaine epistemologique interne (internal epistemological scope) D. Domaine 6pistemologique de'rive' (derived epistemological scope) Table 1. Piaget's Epistemological Levels. contribute to a total circular system of the sciences. The problem is not one of a structure to be given to a classification of the sciences (classifiers and classificationists cannot modify the real world); the problem is rather whether the sciences, in their spontaneous evolution, will reveal linear and hierarchical structures or cyclic and interdependent structures. Is knowledge developing as a living organism where all organs are interconnected, or is it developing by subordination in a preferred field? Piaget has worked for more than thirty years on his proposed system of classification. His hypothesis is that the system of the sciences bears a circular structure, not a linear structure. He divides knowledge into four broad classes: I. logic/mathematics; II. physical sciences; III. biological sciences; IV. psycho- sociological sciences, including linguistics, economics, etc. (see Table 1). At first glance, the proper order would appear to be I, II, III, IV, with a possibility of an internal interaction between IV and II, and I and III, discarding, therefore, a I to IV fixed sequence ending at IV. This is not an arbitrary order; there are relations between the classes. The meaning and the nature of these relations must be defined, for it would otherwise be totally absurd to link mathematics to psychology: while the latter relies on experi- mentation, the first relies on deduction. Piaget develops the hypothesis of the circle of the sciences by distinguishing different kinds of dependence: "reduction" or filiation between the sciences. A first distinction must be recognized before establishing relations between different fields of knowledge and the use of these relations to build a natural classification (natural meaning here "adapted to the nature of these relations without any reference to the distinction between nature in general and ideal or transcendental realities"). The distinction lies between the domaine materiel the material scope or matter of a science, i.e., the set of objects with which it concerns itself (for example, numbers and functions for mathematics; bodies, energies and organs for physics and biology) and the domaine conceptuel the conceptual scope or R OLE OF CLA SSI PICA TION 1 6 7 set of theories or organized knowledge of a particular science about its object (for instance, the theory of numbers, the theories of masses and energies, the description and interpretation of biological organs, the analysis of mental phenomena). The material scope will be labeled IA, IIA, IIIA, IVA; and the conceptual scope IB, IIB, IIIB, IVB. It is perfectly acceptable to relate the material scope of IA logic mathematics and IVA psycho-sociology; this has been done by empiricists who have "reduced" logic/mathematics to language; Piaget, however, derives them from the general coordinations of action. On the other hand, it would be rather clumsy to relate the conceptual scope of IB logic /mathematics to IVB psycho-sociology; the mathematician does not consult a psychologist before formulating a theory of numbers or complex functions. It is therefore possible to draw a circular classification at the level of material scope, but the conceptual scope remains linear. It is worth noting that classificationists have more or less taken this dichotomy into account when devising their systems. When Comte discards psychology and inserts its object in biology and sociology, he deals with the material scope. The observations, theories and experiments belonging to the conceptual scope are not altered whether psychology is classed in biology or sociology. One might say that most classifications are concerned with the material scope exclusively. However, knowledge about a science is not developed on one level only; different levels of knowledge proceed from the conceptu- alization (B) of its object (A) to an inquiry into that conceptualization, which in turn leads to a critical examination, or to the internal epistemological scope. This third level will be assigned the letter C and is defined as the set of theories whose objectives are the criticism or the study of the foundations of the conceptual scope. The four main classes of this level will thus be: 1C, IIC, IIIC, and IVC. The study of the foundations of a science will eventually yield general epistemological problems such as the part of the subject and the contribution of the object to knowledge. A fourth level, D, derived epistemological scope, will accommodate the general epistemological results of comparing one science with other sciences. The problem will then deal with relations between the subject and the object. It is therefore essential that this level ID, IID, HID, IVD be considered separately, because IVD concerns itself with psychogenesis and sociogenesis, and thus constitutes an indispensable part of genetic psychology. Obviously, epistemologies C and D refer equally to the material scope A and to the conceptual scope B, because their concern is the critical examination of concepts B in relation to their object A. Classifications according to B and C will remain linear, whereas a cyclic structure will be found in A and D, since the study of the subject in the building of the logico/mathematical structures is already an object in IVD. 1 68 PA ULE R OLLAND-THOMAS Figure 1. Piaget's Circle of the Sciences. Piaget concludes that a dynamic classification of the sciences takes into account the four levels of knowledge because they are interdependent. He then exhibits the relations between the subject and the object. Relations of succession may differ according to the levels considered: for levels A and D the order appears circular, while for B and C it appears linear. On the hypothesis of a circular order of the sciences, Piaget distinguishes two kinds of relations: causal and implicative. The causal relations belong to the physical and biological sciences to their material object. On the other hand, mental states such as feelings, values, and obligations are not causes, but imply something; we call them, therefore, implicative relations. If the circle of the subject and the object produces a cyclic structure to the whole of the sciences, it is because there is a dialectic or circular relation between classification systems based on causality and those based on implication. Having defined these types of relations, Piaget distinguishes six types of dependence. These are: (1) unilateral reduction of a science or causal theory to another; (2) reduction by interdependence of sciences or causal theories; (3) correspondence between a causal system and an implicative system until the first is assimilated by the second; (4) correspondence between a causal system and an implicative system, with a search towards an isomorphism or a structure; (5) interdependence by abstraction between two implicative systems; and (6) reduction by axiomatization of two implicative systems. Piaget's basic concept of the relations among the sciences can be expressed by the drawing of a circle: it takes its origin in logic/mathematics and closes also in logic/mathematics. He concludes that the material scope (A) is circular, given the fifth and sixth types of dependence, where logic belongs equally to levels A and D. The conceptual scope (B) is linear; logic tends to consider all circles as vicious. The internal epistemological scope (C) is linear, for approximately the same reasons as were applicable for B. Finally, the derived epistemological scope (D) is circular. Piaget grants that the limits between C and D might be somewhat difficult to determine. The epistemological results obtained in C in a given science may prove valid in another science. The circularity of A and D remains hypothetical until the ROLE OF CLASSIFICA TION 1 69 types of dependence have been set and proved to exist. The proof of the circularity of both A and D is obtained by the application of Piaget's dialectical epistemology: the subject knows the object through his own action performed on the object, and knows itself insofar as it is affected by the object. Empiristic philosophy draws knowledge from the object alone; aprio- ristic philosophy from the subject alone. I am very much aware that Piaget's circular classification might be indeed difficult to apply to a practical library and information-oriented environment, but I believe it is worth investigating. Regarding knowledge per se, his system has set its own limitations; it does not provide for knowledge that is not scientific, such as practical knowledge, beliefs, opinions, values, and what Erikson calls "intimacy with the domain," which includes knowledge acquired by connoisseurs of the fine arts and music, sports fans, serious collectors, etc. These considerations, some far-fetched, should not deter us from trying to cope with the more mundane, day-to-day problems that we face in libraries. Among these problems is the "tandem" close vs. broad classification exists only in library situations where the classification scheme serves two purposes: shelf location and subject analysis (in its broadest meaning). Theoretically, there is no physical limit to minute classification in catalogs, whether manual or automated. But if the classification scheme selected serves as a location device, truncation is possible without more or less loss of meaning if the notation is hierarchically expressive whatever applies to the whole applies to the parts. I cannot imagine truncation applied to other types of notations that do not express hierarchy without severe loss of meaning. In November 1973, the Library and Learning Resources Service of the City of London Polytechnic conducted a survey in which problems on automation brought questions on the length of DDC-18 class numbers as allocated by the British National Bibliography (BNB). In this survey, it was decided to investigate the possibility of truncating numbers in a select group of classes which reflect the collections held by that particular institution, without too much loss of information. Results of the study indicated that: Specificity of classing is a principle well established in texts on classification and in practical classification as carried out by LC and BNB. Truncating numbers either on a rigid basis of X digits after the decimal point or using the prime marks as suggested in the DC 18 Editor's Introduction (vol. 1, p. 41) inevitably reduces specificity and merges topics.^3 The surveyors found that one of the features of class 300 and especially 330, 380 and 350 were long numbers resulting from additions from the Area Tables and the use of "add as" instructions, particularly in 300 and 380. They 1 70 PA ULE ROLLAND-THOMAS also felt that: "the 5- and 7-digit levels are unacceptable and that if truncation is to take place it should be at the 9-digit level. ... If we take into account the fact that class numbers are not always coextensive with the subject matter, then the true picture is even worse. "^4 The surveyors recommended that more research is needed to determine the relative costs of: 1 . The extra staff and user effort in searching a non specific catalog and shelves. 2. The extent to which users do not find a book because of long class numbers (unable to memorize or writing it down wrongly). 3. The extent to which users are put off from using the catalogue. 4. The difference in staff tidying and shelving times/*-* The results of such an investigation would apply exclusively to a library environment where the three following conditions would be met: (l)open shelves, (2) classification is used for shelf location and subject analysis (in its broadest meaning), and (3) the scheme used is DDC or another scheme whose notation is decimal or lends itself to truncation without loss of meaning. It would also entail reassessment of the research and educational value of open stacks, self-service, and browsing. Maltby has stated that: "there is an increasing gulf between the type of classification needed for book arrangement and that required for information retrieval. . . . The dichotomy is now too certain for any one scheme to be viewed with confidence as a classification for all situations.'"^" He writes further that: "Broad classification, apart from the effect on cataloguing and the uncertainty of interpretation as to just what constitutes 'broad shelf arrangement; is at best often little more than a ruined shell of the scheme represented.'"*' The classified catalog is not theoretically bound to an exact matching of class numbers on books and catalog cards. In libraries maintaining this kind of catalog, the books may be arranged on the shelves in any orderly fashion; it may be by accession number, it may be by a classification scheme totally different from the one selected for the catalog, or according to the classifica- tion scheme used in the catalog, matching exactly the principal class number assigned to the catalog, or a broader class number than the one selected as the principal number for the catalog. It is not within the scope of this paper to analyze the components of the classified catalog, nor its virtues and weaknesses; eminent librarians such as Shera and Egan/* Ranganathan,^^ and R. F. Kennedy~>0 have treated with great intellectual rigor this tool for subject retrieval. I will, however, comment briefly on the few remaining or recently closed classified catalogs on this continent. ROLE OF CLA SSI PICA TION 1 71 Among the most important classified catalogs recently closed are those of the Boston University Library and the National Library of Canada. Each of these catalogs was constructed quite differently: the Boston University catalog was a far cry from the rules on the construction of a classified catalog as set forth by Shera and Egan and by Ranganathan; LCC class numbers were used in the classified list, and LC subject headings were used for the index, matching as far as possible the class numbers assigned to the classified file. The National Library of Canada catalog was begun in 1961 and closed in 1974. It was "arranged in Dewey Decimal Classification order [with] indexes in English and French established according to the technique of chain indexing."^ LCC class numbers were assigned to books. According to Margaret Hazen, the Boston University Library catalog "had a serious drawback namely, the difficulty of keeping the subject records current,"-^ resulting in a serious backlog. The development of LC MARC tapes and "the introduction of cooperative cataloging by member libraries in the OCLC [Ohio College Library Center] system provided a possible method for achieving speed and efficiency in subject and general cataloging."-^ Boston University became a member of the New England Library Network, accepting LC call numbers and subject headings, and began an alphabetic subject catalog. Standardization is the main reason behind the abandonment of the classified catalog. The same reason prevailed in the closing of the National Library of Canada catalog: The decision was made because of the need for greater standardization and the ensuing possibility of sharing cataloguing information, thus providing access to the collection more rapidly and decreasing catalogu- ing costs. . . . Although the classed catalogue has proved to be an efficient subject retrieval tool, it could not hold against the current trends. $$ In Quebec, where the classified catalog enjoyed some popularity, large and small libraries have converted or are considering converting or closing their classified catalogs. Again, the reason is standardization: to bring, for the time being, research and academic libraries in line with Ontario libraries as members of UNICAT/TELECAT (a program of cooperative cataloging based on OCLC) with the addition of a bilingual (English and French) union file. If we claim that subject indexing is equivalent to classification, then alphabetical subject catalogs will not alleviate defective classification. J.E. Daily has written: "One must assume that language, in its broadest sense, affects the subject indexing and that there is no distinct difference between classification, which is identified by its structure of notation, and the alphabetical list, however organized. Subject indexing is a classification process."-*" The Encyclopedic^ is an alphabetical dictionary, but Diderot states that refer- 1 72 PAULE R OLLAND-THOMA S ences between words are the most important part of the work; the intent of the "renvois" is obviously classificatory. The future of classification for information retrieval lies in the confron- tation of economics and the intrinsic value of research and its application. Valuable advances have been made and successfully applied in the classifica- tion and subject indexing of science and technology. Unfortunately, the humanities and the social sciences have been poorly served, and deserve more investigation in order to provide meaningful subject access. Any new venture is costly, and the economics will weigh heavily in adopting or rejecting systems applicable to a particular library. This is why standardization, regardless of its worth, has gained so many supporters. REFERENCES 1. Maltby, Arthur, ed. Classification in the 1970's. Hamden, Conn., Linnet Books, and London, Clive Bingley, 1972. 2. Mills, J. "The Bibliographic Classification." In Maltby, op. cit., p. 27. 3. Ibid., p. 50. 4. Gopinath, M. A. "The Colon Classification." In Maltby, op. cit., p. 70. 5. Vann, Sarah K. "The Dewey Decimal Classification." In Maltby, op. cit., p. 108. 6. Immroth, J. P. "Library of Congress Classification." In Maltby, op. cit., pp. 125-43. 7. Lloyd, G. A. "Universal Decimal Classification." In Maltby, op. cit, pp. 147-65. 8. Ibid., p. 156. 9. Vickery, B. C. "Classificatory Principles in Natural Language Index- ing Systems." In Maltby, op. cit., pp. 169-91. 10. Keen, E. M. "Prospects for Classification Suggested by Evaluation Tests Carried Out 1957-1970." In Maltby, op. cit. p. 209. 11. Ibid., pp. 209-10. 12. Austin, D. "Trends Towards a Compatible General System." In Maltby, op. cit., pp. 213-48. 13. Some Problems of a General Classification Scheme (Report of a Conference held in London, June 1963). London, Library Association, 1964. 14. Austin, op. cit., p. 215. 15. Ibid., p. 214. 16. Ibid., p. 246. 17. Ibid., pp. 246-47. 18. Freeman, Robert R. "Classification in Computer-Based Information Systems of the 1970's." In Maltby, op. cit., p. 262. 19. Maltby, A. "Classification Logic, Limits, Levels." In Maltby, op. cit., pp. 11, 12. ROLE OF CLASSIFICA TION 1 73 20. Bergson, Henri. La pensee et le mouvant: essais et conferences. Paris, Alcan, 1934, p. 201, note. ("We are free to give whatever meaning we wish to words, once we have taken care to define them.") 21. Metcalfe, John. "When is a Subject Not a Subject?" In Conrad H. Rawski, ed. Toward a Theory of Librarianship: Papers in Honor of Jesse Hauk Shera. Metuchen, N.J., Scarecrow Press, 1973, p. 336. 22. Ibid. 23. Fairthorne, Robert A. "The Symmetries of Ignorance." In Rawski, op. cit., p. 264. 24. Ibid., p. 265. 25. Shera, Jesse H. Libraries and the Organization of Knowledge. D. J. Foskett, ed. Hamden, Conn., Archon Books, 1965, pp. 92, 110. 26. Levi-Strauss, Claude. The Savage Mind (La pensee sauvage). London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1966. 27. Krause, Aurel. The Tlingit Indians. E. Gunther, trans. Seattle, Univ. of Washington Press, 1956, p. 104. 28. Levi-Strauss, op. cit., p. 9. 29. Simpson, George G. Principles of Animal Taxonomy. New York, Columbia University Press, 1961, p. 4. 30. Levi-Strauss, op. cit., p. 39. 31. Reichard, Gladys A. Navaho Religion; A Study of Symbolism (Bollingen Series No. 18). 2 vols. New York, Pantheon Books, 1950, p. 7. 32. Dennler, J. G. Quoted in Levi-Strauss, op. cit., p. 44. 33. Levi-Strauss, op. cit., p. 42. 34. Ibid., p. 55. 35. Ibid., p. 58. 36. Ibid., p. 63. 37. Ibid. 38. Foskett, D. J. "The Contribution of Classification to a Theory of Librarianship." In Rawski, op. cit., pp. 174-75. 39. Farradane, J. E. L. "The Psychology of Classification," Journal of Documentation 1 1: 187-201, Dec. 1955. 40. Richmond, Phyllis A. "The Future of Classification," Drexel Library Quarterly 10: 111, Oct. 1974. 41. "Classification Research Group, Bulletin No. 10," Journal of Docu- mentation 29:51-71, March 1973. 42. Piaget, Jean, ed. Logique et connaissance scientifique (Encyclopedic de la Pleiade, vol. 22). Paris, Gallimard, 1967. 43. City of London Polytechnic. Library and Learning Resources Service. The Length of DC18 Class Numbers: Investigation in Selected Subject Areas. London, City of London Polytechnic, Nov. 1973, 1. 2. 44. Ibid., 1.3. 45. Ibid. 46. Maltby, op. cit., p. 12. 47. Ibid., p. 19. 48. Shera, Jesse H., and Egan, Margaret E. The Classified Catalog. Chicago, ALA, 1956. 49. Ranganathan, S. R. Classified Catalogue Code. 5th ed. Bombay, Asia Publishing House, 1964. 1 74 PA ULE ROLLAND-THOMAS 50. Kennedy, R. F. Classified Cataloguing: A Practical Guide. Cape Town, Balkema, 1966. 51. Hazen, Margaret H. "The Closing of the Classified Catalog at Boston University," Library Resources & Technical Services 18:220-25, Summer 1974. 52. "Closing of the Classed Catalogue," National Library News, Canada 7:9, Jan.-Feb. 1975. 53. Hazen, op. cit., p. 221. 54. Ibid., p. 222. 55. "Closing of the Classed Catalogue," op. cit. 56. Daily, Jay E. "Classification and Categorization." In Allen Kent and Harold Lancour, eds. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Vol. 5. New York, Marcel Dekker, 1971, p. 44. 57. Diderot, Denis, and D'Alembert, Jean, eds. Encyclopedic: ou, Dictionnaire raisonne des sciences, des arts et des metiers. 17 vols. Paris, Briasson, 1751-65. ADDITIONAL REFERENCES Flavell, John H. The Developmental Psychology of Jean Piaget. Princeton, N.J., Van Nostrand, 1963. Hymes, Dell H., ed. Language in Culture and Society: A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology. New York, Harper and Row, 1964. Levi-Strauss, Claude. Anthropologie structurale. Paris, Plon, 1958. Anthropologie structurale deux. Paris, Plon, 1973. Le totemisme aujourd'hui (Mythes et Religions). Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 1969. Wellisch, Hans, and Wilson, Thomas D. Subject Retrieval in the Seventies: New Directions (Proceedings of an International Symposium held at the Center of Adult Education, University of Maryland ... May 14-15, 1971) (Contributions in Librarianship and Information Science, No. 3). Westport, Conn., Greenwood Press, 1972. Contributors DAVID BATTY had experience as a librarian before he served as Head of the Department of Information Retrieval Studies, College of Librarianship, Wales, from its foundation in 1964 to September 1971. In 1971, he joined the faculty of the Graduate School of Library Science, McGill University. His programmed texts for the 16th through 18th editions of DDC are well known to library school students. He has made numerous other contributions to the literature of librarian ship. JOHN P. COMAROMI has served as a school librarian and as a circulation librarian. He has been a cataloging instructor at the University of Michigan and the University of Oregon, and currently teaches in that subject area at Western Michigan University. His Ph.D. dissertation for the University of Michigan was concerned with the history of DDC; Forest Press has published that history. He serves as a member of the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee. In the summer of 1975 he traveled 10,000 miles to visit libraries using the DDC as principal investigator of the survey of the classification's use in the United States and Canada. MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT has served in a variety of teaching and administrative positions at the University of Toronto School of Library Science since 1949. Currently she is an Associate Professor at the school and Academic Secretary for the Graduate Department of Library Science. The latter position entails responsibility for all the academic programs of all students and for liaison with the School of Graduate Studies. She is the author of a number of professional articles relating to cataloging, filing, classification, and education for librarianship. Among her many professional 175 176 CONTRIBUTORS activities should be mentioned her membership on the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee. MARY ELLEN MICHAEL has served as a Research Associate, Library Research Center, Graduate School of Library Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and as a librarian. She served as co-author of Planning and Evaluating Library System Services in Illinois and her Continuing Professional Education in Librarianship and Other Fields; A classified and annotated bibliography, 1965-1974 was published in 1975. JOEL C. DOWNING is currently Director, English Language and Copy- right Services, Bibliographic Services Division, the British Library, arriving at that position after work experience in London's public library system and responsibilities with the British National Bibliography. He has been a member of the Library Association's Cataloguing Rules Sub-committee since 1951. In 1965, he assisted David Batty and Peter Lewis in the founding and develop- ment of the Cataloguing and Indexing Group of the Library Association. He has served as chairperson of that group since 1971. From 1967 to 1970, he was secretary of the IFLA Committee on Cataloguing, and is currently a member of the Joint Steering Committee for the Revision of the Anglo- American Cataloguing Rules. Since 1970, he has served as the British representative on the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee. GORDON STEVENSON has been a faculty member of the School of Library and Information Science, State University of New York at Albany, since 1970. He holds a Ph.D. in Library Science from the Graduate Library School, Indiana University, Bloomington. He has contributed articles to library publications, including "The Historical Context: Traditional Classification since 1950" in Drexel Library Quarterly, October 1974. An active member of the American Library Association, he has served on the Catalog Code Revision Committee. PETER R. LEWIS has been a frequent visitor to the United States since 1968 when he first represented British interests in discussions with the American Library Association and the Library of Congress concerning the maintenance of the Anglo-American Cataloging Rules. From 1968 to 1971, he was chairperson of the British Cataloguing Rules Committee. He was also chairperson of the Library Association Committee which published Non-Book Materials Cataloguing Rules (1972). He represents the British Library on the Joint Steering Committee for Revision of AACR and serves as the chairperson of the committee. HANS WELLISCH has held various library positions in Sweden and Israel, and since 1969 has been a faculty member of the College of Library and Information Services, University of Maryland. In 1975, he received a Ph.D. from the University of Maryland. He is the author of several books and more than forty articles in library journals. DEREK AUSTIN worked in public libraries for a number of years, usually as a reference librarian or a subject specialist, learning, as he says, "the CONTRIBUTORS 177 hard way how to use indexes and classifications, and generally being disillu- sioned with existing schemes." From 1963 to 1967, he served as subject editor at the British National Bibliography, "learning as a practitioner just how difficult it is to make a good index or classification." Under the auspices of the NATO Science Foundation and the Classification Research Group, he worked on research into general principles for a new bibliographic classifica- tion from 1967 to 1969. From 1969 to 1973 he served as Principal Investigator for the PRECIS Project (UK MARC) trying to translate the general principles into practice. Since 1974, he has served as Head, Subject Systems Office, The British Library. PAULE ROLLAND-THOMAS has been a cataloger in school and university libraries as well as the Deputy Librarian, Reference Library, National Film Board of Canada. Since 1961, she has been teaching in the areas of technical services, cataloging and classification at the School of Library Economy, University of Montreal. She is a doctoral candidate in philosophy at the University of Montreal, where her dissertation topic is "Cultural Classifications." The French edition for Canadian libraries of the Anglo-American Cataloging Rules (1967) and the revised chapter 6 of the code (1974) were prepared under her direction. Index Auxiliaries, general UDC, 4-5; as 114-15. and special in original facets, Bibliographic Classification, evalua- tion for BML, 106-08; evaluation for SRL, 108-10; revisions, 157. Biography; library treatment of, 53-54. BML. See: British Museum Library. BNB. See: British National Biblio- graphy. Britain, and DDC, 60-63, 65; recog- nition of need for standard inter- national format, 63-64; question- naire on classification, 65-66; DDC Committee, 70-72; revision of Area Tables, 71; survey of DDC and libraries, 73. British Library, development of class- ification system for, 99-112; rela- tion to other libraries, 100; crea- tion of Working. Party (1972), 100; differing needs of BML and SRL, 105-11. British Museum Library, value of four classification schemes for, 107-08. British National Bibliography, early follower of facet ordering, 1 1 ; production of classified catalog organized by DDC at time of DDC-16, 60; original purpose, 63; use of DDC-18, 64, 67; question- naire on classification, 65-66; increasing cooperation between BNB and DDC, 66-67; relation to British libraries, 99; and MARC, 131-32; preparation for automa- tion, 132; and reducing length of DDC-18 class numbers, 169-70. Broad System of Ordering, proposal for, 121; need for UDC in con- junction with, 122. Brussels conference (1895), 4. BSO. See: Broad System of Ordering. Canada, survey of use of DDC, 47-58. Catalog, classified, 90-93; Dewey on use of, 91; closed classified, 170-71. 179 180 INDEX Chain indexing, introduced by Rang- anathan, 11; -in Britain, 68-69; supplanted by PRECIS, 69. Classification, history of, 1-15; inter- nal organization of subjects as Dewey's greatest contribution, 3-4; limited by contemporary culture, 4, 5-6, 33, 158, 161-64; synthetic vs. enumerative schemes, 10; auto- matic generation, 13; importance of perception of, 81; aspects to be considered in evaluation, 82-84; need for research, 85; two views on purpose, 89; for information retrieval or shelving, 91-92, 170; desirable characteristics of, 125-26; future prospects, 157-72; and re- trieval in other cultures, 162-64; Piaget on, 165-69. See also: Biblio- graphic Classification, Dewey Decimal Classification, Library of Congress Classification, Subject Classification, Universal Decimal Classification. Classification Research Group, estab- lishment in 1950, 1 1; facet classifi- cation, 11-12; significance of early work, 12; and PRECIS, 13-14; influence on DDC-17, 37-38; influence on DDC and UDC, 40-41; need for new classification scheme, 127-28; categorization effort, 129; effort to systematize building of compound subjects, 130; goal, 160. Classified catalog, 90-93; closed, 170-71. Colon, use of in Ranganathan's scheme, 9-10. Colon Classification, faceted classifica- tion scheme, 10; first published in 1933, 39; importance, 40 ; revisions, 1 57-58. See also: Ranganathan, Uni- versal Decimal Classification. Computers, and libraries, 58; appli- cability of LCC and DDC to, 90-91; and UDC, 120-21. CRG. See: Classification Research Group. DCEPC. See: Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee. DDC. See: Dewey Decimal Classifica- tion. DDC-1 (1876), 22. DDC-2 (1885), 23; improvements over DDC-1, 24. DDC-5 (1894), and UDC, 39. DDC-15 (1951); problems with, 27-28. DDC-16 (1958), 29-30, 32-33. DDC-17 (1965), new uses of facets, 35-37. DDC-1 8 (1971), criticism of facets, 38-39; reactions by British, 64; and shortened class numbers by BNB, 169-70. Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee, and DDC-16, 32-33; and DDC-1 8, 39; development of, 42-43. Decimal notation, mnemonic effect, 3. Dewey, Melvil, and internal organiza- tion of subjects, 3-4; early career, 17-18; sources for classification scheme, 18-20; submits plan to Amherst, 20; work at Wellesley and Columbia, 23; signs over copy- rights for DDC to Lake Placid Club Education Foundation, 25. Dewey Decimal Classification, special features of early scheme, 2-4; as enumerative classification, 10; and PRECIS, 14, 74; possible sources for, 17-20; for catalog and shelf arrangement, 18; sources for struc- ture of, 20-2 1 ; reasons for success, 23; subject index as most impor- tant feature, 24; developments between 1880s and 1951, 24-27; financial and personnel problems in 1950s, 28-29; significance of personnel and organizational devel- opment, 32, 41-44; based on Pro- testant Anglo-Saxon culture, 33; theoretical chain of influence, 39-41; control of, 41-43; interna- tional involvement, 43-44; use in INDEX 181 U.S. and Canadian libraries, 47-58; library appreciation of index, 51; primary editions used by libraries, 55-56; problems with from British perspective, 62; important factors in use of in Britain, 69; British Committee, 70-72; future compe- tition from PRECIS in Britain, 74; and LCC, 78-97; use of by college libraries, 78-79; reasons for switch to LCC in U.S., 86-89; serves dual purpose, 92; possible international role, 96; evaluation for BML, 106-08; evaluation for SRL, 108-10; future of, 158; and closed classified catalogs, 171. "Divide like," used for geographical subdivisions, 22; as standard proce- dure, 23; and concept of facets, 33-34; changed to "add to," 39. See also: Facets. ERIC thesaurus, 13. Europe, use of DDC, 75-77. See also: Britain. Farradane, Jason, proposes system of relational operations, 12-13. Faceted classification schemes, and synthetic schemes, 10-1 1. Facets, use of by Ranganathan, 9-1 1 ; further work on by CRG, 11-12; new in DDC-16, 33-34; reluctance to use concept of, 34-35; new in DDC-17, 35-37; criticism of in DDC-18, 38-39; first used in UDC, 1 14; and new UDC, 120. See also: "Divide like," PRECIS. Forest Press, as present DDC pub- lisher, 25-26. General auxiliary, and UDC, 4-5. History, classification of in Britain, 67, 72. Index, important feature of early DDC scheme, 2; Relativ Index, 23; revised after DDC-16, 30; library appreciation of, 51-52; computer- ized, 8; BNB, 68-69. See also: PRECIS. Indexing, Systematic Indexing (Kaiser, 1911), 5; classification problems, 5-6; by chain procedure, 11; and subject retrieval, 124-57. See also: PRECIS, Retrieval. Integrity of numbers, 23; vs. keeping pace with knowledge, 28-30, 33, 5 1 ; importance of to libraries, 50-52. Knowledge, growth of and libraries, 8; importance of keeping pace with, 15, 28-30, 33, 50, 51, 64. Lake Placid Club Education Founda- tion, obtains DDC copyrights, 25. Language, linguistics and classifica- tion, 5-6, 159-60, 162-63. Law, revision of phoenix schedules, 72. LCC. See: Library of Congress Class- ification. Libraries, users of DDC, 47-58; cur- rent problems in subject searching, 58; British use of DDC, 61; Euro- pean use of DDC, 75-77; DDC and, 78-79; needs different from those of LC, 80; academic, and DDC, 93-94; public and school, and DDC, 94-95. See also: British Library, British Museum Library, Library of Congress, Science Ref- erence Library. Library of Congress, requests revised scheme of Dewey (1899), 25; agreement to help with DDC-16, 28. Library of Congress Classification, 7-8; as enumerative classification, 10; use of in libraries compared with DDC, 48-50; libraries, current problems in subject searching, 58; and DDC, 78-97; meets special needs of LC, 80; reasons for switch from DDC in U.S., 86-89; future possibilities, 92-93; virtually restricted to U.S., 96; evaluation for BML, 106-08; evaluation for 182 INDEX SRL, 108-10; future of, 158; and closed classified catalogs, 171. Literature, three modes of, 21-22; classification of by libraries, 54. MARC, UK, 66, 69, 73-74, 100, 102, 131-32, 147-48; use of in conti- nental Europe, 75-76; and DDC, 90, 93, 96; retrieval and, 102; possible addition of UDC numbers, 104; use of in SRL study, 109; lesson of, 131-32. MESH (Medical Subject Headings), 13. Music, phoenix schedule being pre- pared in Britain, 71. Phoenix schedules, 30; library atti- tudes toward, 51-52; for music, 71 ; revision of for law, 72. Piaget, Jean, on classification of the sciences, 165-69. PMEST, 10, 37, 128, 130. Precedence notes, satisfaction with among libraries, 57. PRECIS (Preserved Context Indexing System), origins, 13-14; 132-33; British needs, 69, 103, 111; exam- ple of index, 134; entry format, 135-39; treatment of compound terms, 139-41; role operators, 141-44; construction of thesaurus for, 144-47; use of and work-flow, 148-56; and search for general classification scheme, 160; effec- tiveness of relational operators, 164. Ranganathan, Shiyali Ramanarita, 5; development of scheme, 8-11; indexing by chain procedure, 10-11; and PRECIS, 14; and UDC, 39; effect of ideas on Britain, 63; problem with primary facet, 128. See also: Colon Classification. Relational sign, 5. Relativ Index, as part of DDC-2, 23. Retrieval, British examination of possibilities, 102; and UDC, 120-21 ; desirable characteristics of system, 126-27; and classification schemes, 157-72; subject retrieval, 160-61; cross-cultural, 162-64; different classification needed for book ar- rangement, 170. See also: Com- puters, PRECIS. Science Reference Library, possible classification schemes, 108-10. See also: British Museum Library. Sciences, Piaget's classification of, 165-69. Segmentation, extent of use by librar- ies, 53. Special auxiliary, in UDC, 5. Spelling, simplified in DDC, 23. SRL. See: Science Reference Library. Subject Classification (Brown), 6-7. Subject retrieval, or informational re- trieval, 160-61. See also: Retriev- al. Syntax, search for universal, and problems of classification, 5-6. See also: Language. * Thesauro facet, 13. Thesaurus, and library classification schemes, 13, 129; PRECIS, 144-47. UDC. See: Universal Decimal Classifi- cation. United States, survey of use of DDC, 47-58. Universal' Decimal Classification, origin, 4; principle contributions, 5; special auxiliary in, 5; contrast to Ranganathan's scheme, 9; use of colon, 9-10; as synthetic classi- fication, 10; and PRECIS, 14; based on DDC-5 (1894), 39; evalu- ation for BML, 106-08; evaluation for SRL, 108-10; offspring of DDC, 113-14; today, 115-16; reforms, 116-17, 119-21; Basic Medium Edition, 117-19; future of, 158-59. See also: Broad Sys- tem of Ordering. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 020.715A434 C001 ? ALLERTON PARK INSTITUTE URBANA-CHAMPAIG !' 21 1975

classifying books

Who was the king of rock and roll?

Full text of "Major classification systems : the Dewey Centennial" See other formats 020.715 A434 no. 21 Major Classification Systems: The Dewey Centennial LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 020/715 A434 no. 21 Lib. Scl The person charging this material is re- sponsible for its return to the library from which it was withdrawn on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books are reasons for disciplinary action and may result in dismissal from the University. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN SCfcHCEUBew A'JG 21 1978 OCU 978 w 3 WAR JUL ooD N5V JUN JUN V <8 JAJ^D82007 985 1986 1998 L161 O-1096 ALLERTON PARK INSTITUTE Number 21 Papers Presented at the Allerton Park Institute Sponsored by Forest Press, Inc. and University of Illinois Graduate School of Library Science and University of Illinois Office of Continuing Education and Public Service held November 9-12, 1975 Allerton Park Monticello, Illinois Major Classification Systems: The Dewey Centennial edited by Kathryn Luther Henderson University of Illinois Graduate School of Library Science Urbana-Champaign, Illinois Copyright 1976 by The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois LC Card Number: 76-026331 ISBN: 0-87845-044-0 * r r CONTENTS Foreword vii RICHARD B. SEALOCK Introduction ix KATHRYN LUTHER HENDERSON Library Classification: One Hundred Years After Dewey 1 DAVID BATTY The Historical Development of The Dewey Decimal Classification System , 17 JOHN P. COMAROMI Dewey Today: An Analysis of Recent Editions 32 MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT Summary of a Survey of the Use of the Dewey Decimal Classification in the United States and Canada 47 MARY ELLEN MICHAEL Dewey Today: The British and European Scene 59 JOEL C. DOWNING The Library of Congress Classification Scheme and its Relationship to Dewey 78 GORDON STEVENSON Factors in the Selection of a Classification Scheme for a Large General Library 99 PETER LEWIS Dewey Decimal Classification, Universal Decimal Classification, and the Broad System of Ordering: The Evolution of Universal Ordering Systems 113 HANS H. WELLISCH The Role of Indexing in Subject Retrieval 124 DEREK AUSTIN The Role of Classification in Subject Retrieval in the Future. ... 157 PAULE ROLLAND-THOMAS Contributors 175 Index . .179 VI Foreword One hundred years ago, in 1876, Melvil Dewey anonymously published the first edition of his classification system. Forest Press, publisher of the Dewey Decimal Classification since 1931, could think of no more suitable way to honor the DDC and its author during this centennial year than to bring together librarians interested in classification. It was with great pleasure, therefore, that Forest Press welcomed the opportunity to cosponsor with the University of Illinois Graduate School of Library Science the twenty-first annual Allerton Park Institute. Held on November 9-12, 1975, the topic of the institute was, most appropriately, "Major Classification Systems: the Dewey Centennial." The goal of the Allerton conference was to provide a forum for an in-depth discussion of classification systems in general and of the DDC in particular. Experts in the field from the United States, Canada, and England presented papers on a variety of topics ranging from a look at recent editions of the DDC and a comparison between Dewey and the Library of Congress Classification, to an examination of the role of classification in subject retrieval. The first report on the survey of DDC use in the United States and Canada was also given at the conference. These papers, all original contributions to the classification field, have been collected in the present volume. Forest Press wishes to thank in particular the two people whose diligence and care made the conference possible: Kathryn Luther Henderson, vii viii FOREWORD Associate Professor, Graduate School of Library Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and Chairperson of the Planning Committee; and Herbert Goldhor, Director and Professor, Graduate School of Library Science. We are also very grateful to the participants in the conference, for their essays provide an excellent introduction to the study of classification and constitute a fitting centennial tribute to the Dewey Decimal Classification. RICHARD B. SEALOCK Executive Director Forest Press June 1976 Introduction Not the least of the important events in library history occuring in 1876 was the appearance of a (then) anonymous publication entitled: A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloging and Arranging the Books and Pamphlets of a Library. We now know that the author was Melvil Dewey and, through the years, the work has become known as the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC). The twenty-first annual Allerton Park Institute of the University of Illinois Graduate School of Library Science honored this modest beginning of modern library classification on the eve of its centennial. Forest Press (Albany, N.Y.), publisher of the DDC, served as cosponsor of the conference held from Sunday, November 9, through Wednesday, November 12, 1975, at Allerton Park (the university's conference center) near Monticello, Illinois. From the first conversations concerning the conference, the intention was that the conference concentrate on classification in general and that it should be critical and objective, and not simply expository and laudatory with regard to DDC. Since Dewey 's classification scheme has had a major impact on library classification and subject retrieval systems throughout the world, it was felt that the conference should include papers and discussions from leading experts in the field from the United States, Canada, and England. While the focus remained on Dewey, past, present and future, other major systems were to be noted and compared with DDC. IX x INTRODUCTION Only the formal papers can be included in the published proceedings. Missing is the flavor of the give and take of discussions among the speakers, the more than ninety registered participants and the colleagues from the local library community and library school. Since we were fortunate to have most of the speakers with us for the entire conference, there were many opportunities to learn from them as they gave freely of their time and expertise. In the formal papers that are published here, C. David Batty's keynote address focuses on library classification in general one hundred years after Dewey. He notes the different developments which have contributed to our present philosophy and model of classification as being more similar than dissimilar. The new theories are less a new structure founded on the work of a century than they are a "validation and realization" of the earlier work. He proposes a theoretical model that he finds "at the heart of all fruitful classification and indexing developments of the last one hundred years." Batty traces developments in the works of Dewey, the Universal Decimal Classification, Cutter, Brown, the Library of Congress, Bliss, Ranganathan, and the Classification Research Group. John P. Comaromi concentrates on the history and development of the first sixteen editions of DDC, giving emphasis to the factors which have affected the scheme and to the persons (especially the editors) whose work is reflected in the various editions but who often have remained unrecognized for their influence. The role of the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee and other advisory committees is also noted. Continuing the story of the editions of DDC, Margaret Cockshutt analyzes the trends toward faceting in the most recent editions of the scheme. She points out the influence of Ranganathan and the Classification Research Group. Cockshutt also explains the organization by which the structure of DDC is molded and maintained as it moves more and more toward an international classification. But how is the DDC used? To answer that question, Mary Ellen Michael reports on a study sponsored by Forest Press and which she conducted under the auspices of the Library Research Center, University of Illinois Graduate School of Library Science. This study attempted to assess the use of DDC by libraries and processing centers in the United States and Canada, as well as to determine the extent of the use of DDC by libraries of different sizes and types; to obtain information about the application of DDC to library collections; to determine problem areas in the scheme; and to ascertain to what extent DDC is a part of the educational experiences of library school students. Results pertaining to all aspects except the last are included in her paper. INTRODUCTION xi Joel Downing describes the growing interest in and use of DDC in Great Britain since the late 1960s and relates the acts of study and collaboration both within Great Britain and in the United States which have taken place since that date. In addition, he briefly discusses the possibility of DDC establishing a foothold in Europe. Gordon Stevenson compares DDC with the Library of Congress classification scheme (LCC), finding them competing systems even though the competition has never been fostered by those responsible for either scheme. Stevenson fears that LCC's entrenchment in existing network data bases (geared primarily to the needs of university libraries) will be used as a rationale for structuring similar networks for public and school libraries. He feels that those libraries which have adopted LCC have locked themselves into a system "from which it will be nearly impossible to extricate themselves." To Stevenson, an important problem for the future of classification is how we perceive classification as a tool for subject retrieval. He feels that no person should be given the responsibility for choosing between systems until that person has a thorough grounding in classification and knowledge of the dimensions and structure of the systems, a grounding which has often been lacking in the background of the decision-makers of the past. Peter Lewis served as chairperson of a British Library Working Party which examined the various classification and indexing systems currently in use in the British Library. The main conclusions relating to in-house needs and to services provided for other libraries in Great Britain are discussed in Lewis's paper, while the performances of Bliss, DDC, LCC and UDC are evaluated as to meeting the needs. Although Lewis was not able to be present, his paper was distributed to the participants at the beginning of the conference. During the time scheduled for Lewis's paper, the conferees participated in small group discussions relating to his paper. Following the discussions, transoceanic telephonic communication was established with Lewis. For one-half hour, Lewis responded to discussion, comments, and questions from groups. Hans Wellisch discusses the debt which the Universal Decimal Classifica- tion owes to DDC as well as UDC's reforms and revisions. He notes the work being done toward a Basic Medium Edition in English and the work toward a new class 4. In addition, he speaks of the work being performed on a Broad System of Ordering intended not to supersede existing indexing languages but to serve as a switching language. Unfortunately, the manuscript of John Rather's presentation was not received for publication. As Chief of the Technical Processes Research Office, Processing Department, Library of Congress, Rather gave a preliminary report on investigations made at the Library of Congress which attempted to evaluate the relative efficiency of subject searching in an automated system using xii INTRODUCTION Library of Congress classification notation, Dewey Decimal classification numbers and Library of Congress subject headings. Derek Austin departs from a discussion of classification per se to present the PRECIS system. Austin summarizes his paper as follows: During the 1960s, the Classification Research Group in England investigated the construction of a faceted, highly articulated classifica- tion scheme to serve the dual purposes of (i) library organization, and (ii) the retrieval of relevant items from machine-held files. This research is briefly described, and is seen as evidence that a single classification scheme cannot serve these different purposes. Nevertheless, it was found that the results of the CRG research could be applied to verbal data. In 1969, the British National Bibliography began a research project in this field. This led to the development of PRECIS, the indexing system now used by BNB and a number of other agencies. PRECIS is briefly described from three viewpoints: (a) syntax: that is, the writing of coded input strings of terms, and the structure of index entries (b) semantics: the creation of a machine-held thesaurus which serves as the source of see and see also references (c) management, including indexer performance. Paule Rolland-Thomas looks ahead to the future of subject retrieval as she reports on views expressed by library and other classificationists. Her paper provides the vision for the future. The conference concluded with a panel of reactors to the papers and discussion. Betty M.E. Croft, Catalog Librarian at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, brought her twenty-five years of experience with DDC in one of the nation's largest university libraries into focus as chairperson of the panel. Other members were Grace F. Bulaong, Head of the Cataloging Department, Metropolitan Toronto Central Library, Toronto, Canada; Erma Jean Morgan, Deputy Librarian Technical Services, King County Library System, Seattle, Washington; and Mary Ellen Soper, Assistant Professor, School of Librarianship, University of Washington, Seattle. The panel members brought a variety of experiences in several different types of libraries using both DDC and LCC schemes. The panel discussion is briefly summarized: 1. While it is agreed that catalogs and automated retrieval systems may be more important to the retrieval of subject information in the future than they have been in the past, the need still exists for some shelf browsing capabilities, especially in public library situations. 2. Many difficulties occur in the local library resulting from the issuing of new editions of classification schemes. Most libraries cannot afford to INTRODUCTION xiii reclassify. At the same time, the necessity for the use of cooperative agencies and networks pressures the local library to accept the decisions of the newest edition. The scattering of like or similar subjects causes hardships for library users. A challenge was issued to those charged with revision to find a moderate ground for change that would keep up with new knowledge while remembering the problems of libraries with diminishing budgets. 3. Considering how classification is used in the United States, there is no clear superiority in either DDC or LCC if only the schemes themselves are considered. Each has certain strengths and weaknesses. Reasons for selecting one scheme over the other or for deciding to reclassify from DDC to LCC often have come from factors other than those related to the schemes themselves. Administrative decisions relating to coverage, revision and availability, as well as political reasons such as prestige or following a fad, seem too often to have been deciding factors. 4. In studying the results of developments in classification research in other countries, it becomes apparent that classification is not fully utilized in the United States. Only the surface of its potential contribution has been scratched. The need for browsing capability on the shelf has contributed to the way classification has developed in the United States. The confusion over the function of shelf arrangement and subject analysis needs to be clarified by further study and examination. 5. The needs of library users call us to consider seriously the role of the classification of knowledge as we look to the future. No conference is the work of any one person; this conference was no exception. Beginning with initial conversations between Herbert Goldhor, Director, Graduate School of Library Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and Richard B. Sealock, Executive Director, Forest Press, during the summer of 1974, and continuing through the publication of this volume, two years of work on the part of a number of persons have taken place. Only a few of those persons can be mentioned here, but none of those who contributed and who are not mentioned here should feel excluded from our expression of gratitude. Forest Press should be mentioned for both intellectual and financial support. Many helpful suggestions were received from Richard B. Sealock. Robert L. Talmadge, Director of Technical Services, University of Illinois Library at Urbana-Champaign, represented Forest Press on the Planning Committee and provided further liaison with the cosponsoring agency. Michael Gorman, Head, Bibliographic Standards Office, Bibliographic Services Division, the British Library, London, England, was serving as Visiting Lecturer at the University of Illinois Graduate School of Library Science and was able, as a xiv INTRODUCTION member of the planning committee, to make mai^ suggestions relating to the international scene. Herbert Goldhor also served on the committee, and other faculty and library staff members helped in many ways. Edward C. Kalb and Sara Nelson, of the University of Illinois Conferences and Institutes Office, assisted in numerous ways that relieved the rest of us of responsibilities. It is difficult to recognize fully their contributions to the conference with just these few words of acknowledgment. Arlynn Robertson and Linda Hoffman contributed to the technical editing of this volume. Kathryn Luther Henderson Chairperson, Planning Committee March 1976 DAVID BATTY Professor Graduate School of Library Science McGill University Montreal, Canada Library Classification One Hundred Years After Dewey We shall not cease from exploration And the end of all our exploring Will be to arrive where we started And know the place for the first time. For one hundred years in claim and counterclaim we have developed what have seemed at times to be highly diverse and divergent lines of thought in the theory of library classification. However, I believe not only that these different developments have contributed to our present philosophy and model of classification, but also that their differences were more apparent than real we have often been bewitched by the appearance into paying insufficient attention to the creature beneath. In a very real sense, the most sophisticated modern theory is less a new structure founded on the work of a century ago than it is simply a validation and realization of that work. In order to describe what we have now I must review how we came to have it, since the study of classification is often a matter of hindsight, of determining the principles that are the key to good organization in existing classification schemes. For this reason, I shall propose a theoretical model that seems to lie at the heart of all fruitful classification and indexing 2 DAVID BATTY developments of the last one hundred years. I shall also refer to several episodes in the history of classification and indexing, and draw from those episodes the elements of greatest significance to point out an overall pattern, even though these elements may have seemed of great significance neither to their authors nor to their audiences. In the world of documentary classification we must deal with assemblies of ideas: of objects, the problems or operations that affect them, and their context in time and space. It is not enough to imagine hierarchies of simple units of knowledge; the notations or codes by which we represent these assemblies must themselves be simple enough to be flexible also and indeed flexible enough to be simple. It matters little whether we use words or arbitrary symbols as our codes, as long as the basic elements of the codes are simple, are comprehensible, and permit development and change without inhibiting consistent practice. Within the components of the assemblies it is desirable to have recognizable families of related concepts in order to move easily to unfamiliar levels of detail. Again, it matters little for this argument whether these family relationships, generic or functional, are displayed in explicit hierarchies or revealed implicitly through reference instructions. At the beginning of our history stands one of its greatest landmarks: Dewey's Decimal Classification. Dewey's achievement, on inspection, is almost incredible perhaps not as extensive as Ranganathan's, but infinitely bolder in the context of his era. In Dewey's day the notion of a universal classification scheme was revolutionary. Librarians made their own schemes, according to the vagaries of local academic preference or uncomfortable architecture. They borrowed schemata from philosophy (thereby limiting themselves to unitary organization), and notation from anything from an inchoate mnemonic urge to a reflection of the names of benefactors of parts of their collections. Dewey himself claimed credit for several features of his scheme: its ability to locate books relatively on the shelves, thus overcoming the accidents and limitations of fixed location in different libraries; its easy and mnemonic decimal notation; and its relative index, which encouraged consistent application. He emphasized that the scheme was a classification for documents, although he did not claim this as quite the innovation that it really was. He never specifically claimed credit for one of the most innovative aspects of the documentary basis of the scheme: the combination of more than one kind of idea was allowed and encouraged, reflecting the multitopic nature of documents. All of these features are related. Relative location would be impossible without a notation that did not expand as knowledge grows, without changing the symbols used to represent already established major groupings or classes. The index must have unique and explicable notation to point to. What Dewey called "close classification" is impossible without the combination of ideas not LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION 3 only in explicit enumeration within the scheme, but also implicit in the availability of components whose notation facilitates assembly by the classifier. Dewey's decimal organization and decimal notation have been criticized for the constraints they place on the true structure and division of knowledge. This is particularly true of the decimal notation, although the two have often been confused by intellectually myopic librarians. In fact, the decimal notation rarely inhibits proper division; there are many classes that do not use all of the ten notational divisions available, and others that use them as major groupings in classes with more than ten members the class 970 North America is an example of both cases. The expressive use of the decimal notation with its fractional division contains a powerful mnemonic effect. Although a user may not know the meaning of 621.384152 FM radio systems, he will know that it lies in the field of 621.384 radio engineering, or at least in 621.3 electrical engineering. Dewey's practice of using notation consistently to represent concepts, often in combination with others, offers the effect of scheduled mnemonics, exploited later by the Universal Decimal Classification and Ranganathan's Colon Classification. My thesis, however, concerns the internal organization of subjects, and it is in this connection that Dewey often only half-knowingly, made his greatest contribution in the exploration of the consistent construction of multitopic assemblies. His methods are clearest in the simplest classes, such as language, literature and history. In 400 language, for example, he recognizes that books may be written about two aspects of language (what Ranganathan later called facets of language): (l)the general theoretical aspects of language like structural systems (grammar), and (2) the particular languages, like English. He listed the theoretical aspects first, in 410, and the languages after them in 420-499, to achieve an order on the shelves that proceeds from the general to the particular. But then he went on to admit the subdivision of collections on particular languages, by the theoretical aspects, so that 420 English might include, for example, English grammar, and he arranged for the characteristic notation for 410 to be used to subdivide the language in this case 5 from 415 structural systems (grammar) to create 425. This simple example reveals a model that has scarcely changed for one hundred years: the recognition of the characteristic aspects of the subject, the separate listing of those aspects in general-to-specific order, the availability of the detail from general aspect to divide the specific aspects further, the consequent assembly order of specific aspects divided by general aspects, and the mnemonic effect of the consistent use of simple notation from the two aspects. Dewey made early use of standard subdivisions; in particular, the 09 history subdivision formed geographical subdivisions for any class by introducing further notation from the 900 class with its wealth of 4 DAVID BATTY geographical detail. Before the turn of the century, at least parts of the Decimal Classification offered recognizable and descriptive notational as- semblies to designate entities or events, the problems affecting them or the operations they undertook, and their geographical and chronological context but not always. Dewey's internal class organization was often limited and confused. Sometimes he listed the several aspects in a class in a proper general-to-specific order, but failed to make provision for their combination; sometimes we can discern by hindsight the existence of two or more characteristics in the initial division of a class, but Dewey listed the resulting subdivisions not in ordered groups, but in a confused and confusing order. It is interesting to note that many of those subjects were emergent disciplines in Dewey's day: sociology, education, psychology their features were known but had no recognizable shape. It is also interesting to note that in later editions of the scheme, the clarity of Dewey's unconscious organization was such that reorganization was relatively simple and mostly successful. However, Dewey was limited, as were all classificationists after him, by his contemporary climate of thought. Dewey could not think of a better organization for law or education, because he had no theoretical model against which to match the concepts he observed in those disciplines, and by which to organize them. That theoretical model began to emerge as a result of the study of successful elements of the Decimal Classification, and also in the pragmatic development of its inherent synthetic principles in the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC). The 1895 Brussels conference sought ways to organize collections and bibliographies full of material in a variety of nonbook forms and about increasingly complex topics. The solution was to develop Dewey's Decimal Classification as a universal scheme that emerged as the Universal Decimal Classification in recognizable structure in 1906 and in name and detail in 1928-33. Much has been made of the extensive array of auxiliaries provided in the scheme; auxiliaries of addition and extension, of language and form, and of place, time and race. However, the main contribution in these areas is the use of nondecimal punctuation marks to signal the use of decimal notation already available in Dewey's scheme. This notational signaling allowed what had been done in limited areas in Dewey's scheme to be done in UDC universally without specific instruction. Whereas Dewey sometimes divided a subject by place without his usual indicator 09, but otherwise left it to the classifier to add 09, etc., on his own initiative, UDC created a general auxiliary for place by using Dewey's detail for 940-999 (now the Area Tables) and enclosing the number in parentheses to be used anywhere. Whereas Dewey almost always limited chronological subdivision to places specified in history, UDC created a general auxiliary for time, and enclosed dates, periods and LIBRAR Y CLASSIFICA TION 5 notation for other chronological phenomena like periodicity in quotation marks, and allowed them to be used with any number in the scheme. UDC's two principal contributions were the special auxiliaries and the use of a relational sign (initially the colon) to link any two notational elements. The special auxiliary is a specially notated list, usually of general aspects, theoretical topics, operations or problems with a class, whose members may be used to extend or modify any specific topic in that class. It represents a realization of the model already described as displayed in some of Dewey's classes. The notation of a "short dash" or "point zero" sets the special auxiliary off from the specific topics in the class and allows free assembly of the components. The relational sign offers the same potential, but over the entire range of the classification schedules. There are no listed notational elements; the classifier may use the colon (and later also square brackets) to extend any class number by any other class number. Thus, both 633.491:632.3 and 632.3:633.491 may mean parasitic diseases of potatoes. However, only the former notation uses the thing/problem assembly order usually compelled by a special auxiliary; the classifier must therefore have an accurate perception of the character of the elements to be assembled, especially if more than two elements are involved. UDC itself recognized the dangers inherent in the use of this auxiliary and took away much of the value of the relational sign by the instruction to use both assemblies (an adroit maneuver called "reversing about the colon"). This practice effectively limited the relational sign to assemblies of only two components, and prevented the exploration of the problems of assembly of more than two components. In UDC, complex assemblies used the comparatively unadventurous common auxiliaries to specify the obvious and superficial contextual detail. It was left to Ranganathan to explore the intricacies of assembly order of several aspects internal to a subject. During the nineteenth century the problems of the assembly of the component aspects of a complex subject were the concern also of indexers using natural language. They were, for instance, the predominant concern of Kaiser in his Systematic Indexing of 1911, which dealt with questions left unanswered by Cutter in his 1876 rules for the dictionary catalog. Cutter was mainly preoccupied with subject/place and with thing/kind-of-thing assembly, and with word order in phrase headings; he proposed a quasi-grammatical logic based on the structure of English syntax. Such a feeling was appropriate to an age that sought both the common origin of tongues and a syntax common to all tongues based on an assumption of consistent human cultural behavior. Fenollosa, in Art of the Chinese Written Character as a Medium for Poetry (1910), suggested the natural order of events in the world as the key to a universal syntax, unaware of dissimilarities 6 DAVID BATTY as great as those between Hopi Indian culture and our own such that they have a different concept of time itself and the linear sequence of cause and effect, related to the absence of a verb structure recognizable in our terms. It was left to Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf to explore the complex interaction of language and thought that makes us doubt the simplistic assumption of universal grammar except in the more abstract terms of Bloomfield and Chomsky. Cutter's reliance on natural-language order worked well in noun/noun or adjective/noun assemblies, where in English grammar the modifying term stands first thus producing consistently specific headings. Unfortunately, in an alphabetical index the same principle scatters members of the same group (represented by the second word) to wherever the first words are found. The classifying of any group that traditionally or usefully should stand together thus raises a conflict in the indexer's mind to the point of encouraging a mild professional catatonia that has prevented the development of a coherent body of principle to the present time. The only guide to practice is the Library of Congress subject catalog, affected more by the necessities of logistics and administrative consistency than by the epistemology of the information explosion. The problem grew worse with the increasing occurrence of entity/activity combinations; the conflict was now between adjectival noun/verbal noun and participle/noun, e.g., serials cataloging and cataloging serials. Kaiser's solution was the use of the formula concrete/processan explicit instruction reflecting the entity/activity assembly order already observed in some classes of the Decimal Classification and the Universal Decimal Classification. Kaiser's suggestion was simple enough, but radical in the contemporary tradition of alphabetico-specific indexing based on natural-language order. In the same decade a classification scheme was published that stands out as the strangest and most ironic experiment of all: Brown's Subject Classification. Of all classificationists, Brown, either instinctively or acci- dentally, was the most innovative and visionary, and also most imprisoned by his contemporary climate of thought. Dewey's scheme, the Universal Decimal Classification, Cutter's Expansive Classification and the emerging Library of Congress Classification were all organized around the disciplines then, as now, accepted as the main divisions of knowledge. All works in the field of medicine are grouped together, as are all works on economics, history, or art, but the specific subject "bubonic plague" will find a place in all those classes for its several different aspects. Brown proposed a scheme based on concretes like bubonic plague, that would collect at those concretes all their aspects and problems, like the medical aspect, the historical aspect, the economic aspect, and so on. This organization principle extended the entity/general aspect LIBRAR Y CLASSIFICA TION 7 assembly order to include even the discipline name, as being of the greatest generality. There is a distinct logic in this arrangement denied by the discipline-based schemes; that is, in a discipline-based scheme we may organize a class as: zoology (theoretical aspects) embryology (animals) horses and assemble the components in the retroactive order horses-embryology- -but we do it within zoology. Brown's principle would look higher up the chain of general topics and include in its logical place as a general term: horses-embryology horses-zoology. In Brown's classification scheme all general aspects of all subjects, including the names of disciplines, are included in a single auxiliary table whose members may be used to subdivide any specific concrete. Of course, in Brown's day a classification had to have notational order, and Brown was compelled to organize a sequence of main classes in order to organize his concretes, and also in order to list the disciplines when they stood wholly as themselves and not as aspects of a concrete. The result was a rather simple and limited hierarchical classification in which concretes appeared only once, under what Brown considered their original, basic discipline; all other disciplines where they might otherwise have recurred were left empty of everything except activities and problems peculiar to them. The result was to inhibit the growth of the subject classification in the logical direction of its philosophy, and instead clumsily convert it in development and application (mostly in Britain) into a simple, homespun, discipline-based scheme. Had it not been for the inhibiting effect of contemporary assumptions about classification, Brown might well have anticipated the later work of the British Classification Research Group by fifty years. But like Dewey, he had no theoretical model with which to measure and organize; his work provided the phenomena that others could analyze and build on. Courtesy and stature demand notice of the Library of Congress classification and also of the work of Henry Evelyn Bliss in his books The Organisation of Knowledge and the System of the Sciences and the Organisation of Knowledge in Libraries and, of course, the expression of his theories in his work, A Bibliographic Classification. The Library of Congress Classification is a large and powerful scheme, but its structure and detailed 8 DAVID BATTY organization owe more to the administrative policy of subject departmentaliza- tion in the Library of Congress and to the book collection that it is designed to organize physically, than to a body of principle designed to respond to the epistemological complexities of the world of information today. Almost by definition the Library of Congress Classification (LCC) is a return to the pre-1876 world of in-house classification schemes affected by the physical and political pressures of a single institution, and used by any other library at its own risk. This is in no way to deny the position and power of the LCC scheme; indeed, it may be pertinent to note here that in a generation or so it may be the only scheme still used for shelf classification. If that happens, it will be because of the authoritative position of the Library of Congress and its contribution to catalog information in general libraries, rather than to any internal excellence. As knowledge and information grow quantitatively and change qualitatively, there is less need and even less opportunity for the detailed physical organization of library material on shelves. Even the Library of Congress scheme may ultimately be and probably should be replaced by a general classificatory grouping with simple, repetitive mnemonic notation to prevent the need for the gross movement of readers around the library; subject access to material will be by detailed computerized indexes available in on-line or printed form. In that future, classification will truly be a fundamental study, since its essence has always been that of an organizing principle to assemble or relate the component elements of complex topics; the manifestation of that principle in a single, enumerated hierarchy with a notation is almost secondary. For Bliss, however, the manifestation was paramount. In spite of a historical and philosophical study lasting almost a lifetime, Bliss did not include in his classification scheme many features beyond a developmental order of main classes (lost in a large library), an array of auxiliary schedules as extensive as those of UDC, and a notation whose overriding quality of brevity obscured almost every other advantage of the scheme. As with Dewey's Decimal Classification, the seeds of development and good and flexible order are there, and they may yet be brought out by the work of revision currently in hand at North London Polytechnic, although the revision may be so drastic as to suggest less a facelift than the transmigration of souls. Of all classifiers, only Shiyali Ramanarita Ranganathan has been able to respond pragmatically to classification problems and later to analyze his own work to produce a new body of principle. Of all his achievements this may be the greatest. During the 1920s Ranganathan forsook mathematics for librarianship and, encouraged by the teaching of Berwick Sayers, rejected all existing schemes for their logical and developmental inadequacies, and began to design his own scheme. He used the entity/activity assembly pattern common to Dewey's and Kaiser's methods, and the notion of explicit and LIBRAR Y CLASSIFICA TION 9 detailed auxiliaries from the Universal Decimal Classification. He especially emphasized the relational device of the colon, which he strengthened by using it to link even the component aspects with subjects, and he added two features of his own: a new and more economical way of listing the aspects within subjects, and a consistent order of assembly (and therefore order of the subdivision of complex topics) that simplified access to the scheme or to collections and indexes using it. Ranganathan realized the true potential of Dewey's recognition of two aspects of a subject, and their assembly to describe complex topics. Dewey nearly always specified the assembly by instruction and within a complete notational framework, as when he extended 420 English language to make 425 English syntax by adding the 5 meaning syntax from the 415 syntax general theoretical aspects of language under 410. The Universal Decimal Classification had made it more explicit by the use of the colon to make 420:425, and by going further still in using a special auxiliary to make 420-5, omitting the "41" since the division took place within the class 4. Ranganathan confirmed, extended and generalized this practice. He developed the aspects of subjects separately, calling them the facets of the subjects. Instead of including the more general facets as enumerated subdivisions of the more specific, as Dewey and the Universal Decimal Classification often did, he gave instructions always to combine the individual notation of topics from different facets by a colon. Thus, within the main class T education, the first facet contains educational institutions, and universities has the number 4. A document on university education is given the notation T4. Educational problems and methods belong in another facet, called by Ranganathan the energy facet and prefaced by a colon, where curriculum has the number 2. We may combine these two components (or isolates, as Ranganathan called them) to give T4:2. If we have a general work on curricula we may therefore assign it the class number T:2. Thus the colon becomes a constant indicator of the problem or energy facet. After his first edition, Ranganathan extended the scheme as problems emerged in practical classification, although he sought always to obey the fundamental principles of logical classification, and also to be consistent with logical practices that emerged as the scheme developed. For example, he noted that sometimes members of different levels in a generic hierarchy might need to be used together in assembly, as in buildings and parts of buildings. He consequently recognized two separate facets (or levels of facet) in order to provide for that assembly. He also noted that some operations need agents to perform them, and so an additional facet of agent would be necessary for combination with operations. By the 1940s there were enough different kinds of facets for Ranganathan to identify definite categories, and to propose a consistent scheme of indicators to introduce them at any time. To introduce 10 DAVID BATTY extra levels of the facet of entities (which he called personality) he used a comma; for the facet indicating the material of which an entity might be made he used a semicolon; for the facets listing activities or problems or operations (the energy facet) he used the colon, as he had done from the beginning; and for the facets of geographical and chronological specification he used the period, with different notational symbols with each. This overall categorization of facets gave the formula PMEST (personality, material, energy, space, time), which manifested that same order of increasing generality of the aspects assembled together that we have observed since Dewey and Kaiser a principle which Ranganathan called decreasing concreteness. Not all subjects use all kinds of facets, and some have more than one level in a single kind of facet; indeed, some have pervasive or overriding facets called system or special facets like schools of thought in philosophy or soil-less farming in agriculture. All subject classes are equipped with an explicit formula showing what facets they contain, and in what order isolates from the facets may be assembled. The notation of the main classes is alphabetic, usually a single letter (but sometimes two) and the notation of the facets is numerical in fractional division. Ranganathan also provided for the combina- tion of elements from different subjects. The Universal Decimal Classification had already allowed this through the relational device of the colon, but did not indicate why or how such combination took place, except on an ad hoc basis. Ranganathan identified several kinds of phase relationships; these were to indicate influence, difference, comparison and orientation, as well as a general relationship. He provided a special notation to indicate each kind, and later even provided for phase relationships at different levels of subject division. He also developed an elaborate provision for specifying the form of the document. Ranganathan's habit was to extend his own theory by a critical examination of the pragmatic answers that he had provided as consistently as possible within the theoretical framework developed to that point. By the 1950s he had identified and named many of the principal phenomena of multidimensional classification and had provided a working model of a new type of general classification scheme. Dewey's Decimal Classification and the Library of Congress Classification are usually termed enumerative because they attempt to enumerate specifically all the topics covered by the scheme. The Universal Decimal Classification is often called a synthetic classification because it synthesizes or assembles notation from a general list to represent complex topics not specifically enumerated in the scheme. All schemes that assemble notation for this purpose fall into this category, but Colon Classification and many schemes after it form a special subclass of synthetic schemes called faceted classification schemes, because they assemble elements from separately listed facets within each class; there is no (or very little) LIBRAR Y CLASSIFICA TION 1 1 precoordinated assembly with a single notation. Because the facets themselves have a hierarchical order represented by the order of assembly and contain little hierarchies of isolates in generic groupings, Ranganathan perceived a single chain of increasingly intense subdivision in any assembly of notations, since the faceted classification scheme is only a kit of parts representing an w-dimensional classification. One of his most practical contributions to indexing besides the Colon Classification itself is his method of indexing by chain procedure including alphabetical subject entries for levels indicated by the chain implicit in the class number, whether or not the collection includes any material at that level, in order to facilitate entry into the system for an inquiry at any level. The recommendations of the 1948 Royal Society Conference and the interest of English librarians like Bernard Palmer, A. J. Wells, D. J. Foskett, and Jack Mills led to the establishment in 1950 of the British Classification Research Group (CRG). This group discussed and promulgated Ranganathan's theories, and in doing so translated them for the western world from the more elaborate and philosophical terms of Ranganathan himself. The members of CRG worked out special classification schemes of this new faceted type and in doing so provided a model that is still used today, even after CRG itself has moved on. The definitive expression of their theories is found in the 1957 Proceedings of the International Study Conference on Classification for Information Retrieval, otherwise known as the Dorking Conference, and in Brian Vickery's Faceted Classification, written in 1960 to guide librarians in constructing classification schemes. A. J. Wells became editor of the new British National Bibliography (BNB), and confirmed the new theory in the public library sector as the other members of CRG had for special libraries by insisting on good facet order in applying Dewey Decimal Classification notation to the books in the BNB. He also advocated such order in extending the notation where it fell short in Decimal Classification, and in using chain procedure to construct the index to the Bibliography's classified main listing. A typical special-faceted classification of the type developed by the members of CRG has a core schedule for a single discipline or interdisciplinary area, in which the constituent facets are arranged in increasingly specific order and assembled retroactively in order of the increasing generality of the component terms, so as to represent complex topics. Unlike Ranganathan's scheme the facets are not rigidly assigned to categories, although the PMEST formula is reflected in the developing spectrum they cover. The notation is often alphabetic, because it offers a greater number of symbols and thus shorter notation for any given isolate, and the use of capital letters for the facets and of lowercase letters and sometimes numbers for the detail within them obviates the need for facet indicators. Any isolates may be used in 12 DAVID BATTY combination; the only rule for assembly is that they be assembled in reverse order of the notation, to achieve a proper order of decreasing concreteness. In addition to the core schedule, there may be a fringe schedule which lists areas supportive of the core, although not belonging to it, such as the relationship of computer science or education to library science. The fringe schedules are not usually worked out in great detail, and are not used in combination as often as the core schedule. The significance of the early work of the CRG (apart from introducing Ranganathan's ideas to the western world) was to develop a simple model for faceted classification that acknowledged the principle of decreasing con- creteness for organizing the assembly of components without imposing a limiting categorization. One evidence of this acknowledgment appears outside pure classification in the work of E. J. Coates, a CRG member who had already worked on the BNB and devised a faceted classification for music for the British Catalogue of Music. Coates founded the British Technology Index and used CRG principles to organize natural-language subject headings of considerable complexity. In one sense Coates was heir to Kaiser, since his basic formula (thing/material/action/agent) reflects Kaiser's concrete/process formula, but in another and very real sense Coates's work was closer to the Ranganathan/CRG tradition. Coates's subject-heading formula followed an order of decreasing concreteness, and his automatic construction of references among the natural-language terms in headings relies on the assumption that the decreasingly concrete terms are logical steps in a chain. A significant departure from previous index-language construction came in his abandonment of a controlled vocabulary derived in advance from a study of the literature. Coates relied on his formula and reference structure to control subject statements as they occurred, but the growing index became its own authority file for the vocabulary. Until this development, the classic method had been to (1) analyze a sample set of documents in the field, (2) determine the concepts and their relationships, and (3) determine the best terms to represent them (clearly a necessary operation for classification, with its need to organize even similar terms in an orderly array). For almost the first time, the tools of faceted classification development were used in natural-language indexing and resulted in some new perceptions. During this period another CRG member, Jason Farradane, proposed a system of relational operators that would link terms in index statements without regard for the existence of those terms in any formal arrangements other than the document in hand. Whereas Ranganathan and the CRG had concentrated on assigning terms to facets so that the relationships among terms were implicit in the already announced relationship of the facets, Farradane concentrated on the categories of relationship. His system of operators is complex and almost mystical in its derivation from theories of LIBRAR Y CLASSIFICA TION 1 3 perception and cognition, but handled empirically and admittedly somewhat unfairly, it offers a good working system. It has contributed significantly to the philosophy of the CRG work by Derek Austin on a new general faceted classification, and of course to the new indexing system called PRECIS arising from that work. We should note that throughout the 1960s, work on the automatic generation of index languages attempted to generate classifications or quasi-classifications using statistical analysis of the text of documents or their abstracts. However, in spite of elaborate recalculations, recomparisons, and rematchings of terms against the numbers of documents using them, statistical significance has so far failed to be accepted as semantic significance. Probably the best seminal work was done by Doyle, with applications by Sally Dennis; currently the most interesting work is that done by the Needhams, by Borko and by Salton. Nevertheless, the results still lack the necessary intellectual rigor. I have said almost nothing about the thesauri used in post-coordinate indexing. From the early days of what we might call "free-form" post-coordinate indexing, the field moved toward ever-tighter control over vocabulary and relationships, until with categories, links and roles, infixes, etc., classificatory structure began to emerge. MESH (Medical Subject Headings) added a systematic index that is a broad classification and two thesauri (Thesaurus of Engineering and Scientific Terms, developed by the Engineers Joint Council, and Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors) have a similar apparatus. The prototype ERIC thesaurus devised by Barhydt at Case Western Reserve University had a frankly faceted structure, although the final thesaurus was to be an alphabetically ordered vocabulary; the systematic structure was to aid recognition of new terms and their relationships and development of the reference structure. Possibly the best example of the overt combination of faceted classification and alphabetical thesaurus came with the fourth edition of the English Electric Company's faceted classification for engineering and technology called Thesauro facet, in which each side might act as a main index language, depending on system requirements, with the other acting as a complementary index. Also in the late 1960s began one of the most significant developments in the history of classification and indexing and the third major landmark of the past one hundred years: the work on a general faceted classification funded by NATO and carried out principally by Derek Austin on behalf of the British Classification Research Group. Since Derek Austin's paper elsewhere in this volume describes in detail the development of PRECIS, I shall offer only an outline to support my thesis. After considerable discussion in the 1960s, CRG agreed to simplify the faceted approach even more than they had in the 1950s. From Ranganathan's 14 DAVID BATTY five fundamental but separate categories they moved to a spectrum organized according to the principle of decreasing concreteness. Now they resolved even these shades of distinction into two areas: entities and attributes. With these two categories of meaning they permitted the development of generic groupings by the principle of integrative levels, taken from Joseph Needham, in which collections of similar phenomena appear as an integrated unit at a higher level. The entity and attribute categories do not have a distinct order of priority, although it is typical for an index description to begin with an entity; they are put together by the use of connecting symbols called operators selected from a fairly generous list, in an order whose logic is determined by the semantics of the words in the contexts of the statement. The notational symbols of the operators automatically pull the string of terms (each preceded by its operator) into a useful order. The categories of entity and attribute may have a notation if necessary, or they may remain in natural-language form. PRECIS is an alphabetical indexing system that has grown out of that classificatory basis. To the vocabulary/operator structure is added a presentation format in which the string of terms is presented with each term successively in a lead position, qualified by any more general terms, and with any remaining terms left as a display to complete the "precis" of the article as described by all the indexing terms. To the intellectual elements of the new general faceted classification, PRECIS has added a necessary element, never previously explored, of a physical layout of display to aid the comprehensibility of the index statement. The intellectual elements of this new classification and of PRECIS warrant close scrutiny. The operators, like Farradane's, and unlike Rangana- than's, are independent of the categories or facets to which terms may belong, but they reflect the meanings of those categories of terms dimly discernible in Dewey and developed to a highly sophisticated level by Ranganathan. The categories of entity and attribute seem to be direct descendants of the categories clearly discernible in some classes of Dewey's scheme, and explicitly stated by both Kaiser and Brown. In fact, however, they are an ultimate reduction of the highly sophisticated development by Ranganathan of those early, unformed categories. In the growth of many disciplines we may see a progression from empirical observation, through pragmatic application, to analysis and planned development. Dewey had an almost instinctive perception of the fundamental means to organize classes, although he was limited by the primitive state of the library art to simple, two-part structures. Against the context of his time, however, his seminal contribution seems tremendous. The towering baroque achievement of Ranganathan is at once the full and detailed realization of what Dewey and the UDC attempted, and also the new thematic foundation of a later age of classic simplicity. LIBRA R Y CLA SSI PICA TION 1 5 If this musical metaphor seems lavish, or if you misunderstand my use of the term baroque, let me stress that Ranganathan was not so much the beginning of a new age as the final realization of the potential of the previous one. Ranganathan worked out in detail all the meaning and implication of the intent and attempts of Dewey, Kaiser, Brown, and UDC. He is the Bach of classification; all the contrapuntal experiments of his predecessors pointed to his invention, and in that flowering lay the seed of the next development. With the 1960s comes the age of synthesis, in which the previously apparently incompatible traditions of systematic and alphabetic indexing, and pre- and post-coordinate systems are seen to have a common underlying intellectual structure. The information explosion of the twentieth century has brought not only a quantitative increase in knowledge, but also a qualitative change. Knowledge no longer has the development mechanization or even the same structure it had a century ago. Knowledge now grows by conscious synthesis in inter- and multidisciplinary areas. The essential problems of bibliographic organiza- tionthat books contain a variety of subjects and their aspects are aggravated beyond the point where they may be ignored. Simple hierarchical systems suitable for marking and parking material on shelves will soon outgrow both their usefulness and their viability. General subject groupings, with simple synthesis and an even simpler mnemonic synthetic notation may be the last overt manifestation of the shelf classification. Nevertheless, it would be a mistake to see those shelf classifications only as listing mechanisms; their makers described them explicitly also as a means of naming and locating subjects, and tracing relationships among subjects. Browsing in the future may be easier and more efficient in printed catalogs, or with a computer terminal display, using indexing systems based on our better understanding of the real nature of classification. The world of information has its own dimensions of space and time: we generate knowledge in the vertical hierarchies of accepted disciplines, but we use it in horizontal assemblies of relevant fact and method; we receive knowledge in known patterns from the past, but we must use it always to answer as yet unidentified questions in the future. In such a world, the heritage of systematic classification may be the best way we can rely on to trace our steps in terra incognita. REFERENCES 1. Eliot, T. S. "Little Gidding." In Four Quartets. New York, Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1943, p. 39. 16 DAVID BATTY 1. Bliss, Henry E. The Organisation of Knowledge and the System of the Sciences. New York, H. Holt and Co., 1929; . The Organisation of Knowledge in Libraries and the Subject-approach to Books. New York, H. W. Wilson, 1933; . A Bibliographic Classification. 4 vols. New York, H. W. Wilson, 1940-1953. JOHN P. COMAROMI Associate Professor School of Librarianship Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan The Historical Development of The Dewey Decimal Classification System Melvil Dewey was born on December 10, 1851 on the tenth day of the tenth month.* To this fact I attribute the reason why Dewey conceived his idea of using Arabic numerals decimally to mark the subjects of books. I call this, happily, the "birthday theory." At this early hour you may not embrace this theory. Perhaps you will find more to your liking the "digital-clock-on-the-bar theory." Parched by a long prayer meeting, Dewey repaired to a local tavern to restore his depleted spirits. While staring over his beer at the digital clock on the bar, he conceived his decimal plan. Fortunately, he had stared at the clock after one o'clock, but before ten, and when the hour did not change. This theory has two known flaws: Dewey did not drink, and digital clocks were not then found on bars or anywhere. I sense your reluctance to embrace this theory as well. Nevertheless, there are only two or three views regarding Dewey's conception that are better than the "birthday theory" or the "digital-clock-on-the-bar theory." None has been proposed that is worse, however, so I withdraw both. * Roman calendar, of course. 17 18 JOHN P. COMAROMI Before proposing what I think actually happened, let me first set the historical situation and then review several other possible sources of Dewey's idea. In the early 1870s Dewey was casting about for a career. After rejecting several possible ones, he settled upon librarianship. He had faith that libraries would become vitally important to the education of many Americans. He suspected, however, that since libraries were not central to the process of organized education, they would not receive a large share of the educational budget. He knew that the best ways in which to husband the resources available were through standardization and centralization. Then, in a survey that he made of libraries in the Northeast, it became apparent to him that the common method of shelf arrangement the fixed system in which a book was assigned a number which fixed it in space was uneconomical. In other words, in cataloging a work, each library assigned a locational number particular to that library and subject to change when the library grew out of its original place; of course, the same work was cataloged many, many times. To prevent such unwise use of time and money, Dewey conceived his plan wherein the subject of a book, which does not change, would be indicated by arabic numerals used decimally, to the third digit if necessary, assuring easy expansion of any subject and enabling a book to be located relative to the rest of the collection. Its position was not absolute. Thus, renumbering an item would not be necessary when the library grew beyond its physical limits. Each digit at the "ones" level represented a class; each digit at the "tens" level represented a subclass; and each digit at the "hundreds" level represented a further level of subdivision. It may appear that Dewey devised his scheme, or invented the decimal plan, to facilitate and economize shelf arrangement not quite so. What he actually did was to devise a method for a subject catalog, and the books of the library stood on the shelves in the same order as they were found in the subject catalog. His scheme had this dual purpose from the beginning. The dual purpose, in fact, helps to explain the split personality that Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) users have had to live with for nearly a century. DDC has attempted to provide currency and detail for the classified catalog, and at the same time has attempted to provide stability and short numbers for shelf arrangement. Where did Dewey get his idea? Several proposals have been made. The first that I wish to discuss has been made by John Maass. While Maass was putting the final touches to his work on the Centennial Exhibition held in Philadelphia in 1876, semi-serendipity intervened. He noticed a similarity between Dewey's notation and that of the decimal notation used to arrange the exhibits at the Centennial Exhibition, learned that the system used at the exhibition was proposed before Dewey conceived his idea, suggested that Dewey saw the proposal, and contends that Dewey was inspired by what he HISTORICAL DE VEL OPMENT 1 9 saw to conceive his decimal plan. This is possible, but not probable. The notation of the system used at the exhibition, devised by William Phipps Blake-a man of many parts-had Roman numerals I through X for the departments (classes), within each of which were ten subdivisions numbered 1-10, 11-20, etc. Each of these in turn had 100 subdivisions numbered 1-100, 101-200, etc. It was most certainly a decimal system, but its notation was not the sort that Dewey used, nor used in the manner to which we have become accustomed; that is, a string of arabic numerals beyond a decimal point. Note that in Blake's system the final class could have had the number X 100 1000. (It could also have had just 1000.) Now since 1000 could belong only to 100, and 100 only to 10 and 10 only to X, the notation was both hierarchical and expressive of the content of a class. I do not see, however, how Dewey, whose final class mark was 999, could have been led by Blake's notation to make the mental leap to decimal subdivision by nines, the zero* being the general number. And it is the uniform subdivision by nine that makes Dewey's notation the elegant conception that it was: hierarchically expressive, universally understood, and short-at any rate, shorter than X 100 1000. Consequently, I think that Blake's notation was an unlikely link in Dewey's chain of thought, even if Dewey had seen Blake's proposal, which is putative. The second possible source was the one indicated by Dewey himself in the preface to the first edition of DDC. In it he stated: In his varied reading, correspondence, and conversation on the subject, the author has doubtless received suggestions and gained ideas which it is now impossible for him to acknowledge. Perhaps the most fruitful source of ideas was the Nuovo Sistema di Catalogo Bibliograflco Generate of Natale Battezzati, of Milan. Certainly he is indebted to this system adopted by the Italian publishers in 1871, though he has copied nothing from it. The plan of the St. Louis Public School Library and that of the Apprentices' Library of New York, which in some respects resemble his own, were not seen till all the essential features were decided upon, though not given to the public. In filling the nine classes of the scheme the inverted Baconian arrangement of the St. Louis Library has been followed. And perhaps the most fruitful source was not Battezzati's scheme, whether it was adopted by the Italian publishers in 1871 or not. I suspect that Battezzati's contribution regarding the DDC was to play the role of a red herring. Nothing in his Nuovo Sistema, or in what the Italian publishers adopted, could have provided even one mental molecule in the chain of Dewey's thought. What Battezzati urged upon his fellow booksellers was a system wherein several catalog cards would accompany a new work, these to be used for various bookseller catalogs a sort of Books in Print on cards. The 20 JOHN P. COMAROMI cards for the subject catalog would be color-coded: white for religion, yellow for law, green for the sciences and arts, red for belles-lettres, and blue for history. The structure of the classification that Battezzati used was pure Brunet, the notation a mixture of Roman and arabic numerals and lowercase letters. For instance, V lla indicated history -bibliography; IV 6a indicated belles-lettres-philology. Battezzati's suggestion was actually a step in the process that has advanced as far as our current Cataloging-In-Publication. What Dewey was indebted to Battezzati for was the idea of title-slips, slips of paper possessing catalog copy for the work in hand and to be found with the book when it arrived at a library. He was not indebted to Battezzati for any aspect of the DDC. If there were an identifiable outside source or sources of Dewey's idea (indeed, he could have done it solo) I believe it to have been in either or both of the men referred to after Battezzati in the above acknowledgment: William Torrey Harris of the St. Louis Public School Library and Jacob Schwartz of the Apprentices' Library of New York. From Harris, Dewey drew the structure of the DDC more on this matter later. As Harris employed arabic numerals 1-100 to mark his classes and major subclasses, Dewey may have drawn his decimal idea from him. That is doubtful, however, for history was 79, and British history 93. What Dewey did not see in Harris's notation was the use of arabic numerals to subdivide a subject by nine. This, however, he did see in Schwartz's Catalogue of the New York Apprentices' Library. Schwartz had used capital letters for his classes and 0-9 for the subdivisions of each, being used for the general number of each class, 1-9 for subdivisions. I suggest that Dewey saw Schwartz's catalog before he conceived his own decimal idea, probably during his survey of library practice or during his perusal of library catalogs. Dewey said that he had not seen Schwartz's work, as indicated in the above quotation. Schwartz did not believe Dewey, and a decade later attacked him unmercifully for this very reason. I have been told that Harris, or his relatives, did not believe Dewey either, but I have not seen hard proof of this. Nevertheless, I am inclined toward disbelief. These, then, are three proposals regarding the source of Dewey's idea. Until his secret diary is found and translated, we will each have to choose the proposal most congenial to our several natures. On May 8, 1873, Dewey submitted his plan to the Library Committee of Amherst College, and it was accepted. Dewey was to produce 200 catalogs arranged by his system for use by the students and faculty of the college, the first fifty being for editorial proof. Having a notation and a means of subdivision, but no system, Dewey then cast about for one. He did not have to look far; he already had in mind the system he wanted to use. On the day after his plan was accepted, he wrote Harris for a copy of the catalog of the St. Louis Public School Library, a description of which Dewey had seen in HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 21 Harris's article in Journal of Speculative Philosophy, and the structure of which he eventually used for the DDC. For longer than they should have, scholars reported that Harris merely inverted the Baconian triad of history, poesy, and philosophy which Bacon had considered the three departments of learning that had developed from the three faculties of man's mind, namely memory, imagination, and reason and then expanded his scheme upon the resulting structure. That is an accurate statement of the sequence of events, but it does not explain why Harris did what he did. In the introduction to his catalog, Harris wrote that Bacon was on to a good thing, but not for the reasons given by Bacon. To Harris, the three categories did not represent departments of learning at all, but rather they represented the three forms that literature can take upon a subject. (You might prefer the term mode instead of form.) Harris then analyzed the three modes, or forms, into classes which were for the most part fields of study. The classes and subclasses were assigned arabic numerals through 100 apparently on the basis of literary warrant and without regard for hierarchical expression: 79 for history, 93 for British history. The overall order of his scheme reflected Harris's Hegelian definition of the world as seen through man's eyes. As this view provides the skeleton of Dewey's scheme, let me summarize it. First there are the three modes of dealing with a subject: the scientific, in which conscious system prevails; the artistic, in which unconscious system prevails; and the historical, in which system, if any can be said to exist, results from a concatenation of time and place. Within these three modes the contents of books their subject-matterdetermine the structure of the classification. The three modes unfold in the following way to produce the total Hegelian view. Science unfolds into philosophy, the source of system for all other fields and the most general field of study. Theology, the science of the absolute, and the ultimate field of study of philosophy, comes next. (Religion, which is not scientific but is tributary to theology, is included in theology.) As man achieves his most spiritual role within his society and in relation to the state, the social and political sciences are logically the next fields of study. The political sciences are jurisprudence (in which society puts constraints upon the individual), and politics (in which the individual reacts against the constraints of law, thereby producing perhaps an instance for an alteration of the practical will). The social sciences are political economy (whereby in combination man gains ascendancy over nature and uses it for his ends), and education (by which man is initiated into the society's modus operandi). Placed at the end of the social and political sciences is philology since it is the result of self-conscious thought, a society's best record of itself, and the connecting, link between the spiritual and the natural. JOHN P. COMAROMI The natural sciences now follow, and these are followed by the useful arts. The first unfold the laws of nature; the next apply them to social uses. The point of transition between the two fields is medicine part science, part art, and all expensive. This brings to an end the subjects whose major mode of treatment is the scientific. The second major mode is the artistic. Art unfolds into the fine arts: architecture, sculpture, drawing and painting, engraving, lithography, photo- graphy, collections of pictures, and music. These are followed by poetry, prose fiction, and the last of the artistic forms, literary miscellany. Although this ends the subjects whose major mode of treatment is the artistic, the number of works actually are neither few nor brief. The final mode is the historical history. History is comprised of geography and travels, civil history, and biography and correspondence. Heraldry and genealogy fall here. Harris did append to his catalog a class for works which treated subjects falling in several classes. Within this Appendix, which is what he called it, Harris placed collections, cyclopedias, and periodicals several of the items that fell in Dewey's own generalia class. You no doubt can perceive the structure of the DDC falling within Harris's world view, and hence we see the apparently strange position of language and the reason for the distance between the social sciences and history, the 300s and the 900s. I suspect that the philosophical underpinning of the DDC has contributed considerably to its success. I suspect also that no private detective can be hired to confirm my suspicion. Comprised of a preface of eight pages, tables of twelve pages, and an index of eighteen pages, the first edition of DDC appeared in 1876. Dewey set the number of copies at 1,000 a far cry from the 200 that he had been allowed to produce. The figure is, I think, not inaccurate. Dewey had run an extra "edition" beyond what he had been allowed, and it was published by Ginn and Heath. There were standard subdivisions at the general numbers for the classes. "Divide like" was used for geographical subdivisions, although the process itself was not yet called that. The index was called the "Subject Index" and indexed terms in the tables and often subjects outside the tables. For instance, North Carolina appeared in the index, although not in the tables. Even though it was not called "relative," the index was already behaving in that manner and that was to add to the success of the DDC. For instance, one found moths at 595 and 646; maternity at 136 and 618; tobacco at 615, 178, and 633 yet not one of these terms appeared anywhere in the tables. Dewey said of the index in his preface: "Most names of countries, towns, animals, plants, minerals, diseases, &c., have been omitted, the aim being to furnish an Index of Subjects on which books are written, and not a Gazetteer or a Dictionary of all the nouns in the language." From that day on the index was on a collision course to that distant time when it HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 23 would no longer be possible to provide an "Index of Subjects on which books are written" because there would be too many subjects. In addition to the DDC's intellectual cohesion, simple notation, stability, and helpful index, there were events and conditions that contributed substantially to its success in the next decade: (1) it was elaborately described in the U.S. Bureau of Education's Public Libraries in the United *J States of America and discussed at the 1876 Philadelphia Conference of Librarians; (2) it was one of the few systems available to the public and was the only one advertised in the Library Journal; (3) as one of the editors of the Library Journal (and because of his increasingly important position in American librarianship), Dewey was able to further the progress of the DDC-for instance, marking DDC numbers on the title-slips mentioned above; and (4) lastly, although not the least of all the reasons, Dewey had the opportunity to expand the DDC. During the years preceding the publication of the second edition, Dewey developed his scheme first at Wellesley and then at Columbia College with the assistance of Walter Stanley Biscoe and other scholars. (I must say a few words about Biscoe: he was Dewey's henchman from their days at Amherst until Dewey's death in 1931, and he was the theoretician of the DDC for most of this period. Many important classificatory decisions were made by him.) The second edition appeared in 1885. Its introduction was much fuller, having expanded from eight to twenty-four pages, with approximately thirty additional pages of explanations. There were a great many relocations and much reusing of numbers. To prevent the suspicion that succeeding editions would contain equally unsettling amounts of change, Dewey wrote: "Librarians making the necessary changes for the revised edition need not fear that a series of editions have begun each of which will call for such Q changes.' He kept his word. Although there would be great expansion upon the numbers of the second edition in the years ahead, there would be very few changes that would result in changed meanings of numbers. This policy is called integrity of numbers or stability of numbers. It was to be the guiding principle of the DDC for three-quarters of a century. In the second edition I will not catalog the changes of subsequent editions standard subdivisions, then called form divisions, were applied to subdivisions of classes. "Divide like" had become a standard procedure and part of the classifier's language. The Relativ Index was named this for the first time, and so spelled no final "e." Simplified spelling began in this edition. It was to grow steadily worse as subsequent editors increased its use in the mistaken assumption that it was what Dewey desired. In fact, Dewey did desire it, but he also desired international use of the DDC, and the increasingly atrocious simplified spelling was a decided impediment to this goal. Notes were many and useful. The decimal point appeared. It had not 24 JOHN P. COMAROMI been used in the first edition. (A period had been used above the base line to indicate that the next digit indicated either size or accession number within that class or both. For instance, 973.4.18 would represent the eighteenth work on the quarto shelf for American History. It seems that Joseph Lamed of the Young Men's Association Library of Buffalo was the person responsible for the convention of the decimal after the third digit.) There were now geographical and period subdivisions. There were tables at the end of the volume: one listed subjects divided geographically, one was a list of numbers of the various languages, and the last was a list of the subject divisions of languages. Here was the first auxiliary table, although it was not so called. The index had grown from 2,000 to 10,000 entries. Topics subdivided in the tables were in bold type. Dewey wrote of the index, "This Subject Index is the most important feature of the system." He may even have believed that. Certainly, though, librarians inexpert in a field could place a book reasonably well with the assistance of the index. It was a godsend to the librarian who did not know everything. The second edition was to the first as the chicken is to the egg. The egg is indispensable and holds the promise of a chicken. The first edition was promising; the second edition was the promise fulfilled. I do not think I overstate the case when I say that the second edition of the DDC was the premier achievement in the development of American library classification. During the years of development of the DDC up until 1951 the date of publication of the fifteenth edition there was a steady acceptance of the DDC at home and abroad. By development I mean only that the DDC expanded upon its second edition structure. There was little structural change; it simply grew. New editions came when old ones had been sold or when there was enough new material to justify bringing out a new edition. During the period of growth, certain events took place and certain people became involved; both were important to the development of the DDC and I wish now to turn to a discussion of them. To begin, in the late 1880s May Seymour became editor of the DDC. Dewey and W.S. Biscoe had been responsible for editing it through the first three editions. During Seymour's editorship, from the late 1880s through 1921 (the fourth through the eleventh editions) the DDC doubled in size. From 1921 through 1938, during the editorship of her understudy Dorkas Fellows, (the twelfth through the fourteenth editions) the DDC again doubled in size. I mention the growth in size because I wish to call attention to the achievement in classification of these two relatively unsung women. Still, as formidable as their achievement was in classification, each also found time to accomplish major undertakings. Seymour was Dewey's right-hand woman for more than three decades, and was the major figure in the first ALA list of books for libraries; Fellows compiled one of the best sets of cataloging rules. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 25 At Lake Placid Club, where for many years the editorial work was done, Seymour was known as the "specialist in omniscience," Fellows as the "walking encyclopedia" both were fitting characterizations. In 1896 growth of an international branch from the main trunk of the DDC began. At that time Paul Otlet conceived a plan to compile a universal bibliography to be arranged by a decimal system, preferably a somewhat modified DDC. He asked for and gained Dewey's permission to translate the DDC into French, making a few changes in religion, the social sciences, and technology. This was the beginning of an occasionally fruitful but usually frustrating relationship between the DDC and the family of decimal classifications fathered by Dewey but adopted and fostered by Otlet. The major members of the family have been the Classification decimate and the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC), an English translation of the French translation. The UDC is discussed elsewhere in this volume. Nevertheless, I do want to point out here that the French and American editions had drifted apart on the meaning of some numbers and that Seymour and Fellows were directed to reach concordance between the editions through the third digit. They never quite achieved this, but a good many small yet useful modifications in the DDC took place because of the attempt to reach concordance. At about the same time as Otlet began his work, an important event did not take place. In 1899 Charles Martel of the Library of Congress (LC) approached Dewey and asked whether the DDC could be revised within a year so that it could be used as the classification scheme for the Library of Congress. The necessary revision included updating the sciences and technology classes, moving the social sciences nearer to history, and moving language nearer to literature. (J.C.M. Hanson, then head of the catalog department of LC, had just come from the University of Wisconsin where Cutter's Expansive Classification was used, and he wanted a classification the structure of which was much like Cutter's.) Dewey's promise of little change in the meaning of numbers that he had made in the second edition, his agreement to the French translation of the DDC and, more importantly, Martel's demand of great change in too short a period one year made the suggestion unacceptable to Dewey. I think that Hanson and Martel forced Dewey to refuse. In memory of May Seymour, who had died in 1921, and as he himself was nearing the end of his life, Dewey signed all copyrights of the DDC in 1924 over to the Lake Placid Club Education Foundation, fully expecting the foundation to continue publishing the DDC. In 1933 Forest Press was incorporated, its primary role being to see that the DDC was published. The foundation also set up an internal committee to oversee development. Until his death in 1931, Dewey dominated anything connected with the DDC. After 26 JOHN P. COMAROMI his death his second wife, Emily, was in charge of the committee, but she was clearly incapable of dealing with classification matters, and Dorkas Fellows determined the course of the DDC through her. It was at this time that the American Library Association again attempted to formalize an arrangement whereby librarians could have some input into the development and continuation of the DDC. The ALA quite simply wanted to see to it that the interests of the profession were made known to the foundation. (I say "again" for there had been during World War I an ALA committee called the Decimal Classification Advisory Committee, whose job it was to see that the interests of the profession were met. There were excellent people on the advisory committee, such as Clement Andrews of the John Crerar Library and Dorkas Fellows, to name only two. The advisory committee eventually ceased to function primarily because it was not making much of an impact on the DDC's course of development.) The new committee's name made a three-line entry on a catalog card: American Library Association Committee on Cooperation with the Lake Placid Club Education Foundation Committee on the Decimal Classification. This committee was soon replaced by the Decimal Classification Committee, which was comprised of three members each from ALA and from the foundation, and was chaired by Milton Ferguson, director of the Brooklyn Public Library and a former president of ALA. The committee's purpose was to oversee the development of the DDC, and in one form or another it has done so to the present day. It is now called the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee. In 1938 Dorkas Fellows died, but not before she had done much of the work of expanding the fourteenth edition. Replacing her was Constantin Mazney, a cataloger from the University of Michigan. Myron Getchell, the man who was Fellows's choice to replace her and who had fully expected to gain the position, remained on in a subordinate capacity in order that the "apostolic succession" the experiential link to the past not be broken. Mazney and Getchell finished the work on the fourteenth edition, which was published in 1942 and was nearly 2,000 pages long. For the most part it was a giant second edition. Many still consider it the best edition ever. Just after it was published, Mazney was fired for a variety of reasons mainly inefficiency. Getchell, considered by those who appointed the editor to be timid and ineffectual, was passed over for a second time. He then resigned, and "apos- tolic succession" was broken. There was no longer anyone at the editorial level who knew the old ways, or the reasons for them. During most of the 1930s and 1940s there was an unremitting but fruitless search for an editor: Fellows had come to the end of her career; Mazney had proven incapable; and Getchell was unacceptable. The major reason why someone could not be found was that the foundation was HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 27 unwilling to pay a wage commensurate with the talent and education requisite for a successful editorship. What then transpired has led to an unhappy period for library classification. In the late 1920s, Dewey, his son Godfrey, and Dorkas Fellows had concluded that there should be three editions, or three levels, in the DDC family: (l)a bibliographic edition to handle documentation, (2) a library edition for shelf arrangement of libraries of medium size (or larger if the bibliographic edition was not used for this purpose in the larger libraries), and (3) an abridged edition for the smaller libraries and for library schools. Ten years later the Decimal Classification Committee decided that the fifteenth edition would be the library edition defined above, and by osmosis it came to be called the "standard edition." It was to have all of its classes expanded and then cut back to four, or five, or six digits, whatever was appropriate for a given class for numbering books for shelf arrangement *for libraries of a medium size. The main reason for the tremendous expansion in the fourteenth edition was that it was the first step in preparing for the library, or standard, edition. Although no one could be found for the editorship, someone now had to be found to ensure that the editorial office made progress toward the fifteenth edition. What appeared then to be an appropriate course of action was taken: a director of the editorial office was appointed Esther Potter of the Brooklyn Public Library (a close friend of Milton Ferguson, chairman of the Decimal Classification Committee). Her experience was not in classifi- cation, and consequently it was not believed that she had the ability to be editor, although she was given the charge to find one if she could. She was also given the charge to find out what librarians desired in the way of a "standard edition," the official view, given above, already being known. This she set out to do and many dollars later concluded that librarians wanted an up-to-date scheme with short numbers. (Note that this was not what the original library edition was to have been short numbers, yes, but on the old structure.) She attempted to provide this but proved incapable of doing so. Then, in order to bring the fifteenth edition out as soon as possible Potter's travels and the editorial staffs work having consumed the available funds Milton Ferguson was sent to Washington to finish the edition. He did so and finished just about everything else in the process. The fifteenth edition appeared in 1951 and was an almost unmitigated disaster. It was not the edition it was intended to be. The libraries for which it was intended could not use it in fact, two-thirds of all users could not use it alone, and recourse to an earlier edition was necessary. Although it was 700 pages in length, it was actually only one-tenth to one-fifth the conceptual size of the fourteenth edition; that is, it had only one-tenth to one-fifth as many entries. Ferguson had literally eviscerated the DDC. It was far too abbreviated; 28 JOHN P. COMAROMI there was no provision for building numbers; the meanings of many heavily used numbers had been changed. The index had been compiled by someone from another part of the government, and did not work well which would have been the case no matter who had made it, for the tables had been denuded of up to 90 percent of their contents. A revised fifteenth edition was hurried into print, but about all it managed to do was use up a good deal of what little money and goodwill were left. Did anything good come out of it? Yes: the atrocious simplified spelling had been almost shed; the format was elegant for the first time; a great deal of deadwood had been eliminated; and a few areas, such as sociology, had been improved. But this little good did not begin to compensate for the great evil done. The worst effect was that Forest Press could not finance the sixteenth edition, although I admit that defections to the Library of Congress Classification and a loss of belief in the usefulness of the DDC for shelf arrangement may have been the worst effects. At this crucial point in the history of the DDC the Library of Congress was approached through the American Library Association in the hopes that the library would assist in financing the next edition, for without substantial assistance the DDC would founder long before the sixteenth edition could be prepared. The library agreed to help. The arrangement to produce the sixteenth edition, in which costs were shared by LC and Forest Press, began in January 1954. In the bargain that was made, the library gained the power to appoint the editor. Its first appointee to the editorship was David Haykin, the first person to direct the assigning of DDC numbers to LC cards and a subject heading specialist at LC. At this time another ALA committee, the Special Advisory Committee on the Decimal Classification, was formed to assist the editor and the Editorial Policy Committee in producing the sixteenth edition. It was actually constituted at the request of Godfrey Dewey, who was a member of the governing board of the Lake Placid Club Education Foundation and who thought that the editor and the Editorial Policy Committee could use all the expertise that could be marshaled. Unsaid was his desire to see that another fifteenth edition did not occur. At all times a majority of the advisory committee's members was of the integrity-of-numbers camp. This group desired a return to the line of development of the first fourteen editions and a return to the meanings of the numbers of the fourteenth edition, from which the fifteenth edition had often strayed. On the other hand, David Haykin was of the keeping-pace -with- knowledge camp. Members of this group, which included most of his staff and a minority of the advisory committee, desired to have the structure of the DDC reflect the current view of knowledge. Whereas the conservative integrity-of-numbers camp would have new subjects placed in the old HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 29 structure, the progressive keeping-pace-with-knowledge camp would redo the old structure and provide one better fit to accommodate new and old subjects. Haykin assumed that the progressive steps taken in the fifteenth edition were to continue. The advisory committee assumed that the line of the first fourteen editions was to continue in the sixteenth. If the advisory committee were taken seriously most of them are not a showdown between Haykin and the committee was inevitable. The stature of the committee's ap- pointees and, more importantly, the sheer force of its chairman Janet Dickson gave its opinions the weight necessary for an honest hearing. Its opinion was that Haykin was changing too much and he had to stop. The showdown occurred in 1956. When the smoke cleared, Haykin had resigned to return to another post in the Library of Congress. Thus, it was assured that the sixteenth edition would be primarily a return to the line of development of the first fourteen editions. To replace Haykin, LC appointed Benjamin Custer, head of technical services of the Detroit Public Library, who had demonstrated the requisite general ability and who possessed a conciliatory ability in the degree necessary to bring the sixteenth edition to a successful conclusion and all concerned to a smiling state. This he and Julia Pressey, head of the section that assigned DDC numbers to LC cards, did supremely well. The sixteenth edition was published in 1958 and it vies with the fourteenth in being generally successful and widely respected. It was, in fact, a phenomenal success and much nearer to the idea of the library, or standard, edition discussed earlier. Although physically larger than the fourteenth edition, it had about one-half the number of entries. It was attractive, easy to use and, as Frances Hinton, the current chairman of the Editorial Policy Committee, said of it, it fit like an old slipper. Furthermore, the fifteenth edition had been no competition, the fourteenth was no longer available, and librarianship was riding an ascending spoke of the wheel of fortune. Custer did manage to insert a good deal of new material in the sixteenth edition, and he did some restructuring as well in chemistry at 546 and 547, the sort of thing that had not been allowed in the first fourteen editions. The sixteenth had more of the past in it than it did the present, but I think we should look upon it as the last of the old DDC line and the first of the new modern line. At the time, of course, it was perceived as being a return to what was known and accepted, which indeed it was in part. The view of the conservative librarian when it is not necessary to change, it is necessary not to change had prevailed, and such librarians were happy that the various subjects of their collections were not dispersed by a new view of knowledge. Since the following paper will deal with the seventeenth and eighteenth editions, I do not wish to proceed much further. I am constrained, however, to add two more paragraphs which belong to the thread of this discussion. 30 JOHN P. COMAROMI By the time the seventeenth edition was published in 1965, a stunning reversal of fundamental policy had taken place. No longer was integrity of numbers the guiding principle; keeping pace with knowledge was. Custer was by nature a progressive as far as classification was concerned. It would have been folly, however, for him to do anything other than what he was instructed to do for the sixteenth edition that is, to return to the line of the first fourteen editions. The success of the sixteenth edition, on the other hand, added the dimension of success to his stature, and he was able to convince the Editorial Policy Committee that the future is longer than the past and that the DDC's structure should change when reason sees the need for change. This policy has continued to the present; the phoenix schedules and the new index are results of it. The seventeenth edition was not, predictably, a successful edition. There had been too much change, and librarians who had applauded the sixteenth edition were bitterly disappointed. The idea of classifying by discipline, in which a subject is classed in the discipline in which it is used for study, caused no little difficulty in classfying. The new index, a radical departure from previous practice, received a hostile reception. The index was like a pair of magic shoes that carried the classifier much farther than a normal pair of shoes, but which pinched every step of the way. It proved so unacceptable, in fact, that at great cost to Forest Press, a revised index modeled on the old lines was prepared and distributed free to purchasers of the original index. In fairness it should be said that the original index did not have the time spent on it that it should have had, and that the index to the eighteenth edition is a better example of what the new index can do. On the credit side were many good internal improvements, the development of auxiliary tables, and the continued, now more obvious, movement toward making the DDC a modern library classification which it is now becoming, to most people's satisfaction. REFERENCES 1. Maass, John. "Who Invented Dewey's Classification?" Wilson Library Bulletin 47:335-42, Dec. 1972. 2. Dewey, Melvil. Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and Pamphlets of a Library. Amherst, Mass., Case, Lockwood and Brainard Co., 1876, p. 10. 3. The discussion in the following two paragraphs owes much to ideas suggested to the author by John Metcalfe and to Enzo Bottasso's "Genesi e Intenti della Classificazione Decimale," in La Biblioteca Pubblica. Torino, Italy, Associazione Piemontese dei Bibliotecari, 1973, pp. 177-207. HISTORIC A L DE VEL OPMENT 31 4. Harris, William T. "Book Classification," Journal of Speculative Philosophy 4(2): 114-29, 1870. 5. Leidecker, Kurt. "The Debt of Melvil Dewey to William Torrey Harris," Library Quarterly 15:139-42, April 1945; and Graziano, Eugene E. "Hegel's Philosophy as a Basis for the Dewey Classification Schedule," Libri 9:45-52, 1959. 6. Dewey, op. cit., p. 6. 7. . "Catalogues and Cataloguing; A Decimal Classification and Subject Index." In U.S. Bureau of Education. Public Libraries in the United States of America. Special Report. Pt. I. Washington, D.C., U.S.G.P.O., 1876, pp. 623-48. 8. . Decimal Classification and Relativ Index for Arranging, Cataloging, and Indexing Public and Private Libraries. 2d ed. Boston, Library Bureau, 1885, p. 46. 9. Ibid., p. 32. MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT Associate Professor Faculty of Library Science University of Toronto, Canada Dewey Today: An Analysis of Recent Editions Despite the title of this paper, I do not intend to make a detailed analysis of the subject content of recent editions of the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC). Instead, I shall concentrate on certain classificatory changes within the system, and try to show how these changes seem to spring in part from changes in the editorial development of editions 16-18 of DDC, and in the administrative and editorial frameworks within which the editions appear. In my own research on classification systems, I have become increasingly fascinated by the ways in which the classification systems themselves are determined, shaped and changed by the people who devise and revise them. As has been said many times, the first fourteen editions followed in a largely unbroken line, with some relocations, but basically with expansions. Then came the abortive fifteenth edition. That this edition was recognized as a disaster became obvious with the appearance of the revised fifteenth edition in the following year. This was followed by the contractual arrangement between the Lake Placid Club Education Foundation (LPCEF) and the Library of Congress (LC) that LC should be responsible for the editorial work on future editions, for the length of the contracts. On January 4, 1954, LC began the editorial work, with David Haykin as editor. Benjamin Custer succeeded him as editor in 1956. DDC- 16 seemed to continue the straight-line pattern of DDC-1-14 but did it really? Lucile Morsch, chairman of the Decimal Classification Editorial 32 ANAL YSIS OF RECENT EDITIONS 33 Policy Committee (DCEPC) wrote in the foreword to the edition: "Responsibility for editorial policy rests with the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee, a joint committee of the Lake Placid Club Education Foundation, the American Library Association, and the Library of Congress." While various advisory committees had previously existed, the formal professional responsibility by the editor, an LC staff member, and the advisory function of the DCEPC for editorial policy influenced the intellectual and classificatory changes in DDC-16. In his introduction, Custer recognized that: There is no avoiding the fact that, historically, the DC is based upon a Protestant Anglo-Saxon culture. . . . Yet the editors have considered that they had a prime responsibility for furnishing a satisfactory and useful classification for the libraries of the United States, and solution to the problem of a classification universally acceptable has not yet been found. In spite of this, the present edition has made a start toward providing more useful expansions of topics in which libraries of cultures other than Protestant, Anglo-Saxon, and Western are likely to excel. Problems of the lengthy notation were recognized, "particularly in those areas where whole new disciplines of science have sprung up since the original pattern was establisht." In addition, the degree of expansion for all subjects was linked without explicit reference to E. Wyndham Hulme's principle of literary warrant: "the editors . . . have been guided by the principle that the existence in American libraries of more than twenty titles which would fall in a given number raises a presumption in favor of subdivision." The admission that DDC was not a perfect classification system, that it did indeed reveal national, religious and cultural biases, and that it could be revised according to principles introduced an entirely new aspect for editorial policy and evolutionary development. Yet, the old conflicting DDC principles of the "traditional policy of integrity of numbers" and "the philosophy of keeping pace with knowledge" continued, as they continue still. While facet analysis and faceted classifications were being widely discussed even in North America by 1958, after the founding in 1952 of the Classification Research Group (CRG) in Great Britain, there is little direct evidence of their impact on the DDC-16 yet the seeds are there. They were there, of course, in Melvil Dewey's identification of literature being divided by language, literary form, time period and form division in the 800s; in his organization of the 400 class by language, and then by the linguistic problem. He recognized "facets," although of course he could not anticipate Ranganathan's terminology. DDC-16 permitted a few new facets in a way which had not been evident in earlier editions, through Dewey's "divide like" mechanism. For 34 MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT example, 616.1-616.998 specific diseases, could be divided like 616.07-616.092, largely by what we might now term the "energy" or "action" facet; 331.382-331.3898 child and youth labor could be divided by the major industries in 620-698; and the former one-page form divisions had burgeoned to five pages. Why the very word "facet" should be frightening or suspect to American librarians, I do not know. As we have seen, the concept was known to Dewey and was practiced unknowingly by the use of the "divide like" technique by every classifier. A citation order was used which was inherent, for example, in some of the directional notes in the 800 class (e.g., 82 1.002- .09 form divisions, and types of poetry, from which the classifier was directed to a model in 811.002-.09, where he found additional notes). Nevertheless, the same citation order by directional notes was omitted completely in other parts of the 800 class (e.g., 823 English fiction, where he found permission for division only by a time period). By the seventeenth edition, the editor was firmly stating the aims of a classification system and recognizing the existence of other systems, even of the suspect Colon Classification: the development of an integrated plan . . . will provide systematically for the tens and hundreds of thousands of subjects on which books are and may be written in this age of multiversity and specialization. ... It requires the intense efforts of specialists in librarianship, in subject classification, and in the countless disciplines of which the world of knowledge is composed. . . . For this reason, librarians have generally found it advantageous to follow, with local adaptations where necessary to meet local needs, one or another of the commonly used book classification systems, among the best known of which are Bliss's Bibliographic Classification, Ranganathan's Colon Classification, Dewey's Decimal Classification, Cutter's Expansive Classification, the Library of Congress Classification. Brown's Subject Classification, and the Universal Decimal Classification. Due to the apparent timidity of the editor, the DCEPC or the Forest Press, the dread word facet is cautiously and seldom used: "Only the word 'facet' is of recent origin; Dewey understood the concept." Custer stated: Division of a given subject in DC by more than one principle, or characteristic, is as old as the first edition. ... It is true that editions prior to the present one did not always recognize and make provision for division by more than one principle, even when the literature would seem to have warranted it; and when they did make such provision, they did not always clearly differentiate among the various principles. ANAL YSIS OF RECENT EDITIONS 35 Examples of Application of Several Facets BASIC SUBJECT 617.1 Wounds and injuries .14 *Wounds . 1 5 Fractures .16 * Dislocations SECONDARY FACET 617 Surgery .01 Complications and sequelae .02 Special texts .07 Surgical pathology .073 Surgical nursing .075 Diagnoses Divide like 616.075 PRIMARY FACET Add to each subdivision *; 001-008 Standard subdivisions 01-09 General aspects Divide like 617.01-617.09 TERTIARY FACET 616.075 Diagnoses .0755 Clinical diagnosis .0758 Microscopy in diagnosis Table 1 . Classification of "Clinical Diagnosis in the Surgical Treatment of Wounds." Source: Dewey, Melvil. Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index. 17th ed. rev. Lake Placid Club, N.Y., Forest Press, 1952, Vol. 2, pp. 679-700. To clarify these issues and further to emphasize subject integrity, this edition makes many new provisions for division by more than one principle. 10 Probably the most obvious new facet was the Area Table by which the place facet (with area broadly defined to include socioeconomic regions and groups and persons) * was detached from the 900 class from which it had previously been derived by "divide like." Less obvious facets occurred, with or without specific editorial mention. One such example, not mentioned by the editor, occurred in the 610s (see Table 1). Table 1 shows examples from the schedules to illustrate the various principles or characteristics of division and the resultant problems. It is possible to achieve a precise notation for the complex concept clinical diagnosis in the surgical treatment of wounds: 617.160755. The citation order in which the facets are to be combined is clearly stated in the directions at each step. The use of a facet indicator the retention of the "0" is clearly indicated in the example, e.g., emergency surgery 026, which accompanies the "divide like" instructions for 01-09 General Aspects. The facets are not clear facets; thus, in 617 complications and special texts jostle coordinately with surgical pathology, and the hierarchical relationships are confused in the subordination of surgical nursing (a less preferred option) and diagnoses to 36 MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT Women 331.4 Women ^ 331.42-.43 Specific elements .42 Wages .43 Married women .48 In specific occupations .481 Service and professional Divide like 01 1-999 .4S2-.489 Other Divide like 620-690 Table 2. Table for 331.4. Source: Dewey, MelvH^Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index. 17th ed. Vol. 1. Lake Placid Club, N.Y., Forest Press, 1965-67, p. 296. surgical pathology. The action clinical diagnosis and the agent microscopy in diagnosis are confusing coordinates, subordinate to diagnoses. Nevertheless, the seventeenth edition made a valiant effort in regard to facets. When the same topic is examined in DDC-18, it is apparent that some of the facets have been sorted out, at least by the use of umbrella headings, e.g., 02 special topics and 05-09 other general aspects in the facet under 617 surgery and related topics, but that the confusion under 617.07 surgical pathology and under the extension of 616.075 diagnoses and prognoses remains. Another example of a different type, cited by the editor in his discussion of facets, occurred in DDC-17 at 331.3-.6 special classes of workers. The special classes were grouped as specific age groups, women, substandard wage earners, and other groups. The foci or concepts within the primary facets were normally divided by a secondary facet of occupation, by dividing like 620-690 or 001-999 as appropriate. However 331.62 immigrants had a secondary geographic facet by the use of the area notations for the place of origin, plus "0" as a facet indicator, plus a tertiary geographic facet using the area notations for the place reached. In contrast, 331.63 native-bom nonindigenous ethnic groups achieved an ethnic facet by dividing like 420-490, plus the "0" facet indicator, plus a geographic facet using the area notations for the place reached. Within these four groups the citation order for synthesizing the facets was usually clearly stated, and a table of precedence for the groups at the beginning of the section enabled the classifier to avoid cross-classification for a topic such as "youthful convicts who are married women" (see Table 2). ANAL YSIS OF RECENT EDITIONS 3 7 The basic subject group of 331.4 women, however, revealed the inability to identify facets which would be relevant to the whole section of 331. 3-.6. It should be noted that there was a group for women but not for men, so that a basic or facet division by sex was not possible. Because the facets and their synthesis had not been seriously considered as a problem, how did the classifier cope with topics like "salaries of married women lawyers"? This problem has been solved in DDC-18 by a directional note which requires the use of 331.43 without synthesis, so that the facts of sex and marital status become the deciding factors, rather than the wages, salaries, professions and occupations. With some justification, some members of the DCEPC hurled charges of a sexist bias at the DDC on April 26, 1974; there was subsequently found to be little evidence of sexism, however, and both the editor and the DCEPC will undoubtedly be watchful in examining the subdivisions and terminology of future draft schedules. The clear facet groups in 331.3 and 331.5-.6 in DDC-17 made the deficiencies of 331.4 only too clear in their lack of subject and hierarchical integrity, which were the much-vaunted principles of DDC-17. While true facet analysis the ability to synthesize concepts and notation and a specified citation order may seem academically remote from the needs of working classifiers, their absence throughout much of the DDC intellectual structure makes the subject anomalies, faulty hierarchies, and resulting cross- classification militate against sound consistent classification for the users' needs in shelf groupings and detailed specific classified catalogs, bibliographies and files designed for information retrieval. Many examples of facets from the schedules and tables of DDC-17 might be cited. However, another interesting idea advanced by the editor showed the extent of influence on him of the exponents of faceted classification, spearheaded by the Classification Research Group (CRG). In his discussion of the possible use of DDC in detailed classified files, by the full use of the permitted synthesis, the editor discussed the need for the "0" as the facet indicator, and for the avoidance of cross-classification by various precedence formulae and citation orders. He concluded with the advice: "Class the subject by (1) kinds, (2) parts, (3) materials, (4) properties, (5) processes within it, (6) operations upon it, (7) agents." Anyone who is familiar with the work of the CRG will recognize this as a CRG modification and expansion of Ranganathan's famous PMEST facet formula. This is almost an exact quotation from a statement on citation order in the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC) by Jack Mills, one of the early and most influential members of the CRG. The wording is expanded and examples are added in DDC-18, but the CRG's citation order continued unchanged. The CRG and faceted-school infiltrators went virtually unnoticed by U.S. librarians. Among the many reviews of DDC-17 I have examined, two 38 MARGARET E. COCKS HUTT critics directly commented on the new faceted influence; one was a British 1 O librarian and one was a Canadian. Other reviewers went on to praise the Area Table, damn the index, approve the attempts to remove the Protestant Anglo-Saxon bias, and essentially deplore the attempt to return to "subject integrity." 19 The objections were not to subject and hierarchical integrity per se, but to the relocation of topics by which the integrity must be achieved, and thus to the possible re-use of numbers before the end of the 25-year starvation period which existed at that time. Looking back ten years later on the reviews, I believe that the criticism was not of the principle of subject integrity, nor even of the principle of "keeping pace with knowledge." Rather, it sprang from the hard, pragmatic realization that all the centralized and commercial services, from LC on down, would use the relocations, reassigned numbers and full notational extent of the synthesis resulting from the obvious and hidden facets, and thus that libraries faced devastating problems in their open-stack collections. The desire by librarians for notations shorter than those provided in the LC bibliographic services, coupled with the inability of unsupervised technicians (and possibly of librarians) to cut the notation at meaningful points in the notational string, led LC in 1967 to record in all the LC bibliographic apparatus, centrally assigned DDC numbers in segments by the use of prime marks. If libraries could not cope with the precise notational synthesis which specialized libraries needed for their information retrieval, the Decimal Classification Division (DCD) of LC had to do the work for them. Within individual libraries, in the battle between economy (in time, and therefore in money) and specific subject analysis and retrieval, economy won. The facets and their frightening results which had lurked implicitly in DDC- 17 were glaringly obvious in DDC- 18. One curious anomaly is that the word facet, which had appeared so cautiously in the editor's introduction to DDC-17, seemed to disappear completely from the pages of DDC-18. It is not in the preface, the editor's introduction, the glossary, nor in the Index to Preface, Editor's Introduction, and Glossary. However, the number of faceted auxiliary tables increased from two to seven. As a result, completely faceted synthesis was practiced by librarians with apparent ease in applying Table 4, "Subdivisions of Individual Languages," to asterisked topics in 420-499; and it was attempted with considerably more difficulty by the application of the complex Table 3, "Subdivisions of Individual Literatures," to asterisked topics in 810-890. 21 The faceted auxiliary tables for "Racial, Ethnic, National Groups" (Table 5) and "Persons" (Table 7) were particularly welcomed by librarians. Their use obviated the need for difficult and often inappropriate synthesis by dividing like 420-499, 001-999, or 920.1-928.9, or for the forced acceptance of an imprecise notation because there was no opportunity for synthesis. ANAL YSIS OF RECENT EDITIONS 39 These tables have proved so popular that there have been numerous requests to the editor that their use be permitted with any appropriate number in the schedules. Such a synthesis has long been permitted for geographic areas by the use of standard subdivision -09 plus the area number, where the area number may not be added directly. The same kinds of facet indicators are needed for tables 5 and 7, and the editor and the DCEPC struggled for several meetings, between April 26, 1973 and April 26, 1974, to find suitable facet indicators as leads-in with the shortest possible resulting notation. After several unsuccessful attempts, the DCEPC recommended to the Forest Press Committee (FPC) the use of the -088 s.s. for Table 7 and -089 s.s. for Table 23 5. Screams of anguish over lengthy notation may perhaps be tempered to mild whimpers or even faint expressions of pleasure when the synthesis is desired for one's own local needs. Other less noticeable facets appeared in the schedules of DDC-18 by combinations of notations from several tables, separated by the "0" facet indicator, as at 301.4511 aggregates of general, mixt, North American origins; or from combinations of schedules and tables which might even be derived in multiple stages. For example, consider the precise topic specification, as well as the intellectual gamesmanship of 636.59201 -.59208 turkeys-general principles, which permits synthesis from 636.01 -.08 animal husbandry -general principles or of 636.089 veterinary sciences-veterinary medicine, which permits additional synthesis from 610-619 medical sciences- medicine. Fortunately for the sanity of classifiers and particularly of library school students, the "divide like" instruction gave way to the simple "add to" instruction. With crystal clarity in most cases, the editor's directional note at each stage specifies not only the base number to which the addition is made, but also "the numbers following" from which the succeeding facet notations are derived. Other facets emerged in revised sections of the schedules, as they received routine editorial scrutiny. It would be possible to continue the search through DDC-18 for facets, indicators, citation orders, and other devices to gladden the mind of the theoretician. It is more important to see where we have come from with Dewey since 1873-76, to see where we are now with DDC-18, published in 1971, and to assess the means by which we have come. Figure 1 illustrates a theoretical chain of influence. Dewey's first edition was conceived in 1873 and published anonymously in 1876. In 1895, the Institut International de Bibliographic (IIB) adopted DDC-5 (1894) as the basis for its proposed UDC, with Dewey's consent. However, the two systems apparently went separate ways. UDC in its turn was the intellectual inspiration of S. R. Ranganathan, who from 1925 was busily improving on the potentialities of the UDC. After experiments in the University of Madras Library, Ranganathan began to publish his Colon Classification in 1933. His 40 MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT Figure 1 . Theoretical Chain of Influence Source: Cockshutt, Margaret E. "Professional Involvement in the Evolution of the Dewey Decimal Classification" (EPC Exhibit 71-63). Washington, D.C., 1974, p. 4. sixth edition appeared in 1960, and the seventh is appearing posthumously, in parts, under the aegis of Ranganathan's disciples. In his six editions, frightening to North American pragmatists in their rapid and continual adoption, rejection, and violent change of concepts, notation and classificatory devices, Ranganathan showed the practical and basic importance of both facet analysis and the identification and listing of the fundamental component parts of each subject. He further demonstrated the subsequent grouping of the parts into facets or groups, with each facet possessing only one common characteristic, and the method of synthesizing concepts from facets by a stated citation order, in order to avoid cross-classification . The incredible Ranganathan jargon which appears to be in the English language, but which is really in "Ranganathanese" was new; the simple conceptual facets were long known to Dewey, at least in the 400 and 800 classes, and through him to the developers of UDC. Undaunted by economic pressures, and without the desire for a constant shelf address for a document. Ranganathan continued his theoretical and applied research, always experi- menting and changing. In turn, his theories and devices, such as his "phases" and the formerly named "octave device," circled back to influence the UDC, and moved forward to influence the CRG. Now, somewhat hesitantly in DDC-17 and openly in UDC and DDC-18, the direct impact of the CRG's ANAL YSIS OF RECENT EDITIONS 41 P = Permanent A = Appointed on nomination = formal and informal communication Figure 2. Tripartite Structure Source: Cockshutt, Margaret E. "Professional Involvement in the Evolution of the Dewey Decimal Classification" (EPC Exhibit 71-63). Washington, D.C., 1974, p. 8. faceted experiments can be seen. What began as a chain of influence is now a series of three intersecting loops. The complex present structural control of the system is illustrated in Figure 2. How did this happen? Without doubt Melvil Dewey was the dominant influence on the DDC until his death. By the time DDC-16 appeared, control of the DDC was in the hands of the LPCEF (now the LPEF) and its nonprofit subsidiary, the Forest Press, founded by Dewey in 1922 and incorporated in 1933. The LPCEF had signed its contract with LC for the editorial work to begin in 1954; and beginning with DDC-16 we have the editorial work done by LC's professional staff, under the editorial supervision of a professional 42 MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT librarian. Thus, there was a truly professional involvement in the editorial process, and there was a firm basis for professional evaluation of new classification theories and practices by the editor. Practical assessment was increased by the merger of LC's Decimal Qassification Section and the editorial office in the Decimal Classification Division. In 1937 Godfrey Dewey established the Decimal Classification Com- mittee, on which were represented both the LPCEF and the American Library Association, and which was concerned with both management and editorial policies. After the disastrous DDC-15, the ALA also established a short-lived Special Advisory Committee on the Decimal Classification, which consisted of a group of senior and conservative librarians. In 1952 the Decimal Classification Committee was renamed the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee (DCEPC), and in 1955 it became a joint committee of the LPCEF and the ALA, with additional permanent representatives from what are now the ALA's Cataloging and Classification Section, the FPC and LC (while it continues to edit DDC). In 1973, the 1968 agreement between the Forest Press and the ALA was amended to permit the Library Association also to have a voting member appointed to the DCEPC. Gradually the functions of the DCEPC have changed, so that it now advises the FPC directly on the development and editorial implementation of DDC, and makes rec- ommendations to the FPC on matters needing editorial consideration and on the acceptance of draft schedules of which the DCEPC approves. It also advises the editor informally on ideas presented as trial balloons, more serious formal proposals, and various stages of draft schedules. The present DCEPC is a committee of ten people: three appointed on the nomination of the ALA, three on the nomination of the FPC, one on the nomination of the Library Association, and three permanent members to represent the three official participating organizations. Or we can mix by nationality: one Englishman, one Canadian, eight persons from the United States. Or we can sort by professional contribution: three library school faculty members, three catalogers, four administrators. Or I might venture personally to group by classificatory ideologies: two (sometimes three) theorists, eight (sometimes seven) pragmatists. All are strong-minded, so that the discussion is professional and vigorous. The DCEPC meetings are also attended by the executive director, editor and assistant editor of the Forest Press (all as nonvoting participants), and recently, on invitation, by the staff of the DCD in rotation as observers. As I have perceived the meetings since 1970, the various combinations of the DCEPC and others in attendance are healthy and valuable for the development of DDC. It is essential that the DDC be intellectually and structurally sound, and the input of new ideas by the theorists and the editor should ensure that the DDC editorial staff and the DCEPC are aware of ANAL YSIS OF RECENT EDITIONS 43 current research and trends in classification theory. It is also essential that the DDC be practical in its application and that it fit into current library administrative goals and practices; the catalogers and administrators help to ensure this. The DCD staff should be aware that the proposals are discussed thoughtfully and carefully from all angles, and that the draft schedule criticisms are based on rational arguments rather than on arbitrary whims; the presence of the DCD staff as observers should facilitate this awareness. It is essential that the tripartite bodies are officially informed, through their members and through documents, of the policy recommendations and of the reasons for which they are made. Why do these growths and changes in the editorial process, admini- strative development, and professional involvement matter? They matter because the varying needs of users in libraries of all sizes and types must be represented: users who want broad shelf groupings and location addresses, those who want a detailed specific information retrieval system, skilled original-classifiers, technicians working with derived copy, library school students trying to learn the theoretical base and the practical mastery for use in their new profession, and so on. Contact between "the profession," i.e., the users, and the editor takes place through various formal agreements between the DCD and the British National Bibliography, the Australian National Bibliography, and Canadiana, as well as informally (see Figure 3). There have been various field surveys, questionnaires, draft reviews by subject experts, and official and informal visits by various officials of LPEF, the FPC, the Forest Press, and the editor on this continent and abroad. That DDC is now regarded as a truly international classification, can best be conveyed in the statement now adopted by both the DCEPC and the FPC: The Decimal Classification is an American classification, international in standing and application. In preparing an edition it is desirable to allow positively for the needs, both in detail and in order, of countries outside the U.S. Where there is a conflict between these needs and those of the U.S. the editor should give his preference to the needs of the U.S. but must make provision for an alternative use by libraries outside the U.S. in a manner appropriate to the particular problem. So the editions march on, in English, in French, and in a host of other translations and adaptations. As DDC-18 went to press, plans for DDC-19 began. As Paul Dunkin wrote: "In the making of an edition of Dewey there are many things: emotions, logic, traditions, economics, a Committee what not?' Or, as Heraclitus wrote about 500 B.C., with a sense both of deja vu and of wonder at something new: "Upon those that step into the same rivers, different and different waters flow down." 44 MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT L C PROCESS DEPT. E P C DC DIV. < * C AN X Figure 3. Informal International Involvement (Impressionistic) Source: Cockshutt, Margaret E. "Professional Involvement in the Evolution of the Dewey Decimal Classification" (EPC Exhibit 71-63). Washington, D.C., 1974, p. 13. REFERENCES 1. Dewey, Melvil. Dewey Decimal Classification and Relativ Index. 16th ed. 2 vols. Lake Placid Club, N.Y., Forest Press, 1958; . Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index. 17th ed. 2 vols. Lake Placid Club, N.Y., Forest Press, 1965-67; and . Dewey Decimal Classifi- cation and Relative Index. 18th ed. 3 vols. Lake Placid Club, N.Y., Forest Press, 1971. 2. . Decimal Classification. 15th ed. Lake Placid Club, N.Y., Forest Press, 1951. 3. . Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index. 15th ed. rev. Lake Placid Club, N.Y., Forest Press, 1952. ANAL YSIS OF RECENT EDITIONS 45 4. Morsch, Lucile M. "Foreword." In Dewey, Dewey Decimal Classifi- cation . . .,16th ed., op. cit., vol. 1, p. 1. 5. Custer, Benjamin A. "Editors Introduction." In Dewey, Dewey Decimal Classification . . ., 16th ed., op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 15-16. 6. Ibid., pp. 18-19. 7. Morsch, op. cit., p. 2. 8. Dewey, Dewey Decimal Classification..., 16th ed., op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 89-93. 9. , Dewey Decimal Classification..., 17th ed., op. cit., vol. 1, p. 6. 10. Ibid., p. 45. 11. Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 1265-66. 12. , Dewey Decimal Classification . . ., 18th ed., op. cit., vol. 2, pp. 1073-93. 13. , Dewey Decimal Classification . . ., 17th ed., op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 295-96. 14. , Dewey Decimal Classification . . ., 18th ed., op. cit., vol. 2, pp. 647. 15. Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee. "Minutes of EPC Meeting No. 70, April 25-26, 1974." No. 71-3. Washington, D.C., Editorial Policy Committee, 1974, p. 12. 16. Dewey, Dewey Decimal Classification. . ., 17th ed., op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 25-26. 17. British Standards Institution. Guide to the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC). London, British Standards Institution, 1963, p. 14. (FID No. 345.) 18. Tait, James A. "Dewey Joins the Jet Age," Library Review 20:220-24, Winter 1965; and Cockshutt, Margaret E. "[Review of] Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index, 17th ed.," Ontario Library Review 50:80-82, June 1966. 19. Dewey, Dewey Decimal Classification. . ., 17th ed., op. cit., vol. 1, p. 45. 20. , Dewey Decimal Classification . . ., 18th ed., op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 1-65, passim. 21. Ibid., pp. 375-94. 22. Ibid., pp. 398-406, 420-39. 23. Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee, "Minutes . . .," op. cit., p. 7. 24. Dewey, Dewey Decimal Classification . . ., 18th ed., op. cit., vol. 2, p. 614. 25. Ibid., pp. 1034-1109, passim. 26. . A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and Pamphlets of a Library. Amherst, Mass., 1876. 27. Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee. "Minutes of Meeting No. 69, November 1-2, 1973." No. 70-3. Washington, D.C., Editorial Policy Committee, 1973, p. 1. 28. Library Association. Dewey Decimal Classification, Sub-committee. "British Recommendation for Policy on International Use" (Editorial Policy Committee Exhibit No. 68-1 Ob). Washington, D.C., Editorial Policy Committee, 1973, p. 3. 46 MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT 29. Dunkin, Paul S. "New Wine in an Old Bottle," Library Journal 90:4050, Oct. 1, 1965. 30. "Heraclitus of Ephasus," Collier's Encyclopedia. Vol. 12, 1970, p. 55. MARY ELLEN MICHAEL Consultant Forest Press Lake Placid, New York Summary of a Survey of the Use of the Dewey Decimal Classification in the United States and Canada Within the last ten years, three studies have been performed dealing with the use of Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) outside the North American continent. To date, there has not been a similar survey aimed at assessing the situation in the United States and Canada. In response to this need, Forest Press, publisher of the DDC schedules, has sponsored a survey to measure the use of the DDC by libraries and processing centers in these two countries. This paper highlights some of the findings of this survey. The full report has been published by Forest Press.^ There were four major objectives of the survey: (l)to determine the extent of use of the DDC by U.S. and Canadian libraries of different sizes and types, (2) to obtain information about the application of the DDC to library collections, (3) to determine the problem areas in the application of the DDC for collections in these two countries, and (4) to ascertain to what extent the DDC is taught in library schools and what problems are encountered in teaching it. 47 48 MARY ELLEN MIC HA EL The survey was divided into three phases to meet the above objectives. First, a questionnaire was mailed to a ten-percent sample of all types of libraries school, public, junior college, college, university, and system libraries. This questionnaire was also designed for processing centers, both commercial and nonprofit. Secondly, follow-up visits were made to processing centers and large libraries (those holding 500,000 volumes or more) that had responded to the mail questionnaire. More detailed interviews were conducted with the classifiers at these large DDC-oriented libraries concerning their experiences and problems with the scheme. The third phase consisted of another mail questionnaire sent to instructors in cataloging and classification in all accredited and unaccredited library schools in the United States and Canada. The results of this latter questionnaire are not included in this summary, however. Table 1 lists the libraries and processing centers which completed the questionnaire. The U.S. Postal Service was unable to forward twenty-five of the eighty -four questionnaires to commercial processing centers because they had gone out of business or had no forwarding address. An additional five centers responded that they process books only and do no classifying. Since it was decided to include all larger libraries (500,000 volumes or more) and all commercial processing centers in the survey, the responses of these libraries weight the questionnaire results. Libraries using the Library of Congress Classification (LCC) were eligible to answer several questions. Table 2 compares type of library to classification scheme used. To give a true picture of the use of DDC and LCC in the United States and Canada, a 10 percent sample is given to reflect the total population. In the survey, all libraries over 500,000 volumes were studied. Table 2 lists a 10 percent sample from this group. School and public libraries comprise 69 percent of DDC users. Junior colleges and colleges are more evenly divided between the use of the two classification schemes. LCC is used in universities more frequently than is DDC, while DDC is used more heavily in school, public, and library system libraries and processing centers. (Some noncommercial processing centers are also school, public, or academic libraries.) While Table 2 lists libraries and processing centers that fall in the 10 percent sample, Table 3 details only those libraries of 500,000 volumes or more. As mentioned earlier, all libraries in this size category were sent the questionnaire. Of these 242 libraries, 201 completed the questionnaire. Of the 201 libraries represented in Table 3, 18 are Canadian. Of these eighteen libraries, twelve university libraries use LCC and one library system also uses LCC. All five responding public libraries use DDC. The majority (63 percent) of larger libraries in both countries use the Library of Congress Classification. Fifty-seven percent of these LCC libraries SUMMAR Y OF A SUR VEY 49 United States Canada Total Number Percentage Number Percentage Number Percentage School 135 59.7 91 40.3 226 19.6 Public 473 94.6 27 5.4 500 43.4 Junior college 86 91.5 8 8.5 94 8.2 College 85 97.7 2 2.3 87 7.6 University 158 89.3 19 10.7 177 15.4 Library system 24 85.7 4 14.3 28 2.4 Processing center 33 82.5 7 17.5 40 3.5 Total 994 86.3 158 13.7 1152 100.0 Table 1. Distribution of Respondents by Type of Library. LCC Library Nu mber Percen tage Total 133 14.7 DDC Library Number Percentage School 2 0.2 220 24.6 Public 4 0.4 432 48.4 Junior college 45 5.0 47 5.3 College 44 4.9 35 4.0 University 36 4.0 5 0.5 Library system 1 0.1 22 2.5 Processing center 1 0.1 9 1.0 770 86.7 Table 2. Type of Library Compared to Classification Scheme Used. LCC Library Number Percentage DDC Library Number Percentage School Public Junior college College University Library system Processing center 4 115 1 3.5 2.0 57.2 .5 1 50 14 4 5 0.5 24.9 7.0 2.0 2.5 Total 127 63.2 74 36.9 Table 3. U.S. and. Canadian Libraries of 500,000 Volumes or More and Classification Scheme Used. 50 MAR Y ELLEN MICHAEL are affiliated with universities. Public libraries in this size category are the heaviest users of the DDC scheme. Only 4 percent of LCC libraries as compared with 29.5 percent of DDC libraries do all or most of their own original classifying (see Table 4). Almost 75 percent of LCC respondents do some original classifying, while approximately 45 percent of DDC libraries fall in the same range; 21.3 percent of LCC libraries and 26.9 percent of DDC libraries do little or no original classifying. A substantial proportion of those libraries responding that they do all or most original classifying are smaller libraries that often do their own classifying without resorting to available cataloging services, and large libraries using editions of Dewey Decimal Classification other than the eighteenth. Although this latter group uses many of the numbers given on LC copy, the large libraries still check all numbers against their various practices. Many respondents construed this as original classifying. Only libraries which use DDC for their main collection of books were eligible to answer the next section of the questionnaire. When asked what would constitute the optimum interval for publication of DDC editions, most of the respondents preferred that new editions be published every five years. The larger libraries of 500,000 volumes or more preferred a span of seven years between new editions. Large public libraries accepted new editions more readily than did large academic libraries; the costs entailed in this may account for the latters' reluctance to favor frequent editions. Moreover, academic librarians have wanted new editions to aid in classification of new subjects, not for the updated structure of knowledge. DDC classifiers were asked to indicate their view of the purpose of classification. The greatest number of those answering (356, or 44.1 percent) view classification as educational-efficient, or the process of gathering together those works most used together in a functional grouping. The next largest group (38.2 percent) view classification as primarily subject analysis. Only 9.4 percent of the classifiers think that the main purpose of classification is as a locational device ("mark and park"). The majority (63.6 percent) of those classifiers represented in Table 5 preferred that a classification system maintain stability of numbers, while 31.9 percent thought that a classification system should keep pace with knowledge as reflected in the literature of a subject. Care must be taken here when making inferences. There may have been a false dichotomy posed. It is possible to advocate both keeping pace with knowledge and maintaining stability of numbers; new subjects can be located at existing numbers. Respondents were asked to indicate their attitudes toward a selection of features of the DDC system. The features were pure notation, hierarchical notation, phoenix schedules, continuing revision, stability of numbers, index, SUMMAR Y OF A SUR VEY 51 LCC Library DDC Library Number Percentage Number Percentage All original 4 1.6 88 10.8 Most original 6 2.4 152 18.7 Some original 190 74.8 367 45.1 Little original 47 18.5 164 20.1 No original 7 2.8 43 5.3 Total 254 100.0 814 100.0 Table 4. To What Extent Does Your Library Do Original Classifying? Preference Number Percentage Keeping pace with knowledge that reflects current trends in the literature of a subject 255 31.9 Stability of number, i.e., finding places within the cur- rent structure for new subjects No opinion 508 36 63.6 4.5 Total 799 100.0 Table 5. Keeping Pace With Knowledge vs. Stability of Numbers. and mnemonics. The majority of those libraries expressing an opinion had a positive attitude toward the listed aspects. The index of DDC received the highest positive response (62 percent). It should be noted that as the question is worded, this must be interpreted to be an approval of the inclusion of an index with the scheme (as opposed to LCC's lack of a comprehensive index) rather than being a judgment of the quality of that index. As a method of change in the DDC system, continuing revision was looked upon more favorably than were the phoenix schedules. Related to the question of preference of frequency of new editions are the questions of reclassification and stability of numbers versus keeping pace with knowledge. The most severe form of keeping pace with knowledge would be to redo the entire classification with each new edition. The next most drastic manner is the phoenix schedule. The strictest form of stability of numbers would be to alter nothing, providing locations for new subjects either at old numbers or previously unused numbers. The only change would occur with expansion, and even then there would be little change. 52 MAR Y ELLEN MICHAEL Number of digits to the Libraries right of the decimal Number Percentage one 7 2.2 two 58 18.1 three 175 54.4 four 42 13.1 five 22 6.9 six or more 27 8.4 Total 320 100.0 Table 6. Artificial Limit to Number of Digits to the Right of the Decimal Imposed by DDC Libraries. Revision of the DDC, which most responding libraries favored implies either of the two fundamentally different courses described above: (1) finding a place for a new subject within the old DDC structure, leaving all existing subjects (whether current or not) where they are; or, (2) tearing down the old structure and providing new places for both existing and new subjects, including reuse by old or new subjects of numbers once having other meanings. While almost all university libraries visited in interviews were somewhat positive about continuing revision, five out of six favored stability of numbers as a preferred course as opposed to the phoenix concept. Large academic libraries desire little change. Eighty-seven percent of respondents thought that more instructional notes in the schedules would be helpful. Eighty-four percent also favored greater detail in instructional notes. It appears from the data here and elsewhere that a good deal of work needs to be done to make the contents of the schedules more accessible to catalogers. Next to the phoenix schedules and, perhaps, reworking the index, helping the classifier to use the DDC more accurately should be the first priority for the upcoming nineteenth edition. More and better notes of all sorts are needed, especially those that explain alternate locations for material on a particular subject. Libraries were requested to specify whether they impose an artificial limit on the number of digits to the right of the decimal point of the available DDC number. Such a policy is held by 43.3 percent (353) of the libraries. By size, the groups most commonly imposing an artificial limit are the larger libraries. Of these 353 libraries, 320 specified the artificial limit for number of digits to the right of the decimal (see Table 6). The majority (54.4 percent) of libraries with an artificial limit on number length limit their numbers to three digits to the right of the decimal. SUMMAR Y OF A SUR VEY 53 The 48.7 percent (397) of the libraries which do not impose an artificial limit were asked exactly what factors determine how much a number is shortened. A variety of responses were given, the most common being that the length of the number used is determined by the extent of collection development, or foreseeable development, in each particular subject area; 61 percent of the respondents cited this consideration. Logical sense of number and previous practice were cited by 19 percent. In actuality, the classifier might rely on a combination of factors, but the tendency is to express but one facet on the questionnaire. A few librarians stated that the length of the number is determined by the size of the book spine. Catalogers were asked to what extent they use segmentation of DDC numbers as found on the LC cards, in Publishers' Weekly, and through other services. Approximately 70 percent of the responding libraries use the segmentation provided in these services to some extent. Segmentation is valuable to the smaller libraries but much less so for the larger ones, which use it as a guide, but rarely as more than that. More care is apparently needed in determining breaking points, and perhaps guidelines for segmentation should be examined. Classifiers were asked to indicate, by circling all applicable responses, what methods of treating biography are used in their libraries. The two most widely used ways of dealing with biography are B or 92 (used in 59 percent of the responding libraries), and 920 for collected biography (used by 62 percent of DDC libraries). Classifying biography under subject using standard subdivision -092 is used by 14 percent of the libraries, while 12 percent classify biography under subject without using standard subdivision -092. Evidently, DDC's preferred practice of classifying biography with the subject has not been widely adopted by libraries using DDC. Many libraries marked several choices, indicating that a mixture of several methods of handling biography in a single library is not an uncommon occurrence. The larger libraries indicated several ways of handling biography in the same library. As might be supposed, this is not true of the smaller libraries. The larger libraries have the highest percentages using DDC's preferred practice of classifying biography under subject, while very few of the smaller libraries classify under subject. Most public service librarians in the larger libraries prefer to classify biography with the subject because it keeps the biographies in their divisions. Branch librarians are an exception to this rule, however. No matter how biographies are kept together, biographies of artists, athletes, musicians, etc., usually go with the subject, often without indication that the work is a biography. Several libraries class biographies by subject, but often do not use -.0924 because of the length of the number. The indication B on an LC card is always welcome, but occasionally suspect. 54 MARY ELLEN MICH A EL Yes, class according to the pre- No, depart from prescribed scribed methods of the 800s methods of the 800s Number Percentage Number Percentage School 188 90.4 20 9.6 Public 385 90.0 43 10.0 Junior college 39 86.7 6 13.3 College 34 91.9 3 8.1 University 14 56.0 11 44.0 Library system 21 91.3 2 8.7 Processing center 13 92.9 1 7.1 Total 694 89.0 86 11.0 Table 7. Types of Libraries Which Do or Do Not Class Works of and about Literature According to the Prescribed Methods of the 800s. Libraries were then asked whether DDC should continue to classify biography with the subject as the preferred method. The majority (56 percent) favored its continuation. (Note that the number favoring the continuation of DDC's preferred method of classing biography is quite a bit higher than the number actually using this method.) Classifiers were asked whether they class literature according to the prescribed methods of the 800s; 89 percent answered affirmatively. This percentage holds approximately true for all types of libraries except those in universities, where only 56 percent class literature in the 800s 44 percent do not (see Table 7). Literature and its criticism surely present the greatest difficulty for Dewey libraries of any type. Although most catalogers cut off before the period, thus losing some economy in not accepting LC numbers, their troubles have only begun. A cutter number has to be assigned and criticism indicated, if this assignment is even done. Most processing centers, since they are not providing call numbers for a single collection, do not use cutter numbers. For the most part, the initial of the author's surname or the first three letters of his surname suffice. One-fourth of the larger public libraries also operate in this manner, somewhat to the dissatisfaction of their public service librarians. Both sorts of libraries usually do nothing for fiction in English, other than an F or Fie or SS col for a collection of short stories or SF or M, etc. The indication of type of fiction is usually put on the book's spine by the branches or departments in public service. More often than not, academic libraries use regular methods for classifying fiction. It is with criticism that most problems for the public are found, for criticism and literature are often mixed indiscriminately or the criticism is put in an unlikely place. SUMMAR Y OF A SUR VEY 55 Full Edition Abridged Edition 18th 17th 16th 15th rev. 15th 14th other 10th 9th 8th other School 187 7 3 1 29 4 Public 212 40 25 5 4 5 83 48 26 3 Junior college 36 3 3 1 5 1 College 30 5 2 University 20 3 3 1 1 Library system 19 3 1 4 Processing center 12 4 Total 516 61 37 2 55 5 125 54 26 3 Table 8. Primary Edition Used by Type of Library. Respondents were requested to list the primary edition in use in their library or processing center; Table 8 indicates the results. They could list one of the full and one of the abridged editions if they used both as their primary editions; otherwise, only one could be listed. Seventy-six libraries use two primary editions. Some of these libraries reported that they use the full edition for their adult collection and the abridged one for their juvenile holdings. No colleges reported using any abridged edition of the DDC as their primary one. Only one university library uses an abridged edition for its juvenile collection. More public libraries reported using the abridged than did other types of libraries. Library systems and processing centers use only the most recent edition the tenth abridged. Schools and junior college libraries list the tenth or ninth abridged as their primary editions. Only 11 percent of school libraries report using an abridged edition. One school librarian asserted, "the tenth edition is too abridged even for our elementary schools. We continue to use the bracketed numbers." However, the sample of school libraries in this survey was taken from the mailing list of those schools which receive DC& (Dewey Decimal Classification: Additions, Notes, Decisions). These libraries tend to use the full edition. Further study is being made of school libraries and primary edition used. Most academic libraries did not accept each new edition as it came. Their nonacceptance had variety: one library went from the fourteenth edition to the sixteenth to the eighteenth editions, using a few numbers from the fifteenth and seventeenth. Another has remained with the sixteenth 56 MAR Y ELLEN MICHAEL edition, having retained the author numbers of the fourteenth and abolished whatever fifteenth -edition numbers it had adopted. Processing centers usually accept each edition as it is published, and they accept DDC numbers on LC cards as they come. The reason for such acceptance is simply that processing centers do not have to wrestle with a large working collection immediately beyond their doors. The decisions of processing centers affect a distant client. Thus, decisions regarding change are more easily made and defended. The larger public libraries have, for the most part, begun to behave like processing centers and smaller public libraries in that they are moving toward uncritical acceptance of DDC-18 numbers, and they retain older numbers or older classes. Another question put to classifiers concerned the need for in-service training materials to supplement current and future editions of DDC. The largest percentage (42.8 percent) of those responding would like to receive some type of in-service training material. Twenty-nine percent do not feel they need such materials and an equal number had no opinion. University libraries had the greatest proportion of those desiring in-service training materials (64 percent), while junior colleges are the next largest group (56.5 percent). One-half of the library systems and one-half of the processing centers would like to receive such materials. Colleges were the group least interested in such materials, with 46 percent stating that they have no need for them. Catalogers are cynical about the sort of continuing education they have received, hence the many negative responses concerning in-service training. A significant number, however, see the need for training themselves and the clerical staff who are increasingly taking on cataloging responsibilities, especially at Ohio College Library Center terminals. Many respondents did see the need for explanations of the new aspects of a new edition. Several called for a new guide, one similar to the 1962 Guide to the Use of the Dewey Decimal Classification. One classifier commented: "Such a guide could introduce the DDC system to newcomers. Library school preparation is too general." Libraries were queried concerning their need for discontinued numbers for retrospective material. The majority (51 percent) indicated that they do not need discontinued numbers for retrospective materials. One-fourth of the respondents said that their libraries do need these numbers, while another one-fourth do not know. Library size has little influence on whether discontinued numbers are needed. In only one category is there a majority response indicating the need for discontinued numbers universities (58 percent). The college library category is the only other group with a sizable percentage (44 percent) needing discontinued numbers. SUMMAR Y OF A SURVEY 57 Yes No Total Number Percentage Number Percentage Less than 5,000 2 7.4 25 92.6 27 5, 000 to 10,000 0.0 63 100.0 63 10,000 to 25 ,000 12 11.0 97 89.0 109 25,000 to 50,000 5 10.9 41 89.1 46 50,000 to 100,000 12 17.9 55 82.1 67 100,000 to 250,000 10 30.3 23 69.7 33 250,000 to 500,000 5 35.7 9 64.3 14 500,000 to 1 million 8 36.4 14 63.6 22 1 million or more 19 59.4 13 40.6 32 Total 73 17.7 340 82.3 413 Table 9. Size of Library Compared to Use of Locally Produced Expansions or Variation of Schedules. The majority (51 percent) of respondents indicate satisfaction with the precedence notes for eliminating cross-classification in the DDC schedules. Only 11 percent are not satisfied with the notes, and 37 percent have no opinion. Respondents were then asked if they would like to have more precedence notes, such as: 155.42- 155.45 Observe the following table of precedence, e.g., preschool boys 155.423 Exceptional children By class type, relationships By age groups By sex Although the majority of libraries are satisfied with the present content of DDC's precedence notes, 38 percent of all respondents or 65 percent of those voicing an opinion would like more precedence notes included in the schedules. A final question directed to libraries was: Does your library or processing center use locally produced expansions or variations of schedules? Approximately one-half of the 848 respondents completed this question. All types of libraries (except junior colleges) use locally produced expansions with almost one-half of the colleges, universities and processing centers reporting the heaviest use. Table 9 gives the breakdown by size of library for use of locally produced schedules. All sizes of libraries (except the 5,000 to 10,000 volume 58 MAR Y ELLEN MICHAEL category) use locally produced expansions or variations of schedules. Libraries of one million volumes or more report the highest use of local schedules. Those libraries which have local schedules were requested to specify in what areas they are used. They listed a wide variety of subject areas. Some of the expansions reflect the local area, e.g., "Texas counties"; others cover general subject areas such as literature and history. Most of the libraries visited were suffering from current or impending reductions in staff and/ or book budgets. One-third of the libraries had already become part of a computer network; almost all of the rest expected to become part of a network within the next few years. The reductions and the possibility of networking have brought most of the cataloging staffs of the libraries visited to a reassessment of the roles of classification and cataloging. Although they would like to keep material together, many have given up the attempt to do so. The general, discipline approach at the shelf that was once possible is rapidly disappearing in the bulk of the classification; thus, the public catalog has become much more important in subject searching. General searches must now be done at the catalog. Most, if not all, library users other than librarians are not aware of this and are consequently poorly served. What is not realized is that the subject catalog was devised to allow specific subject searches, and now general searches by discipline are virtually impossible. The degree of disservice to the patron is greater in LCC libraries where the extent of change is not so obvious and is therefore far more insidious. With DDC, at least, the public service librarians can readily perceive a relocation of British history from 942 to 941, or of computers from 651.8 to 001.6. Recognition of change in DDC and ignorance of change in LCC, which is far greater than most librarians realize, contradicts the adage that the baby who cries gets the bottle. In this instance the baby who cries comes to be despised or, at best, is accused of being the only baby in the world who cries. REFERENCES 1. Vann, Sarah K. field Survey of the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) Use Abroad. Albany, N.Y., Forest Press, 1965; Davison, Keith. Classification Practice in Britain. London, Library Association, 1966; and Sweeny, Russell. "Dewey in Britain," Catalogue & Index 30:4-6, Summer 1973. 2. Comaromi, John P., Michael, Mary Ellen, and Bloom, Janet. A Survey of the Use of the Dewey Decimal Classification in the United States and Canada. Albany, N.Y., Forest Press, 1976. JOEL C. DOWNING Director, English Language and Copyright Services Bibliographic Services Division The British Library London, England Dewey Today. The British and European Scene At a point halfway through this institute and at the commence- ment of the second evening session, I am appalled at the problem of making my contribution intellectually stimulating as well as entertaining. I cannot regard my paper as something other than a watershed. Earlier ones have stressed the history of the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) and its place in the North American scene, while I have been invited to survey somewhat wider horizons (with apologies to the North American continent) in the shape of British use and influence, with what I trust will be a suitable appendix on the European scene. My own direct involvement with DDC is relatively recent, although I have a professional relationship which goes back to the twelfth edition. As assistant editor of the British National Bibliography (BNB), 1 became relatively close with Dewey, although again only in an indirect sense as I was particularly responsible for cataloging rather than classification. I became more involved with DDC when, as Secretary of the Cataloguing and Indexing Group of the (British) Library Association, I was asked in 1968 by the Research Committee of the association to assist in the reconstitution of its Decimal Classification Revision Subcommittee. Such a subcommittee had existed in earlier years, and already had some contact with the editor of DDC and the Forest Press. It would be impolitic of me to examine publicly the reasons for the lack of growth in those earlier relations. What should be emphasized here, I think, is 59 60 JOEL C. DOWNING the tremendous degree of good faith that has been established between DDC and British librarianship since then. The first object of my paper is to describe the place of Dewey in Britain in the late 1960s, and then to relate the many acts of collaboration which have taken place since then. Finally, I shall discuss the possibilities of the establishment of a foothold by DDC in Europe. It is my personal view that nearly all the comments and criticisms of Dewey which were generated in Britain during the 1950s and 1960s were fully justified. Unfortunately, during the period when DDC- 16 was in preparation, little notice was taken in America of British representations, particularly as used by BNB. No one in the United States appreciated the significance of the regular production, in BNB, of a classified catalog organized by DDC. If the response had been more spontaneous we could have had a table of standard subdivisions in DDC- 16 and much of the progress established with DDC- 17 and DDC- 18 would have been consolidated at an earlier date. Everyone would thus have gained from a continuous and intimate relationship between DDC and British librarianship well over ten years in advance of the present time. However, during the 1950s and 1960s, we in Britain did not appreciate why our American counterparts were unable to accept our suggestions immediately. We did not fully realize that Forest Press was operating a business enterprise which at the time was suffering financially. Quite justifiably, Forest Press was careful not to upset the market which had provided it up until that time with an established income. In addition, American librarians had little training in the theoretical principles which we in Great Britain had absorbed during the postwar classification renaissance. In fact confusion probably resulted from British ideas on the philosophy of the classified catalog a tool of which, because of the existence of the services of the Library of Congress, U.S. librarians had little experience, and even less need. When our committee began work in 1969, it immediately became clear that there was little we could do to assist in the preparation of the DDC-18, the schedules of which had already been prepared in draft. We were given the opportunity to comment on these draft schedules as they then existed, but there was no possibility of modifying them to any great extent. We therefore concentrated our attention on checking those schedules which would be the subject of considerable British interest, such as government, education, botany, zoology, geography, history and other subjects where terminology between English and American-English is always at variance. This work was interrupted by the news that the editor Benjamin Custer and the executive director of the Forest Press, Richard Sealock, were to visit Britain early in 1969 and were anxious to meet the committee. For this occasion we decided to review our entire relationship with the editorial office THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE 61 in Washington and with the publishers at Forest Press. We listed a number of objectives to discuss in broad terms with the visitors; these were as follows: 1. The committee should encourage discussion and comments on DDC in Britain and act as a channel of communication between the United States and Britain on all aspects of DDC theory and practice. 2. It should receive and coordinate the comments of British librarians for dispatch to DDC. 3. The committee should formulate criticism on topics of British interest present in the schedules. 4. The committee should gather information on inconsistencies in the operation of the schedules and their structure. 5. It should advise DDC on matters of general policy insofar as they reflect British attitudes in the study of classification. 6. It should assist in the preparation of interpretative and instructional aids and manuals for British users. In addition, we wished to learn more of the operational background of DDC, such as: how the Decimal Classification Division (DCD) of the Library of Congress was organized; what the overall policy was in relation to the sequence of editions; how the quantity of relocation in each edition was decided; and what machinery should be set up between British and American agencies to achieve closer cooperation. One of the immediate results of this visit was that we were asked to prepare an outline paper for presentation at the next meeting of the Editorial Policy Committee (EPC). Another suggestion, which was accepted, was that the British committee develop relations with library associations in the British Commonwealth, with whom we already had a strong bond through common systems of professional education. The outline paper which was presented to EPC referred to the previous British subcommittee as acting as an advisory body on matters intrinsic to DDC, whereas the new committee had the intention of serving in the broadest sense as a channel of communication in both directions for all aspects of theory and practice. I might add here that we were already being asked for advice on the British market. We find that we can be of considerable assistance to publishers in this matter. We claimed in our outline paper, dated September 1969, that: British public libraries were all using Dewey Decimal Classification and that a number of university and college libraries were moving in that direction; for historic and academic reasons British library schools paid considerable attention to DDC; and the largest service agency, the British National Bibliography, and a number of other agencies and services were concerned principally with DDC as a means of subject organization of knowledge and the classification of books. 62 JOEL C. DOWNING In this way we stressed the significant user community in Great Britain, which now had a focal point in the form of a British committee. The committee decided that there were both areas and directions of concern which we needed to emphasize. The areas consisted of the use, theory, education and future developments of DDC. The committee decided that it would concentrate specifically on British interests, but it was expected that these interests would have wider implications. There were two directions of concern: (1) toward DDC itself as represented by the Forest Press and the DDC division of the Library of Congress; and (2) toward users of DDC in Britain. We stressed the need for an effectual channel of communication with messages passing both ways. We pointed out that DDC could not expect support and assistance from us unless it was prepared to support us reciprocally. Although these were simple statements, the overall situation was complex. Practicing librarians, library schools, and service agencies all had different needs, but it was agreed that the problems discussed should be resolved on the basis of a coherent view of the classification. The statement was supported by an appendix indicating some of the technical problems which would serve to indicate the nature of British reaction to recent editions of DDC. I think it might be useful to note the principal ones here, at least in an abbreviated form. Those that concerned us seriously were problems relating to the order, detail, universality, and editorial control of the classification. Most of our comments fell under the heading "order." We were troubled by the continuing evidence of bad classification structure, such as the use of the subordinate numbers to express coordinate topics. We also commented on the placing of subordinate subjects in coordinate numbers. Many of the variants from the general to specific in the Dewey Decimal Classification are results of compromise made in order to minimize the quantity of re-used numbers. This is particularly noticeable in the general treatment of transport, which is placed at the head of class 380 commerce, while the different types of transport appear at 385-388. The introduction of centered headings in the seventeenth edition made up of "through" numbers allows for a concept to appear in its correct hierarchy, but the inability to use these numbers notationally reduces their value to absurdity. The British committee suggested that centered headings be regarded as alternative placings, but this was not accepted by the Editorial Policy Committee. Comments were also made on the consistency of detail appearing in related schedules, and the need for consistency in the treatment of subjects of British interest. We did, however, welcome the increase in instructional notes and the general tidying up which was clearly evident in the schedules of the eighteenth edition. THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE 63 Early in 1970, the Library Association received a joint invitation from the Forest Press and the Editorial Policy Committee to send a British representative to the meetings of the Editorial Policy Committee for an experimental period of three years. As chairman of the British committee I was nominated to attend, and I was called for my first meeting to Lake Placid in October 1970. After a visit to Lake Placid, no one can deny the extraordinary, intense energy of the man who did so much to establish librarianship as a profession in America and whose name has since become a household word throughout the library world. It will be useful to repeat parts of the report I presented to EPC in 1970 when I stated that the majority of British libraries depended upon the Dewey Decimal Classification in a way no other group of libraries did, wherever they might be located. Because of the lack of centralized services in Britain during the first half of this century, libraries had adopted different editions of DDC and adapted them to suit their own convenience. It was natural that when a centralized service was created it was impossible to satisfy the particular classification requirements of any one group of libraries, even though they might use the same classification system and even the same edition of that system. In fact, the primary aim of British National Bibliography, established in 1950, was to produce, by the continuous cumulation of material prepared at weekly intervals, a reference tool which would be able to satisfy bibliographical and subject inquiries of considerable depth. The utilization of this information at any local point for the purpose of cataloging and classification was only a secondary objective and was certainly not part of the overall design of the bibliography. It would seem now, more than twenty-five years later, that the secondary objective is of at least equal importance to the first. The establishment of British centralized bibliographical services after World War II coincided with the study, and introduction into Britain, of the ideas of Ranganathan. Whether or not the British National Bibliography had utilized the theories of Ranganathan to strengthen and support the natural choice of the fourteenth edition of DDC for its systematic display of material, the ideas of Ranganathan would have been imported into Britain and developed through the agency of the newly founded library schools. These developments could not be overlooked by anyone concerned with recording the place of the Dewey Decimal Classification in Britain. The full flush of enthusiasm for these new ideas in the United Kingdom and their slower penetration into the North American curriculum led, on both sides, to a lack of appreciation of each other's problems. It had been recognized in Britain, since the inception of the Shared Cataloging Program of the Library of Congress, that bibliographical com- munication needed a standard international format. This was further 64 JOEL C. DOWNING emphasized by the rapid development of computerized services. The successful operation of these services required a closely defined base in both cataloging and classification. It was for this reason that the BNB decided to classify its entries from January 1971 on according to the practice advocated by the DDC editors and also to utilize the eighteenth edition for this purpose. This decision brought considerable advantages to British librarians in that for the first time since the publication of DDC-15, they knew from which specific source BNB chose its classification numbers. The reaction of British libraries to DDC- 18 has been watched by the British subcommittee with interest. We are particularly concerned with gauging subscribers' reactions toward the effort made to maintain a consistent editorial policy with respect to new numbers, relocations and phoenix schedules. Continuity of editorial policy must be apparent from one edition to the next. A regularly published statement of intent in this field is very necessary. The repetition of such a statement encourages present use and strengthens sales potential for the years to come. The permanence of DDC's editorial office is one certain advantage which DDC has over some other published schemes, and every opportunity should be taken to demonstrate the advantages so gained. Some of us in Britain feel that librarians have too long been concerned with maintaining an inflexible set of disciplines for the organization and control of bibliographical information, whether in descriptive cataloging or classification. We suggest a wider appreciation of the philosophy that librarianship and information science are, in fact, the flexible controls over the ever-changing state of knowledge. So many of the problems facing catalogers and classifiers have arisen because librarians are not prepared to change their practices due to the inflexibility of their record. They must be persuaded that the only means by which they can keep their services in line with the demands of their users, and with the development of culture and society, is by incorporating the improvements that are constantly being introduced into their services. It is pointless to produce revised codes of cataloging and new editions of classifications, and to engage their implementation by centralized services if these developments do not receive greater usage at local service points. This message should be continually emphasized by those services occupying strategic positions of influence and persuasion. It will be seen that the British committee has been concerned principally with the image presented by DDC to British subscribers. If one puts aside the different theoretical approaches to classification and the different subject presentation in catalogs which exist between Britain and the North American continent, one cannot ignore the frequent claims made in the past that the DDC has given little hospitality to the British scene its institutions, its vocabulary, its ecology and natural resources to say nothing of the needs of THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE 65 the European continent. We were therefore anxious to improve this image by making suggestions which we thought EPC should consider. It might be useful here to summarize some of the other reactions to DDC which existed in Britain in the mid-1960s in order to give an idea of the very great progress which has been made subsequently. At a public meeting in 1967, A.J. Wells, then editor of BNB, spoke of the considerable disquiet with which DDC-17 had been greeted on both sides of the Atlantic. He was worried by the strong suggestion that DDC-18, when it came along, would countermand much of DDC-17. The absorption of modern theories of classification into the intensively revised subject areas would mean that subsequent editions would eventually bear little relation to the then-present seventeenth edition. He went on to add that BNB had long been asking DDC for facilities for compound number building. When these facilities eventually were provided, it was found that American librarians had no appreciation of them, because of their different approach to subject retrieval. In Britain we would still need to provide supplementary schedules in many underdeveloped areas to support our detailed indexing procedure. All that we could do to satisfy our domestic critics would be to provide, somewhere in our entries, standard numbers drawn from the latest editions and presented in a prescribed form according to DDC editorial rules. This latter suggestion developed from the many criticisms which were supplied in answers to a questionnaire circulated in Great Britain by the Library Association with the financial support of Forest Press. It seemed from the responses that BNB was tackling the impossible. Librarians required short numbers to express specific subjects of great complexity. They wanted to be able to retrieve subject material expertly and exactly by means of BNB indexes and classified sequences, but they were not prepared to use BNB's expansions in their catalogs, nor on their books, nor even long numbers authoritatively derived from DDC schedules. At this point, you will undoubtedly be interested in hearing some of the conclusions of the report: Classification Practice in Britain, which followed the analysis of the responses to the questionnaire just mentioned. Although the editor, Keith Davison, emphasized the value of the statistical analysis, his general conclusions are worth summarizing. It appeared in 1964 that there would be an increasing demand for specificity, particularly in classified catalogs, but also to some extent on the shelves. Specificity should not be obtained at the expense of simplicity of notation. Davison also claimed that users of DDC were generally satisfied with a great deal of the schedules. British librarians wished for increased specificity in the classification of European subjects. It was generally easier for a librarian to reduce long numbers than to carry out his own expansions. It seems that more libraries 66 JOEL C. DOWNING were prepared for major changes than was imagined and would be ready to cope with major reclassification if the result would lead to an obvious overall benefit. He tersely expressed as a final conclusion that the way lay open for anyone who could provide a brief simple classification, with brief simple notation, which would provide absolute specificity for all subjects. This was the perfectionist but impossible demand of many librarians. We at BNB and the DDC editorial staff in Washington both experience continual pressure from these extremities. From the mid-1960s, BNB's philosophy with respect to bibliographical control was changing. It had been chosen in 1966 by LC to serve as the guinea pig for what became the National Program for Acquisition and Cataloging (NPAC). It was gaining international horizons and appreciated that the need for common practices lay beyond national limits. The development of the MARC project immediately after the success of NPAC further encouraged international standardization. It was against this background that we in BNB moved closer to DDC. Here was a meeting of two avenues one originating with the BNB subscribers, requesting (even demanding) the production of "pure" DDC numbers, and the other stretching across the Atlantic Ocean toward LC, via NPAC and MARC. Following a visit from Benjamin Custer, editor of DDC, to BNB in the spring of 1969, it became obvious that we could only achieve compatibility with his division in Washington by forming a more intimate relationship. Together we managed to contrive a system of information exchange which has served us well since then. Moreover, it allowed us more effectively to provide standard DDC- 17 numbers as a supplement to our own modified DDC practice. Classifiers in the two organizations, have dispatched queries and comments to each other, although early in the exchange it appeared that they were writing notes to each other rather than classifying books. Now the documentation has been almost completely reduced, and a remarkable degree of compatibility is maintained. This was attained not only by means of verbal communication; the Forest Press readily agreed in 1972 to the exchange of staff between LC (DCD) and BNB and provided the wherewithal to make this possible. Those involved at levels other than management became acquainted and thus paved the way for a happy and easy relationship between the classifiers on each side of the Atlantic. To some extent our internal organizational problems were resolved by the decision that beginning in 1971, BNB would be computer-produced through the medium of British MARC tapes and computer-controlled typesetting machinery. We would break with the past and use standard DDC numbers taken from the latest edition. For a number of years it has been possible, therefore, for DCD to accept class numbers applied to British books and so help to increase its output. Naturally, there were disagreements at first and as I have indicated, these led to a THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE 67 considerable amount of feedback in both directions. An exchange of catalog cards with appropriate notes was all that was necessary. Even in 1970, DCD estimated it was able to use over 80 percent of the numbers assigned by BNB. BNB also uses DDC numbers taken first from LC cards, and later from Cataloging in Publication material for American titles which appear on the British market. Nearly all of these numbers are accepted by BNB. LC information arriving too late for immediate use regularly highlights differences in classificatory attitudes, although it must be remembered that the number of instances is a very small percentage of the tens of thousands of items handled by both parties. Most of the differences occur when each team ignores a geographic application within its own society and culture, significant to the other team, but taken for granted by the home side. Sometimes the physical format is treated differently in descriptive cataloging practice and this justifiably leads to a variance in subject specificity. At BNB we have no manual of classification practice other than the editor's introduction to DDC-18. We cannot pop our heads round the door and ask for his immediate advice. Inquiries by correspondence have only a retroactive value. It is unheard of for us to stop the machine to await the result of an inquiry. So we make our mistakes publicly in the "Weekly Lists" and correct them afterwards in our cumulations. After the criticism BNB received from its subscribers during the first twenty years of its existence, it is surprising to learn that all did not take kindly to our "pure" Dewey numbers. It was claimed that they were not the same as their own "pure" Dewey numbers, and what was BNB going to do about it? The treatment of nonnarrative history is a case in point. In its original classification practice BNB had enshrined the British attitude toward history. History could be treated in nonnarrative form and still remain history. Geography and travel was used only for books concerned with contemporary description of people and places. We all suffered a traumatic shock when DDC-17, and later DDC-18, placed many works of historical nature in the 910s. As many letters from librarians on the classification of history reached BNB as had earlier reached us on the use of letter notation. BNB's use of DDC-18 is a continuation of the compatible practice developed in using DDC-17. We classify strictly by the schedules and tables and not by privately revealed knowledge of editorial practice. Differences due to subject analysis are to some extent unavoidable. When the schedules provide options we construct numbers according to the editor's preference. Although options may be preferable in local library situations, it is not an easy matter for a national cataloging agency, working in an international format, to prefer particular options. There may, however, be very good reasons for doing so because of a particularly significant local demand. For example, this occurs in Britain with respect to the citation order in class 340. 68 JOEL C. DOWNING Many British librarians would prefer to have the option to class under the jurisdiction used by the national agency, but international agreements in the use of compatible programs at present take no cognizance of such situations. A limited number of options throughout the entire schedules must, I think, be permitted in national machine-readable records in order to make the widest use of these records possible. An interval of several years elapsed between the introduction in BNB of standard DDC numbers as a supplementary service and their use since 1971 for the arrangement of the classified sections of the "Weekly Lists" and "Cumulations." It was a good thing that we had this interval, because we had to provide a link missing from the sequence of our subject retrieval operations. From 1951 until 1970 our subject index was an inversion of our classified display. A specific subject index entry was created for each class number, and, although we admitted synonyms as lead terms, there was no possibility of rotating the constituent elements of a subject index entry to provide alternative approaches. These approaches were met by searching the classified file from a superordinate number down to the number precisely expressing the subject in mind. This might, on many occasions, take us to hypothetical divisions beyond the most specific DDC number available. Such situations occurred, even after 1960, when BNB introduced so many of its own expansions to numbers by letter notation. Users were given one subject index entry, or a related synonymous entry, specific to their needs. If they did not approach from this point they then had to sharpen the focus of their search by working down the classified file. This constitutional weakness in chain indexing had been regarded as unavoidable; however, those who were searching for new indexing techniques saw the possibility of overcoming the defects with the aid of the computer. Until 1970, BNB's subject index had been constructed from the DDC numbers applied to the entries in the classified catalog. The index entries resulting were as relative to DDC as its own Relative Index, even though we did not accept DDC terminology. Our subject index entries demonstrated the strength and the weakness of DDC as well as our ability to use the schedules effectively. Sometimes we contrived to overcome the weaknesses by "unethical" practices (at least to the followers of Ranganathan) of turning the chain: that is, of not expressing the constituent elements of a subject concept in exactly the same order they were stated in the class number. At other times we were embarrassed by the profligate use of digits in DDC numbers which expressed notational hierarchy and little else. Here index construction had to jump deftly from one sought term to the next, ignoring the no-man's land in between. After some experimentation, however, the index and the classified file worked handsomely together for twenty years. THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE 69 Chain indexing in BNB was superseded in 1971 by the newly developed PRECIS indexing system, which provides specific rotated subject entries from all sought terms. PRECIS does not rely on the composition of the class number for the structure of its entries. In contrast, the PRECIS analysis of a subject concept treated in a document guides the classifier in the selection of a DDC number for that document. Elsewhere in this volume, a paper by Derek Austin (principal developer of PRECIS) discusses this development further. There are a number of factors relative to the use made of DDC in Britain which must continually be borne in mind. It is difficult to put them in order of importance and their order in the list is no indication of their relative significance: 1. the development of the UK MARC project in Britain, leading to the machine production of library catalogs through printout, photo typesetting, microform, and on-line services (you will notice that I do not include the card catalog as a continuing feature of our library landscape); 2. the restructuring of local government in Great Britain, which has led to the creation of quite large units capable of utilizing sophisticated computer services. These larger local library units find the task of reconciling the different intellectual systems they have inherited too great for their own individual attention and they are prepared to make far greater use of centralized services; 3. the creation of the British Library, which will surely lead to a greater degree of integration within British librarianship. Peter Lewis's paper (elsewhere in this volume) describes the work that has taken place to assess the Library's own needs within the sphere of classification and indexing. The exact relation between those needs, the requirements of the national bibliography and the users of the centralized services must be correlated. I predict that future editions of DDC will continue to be essential to British librarianship as long as they are restructured in no greater detail than DDC- 18 and as long as they intelligently anticipate the development of new subjects. It must be remembered that Dewey's system lives, not at the Library of Congress, nor at BNB, nor at Forest Press, but in the libraries which are using it on their shelves and in their catalogs. And it lives there, not in a standard and authentic form, but in modifications of infinite variety. This is contrary to the best intentions of the policy of integrity of numbers, which has been maintained to aid consistency of use throughout successive editions. Nonetheless, a degree of integrity in numbers is necessary, but other very positive features should not be completely sacrificed on this altar. The possibility of increased standardization in use is enhanced by mechanization. DDC is produced in one of the world's largest libraries; yet it is not used 70 JOEL C. DOWNING there for subject retrieval. It is employed in many important bibliographical listings, but those publications are rarely associated with the ordered collection of books on the shelves of a library. DDC is created in abstraction, where there is no direct application to a collection of books. The first point at which the practical problems of application are appreciated is in the use made of the classification by individual libraries. Here, I claim, lies the cause of many of the defects which have been introduced into the classification in the past, and which we are trying to eradicate. Let me now relate something of the British DDC Committee's endeavors. Its membership is drawn from public, academic and national libraries, as well as representatives of British library schools. On several occasions it has had the pleasure of the presence of a chairman of Forest Press, its executive director and the editor of the DDC. Such meetings have greatly increased our appreciation of each other's problems and have led to a mutuality of attitudes which can benefit the classification and librarianship all over the world. The renewed relationship between DDC and the British Library Association was so successful during its initial experimental period from 1970 to 1973 that at its conclusion the Forest Press, with the full agreement of the American Library Association, decided to request the appointment of the British representative to the Editorial Policy Committee for a further period of six years, and to give that person the power to vote. In this way British librarianship is now part of the constitution of DDC and I trust that it will continue to be so represented in the future. It is true that as it devotes energy and resources to broadening its horizons DDC may still look anxiously over its shoulder to American librarians. This is because its earlier policies have occasionally led to severe criticism, especially from the home market. The success of DDC-18 has removed a considerable degree of uncertainty, however, and there has been continued improvement in the sales since the appearance of DDC-16. Undoubtedly for this reason, suggestions made by the British committee with respect to DDC-19 have been considered very generously. Perhaps the most significant degree of cooperation was shown in the request made by EPC that the British committee should prepare the editorial rule governing the objective for foreign use. The following draft, submitted by the Library Association committee, was approved by EPC and accepted by Forest Press: The Decimal Classification is an American classification of international standing and application. In preparing an edition it is desirable to allow positively for the needs, both in details and in order, of countries outside the U.S. Where there is conflict between these needs and those of the U.S. the Editor should give his preference to the needs of the THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE 71 U.S., but must make provision for an alternative use by libraries outside the U.S. in a manner appropriate to the particular problem. The Editorial Policy Committee had already accepted some critical comments from the British committee to restrict the use of centered headings (e.g., 385-388 transportation) and to reduce the number of options which occur throughout the schedules, most of which are relics of practice derived from earlier editions of DDC. Our efforts have ensured that the arbitrary selection of subject areas for total revision (i.e., phoenix schedules) should be replaced by a comprehensive review of the whole classification. The Forest Press boldly accepted the revolutionary suggestion that a prospective phoenix schedule for 780 music should be prepared in Britain, and it generously provided funds for the exercise. In 1974 the work was placed under the direction of Russell Sweeney of the Leeds Library School, with the British committee acting in a guiding capacity. The objective of our proposals has been to restructure the class as economically as possible, giving ample facility for synthesis and permitting scores and musical literature to be classified homogeneously. We have worked on the principle that the primary characteristic in musical literature is the composer, and that in this category such a characteristic takes precedence, in the organization of scores, over the natural order of executant, musical form and musical character. One other important area of responsibility which was given to the British committee was the preparation of revised Area Tables for Great Britain, following the reorganization of our local government, which became effective during 1974 and 1975. All the new authorities and their immediate predecessors are included in these tables as well as all significant natural features, so that the British Isles are now treated in the same depth as the United States is treated in DDC-18. The Forest Press has made these tables available to all subscribers in Great Britain as a gratuitous supplementary service. In preparing these tables it was suggested by the British Committee, and accepted by our American colleagues (who, like all Americans', consider Britain and England as synonymous), that it was now necessary to distinguish between England and Wales on the one hand and the British Isles, Great Britain and the United Kingdom on the other. The notation 41 would represent the general areas of the British Isles and Great Britain, while -42 would be limited to England and Wales. This has meant that the number for Scotland is -411, collateral with Ireland at 415. Such a decision has implications in 914 and 940, to the extent that the Area Tables, geography and history schedules now present a consistent structure; consequently, a history of Britain classifies at 941, a history of England at 942, with the existing period divisions applying to each area according to treatment. JOEL C. DOWNING Responses from a number of libraries, to which the British committee submitted its proposals, were most encouraging. The revision gives us a much more rational presentation for local material than we have ever had before in DDC. What might have been a bold and possibly unwarrantable decision, if taken unilaterally by DDC, has the cooperative support of an official Library Association committee and so becomes more acceptable within our shores. It is because of the problems encountered in applying effective notation to the new authorities, and at the same time avoiding the use of excessively long numbers, that caused us to ask DDC to regard the Area Tables for Britain as deserving phoenix treatment. The British committee pressed for some time for an amendment to the eighteenth edition phoenix schedules for 340 law. In the total revision of this schedule, the need to allow for a primary division by jurisdiction was ignored. Many reviewers commented on this defect and were supported by representations from the British committee. Subsequently, this point has been conceded and an option has been created at 342-348, making it possible to arrange legal material first by jurisdiction and then by problem. Similarly, representations have been made concerning the interpretation by DDC of civilization and history, referred to earlier. A reappraisal of these subjects has been made with the object of permitting a less rigid definition of the term history. This has enabled British libraries to resume their traditional practice of classifying non-chronological treatment of historical subjects with other historical works, without conflicting with the general intentions of DDC editorial policy. This was announced in DC&^ and adopted by BNB and LC in January 1975, together with the new Area Tables for Great Britain. As a commercial publication, DDC must continue to absorb as much comment as its market will bear. Now that 45 percent of its sales are to countries other than the United States and 26 percent fall within an area considered by the publishers as being subject to British influence, DDC is doing all it can to remove the impression that it represents a limited range of North American attitudes. It is seeking a new image while endeavoring not to hurt too greatly those who have supported it in the past. For this reason DDC has sought and welcomed the assistance and advice given by the British committee. It sees DDC's use in British libraries, the British National Bibliography and UK MARC as a positive recognition of its continued vigor. With the constant development of automated services, the exploration of all avenues leading toward national and international standardization is essential. The degree of cooperation existing among DDC, the Library Association and the British Library is an expression of hopes and intentions for the future, so much so that it is already being copied in Australia and Canada. At this point it would be useful to summarize the use made of DDC in Britain. The Library Association conducted a second survey on behalf of THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE 73 Forest Press in 1972; I will give a brief analysis of the returns. We had a 92.5 percent response rate to our questionnaire, which was distributed to over 1,000 libraries. Of those libraries, 48 percent were public, 32 percent college, and the remainder was made up of university, national and other libraries. The libraries using DDC represented 79 percent of the total number.* UDC claimed 7 percent, LC and Bliss 4 percent each. Of the 744 using DDC, 59 percent were public libraries, 35 percent were college libraries, while university and other libraries added up to 6 percent. The largest area of non-DDC use was in university libraries, which represented 6 percent of the total libraries responding. At the time of the survey, nearly one-third of DDC libraries were using DDC-16 and nearly one-fourth were using DDC-18. The others used mainly DDC- 17 and DDC- 14. Even at that time more than 200 libraries were considering changing to DDC-18 and I am certain that many have done so since, particularly as they become involved increasingly with centralized services such as BNB and UK MARC. It is only fair to state that the Library Association does not hold a comprehensive list of special libraries; thus, from this survey the apparent use made of UDC in Britain will be misleading. The survey does, however, give a fairly accurate analysis of the attitude of general libraries to classification. There is little evidence of the use of the abridged edition of DDC in the United Kingdom; considerable use has been made however, of the Introduction to the Use of the Dewey Decimal Classification in British Schools, the second edition of which was published in 1968. A newly revised edition is in preparation with the assistance of the British School Library Association. Our DDC committee has been involved as advisers to the Forest Press in this matter, and it is my firm opinion that the third edition will lead to a greater use of DDC in British schools. Regrettably, our schools are not as well endowed with libraries as are those in North America. There is the possibility of a market for the abridged edition when we have more secondary schools with established libraries under the charge of qualified librarians (as distinct from teachers or teacher-librarians). All in all, there is evidence of a growing interest in DDC in Britain which stems from a number of associated factors: (1) the increased response to British needs in the subject content of the classification, (2) the improvements in structure and philosophy which have been increasingly evident from DDC-16 on, (3) the general tendency to standardization in *It will be noticed that this figure differs appreciably from that reported by Lewis on p. 104 in this volume. It appears that there is no one authoritative list of British libraries, and that the British Library survey reported by Lewis was done by Aslib and included all special libraries which were institutional members.-Ed. 74 JOEL C. DOWNING libraries, (4) the acceptance of standard-DDC numbers by BNB, and (5) the broadening interest in UK MARC, with the acceptance of computer-produced catalogs in microform and the potential of on-line services. There appears to be little evidence in Britain of a flight from Dewey. If this came about, it would undoubtedly need to be initiated by the national bibliography. However, there is little likelihood of such an event when so much in the field of Universal Bibliographic Control is modeled on what has happened in Britain in the last twenty-five years. As future security, there is the gradual internationalization of MARC, which is now established as the primary communication format for bibliographic data. We cannot afford a burden of additional systems on our already fully loaded communication format. Those systems already in the field and capable of maintaining their lead will stay in front. The Decimal Classification will continue to serve to organize material on shelves in libraries; it will serve to exploit in bibliographies a wide range of general literature, certainly as long as traditionally published tools are required, but its place as an aid in subject indexing may decline in the face of competition from computer-generated indexing systems such as PRECIS. It will be argued by some that DDC needs no more expansion or rationalization, and that it should achieve and maintain a status quo, thus relieving librarians of the necessity of upgrading their records and changing the class numbers on their books. May I ask those who represent this point of view whether they regard any current classification as being near perfection? Are they content to let the order of material on their open shelves represent outmoded attitudes toward knowledge? Would they still accept DDC- 11 if they accept DDC at all? While we cannot expect a total and instant rationalization of the Decimal Classification, we have seen positive progress toward improvement in the last three editions and we must expect, and demand, a continuation of those achievements in all succeeding editions. That the Decimal Classification has at last appreciated the existence of librarianship outside the North American continent must surely indicate that the profession in America is not unaware of its responsibilities to the world at large. Dewey belongs to all; it escaped from Amherst nearly a century ago. It has crossed oceans and penetrated continents, and cannot afford to be restrained as an isolationist within the heart of the Midwest. Those who avoid issues by ignoring problems are only storing up even greater difficulties for those who succeed them. We must therefore look for the continued growth and maintenance of the classification in spite of that local phenomenon, the flight from Dewey. I cannot believe that any one of the currently used general systems of classification is so near perfection that it does not warrant improvements which must be mirrored in notational changes or dual provision. Those who THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE 75 recommend and accept systems because there is little or no evidence of published modification are deluding themselves. All one can hope is that the changes effected in any general system of classification are compatible, change to change, edition to edition. If not, users and classifiers lose faith. It is perhaps the saddest of ironies that DDC is the only general system of classification which examines itself publicly every few years. In doing so it demonstrates at once both its strengths and its weaknesses. Regrettably, criticism always focuses on the apparently worst defects in any system. The Forest Press must continue to take a positive attitude toward the need for maintenance and revision. DDC could die as quickly from a lack of tonic as it could from too great a dose of aperient. We come now to the appendix Europe. Here, the use of DDC is limited to selected libraries scattered widely throughout the continent. I have circulated a questionnaire to the seventy-five libraries that purchased the English edition of DDC-18. There could, of course, be more who purchased DDC-17 and DDC-16, but some limit had to be placed upon the exercise. The sample is not great enough to generalize. There are public, academic and special libraries that use DDC-18. Approximately one-half of those queried have replied. Of those the larger proportion use DDC-18 for their stock, and there is little evidence of the continued use of earlier editions. Those not using DDC-18 use either their own system or UDC. The libraries using DDC-16 modify or supplement it to varying degrees. The modifications are introduced to satisfy local needs, especially in language, literature or history, and sometimes in public administration, law and topography. You will notice here the similarity to the British committee's early objectives. Naturally some libraries reduce the length of numbers. Among suggested improvements there is a plea for standard English; American terminology and spelling is sometimes very baffling even to British librarians. A simpler introduction might help librarians for whom English is a second language. Less American bias in content is called for by a few libraries, with a plea for greater awareness of European needs in Area Tables, history schedules, and similar topics. Special libraries wish for greater detail in social sciences, education and psychology. Generally, such comments are limited to the social sciences and the humanities. It can be assumed that most libraries specializing in science or technology are using other classification systems. Although we cannot expect a tremendous interest to be created for DDC in Europe generally, it must be remembered that Scandinavia and the Netherlands use English as their second language. Jointly they represent one-half of the European subscribers to DDC-18. The standardization of library services developing through MARC will very probably lead to some increase in the use of Dewey in these countries. In other areas the publication of a standard translation of DDC may well do much to encourage the use of 76 JOEL C. DOWNING the classification. This has been proven by the appearance of the French edition of DDC-18. We know of the considerable interest shown in France, which may lead to the development of a somewhat similar system of bibliographic control to that used in Britain. French public libraries have been using the Dewey Decimal Classification for many years, although I expect that, like in Britain, there are a variety of interpretations. There is little evidence in France of interest in the original English DDC-18, but I am sure that the publication of the French translation will do much to encourage standardization of practice. This will receive further support when it is possible to extend the services of Bibliographic de la France to include DDC class numbers on the catalog cards which it has now begun to issue. It is to be hoped that such a service will commence in 1976, and we can foresee the French library profession taking its place among those responsible for the increasing internationalization of the Dewey Decimal Classification. The production of a further Spanish translation of DDC will undoubtedly affect its development in libraries in South and Central America, but I have no information which would lead one to believe that what may happen in France will occur in Spain. Similarly, there seems to be little possibility of integrated development in Germanic areas, although a small number of technological libraries are showing increasing interest in MARC operations; for instance, Bochum (Germany) University Library extracts subject descriptors and Decimal Classification numbers from the LC and UK MARC tapes. Despite the fact that the use made of DDC in Europe is small compared to use in Britain, one cannot fail to note that in some European countries, national bibliographies are arranged by or contain DDC numbers: Iceland, Italy, Norway, and Turkey. Each presents its entries in a different way. Norway makes its principal list under author with a classified index of entries. Italy and Turkey have arrangements according to DDC classes, the former using DDC-18 and giving considerable specificity in class numbers and order. The Turkish national bibliography, arranged in broad DDC classes, is subdivided alphabetically by author. Italy and Norway are among the largest supporters of DDC in Europe and we should note that each country uses DDC in its national bibliography. While I do not think that a broad frontal approach by DDC toward libraries on the continent of Europe is possible, I do consider it essential that the DDC inform them continually of its development, both in policy and content. The sheer universality of DDC and its implementation in MARC projects in other continents make it essential for libraries in Europe to know something of its nature and its place in the field of Universal Bibliographic Control. It is possible that an enlightened policy maintained and developed by THE BRITISH AND EUROPEAN SCENE the DDC will lead to a fuller appreciation in the multilingual arena of Europe. One should not see this so much as a marketing policy, but as a contribution in the best interests of information and its place in society. However unusual its spelling practice may be, DDC today is part of the English language heritage and where our language is used, so will be the Dewey Decimal Classification. It is for this reason that the Forest Press has asked the British Library Association to hold, as part of the centennial celebrations during 1976, an international seminar on the Decimal Classification, to which representatives from European countries will be invited; the intention is to include those interested in the present or the prospective use of the classification in its various linguistic forms and editions. It is hoped that such an exchange of ideas will help to identify the problems which the Dewey Decimal Classification must face in the future a challenge which I wish I was young enough to see fulfilled in its entirety. REFERENCES 1. "Farewell to D.C. 17," Catalogue & Index 7:1, 12, July 1967. 2. Davison, Keith. Classification Practice in Britain. London, Library Association, 1966. 3. Austin, Derek. PRECIS: A Manual of Concept Analysis and Subject Indexing. London, BNB, 1974. 4. "Area Tables -41 and -42." In DC&. Vol. 3, Nos. 4/5, p. 6, April 1974. (Supplement to Dewey Decimal Classification, 18th ed. Albany, N.Y., Forest Press, 1971.) (Pamphlet) 5. DC&. Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 4-5, April 1973. 6. DC&. Vol. 3, No. 7, April 1975. 7. Anderson, D. Universal Bibliographic Control. Miinchen, Verlag Dokumentation, 1974. GORDON STEVENSON Associate Professor School of Library Science State University of New York at Albany The Library of Congress Classification Scheme and its Relationship to Dewey It strikes me as an interesting circumstance that I have been given the opportunity to speak about the relationship between the Library of Congress classification (LCC) and the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) on November 11, a day which I will always think of as Armistice Day. There is no armistice for the respective advocates of these two great classification systems; or, if there is an armistice, there should not be one. The long-range implications of the issues surrounding the Dewey/LC debate are too crucial to pretend that differences of opinion over the merits of the two systems are trivial. LCC and DDC are very, very different. They are so different, and they are different in such ways, as to raise the most basic questions about the very purpose of general library classification, its structure, its uses, and its future in the United States. In a very real sense, these are competing systems. Decisions are made, human resources are allocated, and money is invested in one system or the other. This competition was neither asked for nor wanted by the Library of Congress nor the publishers of the Dewey system. But it does exist and has been a rather expensive proposition over the past ten to twenty years, if not longer. At the moment, it seems obvious that Dewey has come out very poorly in the United States insofar as many academic librarians are concerned. 78 LCC'S RELATIONSHIP TO DEWEY 79 Despite its losses, however, a recent report covering the years 1967-71 indicates that of 1,160 accredited, four-year nonspecialized institutions of higher learning, the libraries of more than 400 have remained with Dewey. Although the Dewey-to-LCC movement may have lost its momentum and may be near an end, it is not likely that it will be reversed unless there are drastic changes in the relationship between Dewey and the bibliographic needs of academic librarians. This relationship is changing and has changed consider- ably during the past few years as the Decimal Classification Division of the Library of Congress has increased its annual coverage of the English-language literature from 20-30,000 items to more than 100,000 items during the ^>ast year. However, at the present time I am less concerned with academic libraries than I am with public and school libraries. If, in view of this, I seem to spend a disproportionate amount of time commenting on academic libraries vis-a-vis Dewey, it is only because there is much we can learn from the academic librarian's approach to the problems of classification and reclassification. With the tremendous push toward the development of state, regional, and national bibliographic networks, I am seriously concerned that LCC's firm place in existing and incipient network data bases (which are geared primarily to the needs of university libraries) will be used as a rationale for structuring public and school library networks to use LCC to the exclusion of DDC. This is probably the most important practical issue on which I will comment. What I will try to do here has been done before, most recently by Maurice Tauber and Hilda Feinberg in an article published in the Drexel Library Quarterly in 1974. That article seemed to pull together rather neatly most of the background information which has led many librarians to the inevitable conclusion that the LCC system is the one to which they should commit their money, their energies, and most importantly their networks of automated bibliographic data bases. Heretofore, the advocates of LCC have addressed themselves primarily to the interests of college and university libraries. Tauber and Feinberg, however, have found evidence which has convinced them that public libraries, large and small, will find it advantageous to adopt LCC. We also know that several librarians have urged school libraries to switch to LCC. Granting certain assumptions, one might indeed conclude that LCC is the system we need to take us through the last quarter of the twentieth century. However, I shall argue from different assumptions and try to make a case for the opposite conclusion; that is, that LCC is not the one to which we should commit ourselves at this time. If I have some melancholy thoughts about the Dewey-to-LCC movement, this is not to say that I would presume to tell the Library of Congress what system best serves its needs. This is not the issue at all. With its massive collections of materials and with stacks which, for all practical 80 GORDON STEVENSON purposes, are closed to the public, the problems of the Library of Congress are quite different from problems encountered by the thousands of libraries (including many university libraries) that are the principal means of direct public access to books in the United States. My criticisms are not directed to the LCC system as such, but rather to the value of that system as a national classification scheme to serve the needs of centralized classification and national networks involving all types of libraries. This is a role which the creators of LCC never envisioned. If it is achieving that role, it is a historical accident, a development that is taking place without any analysis of the problem, without thought as to the function of a national system, and certainly without planning. The Library of Congress is in the best position to know what system it needs to organize its collections within the framework of its functions and services. I would only insist that what is good for the Library of Congress is not necessarily good for all libraries in the United States, nor even for all or most academic libraries in the United States. The assumption that whatever the Library of Congress does is ipso facto, good for all libraries has been the most pervasive "truth" invoked by the advocates of LCC. Relationships and Comparisons The point I will emphasize is that the wide adoption of LCC in the United States is going to have a profound impact on the future of general library classification for the next twenty years or more. I say this not because the Dewey system is "better" than LCC (although I believe this to be the case), but because of inherent weaknesses in the LCC system. In other words, it is not so much the fact that academic librarians have abandoned DDC which bothers me, as it is that they have adopted LCC. With their adoption of LCC, academic librarians have locked themselves into a system from which it will be nearly impossible to extricate themselves. Since considerable literature on both systems is available, I will have more to say about the relationship between them than I will about the systems themselves. In addition, since the two systems have been compared extensively (usually in a way which demonstrates that LCC is superior), I will have more to say about the relationship of both systems to classification in general than I will about their structural differences. You will, I hope, pardon me if I slip into the pejorative rhetoric of those who have so vigorously advanced the cause of LCC and with equal vigor have apprised us of the folly of staying with DDC. Obviously, what it is that makes the two systems different is important, although some librarians would argue with me on this point. Some librarians LCC'S RELATIONSHIP TO DEWEY 81 believe that the potential for subject retrieval by any general classification system is of such limited value that neither system, DDC nor LCC, need be evaluated by structural features as they relate to retrieval potential. This is implicit in one of the rationales propounded by Matthis and Taylor for the conversion to LCC: "Any reasonably comprehensive classification system developed and maintained by the considerable means of a federally supported agency, that is, the Library of Congress, is the logical classification system for general library use." Matthis and Taylor believe that if the situation were reversed (i.e., if the Library of Congress used DDC), then the DDC "might serve as the vehicle for a nationwide centralized cataloging and classification program.' Such statements, if you believe them, are calculated to remove the subject of classification from any discussion of reclassification, which is a tactical maneuver of such brilliance that it staggers the imagination. That these and many similar statements have gone unchallenged in the library literature suggests that, as crucial as I think structural differences may be, at this juncture it is much more important to try to understand why so many librarians place so little importance on structural differences. To say that there are no meaningful structural differences is to abandon general library classification as a nineteenth-century anachronism. If the advocates of LCC do indeed believe this, then they are in effect saying: "We don't know what we are doing with classification, but whatever it is we are doing, we can do it a lot more economically and efficiently if we go with LCC rather than with Dewey." I am suggesting that our perception of classification as a tool for subject access is more important for the future of classification than are the differences between LCC and Dewey. Classification systems can be changed for the better if we want to change them. The switch to LCC was not for the better; it was regressive a step back into the nineteenth century. These are the reasons why I think we should come to grips with the deeper implications of the circumstances surrounding the massive change in the United States from Dewey to LC classification, and with the literature which accompanied and encouraged that change. This may be the best way to approach the more specific and more practical problem of comparing and evaluating the two systems in terms of their relative usefulness in serving the needs of different types of libraries. Classification, Libraries, and Librarians The widely accepted conventional wisdom is that LCC is best for academic libraries and DDC is best for school and public libraries. I do not believe that this has been proven in any objective way. It has not been 82 GORDON S TE VENSON supported by hard research data. In any case, the more I think about the differences between Dewey and LCC, and the more I read of the literature on reclassification, the more inclined I am to believe that it is not so much a question of matching specific classification systems with specific types of libraries as it is a question of matching classification systems with different types of librarians. In other words, I do not think that in the end we are dealing with the problem of whether or not DDC, for example, is the best system for academic libraries, or whether or not LCC is the best system for school libraries. Regardless of the type of library in question (academic, school, or public), the choice of either system can be rationalized. If this is true, as I believe it is, then the librarian's understanding of, interpretation of, and expectations about the role of classification in subject control and access are far more significant than the current possibilities and limitations of any specific general classification system. The latter, which are essentially structural and in part mechanical features, can be changed even though such changes are expensive to implement and are a considerable inconvenience at the input end of a system. The former, which are in fact attitudes, are more difficult to understand and change, because we are dealing with subjective evaluations, vested interests, philosophies of library service, and images and perceptions which are deeply ingrained in each librarian's attitude toward classification. In the United States, our expectations about the possibilities of classification have been somewhat circumscribed by certain historical events which took place many decades ago, but which still condition our attitudes about the uses of classification. Bases for Comparison Following are some aspects of classification which we would have to consider in some detail if we were to evaluate the relative merits of the two systems in terms of the needs of libraries today and in the future: 1. Inner structural features This refers to the classification itself, which is a list of concepts arranged in a systematic order so as to display subjects and the relationships between subjects in what our British colleagues call "a helpful order." This is what classification is all about, but various auxiliary devices are needed to make a system operational. 2. Exterior structural features The notation is the exterior feature and represents the inner structure. The notation may be a symbolic language revealing the inner structure (as in DDC), or it may simply provide a location tag (as in LCC). What we want from a classification system will determine what sort of notation we want. LCC'S RELA TIONSHIP TO DEWEY 83 3. Ancillary features These are structural features which, although obviously quite important, are not really integral to a system. These can be changed without actually affecting anything really basic about the system. This category includes indexes, the physical layout of the schedules on the printed page, updating services, guides, directions for input, etc. When any of these are inadequate or lacking, there is no reason why they cannot be improved or developed. 4. Efficiency To analyze and compare the efficiency of systems is clearly a most basic aspect of our problem. This is to ask: Does it work? How well does it work? Does it do what a classification system is supposed to do? These are difficult questions to answer, and surprisingly little research has been done with either LCC or DDC. This involves studying a system at the output phase, at the point where the user interacts with the system. 5. Input If systems create problems at the input stage, this may be caused by inner structural inadequacies or it may simply mean that the classifier does not have the information needed to interpret the schedules. 6. Automation Another mechanical aspect of great importance is the extent to which the system can exploit the potentials of the computer. When we use the computer with a classification system, does it provide new approaches to subject access, or does it only replicate our manual systems? If it does the latter, then the computer is little more than a very efficient and extremely expensive typewriter. 7. Historical aspects An examination of the history of classification might not seem to be of much help in solving current problems. On the other hand, I believe that a thorough study of the history of classification in the United States would tell us much about the singular lack of imagination we have brought to recent classification problems. 8. Flexibility One would like to know to what extent a given system is flexible enough to adapt to the changing nature of knowledge, and also to what extent it permits flexibility in its application at the local level. How this flexibility is achieved is important. Of these various bases for comparison, the one which will be considered the least significant by many academic librarians, network propagandists, and administrators is the potential for flexibility at the local level. The trend to standardization and centralization assumes that the needs of classification and its uses are the same for all types of libraries and for all sizes of libraries; this proposition strikes me as patently absurd. 9. Costs The last thing I would consider is the cost of a system, not because I do not realize how crucial this factor is, but because I would want first to know exactly what I would be paying for. Also, I would try to find some way of estimating the costs (or at least the value) of the system at 84 GORDON STEVENSON the output stage. All cost estimates I have seen so far are costs which result at the input stage; estimating cost is a difficult problem. How can one translate the value of expressive notation to the reference librarian into hard cost data? Interpretation of Differences Any librarian contemplating changing from DDC to LCC should carefully consider each of the above points. Furthermore, in considering costs one should distinguish between the costs of descriptive cataloging (including subject description) and the costs of classification. It would seem to me that no one should be given the responsibility for choosing one system over the other until that person has a thorough grounding in classification theory and a detailed knowledge of the practical dimensions and structural features of both systems. I have met too many librarians who have switched to LCC only to discover that they do not know how to interpret the LCC geographical tables, that they do not understand LCC's use of preempted cutter numbers, or even the structural implications of a strictly ordinal notation of the type used in the LCC system. The problem we have with these various aspects of classification when we use them as the basic for comparison and evaluation is that we do not all agree on their function or importance. For example, in examining and evaluating structural features, I would place great importance on expressive notation and synthetic features of the systems. But if, for whatever reasons, we believe that expressive notation and synthesis are of little value (or, indeed, may be negative features), it is clear that we have reached an impasse. Another structural feature is the use of logic in the construction of classes and subclasses. Some prominent librarians have praised LCC because it is not logical, and have criticized DDC because it is logical, claiming that nonlogical systems can adapt more easily to changes in the structure of knowledge. Another criterion used to evaluate a classification system is the extent to which it somehow manages to present a useful version of the world as it is (or at least a reasonable facsimile thereof). Even in such a seemingly noncontroversial set of subclasses such as those representing political or geographical areas, there are strong differences of opinion as to the need for currentness. The recent change in the political organization of England brought forth a supplement to the DDC schedules which provided a list of the new political units and a revised notation to represent these units. Not everyone was happy with this change in DDC, and many would have preferred that the system not be changed. It is at such times that one can sympathize with the editors of DDC (or, for that matter, with the editors of any general and widely used system). It is clear that if we ask different things from a LCC'S RELATIONSHIP TO DEWEY 85 classification system, we will use different criteria for comparison and evaluation. Needed Research Obviously, we are concerned about how some of these conflicting ideas can be resolved. Is there some objective way of evaluating and comparing DDC and LCC? We do not know because we have never tried to find out. We have been too busy comparing costs to ask what it is we are paying for or why we are paying for it. We did not really try to answer the hard questions and they are hard questions, ones which would involve new types of behavioral research. The one dimension of each system which lends itself to research relatively easily is notation: To what extent do enumerative hierarchical and ordinal notations lend themselves to on-line subject searching? One reason we may not have done this research what work has been done has been accomplished by John Rather at the Library of Congress-is that it would prove that the DDC notation does have a future in on-line systems, whereas LCC does not. Other areas of needed research are these: 1. The librarian's use of classification in reference and other readers' services the extent to which the librarian, in functioning as a mediator between a library user and a local collection, uses a classification system as a way of thinking about the collection. Does the system provide a search strategy? 2. What versatility do different systems have in generating different types of references (i.e., can both broad and narrow bibliographies be generated)? 3. How can different systems be used in constructing user profiles for SDI (Selective Dissemination of Information) services and current-awareness services? 4. What actually happens at the output end of the system when a library user searches the shelves? We have established traditions of catalog use studies, but there is no comparable tradition in classification use studies. I believe that librarians who have examined DDC and LCC from the point of view of their library needs have not considered all or even most of these basic questions about classification. If this is the case, how can we account for the "death of Dewey" in college and university libraries? A post-mortem is in order, but to understand what happened and why it happened we need to turn briefly to topics which at first may seem unrelated to the issue at hand. 86 GORDON STEVENSON Understanding the Great Switch If we were to examine the literature produced in the United States on general library classification during the past ten to twenty years, we would find that one of the major preoccupations of librarians was not classification at all, but reclassification. That we should have been so preoccupied with reclassification rather than classification is, I think, an interesting commentary on the general state of classification in the United States. If I wanted to be uncharitable to both systems, I would say that what we have seen is the spectacle of thousands of librarians spending millions of dollars to the end of reclassifying from one nineteenth-century system to another, perhaps even more antiquated, nineteenth-century system. But that sort of characterization, although there is something to be said for it, would not do justice to the extent to which each system has partially escaped its nineteenth-century roots. On the other hand, it seems obvious that most librarians, when they felt they had to make a choice as to which classification system to use, never seriously considered that there might be some alternative system, or that it might be more advisable to construct an entirely new scheme. We need to consider why this was the case. I do not believe that the DDC-to-LCC movement can be understood unless it is considered against the whole intellectual, professional, and educational climate within which it took place. The movement from Dewey to LCC was surely one of the most time-consuming projects undertaken by U.S. librarians during the past several decades. Such a vast undertaking invites a detailed analysis. Such an analysis has not yet been made, and I will do little more here than to suggest approaches which might be appropriate. If a postmortem were made, I think it would tell us quite a lot about things other than classification it would tell us something about how librarians go about solving some of their problems. The questions that such a study would ask would have very little to do with the checklist of classification features I have mentioned above. Rather, it would ask why change took place, how it was disseminated, and what factors were so compelling as to set us on a course of action that will alter the future of classification longer than any of us can imagine. There surely must have been compelling reasons for this change. I am seriously going to suggest that the change from Dewey to LCC had very little to do with classification. We could compare DDC with LCC in the most minute detail, and in the end would still not understand what has happened nor why it has happened. What is needed in this case is not research in classification at all, but research in the chemistry of change and in the rhetoric and motivation for change. Precedents, and indeed tools and models, for the needed research are available in that broad group of sociological LCC'S RELATIONSHIP TO DEWEY 87 studies identified as studies in the diffusion of innovations. These classic studies in the process of change have a long history in the United States, dating back well into the 1930s. The techniques involved have been used in dozens of different fields, but not as far as I know in any aspect of librarianship. In suggesting studies in the dynamics of change, I am aware that there are some differences between the types of problems dealt with by E.M. Rogers and other specialists in this field and those with which we must deal. Diffusion studies emerged when the U.S. Department of Agriculture wanted to find out why some farmers in Iowa readily accepted new strains of hybrid corn, while other farmers either did not accept them or did so at relatively long intervals after they were introduced. Acceptance patterns were studied, and farmers fell into various groups, such as early adopters, late adopters, etc. These results were correlated with a number of variables to identify opinion leaders and other dimensions of change patterns. If this seems like a farfetched source for the study of change in classification, it at least has this in common with our problem: the corn was the same, the differences were among the adopters. Note also that the research was about change as it resulted from innovative ideas. All well and good, but in the case of classification change, it is obvious that the LC Qassification was almost as old as the product it replaced. Furthermore, the institutional setting of classification use suggests other ways that diffusion research in classification would differ somewhat from more customary types of diffusion research. Anyone interested in exploring this idea further would also want to consider some types of marketing research. We are talking about a change in behavior. Advertising research is obviously interested in why people adopt one brand of soap rather than another, why they switch brands, and how something called "brand identification" is achieved. Advertising researchers know that many factors which influence consumers in their decisions have very little to do with the quality of the product or whether the consumer really needs the product. (If you have not read much in advertising research, I would not encourage you to do so unless you are already rather cynical, or unless you are prepared for considerable disillusionment about those friendly folks that bring you your favorite television shows.) About fifteen years ago, Bardin H. Nelson wrote what has since became a classic statement of the assumptions on which advertising is based. He called his article "Seven Principles in Image Formation." Here is the first of his seven principles: "People are not 'exclusively' rational creatures.' This is the conclusion one could come to after delving into the literature on reclassification. How else can one respond to reasoning such as this: Inasmuch as there seems little possibility of developing a classificatory language which will satisfy the demands of the super-specialist as well as 88 GORDON S TE VENSON of the general reference librarian, it would seem that we must opt for the most workable tool at present available to carry forward the mundane but needful task of moving books and records from catalog department to shelves and catalog. The needs of the super-specialists (whoever they may be) have never been the issue, and the dichotomy between specialists and reference librarians is a straw man in the context of general library classification. Even if the dkhotorny 4 were accepted as valid (which it is not), the conclusion "to opt for the most workable tool" does not logically result from the premise. The author of the above statement has confused ends and means, and has done so in such a way that if you do not accept his conclusion, then you put yourself in the position of being opposed to the "mundane but needful task" of making materials available to your library users as quickly as possible. And what is one to make of this statement by Matthis and Taylor: "Essentially the argument has now moved beyond theoretical discussions of the 'best' classification system and settled upon the real issue the promise and prospect of centralized cataloging and classification"?^ Anyone with even a passing acquaintance with classification theory knows that the arguments cannot possibly have moved beyond theoretical discussions for the simple reason that such discussions have never taken place. From the very beginning, the issues were practical and focused principally on economic factors of technical processing. On those few occasions when the advocates of DDC have tried to talk about structural features of classification systems, they have been accused of talking "theory" or, what is worse, of raising esoteric questions of philosophy: "These questionings of philosophical assumptions, once raised, tend to vitiate the impetus given to the spirit of change." By raising such questions (which, of course, have nothing to do with theory or philosophy, but with structure, function, and use) one can thus initiate "a preposterous dialogue of 'pro' this system and 'con' that." Indeed, such questions, once raised, could vitiate the spirit of change; but whether the resulting dialog would be preposterous would depend on whether you are buying a product or selling it. Without much further comment, I will quote a few more of Nelson's principles, and those of you who have critically read the literature on reclassification will see the connections. Nelson's second principle states that "People respond to situations in ways which appear to them to protect their self-images." * * I have an idea that in the world of academic librarianship, self-images loom large in the decision-making process. The fifth principle tells us: "If an image is marked by doubt, uncertainty, or insecurity, utilize additional means for creating further doubts. Present the new image in a form whereby it will dispel anxiety or doubts." His sixth principle is widely used LCC'S RELATIONSHIP TO DEWEY 89 by network developers: "Place the desired image in the most favorable setting. If at all possible, clothe the new image in the already accepted values of the people." 13 Does all of this strike you as somewhat peripheral to a consideration of the change from DDC to LCC? Perhaps. But you will admit that the image of DDC was changed, that it was badly damaged, and that this set the stage for serious setbacks in its credibility as a viable classification system. Parenthetically, I might add that the types of research which I have proposed might also be useful in understanding other library-type games and diversions, such as dividing the catalog, working for faculty status, changing administrative structures, joining OCLC, or whatever movement is currently substituting for the real problems of improving library service. If I have underestimated the depth to which advocates of change have explored some of the basic issues, I can only say that they did not state their case very well in the library literature. The central issue is the purpose of classification. Purpose There are two extreme views on the purpose of classifying books. On the one hand, some librarians consider classification to be an important device in providing access to library collections. Some of them have described classification as a map which guides the user through the collection, a device for discovering not only what one wants but what one did not know existed. In this ideal version of the purpose of classification, it is in fact a dynamic device of great importance in the learning process and in the acquisition of new knowledge. The other extreme says essentially that classification is not much more than a simple parking device: we mark and we park. The user's basic guide to the collection is the alphabetical subject heading catalog, and this catalog serves as an index to the classification system which organizes the books on the shelves. Those librarians who subscribe to the mark-and-park school will probably prefer the LC Classification. On the other hand, those librarians who place more importance on classification as a direct subject access device will probably prefer the expressive notation and modest use of synthesis available in DDC, since these offer a search strategy for open -stack collections. Implementation In the United States the purpose of classifying material is accomplished almost solely by using classification to organize books on shelves. This is supplemented by Cutter's alphabetico-specific subject heading catalog in its 9 GORDON S TE VENSON straight A-Z form or in its divided form. These well-known facts need to be brought up in considering the future of classification in the United States. If, for the foreseeable future, classification is to function only as a system of shelving books, then we are dealing with one problem. However, with the use of the computer in organizing bibliographical data, we have a new tool which can be a very powerful search tool. In other words, the classified catalog, which for all practical purposes has been a dead issue in the United States since around 1900, may be in for a new lease on life. To me, one of the most exciting possibilities for the immediate future of the DDC is found in the extent to which we can use it for on-line subject searching. This issue has been completely ignored or misunderstood in all of the literature on reclassification which I have consulted. Tauber and Feinberg, in the report mentioned above, state that "LC can be programmed to do all that we have required of an enumerative scheme up. to the present" (emphasis added). "All that we have required"-but in terms which might be relevant to computer potential we have required nothing, since our shelflists have been used only for inventory control. We can now ask a lot more than that. This is where the notation of LCC and DDC have very great significance in terms of potential computer application. To understand the possibilities and limitations of each, we need to consider the nature of nonexpressive, nonhierarchical notation of the sort used in LCC. In such a system, the only approach is to a specific subject class. With an expressive notation we can pull out blocks of material; if the computer is programmed properly we can enter the system at any level and all of its subdivisions. This almost self-evident potential of DDC is one that has yet to be fully explored. Dewey also has the potential for further refinements in subject searching if a system of facet indicators can be established. Consider, for example, the possibilities of searching local subdivisions in LCC and DDC. With DDC, a run of the computer could pull out all classes starting, for example, with the number 78, the class for music. If one wanted only books about music in England, then a second run (using the local subdivision number from the Area Tables) would pull out relevant titles. Or, rather, it could if a consistent facet indicator were developed for local subdivisions. This, as you know, is a problem now because a standard subdivision may be identified by one or more than one zero. I believe that the Dewey system can adopt some of the synthetic devices used in the Universal Decimal Classification and come up with a system of notation which can both serve as a notation for physically shelving books and at the same time exploit the class numbers with search devices which complement the alphabetico-specific structure of subject headings. Since we are getting Dewey class numbers on MARC tapes, it is possible that even those libraries which use the LCC system to shelve their books will have an on-line searching device by using the Dewey class numbers. LCC'S RELA TIONSHIP TO DEWEY 91 Now, to what extent the LC Classification can provide such access seems to me to be so small as to be virtually beyond hope. The LCC notation was never designed to serve such a purpose and its ordinal notation would probably present insurmountable problems. On the other hand, I would not want to underestimate the imagination and resourcefulness of the Library of Congress staff, and I look forward with great interest to what search devices they will design. Be that as it may, the computer is the challenge which DDC must face. Structural changes will have to be made to go beyond its current potential in on-line searching (which, modest as it may seem, is far superior to what is available with the LCC notation). In placing so much stress on the current and future on-line capability of DDC, I do so within the framework of most libraries currently using the system (and most libraries which have recently switched to LCC). I am aware that information scientists have stated that both DDC and LCC are inappropriate for computer application in subject retrieval. From their point of view this may be the case. An on-line classified catalog using DDC may seem to offer limited possibilities when compared to highly sophisticated special information systems; but for most general library book collections, such access would be a monumental step forward. If I have any doubts about DDC's future in relationship to a revived form of the classified catalog, they are related less to the system itself than to those of us in the United States who know so little about the potential of any classified catalog, manual or automated. There is a historical dimension to this issue of the classified catalog that is just interesting enough to comment on briefly. Dewey himself was an advocate of the classified catalog, and did not look with much enthusiasm on Cutter's dictionary catalog. In 1888 he said, "The dictionary catalog has been a popular fad and will die out.' So much for Dewey as a prophet. In the first edition of his classification system, he noted that it was conceived as a system for organizing entries in catalogs, but could also be used for organizing materials on shelves and in files. When he was librarian at the State Library of New York, his subject catalog was a classified catalog. It may also surprise you to learn that Charles Martel, one of the prime architects of the LCC system, was also a firm believer in the classified catalog. He did indeed accept the alphabetical subject-heading catalog, but believed that any true research library had to supplement this catalog with a classified catalog. It was Martel's idea that the shelf list could be amended with guide cards, cross-references, and added entries in such a way that it could serve both for inventory control and for classified subject access. I do not know to what extent the use of such a catalog affected the evolution of LCC subject headings (although I understand that music librarians find that a shelf list is absolutely essential as a supplement to their subject-heading catalogs). In American library education, I doubt that we have sufficiently stressed the extent to which classified 92 GORDON STEVENSON systems complement the sort of access provided by alphabetical systems. If this distinction is not clear to many librarians in the United States, it is probably because they assume without question that alphabetical systems are for structuring catalogs and classified systems are for shelving books. Although this attitude reflects current practice, its implications for subject cataloging must be reexamined. The technical problems that the Dewey system will have to solve are the result of its dual function as a system for structuring catalogs and a system for shelving books. As we have been told many times, the book is a one -dimensional physical object, and it can be classified in one place and in one place only. But catalogs can provide multiple access points, and there is no reason why a classified catalog should be limited to a one-place system, be it a manual or an automated classified catalog. In the United States, Dewey is used as a system for shelving books, and this is a function which is not likely to change. In other countries, DDC is used for both shelving systems an'd systems for the classified catalog (note, for example, the use of DDC in the British National Bibliography}. If one were dealing with the classified catalog without the restraints of a shelving system, one could indeed develop a highly sophisticated searching tool. But the most valuable feature of the Dewey system is that it not only can be used for both functions, but that it is being widely used for both functions. It seems that for the working librarian this is a tremendous advantage, for one can indeed begin to structure a conceptual map of one's library collection. If knowing one's collection is a prerequisite for good library service, then the Dewey system has to be evaluated in the light of how it helps us to gain some sort of conceptual control over these collections, whether we are working directly with books or references to books in catalogs. To those committed to the LCC system, the potentials of the classified catalog may seem somewhat less exciting than they do to me. But consider for a moment one of the standard working tools of the librarian: Library of Congress Catalog: Books: Subjects. The present structure of this subject supplement to the National Union Catalog is an unfortunate byproduct of our predilection for alphabetically arranged subject headings. As useful as this tool may be, I believe that if it were issued as a classified catalog (even if limited to the simplest form of such a catalog i.e., arranged in shelf list order by the LCC system), it could serve its current function of providing subject access, but at the same time could combine the advantages of the classified approach. Furthermore, it would then give thousands of users of the LCC system what they probably want very much: a guide to LC's shelf-listing practices. A colleague once told me that if a library adopts the LC Classification system, that library is to a certain extent a branch of the Library of Congress. There is a lot of truth in this statement, because the application of the LC LCC'S RELATIONSHIP TO DEWEY 93 Classification schedules, with their extensive use of alphabetically arranged subclasses with a cutter number notation, is in large measure controlled by what is in the Library of Congress collection. Thus, to make use of LCC coincide with its use by the Library of Congress (which, I take it, is one of the main reasons for adopting the system), the librarian must assume that he or she is adding material to the shelf list of the Library of Congress with its millions of entries. However, if the structure of LC's Subject Catalog were to be changed, I think it would not be unreasonable to propose that it be changed to the same form now used by the British National Bibliography. Not only would this be a step toward the standardization of national bibliographies, it would also be a service to the thousands of libraries in the United States and abroad which use DDC; this could be done in such a way that it would considerably improve the utility of Books: Subjects as an access tool. Those librarians now using the LC Classification would lose little, if anything, but those many, many thousands of librarians using DDC would gain tremendously. Academic Librarians and Dewey I am not optimistic that academic librarians who have adopted LCC will in the near future change their ways of thinking about the potentials of library classification. Nor, for that matter, will they recognize the fundamental fallacy of bibliographical networks which simply deliver data without offering the possibilities of on-line subject access based on classification. On the other hand, if those who guide the future of DDC can do a better job of showing librarians how to exploit the system (both as a shelving system and an on-line access tool), then it is not unlikely that librarians already committeed to LCC will make use of the DDC class numbers now available in machine-readable form on MARC tapes. This is one of several reasons why all material going into the MARC system, including all foreign -language material, should be given Dewey class numbers. Those who believe that the future of on-line access lies with a new system of subject descriptors rather than with classification are not taking into account the deep resistance which will come from academic librarians if the Library of Congress attempts to structure a completely new system of subject headings. I believe that academic librarians will strenuously resist such a change for the same reason they adopted the LC Classification system (i.e., the costs of cataloging and classification) and for the same reason they resisted those rules in the Anglo-American Cataloging Rules which adhered to the Paris Principles for the structuring of headings for corporate bodies; this, as some of you now know, was an expensive concession to the status quo, and the Library of Congress is moving ahead with its new policies and with "desuperimposition." 94 GORDON S TE VENSON The "great switch" has some implications for the Library of Congress and its relationship to its own classification system. The LC Classification no longer belongs exclusively to the Library of Congress, or if it does, it soon will not. The thousands of libraries which now use the system will want to have a say in its future development. Even if the Library of Congress wanted to abandon its own system (and it is not clear to me why they need it), it is hardly likely that the combined pressure of academic libraries would permit this to happen. Furthermore, if the system is to provide the economic advantages which have been claimed for it these claims, of course, were never made by the Library of Congress, but by academic librarians from relatively small colleges then librarians will need more from the Library of Congress than they are now getting. They will need access to the Library of Congress shelf list, a continually updated single index to the complete set of schedules (and at a reasonable cost within reach of small college libraries), guides to interpreting the schedules, an on-line authority file, and probably more tools which have been developed at the Library of Congress for the in-house use of catalogers and classifiers. Public and School Libraries Public and school libraries are in a position somewhat different from that of academic libraries. It is possible, however, that the general atmosphere created by the advocates of LCC is one which may have already begun to sow some seeds of doubt in the minds of librarians who direct school and public libraries. These librarians have a longstanding involvement with DDC and there are compelling reasons why I hope this does not change. The LCC system is completely inadequate for their service-oriented philosophies and open-stack collections. Most of the economic advantages claimed for a switch to LCC have probably been largely eliminated by LC's Decimal Classification Division's increased coverage of the current English-language book production. If there should be any savings in cost, I cannot imagine that they would be significant enough to justify what would be lost with a switch to LCC. I am not sure to what extent, in the next few years, public and school librarians will find themselves in the same position in which academic users of DDC found themselves a few years ago that is, under strong pressure from network developers to reclassify to conform to existing bibliographical data bases. This pressure will surely become stronger as we implement network developments advocated by the National Commission on Libraries and Information Science. In the first place, I believe the economic arguments are spurious and were designed to benefit the economic base of the networks, not to benefit the users of the networks. In the second place, any network that LCC'S RELATIONSHIP TO DEWEY 95 attempts to provide a national service is not conceivable unless it includes both LCC and DDC numbers. For one thing, the Dewey numbers give public and school librarians options for close or broad classification which are absolutely impossible within the structure of the LCC notational system. I would encourage public and school librarians to insist that their networks include the Dewey system. Most public and school librarians do not need me to remind them of the advantages of DDC, but what follows may be of some interest to network developers (who should also apprise themselves of the fundamentals of classification) and library administrators who may be too far removed from the public service desk to understand the role of classification in public services. Librarians working with relatively small collections, as compared to the collections of large university libraries, have a completely different relationship to their collections. The universe of knowledge with which they must deal is still one that can be grasped in its larger outlines and in considerable detail by an experienced and educated librarian. The large university libraries are best categorized as collections of special libraries which are administered by subject specialists. (This is consistent with the Library of Congress Classification which has been properly decribed as a collection of largely uncoordinated special classifications which lack unifying structural features.) Perhaps this is why DDC has always been appreciated by public and school librarians and, at one time, by many college and junior college librarians in the United States. The collections with which they deal are general in the sense that they cover wide areas of knowledge which represent many disciplines. As I have noted above, under such circumstances classification can be an indispensable tool for the efficient use of one's collection in providing public services. The notation provides a symbolic language which is quite easy to learn. It permits a type of interaction with the collection and with users of the collection which I do not think is possible in the case of LCC's notational structure. In public and school libraries, one is more likely to find attempts to use a single classification system for different media. Unfortunately, we have little research on just how well DDC works with such diverse materials as sound recordings, slide collections, media kits, and other nonbook media. We know that some libraries have adopted DDC for these materials, and it would seem to be an ideal system for both students and faculty, not to mention public service librarians. Perhaps future editions of DDC should provide some information on how to use the system with these nonbook materials. The available DDC options of broad or close classification would seem to be significant in this case. As for LCC, it has been used by some librarians to classify sound recordings, but does not seem to have much of a future with nonbook media in general. 9 6 GORDON S TE YENS ON International Implications What futures do the two systems have at the international level? DDC, of course, is already somewhat of an international system. The LCC system is not international, and there is no possibility that it will ever be widely used outside of the United States. It is too closely tied to the very specific needs of the Library of Congress, and more specifically to the needs of the Library of Congress as they were conceived between fifty and seventy-five years ago, when the purpose, the plan, and the structure of the system were developed. Thus, the very factor which has been advanced for its wide adoption in the United States is, I would argue, the chief reason it has no future in the international exchange of bibliographical data. To what extent the Dewey system will be seriously considered as an international standard is not yet known. Although its future in this role may not seem promising (despite its tremendous worldwide dispersal), it should not be ruled out yet. If the Library of Congress continues to include DDC numbers on all items issued on MARC tapes as that data base continues to grow, then DDC will be a serious contender at the international level. Certainly, the decisions affecting the British Library will have a bearing on the issue, as will the wider dispersal of DDC in France. Alternatives I have been assuming that the only real choice available is between DDC and LCC. I suppose that right now this is the case. If one were seriously to suggest that what the Library of Congress needs is a new classification, one would be considered quite mad. Such is the way we have been educated to think about classification in the United States. If, ten to fifteen years ago, academic librarians had asked for a new, modern classification system, they probably could have gotten one. But now, having spent millions of dollars converting to LCC and having convinced themselves that it is the best of all possible worlds, the option of a new system has been closed and will remain closed for a long time. The point I am making is this: if (for reasons which they accepted as valid) academic librarians found DDC inadequate, and if there were no ways it could be changed to make it adequate, then they should have switched to something better than LCC. If there were no better system, then either the LCC system should have been completely overhauled or a completely new scheme should have been constructed. Of course, I believe that at that time, DDC could have been changed to serve academic librarians. LCC'S RELATIONSHIP TO DEWEY 97 If you have the impression that I am somewhat skeptical about the wide adoption of the LC Classification by academic librarians and that I find the literature on reclassification completely unconvincing, you could not be closer to the truth. I believe that it is not so much what DDC has lost as what librarians have lost. I am not sure whether I have read a paper or given a sermon, but whatever I have done, these things needed to be said and these questions needed to be asked. If I have produced little or no scientific evidence with which to further the cause of DDC, then I am in good company, for the most vigorous advocates of LCC have given us little more than opinion surveys, cost studies (which I cannot accept), and "good news" from network organizers, for as Marshall McLuhan has said: "Advertising is good news." If there is anything that can keep the Dewey-to-LCC movement alive, it will be our lack of understanding of the potential of general classification in library service. However, if the movement has run its course, we can now turn our attention to the uses of classification rather than reclassification. If we do this, then the future of the Dewey Decimal Classification is assured. REFERENCES 1. Mowery, Robert L. "The 'Trend to LC' in College and University Libraries," Library Resources & Technical Services 19:389-97, Fall 1975. 2. Tauber, Maurice F., and Feinberg, Hilda. "The Dewey Decimal and Library of Congress Classifications; An Overview," Drexel Library Quarterly 10:56-74, Oct. 1974. 3. Matthis, Raimund E., and Taylor, Desmond. Adopting the Library of Congress Classification System. New York, R.R. Bowker, 1971, p. 2. 4. Ibid. 5. Richmond, Phyllis A. "General Advantages and Disadvantages of Using the Library of Congress Classification." In Richard H. Schimmelpfeng and C. Donald Cook, eds. The Use of the Library of Congress Classification. Chicago, ALA, 1968, p. 209. 6. Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations. New York, Free Press, 1962. 7. Nelson, Bardin H. "Seven Principles in Image Formation." In Lee Richardson, ed. Dimensions of Communication. New York, Appleton-Century- Crofts, 1969, p. 55. 8. Matthis, Raimund E. "Moderator's Comments." In Jean M. Perreault, ed. Reclassification: Rationale and Problems (Conference Proceedings from the School of Library and Information Services, University of Maryland, vol. 1). College Park, School of Library and Information Services, University of Maryland, 1968, p. 27. 9. Matthis and Taylor, op. cit., p. 3. 10. Matthis, op. cit., p. 27. 98 GORDON STEVENSON 11. Nelson, op. cit., p. 56. 12. Ibid., p. 58. 13. Ibid., p. 59. 14. Tauber and Feinberg, op. cit., p. 69. 15. "Conference of Librarians, Catskills, Sept. 25-28, 1888... Third Day-Thursday, September 27," Library Journal 13:315, Sept.-Oct. 1888. 16. LaMontagne, Leo E. American Library Classification. Hamden, Conn., Shoe String Press, 1961, p. 316. PETER LEWIS Librarian University of Sussex Brighton, England Factors in the Selection of a Classification Scheme for a Large General Library This paper concerns the British Library; by now it is well known that the British Library consists of more than one large library. One of its components, the British Museum Library, is among the largest in the world; two others, the Science Reference Library in London, and the Lending Division in Yorkshire, both have collections sizable enough to raise problems regarding classification. In fact, however, the Lending Division has long since rejected classification as an operational tool in any other than peripheral uses, and is not a component which enters into the considerations I am making today. In addition to these, there is the Bibliographical Services Division, which is evolving from the formerly separate entity, the British National Biblio- graphy (BNB). This division is the most significant user of classification at the present time. Not only is the British National Bibliography primarily dependent on classification for its arrangement and articulation, but the classification data supplied by BNB is a substantial element of the centralized cataloging service which it gives to all kinds of libraries in Great Britain. One of the functions of the Bibliographical Services Division is to extend this service to cover the needs of in-house bibliographic processing within the British Library itself. 99 100 PETER LEWIS I am therefore dealing not so much with a large general library as with a large and complex national library system. Moreover, this is a system in which all the components have had a prior existence as independent organizations, sometimes with a long history of service and administration of their own. This aspect of the matter creates problems of rationalization which are perhaps unusual in terms of their scale, but which may not be dissimilar from those which arise wherever uniform bibliographic control is to be imposed on any two or more existing libraries which have long-established prior commitments and investments in their own different forms of control. What makes the British Library a particularly interesting case for the classificationist, in my opinion, is that its principal prior commitment is the classification service which it provides for other libraries, through the British National Bibliography and its contributions to the MARC record. Contrast this with the Library of Congress, for example, where classification policies and developments have historically originated primarily to meet in-house require- ments, and have only secondarily been determined by the needs of other libraries using the data. The British Library begins with a service to other libraries, and one of the main questions is whether that commitment can be extended to embrace its own, newly conceived in-house problems. We know what consequences may spring from too close an adherence to the dictum that "what's good for General Motors is good for the country." Essentially, the British Library has to find an answer to the question: Can what is good for the country also be good for General Motors? The Working Party In 1972, a Working Party was established with the following terms of reference: "to examine the various classification and indexing systems currently in use in the various component parts of the British Library and to consider the possibilities of rationalisation, taking into account the need for standardisation nationally and internationally." The Working Party consisted of senior staff members with responsibilities for classification and indexing policies and for programs in each of the various component parts of the British Library (BL) together with two external members: Herbert Coblans a distinguished authority on classification and indexing in the international sphere, and myself, who was honored with an invitation to act as chairman of the Working Party. The research department of Aslib acted as consultants on technical questions. The Working Party delivered its final report to the British Library Board in June 1974; this is projected for publication in 1976, together with the texts of those supporting studies which the Working Party appended to the SCHEME FOR A LARGE GENERAL LIBRARY 101 report. In this paper I am therefore anticipating publication of the report to some extent, but my intention is to draw attention to those findings and conclusions of the report which seem to be of interest to classificationists and library administrators concerned with the problems of rationalization in this field. I must begin this task by making the essential disclaimer that, although the authority for my comments derives from knowledge gained as chairman of the Working Party, nothing in what follows should be regarded as representing the official viewpoint or policy of the British Library Board. For one thing, the selection and interpretation of the Working Party's findings are my own. In addition, the British Library has not yet given a public indication of its endorsement of any of the recommendations made in the report. The Problem The only objective of rationalization is to achieve optimum cost- effectiveness. The ideal state of rationalization is one in which all requirements are met by a single system, generating the necessary data from a single source. The ultimate solution for the British Library would therefore be to find a single classification scheme which would yield maximum efficiency with respect to the following needs: 1. The arrangement of books in the British Museum Library The British Museum Library (BML) previously has used no classification for the arrangement of its stock. However, there are plans for it to move into a new, custom-designed building sometime in the late 1980s; when that happens, it will place on open access approximately one-quarter million volumes in the fields of humanities and social sciences. For these it needs a suitable classification. The great bulk of its vast collections will remain on closed access, but the availability of a class number for all acquisitions would enable it to exercise the greatest flexibility and economy in redetermining the contents of its open-access collections from time to time. 2. The arrangement of books in the Science Reference Library At present, virtually all Science Reference Library (SRL) stock is on open access, and classified in accordance with a special classification developed within the library itself from an earlier Patent Office Library classification. It is presently housed at two separate main sites, but it will eventually occupy one wing of the new British Library building and will thus exist physically next to the British Museum Library, with quick and easy access by readers from one library to the other. 3. The arrangement of bibliographic records in the subject catalogs of both BML and SRL At present, the principal catalogs are the published British 102 PETER LEWIS Museum Subject Index, which covers the fields of the British Museum Library, and at SRL, the card catalogs, arranged in accordance with SRL's own classification scheme. It must be remembered, of course, that BML shares with SRL the task of conserving the British copyright deposit intake, along subject-divided lines, and there is an expectation that the published British Museum Subject Index may be extended in scope to embrace SRL's work in its own fields of responsibility. 4. The arrangement of records in the British National Bibliography Arising largely from this need, and of equal weight in the Working Party's terms of reference, are the two following requirements. 5. National standardization BNB and British MARC act as sources of centralized cataloging and classification data for a large number of academic and public libraries throughout the United Kingdom and elsewhere. The classification data used to arrange BNB, and provided in MARC, should meet the needs of shelf arrangement and bibliographic records in the greatest possible number of other libraries within the national network. 6. International Standards As the principal national library, the British Library is increasingly involved in the interchange of bibliographic information at the international level. Classification and other subject data are a significant aspect of this interchange, in regard to the cost-saving utilization by all exchange partners of the information flowing through the international networks. Indexing and Information Retrieval We began in the sphere of indexing and information retrieval. We examined comprehensively the European and North American literature reporting experimental work or summarizing the present state of the art on mechanized searching and retrieval by means of MARC tapes or by Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC), Library of Congress Classification (LCC), or Universal Decimal Classification (UDC). We also studied problems, such as profile construction, that are raised by the use of classification in these spheres. This is a large and difficult area, on which it would be possible to spend the remainder of this session. I will restrict myself to reporting our conclusions. A satisfactory basis for a machine information retrieval system cannot be established without first identifying comprehensively the range of services which it is to supply, and then investigating the particular problems of each service. At the British Library, the potential demand for such services is very large and diffuse and, at this stage of development of BL's internal and SCHEME FOR A LARGE GENERAL LIBRARY 103 external connections, the problems of coordination and integration seemed to us nearly insurmountable. In addition, we felt that experimental work to date demonstrates that verbal mechanisms are superior to classification^ notation mechanisms in achieving effective specific subject retrieval systems. Undoubtedly this second conclusion was colored by the fact that PRECIS (the Preserved Context Indexing System) already incorporates a "verbal" machine-based indexing system that has been used for four years by the British National Bibliography, and recently by some library institutions, to create subject indexes for classified arrangements of document citations. PRECIS was, in fact, the only available machine-based indexing system that appeared to have the potential to meet whatever future requirements might arise in this spere in the British Library. We saw it first as a means of dealing with the immediate problem of the British Museum Subject Index, the production of which, in its present form, involves expensive manual elements and has been increasingly delayed because of staffing difficulties. A preliminary investigation showed that it was possible to manipulate PRECIS strings to produce mechanically an acceptable subject heading system which could replace the British Museum Subject Index with gains to the user, more efficient indexing information, and without an increase in cost. Further testing was undertaken and (subject to its satisfactory conclusion) we recommended that the PRECIS subject heading system be adopted to provide subject access to the BML collection and elsewhere as required. We saw it as the only means of providing a unified subject index to the BL Reference Division collections, and ultimately PRECIS strings would be added to all the records in the data base of the BL Reference Division. Classification and Interlibrary Relations Turning now to classification policies for the British Library in general, and for the BNB in particular, I have already emphasized that these cannot be determined without reference to the external use of classification schemes, nationally and internationally. The BL is committed to making its bibliographic data base available to other libraries and will itself receive large quantities of bibliographic records from other libraries for its internal use. There is, therefore, a potentially large demand from the library community for the provision of standard classification notations on British Library records. There may also be significant savings in the use of classification marks available on foreign records. The current ferment of activity throughout the library world in these areas suggested that further investigation of develop- ments at a later date, when clearer pictures emerged, would be required before 104 PETER LEWIS a final decision was made. Looking at it now, eighteen months later, I do not think that the pictures have yet become any clearer. For the picture as it appeared then, we collected and analyzed information on the comparative use of the published general classification schemes, in British libraries and in the national bibliographies of thirty-three countries. From our analysis, there is no question of the predominance of DDC in Great Britain. We established that DDC is used by 47 percent of all libraries,* and that it controls the arrangement of 75 percent of all library holdings. In contrast to this, UDC is used by 22 percent of British libraries, but controls the arrangement of only 5 percent of library holdings. As for LCC, particularly favored by British university libraries, it is used by 2 percent of all our libraries and controls the arrangement of 6 percent of library holdings. Internationally, it appeared that DDC and UDC have each an equal number of users at the level of the national bibliography or national library agency. We estimated that the annual output of authoritative machine-readable records which carry DDC numbers was about 131,000; there was a similar quantity of machine-readable records with LCC numbers, but none carried UDC numbers. On this evidence, we made a firm recommendation that the biliographic records created in BL's Bibliographical Services Division should continue to carry both DDC and LCC classmarks, and that they should do so as long as these facilitated the supply of exchangeable MARC records, and the generation of classified catalogs and bibliographies in forms acceptable and useful to public and academic libraries. In recent years, there has been some lobbying in Great Britain for the addition of UDC numbers to the MARC data base, but the evidence we obtained of national usage did not support it very strongly. We concluded that UDC should only be added to DDC and LCC numbers if the British Library found it desirable to do so for its own purposes that is, to facilitate information exchanges with other national libraries in Europe or elsewhere, or to provide a basis for its own shelf arrangement. Classification for Shelf Arrangement We now come to what proved to be the most difficult part of our brief: the determination of classification policies for the two great libraries of the Reference Division the British Museum Library and the Science Reference It will be noticed that this figure differs appreciably from that reported by Down- ing on p. 73 of this volume. It appears that there is no one authoritative list of British libraries, and that the British Library survey reported by Lewis was done by Aslib and in- cluded all special libraries which were institutional members.-Ed. SCHEME FOR A LARGE GENERAL LIBRARY 105 Library. These two libraries have developed quite separately, on separate sites, with quite different histories, and with different operating policies. The British Museum Library's particular need was for a classification scheme appropriate for the open-access collection, covering all fields of humanities and social sciences. Since it has not been classified before, there is no burden of reclassification involved. The Science Reference Library, by contrast, was a postwar creation with its nucleus in the nineteenth-century Patent Office Library, and although its book acquisition programs have been extended to embrace all copyright deposit items in all of its disciplinary fields, it still has the particular task of supplying the requirements of industrial research and the patents com- munitya task which it brought with it from its origins as the Patent Office Library and the National Reference Library for Science and Invention. Furthermore, it has put a large investment of professional energy over the last ten or more years into developing a special classification of its own from an earlier form used in the Patent Office. For convenience we may call this system the SRL scheme. Its collections are arranged by this scheme, and so are its subject catalogs. The problem here, then, is that the Science Reference Library sees itself as continuing to act as a discrete, "mission-oriented" library with its own role, its own identifiable clientele, and its own classification scheme as one of the tools by which it serves that clientele; the fulfillment of this mission is seen by its staff to require little interaction with its future next-door neighbor, the British Museum Library. What is to be gained by reclassifying SRL for the sake of uniformity with the BML next door? There are two answers to that question. One is the proposition that the use of a single classification is cheaper overall than the use of two or more especially when the single classification is one generated from the third corner of the triangle, the Bibliographical Services Division, and is salable, so to speak, to other libraries in the country and overseas. One drawback of the SRL's own scheme is that it is not used by any other library, and that its addition to BL's data base would be merely an additional expense, yielding benefit to none but SRL itself. The other answer to the question is that a single classification for both libraries of the Reference Division will provide flexibility and economy in demarcating the spheres of responsibility for each of the two libraries, as new disciplines and cross-disciplinary literatures emerge in the future. It will allow a uniformity of approach to the changing needs and interests of British Library users in general. Neither of these answers takes account of the quality of particular classifications, however. If one classification scheme is as good as another, the argument for standardization is simply one of cost and administrative 106 PETER LEWIS economy, and the value of classification as a professional method is in some ways diminished. If you regard classification as one of the most important elements in good library service to a particular clientele , you must give weight to the argument that what is gained financially and administratively in a change of classification may be lost in service to readers, if the new classification is less effective than the old one in meeting the needs of those users. It was not for the Working Party to determine whether SRL was to continue its "mission-oriented" role indefinitely, or alternatively to change its identity into a kind of scientific twin of the BML. What we could do, and did, was to examine the case that its present classification was significantly more effective for the control of scientific literature as a whole than any of the general classification schemes, which, being suitable for the BML, might also be used by SRL as an alternative to its own scheme for shelf arrangement. A study was carried out for us by Aslib of four general classification schemes: DDC, UDC, LCC and the Bibliographic Classification (BC). The last of these four was, of course, familiarly known in its original form by the name of its inventor, Bliss. What we studied was the preliminary schedules of the new revised version developed by Mills and others in England as a faceted classification. The four schemes were compared with each other and ranked in terms of seventeen criteria which in summary may be grouped as follows: (1) effectiveness as classifications, as evidenced, for instance, by provision of helpful collocation, level of specificity, up-to-dateness, notational qualities and searchability; (2) ease of use by a classifier; (3) availability of schedules; (4) frequency and extent of revision; (5) mechanisms established for mainten- ance and revision; and (6) extent of present use by libraries and bibliographic services. Judging by most of the criteria related to effectiveness as classifications, and with particular attention to the most recent thought on classification principles (as exemplified, among others, by the Classification Research Group), none of the four schemes was rated very high. We felt that LCC was the scheme that probably met fewest requirements, and BC possibly the most. However, BC has yet to be published in its revised form, and we were assessing it largely on the basis of its authors' claims; the judgment is thus very tentative. DDC and LCC were both rated high for criteria related to ease of use, availability of schedules, and extent of use by libraries as a whole. In addition, DDC was the only scheme of the four that scored high for the criteria related to frequency of revision, and to mechanisms for maintenance and revision. The investigation closely examined all of these questions, and took account of previous studies, such as the ALA Resources and Technical Services Division Classification Committee's "Statement on Types of Classifi- SCHEME FOR A LARGE GENERAL LIBRARY 107 cation Available to New Academic Libraries."! The detailed analysis is to be found in a technical memorandum prepared by Aslib for the Working Party, and this will be included among the appendices of the published report. At the risk of considerable oversimplification, I can attempt here only to summarize our findings on the four schemes as candidates for the role of arranging one-quarter million books on the open shelves of the British Museum Library: BC This was potentially the most progressive and satisfactory system for future needs. It is being developed in its revised form by British classificationists, and is thus distinctive and symbolic as a significant national contribution to modern classification, in advance of all others. However, against this must be balanced the unknown and untried performance characteristics of the new BC and the lack of any determinate policies with respect to all the other criteria related to availability of schedules, revision machinery, and use by other libraries. LCC This is a series of classification schemes used by a significant number of academic and other research libraries, whose general objectives and collections have more in common with the British Library than do those of the British Library with those of other libraries. LCC numbers are also available from the MARC record. Nevertheless, LCC rates low on most modern criteria related to effectiveness as a classification scheme and/or revision mechanism; it was particularly felt that the scheme offered the least possibility for a necessary British Library participation in long-term development and revision in accordance with British needs. UDC In many ways, UDC is the most important scheme in the interests of international standardization, particularly as it is widely used in Europe. On the other hand, it is generally considered seriously out of date and in need of drastic revision, and its future is uncertain. If the British Library adopts UDC, it will be necessary for it to become closely and positively involved in schedule development, and probably to make some financial investment in it. In addition, from the British Museum Library user's point of view, UDC has some disadvantages in its notation, which is designed primarily for the arrangement of document citations, and not for shelf arrangement. DDC This is the scheme that emerged as the most likely candidate for the British Museum Library, not so much from its positive merits as a classification (although it was thought to have no fewer positive merits than any of its rivals) as from the relative absence of drawbacks. Its practical advantages were seen to be: (l)it is more widely used in Great Britain than any other scheme; (2) its schedules and index are complete, widely available, and reasonably easy to use; (3) it is already being applied to British copyright 108 PETER LEWIS materials, as well as to a substantial proportion of other BL acquisitions; (4) there are well-established procedures for its maintenance and revision ; and (5) indications were given to us by British representation on the Editorial Policy Committee, and by recent policy statements from that body, that British and European requirements can be effectively input into the revision machinery in the future. Classification of the SRL From these conclusions relating to BML, we were left logically with only three possibilities to investigate with respect to the Science Reference Library. These were: (l)to retain the present SRL classification, (2) to replace the SRL scheme with UDC, or (3) to replace the SRL scheme with DDC. The debate on the relative merits of DDC, UDC and the SRL schemes tended to revolve around three factors: collocation, specificity, and class occupancy. A study carried out by Aslib compared the extent to which UDC/DDC and the SRL schemes collocated works on related topics, and judged that the schemes were roughly equal in this respect. On the other hand, another study by the staff of the Science Reference Library concluded that the SRL scheme provided significantly better collocation than DDC for searches in the field of technology. Then Aslib undertook a comparison of the specificity of the SRL scheme, the medium edition of UDC, and DDC in three subject areas. Only 54-59 percent of SRL classes had corresponding classes in UDC, while the figures for DDC were 36-38 percent. However, it was felt that it would be wrong to conclude from these results that the medium edition of UDC was less specific than the SRL scheme. A more detailed analysis of the situation, based on the class physical chemistry, showed that whereas only 58 percent of the SRL classes could be located in UDC, only 32 percent of the UDC classes had counterparts in the SRL scheme. Thus, since the overlap between the classifications was much less than might have been expected, there were no clear grounds for concluding that one of the schemes was more specific than another. At this point, the SRL staff introduced the concept of class occupancy, to be measured as the number of documents filed at a single classmark; they defined an overcrowded classmark as one at which more than twenty documents were filed. Two studies were made of class occupancy and overcrowding. These can be compared only in very general terms, because of the different document samples used, and at this level of comparison they appeared to produce conflicting results. The first study by SRL found that, for three selected subject areas, between 3 percent and 24 percent of the SRL SCHEME FOR A LARGE GENERAL LIBRARY 109 collection (classified by the SRL scheme) fell within an overcrowded class. If DDC were to be used, it seemed that this percentage might rise to 56-85 percent. However, this study had unfortunately omitted the facilities for synthesis in DDC, and the second study carried out by the Systems Development Branch of BL analyzed the effects of lifting this limitation, thereby allowing DDC a greater degree of specificity. This second study analyzed a complete set (as much as could be obtained) of all statistical mathematics entries classified by the eighteenth edition of DDC in BNB and LC MARC tapes. The set of 911 records produced 225 unique classmarks. Only 2 percent of the DDC classmarks were found to be overcrowded, but 36 percent of the sample fell within an overcrowded class. A further study of the effect on the full sample of eliminating those items which would not meet the criteria of a postgraduate selection policy would be necessary to measure the realistic level of class occupancy which would result, but it is a safe assumption that such an elimination would reduce significantly the numbers of documents in overcrowded classes. Therefore, from an SRL viewpoint, and again at the risk of oversimplification, the arguments for and against the three schemes studied can be stated as follows: UDC The defects of UDC are the same for the Science Reference Library as they would be for the British Museum Library. Nevertheless, as an admittedly science-oriented general classification, UDC is by tradition the first choice for scientific and technical libraries of many kinds; some beneficial spinoff in the direction of these other libraries might be expected from its adoption by SRL and its consequent inclusion in the central bibliographic record. If it were adopted by SRL, there would be a strong case for it also to be adopted by BML. As with any other classification not already in use at SRL, there would be on the debit side the cost of reclassifying some or all of the present SRL stock. DDC-Again, those merits of DDC indicated for BML requirements would apply also for the Science Reference Library. The adoption of DDC would have the additional advantage of reducing the current work load, since a proportion of SRL's intake would be received with DDC classmarks already assigned. DDC shares with UDC the advantage of being an acceptable classification in principle to form the basis of a unified approach to shelf arrangement within the two libraries of the Reference Division as a whole. On the debit side, as compared with the SRL scheme, there are the costs of reclassifying to DDC some or all of the SRL stock and, in contrast with UDC and the SRL scheme, the relative absence of recognition of DDC by scientists and technologists as a classification particularly well suited to their needs. 110 PETER LEWIS SRL Scheme The SRL scheme has been tailored to the library's requirements during its primary period of growth as the National Reference Library for Science and Invention. Being an "in-house" scheme, it is entirely under the control of SRL staff, and may be modified at need to reflect changing user requirements, changing acquisition policies or changes in the literature as they occur. The retention of the SRL scheme would avoid the immediate cost of reclassifying some or all of the present stock. In the long run, however, some effort would be required to keep it up to date, that is, to avoid the situation of accelerating obsolescence that befalls all "homemade" classification schemes when their originators depart, or that has arisen to a lesser extent with UDC. This effort would not be offset by cost savings in other ways, although it may be that these savings would be relatively small. Retention of the SRL scheme would also involve the addition of extra SRL classmarks to certain categories of material within the BL data base. The picture which emerges from studies of the suitability of DDC, UDC, and the SRL scheme for the Science Reference Library collections was thus unclear. The evidence we gathered did not demonstrate a clear superiority of any one classification scheme over another in terms of collocation, specificity or class occupancy; any decisions for changing from the present SRL scheme will have to be made on other grounds. Two main conclusions followed from the whole investigation of classification schemes. First, if the British Library's two references libraries are to be regarded as a pan-disciplinary collection with a single classification, the choice for shelf arrangement appears to lie between UDC and DDC. Of these, UDC has a wider international authority (in Europe at least), and a more widely participative process of schedule development; but, as far as the national library community is concerned, DDC predominates. Secondly, if the British Library Reference Division is to be regarded as two separate collections with a fairly permanent demarcation between them, different classifications for the two collections can be considered. As there is no intention of carrying over the existing pressmark system into the new BML Reading Room, the best choice of existing schemes there would appear to be DDC. For SRL there is no obvious best choice. The advantages of retaining the in-house scheme must be weighed against the long-term, overall advantages of changing to DDC. We made two further points about the Science Reference Library. The first was that considerable effort had gone into the creation and imple- mentation of its special in-house classification scheme over the previous ten years. However persuasive the arguments of cost-effectiveness might be, the SCHEME FOR A LARGE GENERAL LIBRARY 111 abandonment of the SRL scheme might well be seen by the specialist staff of the Science Reference Library as an unfavorable verdict on their contribution to the library's work. It is difficult to weigh this factor, but there is no doubt that it must in some way be inserted in the equation of the decision-making process. The second point we made perhaps counterbalances the first: the Science Reference Library today puts the greatest emphasis on meeting the needs of those who visit it, and thus rates classification for shelf arrangement high among its professional methods. Looking into the future, we may expect that the SRL will develop rather more into a central component of the developing national and international networks of scientific information transfer, and that it will be better able to perform this function if its classification and indexing systems match those of other components in the network, and follow the lines of the development being pursued within UNISIST. This requirement is likely to outweigh shelf arrangement as an institutional priority, and to reduce the validity of such measures as "class occupancy" in the determination of classification policies. We had little help from the published literature concerning the determination of unit costs. Most of the unit costs quoted were so dependent on the particular circumstances and environment in which they arose that no useful generalizations could be made. There was a considerable amount of internal information in various forms, and the report's appendices included analyses and inferences drawn from them. However, they must be regarded as very tentative, since they were derived from data concerning stock sizes and rates of growth that may already have been out of date at the time we examined them. We had hoped to get more accurate measurements by means of planned diary surveys of operations in various parts of the British Library, but unfortunately these had to be suspended. From what was available to us, we were able to reach certain preliminary conclusions: 1. PRECIS, as well as being more effective, would be significantly cheaper than the present manual system for compiling the British Museum Subject Index. 2. A single classification system for the whole of the British Library would be cheaper to operate than two or more systems. 3. LC Classification probably costs less to apply than any other of the general schemes. 4. DDC appears to cost less to apply than the SRL scheme. Beyond these, there were few positive statements to be made. 112 PETER LEWIS Postscript Since this paper was presented, the British Library has published the Working Party's report ,2 with a preface by the Director-General of the Reference Division stating that BL "accepts the recommendations ... in general." Specifically, DDC is accepted "insofar as a single scheme proves to be necessary . . . [and] will be adopted immediately for certain open access col- lections." At the Science Reference Library, however, adoption is to be post- poned "until the future accommodation pattern becomes clearer" and in the interim "all current intake will ... be classified also by DDC" so as to "mini- mise the work involved in transferring at a later stage to a DDC arrangement, if this proved to be the best decision for a unified collection." The costs of delaying the SRL decision, says the Director-General, "though not negligible, are capable of being accommodated." REFERENCES 1. "Statement on Types of Classification Available to New Academic Libraries," Library Resources & Technical Services 9:104-11, Winter 1965. 2. British Library Working Party on Classification and Indexing. Final Report (BL Research & Development Reports No. 5233). Boston Spa, BL Lend- ing Division, 1975. HANS H. WELLISCH Associate Professor College of Library and Information Services University of Maryland College Park, Maryland Dewey Decimal Classification, Universal Decimal Classification, and the Broad System of Ordering: The Evolution of Universal Ordering Systems O f the three systems named in the title of this paper, the first is familiar to everyone, even outside the profession of librarianship; the second is much less well known; and the last one is probably still a total stranger. Actually, to say that the Universal Decimal Classification (UDC) is little known in the United States is an understatement. Except for a handful of people who actually use the system, the general notion among many librarians in this country seems to be that the UDC is a quaint, even outlandish system, a transmogrification of Dewey performed by some oddballs in the city of Brussels. American textbooks on classification still call it the "Brussels Extension." Such ignorance and neglect is even more deplorable as the UDC is essentially of genuine American descent, being the offspring of the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC). 113 114 HANS H. WELLISCH When we celebrate the Dewey centennial, we can at the same time look back on exactly eighty years of UDC. It was in 1895 that two Belgian lawyers, Paul Otlet and Henri La Fontaine, decided to adapt the DDC for their plan of the Institut International de Bibliographic (IIB) as a classification system for the worldwide repertory of all knowledge recorded not only in books, but also in articles, reports, and any other kind of documents. Their choice was mainly influenced by the features that were then unique to the DDC: (l)the system dealt with concepts and ideas rather than with books, although it was primarily intended for the arrangement of books on shelves; (2) its purely numerical notation constituted a universally understood metalanguage, independent of any natural language; (3) the decimal principle seemed to allow for unlimited expansion for the accommodation of new subjects; and (4) the synthetic devices of number- building and form divisions allowed for the synthesis of specific subject codes with those for recurrent, common and general topics. It was this last feature which appealed most to Otlet and La Fontaine, and they soon developed it into the versatile and elaborate "Auxiliaries," each introduced by its own symbol, thus creating the first "faceted" classification scheme (although this term was then not used). What was still lacking for their purpose of close classification of minute details was sufficient subdivision in the main tables, and they proceeded immediately to refine the basic scheme. All this was done with the full consent of Dewey himself, who promised his "cooperation and criticizm" for all additions made. So rapid was the pace of adaptation and elaboration that only one year later, in 1896, the UDC tables already contained 40,000 headings, while the DDC (then in its fifth edition) had less than 7,500. Dewey had to admit regretfully that a critical evaluation of these expansions and cooperation in their further development was a task which, for lack of time, he could not take upon himself. For the next three decades, the two systems developed independently, yet more or less in parallel, with the UDC becoming more and more detailed, but still without changes in the basic framework devised by Dewey. In 1924 it was officially agreed upon to "harmonize" the DDC and UDC, so that the expansions made in Europe would also become an integral part of the American scheme, thus allowing for greater indexing specificity for those who wanted or needed it. In his preface to the twelfth edition of DDC, Dewey stated that the project was "well underway," and he praised the features that were most characteristic of the UDC: the Common Auxiliaries, based on his own Form Divisions, and the synthetic device of putting a colon sign between two or more UDC codes to indicate their relationship (a device which had its origin in Dewey 's use of the digit as a number-building device). Dewey 115 stated that "IIB has devized and uzes injenius simbols" and extolled "their vast practical advantajes," concluding that "obviusly these simbols allow *\ subdivision of the same number in many different ways without confuzion. However, despite Dewey's enthusiasm for the UDC and his endeavors to amalgamate the two schemes, developments took a different turn. In the late 1930s, and especially after World War II, the DDC and UDC grew further apart. Ironically, the differences occurred not so much in the "Auxiliaries," the feature that made UDC seem so unlike DDC, but rather in the subdivisions of the main schedules, where minute detail could have been achieved without radical departures from the parent scheme. In retrospect, we can only deplore that this was allowed to happen, not only because it led to much duplication of effort (since both schemes inevitably had to accommo- date new ideas, inventions and phenomena within their basically still-identical frameworks of ten main classes), but also because a unified scheme might have resulted long ago in a worldwide system for the identification and effective retrieval of recorded information independent of language and terminology barriers. Only now is such a worldwide system about to emerge in the shape of the Unesco-sponsored Broad System of Ordering (to which we shall return later), and it is gratifying to observe that it has its roots in the two great decimal systems. Even though DDC and UDC could no longer be reconciled, we are now able to perceive that they continued to influence each other: there is an unmistakable trend in the DDC to become less enumerative and more synthetic, more faceted, especially since the seventeenth edition. The gradual transformation of the Form Divisions into the present Standard Subdivisions, and the creation of the various Tables undoubtedly owe much to the development and mode of application of the Auxiliaries in UDC (even though the principle of general applicability of the Tables throughout the whole system has not yet been fully and consistently applied. For example, the Persons Table is not applicable in class 300, (where it would be most appropriate) because the direct subdivisions for persons are retained according to the principle of "integrity of numbers." Conversely, where DDC was better developed or more elaborate than UDC, e.g., in the historical schedules for the two world wars, or in the history and geography subdivisions for the United States and some other countries, the UDC followed the DDC and adopted its schedules in their entirety rather than developing new ones. The UDC Today The UDC as it presents itself today is undoubtedly vastly different from its parent scheme, although it still retains nine of the ten main classes of 116 HANS H. WELLISCH DDC. The differences lie not only in the very large number of minute subdivisions for almost every subject, but also in the allocation of relative place for several major subjects, especially regarding more recent developments in science and technology such as nuclear science, engineering and computers. Although it has lost some ground to thesauri and specially devised classification schemes, it is still extensively used in Western Europe (particularly in the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium), it is being used by the Soviet Union and other East European countries for all scientific and technical publications, and it is widely used in the Latin American countries. The number of libraries, indexing and abstracting services, and individual users has been estimated to be at least 100,000 perhaps more. Only in the United States has the UDC not met with appreciable success, despite the efforts of several large special libraries and of American and Canadian information scientists who were instrumental in demonstrating the potential of the UDC in computerized information retrieval. Despite its phenomenal growth and apparent success, during the past two decades the UDC has been the subject of severe criticism, both from outside observers (including some who had never been actual users of the scheme and were thus not well qualified to evaluate its merits and demerits) and from within. The minute subdivisions, once thought to be the strength and pride of the system, have been found to be excessive in number, leading to unwanted redundancy and consequently to retrieval failures; classes 5 and 6, devoted to the sciences and technology, are now hopelessly overcrowded (a fate they share with classes 500 and 600 in DDC); finally, the management of the system, while being highly democratic and oriented toward an international clientele, is cumbersome and inefficient, with the result that proposed additions and changes are being made too slowly and infrequently. During the last five years, this criticism has resulted in some significant movement toward change, partly aimed at reform of the existing framework, and partly directed toward radically new solutions to the problem of an international and universal system of information retrieval. Reform Since its beginnings, the UDC has been based on the principle of constant ongoing revision in order to keep pace with new developments and new conceptions of the universe of knowledge. Although this has resulted in a rather unwieldy committee structure which often impedes rather than advances needed revisions, every year hundreds of new and revised codes are added, many obsolete ones are deleted, and major expansions of existing main classes are effected. Of course, sometimes radical surgery would be easier E VOL UTION OF UNI VERSA L ORDERING S YSTEMS 1 1 7 to perform and would give better results, but piecemeal revision and updating are necessary because of the needs of present users, some of which have built up extensive files over the years. Lately, the processes of reform have been brought more in line with the requirements of modern information retrieval, and several specially appointed committees have tried to apply the insights gained from research into the theoretical foundations of classification. Among the tangible results of their work are the following: 1. The procedures for the proposal of additions, deletions or changes and their accomplishment by appropriate committees or experts has been streamlined, leading to a quicker publication of the results. 2. Most parts of class 3 social sciences have been largely remodeled, and now constitute not only the most detailed but probably also the best balanced schemes for this field, which is one of the most difficult to handle in any information retrieval system. The difficulties result from its diffuse, imprecise and constantly changing terminology, and because of the ideological differences and diametrically opposed conceptions held by sociologists, economists, educators and politicians in the West, in the communist countries, and in the Third World. The construction of the revised parts of class 3 was undertaken with the collaboration of experts from capitalist and communist countries alike, which should ensure that it will be a truly international tool for information retrieval in the social sciences. 3. Several large and important subject fields have undergone major revisions, most of which could be made in situ, i.e., without a change in the main code; among these are 51 mathematics, 52 astronomy, 624 civil engineering, 69 building construction, 796 sport, and 903 archeology (this one transferred from 930.26 and entirely new). The Basic Medium Edition (BME) For a long time, the UDC has been published in editions of varying scope. The full editions contain every code (estimated at more than 200,000); the first of these were two French editions, followed by a German one, and now there is also an almost complete (although not entirely updated) full edition in English. Partial full editions exist also in Czech, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Spanish and Japanese. These editions are intended for subject experts who need minutely detailed codes for classing documents in their particular field, but they are not practical for classing documents ranging over all or most fields, e.g., in general library collections or for a comprehensive indexing service. Therefore, more than twenty abridged editions have been published over the years in as many languages, ranging in 118 HANS H. WELLISCH scope from 10 to 15 percent of the codes contained in a full edition. Incidentally, these abridged editions form a kind of multilingual dictionary, in which concepts and their denoting terms in various languages are linked by the same code numbers. Unfortunately, abridged editions soon proved to be sufficient only for small libraries or for rather broad classification. In 1967, a medium-sized edition ("Handausgabe") was published in Germany, comprising about 30 percent of the codes in the full edition, and this was soon followed by a similar French "medium" edition. Although the decision about which codes from the full edition should be included in a medium-sized one cannot be based on percentages alone, and must be carefully considered for each class in the light of user needs and of characteristics of the pertinent literature, it is now generally agreed that an edition containing about one-third of the main codes, plus a complete set of auxiliary tables for the common facets, is the most versatile tool for the practical indexer and classifier. The last English abridged edition was published in 1961, and is now hopelessly out of date. In light of the success of the German and French medium editions, it was decided not to issue another English abridged edition, but to forge ahead with a medium edition which, at the same time, would become the basic master edition on which all others would be modeled. The original goal to produce this Basic Medium Edition (BME) in 1976 as UDC's contribution to the Dewey centennial could unfortunately not be met, but it may be published in 1977. The amount of abridgment for each class has already been established by the general editor in close collaboration with existing committees and subject experts; it will probably have main tables containing about 50,000 codes, to which will be added complete tables of common facets; all additions and changes up until mid- 197 5 will be incorporated. Preparations are presently being made to convert the codes of the BME and their English verbal equivalents into machine-readable form, to be later augmented by German, French, and possibly other language equivalents, and to update the resulting master file whenever revisions are being made. It is possible that this master file will be managed by the Library of the Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule in Zurich, where a machine-readable data base of this kind already exists in abbreviated form (mainly for technical and scientific subjects covered by this library). A copy of the master file will also be kept at the headquarters of the International Federation for Documentation (FID) in the Hague, and the tapes will be made available to other users who could produce their own version of UDC tables for specialized purposes, or in languages not covered by the master tape. The alphabetical index to the BME will be published separately at a later date, and will probably be constructed on the thesaurus principle, thus EVOLUTION OF UNIVERSAL ORDERING SYSTEMS 119 producing another variant of the system originally produced for the field of electrical engineering under the name of Thesaurofacet. A pilot project for the construction of such an index has already been produced by Belgian experts for class 33 economics, and is considered to be better and easier to use than the conventional relative index of the type with which we are familiar in Dewey and in the English abridged edition of 1961. Another possibility is the computer-aided construction of index entries in a KWOC format, recently employed in the index to the Dutch abridged edition, which is much better than the computer-generated index to the German medium edition that was produced by simply extracting keywords from headings without any regard to related terms or synonyms. A New Class 4 A reform measure not yet implemented is the creation of a new class 4. For more than a decade, this class has been vacant, its contents having been amalgamated with class 8, which now comprises both literature and linguistics. The intention had been to make an entire main class available for relocation of scientific and technical subjects now squeezed into the overcrowded classes 5 and 6. Several proposals for the repopulation of class 4 have been made; the most recent, as yet existing only in rough outline, has the following subdivisions: 4 man and his natural environment; material resources 41 man as an individual; medical sciences; anthropology; psychology 42 general biology; botany; zoology 43 agricultural sciences; plants and animals 44 animal biology and husbandry (if 43 for plants and crops only) 45 mineral resources; mining and mineral dressing 46 materials; testing, sampling, etc. 47 handling and transport of materials and persons 48 management: business, household, etc. It is, of course, possible to quarrel with this proposal and its juxtaposition of major subjects as much as with any of the earlier proposals, but it seems to come close to the present general consensus on a helpful collocation of topics clustering around man and his environment. If finally adopted and suitably elaborated, it would make room for the reallocation of subjects now suffering from bad notation and unhelpful placement, among them electrical, nuclear and transportation engineering. 120 HANS H. WELLISCH Drastic Revision and a New UDC The implementation of reform in various parts of the UDC as outlined above will inevitably lead to a complete restructuring and possibly to a New UDC (NUDC). A committee on "drastic revision of the UDC" has been active during the past three years, and its members have produced various outlines for such a reconstruction. The latest version envisages the creation of General Facets which would be applicable throughout the system (similar to, but more systematic than, the present Auxiliaries) such as Attributes, Phenomena, Processes, Methods and Objects; subdivisions of the latter would be Matter, Persons, Organizations, Products, etc., each of which could be further subdivided as needed. There would also be a number of Subject Fields, roughly subdivided into Natural Sciences, Life Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Humanities, and Social Sciences, each further subdivided, but not to the sometimes excessive degree of detail now found in UDC. Common features in each Subject Field would be expressed by Special Facets, i.e., those applicable only to a particular field or topic. All this is, of course, by no means entirely new, and can in fact be traced back to the original ideas on synthesis of numbers as conceived by Dewey, but it would certainly result in a new universal classification scheme which would have little in common with the UDC as we know it now. The new scheme is already well on its way, and at least some of the General Facets have already been elaborated in detail, or will be taken over more or less completely from the present UDC, e.g., the Materials Facet -03, with whose help any object can be classed according to the material of which it is made, independent of where in the UDC the object has been classed. Other General Facets are the Time Facet (now having the notation ". . .") and the Space Facet (. . .), both of which have recently been revised and expanded to cater to the needs not only of geographers and historians, but also of any classifier in need of time, place and space indications. A substantial part of the work with an NUDC will consist in weeding the existing schedules and eliminating direct subdivisions of main codes which can be better expressed by general or special facets. Doing so will make the whole system more flexible and amenable to cope with rapid changes both in science and technology and in the general conceptions of the world we live in. It will be possible, of course, to handle the NUDC by computers for the purpose of automatic retrieval of information from large systems. The present UDC has shown itself to be amenable to automation, and more than sixty working systems (some of them experimental) have been designed and used. Partial retrieval failures or other shortcomings of these systems were almost always due to the fact that the basically faceted structure of UDC is not uniformly applied throughout the system. Straight decimal subdivision of main EVOLUTION OF UNIVERSAL ORDERING SYSTEMS 121 codes (inherited from DDC) is often substituted for synthetic notation, and unnecessary duplication results from denoting recurrent concepts by different kinds of auxiliary notations in various parts of the UDC. The elimination of such incongruencies by judicious weeding of the tables and application of General and Special Facets will make the restructured UDC a much more reliable retrieval tool for mechanized systems. Broad System of Ordering (BSO) The worldwide information systems network created by Unesco under the name of UNISIST recommended in its basic policy statement that an internationally applicable classification system be adopted as a means to organize recorded knowledge independent of the many vernaculars in which it is now published all over the world. It was obvious that the UDC would be considered for this role, but it was also pointed out that it was not acceptable in the form in which it then existed. It soon became clear, however, that if anybody could design a suitable classification system, it would have to be the group of people who had the widest experience with an already existing international scheme. Thus, several prominent members of the Central Classification Committee of UDC, together with other experts, were entrusted with the task of designing a Broad System of Ordering with the instruction to create a tool capable of achieving three main objectives: (1) to serve as a connecting link and a switching mechanism between various information systems, services and centers, each of which may have its own indexing and retrieval language (natural or controlled, verbal or numerical, but in most cases incompatible with that of any other system); (2) to be used for internationally standardized "tagging" of subject fields and their main subdivisions, i.e., to serve as a shallow indexing tool; and (3) to be a referral aid for the identification and location of information sources, centers and services of all kinds. A proposal for BSO was elaborated and submitted to UNISIST in early 1975 for approval and testing. The scheme contains about 2,000 headings, arranged in three levels of hierarchy; approximately 670 of these are in the natural and life sciences (including agriculture and medicine), 530 are in technology, and the rest, about 700, cover the social sciences, humanities and arts. The small number of headings in the BSO (fewer than those in the second edition of Dewey's scheme) was deliberately used in order to keep the system broad, as indicated by its name. BSO is not intended to supersede individual specific headings or codes in existing indexing languages, but to serve primarily as a switching language. An interesting feature in BSO is the separation of the natural sciences from their associated technologies, despite 722 HANS H. WELLISCH the often-voiced criticism of this arrangement in DDC, UDC and other classification schemes, and often attributed to the outmoded conceptions prevailing in the late nineteenth century. Both classificationists and subject experts agreed that, on the whole, the advantages of such a separation outweighed the disadvantages; they made an exception only for the life sciences, because of the close ties between biology and its applications in agriculture and medicine. Throughout the proposed BSO, care was taken to ensure that the individual elements could be freely combined in order to accommodate future developments and new knowledge without frequent drastic restructuring of the scheme. This feature would also compensate to some degree for the separation of sciences and technologies. The scheme is now to be tested by experts in various fields, before final adjustments to the scope and specificity of headings will be made in the light of practical experience. The field trials will test the completeness of coverage and the appropriateness of indexing depth. Initially, the tests will not be aimed at the retrieval of specific documents, but rather at broad groups of documents and "blocks of information" by taking samples from the World Inventory of Indexing and Abstracting Services (published by FID in collaboration with the National Federation of Abstracting and Indexing Services, and available in machine-readable format), from other indexes in machine-readable format, and from national directories of information sources. The designers of BSO wisely refrained from appending a notation to the tentative scheme, in order not to influence the conceptual structure by any constraints exercised by a preconceived ordering device. The notation will be assigned to the headings only after final confirmation of their scope and relative position in the scheme. If and when this happens, the notation may not be purely numerical, and it may not even be decimal, so that on the face of it there seems to be little, if any, connection between BSO and UDC. Because of the broad nature of BSO, however, a system such as UDC with its greater detail and flexibility will be needed to supplement the "roof code" of BSO for the purpose of indexing and retrieving individual and specific documents. More important still, it is probably no exaggeration to say that without UDC, BSO may not have become a reality, or that it would at least have been vastly more difficult to design such a scheme from scratch. After all, the cumulative experience of hundreds of contributors, and the feedback provided by thousands of users throughout the world over a period of eight decades, together with insights gained from research into the theoretical foundations of classification during the last thirty years, has resulted in a tool that, despite its many shortcomings, remains the most universal, versatile and widely used system for indexing and retrieval of information. The UDC in turn would not have been EVOLUTION OF UNIVERSAL ORDERING SYSTEMS 123 possible, but for the genius of Dewey, whose scheme contained the basic building blocks on which all modern retrieval systems have been built. Perhaps the new BSO will achieve, albeit on a very general level, for the subject organization of documents what has already been accomplished to a large extent in the closely related field of descriptive control by the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD) and other appurte- nant elements aimed at standardization in bibliographic control. It may thus become the capstone of the great conception which for 500 years has been the dream of bibliographers and librarians, and which only now is gradually taking shape, namely Universal Bibliographic Control knowing the sum total of all knowledge that has been recorded in whatever form, and knowing what and where those records are. REFERENCES 1. Dewey, Melvil. Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index. 12th ed. Lake Placid Club, N.Y., Forest Press, 1927, p. 40. 2. Ibid., pp. 40-41. 3. Rigby, Malcolm. Computers and the UDC: A Decade of Progress, 1963-1973. The Hague, International Federation for Documentation, 1974. (FID 523) 4. Downey, Maurice W. "Data Collection and Transcription in the Cataloguing Section," Libri 22:58-76, 1972. 5. Aitchison, Jean, et al. Thesauro facet: A Thesaurus and Facetted Classification for Engineering and Related Subjects. Whetstone, England, English Electric Co., 1969. 6. Rigby, op. cit. ADDITIONAL REFERENCES Foskett, Anthony C. The Universal Decimal Classification: The History, Present Status and Future Prospects of a Large General Classification Scheme. Hamden, Conn., Linnet Books, 1973. Schmidt, A. F., and Wijn, J. H. de. "Some Possibilities for a New 'Reformed' UDC (Suitable for Extension of the Standard Reference Code)," DK-Mitteilungen 16:19-21, 1972. Van der Laan, Andre, and Wijn, Jan H. de. "UDC Revision and SRC Project: Relations and Feedback," Unesco Bulletin for Libraries 28:2-9, Jan. -Feb. 1974. Wellisch, H. "UDC: Present and Potential," Drexel Library Quarterly 10:75-89, Oct. 1974. DEREK AUSTIN Head Subject Systems Office The British Library London, England The Role of Indexing in Subject Retrieval On first reading the list of speakers proposed for this institute, I became aware of being rather the "odd man out" for two reasons. Firstly, I was asked to present a paper on PRECIS which is very much a verbal indexing system-at a conference dominated by contributions on classification schemes with a natural bias, as the centenary year approaches, toward the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC). Secondly, I feared (quite wrongly, as it happens) that I might be at variance with one or two of my fellow speakers, who would possibly like to assure us, in an age when we can no longer ignore the computer, that traditional library schemes such as DDC and Library of Congress Classification (LCC) are capable of maintaining their original function of organizing collections of documents, and at the same time are also well suited to the retrieval of relevant citations from machine-held files. In this context, I am reminded of a review of a general collection of essays on classification schemes which appeared in the Journal of Documentation in 1972. Norman Roberts, reviewing the papers which dealt specifically with the well established schemes, deduced that "all the writers project their particular schemes into the future with an optimism that springs, perhaps, as much from a sense of emotional involvement as from concrete evidence." Since I do not believe that these general schemes can play any significant part in the retrieval of items from mechanized files, it appeared that I had been cast in the role of devil's advocate. 124 ROLE OF INDEXING 125 By tradition, the role of devil's advocate (and we should remember that every conference needs one) has to be defended by logical argument. I would therefore like to begin by stating some of my grounds for believing that a library classification, as this term is usually understood, cannot function equally well for the dual purpose of organizing shelves on the one hand, and searching machine-held files on the other. This will then serve as a useful introduction to the topic on which I was primarily invited to speak: the role of the verbal subject index in document retrieval, using PRECIS as the example with which I am familiar. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION The review by Norman Roberts quoted earlier referred to a collection of essays edited by Arthur Maltby, entitled Classification in the 1970's. A rather more direct opinion of this work was expressed by an astute American reviewer, Jean Perreault, who regarded these essays as clear evidence that "the two major purposes of documentary classification, namely for shelf organisation and for mechanised retrieval, are not well served by a single system unless consciously modified to cater for the two purposes.' Perreault does not suggest how this modification might be carried out, though I strongly suspect that any alteration of a scheme to enhance its performance in one of these roles would almost certainly render it less effective in the other. To demonstrate this point, we can consider the relationship between structure and function in a classification scheme, starting with its obvious function of imposing order upon collections of documents. For this purpose, we can stipulate certain desiderata, of which the most important are probably: 1 . brevity of notation this point was heavily stressed by librarians in a survey of classification needs carried out by the (British) Library Association in 1966; 4 2. reasonable collocation, or the bringing together of like-with-like on the shelves, while bearing in mind the disconcerting fact that no library scheme, however well conceived, can ever bring together all the documents which a given reader would regard as belonging to his special field of interest; 3. hospitality and specificity -with the introduction of these two comple- mentary characteristics we can already begin to detect an element of strain (i.e., How can any scheme offer these two characteristics, and still retain a short notation?); 4. standardization becoming increasingly important as international data exchange networks continue to develop. The acceptance of a classification scheme as a general standard could eventually mean that the librarian in 126 DEREK AUSTIN Chicago has no need to reclassify any work which has been handled already by his counterpart in London or Paris. Provided that a decision made in the country of origin of the document accords with standard practice, it should be possible to adopt that decision as soon as it becomes available, either in the form of a magnetic tape record, or via a telecommunication link directly into the foreign data base. I should now like to consider a different set of desiderata: those which apply to a mechanized file intended for tracing relevant documents in response to users' inquiries. In this context, we could stipulate two important characteristics: 1. currency and hospitality that is, we need the ability to identify quickly works on newly emerging concepts, or on new subjects which consist of familiar concepts combined in unfamiliar and even unexpected ways. A good deal of the literature we handle on a day-to-day basis contains emergent knowledge which belongs to one or the other of these two categories; 2. we need to identify, in the most economical way (which in computer terms means as quickly as possible) all the works which may have dealt with a specific concept. For this purpose, a given concept should ideally be represented by just one symbol which can then be used as the key to its retrieval from any part of the file. If we now attempt to compare these two sets of desiderata that is, those for a shelf-order system, and those for a mechanized file we can, perhaps, begin to see why these different needs cannot be satisfied entirely by a single system. Let us consider, for example, the librarian's justifiable need for a short notation, and contrast this with the need, in a mechanized file, to identify each separate element in a compound subject by some unique symbol which could serve as the key to its retrieval from any part of the system. An enumerative classification, such as DDC or LCC, obviously serves the librarian very well in terms of notational economy. A great deal of conceptual information can be packed into a fairly simple class mark such as 621.3, which represents electrical engineering. However, this number is not particularly helpful if we consider it as an aggregate of concepts from the viewpoint of machine retrieval. The symbol .3, attached to the stem number 621, means electrical in this case, but it does not follow (as it should, ideally, in a imechanized system) that the mark .3 continues to express electrical throughout the rest of the schedules. In a different class context, such as 914, for example, an additional .3 denotes Central Europe and Germany. In that case, a given symbol does not consistently represent the same concept. The converse is equally true; that is, a given concept is not ROLE OF INDEXING 127 represented consistently by the same symbol. In fact, it takes approximately one hundred different symbols to represent the concept electrical or electricity in the schedules of the eighteenth edition of DDC. Such a wide range of numbers is partly due to the fact that this scheme is generally enumerative, but it does not follow that the problem has been solved by the makers of faceted classifications. For example, a relatively simple concept such as iron is expressed by at least six entirely different numbers in the abridged edition of the Universal Decimal Classification, and by several different symbols in the Colon Classification. This does not mean that these schemes have no role to play in library organization, but it does cast at least some doubts on their effectiveness as tools for mechanized searching. I have tried, in a different paper, to set out the case for regarding these faceted schemes as less than satisfactory for present-day purposes on the grounds that, in trying to satisfy both the librarian and the data base manager, they may have attempted the impossible and succeeded in neither. THE CRG RESEARCH INTO A NEW GENERAL CLASSIFICATION I might point out that this opinion represents more than a theoretical viewpoint. It is also based on some personal experience in trying to devise a scheme which could function equally well for both library arrangement and mechanized retrieval. An opportunity to explore this ground arose in connection with the NATO-funded research into a new general classification scheme which was carried out by the Classification Research Group (CRG) in London during the 1960s. Partially for the reasons I have outlined, the CRG decided that an entirely new approach to classification was needed one which, it was hoped, would lead to a scheme which could function equally well for both library arrangement and the identification of works on specific concepts. It was assumed from the beginning of this research that any new scheme should be founded upon the basic postulates for an analytico -synthetic classification established by Ranganathan. These postulates are themselves based on two assumptions which together constitute the keystone to modern classification theory: (l)any compound subject is amenable to analysis into discrete conceptual elements, each of which (at least in theory) could be identified by its own unique symbol; and (2) the compound subject, regarded as a whole, could then be reconstituted out of these parts in accordance with a general formula, and the formula itself could be based upon a single set of logical principles which would apply across the whole spectrum of knowledge. 128 DEREK AUSTIN These postulates are all very well in theory, but what about the practice? At the time when the CRG research began, no one had actually attempted to take these ideas to their logical conclusion and construct an entirely analytico-synthetic classification. Even Ranganathan's Colon Classifica- tion is firmly based on a set of main classes, and the notation which represents a given concept can vary from one main class to another. Furthermore, Ranganathan's formula for number building, based on the general categories of Personality, Matter, Energy, Space and Time, is not so generalized at it first appears. In particular, the primary facet, Personality, has caused problems for both teachers and practitioners. Since this is the factor which has to be cited first when building a compound subject from its parts, it is therefore the factor which determines where documents on that subject will be shelved. In practice, however, it has been found that the interpretation of Personality depends upon the main class structure of the scheme in use; even in the Colon Classification system, this can vary from one class to another. Unfortunately, a good deal of modern literature, even at the monograph level, severely strains the concept of main classes. When faced by a subject such as "the use of computers to handle the payroll of teaching staff in American universities," the interpretation of Personality will certainly vary with the frames of reference of the user (as well as the librarian) depending on whether the user is computer-oriented, is an accountant, a personnel manager, or a university administrator. These were the kinds of challenge, which appear to be endemic in both enumerative and faceted classifications, which stimulated the CRG research. The solutions we explored can best be considered as simultaneous attacks on two different but related fronts. The first might be called the semantic approach, and was concerned with the organization of concepts (individual units of information) into basic categories to which they appeared to belong in a definitional sense, without taking any account of the ways in which these concepts might occur in different compound subjects, in the sense in which iron, for example, belongs to a category called metals, and beauty to a general class of human subjective judgments. Once a concept had been assigned to its general class, it would then have been identified by a single notational symbol which would have served two purposes: (1) to label that concept in a once-and- for-all fashion, so that the symbol could be used for locating documents on that concept from any part of a data base; and (2) it would show, through its hierarchically expressive structure, the general class of ideas to which the concept belonged. The other approach we considered is more closely related to syntax than semantics. This was a search for what might be called a set of generalized rules which would constitute a classificatory "grammar," insofar as ROLE OF INDEXING 129 they would determine the order in which concepts should be set down when building any compound subject out of its parts. The first of these tasks the assignment of concepts to general categories obviously called for an explicit act of classification, although not in the library sense. We were here concerned with imposing order on a universe of concepts, not on a universe of subjects. For this reason, I would prefer to use the term categorization to describe what we attempted, leaving the term classification to be used in its familiar or library sense. In terms of methodology, our general approach to this universe of concepts was not radically different from that employed by the maker of a library classification. Each of these tasks calls for a basically similar technique. Certain principles of division have to be established, and these must then be introduced one at a time, each principle being exhausted before a new one is introduced. We first divided concepts into two basic kinds, those which indicate Things, and those which are the Attributes of things. Each of these classes was then further subdivided. The general category of Things, for example, was separated into two new classes, called Naturally Occurring Entities and Artificial Entities; the latter category was again divided into concrete artifacts (such as chairs and aircraft), and mental constructs (such as systems of belief and theoretical models). A similar operation was also carried out for the general cateogry of Attributes. If there had been time to complete this work, the final product would have been what might be called a macrothesaurus dealing with the basic concepts, as they occur in modern literature, which form the quanta from which all compound subjects in any field can be constructed. I should, perhaps, stress that this is not an entirely new approach to the organization of knowledge. Thesauri, as such, have a long and respectable history, with Roget's serving as the obvious model for the kind of macrothesaurus we are now considering. It is also worth noting that several library classification systems, with DDC as the classic example, already operate in this way to some extent. Apart from the fact that compound subjects can be built by using the add instruction, certain classes of general concepts, especially those which are likely to be needed at any point in the schedules, have already been assigned to general categories. These form the auxiliary schedules which now occupy a separate volume in the current edition of DDC, and from which the classifier extracts, as he needs them, commonly occurring factors such as bibliographic forms, places, method- ologies, and so on. The approach considered by the CRG would simply have taken this idea to its logical conclusion that is, all the concepts in the schedules would, in effect, have been assigned to the auxiliary schedules, then notated on a permanent basis, ready for use in number-building whenever the appropriate literature appeared. 130 DEREK AUSTIN The second problem faced by the CRG was that of devising a general formula, based on teachable and logical principles, for building compound subjects out of their parts. We had, of course, started with the classical PMEST formula of Ranganathan, but this was found to be inadequate in some respects. We therefore extended this model in various ways. Following the work of Vickery, we defined the parts of a subject more explicitly in terms of their grammatical roles or functions. For examples, Wholes were distinguished from Parts, and it was stipulated that the whole must always be cited before the part. We also identified specific elements of subjects, such as the product of an action, the object upon which the action was performed, the action itself, and its agent. In order to achieve a reasonable level of consistency among classifiers, each of these roles was identified by a numerical code (called an operator) which was given a built-in filing value. When building a compound subject out of its parts, each separate piece of notation representing a specific concept would have been prefixed by an appropriate operator, and the filing value attached to the operator would have ensured, for example, that the whole was consistently set down before the part, that the object or recipient of the action was written before the action itself, and the action before the agent. In effect, we were searching for a generalized grammar of classification one which could be used as a mental model for regulating the order of concepts in any compound subject. In devising this model, we had deliberately disregarded traditional disciplines as these are usually understood. Nevertheless, the order of concepts had still been selected with a view to providing some kind of helpful collocation in a pan -disciplinary library or bibliography. It would be foolish to claim that anything resembling a new general classification arose from these efforts. Nevertheless, at the end of the research (when we had used up the 5,000 awarded to the CRG by the NATO Science Foundation), I think we had at least demonstrated the feasibility of the approach we had been exploring, both toward the construction of a general thesaurus, and toward the establishment of a generalized grammar for subject building. Near the end of the project, a provisional notation was applied to the outline categories of concepts which had been developed, and the number-building techniques were applied to a sample collection of research reports. The results were then studied by the members of the CRG, who considered them from various viewpoints. From the viewpoint of collocation, the results were surprisingly acceptable. Obviously, the general formula we had developed did not produce groupings of the kind which are usually associated with the traditional disciplines found in schemes such as DDC. Nevertheless, we appeared to have achieved helpful groupings, especially in those emergent fields which tend to cut across the older disciplines. However, there was still one factor we could not ignore. Although this system might have proved well ROLE OF INDEXING 131 suited to the searching of machine-held files, the resulting class numbers were completely unsuitable for library purposes, simply because they were far too long and complicated. As Jack Mills pointed out when reviewing this work: "the code system used . . . conveys the structure of the system succinctly for machine manipulation . . . although it is obvious that the system does constitute a general 'library classification' in the accepted sense." THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRECIS Fortunately, this was not the end of the story. During the CRG search for a number-building formula, concepts had been organized in various ways to test a range of hypotheses. In a number of cases, we had actually used words rather than notational symbols to represent specific concepts, partly because a word conveys a more obvious and immediate message than a symbol, and also because in many cases we were dealing with concepts which had not yet been admitted into the thesaurus. These experiments in term manipulation became more than a matter of expediency, and assumed the status of a new research project when the decision was made, in 1969, to produce the British National Bibliography (BNB) directly from our own MARC tapes. From its first issues, BNB has appeared as a classified bibliography; that is to say, full catalog entries for all British monograph output have been printed under their DDC class numbers in the "front end" of the bibliography, and this systematic arrangement has been supported by one or more separate indexes giving access under the names of authors, titles, subjects, etc. It is necessary, at this point, to stress a lesson of MARC which has still not been fully appreciated by many librarians: MARC, if applied correctly, should mean the end of the concept of the main entry. Provided that all the essential components of a full catalog entry have been assigned to their correct fields in a record, so that each is uniquely identified, the librarian can, through a simple instruction to the computer, ask for these data to be organized in any way which satisfies his requirements. This kind of provision is endemic in MARC itself; nevertheless, it was some time before we fully realized the potential of the system. When BNB first became involved with MARC, our exchange tapes were made as an extra operation, and the national bibliography itself was still being produced by traditional means. It then became clear that many of the sequences found in BNB could, in fact, be extracted directly from the MARC records. For example, it was a simple matter to print full catalog entries under DDC class marks as the front end to the bibliography, since all the necessary data are uniquely tagged in MARC records. Some of the supplementary indexes could also be produced in this 132 DEREK AUSTIN way, especially those giving the names of authors, titles, etc. However, when BNB first became involved with MARC, no satisfactory means existed for producing a subject index directly from these records. The decision was therefore made in 1969 to set up a special research project to study the machine production of a subject index, as a necessary preparation for the fully automated production of BNB. Quite naturally, we tried first to automate the production of the chain index which had been a familiar feature of BNB for some twenty years, but for various reasons this proved to be abortive. We also studied a range of alternative indexing techniques which had already been designed for use with computers, but none seemed entirely capable of producing an index to the standards we felt were necessary in a national bibliography. We therefore made what was probably a courageous decision, and set out to explore some new approach to the production of a subject index directly from machine-readable data. This is the research which led to PRECIS. Certain desiderata for this new index were established as guidelines at the start of the project, and others were added as the work progressed. The principal characteristics for the index can be summarized under five main headings: 1. The computer, not the indexer, should produce all of the index entries, so that a large part of the clerical drudgery of index-making would be handled by the machine. The indexer's task would be limited to preparing an input string of the terms which are the components of index entries, together with instruction codes which indicate to the computer how these terms should be organized into entries; all the entries themselves would be constructed by the machine. 2. Each of the entries constructed in this way should be equally coextensive. In other words, each entry should express in a summary form the full subject of the document as perceived by the indexer. This should be seen in contrast to the chain index, where only the final entry is actually coextensive with the subject of the work in question, and also to a system of subject headings, where a compound subject may have to be expressed by two or more different headings, none of which by itself expresses the whole of the subject. 3. The system should be based on a single set of logical relationships among concepts; these should apply to subjects across the whole spectrum of knowledge. This would mean that terms in input strings, and in the entries produced from these strings, should be organized according to a kind of indexing grammar which would remain valid in fields as diverse as physics and metaphysics. Obviously, this grammar would not necessarily reflect the order in which concepts are introduced into the schedules of any one ROLE OF INDEXING 1 33 classification scheme. However, this notion of classificatory neutrality was also regarded as important in a system carrying a range of different class marks such as MARC, since the same alphabetical index could then be applied to classified sequences organized by any of the schemes in the data base. 4. Index entries should be meaningful according to what might be called the normal frames of reference of the user. In other words, they should not be based on a librarian's conception of grammar, which accepts an inverted heading, such as bridges, concrete, as though it were everyday English. Instead, we should try to come closer to natural language so that the uninitiated reader can use the index with a minimum of instruction. 5. To complement the entries produced from input strings, the system should also be provided with means for constructing references among terms such as synonyms and higher generics, which are semantically related to index entry terms. These see and see also references would be extracted by quoting a suitable code from a machine-held thesaurus. On the face of it, this may appear to be a complex set of criteria; considered on a very elementary level, however, it can be seen that we were actually concerned with only two different kinds of relationships among concepts. Furthermore, both of these had already been studied during the CRG research into a general classification. The earlier work had dealt with the search for a general formula for regulating the order of concepts in a compound class number; we were now concerned with a general model for regulating the order of terms in input strings and index entries. We might call this the search for a generalized syntax for an indexing language. Also, during the CRG research we had studied the ways in which concepts might be organized into categories within a macrothesaurus; we now had the task of creating a machine-held thesaurus of this kind to serve as the source of see and see also references in a printed index. This could be termed the semantic approach to an indexing language. Examples of output from each of these sides of the index system can be seen in the extract from a typical PRECIS index which appears in figure 1. At the top of column 3, the user is redirected by a see reference from the term pelecypoda to its preferred synonym bivalves. This is one kind of semantic relationship. A different kind can be seen at the top of the middle column, where the term particles is linked, through a see also reference, to the names of various species such as alpha particles, atoms, and so on. The same term, particles, also appears farther down in the middle column, but this time it functions as part of an index entry and is syntactically related to terms such as beams and scattering. In this particular index, produced by the British Universities Film Council, the user is then referred, through a UDC number, 134 DEREK AUSTIN I'.rticl,, See Mho Alpha panicles Helecypoda &< Bivalves Penal system Jhrass. Parades. Or. 7 films 943.082 79183 Parade* reiiewed by MM Tie-Tut. Chins Parades to celebrate 1 7th anniversary of communist government 931.0 Parafflas &rAlkaaes Paraiaflaeaza. Man Pathogens Viruses Effects on mammalian cells in vitro 576858.7 Pinlyiii See lisa Myastbenia gravis ParameciuBi 5931714 :ell nuclei of amoebas Effects Seealso Divination Magk Mam. Spirits. Paranormal phenomena Parasites 1m mt IhpiyUobothnum latam Ecaiaocncea. grsnalosa. Ectoparasites Worms. Parasites Fleas, hookworms & rat mites. Behaviour 576 .8.095 Parasites. Alder wood wasps Hymenoplera 59579:57689 Parasites. Cyclorrhapha Mormomella 595.77 Parasites Ephelola gemmipara 593.176 Parasites. Fish Diphyllobothnum lalum Life cycle 595121 Parasites. Herbivores Lancet nukes Vectors: Ants 595 79:595 122 Liver flukes Vectors Mud snails 595122:5943 Parasites. Larvae Cabbage butterflies Aptnteles 591.34:576.89 Echinococcus granulosus Life cycle A control 636.089 Parasites. Man Echinococcus granulosus Life cycle A control 614.44 Head lice 616495:576 895 75 Plasmodium Vectors Mosquitoes 593 19 Parasites Sheep Worms 5951:63631 Parasitic diseases Seealso Diseases caused by flakes Helminthic diseases PareMs Seealso Mothers Parents Interpersonal relationships with children Role in moral development of children 159922.7 Role in learning in babies 15992272 Separation from babies Study examples: Babies in foster care 159.922.7 Separation from babies Study examples: Babies in nursery care 1599227 Separation from children. 2-3 years Study examples: Children in foster care 1 59 922.7 Paresis. Botswana. Shakawe; India Andheri, New Guinea. Buk; Lancashire. Colne A Surrey Esher Interpersonal relationships with children Sociological perspectives Comparative studies 392.31 Pareats. Great Britain Choice of schools 3712 Paris. France Chinese theatre Performances Extracts 792.09 Commune, I!7I 944 081 '1871' National libraries: Bibliolheque Nationale (France) 027(44.36) Students Protest movements. 1961 323 23(443 6) Theatre. Companies: Comedie Francaise Performances of Bourgeois gentilbomme ' 792.09 Theatre Companies: Comedie Francaise Performances of Femmes savantes 792.09 Theatre Companies: Comedie Francaise Performances of Le Tartuffe 792.09 Theatre: Theatre de France Rehearsals of Hamlet with Barraull, Jean Louis 792 09 Theatre: Theatre National Populalre Rehearsals A performances Extracts 792.09 Paris Peace Co.fere.ce, 1919 Treaty of Versailles See Treaty of Versailles, 1919 Parks Seealso National parks Parilaaaeati Seealso Great Britain. Parliament Partial differential equations See a/so Eater's equations Lagrange s equations Particle accelerators Seealso releratc Photon Powiers Psrtkles Beams Scattenng Use in determination of structure of atomic nuclei 539108 Counting A size measurement Use of electronic equipment 621.38 Parties. Politics See Political parties Psnuritio.. Cats 591 16:599 742 7 Psrraririon. Cows. Cattle. Livestock 636082 456 Pvnritio.. Rabbits 591 16:599.325 Contraction of uterus 59116:599325 Utenne contraction after panuntion 591.16:599.325 Uterine contraction before parturition 59116:599.325 Partiritio.. Red kangaroos 591 16:59922 Parturition. Sows s- Farrowing Pascal. Blaise. French philosophy Critical studies 190(44) PUS.TUIS bar. Man Arteries 616321 Passenger transport serrices Seeaho Bus services Pssnger vehicles in me Cm Seealto Caetos CMttroit ftoekes Swallows Passfleld, Beatrice Wee*. Baroness See Webb, Beatrice, Baronet Passfleld Pasteure et tro.pe.ui. Hugo. Victor. Study examples Poetry in French. Romanticism Study examples: Hugo, Victor. Pasteurs et troupeaux, Lamartine, Alphonse de. Lac. Le Jl Vigny. Alfred Victor, comte de Maisoci du berger Critical studies 840-1 Pastimes See Recreation Pastures. Australia Improvement. Role of legumes 633.3 Pathogens. Dysentery Man Entamoeba histolytica 616993.12 PstbogeH. Ectroinelia. Mice Viruses. Effects on mammalian cells in vitro For medicine 576858 Pathogens. Herpes simplex. Man Viruses Effects on mammalian cells in vitro 576 858 1 Pathogen.. Parainfluenza. Man PstBogeu. Poliomyelitis Man Viruses Effects on mammalian cells in vitro 576.858 2 Pathogen. Vaccinia Cattle medicine 576.8581 medicine 5768581 Pathology See also Diseases Paths. Electrons Uniform magnetic fields Patients. Mental hospitals Aggression 61689.0084449 Paving. Motorway M6 Lancashire Concrete paving 625.84 Patio. Ivan Petrovich Theones of conditioned reflexes in animals For medicine 591 182 Theones of reflexes in man 612.833 Pay See Remuneration Peace See also Armistices Peace Pledge I atan. Great Britain Lansbury. George Political speeches. 19.17 942.085(042) Pears, David Francis Theories of free will A determinism 123 Peasants. Rural regions North-east Brazil Nomadic peasants Social conditions 362(81) Peat industries. Fuel industries Ireland (Republic) 622.271 Peck order. Hicks Chickens Pedestrian areas See Vehicle-free i Pediatrics See Paediatrics Pedicular! See also Phryneloi scaher Peek Frean ad Company Factones. ca 1906 Peel. Sir Robert, ban. Great Bnti 1110-1150 Pekingese dogs. Livestock Urinary tract. Calculi. Cystotom Pelecaniformes See also nightie 591.55:598.61 Coupled pendulums Energy transfer 531.539.2 Coupled pendulums Equal masses 531 5392 Coupled pendulums Normal modes 531.539.2 Forced vibration 4 resonance 531.53 Peaidllia Effects on Proteus 576 8 097 Effects on Proteus Time-lapse films 576 8 097 Effects on Streptobacillus momliformts 576 852 Production Rat flask method 615 779402 People s Ukeratio. Army of China See CUaa. People's Liberation Army Peppered moths. Industrial regions Great Britain Variation 57537.7:595.78 Peres See Perch Perception < Aafreciation Mm* Motion perception Visual perceptio. Perception. Animals 591 51 Perception Man 159937 Percepruo-motor skills. Babies Coordination 159.9227 Perch Feeding behaviour 597 Se^ako Areberflsa Haplocaroaais Perch Seethe Drams. Percussion instruments Percussion techniques. Making Blades Stone Age cutting tools 93026 Performing arts See also Acttag Clacmafllsas Dancing MiM Miok Taearre Performiag arts. West Germany Professional education: Folkwang Hochschule 378.9:78/79 Periodic paenomeaa Seealso Oacillators Rhytbms Periodk table SeeaJio Periodicity Periodicals on political events Labour Monthly Personal observations 05 Periodicity. Chemical elements 541 9 Peripkeral equip~m Set also Tenaiaals. Computer systems Peripheral nenoaai system. Dogs 59118 Perissodactyla Seealso Persecution and assassination of Jean-Paul Marat as performed by Ike inmates of the asylum at Charenton under Ike direction of the Marquis tie Safe. Weiss, Peter Drama in German Performances by Royal Shakespeare Theatre Company English texts 79209 Persia Vr Iran Persian CM Petroleum deposits Drilling 622.1 Personal appearance See also Clothing Persoaael Seealso Personnel under Names of specific industries A professions Crews Employment Industrial relations Persons Questioned by police. Gr< Rights Law Pers.ir.tios. Man Per. Manne birds Social behaviour Pesticides avast. Pests Bed bugs Control 61444:595754 Insects Biological control * chemical control 632.7 Pests. Australia Argentine ants Control 632 93:595 79 Pests. Potatoes Eelworms. Control 632.651.32 Pests. Soils Control 6314:632.93 Figure 1. Extract of PRECIS Index ROLE OF INDEXING 135 to a classified sequence where full details of the appropriate films will be found. However, I should point out that this is just one of several options available in PRECIS. In some cases the entry may refer to a separate file of subject headings which have been derived mechanically from the PRECIS input strings. One or two organizations also use PRECIS as a one-stage index that is, they print the relevant citation directly below each index entry. I cannot attempt to describe in detail all the stages in the production of a PRECIS index that would require a series of papers. However, I would like to deal at least briefly with the basic mechanics of the system, partly to demonstrate the extent to which we met the basic requirements for a printed index considered earlier, and also to show how this indexing system relates to a general classification. I shall deal separately with the two aspects of the system, and consider first the syntactical relations between terms in index entries, then briefly touch on the semantics and the making of a machine-held thesaurus. Syntax itself can be considered from two different viewpoints: (1) the format and structure of index entries, and (2) the organization of terms into the strings from which the entries are produced. THE PRECIS ENTRY FORMAT When we set out to establish a suitable format for PRECIS, we found that we had to depart, in some respects, from the concept of a single-line entry which is typically found in systems such as the chain index, KWIC, and subject headings. The reasons for this can be illustrated by referring to the string of terms, and some hypothetical entries, which are shown in figure 2. The string: FRANCE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES SKILLED PERSONNEL TRAINING represents a typical PRECIS input, and justifies some explanation. In the first place, these terms have been organized deliberately so that they form what we call a context-dependent sequence. This means that each term in the string sets the next term into its obviously wider context, in the sense in which France, for example, establishes the environment in which the textile industries, and therefore the rest of the subject, were considered by the author. The next term, textile industries, identifies the context in which skilled personnel were considered, and this new term establishes the class of persons to whom the act of training was being applied. It is worth pointing out that no attempt has been made to organize these terms in such a way that their order reflects their relative importance as shelving factors; we are principally concerned with expressing the meaning of the subject, and we leave the job of indicating shelf position to the classification scheme. o DEREK AUSTIN FRANCE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES SKILLED PERSONNEL TRAINING TRAINING SKILLED PERSONNEL TEXTILE INDUSTRIES FRANCE SKILLED PERSONNEL / FRANCE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES TRAINING --- Heading Figure 2. String of Terms and Hypothetical Entries As a natural consequence of arranging these terms in a context-dependent order, they also form what we call a one-to-one related sequence. This means that each term is directly related to the next term in the string. Both context dependency and one-to-one relations occur in natural language itself, of course, and it may be worth mentioning that the order used in PRECIS was derived from a study of sentence structures. We regard these one-to-one relations as particularly important in conveying the meaning of a subject statement; in deed, in the present example, these relationships are so strong that the meaning of the original string remains unchanged even when the order of terms is reversed, as: TRAINING SKILLED PERSONNEL TEXTILE INDUSTRIES FRANCE It therefore follows that either of these strings could function as an index entry which satisfies most of the criteria considered earlier: they are equally ROLE OF INDEXING 137 coextensive, and they both convey the same message according to common frames of reference. Both could also be derived, by a very simple algorithm, from a single input string. However, we start to encounter problems when we consider the production of an entry under one of the middle terms, such as skilled personnel It would be a simple matter to instruct the computer to lift this term out of its place in the string and print it at the start of the entry, as shown at position 3 of figure 2. An element of ambiguity, however, has then been created: when reading this entry, we can no longer tell with certainty how the skilled personnel are related to the rest of the terms. Are they being trained, or are they employed in training others? It is not a difficult matter to deduce how this ambiguity arose. When this term was shifted from its original position, the mind automatically closed up the space that was left, and created a new set of one-to-one relationships. In a situation such as this, the problem can be expressed as a question: How can we maintain the original one-to-one relationships in an index entry without distorting the meaning, and without losing any of the terms in the process? The approach we adopted is shown in the form of a diagram at position 4: A-B-C-D These four letters represent a sequence of four terms organized as a context-dependent and one-to-one related sequence. As we saw, the problem arose when we tried to make an index entry under one of the middle terms, such as C. As shown at position 5, this is due to the fact the term C is related simultaneously to the terms on either side; that is, B (which sets C into its wider context), and D (which is itself context-dependent on C). In order to make these relationships explicit on the printed page, we devised the two-line and three-position format which is shown at position 6. In this case, the term C functions as the user's access point to the index, and this is followed on the same line by those terms which set the lead into its wider contexts. The final term, D, is indented below on a second line, but remains explicitly related to the entry termC. The layout of terms seen at position 6 shows an obvious two-line and three-position structure, which has now become a typical feature of a PRECIS index. These parts have been separately named, as shown at position 7. The lead is the term which functions as the user's access point, and this is automatically printed in roman bold to give it emphasis. The qualifier follows on the same line, and contains those terms which set the lead into its context, while the display holds the terms which are context-dependent on the lead. Terms in the qualifier and display may be printed in ordinary roman or italic, depending on how they are coded in the input string. The lead and qualifier together constitute what is called the heading. If two or more different strings give rise to the same heading, 138 DEREK AUSTIN France Textile industries Skilled personnel Training FRANCE Textile industries. Skilled personnel. Training TEXTILE INDUSTRIES. France Skilled personnel. Training SKILLED PERSONNEL. Textile industries. France Training TRAINING. Skilled personnel. Textile industries. France Figure 3. Terms Organized in Standard Format so that only the displays are different, the computer automatically cancels the second and subsequent headings, and organizes the displays as an alphabetical column (see figure 1), where the term particles (near the top of the middle column) has two displays, one starting with the term beams, and the other with the term counting. ' The adoption of this format did more than resolve the problem of maintaining the one-to-one relationships between terms. It also gave us the basis for a fairly simple program which would allow us to generate mechanically a full set of entries out of a single input. This is performed by an operation known as shunting; the choice of this name may become clear if we consider the example of index entry construction which is shown in figure 3. At the top of this page we can see the three basic positions in a PRECIS entry, with a set of terms marshaled in the display position. The lead has not yet been occupied, and no entry has yet been produced. At the first stage of the operation, the first term in the display is shunted into the lead, and the remaining terms are then shifted left to a standard indentation position; this gives us the first entry, under the term France, which appears in position 2. In generating the next entry, the term France is shunted across into the qualifier, and its place in the lead is taken by the next term, textile industries; again, the rest of the terms in the display shift across to the standard indentation level. This operation could be repeated twice ROLE OF INDEXING 139 more, to give us the entries under the terms skilled personnel and training. In this particular case, all of the terms in the input string passed through the lead position to give a total of four entries, but it should be pointed out that the generation of entries is not left entirely to the computer. It is, in fact, always under the control of the indexer, who can stipulate, in the form of instruction codes written as prefixes to each of the terms in the string, which terms should appear in the lead, or in any other part of the entry. The entries shown in figure 3 represent terms organized in what is called the standard format. This format, which is produced by a straightforward application of shunting techniques, accounts for most of the entries in any PRECIS index. Two other formats are also available, but I shall not attempt to describe these here they are fully explained in some of the technical accounts of the system. THE TREATMENT OF COMPOUND TERMS The procedures shown in figure 3 demonstrate the treatment of a typical compound subject that is, a subject which consists of a string of several terms. We also found that a basically similar technique could be applied to a compound term that is, a term which has to be expressed in more than one word. The treatment of a term of this type (fibre reinforced plastics) is shown in figure 4. In order to explain this procedure, it is first necessary to make a distinction between the different components of this term. In particular, we need to distinguish clearly between the noun, which is called the focus, and the adjectives, which are called differences. The focus (the word plastics in the present example) identifies the general class of concepts to which the term as a whole belongs. The term difference is used in its strictly logical sense to indicate some characteristic which specifies a subclass of the focal concept. In the present example, we have two differences, fibre and reinforced, each of which has its own logical function. The word reinforced functions as what we call a direct difference it qualifies the focus, and defines a special subclass of the universe of plastics called reinforced plastics. The word fibre, however, has a rather different function, since it does not directly qualify the focus (that is, these are not fibre plastics), but instead qualifies the adjective reinforced in terms of the material used as reinforcement. It therefore functions as what we call an "indirect difference." This distiction is shown in the diagram at position 2 in figure 4. Since these logical functions affect the correct form of term in an index entry, they must be indicated clearly to the computer. This is expressed by 140 DEREK AUSTIN Subject Fibre reinforced plastics Distinguish between focus and difference(s) f Y 1 V FIBRE ^ (REINFORCED) C PLASTICS^ Indirect difference Direct difference Focus String (1) plastics $i reinforced $m fibre Entries PLASTICS Fibre reinforced plastics REINFORCED PLASTICS Fibre reinforced plastics FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTICS Figure 4. Treatment of Compound Terms codes which are written as prefixes to each part of a compound term in the input string. An example of an input is shown at position 3 in figure 4: (1) plastics $i reinforced $m fibre where the focus, plastics, is prefixed by one of the role operators which we shall be considering later, while its status as a lead is indicated by a check. The code $i, which precedes the word reinforced, conveys two instructions to the computer: (1) it indicates that this is a direct difference, and (2) it shows that this word should appear in the lead. The code $m, which precedes fibre, also indicates a lead, but specifies that this word functions as an indirect difference. The output from this string is shown at position 4, and it can be seen that each of these entries is fully coextensive with the original concept. If the term in the lead is incomplete, as it is in the first and second entries, the whole term is printed, in natural-language order, in the display position. ROLE OF INDEXING 141 Using these procedures, it is not possible to produce an inverted heading such as plastics, reinforced. THE SCHEMA OF ROLE OPERATORS So far we have considered the basic mechanics of entry construction, but we have not yet faced the problem of trying to ensure that a team of indexers will consistently achieve the same order of terms in their input strings. As I mentioned earlier, terms in an input string have to be arranged so that they form a context-dependent sequence. However, this is no more than the statement of a guiding principle. We need something more definite if we are to ensure that a team of different and quite human indexers (including the same indexer on different occasions) will consistently achieve this order. To this end, the indexers work within the constraints of a kind of grammar. This is represented in the schema of role operators shown in figure 5. In many respects, this schema possesses some of the functions of the system developed during the CRG research. One of these operators has to be written as a prefix to each of the terms in an input string, and the operators then have two functions: (1) the principal codes (that is, the numbered or main-line operators seen at the top of the list) have built-in filing values, and it is these which determine the overall pattern of terms in a string; and (2) the codes act as computer instructions, and determine not only the format of the index entries, but also the typography of each term and its associated punctuation. It would be quite impossible in the time available to describe in detail the workings of a scheme such as this, which is capable of dealing with compound subjects at any level of complexity. At least I can try to demonstrate how the system operates in practice, using the role operators to carry out an analysis of the subject we considered earlier: the training of skilled personnel in the French textile industries. This analysis is shown in figure 6. During their initial training, indexers are taught to carry out their analyses in a step-by-step fashion, and are advised first to test each subject for the presence of an action. If an action concept is present, it usually determines how the rest of the subject should be handled, in much the same way that the verb tends to dominate the sentence in traditional grammar. In the present example, it is clear that an action is present in the term training. This term could therefore be written first, and prefixed by the operator "2," which represents an action or its effects, as shown at position 2: 142 DEREK AUSTIN Main line operators Environment of observed system Observed system (Core operators) Dependent elements Concept interlinks Coordinate concepts Location 1 Key system: object of transitive action; agent of intransitive action 2 Action/Effect 3 Agent of transitive action; Aspects; Factors Data relating to observer Selected instance Presentation of data tprnnspH nnpratnrs 4 Viewpoint-as-form 5 Sample population/Study region 6 Target/Form p Part/Property q Member of quasi-generic group r Aggregate s Role definer t Author attributed association g Coordinate concept Differencing operators (prefixed by $) h IN on-lead direct difference i Lead direct difference j Salient difference k Non-lead indirect difference m Lead indirect difference n Non-lead parenthetical difference o Lead parenthetical difference d Date as a difference Connectives (Components of linking phrases; prefixed by $) v Downward reading component w Upward reading component Theme interlinks x First element in coordinate theme y Subsequent element in coordinate theme z Element of common theme Figure 5. PRECIS-Schema of Role Operators ROLE OF INDEXING 1 43 ( 1 J Subject: Training of skilled personnel in the French textile industries (2) Check for the presence of an action. Write the appropriate operator (2) training (3) If the action is transitive, and the object is present, code the object as 'key system' (1) skilled personnel (2) training (4) If the key system is part of a whole, code the whole as key system; use 'p' to identify the part (1) textile industries (p) skilled personnel (2) training \5J Establish the environment (0) France (1) textile industries (p) skilled personnel (2) training ( 6 j Entries in 'standard format' (assuming a lead on each term) FRANCE Textile industries. Skilled personnel. Training TEXTILE INDUSTRIES. France Skilled personnel. Training SKILLED PERSONNEL. Textile industries. France Training TRAINING. Skilled personnel. Textile industries. France Figure 6. Analysis of a Compound Subject (2) training The indexer next determines whether the action is transitive or intransitive; if (as in this example) the action is transitive, he establishes whether the object is also present. In this case, the act of training is being applied to the skilled personnel, who therefore represent the object. This concept is frequently coded as the key system, as shown at position 3: (1) skilled personnel (2) training. 144 DEREK AUSTIN However, this particular example contains a circumstance which causes a change to be made in this coding. In fact, the skilled personnel are part of another system (the textile industries), and this whole/part relationship has to be expressed by noting an operator "p" (which introduces a part or property indicator) in front of the name of the part. The numbered operator, "1," is then assigned to the name of the whole, which gives us the revised string seen in position 4: (1) textile industries (p) skilled personnel (2) training One more concept remains to be coded. This is the term France, which establishes the environment in which all the rest of the subject was consid- ered, and therefore should be introduced by the operator "0." The final version of the string is shown at position 5: (0) France (1) textile industries (p) skilled personnel (2) training It can now be seen that we have achieved in a fairly mechanical way exactly the same order of terms as in the earlier analysis, when this subject was considered only from the viewpoints of context-dependency and one-to-one relationships. It is only fair to point out that an experienced indexer would not go through the stages of this step-by-step analysis. Instead, he would write the correct string in an almost intuitive fashion, without necessarily being aware of the mental processes involved. The entries produced from this input are shown at position 6. THE SEMANTIC ASPECTS OF PRECIS I shall turn now to a different side of the system that is, to the construction of the thesaurus which serves as the source of see and see also references in the printed index. This introduces a different set of routines and relationships, many of which involve classification in its taxonomic (rather than its library) sense; I will deal with these only briefly. I should start by pointing out that PRECIS works with an open-ended vocabulary; that is, a new term can be admitted into the system at any time, as soon as it has been encountered in a document. Any term marked as a lead in an input string is assigned as part of a separate operation to a position in a random-access file. ROLE OF INDEXING 145 This position is indicated to the computer by writing a special number as part of each thesaurus input record. This number (the Reference Indicator Number, or RIN) identifies the address where the term will be stored. This address will later be written in a special field on an indexing form, where the presence of this number acts as a machine instruction, and leads automatically to the production of a full set of see and see also references directing the user toward the term which actually occurred in an index entry. In figure 7 we can see a batch of thesaurus input records which have been prepared by an indexer, and are ready to be keyboarded and put into the computer. These are the cards which might be written if the indexer encountered the term penguins in a string for the first time, assuming that none of the other associated terms had previously been admitted into the system. The input record for penguins appears at the bottom of the sequence, and it can be seen that a number of data are recorded on this card. These include special codes, such as $m and $o, which indicate that the term penguins is related, in clearly specified ways, to terms which are held at other random file addresses in the computer, such as its synonym, sphenisci formes, and the higher generic term birds. The codes used for this purpose actually record, in machine-readable form, a range of semantic relationships which has now been established by the International Standards Organisation, and is recorded in a new international standard, IS 2788. These codes and their associated relationships are shown in figure 8; we can see at position 2 that they also determine the kind of reference which should be printed. The code $m produces a see reference from a nonpreferred term to its preferred synonym, while $n and $o both generate see also references. Not all the data on these input records have to be keyboarded. It would be pointless, for example, to keyboard the terms from which references have to be made: it is enough to indicate to the computer the addresses at which these terms have been stored. If we turn to the bottom of figure 7, we can see the relatively small amount of data which is actually assigned to the computer when the card containing the term penguins is being processed. Once keyboarding is finished, the input cards are returned to the indexer, who then stores them alphabetically to form a term authority file. Perhaps it is difficult at first to see any coherent pattern in the set of input records shown in figure 7. Nevertheless, this set of cards contains all of the semantic information needed to record within the computer the network of logically related terms shown in figure 9. Once a network of this kind has been established, it can be used in various ways. For example, the address of any term in the network can be quoted as part of an indexing record as soon as an appropriate document is encountered, and the necessary see and see also references will then be produced automatically. If we had set up this network DEREK A USTIN SCIENCE 024 430 9 1 BIOLOGY 0242128 SCIENCE $o 024 430 9 _ZOOLOGY 024 201 2 BIOLOGY $o 024 212 8 ORNITHOLOGY 0245194 ZOOLOGY $o 024 201 2 ^ V LIVING SYSTEMS 0240184 BIOLOGY $n 024 212 8 FAUNA 024571 2 ANIMALS FAUNA LIVING SYSTEMS 024 317 5 $m 024 571 2 $o 024 018 4 y^ ZOOLOGY $n 024 201 2 t VERTEBRATES 024 526 7 ANIMALS $o 024 317 5 AVES 024 757 X BIRDS AVES VERTEBRATES 0241768 $m024757X $o 024 526 7 ORNITHOLOGY ~ $n 024 519 4 hi SPHENISCIFORMES 0245100 PENGUINS ^ 0247847 -XV_y ^ >^_ .A SPHENISCIFORMES BIRDS $m 024 5100 $o 024 176 8 x-v. t . *. -. ^S^-S~~ > INPUT RECORD FOR 'PENGUINS' 0247847Penguins$ m0245 1 00$ o024 1768* Figure 7. Thesaurus Input Records ROLE OF INDEXING 147 (7) RELATIONAL CODES USED TO LINK TERM ADDRESSES (RINs) Relationships based on IS 2788 $m = EQUIVALENCE RELATIONSHIP Synonyms Quasi-synonyms $o = HIERARCHICAL RELATIONSHIP Genus-species Hierarchical whole-part $n = ASSOCIATIVE RELATIONSHIP (?) MACHINE INSTRUCTIONS BUILT INTO CODES $m = PRINT See REFERENCE, i.e. Aaa See Bbb 5" [ = PRINT See also REFERENCE, i.e. * I A Aaa See also Bbb Ccc Figure 8. PRECIS Thesaurus for penguins, and we later handled a work on vertebrates, we could immediately produce references such as: Animals Zoology see also and see also Vertebrates Animals simply by quoting the RIN 024 526 7 in the appropriate field on the indexing record. We can also quote any of these addresses to link new terms to the names of categories which are already on the file we need to set up the network only once, then leave the rest to the computer. THE MANAGEMENT ASPECTS OF PRECIS Finally, some of the management aspects of PRECIS merit attention. In view of the present conference, particular notice should be taken of its relationship to some of the other subject data appearing on current British MARC records. This immediately introduces the concept of a packet of subject data, which can best be explained through reference to the work-flow diagram which appears in figure 10. 148 DEREK AUSTIN $m 024 571 2 Fauna $m 024 757 X Aves $m 0245100 Sphenisciformes Figure 9. Network of Terms Linked by Thesaural Relationships When documents are processed in the British Library, descriptive and subject cataloging are handled by separate teams of specialists, and a docu- ment enters the subject division after it has been cataloged descriptively. Each document is accompanied by a worksheet containing details of author, title, etc., recorded in the appropriate MARC fields. This worksheet, however, contains no fields for the recognized subject data, such as the PRECIS string or the DDC class mark. It does, however, contain one small box which will later be occupied by a number which will function as the link between the document record and all the appropriate subject data held in a separate file inside the computer. As soon as a document is received from the catalogers, it is handled first by the PRECIS team. They formulate its subject, then check for a precedent in their master file of all past index entries, using any appropriate term as an access point. Let us assume that an indexer, after examining a document, ROLE OF INDEXING 149 DOCUMENT INTO SUBJECT DIVISION PRECIS TEAM SUBJECT ALREADY ON FILE? NO- WRITE PRECIS STRING YES QUOTE SIN ON DOCUMENT RECORD DOCUMENT OUT OF SUBJECT DIVISION CLASS BY DDC ASSIGN LCSH CLASS BY LC CHECK TERMS - ASSIGN RIN's ASSIGN SUBJECT INDICATOR NUMBER (SIN) KEYBOARD. READ OUTPUT Figure 10. Work-flow through Subject Division of British Library cannot find an exact match in the file of past decisions. The PRECIS indexer must then move to the right side of the work-flow diagram, to the point where the indexer writes the PRECIS string. This is recorded in a special field (Field 690) on the subject form which is shown in figure 11; the example shows the string for a document about a programming language called BASIC. The document and the index form then move on together to the DDC team. Working from the string, and if necessary the document, this group 150 DEREK AUSTIN 1 DC class no. J TLC class no. ) ( SIN ^ s 1 / 082 001.6*424 050 QA 76.73.B3 691 004 328 7 690 $ z 1 10 3 0$ a digital computer systems C PRECIS ^v $ z 2 1 1 0$ a programming V^ siring A* $ z 3 1 3 0$ a Basic language $ o$| r o$ i $ o$! $ o$! $ io$! $ o$! "R > , o$! $ ' 5 I 0$ S ' 1 o$i s 1 1 |0$| $! 1 1 0$ i i 692 000 7471 692/1 005 920X 692 692 692 692 692 692 692 C RINs \. LCSH 650 Electronic digital computers $x Programming 650/1 Basic (Computer programming language) 6 6 ( LCSH ^-* Notes Figure 11. Sample of Indexing Input Form assigns the appropriate class number, and records this in Field 082 in the upper left corner of the indexing form. In the majority of cases, they do not expect to find an exact place in the DDC schedules for the subject expressed in the string. A careful analysis of our working methods has shown that only some 15 percent of PRECIS strings can be matched exactly by DDC numbers. We do not regard this in any way as a serious problem. We recognize a clear ROLE OF INDEXING 151 distinction between the function of an index and that of a shelf-order scheme. The index entry should tell us what the document is about; the class number then supplements this information by indicating where it appears on the shelves. The document and form then travel from team to team through the rest of the subject division i.e., down the right side of the flow diagram in figure 10 and at each step, a different decision is recorded on the worksheet, such as the LC class number, Library of Congress subject headings, and the Reference Indicator Numbers (or RINs) which direct the computer to the machine-held thesaurus. Finally, the form is checked by a junior indexer, who ensures that all the necessary fields are occupied and then strikes out the next available random file address number from a machine-produced list. This is the Subject Indicator Number (inevitably shortened to SIN) which is written in Field 69 1 on the top line of the indexing form. The SIN identifies the address in a machine-held file at which all these subject data will be stored, as a package, for future use. The same number is also transcribed onto the catalog form, and then becomes the link between the document record and all its appropriate subject data. The subject form goes on to the keyboarding section, and the data are submitted to the computer, which first carries out a series of validation checks; if these are satisfactory, it then assigns all the data to disk. It also responds by producing a full set of authority file cards of the kind shown in figure 12. These are read for errors such as spelling mistakes, and if they are satisfactory they are filed as a reference tool for the indexers and classifiers. It should be noted that each of these cards contains the whole packet of subject data, including the SIN itself- this is the number 004 3281 which appears on the left side immediately below the index entry. Let us now return to the work-flow diagram in figure 10, and visualize a different situation. Let us assume this time that after examining the docu- ment, the indexer checks the authority file and finds that the subject, as he perceives it, has already been handled in the past. In that case, he can transcribe the SIN directly onto the catalog record, and the process is then completed. The document and its catalog worksheet can now be routed out of the subject division down the left side of the flow diagram. We have kept very careful statistics of the extent to which this left-hand route is used, and calculated that some 55 percent of BNB's total throughput was handled in this way from a three-year-old authority file. Obviously, from a manager's viewpoint, this represents a worthwhile savings of time and intellectual effort. Figures 13-16 show some figures relating to indexer performance and index evaluation, as well as a survey of the present and potential users of PRECIS. Unfortunately, this list is already outdated. I feel that the most satisfying aspect of this survey of users is its sheer diversity. This applies first 152 DEREK AUSTIN \ r Digital computer systems Programming. Basic language 0043281 082010 001.6'424 690000 $zl!030$adigital computer systems$z21010$aprogramming $z31030$aBasic language 692000 0007471 692000 005920X 650000 Electronic digital computers $x Programming 650000 {Basic (Computer programming language) 050000 QA76.73.B3 Programming. Digital computer systems Basic language 0043281 082010 001.6'424 690000 $zl!030$adigital computer systems$z21010$aprogramming $z31030$aBasic language 692000 007471 692000 005920X 650000 Electronic digital computers $x Programming 650000 Basic (Computer programming language) 050000 QA76.73.B3 Basic language. Digital computer systems 0043281 082010 001.6'424 690000 $zl!030$a digital computer systems$z21010$aprogramming $z31030$aBasic language 692000 0007471 692000 005920X 650000 Electronic digital computers $x Programming 650000 Basic (Computer programming language) 050000 QA76.73.B3 001.6'424 QA76.73.B3 0043281 690000 $zl!030$adigital computer systems$z21010$aprogramming Sz31030$aBasic language 692000 0007471 692000 005920X 650000 Electronic digital computers $x Programming 650000 Basic (Computer programming language) Figure 12. Diagnostic Printout on Continuous Card Stationery ROLE OF INDEXING 153 1 Indexing Rates Indexing rate (i.e. string writing) is approximately 30 documents per working day of seven and one-quarter hours, i.e. the average time required to string a document on a new theme is about 18 mins. This figure represents 'elapsed working time', as op- posed to stop-watch times, which would be 37-50 percent shorter. Manipulation coding accounts for less than 10 percent of the total string writing time. 2 Statistical properties of strings Averages (mean) Number of strings per document 1 Number of terms per string 2.7 Number of lead terms per string 1.9 3 Operation of the RIN and SIN systems A. Proportion of documents handled by quoting existing SIN's from a three year file (1971-73) 55% B. Number of terms in thesaurus after theee years 27,000 Figure 13. Indexing Performance Figures Collected at BNB 1 Test environment PRECIS index to 584 journal articles in the field of management. 100 questions; 1 relevant document per question; each question searched once. 28 researchers, mainly students. 2 Success rate of searches No. of successful searches (relevant document retrieved). 83 No. of unsuccessful searches (relevant document missed). 17 Recall ratio 83% 3 Search times Average per question (to nearest 15 sees.) Mean Median Mins. Sees. Mins. Sees. Successful searches 1 30 1 00 Unsuccessful searches 4 00 3 00 All searches 1 45 1 00 Figure 14. Research at Liverpool Polytechnic 154 DEREK AUSTIN Note on symbols: (a) = form and/or frequency of output (b) = production: computer or manual (c) = 1 -stage or 2-stage index (d) = if 2-stage, classification or other address system A) CATALOGUES OF LIBRARIES OR LIBRARY NETWORKS 1 East Sussex Public Libraries - (a) COM; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) DC 2 London Borough of Hillingdon Libraries - (a) COM; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage (d) DC 3 Sheffield College of Education - (a) card; (b) manual; (c) 1 -stage 4 Polytechnic of Central London - (a) card, may experiment with COM; (b) manual, but computer planned; (c) 2-stage; (d) DC 5 Stockwell College of Education (London) - (a) COM; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) DC 6 Media Resources Centre (Inner London Education Authority) - (a) card; (b) manual, but computer planned; (c) 2-stage; (d) DC 1 Aurora High School Library (Ontario, Canada) - (a) card; (b) manual; (c) 1 -stage B) BIBLIOGRAPHIES 1 Australian National Bibliography - (a) printed & cumulating; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) DC 2 British National Bibliography - (a) printed & cumulating; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d)DC 3 British National Film Catalogue - (a) printed & comulating; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) UDC 4 A/V Materials for Higher Education (British Universities Film Council) - (a) printed; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) UDC 5 HELPIS (A/V materials) - (a) printed, intermittent; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) UDC 6 HELPIS-MEDICAL - (a) printed, intermittent; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) UDC 7 Film Catalogue (College Bibliocentre, Ontario) - (a) printed & cumulating; (b) com- puter; (c) 2-stage; (d) broad subject headings + serial numbers 8 British Education Index (from January 1976) - (a) printed & cumulating; (b) com- puter; (c) 2-stage; (d) PRECIS S/H Figure 15. Users of PRECIS ROLE OF INDEXING 155 A) CATALOGUES OF LIBRARIES OR LIBRARY NETWORKS 1 Wollongong University (NSW) - (a) card; (b) manual; (c) 1 -stage 2 S.G.M.E. (Dept. of A/ V Materials, Ministry of Education, Quebec)-(a) printed, French; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) Lamy-Rousseau classification of A/V materials 3 Department of the Environment (GB) - details not settled 4 British Library Reference Division (formerly British Museum Library) - (a) COM, cumulating; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) PRECIS S/H 5 Universite* de Rouen, Section Sciences - (a) printed or COM, French; (b) com- puter; (c) 2-stage; (d) thesis serial number or PRECIS S/H B) BIBLIOGRAPHIES 1 British Catalogue of Music - (a) printed & cumulating; (b) computer; (c) 2-stage; (d) details not settled C) BACK-OF-THE-BOOK INDEXES 1 Public Record Office (London) - indexes to calendars etc 2 Scottish Record Office (Edinburgh) - indexes to calendars etc AGENCIES PLANNING PILOT PROJECTS, OR ENQUIRING FOR TRAINING OR PROGRAMS 1 Malaysian National Bibliography 2 South African National Bibliography 3 South African Council for Scientific & Industrial Research 4 Danish Library Centre 5 ONTERIS (Ontario Educational Research Information Service) 6 British Library (Library Association Library) 7 Indian Library Science Abstracts 8 National Film Board of Canada Figure 16. Pilot Projects 156 DEREK AUSTIN to the size of the organizations involved they range from a high school in Canada to two national bibliographies. It also applies to the media being indexed, which range from monographs, through audiovisual materials, to archives held in two public record offices. It is, I think, worth recording that none of these factors has affected the use of the system. REFERENCES 1. Roberts, Norman. "Review of Classification in the 7970V Journal of Documentation 28:184, June 1972. 2. Maltby, Arthur, ed. Classification in the 1970's. Hamden, Conn., Linnet Books, 1972. 3. Perreault, Jean M. "Review of Classification in the 1970's," Interna- tional Classification 1:47-48, 1974. 4. Davison, Keith. Classification Practice in Britain. London, Library Association, 1966. 5. Austin, Derek. "Differences between Library Classifications and Machine-based Subject Retrieval Systems." In Proceedings of the Third International Study Conference on Classification Research, Bombay, 1975. The Hague, FID. (In press.) 6. Vickery, Brian C. Classification and Indexing in Science. 3d ed. London, Butterworths, 1975. 7. Mills, J. "Progress in Documentation: Library Classification," Journal of Documentation 26:138, June 1970. 8. Austin, Derek. "The Development of PRECIS," Journal of Docu- mentation 30:47-102, March 1974. 9. . PRECIS: A Manual of Concept Analysis and Subject Indexing. London, BNB, 1974. PAULE ROLLAND-THOMAS Associate Professor Ecole de Bibliotheconomie Universite de Montreal, Canada The Role of Classification in Subject Retrieval in the Future It always seems befitting that the last speaker at a conference should gaze at a crystal ball and predict the future of the subject that has been discussed; I feel I should quote Confucius by saying that I do not invent, but transmit. In the last ten years, since the Elsinore Conference on Classification Research, classification theory and practice have produced a large body of literature and contributed to meetings such as this one. Major futuristic works, especially Classification in the 1970's,^ which was published early in this decade, provide the reader with a clear insight of what the future holds for each topic covered. J. Mills states of Bliss's Bibliographic Classification that "as a library classification scheme per se, the prospect is clear and bright," but "from the point of view of its future use, the prospect is less predictable. "2 Bibliographic Classification (BC) is being revised because some ninety libraries use it and need a revised edition. Presently, no BC class numbers are provided from centralized cataloging services such as British National Bibliography, MARC tapes, etc. However, Mills asserts that if demand warrants it: "This might involve the development of a 'switching language' whereby the subject analysis and description implicit in the production of PRECIS index entries . . . could be translated quickly and economically into BC numbers."-^ Gopinath writes that the third version of the Colon Classification (CC) is tending to become a freely faceted analytico-synthetic scheme: 157 158 PA ULE ROLLAND-THOMAS It is now possible for the notational system of CC to place any new main subject, or non-main subject simple or compound in any facet in the helpful position determined by the idea plane. . . . Thus during the next decade the development of CC will be approximate to the ideal of a freely-faceted model of classification.^ According to Sarah Vann, the flexibility of notation in Dewey's Decimal Classification (DDC) will contribute to its internationalization: This flexibility is to be 'controlled' through the inclusion of notes telling where to class subjects displaced. How long the 'official' Dewey will remain official in use, therefore, is highly speculative until further study is made. It can be assumed, however, that the use of the basic text both by the British national bibliography and the Decimal Classification division of the Library of Congress will continue to insure authoritative interpretation of notation. -> This prompts me to question the desirability and the practical value of a truly international scheme; varied cultures, national differences, distinct sys- tems of values (even among countries in the Western world) have already shown that DDC is inadequate in some areas, namely the 100s, 200s, and 300s. J.P. Immroth has invested a lot of energy, thought and research on the Library of Congress Classification (LCC).^ He deserves credit, I believe, for the first groundwork in building a theoretical approach to LCC, (fragile as it may be). I feel that the future of this scheme lies in its keeping up with the development of knowledge in its own enumerative manner and not in trying to imitate other schemes. The wealth of words contained in the schedules, the indexes to the schedules, and the lists of subject headings should allow for further research on the homologation and structural model building of the scheme and its ancillaries. The Universal Decimal Classification (UDC) development program for the 1970s has been described by G.A. Lloyd7 Funded partly by the International Federation for Documentation (FID) and partly through UNESCO, the program may be considered in four phrases, in addition to the normal revisions. They are: 1) immediate elaboration of a UDC "roof scheme" capable of fulfilling the role of international switching language in multilingual and multidisciplinary information systems, especially of an international or large-scale nature; 2) extended studies on the use of UDC combined with coordinate- indexing schemes, thesauri or special-subject classifications, and the ROLE OF CLASSIFICA TION 159 compilation of appropriate concordances, as means to improving information retrieval systems generally; 3) short-term priority projects, mainly FID-funded, to improve or rem- edy defective or deficient parts of the existing UDC schedules; 4) further perspectives of structural and notational improvements of a more far-reaching nature.** Although Vickery's paper on classificatory principles in natural-language indexing systems^ presents a sound explanation of the underlying classifica- tory technique in indexing, no new ventures in this particular area are foreseen. In his paper, "Prospects for Classification Suggested by Evaluation Tests Carried Out 1957-1970," E.M. Keen questions the benefits of classificatory index languages on the ground that their logical foundations may be at fault. In providing controlled languages their artificiality and complexity introduce new opportunities for misunderstanding and error. But an- other answer may be that the logical foundation presupposes a false view of the objectives of document retrieval systems. Users rarely require to see every single fully and marginally relevant document in a particular file, and they do not always expect that every non-relevant document in the file can be withheld. * * He concludes that the next decade will see different kinds of information retrieval systems manual, mechanized and new ones approaching automation. Keen deduces: On considerations of retrieval performance there is ample evidence that, in the kind of situations covered by tests so far, relatively uncontrolled languages used at the indexing stage cannot be improved on by controlled languages, and that in many cases even the use of controlled language aids at the search stage will not be necessary. * 1 For the sake of thoroughness, I will summarize Derek Austin's viewpoints as presented in his paper on trends toward a compatible general system." In this paper, he has outlined and discussed postulates and findings of the Classification Research Group as they relate to that group's approach to classification. Plans for research into a new general classification scheme were laid down at the London Conference in 1963.13 Throughout the years, the plans have evolved from a fairly conventional faceted classification scheme to the assignment of concepts "in a once-and-for-all basis to general categories from which they can be selected as needed in the building of any compound subject." 14 1 60 PA ULE ROLLAND-THOMAS PRECIS, as Austin writes, "should be seen rather as an interesting by-product of the continuing search for a general classification scheme."^ Its strings have been rotated to produce sets of entries that are meaningful in languages other than English. Recent developments in linguistics (namely Chomsky's school) have contributed to classification research insofar as it "supports the hypothesis of a deep syntactic structure which is common to all language systems." 1 Therefore, the goal of the CRG research is to produce a "metalanguage which is capable of expressing any subject as a string of notated elements which is neutral with respect to: (a) the placing of the subject in various standard shelf order classifications, (b) the categorial frame- work of the user of the system, and (c) the words and syntax of any one natural language." * ' Robert Freeman concludes his discussion of "Classification in Com- puter-Based Information Systems of the 1970's" with the statement: The matter of switching among existing classifications and indexing languages used in machine-readable data bases probably will continue to be subject of considerable effort throughout the 1970's. A variety of classifications will continue to thrive in the context of computer-based systems, both as file-partitioning and as detailed subject searching devices. Large-scale use of automatic classification techniques is probably at least a decade away.^ We are so close in time to these projections that I find it difficult to assess them. Since no single classification scheme or indexing system can take care of all library situations satisfactorily, the development and improvement of what seem to be competing systems will be with us for some time. Maltby wrote that "there are a number of fundamental questions which profoundly concern the future of classification in general libraries, particularly if by the term 'classification' we really mean a rational sequence of the maximum utility and not simply a convenient pigeonholing system." He believes that "there is an increasing gulf between the type of classification needed for book arrangement and that required for information retrieval." ^ This quotation points to the lack of rigorous usage of terms in librarians' professional jargon. We have often used interchangeably the terms informa- tional retrieval and subject retrieval, treating them as synonyms or near- synonyms. This has given rise to much confusion in teaching classification as well as in applied classification. Many fine minds have formulated their own definitions using one term and ignoring the other one, or using the two terms synonomously. I believe that as librarians, we should be reminded of Henri Bergson's warning: "On est libre de donner aux mots le sens qu'on veut, quand on prend soin de le definir."^ ROLE OF CLASS/PICA TION 1 61 John Metcalfe concludes an article entitled "When is a Subject Not a Subject?" with the statement that "'subject' has not proved a satisfactory term in information retrieval because of ambiguity in its use in information at large. "21 The term is nevertheless here to stay in communication with library users, but generates confusions in meaning with distinctions between the general and the specific, and between object and aspect. "Isolate has had some use to distinguish one of its meanings, but not without ambiguity of what Kaiser called Concrete and Process and what Cutter with more certain breadth of meaning called object and aspect. "^2 For himself, Metcalfe intends to continue the distinction between object and aspect. By doing so, he endorses dialectical epistemology: the knowing subject and the known object aspect, as he uses it, being a restriction at a conscious level of what we want to know about the object. This can be applied to the daily library environment as information retrieval from a subject-matter embodied in a document. I believe that most library classifications have succeeded to some extent in providing subject retrieval by mapping out or listing subjects, but many failed, save those that have introduced facet analysis or similar devices, to produce information retrieval from subjects. The editors of the Dewey Decimal Classification made an interesting and necessary distinction between subject and discipline as a useful device in applying that particular classification scheme. In that case, subject would be equivalent to concept, and discipline would fit the concept in such a priori classification schedules. Robert Fairthorne writes: "The problem of helping those who are ignorant, in detail, of what people have said about things, is therefore solved by defining 'aboutness' in extension. That is by listing the things that are mentioned in a document. . . ."^3 g u t the mere listing of things or entities does not reveal what is said about them, because it is irrelevant to the reader who is necessarily ignorant of what is said. Fairthorne distinguishes two kinds of "aboutnesses": (1) extensional "aboutness" takes into account the environ- ment of the use and the production of a document (thus it is a relation, not an attribute); and (2) intentional "aboutness," which clearly cannot be determined from the study of the text alone: "It entails knowledge of how it is going to be used by what class of readers."^ While not applying entirely William James's pragmatism to library classification, this last quotation from Fairthorne is suggestive not only of a classification of knowledge or the determination of the "aboutness" of a document, but also of a classification of readers. Shera stressed that "the study of habits of use is requisite to the act of classifying," for "there can be no universal library classification because there is no universal library user."25 The term user habits is a catchall to cover the behavior of all kinds of readers, from pre-readers to scholarly users. We must know more about our readers as individuals seeking information and recreation; we must know more 1 62 PA ULE R OLLAND-THOMA S about them as members of a socioeconomic group; we must know more about the civilization or culture to which they belong, and about the values which they cherish. It would be a gross error to overlook differences among peoples and nations even in the Western world; too often library classifications have been forced upon certain groups of readers, making the use of classification as an effective information retrieval tool almost impossible to achieve. The use of classifications for retrieval is not an invention of modem Western man; primitive peoples have through the ages devised taxonomies and classifications for their own benefit. These were by no means mere intellectual exercises, but were implements for their survival, both physical and spiritual. Many distinguished ethnologists have collected and interpreted primitive peoples' classifications, but none has given so much attention to their theories as the great French philosopher and anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss. He synthesizes the examination both of the structure of primitive thought and of the complexity of the organization of primitive collective life. In his book, The Savage Mind/- Levi-Strauss deals extensively with classifications of primitive peoples. At first glance, languages of American Indians and other primitive peoples include few terms to express concepts; lacking words like tree or animal, their classifications are, as a rule, very detailed and enumera- tive. Krause claims that Indians classify and name living organisms in two main categories: useful and harmful.^ ' Anything that does not fall under one of these two categories makes up a third category which we could consider neutral. The study of languages will reveal that names are assigned to things according to the particular needs of each community. The theoretical foundations of totemic classifications, if we may be allowed to use this term, are quite simple: classifications are devised to bring order into the universe. According to Levi-Strauss, "classifying, as opposed to not classifying, has a value of its own, whatever form the classification may take."2 Classification is based on observation leading to a systematic inventory of relations and connections that leads, sometimes, to correct scientific results. One interesting example is classification by smell; modern chemistry has revealed that the presence or absence of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and/or nitrogen will affect smell and taste. Botany separates onions, garlic, cabbage, turnips, radishes, and mustard (some belonging to the liliaceae and others to crucifers), but the olfactory sense confirms that these plants all share one element, sulfur. Simpson has stated that the demand for organization is a need common to art and science and, in consequence, "taxonomy, which is ordering par excellence, has eminent aesthetic value. "^9 Any classification is superior to chaos, even when it is based on external and artificial characteristics; it is a step toward rational ordering and is a tool that makes the building of a memory possible. ROLE OF CLA SSI PICA TION 1 63 Among American Indians, the Navaho, who claim to be great classifiers, have divided living beings into two categories: those endowed with speech and those that are not; the latter includes animals and plants. Animals are then di- vided into three groups: running, flying, and crawling.-^ These species are a far cry from Western zoological taxonomies. Reichard writes that, "since the Navaho regard all parts of the universe as essential to well-being, a major problem of religious study is the classification of natural objects, a subject that demands careful taxonomical attention."^ Of the Guarani of Argentina and Paraguay, Dennler states: In general, native terms can be said to constitute a well-conceived system, and, with a pinch of salt, they can be said to bear some resemblance to our scientific nomenclature. These primitive Indians did not leave the naming of natural phenomena to chance. They assembled tribal councils to decide which terms best corresponded to the nature of species, classifying groups and sub-groups with great precision. The preservation of the indigenous terms for the local fauna is not just a matter of piety and integrity; it is a duty to science. 32 Levi-Strauss regrets that ethnologists disregard these classifications by concluding that they were of no value whatsoever for the study of primitive peoples. He finds that these classifications bear a close resemblance to those devised in ancient times and in the Middle Ages by such men as Galen, Pliny, Hermes Tresmegistus, and Albert the Great, and are very close to Greek and Roman plant emblematism.^^ The study of totemic classifications is fascinating; characteristics of such classifications are quite different from one culture to another. Levi-Strauss states that: "The terms never have any intrinsic significance. Their meaning is one of 'position' a function of the history and cultural context on the one hand and of the structural system in which they are called upon to appear on the other."34 They are built on dichotomies based on values and usefulness and are hierarchical. "The truth of the matter," writes Levi-Strauss, "is that the principle underlying a classification can never be postulated in advance. It can only be discovered a posteriori by ethnographic investigation, that is, by experience."-^ It would be tempting to conclude that totemic classifications are mere listings used to build a collective memory, but relationships between terms make them workable. These relations are most commonly based on contiguity or on resemblance. Formally, contiguity and resemblance play an important part in modern classifications of knowledge; as Levi-Strauss says in regard to Simpson's remarks: contiguity for discovering things which "belong both structurally and functionally ... to a single system" and resemblance, which does not 164 PAULE ROLLAND-THOMAS require membership of the same system and is based simply on the possession by objects of one or more common characteristics, such as all being "yellow or all smooth, or all with wings or all ten feet high."36 Other kinds of relationships may be found on either the sensible level or the intelligible level. Relations will vary from one culture to another; in fact, these civilizations could be labeled richer or poorer "on the basis of the formal properties of the systems of reference to which they appeal in the construc- tion of their classifications."-^ The totemic classifications are not only conceptualized, but lived. By pointing out some aspects of Levi-Strauss's work on totemic classifications, I am not suggesting that we should avail ourselves of primitive classifications, but that we might draw from these "savage minds" their concern for usefulness, both physical and spiritual, relevant to our late- twentieth-century, post-industrial society. We are now familiar with Piaget, Barbel and Inhelder's findings on classification or, more precisely, on classifying. In a contribution to the Shera Festschrift entitled "The Contribution of Classification to a Theory of Librarianship," D. J. Foskett summarizes the Geneva school's findings on classification. There are two ways of forming a class: (l)by analysis (or the separation) of things from a collection by naming their specific properties, and (2) by synthesis (or the grouping) of things which share certain properties. It is clear that separating and grouping can be done on the basis of more than one property or set of properties: "Thus the processes of forming concepts involve multiplicative classifications, or lattices, and not just single hierarchies. Mastery of these processes brings the ability not only to form classes, but also to identify the relations between objects that exist in the real, material world."3 The problem of relations, even though Farradane^" hoped to have solved it twenty years ago, is still very much with us. The PRECIS system's relational operators are effective inasmuch as they are used with that method of indexing, but would they be as effective in another classificatory and/or indexing environment? In a recent article on the future of classification, Phyllis Richmond wrote: "We do not yet have an organizing philosophic basis for current thought in the late twentieth century. The philosophy may be here but unrecognized, or it may be in process but has not yet emerged publicly."^ She regrets that the Classification Research Group has no philosophical system for the projected New General Classification. They give their attention to Francis Bacon's Reason only, leaving aside for the time being, we hope, Memory and Imagination.^ The future of classification in subject retrieval may lie not only in developing a philosophical basis, but also in determining ROLE OF CLA SSI PICA TION 1 65 in which way the different fields of knowledge are interrelated by deciphering the structures of knowledge that comprise knowledge itself. In a remarkable book edited by Jean Piaget, Logique et conncdssance scientifique, Piaget rejects what he calls static classifications, which he considers artificial. The problem is to find epistemological filiations and analogies between different forms of scientific knowledge, and the epistemo- logical meaning of these relations, as classification is considered as a search for noetic filiations. Piaget posits that the dependency relation among the sciences necessarily leads to a linear classification. In reviewing some classifications from Bacon to Kedrov, he finds that according to Spencer's empirical epistemology, knowl- edge comes from the object itself, the forms of the object or phenomena. Knowledge concerning itself with forms only will produce a linear series, where the first term will be the most abstract and the last the most concrete. Spencer seems unaware that the abstract can be drawn not only from the object, but also from the actions of the subject. Piaget recalls that an epistemology is a kind of a dialectical situation between a subject and an object. The object is known only through the subject and the latter knows itself in relation to the object. The setting of the foundations of logic and mathematics must therefore lie with the subject, and the building of a science of the subject requires biology, physics and mathematics. Auguste Comte's intent was to set a linear classification, but epistemologically his system suggests circularity. Relations between genesis and structures are the main problems to be faced in establishing a classification scheme. Are structures a result of a genesis? If so, how do we explain genesis without referring to structures? The first link contains the axiomatic sciences, and the last contains sciences of genesis (or as Comte calls them, dynamiques). Cournot had divided knowledge according to structures and genesis. Disregarding Bacon's human faculties, his classification goes from the least historical mathematics to the most historical the humanities. He also in- troduced a third dimension: the technical or practical series. The latest classification of the sciences has been elaborated by the Soviet epistemologjst, B. Kedrov. Kedrov rejects what Piaget calls static classifications, where a continuity is provided from one science to the other, and he also rejects classifications based on usefulness. Kedrov starts with what he calls the principles of objectivity and of subordination (or development from inferior forms to superior forms). One must consider primarily Kedrov's dialectics as a methodology, not as a philosophy. If one considers dialectics as a methodology stemming from the humanities, or more exactly from psychol- ogy and sociology, the method can go back to the starting point of logic/mathematics to provide structures for the physical sciences and to 1 66 PA ULE ROLLAND-THOMAS I. Logic/mathematics II. Physical sciences III. Biological sciences IV. Psycho-sociological sciences A. Domaine materiel (material scope) B. Domaine conceptuel (conceptual scope) C. Domaine epistemologique interne (internal epistemological scope) D. Domaine 6pistemologique de'rive' (derived epistemological scope) Table 1. Piaget's Epistemological Levels. contribute to a total circular system of the sciences. The problem is not one of a structure to be given to a classification of the sciences (classifiers and classificationists cannot modify the real world); the problem is rather whether the sciences, in their spontaneous evolution, will reveal linear and hierarchical structures or cyclic and interdependent structures. Is knowledge developing as a living organism where all organs are interconnected, or is it developing by subordination in a preferred field? Piaget has worked for more than thirty years on his proposed system of classification. His hypothesis is that the system of the sciences bears a circular structure, not a linear structure. He divides knowledge into four broad classes: I. logic/mathematics; II. physical sciences; III. biological sciences; IV. psycho- sociological sciences, including linguistics, economics, etc. (see Table 1). At first glance, the proper order would appear to be I, II, III, IV, with a possibility of an internal interaction between IV and II, and I and III, discarding, therefore, a I to IV fixed sequence ending at IV. This is not an arbitrary order; there are relations between the classes. The meaning and the nature of these relations must be defined, for it would otherwise be totally absurd to link mathematics to psychology: while the latter relies on experi- mentation, the first relies on deduction. Piaget develops the hypothesis of the circle of the sciences by distinguishing different kinds of dependence: "reduction" or filiation between the sciences. A first distinction must be recognized before establishing relations between different fields of knowledge and the use of these relations to build a natural classification (natural meaning here "adapted to the nature of these relations without any reference to the distinction between nature in general and ideal or transcendental realities"). The distinction lies between the domaine materiel the material scope or matter of a science, i.e., the set of objects with which it concerns itself (for example, numbers and functions for mathematics; bodies, energies and organs for physics and biology) and the domaine conceptuel the conceptual scope or R OLE OF CLA SSI PICA TION 1 6 7 set of theories or organized knowledge of a particular science about its object (for instance, the theory of numbers, the theories of masses and energies, the description and interpretation of biological organs, the analysis of mental phenomena). The material scope will be labeled IA, IIA, IIIA, IVA; and the conceptual scope IB, IIB, IIIB, IVB. It is perfectly acceptable to relate the material scope of IA logic mathematics and IVA psycho-sociology; this has been done by empiricists who have "reduced" logic/mathematics to language; Piaget, however, derives them from the general coordinations of action. On the other hand, it would be rather clumsy to relate the conceptual scope of IB logic /mathematics to IVB psycho-sociology; the mathematician does not consult a psychologist before formulating a theory of numbers or complex functions. It is therefore possible to draw a circular classification at the level of material scope, but the conceptual scope remains linear. It is worth noting that classificationists have more or less taken this dichotomy into account when devising their systems. When Comte discards psychology and inserts its object in biology and sociology, he deals with the material scope. The observations, theories and experiments belonging to the conceptual scope are not altered whether psychology is classed in biology or sociology. One might say that most classifications are concerned with the material scope exclusively. However, knowledge about a science is not developed on one level only; different levels of knowledge proceed from the conceptu- alization (B) of its object (A) to an inquiry into that conceptualization, which in turn leads to a critical examination, or to the internal epistemological scope. This third level will be assigned the letter C and is defined as the set of theories whose objectives are the criticism or the study of the foundations of the conceptual scope. The four main classes of this level will thus be: 1C, IIC, IIIC, and IVC. The study of the foundations of a science will eventually yield general epistemological problems such as the part of the subject and the contribution of the object to knowledge. A fourth level, D, derived epistemological scope, will accommodate the general epistemological results of comparing one science with other sciences. The problem will then deal with relations between the subject and the object. It is therefore essential that this level ID, IID, HID, IVD be considered separately, because IVD concerns itself with psychogenesis and sociogenesis, and thus constitutes an indispensable part of genetic psychology. Obviously, epistemologies C and D refer equally to the material scope A and to the conceptual scope B, because their concern is the critical examination of concepts B in relation to their object A. Classifications according to B and C will remain linear, whereas a cyclic structure will be found in A and D, since the study of the subject in the building of the logico/mathematical structures is already an object in IVD. 1 68 PA ULE R OLLAND-THOMAS Figure 1. Piaget's Circle of the Sciences. Piaget concludes that a dynamic classification of the sciences takes into account the four levels of knowledge because they are interdependent. He then exhibits the relations between the subject and the object. Relations of succession may differ according to the levels considered: for levels A and D the order appears circular, while for B and C it appears linear. On the hypothesis of a circular order of the sciences, Piaget distinguishes two kinds of relations: causal and implicative. The causal relations belong to the physical and biological sciences to their material object. On the other hand, mental states such as feelings, values, and obligations are not causes, but imply something; we call them, therefore, implicative relations. If the circle of the subject and the object produces a cyclic structure to the whole of the sciences, it is because there is a dialectic or circular relation between classification systems based on causality and those based on implication. Having defined these types of relations, Piaget distinguishes six types of dependence. These are: (1) unilateral reduction of a science or causal theory to another; (2) reduction by interdependence of sciences or causal theories; (3) correspondence between a causal system and an implicative system until the first is assimilated by the second; (4) correspondence between a causal system and an implicative system, with a search towards an isomorphism or a structure; (5) interdependence by abstraction between two implicative systems; and (6) reduction by axiomatization of two implicative systems. Piaget's basic concept of the relations among the sciences can be expressed by the drawing of a circle: it takes its origin in logic/mathematics and closes also in logic/mathematics. He concludes that the material scope (A) is circular, given the fifth and sixth types of dependence, where logic belongs equally to levels A and D. The conceptual scope (B) is linear; logic tends to consider all circles as vicious. The internal epistemological scope (C) is linear, for approximately the same reasons as were applicable for B. Finally, the derived epistemological scope (D) is circular. Piaget grants that the limits between C and D might be somewhat difficult to determine. The epistemological results obtained in C in a given science may prove valid in another science. The circularity of A and D remains hypothetical until the ROLE OF CLASSIFICA TION 1 69 types of dependence have been set and proved to exist. The proof of the circularity of both A and D is obtained by the application of Piaget's dialectical epistemology: the subject knows the object through his own action performed on the object, and knows itself insofar as it is affected by the object. Empiristic philosophy draws knowledge from the object alone; aprio- ristic philosophy from the subject alone. I am very much aware that Piaget's circular classification might be indeed difficult to apply to a practical library and information-oriented environment, but I believe it is worth investigating. Regarding knowledge per se, his system has set its own limitations; it does not provide for knowledge that is not scientific, such as practical knowledge, beliefs, opinions, values, and what Erikson calls "intimacy with the domain," which includes knowledge acquired by connoisseurs of the fine arts and music, sports fans, serious collectors, etc. These considerations, some far-fetched, should not deter us from trying to cope with the more mundane, day-to-day problems that we face in libraries. Among these problems is the "tandem" close vs. broad classification exists only in library situations where the classification scheme serves two purposes: shelf location and subject analysis (in its broadest meaning). Theoretically, there is no physical limit to minute classification in catalogs, whether manual or automated. But if the classification scheme selected serves as a location device, truncation is possible without more or less loss of meaning if the notation is hierarchically expressive whatever applies to the whole applies to the parts. I cannot imagine truncation applied to other types of notations that do not express hierarchy without severe loss of meaning. In November 1973, the Library and Learning Resources Service of the City of London Polytechnic conducted a survey in which problems on automation brought questions on the length of DDC-18 class numbers as allocated by the British National Bibliography (BNB). In this survey, it was decided to investigate the possibility of truncating numbers in a select group of classes which reflect the collections held by that particular institution, without too much loss of information. Results of the study indicated that: Specificity of classing is a principle well established in texts on classification and in practical classification as carried out by LC and BNB. Truncating numbers either on a rigid basis of X digits after the decimal point or using the prime marks as suggested in the DC 18 Editor's Introduction (vol. 1, p. 41) inevitably reduces specificity and merges topics.^3 The surveyors found that one of the features of class 300 and especially 330, 380 and 350 were long numbers resulting from additions from the Area Tables and the use of "add as" instructions, particularly in 300 and 380. They 1 70 PA ULE ROLLAND-THOMAS also felt that: "the 5- and 7-digit levels are unacceptable and that if truncation is to take place it should be at the 9-digit level. ... If we take into account the fact that class numbers are not always coextensive with the subject matter, then the true picture is even worse. "^4 The surveyors recommended that more research is needed to determine the relative costs of: 1 . The extra staff and user effort in searching a non specific catalog and shelves. 2. The extent to which users do not find a book because of long class numbers (unable to memorize or writing it down wrongly). 3. The extent to which users are put off from using the catalogue. 4. The difference in staff tidying and shelving times/*-* The results of such an investigation would apply exclusively to a library environment where the three following conditions would be met: (l)open shelves, (2) classification is used for shelf location and subject analysis (in its broadest meaning), and (3) the scheme used is DDC or another scheme whose notation is decimal or lends itself to truncation without loss of meaning. It would also entail reassessment of the research and educational value of open stacks, self-service, and browsing. Maltby has stated that: "there is an increasing gulf between the type of classification needed for book arrangement and that required for information retrieval. . . . The dichotomy is now too certain for any one scheme to be viewed with confidence as a classification for all situations.'"^" He writes further that: "Broad classification, apart from the effect on cataloguing and the uncertainty of interpretation as to just what constitutes 'broad shelf arrangement; is at best often little more than a ruined shell of the scheme represented.'"*' The classified catalog is not theoretically bound to an exact matching of class numbers on books and catalog cards. In libraries maintaining this kind of catalog, the books may be arranged on the shelves in any orderly fashion; it may be by accession number, it may be by a classification scheme totally different from the one selected for the catalog, or according to the classifica- tion scheme used in the catalog, matching exactly the principal class number assigned to the catalog, or a broader class number than the one selected as the principal number for the catalog. It is not within the scope of this paper to analyze the components of the classified catalog, nor its virtues and weaknesses; eminent librarians such as Shera and Egan/* Ranganathan,^^ and R. F. Kennedy~>0 have treated with great intellectual rigor this tool for subject retrieval. I will, however, comment briefly on the few remaining or recently closed classified catalogs on this continent. ROLE OF CLA SSI PICA TION 1 71 Among the most important classified catalogs recently closed are those of the Boston University Library and the National Library of Canada. Each of these catalogs was constructed quite differently: the Boston University catalog was a far cry from the rules on the construction of a classified catalog as set forth by Shera and Egan and by Ranganathan; LCC class numbers were used in the classified list, and LC subject headings were used for the index, matching as far as possible the class numbers assigned to the classified file. The National Library of Canada catalog was begun in 1961 and closed in 1974. It was "arranged in Dewey Decimal Classification order [with] indexes in English and French established according to the technique of chain indexing."^ LCC class numbers were assigned to books. According to Margaret Hazen, the Boston University Library catalog "had a serious drawback namely, the difficulty of keeping the subject records current,"-^ resulting in a serious backlog. The development of LC MARC tapes and "the introduction of cooperative cataloging by member libraries in the OCLC [Ohio College Library Center] system provided a possible method for achieving speed and efficiency in subject and general cataloging."-^ Boston University became a member of the New England Library Network, accepting LC call numbers and subject headings, and began an alphabetic subject catalog. Standardization is the main reason behind the abandonment of the classified catalog. The same reason prevailed in the closing of the National Library of Canada catalog: The decision was made because of the need for greater standardization and the ensuing possibility of sharing cataloguing information, thus providing access to the collection more rapidly and decreasing catalogu- ing costs. . . . Although the classed catalogue has proved to be an efficient subject retrieval tool, it could not hold against the current trends. $$ In Quebec, where the classified catalog enjoyed some popularity, large and small libraries have converted or are considering converting or closing their classified catalogs. Again, the reason is standardization: to bring, for the time being, research and academic libraries in line with Ontario libraries as members of UNICAT/TELECAT (a program of cooperative cataloging based on OCLC) with the addition of a bilingual (English and French) union file. If we claim that subject indexing is equivalent to classification, then alphabetical subject catalogs will not alleviate defective classification. J.E. Daily has written: "One must assume that language, in its broadest sense, affects the subject indexing and that there is no distinct difference between classification, which is identified by its structure of notation, and the alphabetical list, however organized. Subject indexing is a classification process."-*" The Encyclopedic^ is an alphabetical dictionary, but Diderot states that refer- 1 72 PAULE R OLLAND-THOMA S ences between words are the most important part of the work; the intent of the "renvois" is obviously classificatory. The future of classification for information retrieval lies in the confron- tation of economics and the intrinsic value of research and its application. Valuable advances have been made and successfully applied in the classifica- tion and subject indexing of science and technology. Unfortunately, the humanities and the social sciences have been poorly served, and deserve more investigation in order to provide meaningful subject access. Any new venture is costly, and the economics will weigh heavily in adopting or rejecting systems applicable to a particular library. This is why standardization, regardless of its worth, has gained so many supporters. REFERENCES 1. Maltby, Arthur, ed. Classification in the 1970's. Hamden, Conn., Linnet Books, and London, Clive Bingley, 1972. 2. Mills, J. "The Bibliographic Classification." In Maltby, op. cit., p. 27. 3. Ibid., p. 50. 4. Gopinath, M. A. "The Colon Classification." In Maltby, op. cit., p. 70. 5. Vann, Sarah K. "The Dewey Decimal Classification." In Maltby, op. cit., p. 108. 6. Immroth, J. P. "Library of Congress Classification." In Maltby, op. cit., pp. 125-43. 7. Lloyd, G. A. "Universal Decimal Classification." In Maltby, op. cit, pp. 147-65. 8. Ibid., p. 156. 9. Vickery, B. C. "Classificatory Principles in Natural Language Index- ing Systems." In Maltby, op. cit., pp. 169-91. 10. Keen, E. M. "Prospects for Classification Suggested by Evaluation Tests Carried Out 1957-1970." In Maltby, op. cit. p. 209. 11. Ibid., pp. 209-10. 12. Austin, D. "Trends Towards a Compatible General System." In Maltby, op. cit., pp. 213-48. 13. Some Problems of a General Classification Scheme (Report of a Conference held in London, June 1963). London, Library Association, 1964. 14. Austin, op. cit., p. 215. 15. Ibid., p. 214. 16. Ibid., p. 246. 17. Ibid., pp. 246-47. 18. Freeman, Robert R. "Classification in Computer-Based Information Systems of the 1970's." In Maltby, op. cit., p. 262. 19. Maltby, A. "Classification Logic, Limits, Levels." In Maltby, op. cit., pp. 11, 12. ROLE OF CLASSIFICA TION 1 73 20. Bergson, Henri. La pensee et le mouvant: essais et conferences. Paris, Alcan, 1934, p. 201, note. ("We are free to give whatever meaning we wish to words, once we have taken care to define them.") 21. Metcalfe, John. "When is a Subject Not a Subject?" In Conrad H. Rawski, ed. Toward a Theory of Librarianship: Papers in Honor of Jesse Hauk Shera. Metuchen, N.J., Scarecrow Press, 1973, p. 336. 22. Ibid. 23. Fairthorne, Robert A. "The Symmetries of Ignorance." In Rawski, op. cit., p. 264. 24. Ibid., p. 265. 25. Shera, Jesse H. Libraries and the Organization of Knowledge. D. J. Foskett, ed. Hamden, Conn., Archon Books, 1965, pp. 92, 110. 26. Levi-Strauss, Claude. The Savage Mind (La pensee sauvage). London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1966. 27. Krause, Aurel. The Tlingit Indians. E. Gunther, trans. Seattle, Univ. of Washington Press, 1956, p. 104. 28. Levi-Strauss, op. cit., p. 9. 29. Simpson, George G. Principles of Animal Taxonomy. New York, Columbia University Press, 1961, p. 4. 30. Levi-Strauss, op. cit., p. 39. 31. Reichard, Gladys A. Navaho Religion; A Study of Symbolism (Bollingen Series No. 18). 2 vols. New York, Pantheon Books, 1950, p. 7. 32. Dennler, J. G. Quoted in Levi-Strauss, op. cit., p. 44. 33. Levi-Strauss, op. cit., p. 42. 34. Ibid., p. 55. 35. Ibid., p. 58. 36. Ibid., p. 63. 37. Ibid. 38. Foskett, D. J. "The Contribution of Classification to a Theory of Librarianship." In Rawski, op. cit., pp. 174-75. 39. Farradane, J. E. L. "The Psychology of Classification," Journal of Documentation 1 1: 187-201, Dec. 1955. 40. Richmond, Phyllis A. "The Future of Classification," Drexel Library Quarterly 10: 111, Oct. 1974. 41. "Classification Research Group, Bulletin No. 10," Journal of Docu- mentation 29:51-71, March 1973. 42. Piaget, Jean, ed. Logique et connaissance scientifique (Encyclopedic de la Pleiade, vol. 22). Paris, Gallimard, 1967. 43. City of London Polytechnic. Library and Learning Resources Service. The Length of DC18 Class Numbers: Investigation in Selected Subject Areas. London, City of London Polytechnic, Nov. 1973, 1. 2. 44. Ibid., 1.3. 45. Ibid. 46. Maltby, op. cit., p. 12. 47. Ibid., p. 19. 48. Shera, Jesse H., and Egan, Margaret E. The Classified Catalog. Chicago, ALA, 1956. 49. Ranganathan, S. R. Classified Catalogue Code. 5th ed. Bombay, Asia Publishing House, 1964. 1 74 PA ULE ROLLAND-THOMAS 50. Kennedy, R. F. Classified Cataloguing: A Practical Guide. Cape Town, Balkema, 1966. 51. Hazen, Margaret H. "The Closing of the Classified Catalog at Boston University," Library Resources & Technical Services 18:220-25, Summer 1974. 52. "Closing of the Classed Catalogue," National Library News, Canada 7:9, Jan.-Feb. 1975. 53. Hazen, op. cit., p. 221. 54. Ibid., p. 222. 55. "Closing of the Classed Catalogue," op. cit. 56. Daily, Jay E. "Classification and Categorization." In Allen Kent and Harold Lancour, eds. Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Vol. 5. New York, Marcel Dekker, 1971, p. 44. 57. Diderot, Denis, and D'Alembert, Jean, eds. Encyclopedic: ou, Dictionnaire raisonne des sciences, des arts et des metiers. 17 vols. Paris, Briasson, 1751-65. ADDITIONAL REFERENCES Flavell, John H. The Developmental Psychology of Jean Piaget. Princeton, N.J., Van Nostrand, 1963. Hymes, Dell H., ed. Language in Culture and Society: A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology. New York, Harper and Row, 1964. Levi-Strauss, Claude. Anthropologie structurale. Paris, Plon, 1958. Anthropologie structurale deux. Paris, Plon, 1973. Le totemisme aujourd'hui (Mythes et Religions). Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 1969. Wellisch, Hans, and Wilson, Thomas D. Subject Retrieval in the Seventies: New Directions (Proceedings of an International Symposium held at the Center of Adult Education, University of Maryland ... May 14-15, 1971) (Contributions in Librarianship and Information Science, No. 3). Westport, Conn., Greenwood Press, 1972. Contributors DAVID BATTY had experience as a librarian before he served as Head of the Department of Information Retrieval Studies, College of Librarianship, Wales, from its foundation in 1964 to September 1971. In 1971, he joined the faculty of the Graduate School of Library Science, McGill University. His programmed texts for the 16th through 18th editions of DDC are well known to library school students. He has made numerous other contributions to the literature of librarian ship. JOHN P. COMAROMI has served as a school librarian and as a circulation librarian. He has been a cataloging instructor at the University of Michigan and the University of Oregon, and currently teaches in that subject area at Western Michigan University. His Ph.D. dissertation for the University of Michigan was concerned with the history of DDC; Forest Press has published that history. He serves as a member of the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee. In the summer of 1975 he traveled 10,000 miles to visit libraries using the DDC as principal investigator of the survey of the classification's use in the United States and Canada. MARGARET E. COCKSHUTT has served in a variety of teaching and administrative positions at the University of Toronto School of Library Science since 1949. Currently she is an Associate Professor at the school and Academic Secretary for the Graduate Department of Library Science. The latter position entails responsibility for all the academic programs of all students and for liaison with the School of Graduate Studies. She is the author of a number of professional articles relating to cataloging, filing, classification, and education for librarianship. Among her many professional 175 176 CONTRIBUTORS activities should be mentioned her membership on the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee. MARY ELLEN MICHAEL has served as a Research Associate, Library Research Center, Graduate School of Library Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and as a librarian. She served as co-author of Planning and Evaluating Library System Services in Illinois and her Continuing Professional Education in Librarianship and Other Fields; A classified and annotated bibliography, 1965-1974 was published in 1975. JOEL C. DOWNING is currently Director, English Language and Copy- right Services, Bibliographic Services Division, the British Library, arriving at that position after work experience in London's public library system and responsibilities with the British National Bibliography. He has been a member of the Library Association's Cataloguing Rules Sub-committee since 1951. In 1965, he assisted David Batty and Peter Lewis in the founding and develop- ment of the Cataloguing and Indexing Group of the Library Association. He has served as chairperson of that group since 1971. From 1967 to 1970, he was secretary of the IFLA Committee on Cataloguing, and is currently a member of the Joint Steering Committee for the Revision of the Anglo- American Cataloguing Rules. Since 1970, he has served as the British representative on the Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee. GORDON STEVENSON has been a faculty member of the School of Library and Information Science, State University of New York at Albany, since 1970. He holds a Ph.D. in Library Science from the Graduate Library School, Indiana University, Bloomington. He has contributed articles to library publications, including "The Historical Context: Traditional Classification since 1950" in Drexel Library Quarterly, October 1974. An active member of the American Library Association, he has served on the Catalog Code Revision Committee. PETER R. LEWIS has been a frequent visitor to the United States since 1968 when he first represented British interests in discussions with the American Library Association and the Library of Congress concerning the maintenance of the Anglo-American Cataloging Rules. From 1968 to 1971, he was chairperson of the British Cataloguing Rules Committee. He was also chairperson of the Library Association Committee which published Non-Book Materials Cataloguing Rules (1972). He represents the British Library on the Joint Steering Committee for Revision of AACR and serves as the chairperson of the committee. HANS WELLISCH has held various library positions in Sweden and Israel, and since 1969 has been a faculty member of the College of Library and Information Services, University of Maryland. In 1975, he received a Ph.D. from the University of Maryland. He is the author of several books and more than forty articles in library journals. DEREK AUSTIN worked in public libraries for a number of years, usually as a reference librarian or a subject specialist, learning, as he says, "the CONTRIBUTORS 177 hard way how to use indexes and classifications, and generally being disillu- sioned with existing schemes." From 1963 to 1967, he served as subject editor at the British National Bibliography, "learning as a practitioner just how difficult it is to make a good index or classification." Under the auspices of the NATO Science Foundation and the Classification Research Group, he worked on research into general principles for a new bibliographic classifica- tion from 1967 to 1969. From 1969 to 1973 he served as Principal Investigator for the PRECIS Project (UK MARC) trying to translate the general principles into practice. Since 1974, he has served as Head, Subject Systems Office, The British Library. PAULE ROLLAND-THOMAS has been a cataloger in school and university libraries as well as the Deputy Librarian, Reference Library, National Film Board of Canada. Since 1961, she has been teaching in the areas of technical services, cataloging and classification at the School of Library Economy, University of Montreal. She is a doctoral candidate in philosophy at the University of Montreal, where her dissertation topic is "Cultural Classifications." The French edition for Canadian libraries of the Anglo-American Cataloging Rules (1967) and the revised chapter 6 of the code (1974) were prepared under her direction. Index Auxiliaries, general UDC, 4-5; as 114-15. and special in original facets, Bibliographic Classification, evalua- tion for BML, 106-08; evaluation for SRL, 108-10; revisions, 157. Biography; library treatment of, 53-54. BML. See: British Museum Library. BNB. See: British National Biblio- graphy. Britain, and DDC, 60-63, 65; recog- nition of need for standard inter- national format, 63-64; question- naire on classification, 65-66; DDC Committee, 70-72; revision of Area Tables, 71; survey of DDC and libraries, 73. British Library, development of class- ification system for, 99-112; rela- tion to other libraries, 100; crea- tion of Working. Party (1972), 100; differing needs of BML and SRL, 105-11. British Museum Library, value of four classification schemes for, 107-08. British National Bibliography, early follower of facet ordering, 1 1 ; production of classified catalog organized by DDC at time of DDC-16, 60; original purpose, 63; use of DDC-18, 64, 67; question- naire on classification, 65-66; increasing cooperation between BNB and DDC, 66-67; relation to British libraries, 99; and MARC, 131-32; preparation for automa- tion, 132; and reducing length of DDC-18 class numbers, 169-70. Broad System of Ordering, proposal for, 121; need for UDC in con- junction with, 122. Brussels conference (1895), 4. BSO. See: Broad System of Ordering. Canada, survey of use of DDC, 47-58. Catalog, classified, 90-93; Dewey on use of, 91; closed classified, 170-71. 179 180 INDEX Chain indexing, introduced by Rang- anathan, 11; -in Britain, 68-69; supplanted by PRECIS, 69. Classification, history of, 1-15; inter- nal organization of subjects as Dewey's greatest contribution, 3-4; limited by contemporary culture, 4, 5-6, 33, 158, 161-64; synthetic vs. enumerative schemes, 10; auto- matic generation, 13; importance of perception of, 81; aspects to be considered in evaluation, 82-84; need for research, 85; two views on purpose, 89; for information retrieval or shelving, 91-92, 170; desirable characteristics of, 125-26; future prospects, 157-72; and re- trieval in other cultures, 162-64; Piaget on, 165-69. See also: Biblio- graphic Classification, Dewey Decimal Classification, Library of Congress Classification, Subject Classification, Universal Decimal Classification. Classification Research Group, estab- lishment in 1950, 1 1; facet classifi- cation, 11-12; significance of early work, 12; and PRECIS, 13-14; influence on DDC-17, 37-38; influence on DDC and UDC, 40-41; need for new classification scheme, 127-28; categorization effort, 129; effort to systematize building of compound subjects, 130; goal, 160. Classified catalog, 90-93; closed, 170-71. Colon, use of in Ranganathan's scheme, 9-10. Colon Classification, faceted classifica- tion scheme, 10; first published in 1933, 39; importance, 40 ; revisions, 1 57-58. See also: Ranganathan, Uni- versal Decimal Classification. Computers, and libraries, 58; appli- cability of LCC and DDC to, 90-91; and UDC, 120-21. CRG. See: Classification Research Group. DCEPC. See: Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee. DDC. See: Dewey Decimal Classifica- tion. DDC-1 (1876), 22. DDC-2 (1885), 23; improvements over DDC-1, 24. DDC-5 (1894), and UDC, 39. DDC-15 (1951); problems with, 27-28. DDC-16 (1958), 29-30, 32-33. DDC-17 (1965), new uses of facets, 35-37. DDC-1 8 (1971), criticism of facets, 38-39; reactions by British, 64; and shortened class numbers by BNB, 169-70. Decimal Classification Editorial Policy Committee, and DDC-16, 32-33; and DDC-1 8, 39; development of, 42-43. Decimal notation, mnemonic effect, 3. Dewey, Melvil, and internal organiza- tion of subjects, 3-4; early career, 17-18; sources for classification scheme, 18-20; submits plan to Amherst, 20; work at Wellesley and Columbia, 23; signs over copy- rights for DDC to Lake Placid Club Education Foundation, 25. Dewey Decimal Classification, special features of early scheme, 2-4; as enumerative classification, 10; and PRECIS, 14, 74; possible sources for, 17-20; for catalog and shelf arrangement, 18; sources for struc- ture of, 20-2 1 ; reasons for success, 23; subject index as most impor- tant feature, 24; developments between 1880s and 1951, 24-27; financial and personnel problems in 1950s, 28-29; significance of personnel and organizational devel- opment, 32, 41-44; based on Pro- testant Anglo-Saxon culture, 33; theoretical chain of influence, 39-41; control of, 41-43; interna- tional involvement, 43-44; use in INDEX 181 U.S. and Canadian libraries, 47-58; library appreciation of index, 51; primary editions used by libraries, 55-56; problems with from British perspective, 62; important factors in use of in Britain, 69; British Committee, 70-72; future compe- tition from PRECIS in Britain, 74; and LCC, 78-97; use of by college libraries, 78-79; reasons for switch to LCC in U.S., 86-89; serves dual purpose, 92; possible international role, 96; evaluation for BML, 106-08; evaluation for SRL, 108-10; future of, 158; and closed classified catalogs, 171. "Divide like," used for geographical subdivisions, 22; as standard proce- dure, 23; and concept of facets, 33-34; changed to "add to," 39. See also: Facets. ERIC thesaurus, 13. Europe, use of DDC, 75-77. See also: Britain. Farradane, Jason, proposes system of relational operations, 12-13. Faceted classification schemes, and synthetic schemes, 10-1 1. Facets, use of by Ranganathan, 9-1 1 ; further work on by CRG, 11-12; new in DDC-16, 33-34; reluctance to use concept of, 34-35; new in DDC-17, 35-37; criticism of in DDC-18, 38-39; first used in UDC, 1 14; and new UDC, 120. See also: "Divide like," PRECIS. Forest Press, as present DDC pub- lisher, 25-26. General auxiliary, and UDC, 4-5. History, classification of in Britain, 67, 72. Index, important feature of early DDC scheme, 2; Relativ Index, 23; revised after DDC-16, 30; library appreciation of, 51-52; computer- ized, 8; BNB, 68-69. See also: PRECIS. Indexing, Systematic Indexing (Kaiser, 1911), 5; classification problems, 5-6; by chain procedure, 11; and subject retrieval, 124-57. See also: PRECIS, Retrieval. Integrity of numbers, 23; vs. keeping pace with knowledge, 28-30, 33, 5 1 ; importance of to libraries, 50-52. Knowledge, growth of and libraries, 8; importance of keeping pace with, 15, 28-30, 33, 50, 51, 64. Lake Placid Club Education Founda- tion, obtains DDC copyrights, 25. Language, linguistics and classifica- tion, 5-6, 159-60, 162-63. Law, revision of phoenix schedules, 72. LCC. See: Library of Congress Class- ification. Libraries, users of DDC, 47-58; cur- rent problems in subject searching, 58; British use of DDC, 61; Euro- pean use of DDC, 75-77; DDC and, 78-79; needs different from those of LC, 80; academic, and DDC, 93-94; public and school, and DDC, 94-95. See also: British Library, British Museum Library, Library of Congress, Science Ref- erence Library. Library of Congress, requests revised scheme of Dewey (1899), 25; agreement to help with DDC-16, 28. Library of Congress Classification, 7-8; as enumerative classification, 10; use of in libraries compared with DDC, 48-50; libraries, current problems in subject searching, 58; and DDC, 78-97; meets special needs of LC, 80; reasons for switch from DDC in U.S., 86-89; future possibilities, 92-93; virtually restricted to U.S., 96; evaluation for BML, 106-08; evaluation for 182 INDEX SRL, 108-10; future of, 158; and closed classified catalogs, 171. Literature, three modes of, 21-22; classification of by libraries, 54. MARC, UK, 66, 69, 73-74, 100, 102, 131-32, 147-48; use of in conti- nental Europe, 75-76; and DDC, 90, 93, 96; retrieval and, 102; possible addition of UDC numbers, 104; use of in SRL study, 109; lesson of, 131-32. MESH (Medical Subject Headings), 13. Music, phoenix schedule being pre- pared in Britain, 71. Phoenix schedules, 30; library atti- tudes toward, 51-52; for music, 71 ; revision of for law, 72. Piaget, Jean, on classification of the sciences, 165-69. PMEST, 10, 37, 128, 130. Precedence notes, satisfaction with among libraries, 57. PRECIS (Preserved Context Indexing System), origins, 13-14; 132-33; British needs, 69, 103, 111; exam- ple of index, 134; entry format, 135-39; treatment of compound terms, 139-41; role operators, 141-44; construction of thesaurus for, 144-47; use of and work-flow, 148-56; and search for general classification scheme, 160; effec- tiveness of relational operators, 164. Ranganathan, Shiyali Ramanarita, 5; development of scheme, 8-11; indexing by chain procedure, 10-11; and PRECIS, 14; and UDC, 39; effect of ideas on Britain, 63; problem with primary facet, 128. See also: Colon Classification. Relational sign, 5. Relativ Index, as part of DDC-2, 23. Retrieval, British examination of possibilities, 102; and UDC, 120-21 ; desirable characteristics of system, 126-27; and classification schemes, 157-72; subject retrieval, 160-61; cross-cultural, 162-64; different classification needed for book ar- rangement, 170. See also: Com- puters, PRECIS. Science Reference Library, possible classification schemes, 108-10. See also: British Museum Library. Sciences, Piaget's classification of, 165-69. Segmentation, extent of use by librar- ies, 53. Special auxiliary, in UDC, 5. Spelling, simplified in DDC, 23. SRL. See: Science Reference Library. Subject Classification (Brown), 6-7. Subject retrieval, or informational re- trieval, 160-61. See also: Retriev- al. Syntax, search for universal, and problems of classification, 5-6. See also: Language. * Thesauro facet, 13. Thesaurus, and library classification schemes, 13, 129; PRECIS, 144-47. UDC. See: Universal Decimal Classifi- cation. United States, survey of use of DDC, 47-58. Universal' Decimal Classification, origin, 4; principle contributions, 5; special auxiliary in, 5; contrast to Ranganathan's scheme, 9; use of colon, 9-10; as synthetic classi- fication, 10; and PRECIS, 14; based on DDC-5 (1894), 39; evalu- ation for BML, 106-08; evaluation for SRL, 108-10; offspring of DDC, 113-14; today, 115-16; reforms, 116-17, 119-21; Basic Medium Edition, 117-19; future of, 158-59. See also: Broad Sys- tem of Ordering. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 020.715A434 C001 ? ALLERTON PARK INSTITUTE URBANA-CHAMPAIG !' 21 1975

i don't know

Who was Sherlock Holmes' assistant?

Sherlock Holmes (2009) - IMDb IMDb There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error From $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video ON DISC Detective Sherlock Holmes and his stalwart partner Watson engage in a battle of wits and brawn with a nemesis whose plot is a threat to all of England. Director: a list of 28 titles created 08 Mar 2013 a list of 37 titles created 23 Oct 2013 a list of 47 titles created 13 Jul 2014 a list of 37 titles created 21 Jan 2015 a list of 34 titles created 01 Jan 2016 Search for " Sherlock Holmes " on Amazon.com Connect with IMDb Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. Nominated for 2 Oscars. Another 10 wins & 25 nominations. See more awards  » Videos Sherlock Holmes and his sidekick Dr. Watson join forces to outwit and bring down their fiercest adversary, Professor Moriarty. Director: Guy Ritchie King Leonidas of Sparta and a force of 300 men fight the Persians at Thermopylae in 480 B.C. Director: Zack Snyder An adaptation of Homer's great epic, the film follows the assault on Troy by the united Greek forces and chronicles the fates of the men involved. Director: Wolfgang Petersen A bored married couple is surprised to learn that they are both assassins hired by competing agencies to kill each other. Director: Doug Liman Danny Ocean and his eleven accomplices plan to rob three Las Vegas casinos simultaneously. Director: Steven Soderbergh After being held captive in an Afghan cave, billionaire engineer Tony Stark creates a unique weaponized suit of armor to fight evil. Director: Jon Favreau Jack Sparrow races to recover the heart of Davy Jones to avoid enslaving his soul to Jones' service, as other friends and foes seek the heart for their own agenda as well. Director: Gore Verbinski A police officer joins a secret organization that polices and monitors extraterrestrial interactions on Earth. Director: Barry Sonnenfeld Hancock is a superhero whose ill considered behavior regularly causes damage in the millions. He changes when one person he saves helps him improve his public image. Director: Peter Berg Danny Ocean rounds up the boys for a third heist, after casino owner Willy Bank double-crosses one of the original eleven, Reuben Tishkoff. Director: Steven Soderbergh Daniel Ocean recruits one more team member so he can pull off three major European heists in this sequel to Ocean's 11. Director: Steven Soderbergh A paraplegic marine dispatched to the moon Pandora on a unique mission becomes torn between following his orders and protecting the world he feels is his home. Director: James Cameron Edit Storyline After finally catching serial killer and occult "sorcerer" Lord Blackwood, legendary sleuth Sherlock Holmes and his assistant Dr. Watson can close yet another successful case. But when Blackwood mysteriously returns from the grave and resumes his killing spree, Holmes must take up the hunt once again. Contending with his partner's new fiancée and the dimwitted head of Scotland Yard, the dauntless detective must unravel the clues that will lead him into a twisted web of murder, deceit, and black magic - and the deadly embrace of temptress Irene Adler. Written by The Massie Twins Crime Will Pay See more  » Genres: Action  | Adventure  | Crime  | Mystery  | Thriller Motion Picture Rating ( MPAA ) Rated PG-13 for intense sequences of violence and action, some startling images and a scene of suggestive material | See all certifications  » Parents Guide: 25 December 2009 (USA) See more  » Also Known As: £3,081,072 (UK) (25 December 2009) Gross: Did You Know? Trivia The outfits worn by the navvies are the same ones worn by the railway workers in Cranford: Return to Cranford: Part One - August 1844 (2009). See more » Goofs A scratch appears on Sherlock's right cheek, then disappears by the next scene. See more » Quotes [first lines] Sherlock Holmes : [voice-over] Head cocked to the left, partial deafness in ear: first point of attack. Two: throat; paralyze vocal chords, stop scream. Three: got to be a heavy drinker, floating rib to the liver. Four: finally, drag in left leg, fist to patella. Summary prognosis: unconscious in ninety seconds, martial efficacy quarter of an hour at best. Full faculty recovery: unlikely. See more » Crazy Credits The Warner Bros., Village Roadshow, and Silver Pictures logos are formed from cobblestones on a London street. See more » Connections Soundtracks The Rocky Road to Dublin Courtesy of Sanctuary Records Group Ltd. Under license from Universal Music Enterprises Entertaining, Sophisticated, Gritty - A New Breed of Sherlock Holmes 25 December 2009 | by OnFireJC (CA, United States) – See all my reviews Opening on Christmas Day, Sherlock Holmes showed itself to be worthy as a blockbuster hit. To be frank, I came with an expectation that the movie would be terrible. But I was proved wrong. Sherlock Holmes seems to be like the new James Bond: gritty, hardcore, and always ready for a good fight. He is not only intellectually sophisticated but also quite a brawler. Watson his side kick who is his loyal friend is always there to save his dear partner from harm's way. Irene plays the notorious thief and lover of Mr. Holmes. She is a wily character who keeps the reader guessing her motives. The cinematography of the movie was special because it showed parts of the film as Holmes' future logical deductions. The movie also used the tradition method of explaining the Sherlock Holmes deductions after given the facts and clues. Sherlock Holmes' evil nemesis play his part well. There were many humorous antics and displays of ingenious traps. The other minor characters also added to the crude humor and laughter. Overall, this movie deserves to be watched. It comes with sparkles of spontaneity and fun. And it may even leave you wanting a sequel! Give it a try! 134 of 228 people found this review helpful.  Was this review helpful to you? Yes

Dr. Watson

What are the indigenous people of new Zealand called?

Sherlock Holmes (2009) - Plot Summary - IMDb Sherlock Holmes (2009) Plot Summary Showing all 4 plot summaries After finally catching serial killer and occult "sorcerer" Lord Blackwood, legendary sleuth Sherlock Holmes and his assistant Dr. Watson can close yet another successful case. But when Blackwood mysteriously returns from the grave and resumes his killing spree, Holmes must take up the hunt once again. Contending with his partner's new fiancée and the dimwitted head of Scotland Yard, the dauntless detective must unravel the clues that will lead him into a twisted web of murder, deceit, and black magic - and the deadly embrace of temptress Irene Adler. - Written by The Massie Twins In London, Sherlock Holmes and his partner Dr. John Watson captures the follower of black magic and serial killer Lord Blackwood that has already killed five women when he is near to kill his sixth victim. Blackwood is sentenced to be strung up and Dr. Watson attests his death. However, Blackwood mysteriously returns from the afterlife and Inspector Lestrade summons Sherlock Holmes to help the Scotland Yard in the investigation. Meanwhile Dr. Watson intends to get married of the gorgeous Mary Morstan while Sherlock is visited by his former lover Irene Adler that has a secret agenda. - Written by Claudio Carvalho, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil With the arrest of Lord Blackwood, Sherlock Holmes and Dr. John Watson believe they have stopped one of London's most dangerous killers, responsible for five deaths and about to commit a sixth when he is apprehended. Several months later he is hanged for his crimes but rumors begin to circulate that he is in fact still alive, having used managed and the black arts to escape society's judgment. When they disinter his remains, they find the body of another man in the coffin. Soon, all of London is atwitter with the news that Blackwood has risen from the dead and for some, he is the devil incarnate. With the assistance of the very capable Irene Adler, Holmes and Watson must stop Blackwood before he can initiate his master plan: the takeover of the British government and eventually, world domination. - Written by garykmcd Detective Sherlock Holmes and his stalwart partner Watson engage in a battle of wits and brawn with a nemesis whose plot is a threat to all of England.

i don't know

Who was the film star who married Prince Rainier III of Monaco?

Grace Kelly & Prince Rainier III of Monaco are married by Monaco's Bishop Gilles Barthe | Grace Kelly: her amazing life in pictures - Photography Photography Previous slide Next slide 18 of 42 View All Skip Ad Grace Kelly, the Fifties film star who became a princess, was born in 1929. After making her name in films such as High Noon, Rear Window and To Catch a Thief, she married Prince Rainier III of Monaco on April 19 1956 and retired from acting. She died in a car crash in 1982 after suffering a stroke while driving. 1948:  American actress Grace Kelly and her sister Elizabeth wish their  brother, Olympic medal-winning rower John B Kelly Jnr, good luck at Henley Royal Regatta, Henley-on-Thames Credit: Evening Standard/Getty Images A 1950s portrait of US actress Grace Kelly. Between 1950 and 1953, the young actress appeared on stage and in live TV productions. Credit: Rex Grace Kelly (1929-1982), is shown in this portrait from the early 1950s. In 1951 she made her little-noticed film debut in the film 'Fourteen Hours', but stardom would have to wait another two years. Credit: Getty Images 1953: Ava Gardner, Clark Gable and Grace Kelly in 'Mogambo'. This film won her a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress and an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress. Credit: Everett Collection / Rex Features/Everett Collection / Rex Features 1954: James Stewart and Grace Kelly in 'Rear Window' Credit: Moviestore Collection / Rex Features Grace Kelly on the set of 'To Catch A Thief', some of which was filmed on the riviera, where she met Prince Rainier of Monaco Credit: Keystone/Getty Images Grace Kelly on the set of To Catch A Thief Credit: Rex 30 March 1955: Presenter Bette Davis poses with Marlon Brando, winner of the Best Actor Academy Award for On the Waterfront,  and Grace Kelly, who won Best Actress for The Country Girl  Credit: Everett Collection / Rex Features 5 January 1956: Prince Rainier III of Monaco and his fiancee Grace Kelly show her mother her engagement ring  at the Philadelphia county club where the Kellys announced the engagement of their daughter and the prince Credit: AFP/Getty 23 February 1956: US actor Gregory Peck is flanked  by Grace Kelly (R), awarded Favourite Actress for "Henrietta" and Jean Simmons, named Best Actress in a Musical Comedy during the 10th Annual Golden Globe Awards in Hollywood Credit: AFP/Getty Grace Kelly in her final film High Society (1956) 27 February 1956: A dummy of the stamp to be issued by Monaco Stamp Office for the wedding of Prince Rainier with US actress Grace Kelly, to be held 19 April 1956 Credit: AFP/Getty/AFP/Getty Grace Kelly and Prince Rainier III of Monaco, pictured in the 1950s Credit: REx 12 April 1956: Prince Rainier III of Monaco and his fiancee US actress Grace Kelly are all smiles aboard his yacht Deo Juvante II in Monte Carlo's harbour, as Grace Kelly arrives from the USA for their wedding ceremony Credit: AFP/Getty/AFP/Getty 19 April 1956: A close-up of Grace Kelly during her wedding ceremony with Prince Rainier of Monaco Credit: AFP/Getty 19 April 1956: Grace Kelly on her wedding day  Credit: Rex/Rex 19 April 1956: Grace Kelly and Prince Rainier III of Monaco are married by Monaco's Bishop Gilles Barthe Credit: AFP/Getty 19 April 1956: Prince Rainier III of Monaco and US actress and Princess of Monaco Grace Kelly are seen during their wedding lunch  Credit: AFP/Getty Prince Rainier placing the wedding ring of Princess Grace's finger during the marriage service in Monaco Cathedral. Credit: AP Grace Kelly and Prince Rainier of Monaco during their wedding ceremony in Monaco on April 19, 1956 Credit: AFP/Getty Prince Rainier and Grace Kelly, pictured during their wedding service at Monaco Cathedral Credit: AP Prince Rainier III of Monaco and US actress and princess of Monaco Grace Kelly salute the crowd as they leave Monaco's Saint Nicholas Cathedral after their wedding ceremony  Credit: AFP/Getty Prince Rainier III of Monaco and US actress and princess of Monaco Grace Kelly after their wedding ceremony Credit: AP Prince Rainier and Princess Grace wave after their wedding Credit: Everett Collection / Rex Features/Everett Collection / Rex Features Prince Rainier of Monaco and Grace Kelly at the ceremony for the arrival of USS Constellation in November 1956  Credit: Rex 13 March 1957: Prince Rainier and Princess Grace walk down a  street in Lausanne, followed by residents. The couple had just arrived there for a few days of holiday shortly after the birth of Princess Caroline Credit: AFP/Getty/AFP/Getty 19 April 1958: Prince Rainier of Monaco (holding their daughter Caroline) and Princess Grace present their new-born son Albert to residents of the principality from the balcony of the palace, a day before the baptism of the child Credit: AFP/Getty/AFP/Getty 29 October 1959: Princess Grace and Prince Rainier III of Monaco and their two children, Princess Caroline, 3, and 19-month-old Prince Albert, leave  a hotel in Saulieu en route to Monaco Credit: AFP/Getty 19 April 1966: Prince Rainier and Princess Grace of Monaco chat at the Maestranza bullfight in Seville Credit: AFP/Getty 1969: A formal family portrait at the palace in Monaco Credit:  Forum Press / Rex Features/ Forum Press / Rex Features 1969: Sophia Loren and Princess Grace attend a fancy dress ball in the Casino of Monte Carlo Credit: Sipa Press / Rex Features 1972:  Princess Grace holidays with Princesses Caroline and Stephanie Credit: SIPA PRESS / Rex Features 29 November 1973: Princess Grace of Monaco attends a dinner reception in Versailles Credit: AFP/Getty 1973: Princess Grace and Prince Rainier pose with their children Caroline, Albert and Stephanie at the Grimaldi Palace Credit: FORUM PRESS / Rex Features/FORUM PRESS / Rex Features 1979: Prince Rainier of Monaco and his wife Princess Grace relax at Roc Agel, their summer residence near Monaco Credit: AFP/Getty/AFP/Getty 15 May 1980: Princess Grace of Monaco faces cameras while she arrives to attend a tribute to Alfred Hitchcock at the 33rd Cannes Film Festival Credit: AFP/Getty Images/AFP/Getty Images 1981: Prince Charles and Princess Diana take part in their  first public engagement, at the Royal Opera House with Princess Grace of Monaco Credit: Reginald Davis / Rex Features/Reginald Davis / Rex Features 16 June 1982: A portrait of Princess Grace of Monaco Credit: AFP/Getty 1982: people look  at the location of Princess Grace's fatal car crash on the Cote d'Azur Credit: Armando Pietrangeli / Rex Features/Armando Pietrangeli / Rex Features 13 September 1982: Police surround the site of Princess Grace's fatal car accident Credit: AFP/Getty 18 September 1982: Monaco's Prince Rainier and his eldest daughter Princess Caroline attend the funeral of Princess Grace  Credit: AFP/Getty

Grace Kelly

What was the first name of the politician Gladstone, the composer Walton, and the reformer Wilberforce?

Flashback: Prince Rainier III marries Grace Kelly - Photos Photos Flashback: Prince Rainier III marries Grace Kelly By Photos Email Lionel Cironneau / AP Prince Albert II of Monaco and bride-to-be Charlene Wittstock attend to the St Jean Religious Parade , Thursday, June 23, 2011, in Monaco. Prince Albert II of Monaco and his fiancee Charlene Wittstock of South Africa, will wed on July 1 and 2. According to Reuters: His Serene Highness Prince Albert II, the 53-year-old ruler of the tiny city-state of Monaco and head of the centuries-old House of Grimaldi, will wed Charlene Wittstock, 33, on July 2 at the Prince's Palace. The wedding festivities will begin two days before when the couple hosts a special Eagles concert for 15,000 people at a stadium in western Monaco. A civil ceremony will take place the following day and it will be broadcast live on giant screens outside for the Monegasque people to watch. On July 2, Albert and Wittstock, a South African Olympic Swimmer, will tie the knot for the second time during a religious ceremony at the palace's main courtyard, followed by a procession, an evening reception catered by chef Alain Ducasse, and a gala ball. Saturday's wedding will be the first of a ruling prince in Monaco since Albert's father, Prince Rainier III, married Hollywood actress Grace Kelly in 1956, and locals hope Wittstock could bring back some of the glamour which died alongside Kelly in a 1982 car crash. Below are some photos from the 1956 wedding of Prince Rainier III to Grace Kelly. AFP - Getty Images Prince Rainier III of Monaco and U.S. actress and princess of Monaco Grace Kelly salute the crowd as they leave Saint Nicholas Cathedral after their wedding ceremony in Monaco on April 19, 1956 in a convertible cream and black Rolls Royce offered by the people of Monaco as a wedding gift. In Monaco, commentators are convinced that the marriage of Prince Albert will be an even bigger event than his parents' 1956 wedding, which saw prince Rainier tie the knot with U.S. film star Grace Kelly. AFP - Getty Images A photo taken on April 19, 1956 shows U.S. actress Grace Kelly and Prince Rainier of Monaco during their wedding ceremony in Monaco. AFP - Getty Images Official picture of U.S. actress Grace Kelly and Prince Rainier of Monaco during their wedding ceremony in Monaco on April 19, 1956.   NBC's Michelle Kosinski reports on the upcoming royal wedding between Prince Albert of Monaco and South African Charlene Wittstock, which is rife with rumors of lovechildren for the prince and cold feet for the princess-to-be.  

i don't know

Of which tribe was Goliath the champion?

David and Goliath David and Goliath Add this:  David and Goliath (1 Sam 17) by Keith Bodner Some of the most popular and enduring stories involve an underdog who overcomes great obstacles and secures victory against the odds. Arguably the most famous of such stories is the unlikely triumph of David—the young Israelite shepherd—against the battle-hardened Philistine war machine, the nine-foot-nine Goliath of Gath. Even though many people have heard about “David versus Goliath” in the media, the actual details of the story in 1Sam 17 are less widely known. According to the biblical story, the Philistines and Israelites were locked in a heated struggle over a limited amount of land. The Philistines enjoyed a technological advantage (see 1Sam 13:16-22 ) and usually held the upper hand, but in this case the tables were turned. How is Goliath characterized in this episode? Most English translations call Goliath a “champion” in 1Sam 17:4 , a paraphrase of a Hebrew expression that can more literally be rendered “a man of the place between.” If a combatant remains standing in the space between two armies at the end of the battle, such a person is a champion, and the implication is that Goliath has been effective in many such conflicts. Goliath’s immense stature must be a reason for such success, but he is also heavily armored as he approaches the Israelite troops. Such a long description of a warrior’s accoutrements—beginning with Goliath’s helmet, then moving down to the coat of mail and bronze greaves on his legs—is uncommon in the Hebrew Bible . In fact, this portrait is much closer to depictions of warrior-heroes in Greek literature and in this case points to the Hellenistic roots of the Philistines. But Goliath is also from the city of Gath, and according to Josh 11:22 , Gath is home to the “Anakites,” an ancient race of fearsome giants. Consequently, Goliath is pictured as the ultimate hybrid figure: a Greek warrior not unlike Achilles and a member of an ancient race of giants who struck terror into the Israelites moving toward the land of their inheritance (see Deut 1:28 ). Whoever takes on Goliath faces a formidable foe indeed. As if the description of Goliath’s ancestry and weaponry were not enough, he is also presented as an intimidating speaker who verbally assaults the army of Israel and David himself, before any actual fighting: “Come to me, and I will give your flesh to the birds of the air and to the wild animals of the field” ( 1Sam 17:44 ). What happens to the head of Goliath? Goliath challenges the Israelites to choose a fighter to face him one on one, with the losing nation to become slaves of the other. Even for an experienced fighter this represents a daunting task, and David has to first convince Saul that he is equal to the task. Testifying about his prowess against lions and bears, David’s speech is impressive, and Saul agrees to allow him to enter the ring. Even more impressive are David’s words to Goliath, asserting that the battle belongs to God and that he intends to use the giant’s own sword to decapitate him ( 1Sam 17:45-47 ). It should be noted that David rejects the offer of Saul’s armor, but he does have a slingshot in his hand, a weapon customarily identified with Benjamin, Saul’s own tribe (see Judg 20:15-16 ). David also takes a shepherd’s staff in his other hand, an implement that in 1Sam 17:43 provides Goliath with a canine insult: “Am I a dog, that you come to me with sticks?” But it seems that David is merely using the staff as a distraction, and evidently Goliath takes the bait and does not see the well-aimed rock that hits his forehead, causing him to fall face-first to the ground. Like an athlete who guarantees victory before the game, true to his word, David cuts off the head of the Philistine with the giant’s own sword. But Goliath’s head is subject to an interesting postmortem journey, for according to 1Sam 17:54 David carries the head to Jerusalem. At this point in the larger story, Jerusalem is a non-Israelite city, and even though it is in the heart of the promised land , no Israelite has conquered it. In 2Sam 5 , David will successfully invade it, rename it “the city of David,” and transform it into the national capital. Thus the head of Goliath in 1Sam 17 acts as a kind of security deposit, anticipating David’s larger achievement and installation as the king of all Israel. Keith Bodner, "David and Goliath", n.p. [cited 20 Jan 2017]. Online: http://www.bibleodyssey.com/en/passages/main-articles/david-and-goliath Contributors Keith Bodner Professor, Crandall University Keith Bodner is professor of religious studies at Crandall University in New Brunswick, Canada. His recent books include Elisha’s Profile in the Book of the Kings (Oxford University Press, 2013) and The Rebellion of Absalom (Routledge, 2013). Using just a stick and a stone, the underdog David defeats the Philistine champion Goliath in one of the Bible’s best-known stories. Did you know…? The Philistine takes his stand for 40 days in 1Sam 17:16 , reminding the reader that at the end of 40 days Noah opened the window of the ark that he had made ( Gen 8:6 ) and that Moses spent 40 days on Mount Sinai ( Exod 24:18 )—David is in elite biblical company when he faces the giant. The Greek Septuagint lists Goliath’s height approximately three feet shorter. When Goliath curses David “by his gods” in 1Sam 17:43 , it is conceivable that one of these gods is the Philistine deity Dagon. Goliath and Dagon have something in common: in 1Sam 5:4 , Dagon loses his head (before the ark of the covenant), and Goliath loses his head in the confrontation with David. There is some debate as to why David chooses five stones. Some argue that he picks one stone for each of the five books of the Torah, others suggest that Goliath has four brothers, and still other interpreters suggest a more practical reason: in case he misses the mark. Scholars note a tension between this story ( 1Sam 17 ) and the one in 2Sam 21:19-22 , which reports that a certain Elhanan son of Jaare-oregim killed Goliath. The sword of Goliath shows up again in 1Sam 21:9 , when David retrieves it as he is fleeing from Saul and takes it with him while he hides in the city of Gath, the very hometown of Goliath himself.

Philistines

What nickname was given to General Thomas Jackson because of his stern defense at the battle of Bull Run?

Goliath | Bible Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia Appearance Six Cubits and a span (Approx 2.97 meters or 9.75 feet) tall Goliath the Gittite was a six cubit and a span [1] , giant soldier in the Philistine army that challenged the Israelite army under King Saul to send a warrior to challenge him in a battle. As a Gittite Goliath was from the city of Gath , one of the five city-states of the nation of Philistia. Goliath was a Rephaite, a member of a race of giants who all descended from Rapha. He had one brother named Lahmi [2] who also was in the army and from Gath, as well as having several possibly near relatives. Contents Goliath had been a warrior from his youth [3] Challenging Israel During one battle against the Israelites, the Philistines encamped on a hill across the valley from them. Soon Goliath, a Champion in the Philistine army came out from the Philistine camp. Wearing a bronze helmet, a five-thousand shekel (approx 125 pounds or 58 kilograms) and bronze shinguards. Slung on his back was a javelin, whose tip weighed six hundred shekels (approx 15 pounds or 6.9 kilograms). Ahead of him went a shield bearer. This went on for 40 days until young David arrived, bringing food for his three older brothers in the ranks. [4] When David heard Goliath's challenge, he accepted, proclaiming his faith in the God of Israel. [5] Armed with only a slings and five stones, he met Goliath at the battlefield between the two armies, killing him with a single stone to the giant's forehead. After Goliath fell to the ground dead, David used Goliath's sword to cut off his head. [6] The Philistine army was routed by the Israelites after this, and this event began the career of David, who later became Israel's most famous King. Goliath's height was listed at six cubits and a span. [7] If a cubit is about 18 inches as some think, Goliath would have been over nine feet tall. There are four more giants killed by the Israelites in battle, that were all from the tribe of giants in Gath . [8] Some people believe, the five stones David picked up to kill Goliath, was a forecast of the five giants that were eventually killed by David and his men. Verses

i don't know

Which Christian martyr was first bishop of Rome?

Linus Lleyn "The Martyr" ap Caradoc, Pope, 1st Bishop of Rome (45 - d.) - Genealogy Linus Lleyn "The Martyr" ap Caradoc, Pope, 1st Bishop of Rome Is your surname ap Caradoc? Research the ap Caradoc family Share your family tree and photos with the people you know and love Build your family tree online Share photos and videos Linus Lleyn "The Martyr" ap Caradoc, Pope, 1st Bishop of Rome Also Known As: Died in Alia, Palermo, Sicilia, Italy Immediate Family: brother About Linus Lleyn "The Martyr" ap Caradoc, Pope, 1st Bishop of Rome Linus the Martyr, his sister Claudia and her husband Rufus Pudens aided the Apostle Paul in the Christian Church in Rome, as recorded in II Timothy 4:21 and Romans 16:13 (Rufus Pudens and St. Paul are shown to be half-brothers, with the same mother but different fathers. "His mother and mine." She thus appears to have been the mother of an elder son, Paul, by a Hebrew husband, and a younger son, Rufus, by a second marriage with a Roman Christian.) notes or source: ancestry.com & HBJ 2 Timothy 4:21 Paul is writing to Linus in Rome. Linus was active as a Bishop in Rome (on Pauls instructions) before Peter arrived at Rome, and was undoubtably one of the Christians in Rome both Peter and Paul desired to see. It is only Roman Catholic tradition that teaches otherwise. This is understandable of course, because who wants to belong to the Church Linus built. Unfortunately tradition is not factually correct. The Church made the switch in the order of Popes to ensure Peter was the first Bishop of Rome, and I've heard some Roman Catholics concede as much. Further corroboration of Linus' appointment as the First Bishop of Rome can be found in the writings of St. Peter himself. His words, preserved in the "Apostolic Constitutions" (Bk. I, Chap. 46) read: ' 'Concerning those Bishops who have been ordained in our lifetime, we make known to you that they are these; of Antioch Eudius, ordained by me, Peter; of the Church of Rome, Linus, brother of Claudia, was first ordained by Paul, and after Linus' death, Clemens, the second ordained by me, Peter. In another statement Peter affirms that Linus was a Briton, son of a royal king. Irenaeus, a disciple of Polycarp (Born cir. A.D. 130) and later Bishop of Smyrna, also confirms Linus' appointment. He wrote: "The apostles, having founded and built up the Church at Rome, committed the ministry of its supervision to Linus. This is the Linus mentioned by Paul in his Epistle to Timothy." (Irenaei Opera Lib. III. C.I.). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk%3APope_Linus Pope Saint Linus (d. ca. 76) was, according to several early sources, Bishop of the diocese of Rome after Saint Peter. This makes Linus the second Pope (or the first, if Peter is not considered to have been Pope). According to other early sources Pope Clement I was the Pope after Peter. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Linus Linus Lleyn "The Martyr" ap Caradoc, Pope, 1st Bishop of Rome's Timeline 45

Saint Peter

Who was the most famous of English lexicographers?

Ignatius' Martyrdom by Lions in the Colosseum | Christian Persecution (Bible History Online) Ignatius' Martyrdom by Lions in the Colosseum Ignatius Martyrdom by Lions in the Colosseum 2nd Century A.D. Bishop of Antioch This painting reveals a Christian martyr who is being eaten by lions for the entertainment of the crowd. Persecution of the Christians was prevalent during the times of the Roman Empire. Lions and other wild animals would tear the Christians apart limb from limb. This painting is of an illuminated leaf from the Menologium of Basil II. Eastern Church service book. Christian Persecution Paul said, "all who desire to live godly in Christ Jesus will be persecuted." Jesus said, "no servant is greater than his master, if they hated me they will hate you also." He also said, "Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness sake." Persecution is something that every Christian must welcome, there is no Christian who is not persecuted in some way. In fact the very word "witness" comes from a Greek word which is translated in English "martyr". When Christianity was born on the day of Pentecost, 50 days after the resurrection of Christ, the Jewish leaders in Jerusalem were the first to persecuted Christians. Later it was the Roman Empire who heavily persecuted Christianity. "Suffer me to become food for the wild beasts, through whose instrumentality it will be granted me to attain to God. I am the wheat of God, and let me be ground by the teeth of the wild beasts, that I may be found the pure bread of Christ." - Ignatius According to tradition there were 10 great persecutions upon the Christian church by the Roman Empire. The most famous Roman Emperor who was a persecutor of the Christians was the Emperor Nero who subjected the Christian church to severe persecution in Rome in 64 A.D. and also in 65 A.D. and that is when the apostle Paul and the apostle Peter both perished. The author of the book of Revelation claims that he was in exile for the Christian faith on the island of Patmos near the end of the first century A.D. It is assumed that this persecution took place under the Emperor Domitian. Later Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, was martyred in 107 A.D. during the reign of Trajan. There was a conversation recorded in history of the Emperor Trajan and Pliny in 112 A.D. which makes clear that there was a growing persecution of Christians in Asia minor. Also in 177 A.D. there was a major persecution of Christians at Lyons under the reign of Marcus Aurelius. During the beginning of the third century A.D. the Roman Empire attempted to prevent any conversions to Christianity and during this time came about the sad story of the martyrdom of Perpetua and her companions at Carthage. Later there was the persecution of Decius who required that every citizen of Rome sacrifice to the Emperor, which actually led to many apostasies within the church. The last major persecution within the Roman Empire was under the reign of Diocletian, and this was probably the most severe. In 303 A.D. Diocletian persecuted the Christians so intensely that he ordered the destruction of many churches, and many sacred books. In 313 A.D. the Emperor Constantine terminated persecutions with the Edict of Milan which granted toleration of the Christian church. Christian Persecution in Easton's Bible Dictionary The Christian church passed through many bloody persecutions. Of subsequent centuries in our own and in other lands the same sad record may be made. Christians are forbidden to seek the propagation of the gospel by force (Matt. 7:1; Luke 9:54-56; Rom. 14:4; James 4:11, 12). The words of Ps. 7:13, "He ordaineth his arrows against the persecutors," ought rather to be, as in the Revised Version, "He maketh his arrows fiery [shafts]." Read Full Article Also See: Heart Message A Constant Craving Rome had so conquered its domain, achieving dominion, knowledge and wealth in varied disciplines of warfare, science, art, & architecture among others, that citizens had leisure and could enjoy the glorious civilization. But nations, like individuals, when strife for survival is no longer demanding, can feel the emptiness inside of our fallen nature rather than being able to enjoy what was built. An entire population can become unruly when it has time on its hands. Governments should be directing their citizen�s to higher aspirations, but without leadership, a people can fall to its baser instincts. Amusements have a shelf life before they become boring. A joke can only be told once and be funny. Wealth in our own time is producing darker and darker forms of entertainment as society is continually desensitized and requires more and more stimulation. The ugly bottom of this never-ending craving can become a bloodlust, the desire to see others suffer. The self-hatred inside an empty soul can be hyped up and projected towards a scapegoat who seems offensive enough to be blamed for one�s own fallen emotions. The Romans offered up the Christians who in faith to Christ were trying not to ride along with the corrupted culture but received the forgiveness of God and fullness of the Holy Spirit. As Gladys Knight once sung, �I�d rather live in his world, than live without him in mine.�   The Bible mentions a lot regarding persecution: Psalms 69:26 - For they persecute [him] whom thou hast smitten; and they talk to the grief of those whom thou hast wounded. Jeremiah 17:18 - Let them be confounded that persecute me, but let not me be confounded: let them be dismayed, but let not me be dismayed: bring upon them the day of evil, and destroy them with double destruction. Romans 12:14 - Bless them which persecute you: bless, and curse not. Psalms 7:1 - O LORD my God, in thee do I put my trust: save me from all them that persecute me, and deliver me: Matthew 23:34 - Wherefore, behold, I send unto you prophets, and wise men, and scribes: and [some] of them ye shall kill and crucify; and [some] of them shall ye scourge in your synagogues, and persecute [them] from city to city: Psalms 31:15 - My times [are] in thy hand: deliver me from the hand of mine enemies, and from them that persecute me. Jeremiah 29:18 - And I will persecute them with the sword, with the famine, and with the pestilence, and will deliver them to be removed to all the kingdoms of the earth, to be a curse, and an astonishment, and an hissing, and a reproach, among all the nations whither I have driven them: Psalms 7:5 - Let the enemy persecute my soul, and take [it]; yea, let him tread down my life upon the earth, and lay mine honour in the dust. Selah. Luke 21:12 - But before all these, they shall lay their hands on you, and persecute [you], delivering [you] up to the synagogues, and into prisons, being brought before kings and rulers for my name's sake. Matthew 5:44 - But I say unto you, Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you, and persecute you; Psalms 10:2 - The wicked in [his] pride doth persecute the poor: let them be taken in the devices that they have imagined. Psalms 119:84 - How many [are] the days of thy servant? when wilt thou execute judgment on them that persecute me? Matthew 5:11 - Blessed are ye, when [men] shall revile you, and persecute [you], and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely, for my sake. Matthew 10:23 - But when they persecute you in this city, flee ye into another: for verily I say unto you, Ye shall not have gone over the cities of Israel, till the Son of man be come. John 5:16 - And therefore did the Jews persecute Jesus, and sought to slay him, because he had done these things on the sabbath day. John 15:20 - Remember the word that I said unto you, The servant is not greater than his lord. If they have persecuted me, they will also persecute you; if they have kept my saying, they will keep yours also. Psalms 35:3 - Draw out also the spear, and stop [the way] against them that persecute me: say unto my soul, I [am] thy salvation. Luke 11:49 - Therefore also said the wisdom of God, I will send them prophets and apostles, and [some] of them they shall slay and persecute: Psalms 35:6 - Let their way be dark and slippery: and let the angel of the LORD persecute them. Psalms 83:15 - So persecute them with thy tempest, and make them afraid with thy storm. Psalms 119:86 - All thy commandments [are] faithful: they persecute me wrongfully; help thou me. Lamentations 3:66 - Persecute and destroy them in anger from under the heavens of the LORD. Job 19:28 - But ye should say, Why persecute we him, seeing the root of the matter is found in me? Psalms 71:11 - Saying, God hath forsaken him: persecute and take him; for [there is] none to deliver [him]. Job 19:22 - Why do ye persecute me as God, and are not satisfied with my flesh? Lamentations 3:43 - Thou hast covered with anger, and persecuted us: thou hast slain, thou hast not pitied. Psalms 143:3 - For the enemy hath persecuted my soul; he hath smitten my life down to the ground; he hath made me to dwell in darkness, as those that have been long dead. Galatians 4:29 - But as then he that was born after the flesh persecuted him [that was born] after the Spirit, even so [it is] now. Deuteronomy 30:7 - And the LORD thy God will put all these curses upon thine enemies, and on them that hate thee, which persecuted thee. Isaiah 14:6 - He who smote the people in wrath with a continual stroke, he that ruled the nations in anger, is persecuted, [and] none hindereth. Galatians 1:13 - For ye have heard of my conversation in time past in the Jews' religion, how that beyond measure I persecuted the church of God, and wasted it: Psalms 109:16 - Because that he remembered not to shew mercy, but persecuted the poor and needy man, that he might even slay the broken in heart. Matthew 5:12 - Rejoice, and be exceeding glad: for great [is] your reward in heaven: for so persecuted they the prophets which were before you. Acts 7:52 - Which of the prophets have not your fathers persecuted? and they have slain them which shewed before of the coming of the Just One; of whom ye have been now the betrayers and murderers: Acts 26:11 - And I punished them oft in every synagogue, and compelled [them] to blaspheme; and being exceedingly mad against them, I persecuted [them] even unto strange cities. John 15:20 - Remember the word that I said unto you, The servant is not greater than his lord. If they have persecuted me, they will also persecute you; if they have kept my saying, they will keep yours also. 1 Corinthians 4:12 - And labour, working with our own hands: being reviled, we bless; being persecuted, we suffer it: Galatians 1:23 - But they had heard only, That he which persecuted us in times past now preacheth the faith which once he destroyed. Revelation 12:13 - And when the dragon saw that he was cast unto the earth, he persecuted the woman which brought forth the man [child]. Psalms 119:161 - SCHIN. Princes have persecuted me without a cause: but my heart standeth in awe of thy word. Matthew 5:10 - Blessed [are] they which are persecuted for righteousness' sake: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Acts 22:4 - And I persecuted this way unto the death, binding and delivering into prisons both men and women. 1 Corinthians 15:9 - For I am the least of the apostles, that am not meet to be called an apostle, because I persecuted the church of God. 1 Thessalonians 2:15 - Who both killed the Lord Jesus, and their own prophets, and have persecuted us; and they please not God, and are contrary to all men: 2 Corinthians 4:9 - Persecuted, but not forsaken; cast down, but not destroyed;  

i don't know

In which of the arts has Richard Avedon distinguished himself?

Obituary: Richard Avedon | Art and design | The Guardian Share on Messenger Close The career of the photographer Richard Avedon, who has died aged 81, was called by Susan Sontag "one of the exemplary photographic careers of this century" - alongside Edward Steichen, Bill Brandt and Henri Cartier-Bresson. He himself had no dearth of famous names in the fields of both photography and literature to accompany his volumes of images: from Mark Haworth-Booth and Harold Rosenberg, James Baldwin and Truman Capote to Arthur Miller and George Wallace. Avedon was born in New York; his father owned a shop on Fifth Avenue. At 12 years old, he joined the YMHA camera club - an early photograph shows him with his Kodak Box Brownie in Central Park in 1935. He attended DeWitt Clinton high school in the Bronx, where he was co-editor, with James Baldwin, of the Magpie, the school's literary magazine, and became poet laureate of New York high schools. From the start - after war service in the photography section of the US merchant marines - Avedon was linked to fashion, fashion magazines and Irving Penn. Never more so than in Helmut Gernsheim's oft-reiterated comments of their "creation of a contemporary style", utilising "the same strength" of assigning "monumentality" to their subjects. But whereas Penn might go for the oddest juxtapositions - like turning South Sea islanders in warrior armour into fashion plates - Avedon eschewed anything that might intervene in the arresting clarity and deceptive simplicity of the early portraits. Attached, aged only 21, to Harper's Bazaar, he had established his own studio a year later. His studies at New York's New School for Social Research, under the legendary Alexei Brodovitch (where Diane Arbus and Eve Arnold, among others, also trained), led directly to his appointment as a staffer on Harper's, where Brodovitch and Carmel Snow were commissioning editors. He stayed from 1945 to 1965, before branching out into Vogue, working under Diana Vreeland and Alexander Liberman (from 1966), and at the New Yorker, where, in 1992, he became the magazine's first staff photographer. It was the glossy, east-coast magazines which provided the skeleton on which all the other myriad Avedon projects were fleshed. Partly, perhaps, a question of being in the right place at the right time: one could not invent a more appropriate outlet for the stark, but often naturally lit, portraits of models, artists, the famous and the infamous. Despite Avedon's protestations against daylight, he had an even greater resistance to shadows - including those backdrop rims thrown up by flash. Something of the extraordinary print quality of those large-format black-and-white investigations has to be due to Avedon's printers, especially Earl Steinbicken. Avedon's own interest was always in the people, never in the fashions. In fact, the models tended to add a layer of complication to what he fundamentally believed was the relationship between photographer and sitter. As he said: "A photographic portrait is a picture of someone who knows he (sic) is being photographed, and what he does with this knowledge is as much a part of the photograph as what he's wearing or how he looks." In the case of the model, of course, she was performing as a clothes horse, wearing the outfits and makeup assigned, and not necessarily presenting herself as she might choose. Yet it was Avedon's conviction that "We all perform" - with its necessary corollary that "I trust performances" - that allowed both for the model's interpretation, actor-like, of a given role, and his own refusal to distinguish between "the named and unnamed" (in New Yorker terms, the famous and the rest). Initially inspired by the 1930s imagery of the great Hungarian Martin Munkacsi, who photographed fashions as if they were battleships, Avedon democratised the image, at least partly by removing it from its setting. (Even the portrait of Red Owens, Oil Field Worker, Oklahoma, 1980 has the raggedy-overalled, bearded stevedore doused in black viscosity aqainst a bare white backcloth.) Many photographs also include the dark border running around the rim of the square-format negative, as though proclaiming "right, now you don't need to frame me any other than how the photographer did". And many of his exhibitions, including the major retrospective which travelled to the National Portrait Gallery in London in 1994-95 followed that line. The exercise in democratising the image paradoxically had its own fiercely political implications. Avedon protested too much in insisting that he concentrated on surfaces because that was where his faith lay. By concentrating on the great unnamed of the United States, he gave us In The American West (1985, in which Red Owens appeared), about as different from Robert Frank's Americans as any study could be. By using an 8 x 10 view camera and homing in on every detail, he rendered his subjects again as much a set of graphic compositions as he did his fashion models in their swirling dresses. The paradox lies in his own assertion that the moment an emotion enters into a portrait, it becomes less a statement of fact than of opinion. This puts the onus of response from the photographer on to the viewer. A wide-angle lens, used in closeup, enhanced the sense of distortion, magnifying minor defects, sometimes horrifying the viewer. Twenty years earlier, the initially shocking, but ultimately sentimental tome Nothing Personal (1964), opened with a foggy double-spread frontispiece of a man, wearing only trunks, spectacles and a wristwatch, kneeling before an elaborate sandcastle. It closes with even softer-washed portraits of a loving couple, the woman heavily pregnant, cavorting in the sea-shallows, and of a man holding his infant up out of the water balanced on the palm of his hand. Between the two there are posed versions of numerous rites of passage. That Penguin Books would have even considered doing as unconventional and giant a volume as this testified to Avedon's clout. The text was by James Baldwin, who wrote that "the myth tells us that America was full of smiling people ... the relevant truth is that the country was settled by a desperate, divided, and rapacious horde of people who were determined to forget their pasts and determined to make money. We certainly have not changed in this respect, and this is proved by our faces, by our children, by our absolutely unspeakable loneliness, and the spectacular ugliness and hostility of our cities." Avedon just focused on the faces. In 1976, he devised a Who's Who Of America in the run-up to the presidential elections. Sixty-nine members of The Family - those with the intellectual, economic and political power - appeared in Rolling Stone. They did not present pretty pictures and Avedon himself reacted with characteristic self-negation: "I strongly voice my emotions in my photographs ... this is a composite portrait of the power elite, but I feel nothing at all for the majority of these people." He goes further, denying not only any personal responses, but any political or moral ones by adding, "I'm not looking to offset Republicans against Democrats, good against bad." His goal was to reverse the tradition, voiced by Julia Margaret Cameron, of using portraiture to allow the outer form to reveal the inner spirit. Avedon was in search of the inner spirit alright, but was hijacking the former preserve of the postwar humanist photographic tradition, in searching for something generic outside of their established domain of street photography. Even the images which most promote the child-as-father-to-the-man in the opening and closing shots of the deliberately named Nothing Personal are non-specifically misty. His defence, in the face of concerted attack for the series on his cancer-stricken father (1969-73), was that it was not the death scenes of Jacob Israel Avedon but rather of everyman. Last month, Avedon suffered a stroke while taking pictures in San Antonio, Texas, for a piece for the New Yorker called "On Democracy". He was married twice. His first marriage was to Dorcas in 1944; he married Evelyn in 1951, with whom he had one son. · Richard Avedon, photographer, born May 15 1923; died October 1 2004

Photography

Which religious grou0p migrated westward to the Great Salt Lake, Utah, in 1847?

In Touch With Fragility: Richard Avedon In Touch With Fragility: Richard Avedon “All photographs are accurate. None of them is the truth.” – Richard Avedon Though he is known mostly for his minimalistic portraits; intense and often brooding subjects surrounded by white, it was the world of fashion that provided the backdrop that helped make Richard Avedon one of the most celebrated, controversial and sought after photographers of all time. Fashion photography simply didn’t exist before Richard Avedon, not modern fashion photography at any rate. Before Avedon, fashion photography was static and flat, models were stiffly dressed and rigidly posed. Avedon took fashion out of the studio and into the streets. He injected movement, life and a vitality where none had existed before. If a particular scene he wanted did not exist, Avedon created it, building sets, bringing in models, or, as was often the case, enlisting the help of onlookers or passers by. Avedon was both an ardent observer and a passionate creator, fascinated with what he called “the human quality”. It was this fascination that led him to constantly explore and reinvent what it meant to be a photographer and an artist. For nearly 60 years, from Paris fashion to celebrity portraits to a five year project chronicling the working class people and drifters of the American West, Richard Avedon not only defined generations of photography, but also inspired countless photographers to look to his work to bring life to their own. Irving Penn once said of Avedon “I stand in awe of Avedon. For scope and magnitude, he is the greatest of fashion photographers. He’s a seismograph.” Born in 1923 in Manhattan, Richard Avedon was just 21 years old when his photographs first appeared in Harper’s Bazaar . He had dropped out of high school and joined the Merchant Marine, where he served as a photographer.”I must have taken pictures of maybe 100,000 baffled faces,” Avedon once said, “before it ever occurred to me that I was becoming a photographer.” Upon returning, he was hired as a photographer for a department store. His work was seen by Alexy Brodovitch, the art director for Harper’s Bazaar, who saw something unique in Avedon’s work. “His first photographs for us were technically very bad”, Brodovitch remembers. “But they were not snapshots. It had always been the shock-surprise element in his work that makes it something special.” Brodovitch would go on to play an enormous role in Avedon’s life and career, serving alternately as mentor, father figure and friend. Avedon soon became chief photographer for the magazine and, by 1946, owned his own studio and was also shooting for Vogue and Life .  Avedon constantly challenged himself as an artist, and throughout his career he explored other genres of photography outside of fashion that would inspire him to grow as a photographer. Yet, despite photographing the Vietnam War or the Civil Rights Movement, it was portraiture that captured Avedon’s interest. Often containing only a portion of the person being photographed, Avedon’s portraits seem intimate in their imperfection. One of Avedon’s great gifts as a photographer was his ability to set his subjects at ease and, in turn, create vulnerable, intimate portraits, often of celebrities such as Katherine Hepburn, Marilyn Monroe and Elizabeth Taylor, many of whom were otherwise very distant and inaccessible. As he refined his portraiture, he began to strip away any distractions beyond the subject, which led to the his minimalist style of shooting against a stark, white background. “I’ve worked out of a series of no’s,” Avedon said. “No to exquisite light, no to apparent compositions, no to the seduction of poses or narrative…I have the person I’m interested in and the thing that happens between us.” It was from those many no’s that a yes would emerge, and that yes was the photograph. In 1979, Avedon began work on a project that he regarded as the best work of his career. He had become seriously ill as a result of an inflammation of the heart. He visited the West to recuperate and began to photograph what would become a five year project called In The American West , in which Avedon chronicled the people of the West. He photographed drifters, loners, and ordinary people like factory workers, ranchers and coal miners. Avedon was in his 60s and felt he was entering what he called “the last great chapter”. He viewed the project as a reaction to or an identification of his own mortality. The project received decidedly mixed reviews. Some applauded the project for its “unrelenting vision”, while others condemned it as exploitation and “falsifying the West”. Richard Avedon died of a brain hemorrhage on October 1st, 2004, while shooting an assignment for The New Yorker. Though he has taken some of the most famous portraits of all time and his photographs are included in the permanent collections of the Smithsonian Institution, the Metropolitan, the Museum of Modern Art, the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the National Portrait Gallery, London. Major retrospectives of his work have been held at the Smithsonian, the Metropolitan, the Whitney Museum of American Art, the Amon Carter Museum, the Corcoran Gallery of Art, and the Art Institute of Chicago, it is his willingness to challenge himself as both photographer and as an artist, and to alway be refining a unique style that was all his own, that made him an icon for more than 60 years in an industry he helped to define.

i don't know

"Which 18th-century dictionary compiler defined himself as a ""harmless drudge""?"

Depatment Meeting Jeopardy Jeopardy Template What is the number of days of summer? 93 What is the year the school was establishe? 1926 What is an alternate Acronym? Shhh,Texas, Ain't, Assessing, Rigor Which 18th century dictionary compiler defined himself as a "harmless drudge"? Samuel Johnson What is the number of days in a row we will be away from Lanier for Winter Break? 16 What is the hottest month of summer? July What are jobs held by Sidney Lanier? Lawyer, Soldier, Poet, Musician What are the 2 types of writing? Personal and Expository What pen name was used by the Spanish orator Dolores Ibarruri, who said "It is better to die on your feet than to live on your knees"? La Pasionaria What is your favorite place you have been on Winter Break? ? What is the most popular vacation spot according to The Travel Channel? Paris What is the 3rd floor? Common place for the ghost What is the number of questions on the 6th grade reading test? 48 Which author had the real name Charles Dodgson? Lewis Carroll What is the duration between the Winter Olympics? 4 years What is the number of school days until summer? 104 What was the location of the cafeteria? Previously located in the library What is meeting the growth measure? Number of questions a student must get correct Elvis Presley, Mikhail Gorbachev, Mary Tyler Moore, Ernest Hemingway, Jackie Gleason and Jerry Garcia all suffered from this medical condition? Diabetes Who was the author of the quintessential winter song, Jingle Bells? James Lord Pierpont

Samuel Johnson

Who was president of the USSR from 1985-91?

Dr Samuel Johnson And His Lasting Influence On The English Language Subscribe Dr Samuel Johnson And His Lasting Influence On The English Language In the early 18th Century, both Swift and Defoe proposed that there should be an English Academy to regulate the English language (this was more or less the only time the two men agreed on anything). They felt that English was changing and took this to be synonymous with deterioration. The proposal was based on the French Academy, and was more in keeping with the tradition of French dirigisme, or authoritarianism, in this case the belief that the language belonged to the government, than with English liberal traditions which allowed variants of English to coexist, both written and spoken, with mutual comprehensibility providing the force which stopped the divergence becoming too great, and allowed the language to change and develop through the collective genius of the linguistic population. Fortunately the proposals of Swift and Defoe came to nothing and the language continued to develop freely, as before. This was especially important in the age of the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution, when a changing world demanded a language that would adapt flexibly and quickly. In the 1840�s a greater man than either Swift or Defoe emerged from the great mass of hack journalists and writers eking in living in �Grubb Street�. This man was Samuel Johnson (1709 - 1784). Ironically he started with the same intentions as Swift and Defoe and published a prospectus proposing a dictionary to �fix� the English language. He was successful in obtaining financial backing, from the Longman brothers amongst others, and set about his work, aided only by a handful of amanuenses, but as his work progressed he came to realise firstly, that in a changing world, a fixed language would not suffice, and secondly (and very importantly) that his task was basically one of description, not prescription. The English language existed before his dictionary, and it was not his job to petrify and prescribe it, but to do describe it as it was used, which he did, with a phenomenal number of examples of usages. This insight showed both the intellect and humility of this great man. He was equally aware that English would continue to change after the completion of his dictionary, and did not resent this. His dictionary was excellent and the first good English dictionary ever produced. Some of his definitions showed his sense of humour e.g. �lexicographer - a compiler of dictionaries, a harmless drudge�, his prejudices e.g. �excise - a hateful tax levied on commodities�, and his occasional tendency to describe with out defining e.g. �net - anything reticulated or decussated at right angles, and connected at the interstices�. However his dictionary was a work of genius, and continued as the main reference source for more than a century. Some of his definitions are still used in modern dictionaries (his copyright being long expired). It was published in 1855 and he became a �celebrity� (hate to use that word) because of it, and received an annual pension of �300:00 from the king, George III. This freed him from the necessity of continually struggling for a living, and enabled him to undertake journeys, some of which are very entertaingly described by Johnson himself, or by Boswell, or by both. His dismissal of the notion of an English Academy was one of the major factors which contributed to the pre-eminence of English, and (dare I say) its superiority over other languages. English has been free to assimilate words from other languages without restraint and has consequently become richer and more expressive than other languages. Many foreign Academies see there job as largely �defending� their language against the intrusion of foreign words, but in doing so actually weaken their language e.g. French often has to render English words with several French words, such as �Bonhomme de Neige� (snowman). Imagine a sentence containing a large number of such words ! Compare this with the English borrowing of �fresh� (as in �cheeky�) from German/Yiddish �frech�. This may seem like duplication and redundancy, but in fact it is not. �Cheeky� has a broader application than �fresh�, e.g. a schoolchild may be cheeky to the teacher. �Fresh� is normally used in a sexual context (not absolutely exclusively, admittedly), and therefore adds to the precision of the language, to the extent where �getting fresh� could almost always be taken to mean �coming on to, making a pass� or similar. The American mix of national origins has been especially productive in this respect, and American dominance in film and TV has meant that this enrichment of the language has spread to British English and the English of other Anglophone nations. It would be easy, and probably accurate, to compare the Johnsonian attitude to language development to the �laissez faire� approach of the Anglo-Saxon nations to trade, social organisation etc. (Just noticed I quite accidentally used �laissez faire�; not to make a point, honestly). This approach seems to work well in these areas also. Johnson said that regulation of language by academies was �contrary to English notions of liberty�. I am sure he would have been happy to extend this to American, Australian, Canadian and New Zealand notions of liberty. Let us not forget or minimise the contribution of this great man to the strengths of the English language.

i don't know

What was the name of the Thracian slave who led an ultimately unsuccessful gladiator revolt against Rome in 73 BC?

Spartacus - definition of Spartacus by The Free Dictionary Spartacus - definition of Spartacus by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Spartacus Also found in: Acronyms , Encyclopedia , Wikipedia . Spar·ta·cus  (spär′tə-kəs) Died 71 bc. Thracian gladiator who led a slave revolt in Italy (73-71). He defeated Roman armies in southern Italy, but his forces were crushed at Lucania (71), where Spartacus was killed and many of his troops were crucified. Spartacus (ˈspɑːtəkəs) n (Biography) died 71 bc, Thracian slave, who led an ultimately unsuccessful revolt of gladiators against Rome (73–71 bc) Spar•ta•cus died 71 B.C., Thracian slave, gladiator, and insurrectionist against Rome. Translations Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page: Spartacists References in periodicals archive ? One day in the spotlight wasn't nearly enough for Spartacus John Summers, the tot with Scotland's most heroic handle. dressed in thedark Speaking of when he first discovered that he was suffering from non-Hodgkin lymphoma in March 2010, Whitfield said: "I was very exhausted at the end of the first season of Spartacus, but I think anyone would have been. Copyright © 2003-2017 Farlex, Inc Disclaimer All content on this website, including dictionary, thesaurus, literature, geography, and other reference data is for informational purposes only. This information should not be considered complete, up to date, and is not intended to be used in place of a visit, consultation, or advice of a legal, medical, or any other professional.  

Spartacus

Which English king abdicated and became Duke of Windsor?

7 Famous Slave Revolts - History Lists History Lists January 15, 2013 By Evan Andrews Share In August 1831, one of America's largest slave uprisings strikes fear in the South and prompts some to call for an end to the institution of slavery. Share this: Google Slaveholding societies always lived in fear of the people they kept in bondage. Slave populations were typically much larger than those of their masters, and the anger provoked by a life in chains often spilled over into violent revolts and uprisings. But while these rebellions were usually defeated in brutal fashion, in some instances the slaves managed to escape persecution and even went on to set up their own communities and countries. Find out more about seven groups of slaves who risked everything for a chance at freedom. Depiction of the death of Spartacus. Spartacus and the Third Servile War Spartacus was a Thracian gladiator who commanded a massive slave army during the Third Servile War, the largest and most successful slave rebellion in Roman history. The uprising began in 73 B.C. when Spartacus and a small band of slaves escaped from a gladiator school by using kitchen utensils as weapons. Slaves from across the Roman countryside soon flocked to join the revolt, and the rebel army caused a panic in the Roman senate after it defeated a militia at Mt. Vesuvius and two legions near Mt. Garganus. According to the ancient historian Appian, as more slaves joined the uprising their ranks swelled to include as many as 120,000 former bondsmen. But despite their early victories, the slaves later fell prey to disunion and split into several unorganized factions. The main rebellion was then defeated in 71 B.C. after eight Roman legions commanded by Marcus Lucinius Crassus cornered Spartacus and demolished what remained of his army. Spartacus died in the battle, and 6,000 surviving slaves were later crucified along a Roman highway as a brutal warning against future revolts. Nat Turner’s Rebellion One of the most famous slave revolts in American history came in 1831 when Nat Turner led a bloody uprising in Southampton County, Virginia. Turner was deeply religious, and planned his rebellion after he experienced prophetic visions ordering him to gain his freedom by force. On August 21, 1831, Turner and his accomplices killed his master’s family as they lay sleeping. From there, the small band of about 70 slaves moved from house to house, eventually killing over 50 whites with clubs, knives and muskets. It took a militia force to put down the rebellion, and Turner and 55 other slaves were captured and later executed by the state. Hysteria swept through the region in the aftermath of Nat Turner’s revolt, and as many as 200 slaves were eventually killed by white mobs and militias. The rebellion also triggered a series of oppressive restrictions on slave populations. Citing Turner’s intelligence as a major factor in his revolt, several states would pass laws making it illegal to teach blacks to read or write. The Zanj Rebellion Long before African slaves were ever brought to North America, they incited a rebellion in the Middle East and went head to head with an empire. The insurrection began in 869 A.D. when Zanj slaves—an Arabic term used to describe East Africans—joined with an Arab revolutionary named Ali bin Muhammad and rose up against the Abbasid Caliphate. Spurred on by promises of land and freedom, the Zanj began conducting night raids on nearby cities in order to seize supplies and liberate fellow slaves. What began as a humble revolt slowly grew into a full-scale revolution that lasted 15 years. Slaves, Bedouins and serfs all joined with the rebels, who at their height supposedly numbered over 500,000. These revolutionaries even amassed a navy and controlled as many as six fortified cities in modern-day Iraq. The Zanj Rebellion would finally end in the early 880s after the Abbasid army mobilized and conquered the rebel capital. Ali bin Muhammad was killed in the battle, but many of the Zanj were spared and were even invited to join the Abbasid military. The Haitian Revolution The most successful slave rebellion in history, the Haitian Revolution began as a slave revolt and ended with the founding of an independent state. The main insurrection started in 1791 in the valuable French colony of Saint-Domingue. Inspired in part by the egalitarian philosophy of the French Revolution, black slaves launched an organized rebellion, killing thousands of whites and burning sugar plantations en route to gaining control of the northern regions of Saint-Domingue. The unrest would continue until February 1794, when the French government officially abolished slavery in all its territories. The famed rebel general Toussaint Louverture then joined forces with French Republicans and by 1801 had established himself as governor of the island. But when Napoleon Bonaparte’s imperial forces captured Louverture in 1802 and attempted to reinstate slavery, the former slaves took up arms once again. Led by Jean-Jacques Dessalines, in 1803 they defeated French forces at the Battle of Vertières. The following year the former slaves declared their independence and established the island as the new republic of Haiti. News of the first successful rebellion—the only slave uprising in history to end with the foundation of a new country—went on to inspire countless other revolts throughout the United States and the Caribbean. The 1733 St. John Insurrection One of the earliest slave revolts in North America saw a group of African slaves effectively conquer the Danish-owned island of St. John. At the time, most of St. John’s slaves were part of the Akan, an African people from modern-day Ghana. Plagued by widespread illness, droughts and harsh slave codes, in November 1733 a group of high-ranking Akans began to plot against their Danish masters. The rebellion began when a group of slaves used smuggled weapons to kill several Danish soldiers inside a fort at a plantation called Coral Bay. Another 150 conspirators soon converged on the island’s other plantations, killing several white colonists and eventually seizing command of most of St. John. The slaves planned to claim the island and its valuable farmland as their own, but their freedom was ultimately short-lived. After only six months of Akan rule, in May 1734 several hundred French troops arrived and violently put down the rebellion. It was not until 1848 that slavery was finally abolished in the Danish West Indies. The Baptist War While it started as a peaceful protest, Jamaica’s Baptist War ended with a bloody uprising and the death of over 600 slaves. Inspired by abolitionist movements in Great Britain, on Christmas Day 1831 as many as 60,000 of Jamaica’s 300,000 slaves went on a general strike. Under the direction of a Baptist preacher and slave named Samuel Sharpe, the bondsmen vowed not to return to work until they were awarded basic freedoms and a living wage. When rumors spread that British colonists planned to break the strike by force, the protest turned into an outright rebellion. In what became the largest slave uprising in the history of the British West Indies, the slaves burned and looted plantations for several days, eventually causing $1.1 million in property damage. The human toll was much more severe. By the time the British colonial army mobilized and put down the revolt, as many as 300 slaves and 14 whites had been killed. Three hundred more slaves—including the ringleader Sharpe—were later hanged for their involvement in the uprising. While it may have been unsuccessful, the effects of the Baptist War were eventually felt all the way across the Atlantic. Only one year later, the British Parliament would once and for all abolish slavery in the British Empire. Gaspar Yanga’s Rebellion Known as the “first liberator of the Americas,” Gaspar Yanga was an African slave who spent four decades establishing a free settlement in Mexico. Yanga’s odyssey began in 1570 when he staged a revolt at a sugarcane plantation near Veracruz. After fleeing into the forest, Yanga and a small group of former slaves established their own colony, or palanque, which they called San Lorenzo de los Negros. They would spend the next 40 years hiding in this outlaw community, surviving mostly through farming and occasional raids on Spanish supply convoys. Colonial authorities succeeded in destroying San Lorenzo de los Negros in 1609, but they were unable to capture Yanga’s followers and eventually settled for a peace treaty with the former slaves. Now in his old age, Yanga negotiated the right to build his own free colony as long as it paid taxes to the Spanish crown. This municipality—the first official settlement of freed Africans in the Americas—was finally established in 1630 and still exists today under the name “Yanga.” The groundbreaking series reimagined. ROOTS premieres Memorial Day at 9/8c on HISTORY. Tags

i don't know

Who was the first man in space in 1961?

First man in space - Apr 12, 1961 - HISTORY.com First man in space Publisher A+E Networks On April 12, 1961, aboard the spacecraft Vostok 1, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin becomes the first human being to travel into space. During the flight, the 27-year-old test pilot and industrial technician also became the first man to orbit the planet, a feat accomplished by his space capsule in 89 minutes. Vostok 1 orbited Earth at a maximum altitude of 187 miles and was guided entirely by an automatic control system. The only statement attributed to Gagarin during his one hour and 48 minutes in space was, “Flight is proceeding normally; I am well.” After his historic feat was announced, the attractive and unassuming Gagarin became an instant worldwide celebrity. He was awarded the Order of Lenin and given the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. Monuments were raised to him across the Soviet Union and streets renamed in his honor. The triumph of the Soviet space program in putting the first man into space was a great blow to the United States, which had scheduled its first space flight for May 1961. Moreover, Gagarin had orbited Earth, a feat that eluded the U.S. space program until February 1962, when astronaut John Glenn made three orbits in Friendship 7. By that time, the Soviet Union had already made another leap ahead in the “space race” with the August 1961 flight of cosmonaut Gherman Titov in Vostok 2. Titov made 17 orbits and spent more than 25 hours in space. To Soviet propagandists, the Soviet conquest of space was evidence of the supremacy of communism over capitalism. However, to those who worked on the Vostok program and earlier on Sputnik (which launched the first satellite into space in 1957), the successes were attributable chiefly to the brilliance of one man: Sergei Pavlovich Korolev. Because of his controversial past, Chief Designer Korolev was unknown in the West and to all but insiders in the USSR until his death in 1966. Born in the Ukraine in 1906, Korolev was part of a scientific team that launched the first Soviet liquid-fueled rocket in 1933. In 1938, his military sponsor fell prey to Soviet leader Joseph Stalin’s purges, and Korolev and his colleagues were also put on trial. Convicted of treason and sabotage, Korolev was sentenced to 10 years in a labor camp. The Soviet authorities came to fear German rocket advances, however, and after only a year Korolev was put in charge of a prison design bureau and ordered to continue his rocketry work. In 1945, Korolev was sent to Germany to learn about the V-2 rocket, which had been used to devastating effect by the Nazis against the British. The Americans had captured the rocket’s designer, Wernher von Braun, who later became head of the U.S. space program, but the Soviets acquired a fair amount of V-2 resources, including rockets, launch facilities, blueprints, and a few German V-2 technicians. By employing this technology and his own considerable engineering talents, by 1954 Korolev had built a rocket that could carry a five-ton nuclear warhead and in 1957 launched the first intercontinental ballistic missile. That year, Korolev’s plan to launch a satellite into space was approved, and on October 4, 1957, Sputnik 1 was fired into Earth’s orbit. It was the first Soviet victory of the space race, and Korolev, still technically a prisoner, was officially rehabilitated. The Soviet space program under Korolev would go on to numerous space firsts in the late 1950s and early ’60s: first animal in orbit, first large scientific satellite, first man, first woman, first three men, first space walk, first spacecraft to impact the moon, first to orbit the moon, first to impact Venus, and first craft to soft-land on the moon. Throughout this time, Korolev remained anonymous, known only as the “Chief Designer.” His dream of sending cosmonauts to the moon eventually ended in failure, primarily because the Soviet lunar program received just one-tenth the funding allocated to America’s successful Apollo lunar landing program. Korolev died in 1966. Upon his death, his identity was finally revealed to the world, and he was awarded a burial in the Kremlin wall as a hero of the Soviet Union. Yuri Gagarin was killed in a routine jet-aircraft test flight in 1968. His ashes were also placed in the Kremlin wall. Related Videos

Yuri Gagarin

What invention made the fortune of Alfred Noel, founder of the Nobel prize?

Yuri Gagarin: First man in space - Photo 1 - Pictures - CBS News Yuri Gagarin: First man in space Next Fifty years ago, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Alexseyevich Gagarin became the first human in space. Here he is pictured in the Soviet Vostok 1 spaceship on April 12 1961 at the Baikonur rocket launch pad shortly before taking off to became the first man to complete a round-the-Earth circuit. Credit: Getty Images The launch of the Vostok 1 rocket carrying Gagarin to an altitude of 200 miles. But Gagarin, a fighter pilot by training, did not have anything to do with steering the craft. Soviet scientists, concerned about possible physiological effects of spaceflight on a pilot's judgment, had locked the onboard controls. Upon reentry, Gagarin ejected from the Vostok at an altitude of 20,000 feet and parachuted safely to Earth. Credit: NASA The news of the Soviet success was a major propaganda coup for the U.S.S.R. in its Cold War duel with the United States. Following on the heels of the Sputnik a few years earlier, the Soviets had clearly taken the lead. Credit: NASA Yuri Gagarin poses with cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman to fly in space, wave to well-wishers somewhere in Soviet Union in 1963. Tereshkova was the sole crew member of the 3-day Vostok 6 spaceship flight 16 June 1963. Credit: Getty Images The Gagarin flight concentrated the U.S.'s attention on the lagging performance of its own space program. In this picture, obviously unhappy NASA officials held a press conference at NASA Headquarters in Washington, DC to respond to questions. From left to right: Dr. Robert C. Seamans Jr., Associate Administrator; Dr. Hugh L. Dryden, Deputy Administrator; Mr. James E. Webb, Administrator; and Dr. Abe Silverstein, Director of Space Flight Programs. Credit: NASA Alan B. Shepard Jr. waits atop a Redstone rocket before the launch in his cramped space capsule dubbed "Freedom 7." Shephard became the first American to make a spaceflight on May 5, 1961. In 1972 he walked on the moon as commander of the Apollo 14 mission. Credit: NASA In this June 1965 photo, Gagarin is pictured shaking hands with NASA's Gemini 4 astronauts, Edward H. White II and James A. McDivitt at the Paris International Air Show in June 1965. This first meeting between Gagarin and the Gemini 4 astronauts occurred shortly after the completion of the Gemini 4 mission. Also shown in the picture (seated) are Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey and (standing) French Premier Georges Pompidou. Gagarin died tragically when when his MIG jet crashed during a training flight on March 27, 1968. He was given a hero's funeral and his ashes were interred in the Kremlin Wall. Credit: Getty Images The Vostok 3KA-2, a 1961 Soviet space capsule is on display at Sotheby's in New York, February 24, 2011. Vostok 3KA-2 blasted into space on 25 March 25, 1961, carrying a life-size cosmonaut mannequin, nicknamed Ivan Ivanovich, and the dog Zvezdochka (Russian for Little Star), which paved the way for Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin's historic mission on April 12, 1961 to become the first man in outer space. Sotheby's will offer the Vostok 3KA-2 Space Capsule in a dedicated auction April 12, 2011, the 50th anniversary of man's first flight into outer space, with an estimate of $2 million to $10 million Credit: Getty Images A Russian Soyuz TMA-21 rocket with an international space crew of a US astronaut Ron Garan, Russian cosmonaut Alexander Samokutyayev and Andrei Borisenko blasts off from a Russian leased Kazakh Baikonur cosmodrome to the International Space Station on April 5, 2011. Tuesday's launch was seven days shy of the anniversaries of Gagarin's flight into orbit in 1961 from the same launch pad as well as the first flight of the U.S. space shuttle 20 years later. Speaking to reporters prior to the emotion-laden launch, Garan noted how much space flight has changed since Gagarin was launched during the space race between the two Cold War superpowers. "Fifty years ago, one nation launched one man, basically as a competition," he said. "Today, the three of us represent the many nations of the international partnership that makes up the International Space Station." Credit: Getty Images A municipal worker hangs a poster depicting Yuri Gagarin, the first cosmonaut, in the Russian-leased Baikonur cosmodrome, Kazakhstan, March 29, 2011. Credit: Associated Press

i don't know

Whose circus did General Tom Thumb join at the age of five in 1843?

Tom Thumb Tom Thumb's wedding, 1863 Tom Thumb’s real name was Charles Stratton. He was born a dwarf, or person of short stature (defined medically as someone whose adult height will not exceed more than four feet ten inches tall). In fact Charles Stratton was under two feet tall when American impresario Phineas Taylor Barnum hired him to be an ‘exhibit’ at his American Museum on Broadway. Barnum exaggerated Charles’s age, saying that the four year old was eleven, and altered his identity to ‘General Tom Thumb’ from London. Despite Charles’s mother expressing concerns about this fabrication, Barnum insisted that it was a necessary marketing device and would ensure that his ‘exhibit’ was successful. Barnum moulded the young Stratton into the character of General Tom Thumb with excellent manners and a haughty air. He taught him various stage routines and dressed him in specially tailored character costumes as Napoleon Bonaparte and Cupid. His routine contained comic patter and songs, the most famous being the hornpipe dance and song ‘Yankee Doodle Dandee’. Tom Thumb first toured America in 1843 at the age of five and was a huge success. In February 1844 Tom Thumb made his debut on the London stage at the Princess’s Theatre. The Illustrated London News called him ‘a little monster’. However Barnum managed to secure Stratton an audience with Queen Victoria and his subsequent appearance at the Egyptian Hall later that year was a huge success with the public flooding to see ‘the wonderful little man’. Queen Victoria saw Tom Thumb three times and he met with other European Royalty. These royal meetings increased Stratton’s profile and he became a very wealthy man with a house in the fashionable part of New York, a steam yacht and a fine wardrobe. When Barnum got into financial difficulty it was Stratton who bailed him out and eventually Stratton became his business partner. In 1862 P.T.Barnum engaged Mercy Lavinia Warren Bump as an attraction at his American Museum. She was 21 years old and 32 inches (81 cm) tall. She first appeared in January 1863, advertised as 'the smallest woman alive' and 'the little Queen of Beauty'. Tom Thumb paid her a visit and just a few weeks later they were married, on 10 February, with her sister Minnie as a bridesmaid, and another of Barnum's attractions, 'Commodore' Nutt, as the 'best man'. The bride arrived at the church in a miniature wedding carriage, wearing a white satin dress and shoes, and a long lace train with a diamond necklace, a present from her husband. The reception at the Metropolitan Hotel displayed wedding gifts from the Astors, Vanderbilts, and President and Mrs Lincoln. The crowds outside were so big that the police had to cordon off the street. Barnum's involvement in the wedding was substantial and whilst he refrained from charging admission to the event, he drew up an impressive guest list of 2,000 guests to ensure maximum publicity. In August 1866 a star attraction from America appeared at the Corn Exchange in Peterborough, England, billed as 'General Tom Thumb and his celebrated little wife together with their infant daughter, the wonder of the age, and the equally renowned Commodore Nutt, and the infinitesimal Minnie Warren.' This was part of a tour during which they gave three performances daily, at 11am, 3pm and 8pm, with different songs, recitations and dances in each show. The second act of each performance began with Lavinia introducing her baby daughter on stage, and each show ended with Tom and his wife dancing a polka. Stratton, who was a good mimic, was taught a range of impersonations so that he could perform instead of being a curiosity just for his size. He and a 'straight man' would perform a series of comic scenes with Stratton disappearing off to change costume between each one. Among his characters were Villikins - a character from a popular song, a student at Oxford, a Scottish Highlander, an American Tar (sailor) and most popular of all, the Emperor Napoleon. Much of the banter between the two men centred on Stratton's fondness for attractive women, and he would walk around the audience asking women for a kiss and selling his photograph and souvenir  pamphlets. The act would finish (at least while he was young and slim) with Stratton wearing nothing but an elastic body stocking, posing as a series of 'Grecian statues'. The second below print shows him and his wife, Lavinia Warren on their wedding day in New York flanked by their bridesmaid Minnie Warren, and their best man, Commodore Nutt. The central image is surrounded by images of them in their costumes for the performances they did on tour - (from bottom left to right), Colonel Nutt and Minnie as Dutch characters, Tom and Nutt in Highland costume, Tom doing a 'burlesque speech', Nutt in his riding costume, Lavinia with her baby, Nutt as a drummer, Nutt as a Scottish sword dancer, Thumb and Nutt in 'comic characters' and Thumb and Nutt as Napoleon and an officer. Click on the images below to view larger version Flyer advertising General Tom Thumb, 1852. Museum no. S.985-1984 Poster illustrating Tom Thumb's wedding, 1866. Museum no.S.981-1984 General Tom Thumb, after 1860. Museum no. S.996-1984

P. T. Barnum

Of which country was de Valera the prime minister, and later the president?

Circus Freak People - When Nature Fails Subscribe to the feed Circus Freak People – When Nature Fails People often say that we are all gods children. After that, someone will probably say something like:”What was that god thinking about while creating any of those shown below?” Well, maybe even he had to take a rest from time to time and leave the course of nature on its own. But maybe they are his children, his truly children that have stepped  out of heaven and came to earth to suffer for us, to suffer to make us smile, to suffer so that our children could go to circus, watch them and laugh at them. Schlitze Surtees, Schlitzie Schlitzie, possibly born Simon Metz , and legally Schlitze Surtees , was a American sideshow performer and occasional actor, best known for his role in the 1932. movie Freaksand his life-long career on the outdoor entertainment circuit as a major sideshow attraction with Barnum and Bailey, among others. Schlitzie’s true birth date, name and location is unknown; it is commonly accepted, at least by what was inscribed on his death certificate , that he was born on September 10, 1901 in New York, though 1892 has also been considered as a possibility. Schlitzie was born with microcephaly, a neuro developmental disorder that left him with an unusually small brain and skull, a small stature (he stood about four feet tall (122cm)),myopia and moderate to severe mental retardation. It was said Schlitzie had the cognizance of a three year-old: he was unable to fully care for himself and he could only speak in monosyllabic words and form a few simple phrases. However, he was still able to perform simple tasks and it is believed that he could understand most of what was said to him, as he had a very quick reaction time and the ability to mimic.  Those who knew Schlitzie described him as an affectionate, exuberant, sociable person who loved dancing, singing and being the center of attention, performing for anyone he could stop and talk to. On the sideshow circuit, microcephalics were usually promoted as “pinheads” or “missing links”, and Schlitzie was billed under such titles as “The Last of the Aztecs”, “The Monkey Girl” or simply”What Is It?”, or was paired up with other microcephalics. One notable example of the latter was Schlitzie’s possible pairing with a microcephalic woman named Athelia, exhibited together as “Aurora and Natalia, the Aztec sisters”. This has led to claims that Aurora actually was Schlitzie’s sister, but these claims are unsubstantiated. Schlitzie was often  presented as a female or left androgynous to add to the mystique of his odd appearance. Those who knew him alternately referred to him as “he” and “she”. The sideshow circuit was a tremendous success for Schlitzie, and throughout the 1920s and 1930s, he was employed by many upscale circuses. In 1928, Schlitzie made his film debut in the The Sideshow, a drama that took place at a circus, featuring a variety of actual sideshow performers including himself. In 1932, Schlitzie landed his most known role as an actor in Tod Browning’s iconic horror film Freaks. The appearance of Freaks’ cast proved extremely controversial on its original release, and the film was ultimately a financial failure. Additionally, it was banned for thirty years in the United Kingdom and Browning struggled to find work following its release, his last with a major studio. In 1935, while Schlitzie was performing with the Tom Mix Circus, George Surtees, a chimpanzee trainer also appearing at the show with a trained chimp act, adopted him, becoming Schlitzie’s legal guardian. In 1941, Schlitzie appeared in his final film role as “Princess Betsy”.Under the care of Surtees, Schlitzie continued performing the sideshow circuit until Surtees’ death in the early 1960s, after which Surtees’ daughter, who was not in show business, committed Schlitzie to a Los Angeles county hospital. Schlitzie remained hospitalized for some time until he was recognized by sword swallower  Bill Unks, who happened to be working at the hospital during the off-season. According to Unks, Schlitzie seemed to miss the carnival dearly, and being away from the public eye had made him very sad and depressed. Hospital authorities determined that the best care for Schlitzie would be to make him a ward of Unks’ employer, showman Sam Kortes, and return him to the sideshow. On September 24, 1971, at the age of 70, Schlitzie died from bronchial pneumonia at Fountain View Convalescent Home. His death certificate listed his official name as “Shlitze Surtees” and his birth date as 1901. Schlitzie’s grave remained unmarked until August 2008, when members of the website www.findadeath.com raised almost $400 to purchase him a proper headstone, which displays his name as “Schlitze Surtees” and his birth date as September 10, 1901. Jack Earle, ”The Texas Giant” Jacob Rheuben Ehrlich was born in Denver in 1906 to German Jewish immigrants and raised in El Paso, Texas. Average-sized as a boy, Jacob fell from a truck at the age of 14 and suffered a head injury, which doctors believed aggravated a tumor on his pituitary gland. He went blind for four months following the injury and then began growing uncontrollably, ultimately reaching 7’4″ (though he claimed to be 8’6″). Determined to live a normal life despite his size, however, Jacob graduated from the University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP), the tallest person ever to graduate from any University of Texas school. After he graduated from college, Jacob, using the name Jack (or Jake) Earle, made his first stage appearance in 1924, when he wrote and starred in a version of Jack and the Beanstalk. He also portrayed the father in a stage adaptation of Hansel and Gretl. When the Ringling Bros., Barnum & Bailey Circus came to El Paso, some of Earle’s friends challenged him to go see just how tall their giant was. Earle, not surprisingly, was taller, and was hired on the spot. In the circus, one of his jobs was training the show’s pygmy African elephants Buli and Nuba. He sold thousands of his “lucky” giant’s rings for a quarter apiece; for years after he left the circus, when he met someone who still carried one of the rings, he would offer to buy it back if it hadn’t brought the person good luck. Earle went on a tour of Australia in 1940 with Ringling Bros. When he returned, he found that he had grown disenchanted with the life of a circus freak, and was quite fed up with being asked, “How’s the weather up there?” A friend of his, an employee of the California-based Roma Wine Company, persuaded Earle to take a three-month promotional tour with the company. Earle enjoyed the job so much that he decided to stay. The “world’s largest traveling salesman”, outfitted in a customized Pontiac, made a lasting impression on every customer by handing out nine-inch-long business cards. During World War II, turned down by the Armed Forces because of his height, Earle traveled the country lecturing on the importance of the American wine industry during times of hardship in Europe. A quiet and intellectual man, Earle enjoyed sculpting and painting landscapes and still-lifes and even earned himself a gallery exhibition in New York City in 1936. Circus manager John Ringling North, Earle said, had been so impressed with Earle’s clay bust of “Clicko the Bushman” (Franz Taaibosch, a mentally handicapped South African man) that he paid to send his giant to art school. Earle was also a talented photographer, poet and playwright, and an enthusiastic fisherman and golfer. Earle retired to an El Paso ranch in 1951, where he spent his spare time visiting children’s homes and entertaining the children with stories of magical giants. He died on July 18, 1952, in an El Paso hospital after six weeks’ illness. Joseph Carey Merrick, ”The Elephant Man” In 1980, David Lynch’s masterpiece The Elephant Man was released. The film told the story of John Merrick, a tragically deformed yet charming and intelligent Englishman. When it hit the screens in 1980, it became a cult hit with sufferers of neurofibromatosis, the disease that the Elephant Man was thought to have had. Previously, it was though that he suffered from elephantiasis, a tropical disease causes by parasites in the bloodstream. However, it was suggested in 1979 that Merrick had Proteus syndrome or “Elephant Man’s Disease”, which causes abnormal, unchecked growth of bones, skin, and other systems. Fewer than 100 cases of Proteus have been recorded, while NF occurs in one in every 4,000 births. No condition has ever produced a degree of deformity equivalent to Merrick’s. Joseph Carey Merrick was born in Leicester, England in 1862. He began growing disfiguring tumors before the age of two and his condition rapidly worsened, rendering one of his arms completely useless. Nevertheless, he was described as a wonderfully imaginative and intelligent boy. When Joseph was 11, his mother, Mary Jane, who was also physically handicapped, died, and Joseph’s father remarried. Joseph’s stepmother was not nearly as compassionate as his mother, and she even gave Joseph’s father an ultimatum: “Joseph, or me.” The young Joseph was cast out of the home and went to live at the Leicester Union Workhouse, and sold shoe polish on the street. However, he was constantly taunted by crowds of cruel children and soon moved on to another line of work. Joseph’s attempt to find traditional work were unsuccessful. Sick with bronchitis, and requiring surgery due to the intrusion of tumors into his throat, Joseph would very likely have died on the streets of Leicester, if it weren’t for a compassionate showman named Tom Norman. Norman was the UK’s answer to P.T. Barnum, and in fact received his nickname, “The Silver King”, from the legendary American impresario because of the flashy silver jewelry he wore. Finding himself out of options and desperate for medical care, Merrick pitched himself to Sam Torr, another showman, who in turn introduced him to Norman. Norman paid for the operations Merrick required and helped Merrick become a successful museum freak. Under Norman’s tutelage, Merrick accumulated 200 pounds, a large sum of money at the time. However, while touring Belgium, Merrick became separated from his guardian. Naive and sickly, he was a perfect target for robbers, and an unscrupulous Austrian (some say Italian) showman tricked him out of his small fortune. Returning home from Belgium, Merrick was discovered in the Liverpool train station by Dr. Frederick Treves, who had previously seen Merrick on display in a medical school. Merrick was suffering from bronchitis and malnutrition, and Treves brought him back to the Whitechapel Hospital. The hospital became Merrick’s permanent home; in his room he wrote poetry and prose and built models from card stock, his most famous being of the St. Philip’s cathedral in Birmingham, which Merrick had never seen but constructed from studying architectural drawings. While living in the hospital, however, Merrick became a freak of a different sort. Treves exhibited him before classes of medical students, where he stood naked before leering crowds and was subjected to humiliating examinations. It became fashionable among members of London’s upper class to visit the Elephant Man and mask their disgust as the conversed with the intelligent and well-spoken man. His visitors brought him all sorts of gifts, including a beautiful shaving set, which of course Merrick could not use because of the condition of his skin. He even struck up a pen-pal relationship with a famous actress of the day, who promised she would come see him, although she never did. As Merrick became more comfortable with other people, he was taken on outings and even went to the theater. He shook hands with people and spoke to strangers, even women, with ease. Unfortunately, his newfound sense of self-respect came too late, and he died in his sleep in April 11, 1890. Rumors spread that the Elephant Man had been murdered, but Dr. Treves dispelled these, revealing the true cause of Merrick’s death to be asphyxiation. He had attempted to sleep lying down, like a “normal person”, and the weight of the tumors on his head and neck had crushed his trachea. “Tis true my form is something odd, But blaming me is blaming God; Could I create myself anew I would not fail in pleasing you. If I could reach from pole to pole Or grasp the ocean with a span, I would be measured by the soul; The mind’s the standard of the man.” - Joseph Merrick Carl Hermann Unthan Carl Hermann Unthan was born in East Prussia in 1848. The family midwife wanted to smother the armless child at birth, but his father prevented it. When Carl was a child, his father let him go barefoot so he could use his feet to grasp things and learn to perform other tasks such as writing. He took up playing the violin and at age 20 played for Strauss in Vienna. A huge success, Carl Unthan became a vaudeville performer and toured the United States, Cuba, Mexico and South America. His act consisted of everyday tasks performed on stage: pouring a drink, shuffling cards and doing card tricks, swimming in a tank, loading and firing a rifle, and smoking a cigarette, in addition to violin playing. Often he would purposely cut a string on the violin, and then repair it with his toes. During World War I, Carl joined the German Army and travelled to various hospitals, giving motivational speeches to people who had lost limbs in the war. He starred in a film, The Armless Man, in which he showcased his swimming ability by rescuing a woman from drowning, and wrote an autobiography, Das Pediskript (or, The Armless Fiddler: A Pediscript Being of a Vaudeville Man), published in 1935, several years after his death. Carl preferred to be known for his music, not as an oddity. He retired a wealthy man and died in 1928, at the age of 80. Johnny Eck, “The Half  Boy” Johnny Eckhardt was born in 1911 with a horrifying birth defect leaving him with no body below his chest. Despite this handicap, his need for speed could not be contained. This is his amazing story. Twenty minutes after his twin brother was born, Johnny Eckhardt Jr. entered the world. It was August 27, 1911, born with only half a body, the wet nurse performing the delivery declared him “a broken doll.” Though his brother Robert was perfectly normal, Johnny was born with a truncated torso and appendicular legs as the result of a rare condition called Sacral agenesis; He weighed two pounds and measured less than eight inches at birth. A lesser person would have allowed this kind of start to color their entire life, but not Johnny. At the same age as other children begin to walk upright, he learned to walk on his hands. He excelled in school right alongside his brother. He aspired to be a preacher, but his deformity led to other opportunities. brother and performed in the freak show. He worked as “The King Of Freaks” and ” The Half Boy,” as incredible as that may seem, looking back on it from our politically correct present day. His love of showmanship, incredibly light weight and powerful arms led to seemingly incredibly feats of strength, they also led to disposable income. Despite the lack of legs, Eck loved all things mechanical, especially automobiles. With his circus earnings along with pay from odd jobs, Eck purchased a midget racecar and converted all the foot controls to hand operation. He even went so far as to have the car licensed for operation on the streets of Baltimore. Not only did he buzz around Baltimore in this crazy contraption, he raced it all over the eastern seaboard. The car was one of Johnny’s greatest joys and although he went on to own others, his first was still somehow the best, much as it is for the rest of us. As the years went on, the brothers retired, living a quiet life in Baltimore where they assembled a miniature train system which was the delight of neighborhood kids, and Johnny returned to one of his childhood loves of painting. They were considered a pillar of the community. In 1987, a gang of thugs broke into the brother’s house and held both elderly men down, beating them severely as they ransacked the home. The two withdrew from public life, shunning friend and relative alike. Following the incident, the formerly vibrant and optimistic Johnny lost faith in his fellow man and society in general, he was quoted as saying “If I want to see freaks, I can just look out the window.” After four years in seclusion he died on January 5, 1991 at the age of 79. It is unfortunate such a remarkable man ended his years in such a way, perhaps it says something about society at large when someone born with half a body considers everyone else a freak. Whatever the case may be,Johnny Eck was without a doubt an incredibly interesting fellow, and if any of you ever rely on some lame excuse as to why your project car is sitting untouched in the garage, consider it well and truly nullified. Chang and Eng, “The Chinese Twins” Born in Siam (now Thailand) in 1811, Eng and Chang Bunker were connected at the chest by a five-inch-wide band of flesh. The location of this connection suggested to some doctors and other observers that the brothers shared a heart or some respiratory functions. These medical assumptions would be proven wrong. According to their biography, the twins shared relatively “normal” boyhoods in Siam, running and playing with other children, doing chores, and helping to support their parents and siblings by gathering and selling duck eggs in their small village. Later, as teenagers, the twins left Siam and began a career traveling with two agents, Robert Hunter and Abel Coffin. Eng and Chang earned money by giving lectures and demonstrations throughout the United States, Canada, South America, and Europe. In fact, entries in their travel-expense journal, documents that they visited the campus of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in October, 1834. In their far-flung travels, Eng and Chang became such popular celebrities during the 1830s that their promotion as “Siamese twins” were terms that were universally employed to describe connected or conjoined twins. By the late 1830s, Eng and Chang tired of all their traveling, opting then to settle in North Carolina. There the brothers married two sisters, Adelaide and Sarah Yates of Wilkes County. The sisters were of European ancestry and were neither twins nor connected themselves. The couples were married in 1843 and would ultimately produce 21 children between the two families. Eng and Chang died in January, 1874, at the age of 63. Chang preceded Eng in death by about two and a half hours. An autopsy indicated that Chang died of a blood clot in the brain; and at the time Eng’s demise was attributed, understandably, to shock. Charles Sherwood Stratton, “General Tom Thumb” Charles Sherwood Stratton was born today in 1838. His birth weight was a hearty 9 pounds, 2 ounces. For the first 6 months of his life, Charles continued to develop normally. Then, quite suddenly, he stopped growing. On his first birthday, the boy’s chagrined parents realized he hadn’t grown an inch or an ounce in half a year. They took him to a doctor, who told them it was unlikely their child would ever reach a normal height (he mostly likely suffered from pituitary gland malfunctions). Charles was a little over two feet tall and weighed 15 pounds. The embarrassed Strattons muddled along with their tiny son for four years until P.T. Barnum heard tell of the boy and negotiated with them to exhibit Charles on a trial basis in Barnum’s own NY museum. The family was paid a princely sum of 3 bucks a week plus room, board and travel expenses for Charles and his mother. Once back in New York, the entrepreneurial Barnum fell into an Ovid role to young Stratton’s Pygmalion. They spent long hours together, transforming the four-year-old waif into General Tom Thumb, a doll-sized prodigy from some nonspecific European locale. The “general” was trained in courtly etiquette, song, dance, theater, celebrity impersonations and the rote memorization of dozens of sassy witticisms. Stratton excelled at mimicry, imitating a Scottish highlander, Hercules, Cupid and Napoleon, among others. Barnum believed he’d struck gold. Sure enough, the American public was soon clamoring to see the wee thespian on stage, dressed to the nines in beautifully tailored costumes. In 1843, aged five, Stratton went on his first American tour and was a smash success. Not long after that, Barnum took Stratton to Europe. Stratton would appear twice before Queen Victoria at Buckingham Palace (on one of these occasions he was attacked by her pet poodle, which dwarfed him). He had achieved international stardom. His diminutive carriage was mobbed by crowds wherever he went. Upon coming of age, Stratton married another little person, the delicate, raven-haired Lavinia Warren. Their lavish wedding ceremony in 1863 made front page news across the country. Stratton’s best man was another Lilliputian employed by Barnum: George Washington Morrison (“Commodore”) Nutt. The maid of honor was Lavinia’s even tinier sister, Minnie. The newlyweds greeted their 2,000 guests from atop a grand piano in the posh NY Metropolitan Hotel and were later received at the White House by President Abraham Lincoln. Under Barnum’s management, Stratton had become a very wealthy man, with apartments in upper-crust Manhattan, his own steam-powered yacht, and a custom-built home on one of CT’s appropriately named Thimble Islands. Although Barnum never actually said that there’s a sucker born every minute, he was quick to admit himself “a showman by profession… and all the gilding shall make nothing else of me.” By presenting mutations and gaffs for purported educational and scientific purposes (wink wink, nudge nudge) Barnum reaped a king’s ransom. His exhibitions of “human curiosities” like Stratton, Anna Swan, Chang & Eng and countless others are still well-remembered. While his exploitative manner is offensive on many levels nowadays, such exhibits were quite common at the time. Some modern “freaks” have gone so far as to say that well-meaning human rights campaigns waged against Barnum’s ilk in the last century actually harmed their livelihoods rather than helped them. In any case, it bears mentioning that Stratton and Barnum appeared to have shared a genuine kinship. When Barnum was in danger of going bankrupt, Stratton bailed him out. They later became business partners and were more successful than ever. Stratton’s later life was a darker sort of fairy tale. When Lavinia’s beloved younger sister died painfully while giving birth to a full-sized baby, the childless couple grew depressed and withdrew from social life. Possibly due to continuing glandular problems, Stratton gained a large amount of weight and no longer bore any resemblance to the young Cupid he had played years before. Barnum tried his best to comfort them and coax them out of hiding, but on a tour in Milwaukee in 1883, a terrible fire broke out at the hotel the couple was staying in, killing 71 people. They were saved by their manager, Sylvester Bleeker, while Bleeker’s own wife perished after jumping from a high window. Stratton never fully recovered from this traumatic event. A few months later, while Lavinia was off on tour, he died of a stroke in his home. Ten thousand people attended his funeral. P.T. Barnum commissioned a life-sized statue of his esteemed General and had it placed at the top of Stratton’s towering gravestone. When Lavinia died in 1919, she was interred beside him with an epitaph marked simply (if somewhat dismissively) “His Wife”. Check Out More Pages of This Post: Page 1 Page 2

i don't know

"Which actress starred opposite Alan Ladd in the film ""The Blue Dahlia""?"

The Blue Dahlia (1946) - IMDb IMDb There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error An ex-bomber pilot is suspected of murdering his unfaithful wife. Director: a list of 35 titles created 24 Oct 2013 a list of 21 titles created 19 Mar 2014 a list of 29 titles created 13 Jun 2015 a list of 46 titles created 11 Dec 2015 a list of 30 titles created 1 month ago Title: The Blue Dahlia (1946) 7.2/10 Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. Nominated for 1 Oscar. See more awards  » Photos A crooked politician finds himself being accused of murder by a gangster from whom he refused help during a re-election campaign. Director: Stuart Heisler When assassin Philip Raven shoots a blackmailer and his beautiful female companion dead, he is paid off in marked bills by his treasonous employer who is working with foreign spies. Director: Frank Tuttle After being hired to find an ex-con's former girlfriend, Philip Marlowe is drawn into a deeply complex web of mystery and deceit. Director: Edward Dmytryk An armored truck driver and his lovely ex-wife conspire with a gang to have his own truck robbed on the route. Director: Robert Siodmak When powerful publishing tycoon Earl Janouth commits an act of murder at the height of passion, he cleverly begins to cover his tracks and frame an innocent man, whose identity he doesn't ... See full summary  » Director: John Farrow A man is murdered, apparently by one of a group of soldiers just out of the army. But which one? And why? Director: Edward Dmytryk Hit men kill an unresisting victim, and investigator Reardon uncovers his past involvement with beautiful, deadly Kitty Collins. Director: Robert Siodmak A beautiful secretary risks her life to try to find the elusive woman who may prove her boss didn't murder his selfish wife. Director: Robert Siodmak Frank Bigelow, told he's been poisoned and has only a few days to live, tries to find out who killed him and why. Director: Rudolph Maté With his law-breaking lifestyle in the past, an ex-con, along with his family, attempt to start a new life, knowing a betrayed someone from the past is bound to see otherwise. Director: Henry Hathaway A married woman and a drifter fall in love, then plot to murder her husband. Once the deed is done, they must live with the consequences of their actions. Director: Tay Garnett When Kirk Bennett is convicted of a singer's murder, his wife tries to prove him innocent...aided by the victim's ex-husband. Director: Roy William Neill Edit Storyline When Johnny comes home from the navy he finds his wife Helen kissing her substitute boyfriend Eddie, the owner of the Blue Dahlia nightclub. Helen admits her drunkenness caused their son's death. He pulls a gun on her but decides she's not worth it. Later, Helen is found dead and Johnny is the prime suspect. Written by Ed Stephan <[email protected]> Tamed by a brunette - framed by a blonde - blamed by the cops! See more  » Genres: 1 June 1946 (UK) See more  » Also Known As: La dalia azul See more  » Filming Locations: Did You Know? Trivia Raymond Chandler almost walked off the film when George Marshall improvised dialogue. " . . . it is ludicrous to suggest that any writer in Hollywood, however obstreperous, has a 'free hand' with a script;" said Chandler, "He may have a free hand with the first draft, but after that they start moving in on him. Also what happens on the set is beyond the writer's control. In this case I threatened to walk off the picture, not yet finished, unless they stopped the director putting in fresh dialogue out of his own head." See more » Goofs During the scene in the Blue Dahlia manager's office between Leo and Eddie, moving shadow of boom mic is visible on wall above Eddie while he is seated in the armchair. See more » Quotes Joyce Harwood : [sitting with Johnny in a convertible in the hills overlooking Los Angeles] It takes a lot of lights to make a city, doesn't it? (Derby, England) – See all my reviews I recently watched The Blue Dahlia for the first time and found it excellent and very gripping. Johnny Morrison and two of his pals have just come back from serving in the Second World War. Not long after, Morrison's wife is found dead and has been murdered. Morrison is the prime suspect for her murder and starts to go on the run because of this. He meets somebody else in the process and falls in love with her, despite his wife's death. Towards the end, we find out who really murdered Mrs Morrison... This movie is shot well in black and white and certainly has some gripping moments. The cast includes the excellent Alan Ladd (Shane), Veronica Lake, William Bendix, Doris Dowling as Mrs Morrison and Hugh Beaumont. If you are a fan of mysteries or just old movies, The Blue Dahlia is a must. Fantastic. Rating: 4 stars out of 5. 29 of 35 people found this review helpful.  Was this review helpful to you? Yes

Veronica Lake

"Which French fashion designer created the ""Little black dress""?"

New DVDs: ‘The Glass Key,’ ‘The Blue Dahlia,’ ‘Phantom Lady’ - The New York Times The New York Times DVD |Setting the Ground Rules for Noir Search Setting the Ground Rules for Noir New DVDs: ‘The Glass Key,’ ‘The Blue Dahlia,’ ‘Phantom Lady’ Continue reading the main story Photo Ella Raines and Alan Curtis, shot by Woody Bredell in Robert Siodmak’s “Phantom Lady.” Credit Turner Classic Movies A NEW collection from TCM and Universal, “Dark Crimes,” brings together three crime thrillers from the 1940s that, surprisingly, have never been released on DVD before. The offerings include two films from Universal’s Paramount holdings, “The Glass Key” (1942) and “The Blue Dahlia” (1946), both starring one of the hottest (if tiniest) box office teams of the decade, Alan Ladd and Veronica Lake. The third is Universal’s own 1944 “Phantom Lady,” the first American film noir directed by the European émigré Robert Siodmak, which, with its audaciously stylized cinematography by Elwood Bredell (credited here as Woody Bredell), was one of the pivotal films that established the look of noir for the decade to come. Blond, blue eyed and baby faced, Ladd had been knocking around Hollywood as a bit player since the early ’30s, never quite making the leap to featured actor, perhaps because of his small stature — at 5 foot 6 he was shorter than many of his female counterparts. But in 1941 his companion, an ambitious actress turned agent named Sue Carol, managed to land him a breakout role in Frank Tuttle’s adaptation of Graham Greene’s “This Gun for Hire,” and his cool, conscienceless portrayal of a contract killer dramatically named Raven stole the film, as audiences jolted by America’s late entry into World War II (the movie came out in the summer of 1942) found distraction in his fresh combination of boyish charm and unflinching cruelty. The film (which is available on a fine Universal DVD released in 2004) begins in a seedy San Francisco hotel room with Raven caressing a stray kitten and then slapping down the chambermaid who has foolishly tried to throw the cat out — establishing in one brief scene a character largely unseen in American movies before: a remorseless killer with charm and sex appeal. Ladd walked off with the movie, although because of censorship his character was not allowed to walk off with his leading lady: a five-footer from Brooklyn, born Constance Frances Marie Ockelman, who had just made her mark in a propaganda film directed by Mitchell Leisen, “I Wanted Wings.” Renamed Veronica Lake by the studio — which chose to capitalize on her unfortunately immobile, high-cheekboned features by suggesting she was as cool and placid as a large body of water — she too became a major sensation of the period. Advertisement Continue reading the main story Searching for a quick and convenient project for its new star, Paramout cast Ladd in an adaptation of Dashiell Hammett’s political novel of 1931, “The Glass Key,” which the studio had already filmed a scant seven years earlier. (The 1935 version is an intriguing film in its own right, directed by Tuttle and starring George Raft.) When the original female star, Patricia Morrison, turned out to tower over Ladd, she was replaced by Lake, and a partnership was born that would last through two more features before the chemistry burned out. Continue reading the main story The 1935 “Glass Key” is perhaps more noirish (even before the term had been coined) than Stuart Heisler’s remake, which required some major reconfiguration on the part of the screenwriter Jonathan Latimer to turn Ladd’s character, a blindly (and possibly homoerotically) devoted lieutenant to a big city political boss played by Brian Donlevy, into a more or less conventional hero, and to transform Lake’s contemptuous society girl into a temporarily misguided sweetheart. Photo Alan Ladd and Veronica Lake in “The Blue Dahlia.” Credit Turner Classic Movies Now that Ladd and Lake were stars, it was no longer possible for them to play morally dubious characters. But the film retains some bitter hints of Hammett, particularly in a sequence in which Ladd makes love to the wife of a corrupt newspaper publisher in front of him, driving the man to suicide, and a still shockingly brutal scene in which Ladd is beaten to a pulp by a sadistic thug played by William Bendix, seemingly with Ladd’s masochistic consent. “The Blue Dahlia” was also a rushed production, put on the schedule to take advantage of an eight-week leave that Ladd had been granted from the Army. The director, George Marshall, was forced to begin shooting while Raymond Chandler was still struggling to finish the script, his first project written originally for the screen. The film is intriguing as Chandler’s attempt to move beyond the romantic knight errantry of Philip Marlowe novels and into more social realist territory. Its explicit subject is the post-traumatic stress that many war veterans were bringing home with them, here given metaphorical form by the steel plate in his head that the unstable Buzz Wanchek (Bendix again, but in a more sympathetic role) has brought back with him from the war in the Pacific. But Chandler’s concept was severely compromised when the military insisted on changing the identity of the killer. The violence-prone Buzz is treated as an infantile charity case by his two war buddies, George (Hugh Beaumont) and Johnny (Ladd), all members of the same bomber crew now returning to an unfamiliar Los Angeles. Another trauma is waiting for Johnny, when he discovers that his wife (Doris Dowling, in a consummately nasty character turn) has not only been conducting an open affair with a sleazy nightclub impresario (Howard Da Silva) but is also responsible for the death of their young son. When Dowling turns up dead, suspicion naturally falls on Ladd, who finds unlikely help in his plight from Da Silva’s estranged wife (Lake). This is powerful material with harrowing real-life implications, all of which would soon be sublimated into the pervasive dread and misogyny of the postwar noir. The compromised ending limits the impact of “The Blue Dahlia,” as does the visually uninteresting direction of Marshall, but there is a hard nugget of authenticity at the center of the film that still makes it compelling. If “The Blue Dahlia” suffers from a lack of visual style, “Phantom Lady” is pretty much nothing but. Produced by Joan Harrison, a trusted assistant to Alfred Hitchcock who was venturing out on her own with a series of female-centered suspense films, the film is essentially a whodunit, with the classic ’40s beauty Ella Raines as a secretary who turns into a sleuth when her boss (Alan Curtis), with whom she is secretly in love, is accused of the murder of his unfaithful wife. To direct, Harrison perspicaciously hired Siodmak, a Jewish refugee who had arrived in Hollywood in 1940 after a substantial career in Germany and France. Siodmak brought with him a mastery of the shadowy lighting and spatial complexity of Weimar-era filmmaking, and at Universal he found a talented collaborator in Woody Bredell, a cinematographer with a gift for extreme contrasts of light and darkness. Photo Alan Ladd taking it on the chin from William Bendix in “The Glass Key.” Credit Turner Classic Movies As Raines tries to track down a missing witness who can provide her boss with an alibi (a structure that recalls the last film Siodmak made in France, the 1939 “Piéges”), the film becomes a series of striking noir tableaus: a deserted Third Avenue El station, a rain-soaked Chelsea street, a cinder-block basement where Raines witnesses a frenzied drum solo performed by a hopped-up musician (Elisha Cook Jr.) who possesses some crucial information. Advertisement Continue reading the main story Siodmak and Bredell would go on to more challenging material, including, later that year, “Christmas Holiday,” a major noir hiding behind a misleading title and cast (Deanna Durbin and Gene Kelly). But “Phantom Lady” functions as a virtual catalog of noir effects, still drawn upon by filmmakers today. (TCM Vault Collection, shop.tcm.com , $34.99, not rated) ALSO OUT THIS WEEK ICE AGE: CONTINENTAL DRIFT No. 4 in 20th Century Fox’s animated franchise, which this time finds the prehistoric characters scrambling as the continents begin to separate. Ray Romano again lends his voice to Manny the woolly mammoth; Denis Leary is Diego the saber-tooth tiger; and John Leguizamo is Sid the sloth. Steve Martino and Mike Thurmeier directed. The “Ice Age” movies “come close to inspiring a new theory of prehistoric extinction: All those species clearly died from the hot air that gathered in the atmosphere as a result of their inability to shut up for even a minute,” A. O. Scott wrote in The New York Times in July. (Fox; Blu-ray 3-D/Blu-ray/DVD combo, $49.99; Blu-ray/DVD combo, $39.99; DVD $29.98; PG) Please verify you're not a robot by clicking the box. Invalid email address. Please re-enter. You must select a newsletter to subscribe to. Sign Up Privacy Policy FOLLOWING An alienated young man who tracks strangers through the streets of London links up with a burglar who likes invading the private lives of his victims in this first feature film (1998) directed by Christopher Nolan ( “The Dark Knight Rises” ), here getting the deluxe Criterion treatment. With Jeremy Theobald and Alex Haw. “The usual elements of scheming and deception are well represented here, but they are made all the knottier by shifting time frames,” Janet Maslin wrote in The Times in 1998. (Criterion Collection; Blu-ray, $39.95; DVD, $29.95; R) GIRLS: THE COMPLETE FIRST SEASON Four single women in their 20s confront relationship and career issues in a recessionary Manhattan unknown to the cast of “Sex and the City.” Lena Dunham ( “Tiny Furniture” ) created this HBO series and stars in it with Allison Williams, Jemima Kirke, Zosia Mamet and Adam Driver. “ ‘ Sex and the City ’ served up romantic failure wrapped in the trappings of success,” Alessandra Stanley wrote in The Times in April. “ ‘Girls’ offers romantic failure wrapped in the trappings of failure.” (HBO Home Video; Blu-ray, $49.99; DVD, $39.98; not rated) FUTURAMA: VOLUME 7 Thirteen episodes from the animated science-fiction comedy created by Matt Groening, set in a 31st-century New York City and featuring the voices of Billy West, Katey Sagal, John DiMaggio and Tress MacNeille. (Fox; Blu-ray, $39.99; DVD $29.98, not rated) DICK TRACY The Blu-ray debut of Warren Beatty’s 1990 comic strip movie, which despite its stylistic extravagance never equals the weirdness of Chester Gould’s original artwork. With Al Pacino, Madonna, Glenne Headly, Dustin Hoffman and songs by Stephen Sondheim. (Touchstone; $26.50; PG) A version of this article appears in print on December 9, 2012, on Page AR19 of the New York edition with the headline: Setting the Ground Rules for Noir. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe

i don't know

What is the sticky wax obtained from sheep?

The Origin of WAX | WAX 's Story of Origin | WAX 's History | The origin of Daily Use Products | TheOriginOf.com February 7, 2008 – 9:11 pm WAX Bees busily buzz around making fantastic honeycombs with their own wax. Later on Man copied them. The term ‘wax’ is a substance whose properties are akin to beeswax – plastic and malleable, with a melting point of 45 °C, having low viscosity when melted. It is not soluble in water. There are two types of waxes – natural and artificial.  The natural group can be segmented into animal wax, vegetable wax and mineral wax.  Humans too produce wax and that is the earwax which is a sticky substance found inside human ears. Artificial wax is a chemical substance which is a combination of ester and two acids (fatty) – a sort of lipid. Apart from these natural varieties there are many synthetic waxes – polythene waxes, chemically waxes etc. Thus wax is a very general term used to point to a long list of polar lipids. The wax is a protective covering on leaves of plants, fruits or animals. Some have mineral origins and can be found in lignite. Lignite is a stage in the transformation of vegetable matter into hydrocarbons. Waxes however cannot be bracketed into one chemical group that is homogenous. Beeswax is a secretion oozing from the abdomens of bees. The flowers from which it is gathered determine the vibrant range of subtle colour. It has been in use from ancient times as found in Egyptian historical remains. They used it in shipbuilding as an adhesive and coating agent. The Romans used its waterproof material to treat paint on walls. During the Middle Ages it was a valuable form of currency exchange. Today its use is multifarious and indispensable. About 7000 tons is produced in the world annually. 60% of this is gobbled up by the cosmetic and pharmaceutical world. Chinese wax is secreted from insects on branches. It requires 1500 insects to give 1g of insect wax. It is used in candle making and polishes. Shellac is also from another kind insect and used in varnish manufacturing. Wax is collected from the tissues and head cavity of the sperm whale. 3 tons is got from a 15 meter animal. From the 15th century it is being used as medicine and in the manufacture of cosmetics. But strong conservation action has put a stop to this form of animal torture. It has been replaced by synthetic wax. Lanolin or wool wax secretes from the glands of sheep. Crude wool is collected and diluted with alkali to obtain the wax. It has been in use since ancient times as a cure for skin diseases. Today it is in great demand in industries connected with fabrics, ink and lubricants. The ‘queen of waxes’ is carnauba – a kind of vegetable wax. Leaves of a plant found in Brazil secrete it – 100g coming from a single tree per year. It is the hardest in the wax family. Mixed with beeswax it is used for making polishes and cosmetics as well as in food production. It adds the glaze to candies, gums, fruits. It is also used for coating paper. Ouricouri wax used to be exported from Brazil since 1937 but recently it has been discontinued. It was squeezed out from a particular Brazilian plant. Jojoba oil made its entry as an alternative to the wax obtained from whales It is fluid and extracted by pressing the seeds of jojoba tree cultivated in Mexico, Arizona and California. Experiments are also going on in Israel, Africa, Australia and China. Small shrubs of Mexico produce candelilla wax. When the plant is boiled the wax floats on top and it is then skimmed  and processed. It is mixed with other waxes to harden them. It is a major ingredient as a fixing agent in chewing gum industry. Esparto wax comes from a type of reed or grass found in North Africa and Southern Spain. It is a by-product from the stuff left over after making paper. Japan wax is more akin to tallow and is found in kernels and outer skins of berries belonging to the rhus and toxicondendron group. It is largely used in the Japanese cosmetic industry and becomes rancid after some time. Wax is also extracted from rice bran and is used for coating lipsticks. In the family of mineral wax ozocerite is found in the beds of lignite in the mountainous regions of Russia, Iran and America. It is used in industries connected with lubricants, cosmetics, deodorants, polishes and adhesives. Montan wax is a solvent that is extracted from brown coal – so in a way it is plant wax because coal is its parent. Thus its characteristics are akin to vegetable waxes. Its production started in Germany during the later half of the 19th century. Germany continues to remain the prime producer of this product. It is mainly used in making carbon paper, electric insulators and for lubricating plastics and paper. Synthetic waxes came into use as natural waxes are not consistent as regards availability and standard. More and more industries, especially the cosmetic world, is switching over to synthetic wax. The question of environment is a big issue where wax is concerned. Extensive research is going on in this regard to avoid waste, encourage recycling and see that the product is biodegradable. Waxed paper is in great use for packaging food. Here petroleum wax has a big role to play. It is derived from crude oil. It is economical and efficient gas barriers as well as being moisture proof. Petrol is the remains of tiny aquatic plants as well as living cells that lived in ancient oceans millions and millions of years ago. Crude oil is also known as fossil fuel. Petroleum wax is one of the by products obtained by processing the raw stuff. Paraffin, microcrystalline and petrolatum are the three sub-categories of petroleum wax. While waxing in praise of wax it is interesting to note that ‘wax’ is a derivation from archaic English word ‘weax’ used to describe the honeycomb. Cosmetics together with pharmaceutical industries are the largest users of wax.

Lanolin

What is the trade name for the non-stick material used for coating cooking pans?

Rough Science . New Zealand . Shakers . Hand Cream | PBS Further reading and websites Challenge To make a soothing hand cream from whatever local resources we liked. All that gold panning at the river took a toll on our skin! What is lanolin? Lanolin Lanolin is the smelly pale-yellow natural oil found on sheep's wool. As a waste product in wool processing, it's also known as wool oil, wool wax, wool fat, or wool grease. It's a natural water repellant — the function of which, as it's not too hard to guess, is to waterproof the sheep. Lanolin also has anti-fungal and antibacterial properties that protect the sheep's skin from infection. Derived from the animal's oil glands, lanolin is a mixture of wool fat and 25-30% water. Wool fat is a mixture of many different chemical compounds, including cholesterol and the esters derived from 'fatty' acids containing 18 to 26 carbon atoms. Lanolin is used widely in the pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries. The oils in lanolin are similar in chemical composition to the oils secreted by human skin. What's more, it forms an emulsion with water that's easily absorbed by the skin, softening it and preventing it drying and cracking (this would explain why sheep shearers have such soft hands). Strictly speaking, lanolin is a wax, not a fat or oil, and melts at a temperature between 100-107°F (38-42&def;C). To extract the lanolin from unwashed wool you boil the wool in water for a few hours, adding salt to improve the yield of lanolin. Next, you reduce the solution by boiling off most of the water. After you filter any undissolved solid material from the hot solution and let it cool, you should be left with a pale-yellow waxy solid floating on the surface of the water. This is impure lanolin. You can purify it, as we did on the show, by taking the crude lanolin and shaking it with a mixture of olive oil and water. The impurities will dissolve into the water and the oil, leaving you with a solid layer of off-white, waxy 'purified' lanolin suspended between the oil and water. Back to top The properties of wool Wool has a very complex chemical and physical structure, which accounts for its uniqueness and versatility as a textile fiber. The fibers are made up of more than 20 amino acids, which combine to form long chains (polymers) of protein. It's the internal structure of each woolen fiber — a three-dimensional corkscrew pattern, or helical 'crimp' — that gives wool its elasticity. The coiled springs of these molecular chains, with their permanent built-in 'memory,' makes the woolen fibers themselves coil-shaped and accounts for their enduring resilience. Wool is superior to all other fibers in its ability to handle body moisture in both warm and cool environments. The porosity of the cells in the outer layers of wool fiber allows them to quickly and efficiently absorb and evaporate moisture. In fact, the fibers can absorb up to 30% of their own weight in moisture — ten times as much as any synthetic fiber — without feeling damp or clammy. The porous structure also explains why wool is such a good thermal insulator, not to mention the mesh of the fibers, which creates millions of air pockets that further help to regulate temperature and humidity. Wool is a naturally strong fiber. It can bend back on itself 20,000 times without breaking. Compare this to cotton at 3,200 times, silk at 1,800, and rayon at only 75 times. Due to its unique chemical structure and natural moisture content, wool is naturally fire-resistant. And despite its natural moisture content, wool's dry, porous nature repels mildew and dust mites. How to make your own lanolin hand cream Here's a recipe for lanolin hand cream you may want to try at home. 3 Tbsp. lanolin 3 Tbsp. witch hazel 1/8 tsp. borax powder Mix the beeswax, lanolin and almond oil in an oven-safe dish and set the dish in a pan containing about an inch and a half of water. Place them in the oven and heat until the beeswax and lanolin have melted. Mix the witch hazel, borax powder and distilled water in a saucepan. Heat the solution until just boiling and then slowly pour it into the melted beeswax/lanolin/almond oil mixture. Stir thoroughly and leave to cool. When the mixture is completely cooled, you'll have a thick white cream to soften your skin. How about making a scented hand cream? You could add almost any essential (aromatherapy) oil to it (but be careful to check your sensitivity to each oil beforehand, and follow any warnings on the labels). 5 to 10 drops of essential oil should be adequate for 3 ounces of cream. You could also add very finely chopped flower petals or herbs to the cream, to give it a different texture and aroma. We scented our lanolin hand cream with tee tree oil (sometimes referred to as 'tea tree oil'), not only because of its delicate nutmeg smell, but because it has a wide range of medicinal properties. Tee tree oil is produced and contained in small sacs on the leaves of the tee tree plant. The sacs will rupture when heated and release their oil, which is how we obtained ours. It's been estimated that 2 tons of leaves will provide about 5 gallons of tee tree oil. Back to top What's the difference between a fat, an oil and a wax? The difference between a fat and an oil is that a fat is solid or semi-solid at room temperature, while an oil is liquid. There are also significant chemical differences between fats and oils. Generally speaking, solid fat contains more 'saturated' fatty acids, while oils usually contain 'unsaturated' fatty acids. Because they're made up of single chemical bonds, saturated fatty acids are flexible. The carbon-carbon double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids, on the other hand, are more rigid and less flexible. That means they're not as compact as those derived from saturated 'fatty' acids, and as a result, they're usually (liquid) oils. Waxes are materials that can be molded when warm, but turn hard and sometimes brittle when cold. Waxes are insoluble in water and water-repellent. Natural waxes such as beeswax (from honeycombs) and lanolin (from wool) are esters of 'fatty' acids with alcohols containing only one alcohol (OH) group. This distinguishes them from vegetable oils and fats, which contain three OH groups. Back to top Did you know? A wool mattress pad on your bed will eliminate dust mites, which can't survive in the natural lanolin of the wool. A wool blanket can also help you sleep better. Tests have shown that the heart rate under a wool-filled comforter was always significantly lowered, while the humidity next to the skin was significantly lower 71% of the time. What are other uses for lanolin? Because it's an excellent water-repellent, lanolin is used on oil rigs as a corrosion inhibitor (an agent that slows down the rusting process). For the same reason, spare auto parts are sometimes coated in lanolin when they're put into long-term storage. And, of course, because it's chemically similar to many of the oils naturally produced by human skin, it's widely used in the pharmaceutical industry. In fact, when lanolin is mixed with suitable vegetable oils or soft paraffin, it makes a cream so good at penetrating the skin that it has been used as a 'carrier' to deliver pharmaceutical drugs subcutaneously (meaning just below the skin). Lanolin can also be used as a lubricant and a leather finish and preservative. You'll even find lanolin in some varnishes and paints. Further reading and websites:: Nutrition and Health, Book 3 of ST240 Our Chemical Environment, The Open University (2000), ISBN 0 7492 51433 University of Cincinnati - the chemistry of fats and oils explained. Nutrition Australia - more on fats and oils from a nutritional angle.   Copyright © 2005 The Open University and WETA . All rights reserved. Published January 2005. If you want to be part of the Rough Science experience, why not try making the Rough Science metal detector ? We take you through the process step-by-step, with handy tips for the electronics novice.

i don't know

What name is given to the brittle kind of iron used for making engine blocks and manhole covers?

Ferrous & Non-Ferrous Metals and their Uses | Castle Metals Ferrous & Non-Ferrous Metals and their Uses Castle Metals Put in the simplest terms, ferrous metals are those which contain iron, whilst non ferrous metals don’t have any iron content. There are, however, other differences between the two types of metal which have a strong bearing upon the tasks which they are usually called upon to perform. Ferrous Metals The following are ferrous metals and the kind of uses to which they are usually put: Mild Steel – Carbon content of 0.1 to 0.3% and Iron content of 99.7 – 99.9%. Used for engineering purposes and in general, none specialised metal products. Carbon steel – Carbon content of 0.6 to 1.4% and Iron content of 98.6 to 99.4 %.  Used to make cutting tools such as drill bits. Stainless Steel – Made up of Iron, nickel and chromium. Resists staining and corrosion and is therefore used for the likes of cutlery and surgical instrumentation. See our infographic celebrating 100 years of stainless steel usage in buildings  or the different types of stainless steel . Cast Iron – carbon 2 – 6% and Iron at 94 to 98%. Very strong but brittle. Used to manufacture items such as engine blocks and manhole covers. Wrought Iron – Composed of almost 100% iron. Used to make items such as ornamental gates and fencing. Has fallen out of use somewhat. Non Ferrous Metals These are the non ferrous metals and their uses: Aluminium – An alloy of aluminium, copper and manganese. Very lightweight and easily worked. Used in aircraft manufacture, window frames and some kitchen ware. Copper – Copper is a natural occurring substance. The fact that it conducts heat and electricity means that it is used for wiring, tubing and pipe work. Brass – A combination of copper and zinc, usually in the proportions of 65% to 35% respectively. Is used for ornamental purposes and within electrical fittings. Silver – Mainly a natural substance, but mixing with copper creates sterling silver. Used for decorative impact in jewellery and ornaments, and also to solder different metals together. Lead – Lead is a naturally occurring substance. It is heavy and very soft and is often used in roofing, in batteries and to make pipes.

Cast iron

Which scientific unit gives a measure of loudness?

Steel Glossary | Glossary of Terms | Platts See precipitation hardening . Agglomeration This is when solid particles stick to one another, and while this is an undesirable feature in many powder and particle processing operations, it is essential for the successful sintering of iron ore fines , coke and fluxes into a suitable blast furnace feed. Alloy steel  Firstly, what is an alloy? This is a material comprising two or more elements, at least one of them a metal. Alloys achieve better specific characteristics than their constituent parts, and steel is itself an alloy of iron. Alloy steels are steels in which additional elements have been added to the usual iron, carbon, manganese and silicon that is present in ordinary carbon steels in order to improve their properties and performance. This typically involves better strength and/or hardness and/or ductility and/or corrosion resistance. Several additional elements may be present, and sometimes the desired properties are achieved through a combination of alloying and heat treatment . There is a vast array of alloy steels developed for very specific applications – such as bearings, gears, shafts, drills, saws, bolts, tyrecord, car bodies, aircraft undercarriages, armour, etc, etc. Alloying elements include bismuth, boron, calcium, chromium , cobalt, lead, nickel , molybdenum , selenium, silicon , sulphur, tellurium, tungsten and vanadium .   See surcharge . Aluminized sheet This is sheet steel to which a thin, hot-dip, aluminium- silicon alloy coating has been applied. It is primarily used in applications that must withstand or reflect heat and resist corrosion at temperatures that are higher than galvanized coatings can cope with. The silicon content is usually 5-11% and this promotes adherence of the coating to the substrate . Although most aluminized coatings are applied to cold rolled carbon steel , they are also used on some ferritic stainless steels in order to give car exhausts life-of-vehicle durability. Aluminized steel is very formable, and typical applications are vehicle exhaust pipes, ovens, furnaces, heat exchangers and bakeware. The coating is said to be particularly good at resisting salt spray and exhaust condensate corrosion. Annealing Annealing is the heating of metal to restore desirable properties after rolling, forging etc. Its function is to soften the metal, relieve internal stresses or improve internal structure. In steel the process is mostly used on cold rolled products – predominantly sheet, but also wire. However, long products (which are mainly hot rolled to final dimension) are sometimes annealed to meet the onward processing requirements of the customer, eg. cutting, forming, bending, forging . When steel is cold rolled it can become brittle and difficult to work; austenitic stainless is particularly prone to this. The material is heated to a temperature that allows the internal grain structure to regroup (recrystallise), is held at that temperature, and then cooled.   Anti-dumping and countervailing duties Anti- dumping duties on imports are sought by a trade group or producer(s) in a country or trading bloc. They do so when the goods are believed to be being sold at significantly below their home market price – or even below their cost of production – and as a result cause, or threaten, significant economic injury (material injury) to domestic producers of similar goods. Countervailing duties on imports are sought when the supplying country’s production and/or exports are directly or indirectly subsidised to the extent that they cause or threaten material injury to domestic producers of these goods. Both duties are allowed under WTO rules, but are only imposed after an investigation which may reject them. The US market is attractive to steel exporters most of the time, and this has meant that over the years these duties have been a noticeable feature of that country’s steel trade. But AD and CV duties are also used elsewhere, including by the EU, Canada, Mexico, Southeast Asian countries etc.   AOD Process AOD stands for argon oxygen decarburisation , a refining process associated with the production of stainless steel . Most stainless steel is initially produced in an electric arc furnace before being transferred to a separate ladle furnace for refining to achieve the precise metallurgical content required – a process known as secondary metallurgy or secondary refining . In the AOD process, a mixture of argon and oxygen is blown through the molten steel in the ladle furnace, and the oxygen achieves the main objective of oxidising unwanted carbon in the steel melt. But because the vital and expensive chromium contained in all stainless steels is also prone to oxidation and subsequent loss with the process slag , the argon is introduced to inhibit this reaction. Apparent consumption This is a statistically-derived figure for national or regional steel consumption during a given period. It is based on the sum of reported mill shipments of finished steel plus steel imports into the country/region, minus steel exports. While a useful indicator, it does not necessarily accurately reflect real steel demand. This is because stock building or stock depletion in the supply chain (by distributors and/or steel users) can result in apparent consumption either exaggerating or under estimating true steel demand. Arbitrage Arbitrage is where a trader, broker or individual sees and exploits small variations in commodity prices, or currency conversion rates or the value of other financial instruments in different markets. The profit comes from buying at one price in one market and then immediately selling the same commodity in a different market for a higher price. With currencies, traders will take advantage of small differences in conversion rates. Currency exchange rates will also play a part in commodity arbitrage, but the scope for arbitrage is reduced where commodity exchanges in different countries use a common currency (such as the US dollar). Because the variations in values in different markets are usually quite small, it is necessary to engage in a large volume of transactions, at low transaction cost, to achieve any significant gain. Consequently, arbitrage tends mainly to be the province of trading companies rather than of individual speculators. Assay A chemical test performed on a mineral sample to determine the concentration of valuable metal contained. Austempering This is a form of heat treatment commonly used on medium-to-high carbon steels and ductile cast iron as it produces a structure that is stronger, tougher and more resistant to shock than those produced with conventional heat treatments. It also results in less distortion to the metal than treatment via quench and tempering . Compared with conventional quench and tempering , austempering involves keeping the workpiece at the quenching temperature for a longer period of time. Austenitic steel See stainless steel . Automatic gauge control (AGC) Apart from correct metallurgy, the key parameters that determine the physical acceptability of flat rolled steel to the customer are its uniformity of thickness, its flatness, and its surface finish. Automatic gauge control is a combination of hardware and software technology that is fitted to rolling mills to achieve good uniformity of thickness across the width of the sheet and throughout its length. Apart from the separation of mill work rolls , other factors with a bearing on achieving good thickness tolerances are mill speed and strip tension. Using a combination of computerised thickness sensors and hydraulic mill actuators, the distance between work rolls is continuously adjusted to achieve the desired thickness of a strip of steel that can be passing through the mill at speeds of more than 80km/h. B Back-up rolls In a rolling mill , back-up rolls exert force on the two rolls which are actually in contact with the metal being processed (the work rolls ). The back-up rolls prevent the work rolls from bending under the forces exerted on them as they "squeeze" the metal passing through the mill into a new profile . Carbon steel and non- ferrous rolling mills are usually 4-high (2 work rolls + 2 back-ups), or 6-high. But in the case of stainless steel , because of the very high forces involved during cold rolling, there is a whole cluster of back-up rolls around the (quite small diameter) work rolls – hence the name " cluster mill " (as an alternative to Sendzimir mill , which is widely used to describe this design). Backwardation See " contango and backwardation " Baghouse A term for the dust capture system used in steelworks and foundries. Such installations usually comprise a dust separation and filtering arrangement involving an array of cloth filter bags, and are a very efficient way of preventing the emission of particles to the environment. Bake hardening The steel sheet used for automotive bodywork needs to be very formable during the press shop stage of panel manufacture, but must have high strength for optimum in-service performance. These are conflicting requirements which bake hardening resolves by altering the properties of the sheet on the car production line. Once body panels have been pressed they are painted and the paint is then cured by passing through an oven. The steel has already been work hardened during pressing, but it is during curing, at temperatures of around 170 degrees C for a specific time, that the arrangement of the atoms in the steel changes (in a way known as strain ageing). The result is that after baking and cooling the steel has a higher strength than it did after pressing. The method is mostly associated with outer automotive body panels which require good dent resistance. Baled scrap Baling is a method of compressing assorted scrap into dense cubes which are easily handled and transported. Balers are static units, and are particularly popular for handling lighter types of scrap . Bankable feasibility study Long steel products of various different cross-sectional shapes including round, square, L-shaped (angle bars) and tees. Basic oxygen furnace See BOF. Beams Structural steel products of various shapes used to construct the supporting elements of buildings, bridges, etc. (see also: wide flange beams ) Benchmarking A technique whereby the best practices and/or achievements in the most successful companies or organisations are used by others in the same sector to measure their own performance and to identify areas and means of improving their procedures or processes in order to achieve similar results. As it applies to pricing, a benchmark price is one which is agreed between a prominent seller(s) and buyer(s) which is then used by others operating in the same market as a reference for their own pricing. Premiums or discounts may be applied to the benchmark  price to account for any variations from the reference product. Beneficiation See iron ore . Bessemer Process The Bessemer Process was invented and patented in 1855 by Henry Bessemer. This was the first inexpensive industrial process to make steel from molten pig iron . Although the process had been used outside Europe for hundreds of years before this, this was the first time it was used on an industrial scale. The main principle of the process is using oxidation to remove impurities from the molten iron by blowing air through the iron. The oxidation of the iron raises the temperature to keep it molten during the operation. A large container called the Bessemer Converter is used. This is made from steel with a special lining of silica and clay or dolomite. Bill of lading This is a document used in seaborne trading to indicate the ownership, quantity, condition and destination of goods, and to act as a receipt for them. A bill of lading (B/L) is issued by the carrier (ship’s master or ship owner’s office) to the owner or person organising the movement of the goods (the shipper), and provides proof that they have been loaded. The value of a B/L as a statement of condition is more debatable, for the reality and economics of loading a vessel may make it impractical for a carrier to verify the precise condition of every item of cargo – if for no other reason than packaging may prevent this. However, if on arrival the quantity and/or condition of the goods is not as stated on the B/L, it is the carrier who is liable for any discrepancy, even though the bill may have been prepared by the shipper. Normally the recipient of the goods has to show the B/L to take delivery at the destination. Billet These are long, continuously cast semis of less than 150mm square/round section. Like blooms they are cut-to-length after casting , and are reheated for rolling. Billet is the starting point for rolling products like rebar, plain bar, merchant bar and light sections , narrow strip and wire rod . It is also used for seamless tube making. Where ingot casting is employed, blooms are the starting point for rolling billet. Black pipe This is an uncoated steel tubular product and is called black because of the dark coloured iron-oxide scale formed on the surface of the steel . This pipe is strong and is used in the oil and petroleum industries, for water transfer systems, for high pressure steam and air supplies, for commercial hot water systems and sometimes for protecting electrical wiring. Blackplate This is thin, low carbon, cold reduced steel coil which is used as a substrate for producing tinplate or tin-free steel / ECCS (electrolytic chromium coated steel – see separate entries). It should not be confused with black coil (untreated hot rolled coil). Blackplate is available in single-reduced or double-reduced form, the latter referring to steel coil which is cold reduced part-way to its final thickness, then annealed, before further cold reduction to the final gauge . The result is a stronger and harder product. Although primarily associated with tin coating, blackplate does have some other applications. For example it can be used as a substrate for enamelled hollowware, and for continuous paint lines (although many pre-painted steel uses a galvanized substrate to enhance corrosion protection), and also for dry battery jackets, lipstick shells and some other packaging. Blanking See cutting-to-length. Blast furnace  The blast furnace (BF) is a key installation in steelworks using iron ore as their principal raw material. These tall, shaft-like structures extract iron from ore in a continuous thermal process that produces molten iron ( pig iron ) for conversion into steel in a basic oxygen furnace . Iron ore , coke and limestone are the main inputs, and are charged to the top of the BF. Preheated air blown into the furnace at a lower level sustains a thermal reaction involving the coke , and releasing carbon monoxide (CO). This reacts with the iron ore (iron oxide) to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and molten iron – which settles to the base of the furnace and is tapped at regular intervals. Hot gases rising inside the BF preheat incoming material, initiate ore reduction and convert limestone into CO2 and calcium oxide. This reacts with impurities in the molten iron to form slag which is drawn off. BFs typically have an annual iron output of 1m-5m tonnes and routinely operate for several years between maintenance stops. Blooming mill See cogging mill . Blooms These are large, long, continuously cast pieces of steel with a minimum square section of 150mm x 150mm, but usually much larger. They are cut-to-length immediately after casting . After reheating, blooms are used to roll medium and large sections , as well as large profiles such as sheet piling , and rails. Sometimes when large “H” or “I” beams are to be rolled, partially shaped blooms called beam blanks or “dogbones” are cast to shorten the rolling process. Where ingot casting of carbon steel is still the only option, or in the case of certain highly specialised alloy steels where ingot casting produces higher quality material, blooms are rolled from cast ingot in a blooming mill . Blooms (and billets) are also used for seamless tube making. Body in white (the) This is the term used to describe the main structure of a car before fitting any components (engine, seats, transmission, steering etc) and trim. Opinion is divided as to whether the body in white (BIW) includes or excludes closures (doors, bonnet, boot lid etc). The BIW largely defines the size, shape and strength of a car, and comprises a monocoque structure made from steel sheet pressings welded together by robots. It is a strong, stiff structure and, without closures, accounts for about 20% of final vehicle weight (so about 280-290kg for a typical small/medium family saloon). Both hot and cold rolled steel coil, most or all of it galvanized, is used to fabricate the parts that make up the BIW. BOF, BOP, BOS The basic oxygen furnace converts iron from the blast furnace into steel . This is achieved by blowing oxygen over the molten iron in the BOF vessel, where it combines with and removes carbon as carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Unwanted silicon , phosphorus and other elements are also driven off, while added fluxes (typically lime) combine with other impurities to be removed as slag . The reactions in the BOF vessel generates heat, so ferrous scrap is added to act as a coolant. Scrap can account for up to 30% of the charge weight, which can total several hundred tonnes. Alternative names for this plant/process are steel converter , BOS (basic oxygen steelmaking), basic oxygen process (BOP), and LD process (after the Linz steelworks in Austria where it was first commercialised in the early 1950s). Boron steel The addition of boron to steel allows the achievement of higher strength after hardening by heat treatment , but offers a workable material to the fabricator or manufacturer when in the “as-delivered” condition. Boron is often added to medium carbon steels to achieve an in-service performance comparable to high carbon and more costly low alloy steels (rather than increasing their carbon and manganese content or adding chromium and molybdenum – with the attendant penalty of reduced ductility during fabrication). The amount of boron which is added to achieve these characteristics is very small – in the range 0.0005-0.005%. Traditional applications for boron steels are in wear applications such as shovels/spades, caterpillar tracks, plough shares, punches, but also some spring steels, and more recently in automotive car bodies. Here they have been developed into high strength sheet steels for parts of the body shell and chassis – such as door sills, door pillar reinforcement, cross members, safety beams and bumper reinforcements. Breakout This happens when the refractory lining of a blast furnace fails. It is particularly dangerous if this occurs below the molten iron or slag level as these liquids can then spill out. Apart from possible injury or death to operators, breakouts cause loss of production as well as possible damage to ancillary equipment. Bright annealed A highly polished, highly reflective, mirror finish on stainless steel coil which is produced by cold rolling between highly polished mill rolls and then annealing the steel in a closely controlled reducing atmosphere – usually a mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen – to prevent any surface scaling or oxidation. After this treatment, the stainless steel is said to have a “BA” finish. Bright bar This is carbon, alloy or stainless steel bar which after hot rolling is later drawn through a die, or machined (turned), to give a close dimensional tolerance, good surface finish and sometimes improved mechanical properties. The result is a product, also referred to as cold finished bar , which is far more suitable for direct use in engineering applications than in the hot rolled state with its associated surface scale and less precise dimensions. Bright bar can be of round, square, flat, hexagonal or other cross-section. Most bright bar is produced by drawing hot rolled bar through a tungsten die after first removing any surface scale and rust by shot blasting or pickling. Another common method is turning (also called peeling) and polishing, and for very accurate dimensional tolerances, drawing or turning followed by precision grinding is used. Bright finish A very reflective finish achieved on tinplate or stainless steel by rolling between highly polished rolls with a minimal reduction in gauge . Brownfield Brownfield developments are construction projects which take place on land which has had prior industrial, commercial, retail or residential use. In the steel industry brownfield often applies to sites selected within urban areas for new distribution facilities or additional steel capacity. Such capacity is often located adjacent to, or within the perimeter of an existing steelworks.   Bulb flats Bulb flats, or Dutch profiles , are long, hot rolled flats with a rounded bulb along one edge/side, which gives the flat section strength . The main application is for stiffening plates in shipbuilding, but they are also used in bridge construction. Bulb flats provide good resistance to buckling and can offer a better strength -to-weight ratio than stiffeners such as steel bars and asymmetric angles. The rounded profile of bulb flats offers and a good surface for paints to adhere to – an important factor in highly corrosive environments such as the ocean. Bulk ores These are metal containing ores which are transported in large volumes, rather than in smaller, packaged consignments. The term typically applies to iron ore , but also to non- ferrous ores like nickel and manganese . Great care has to be taken in the shipping of large volumes of ores as fines , as improper loading can result in liquefaction of the cargo during transit, destabilising and even sinking a vessel. Bulk sample A large and representative sample of mineralised rock from an ore body whose mineral content is being assessed for commercial exploitation. Busheling This is a ferrous scrap term which originated in the USA and applies to thin uncoated clippings and stamping offcuts from manufacturing operations. Consequently it only applies to new production scrap , rather than scrap generated from obsolete used items.  An equivalent European grade is E8 new scrap , and in the UK Grade 8A. North America’s Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries defines busheling as clean steel scrap not exceeding 12 inches (305mm) in any dimension, including new factory sheet clippings, stampings etc. It must not include old auto body steel , must not be coated, and must not include electrical sheet containing over 0.5% silicon . The European specifications refer to “thin new production scrap ” and allow larger sheet sizes, but specify that the scrap should be “predominantly less” than 3mm (0.12in) thick and be prepared in a manner to ensure direct charging to a furnace. The UK specifications refer to “new loose light steel cuttings” and say limited proportions of galvanised steel can be included by joint agreement between the parties. See hot idling . Capability utilization The measure of steelmaking activity used by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). It is quoted as a percentage of the United States steel industry’s capability to produce crude steel if all mills had full order books for a sustained period. Capacity utilisation This is the usual way to indicate the level of activity at a steelworks or by a steel company. Quoted as a percentage, it is a measure of how much steel is being made compared to what could be produced if all available equipment was being fully employed (sometimes called ‘ nameplate capacity ’). Capesize, Panamax, Handymax These are cargo vessel size categories. Capesize refers to dry bulk carriers that are too big to pass through the Suez or Panama canals. Consequently they have to go round the southern tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope) or South America (Cape Horn). They are usually around 80,000-160,000 deadweight tons  but can be larger, and typical cargoes are iron ore and coal. Needless to say they require deep berths or trans-shipment facilities on arrival. Panamax cargo ships are the largest that can go through the Panama Canal, and are usually about 65,000 dwt. Handymax vessels typically carry dry bulk cargoes like steel , are in the 35,000-60,000 dwt range, and are equipped with on-board cranes. Carbon leakage This is the shift of industrial activity from one country or region to another because of the penalties associated with excessive carbon emissions, resulting in no net reduction in global emissions. It is a phenomenon more associated with basic industries like steel , cement and chemicals than with the equally or more polluting power generation sector (because of limitations on electricity transmission distances). The “leakage” might occur because a polluting company decides to move its activities to somewhere with weaker environmental regulation. Equally it could happen because the cost of environmental compliance results in a polluter in one country reducing or closing activity, but another company or companies in a less regulated part of the world starting, or increasing activity to fill the supply gap. In the case of steelmaking in advanced industrial economies like Europe, the likelihood of carbon leakage by companies moving elsewhere is further enhanced by the inherently more favourable economics of basic steel production in certain other countries anyway, irrespective of environmental considerations. Carbon steel Plain ordinary grades of steel with no significant alloy content. Carburising See case hardening . Case hardening A method of heat treatment to increase the hardness , and therefore the wear and abrasion resistance, of the surface of low carbon steels, while leaving a softer interior which is tougher and more fracture resistant. The hardness is usually achieved by dissolving either carbon or nitrogen in the surface layer of the steel (processes which are respectively known as carburising and nitriding). Case hardening can be applied to both carbon and alloy steels, and is usually applied to steels with carbon contents below about 0.2%. Once treated, these steels can then be used for the manufacture of components like gears and other parts subject to mechanical wear. Cash settlement Settling futures or option contracts with cash, rather than by taking delivery of the commodity being traded. The settlement figure relates to the loss or gain that exists on expiry of the contract. Casing See iron & steel . Casting The process of turning liquid steel into a solid shape suitable for processing into a finished product by rolling or forging . Certified Emissions Reductions (CER) Certified Emissions Reductions are carbon credits, each with a value of one tonne of greenhouse gas emissions which are allocated under the UN Clean Development Mechanism. CERs are valid in a number of voluntary emissions trading schemes. They can also be used in Europe’s Emissions Trading System (ETS) but only to account for a certain percentage of a plant’s emissions. CFR Contracts settled on a cost and freight (CFR) basis require the seller, in addition to paying for the goods, to arrange and meet the cost of transporting them to the agreed port of destination. Risk passes to the buyer as goods cross the ship’s rail. Additionally it might be specified that the seller provide appropriate marine insurance. (The terms cost and freight (C&F) and cost, insurance and freight ( CIF ) were replaced some years ago.) Charge In steelmaking this is the collective term for the principal raw material inputs to a blast furnace ( iron ore , coke , limestone ), electric arc furnace ( scrap and/or direct reduced iron) and basic oxygen furnace or steel converter (liquid pig iron , scrap ). Chromium This hard, steely-grey metal, with a high melting point (1,857C), is best known industrially for its role in stainless steel production, which accounts for the bulk of world consumption. But it has another very visible application in electro-plating to provide a corrosion resistant decorative or hard wearing finish to carbon steel . Less apparent is chromium’s importance in nickel -rich superalloys, such as are used in aero engines, and in tool steels . For use in steelmaking, the metal is extracted from chromium ore (chromite) by smelting into ferro-chromium (FeCr), an alloy of iron and chromium, in an electric arc furnace. To produce stainless steel , FeCr, along with stainless steel scrap , is charged to the steelmaking furnace to achieve at least 10.5% chromium content – although the popular austenitic stainless grades typically contain about 18% Cr. The main commercially viable reserves of chromite (FeCr2O4) are in Kazakhstan, South Africa and Zimbabwe, as well as Russia, India and Turkey. CIF See CFR . Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) The Clean Development Mechanism is a United Nations programme under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which allows developed countries (referred to as Annex 1 countries) to invest in emissions reduction projects in developing countries (non-Annex 1 countries) as a cheaper alternative to investing in emissions reductions in their own countries. Projects are awarded a number of Certified Emission Reductions equal to the amount of emissions saved. Cluster mill See Sendzimir mill . Coated steel This usually refers to steel which is coated with a thin layer of zinc, tin, paint or plastic in a continuous process prior to sale to traders, stockists and end users. It is more accurate to call it continuously coated steel to distinguish it from batch coated steel . Most coated steel is in coil or sheet form, but some long products , such as wire, are galvanized. See also: colour coat , galvanizing and tinplate . Cogging mill This term is mostly associated with a heavy duty rolling mill for shaping reheated steel ingots into blooms or slabs. It has largely been superseded by the continuous casting of steel directly into these shapes. The mill is a reversing mill, allowing the ingot to pass and re-pass through the rolling stand until the desired profile is achieved. Prior to their introduction in late 19th century, large industrial hammers were used to reduce ingots to a suitable size and shape for rolling. Sometimes referred to as a semi-finishing mill , blooming mill or slabbing mill . Coke Coke, iron ore and limestone are the principal inputs for blast furnace (BF) ironmaking. Coke provides thermal energy, combines with the oxygen in the ore to release iron, and ensures a permeable physical structure within the furnace to allow hot gases to move upwards, heating the incoming materials, and molten iron and slag to move downwards for tapping. The quality of coke has a significant influence on furnace productivity and iron production costs. Coke is produced by heating coal to about 1,100oC in a reducing (oxygen deficient) atmosphere. This is done in coke ovens, and volatile compounds like tars are released along with hydrogen and methane to leave a carbon-rich product. Desirable qualities for coke are high carbon content; low sulphur, phosphorus and moisture content; low ash residue; and physical strength . Coke consumption per tonne of liquid iron produced has fallen significantly over time and currently is around 400kg. Consumption, and costs, can be further reduced by the injection of pulverised (non-coking) coal. Coke oven See coke . Coking coal Unlike thermal or steaming coal used in power stations or for industrial or domestic heating, coking (or metallurgical) coal has unique properties that suit it to iron making. A key characteristic is that when heated in the absence of air, this coal, unlike steaming coal, will form the hard, sponge-like material known as coke . As steelmakers are looking to produce high iron purity, the coal needs to have high carbon, but relatively low ash, sulphur and phosphorus content. Also, coke should not physically break down as it travels down through the blast furnace (along with iron ore and limestone ), so helping to retain permeability in the ironmaking burden. The terms “hard”, “semi-hard” and “semi-soft” actually refer to the coal’s readiness to form coke (“hard” is best), and not its physical hardness . However, “hard” coal does happen to produce physically hard coke . About 10% of world mined coal is coking coal, with the major exporters being Australia, Canada and the USA, followed by China and Russia. Cold drawing This is a process for changing the cross-sectional size or profile of steel in bar or coil by pulling ( drawing ) the unheated metal through a die of smaller diameter and/or different cross-section. The advantages include improved surface condition, good tolerances and better mechanical properties – such as higher tensile strength . Shaped bar and wire are the principal steel products made by this technique. In the production of wire a succession of drawing operations can reduce wire rod down to diameters of as little as a few microns (one thousandth of a mm). Cold drawn bar typically has round, square, hexagonal and octagonal profiles, but the larger the diameter, the closer the profile of the feedstock must be to the final shape, since there are strict limitations on what changes can be achieved with unheated steel . In general the term cold drawing relates to long products . It should not be confused with deep drawing of sheet or drawn-over-mandrel tube making (see separate entries). Cold end See cold rolled coil. Cold rolled coil (CRC) Flat rolled steel that has been rolled on a cold strip mill to reduce thickness and improve flatness. This form of gauge reduction also referred to as cold reduction. Cold working This is when the shape of a piece of steel is changed by processes such as rolling, drawing and stamping at room temperature (or well below the metal’s recrystallisation temperature). Cold working increases a metal’s hardness and strength , improves surface quality, but reduces ductility . Colour coat Colour coated steel , or prepaint, is steel coil to which a paint, powder or film coating has been applied in a continuous process prior to it being cut and shaped. It provides a durable uniform surface finish, and can be an alternative to conventional post-manufacture painting of steel parts. Steel coil is coated on one or both sides in a process similar to that used for newspaper/magazine printing. Rolls apply first a primer and then a topcoat to the moving steel strip . The substrate is usually cold reduced galvanised coil, but galvanised HRC, and even uncoated coil is used. Colour coat avoids strict environmental controls at manufacturers’ paint shops, since the onus of compliance is on the coil coater. Building applications account for around two thirds of consumption, with cladding on steel frame buildings a well known use. But it is also widely used for domestic appliance casings and for some furniture. A real breakthrough would be prepaint’s use for automotive bodywork, but there are issues regarding the stamping and bending of complex shapes and then joining them without surface damage. Compensated gross tonnes (cgt) Compensated gross tonnes (cgt) are a measure devised by the OECD to provide a more accurate indicator of the amount of work needed to build a ship, since vessels can vary considerably in their complexity. The value is determined by multiplying the gross tonnage by pre-agreed constants. See also deadweight tonnes, gross tonnes and lightweight tonnes. Concentrate A fine powder-like intermediate product between ore and metal, from which much of the waste mineral has been eliminated, leaving a much higher concentration of the required mineral than in the original ore . Equipment used is known as a concentrator . Concentrator See concentrate Conditioning In the transition from cast steel to steel products, conditioning is the removal of surface defects from semi- finished steel like blooms , billets and slabs prior to rolling. This might involve grinding, machining or scarfing (removal of unwanted metal by torch cutting). Contango and Backwardation These are terms that will be familiar to steelmakers who have for some time hedged their zinc, nickel or tin cost exposure on commodity exchanges, but will now be of interest to a wider steel audience now that futures trading in steel  is underway. On any given day in a normal futures market the forward contract price is higher than that day’s cash settlement price. This is principally because of the cost of storing and insuring a consignment of metal earmarked for later delivery. In these circumstances the market is in contango. But there are times when cash prices rise above forward prices, usually when a near-term supply shortage affects market sentiment. When this happens the market is in backwardation . Commodity exchanges can sometimes step in to limit the extent of a backwardation . Continuous casting This is a process for converting liquid steel directly into a semi-finished shape suitable for further processing. Steel is poured into the top of a long mould which at the point of entry is vertical, but which gradually curves to end horizontal. It has the cross-section of the desired semi. As the steel passes down the mould it solidifies, emerging as a continuous strand which is cut into useable lengths. “Conticasters” (as they are often referred to) are used to produce slabs (for rolling plate and strip ), blooms (for sections ) and billets (for light sections and bars ). The key attractions of the process over its predecessor ( casting discrete lumps or ingots of steel ), are higher productivity and lower costs, as it avoids having to roll ingot into slabs or blooms . Costs can be further reduced by casting cross- sections closer to the finished product (typically beam blanks for beams , or thin slab and even strip casting for flat products ). Continuous mill See reversing mill. Conversion cost A measure of the cost of processing material from one form into another. Often used to describe the cost per unit of production of a major transformation such as steelmaking, taking account of all costs – raw materials, energy and other consumables, labour, maintenance, depreciation, servicing capital employed. It can also be applied to more incremental changes – such as producing hot rolled coil from slab . Converter See BOF. Corex This is an ironmaking technology which, unlike the blast furnace, uses steaming (non-coking) coals, so avoiding the higher cost of coke . It is a two-stage process where lump ore , pellets or sintered iron ore , or a mixture of these, is firstly charged to a reduction shaft where it is transformed into direct reduced iron by a reducing gas. The hot DRI then enters a melter/gasifier, along with coal and oxygen, where liquid iron and slag are produced and periodically tapped off. Corex was developed by VAI (now Siemens-VAI), and after first operating commercially in the 1980s is now in service with a handful of steelmakers in Asia and in South Africa. The developer says Corex’s emission values already comfortably meet future European standards. Competing technologies include Finex , HIsmelt and Technored . Countervailing duty See anti-dumping . Crucible swelling number The CSN, or free swelling index (FSI), is widely used to give an indication of the suitability of a particular coal for metallurgical coke production. The CSN is determined by comparing the shape of a coke button produced when a piece of coal has been heated to 820oC in a covered crucible for several minutes against some standard profiles. The sample is then assigned a CSN value ranging from ‘0’ for no swelling, to ‘9’ for a high degree of swelling. Coals with a CSN of 4 or less are generally deemed to be unsuitable for metallurgical coke production, while those with a higher value will produce coke of varying hardness – although there appears to be no direct correlation between CSN values and coke strength because of variables in the composition of different coals. Crude steel The normal measure of steel output. Crude steel is either liquid steel or cast steel before being further worked. CSR This is an abbreviation of ‘ coke strength after reaction with CO2’. It is one of the key parameters used in evaluating the quality and therefore setting the price of coking coals (metallurgical coals) used in making blast furnace coke . CSR is quoted as a percentage, and a CSR of 50% is generally regarded as the minimum for a commercially traded hard coking coal . Premium grades will have CSR’s well above that – typically in the mid-sixty percents. The CSR value is taken along with other key parameters when assessing coking coal quality. Premium coals will have higher volatile matter content, but a lower ash, sulphur, phosphorus and moisture content. Blast furnace operators will usually operate with a blend of coking coals to achieve the performance they require. Cupola This is a type of furnace, similar in concept to the blast furnace but very much smaller, that is widely used to produce liquid iron in foundries. It is essentially a refractory lined steel vessel around 6-10 metres high into which cold pig iron , and perhaps some iron scrap , plus coke and a limestone flux is charged. Combustion is assisted by forced air. This continuous process yields high quality iron at low cost for applications ranging from automotive components to drain covers. Cupola melting is estimated to produce well over half the liquid iron used worldwide for grey and ductile iron castings. However, tighter environmental regulations are one factor pressing on users of this method. Cut-off grade The grade or concentration of iron (or other mineral) in a deposit below which it is considered to be uneconomical to mine and process. Cutting-to-length, slitting, blanking These are key stages in the preparation of flat rolled steel for the final customer, and they are usually undertaken by service centres. The large coils produced by steelworks weigh 25 tonnes or more and are typically upwards of 1,500mm wide. Few customers can accept steel in this form, so the coils often have to be broken down into more manageable sizes. Sometimes they are transformed into smaller, narrower coils by a combination of slitting (to reduced the width) and then cutting off a certain length of the main coil, and re-coiling this, to achieve the required size. A single coil may be slit into varying widths in one operation Alternatively coils may be cut into sheet by removing specific lengths from the coil (cutting-to-length). This may follow a slitting operation if sheet which is narrower than the incoming coil is needed. Less frequently, coil or sheet is transformed into a large number of identical flat shapes of precise dimensions ready for direct use on a production line by the steel end customer ( blanking ). D Deadweight tonnes (dwt) This is a measure of the carrying capacity of a vessel (cargo, fuel, stores, passengers, crew etc). See also gross tonnes, lightweight tonnes and compensated gross tonnes. Debar See Rebar Decarburisation In steelmaking, decarburisation, or the reduction of carbon content, is one of the key roles of the basic oxygen furnace process for converting iron into steel . It is achieved by blowing oxygen over molten iron where it combines with and removes carbon as carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. But once steel has been cast and rolled, further decarburisation may occur at the surface during subsequent heat treatment or rolling. This is because when steel is hot, carbon reacts with oxygen resulting in a low carbon composition in the outer layers of the steel . Loss of strength and ductility and surface cracking are typical effects, and this may be undesirable, depending on the intended applications for the metal. Decarburisation can be prevented or inhibited by restricting the duration of heat treatment or processing the steel in an inert atmosphere. Deep drawing steel Deep drawing is a mechanical process in which steel sheet is severely deformed to make a pronounced shape with a uniform thickness – such as a can body, canister, box or specific component. Consequently, deep drawing steels have properties that allow a rapid and radical change in shape in a die without tearing or rupture. These steels are widely used in the food and drinks packaging industry, in the automotive industry, and in general engineering. Car makers typically use hot rolled deep drawing steels for body and structural parts, chassis components and wheel rims, and steel in the cold reduced condition for complex body parts, door sections , floor panels and other parts. Deep- drawing steels have a low carbon and low manganese content and, depending on application, low quantities of residual elements like titanium, chromium , nickel and copper. They can be coated or uncoated, and some stainless steels can be deep drawn. Deleterious material Undesirable content in an ore that can cause complications in processing. In iron ore common deleterious elements are: Sulphur (S), Phosphorous (P), Aluminium (Al) and Silica (Si). Derivative A generic term for futures, options or swaps contracts which are arranged either directly between two parties (over-the-counter) or on a commodities exchange (exchange traded). Descaling Scale, a layer of oxide, is formed on the surface of steel during heating and hot rolling, and descaling is essential before any further processing takes place in order to prevent this unwanted material from damaging the surface of the steel . In the case of hot rolled coil (HRC), descaling takes place immediately after rolling is complete using high pressure water jets positioned along the mill’s run-out table. However, HRC is also usually pickled prior to cold rolling to remove any residual scale and any oil or grease used to protect the steel against corrosion during storage or transit (see also ‘pickled & oiled’). In the case of long products , hot rolled bars are either pickled or shot blasted before downstream operations such as bright drawing (see also ‘ bright bar ’). Desulphurisation To achieve high quality steels with the desired range of physical properties, various impurities need to be removed from the liquid metal before it is cast and further processed. One of the most detrimental impurities is sulphur, since it affects both the overall quality of the steel and its surface condition. The only exception is that in controlled amounts it can confer some advantages to machining grades of steel . Sulphur content is reduced to required levels by adding a reagent (a substance which creates a reaction) to the hot metal. The most commonly used reagents are lime, calcium carbide and magnesium. Magnesium has emerged as a favoured additive as it has a high affinity for sulphur. Also, unlike the other two reagents, magnesium dissolves in the melt, which results in a more effective reaction. With blast furnace based steelmaking, desulphurisation is usually performed on the liquid iron prior to the steelmaking stage. With the EAF route it is performed in the ladle furnace. Direct reduced iron (DRI) Direct reduced iron (DRI) is a metallic iron product used in electric arc furnace (EAF) steelmaking. It is produced from iron ore in a thermal, natural gas based process, & because of its purity and consistency tends to carry a price premium to scrap . It is sold as pellet , lump or in briquetted form (HBI – hot briquetted iron). DRI is principally used as part of a furnace charge when EAF steelmakers need a high quality raw material to dilute undesirable elements in their main scrap feed. It is mostly favoured by mills producing sheet or special quality long products . Direct shipping ore This is iron ore which is readily accessible at the mine, and which has a sufficiently high ferrous content (normally 60%-plus) to be sold to steel mills without beneficiation prior to shipping. Double cold reduced Steel strip which undergoes a second pass through a rolling mill after being annealed. Drawing This a process whereby the shape and/or dimensions of rolled steel sheet or long product, such as bar, wire or tube , are altered. In the case of steel sheet, drawing takes place in a press to change the sheet from a flat to a shaped profile (see also deep drawing). With long products , these are drawn through a die on a drawbench to reduce diameter and increase length. One category is bright drawn steel – usually bar which has been drawn after rolling to ensure good dimensional accuracy and provide a bright finish . Drawing is generally, but not exclusively, a cold working technique as it is usually conducted at room temperature. See also deep drawing. Drawn and wall ironed (D&WI) This is a precise and high speed process for manufacturing cans from either tinplate or aluminium sheet, and is mostly used for producing beverage cans. The sequence starts by stamping shallow cups from the incoming sheet. These cups, supported internally to prevent their sides collapsing, are then forced though a succession of dies, each of slightly smaller diameter than the previous one. The result is progressively thinner side walls, increased metal surface area and therefore greater depth of container. The base of the resulting cans are then given a concave profile and the open ends trimmed to ensure uniform height. After cleaning to remove all machining lubricants, cans are printed and the rims ‘necked’ (slightly reduced in diameter) and made ready to receive their tops after filling by the customer. Drawn-over-mandrel tube This usually refers to a finishing stage for welded steel tube to achieve good dimensional accuracy and concentricity; uniformity of wall thickness, diameter and mechanical properties; good hardness ; high yield and tensile strengths; provide a high standard of surface finish; and ensure weld integrity. The resulting tube requires minimal further processing prior to use. The welded tube is first drawn through a die and then over a mandrel*. A range of finished tube sizes may be made by this route, and several dies and mandrels may be involved to achieve the final tube size. Drawn-over-mandrel (DOM) is frequently used in the high volume production of tube for demanding mechanical applications such as in hydraulic systems. *Solid bar whose diameter is close to the tube ’s desired inside diameter. Drill pipe Dry metric tonne unit This is the internationally accepted unit of measure for iron ore pricing . A dry metric tonne unit (dmtu) is 1% of iron (Fe) contained in a tonne of ore , excluding moisture. The price per tonne of a consignment of iron ore is calculated by multiplying the cents/dmtu price by the percent Fe content of the ore in that shipment. For example, a 67% Fe content iron ore will priced at the contracted dmtu price multiplied by 67, a 55% Fe content ore at the dmtu price multiplied by 55, etc. Iron ore contract prices are quoted in US$ cents. Dual phase steel These steels are so named because their microstructure contains two phases, typically combinations of ferritic and martensitic phases, or austenitic and ferritic phases. These are high strength steels, which usually have a ferritic/martensitic microstructure in the case of carbon steels, and an austenitic/ferritic structure in the case of stainless steels. A ferritic steel ’s structure is low in carbon and relatively soft, an austenitic steel is soft and ductile but capable of a higher carbon content than ferrite, while a martensitic structure is very strong and hard. Dual-phase carbon steels are a class of high- strength low-alloy steels which are particularly attractive in applications such as the automotive industry because of their combination of high strength , good forming properties and excellent energy absorption characteristics. Dual-phase stainless steels are well suited to very demanding operating environments because of their excellent corrosion resistance. Ductility See anti-dumping . Duplex stainless This steel combines the properties of austenitic and ferritic stainless, the two most widely used grades. With its approximately 50% austenite and 50% ferrite microstructure, duplex stainless is characterised by high strength and corrosion resistance, along with greater hardness and ductility than ferritic grades and similar ductility , though less toughness , than austenitic stainless. First produced in Sweden around 1930, Duplex steel achieved more enhanced properties 50 years later when improvements in refining technology allowed the introduction of nitrogen alloying. The composition of the main alloys is chrome 18-26%, nickel 4-6.5%, and molybdenum 0-3%. Duplex stainless is often specified for oil/gas applications, process plants like pulp, paper and desalination, and for heat exchangers. Dutch profiles E ECCS Electrolytic chromium / chromium oxide coated steel , is cold rolled coil with a thin coating of metallic chromium (next to the substrate ) and chromium hydroxide surface layer. Electric arc furnace (EAF) Electric arc furnaces produce steel directly from scrap . This can be supplemented by other inputs like direct reduced iron and pig iron . They account for about one third of global steel output. Basic oxygen furnace ( converter ) steelmaking accounts for the rest.     The EAF is a refractory-lined vessel with a retractable cover through which large graphite electrodes are lowered once the scrap has been charged and the furnace top closed. EAFs are usually of 60-150t capacity per melt, but occasionally larger. However, they are usually much smaller than BOFs.     Melting occurs due to the energy released by arcing between electrode and scrap . There are normally three electrodes, but only one with direct current furnaces.     Much effort has been directed at minimising the time from scrap charging to steel pouring ( tap-to-tap time ). It is now standard practice to transfer steel to a separate furnace for alloying modifications ( secondary metallurgy ) to free-up the EAF for the next charge . Scrap pre-heating and oxygen injection also raise productivity and reduce energy use. Electrical Steels  The hallmark of these sheet steels is their good magnetic properties. They concentrate magnetic fields and are easily magnetised and demagnetised.    Electrical steels have a low carbon content but can contain up to around 3% Si – hence the alternative name silicon steel – and come in two forms: grain-oriented (GO) and non-grain-oriented (NGO).    GO sheet has its internal structure aligned in one direction during cold rolling and annealing to give very good electrical properties in one direction. NGO sheet has a random internal structure and uniform magnetic properties in any direction.    GO applications are principally in transformers for stepping-down voltage – such as from power station to consumer. NGO sheet is used in rotating electrical equipment like motors and alternators – from massive rolling mill motors to computer disc drives. Electro-galvanized See galvanized. Emissions Reduction Units (ERU) Emissions Reduction Units are carbon credits, each with a value of one tonne of greenhouse gas emissions, which are granted to projects in the Joint Implementation (JI) scheme (see separate entry). Like Certified Emissions Reductions they can be used under the European Emissions Trading System (ETS), but only to account for a certain percentage of a plant’s emissions. Emissions trading scheme (ETS) An emissions trading scheme (or system) is a way to price carbon emissions and thus encourage investment in greenhouse gas emission reductions. It also indirectly serves to make steelmaking more efficient. At the end of a year plants must relinquish carbon credits equal to the value of the emissions they produce. For example, a plant that emits 1m tonnes of greenhouse gases in a year will have to hand over 1m carbon credits at the end of that year. In the European emissions trading system, the only fully functioning international scheme, most plants currently receive their carbon credits for free from national governments. They therefore only have to buy additional credits when their emissions exceed expectations. However, this should change slowly from 2013 when phase III (2013-2020) of the programme begins. The number of free allocations is expected to decrease, forcing plants to buy an ever greater number of credits on the market or cut their emissions. Energy optimising furnace (EOF) The energy optimising furnace (EOF) burns coal, enhanced by oxygen injection, to generate the thermal energy needed to preheat and then melt a mixture of scrap and pig iron , or other steelmaking raw materials, in an enclosed hearth. It is a vertical process with the hearth at the base, and chambers above in which scrap etc is preheated by off-gases before descending into the melting zone. Steel is tapped off at the bottom of the vessel. The technology was pioneered in Brazil, but most working examples are in India, and commercial units are typically in the 500,000-600,000 tonnes/year range. The EOF is recognised as a way of producing good quality steel with relatively low investment and operating costs, and is ideal where power networks cannot support the heavy electrical loads imposed by electric arc furnace (EAF) steelmaking. However, the EOF may be more environmentally damaging than the EAF. Engineering steels See SBQ ERW pipe Both electric resistance welded (ERW) and submerged arc welded (SAW) tube or pipe is mostly produced by first forming steel sheet or plate into a cylinder and then welding the longitudinal gap to form a seam. With ERW the seam is progressively welded using a combination of heat and pressure. Resistance to electric current generates heat in the weld locality, taking the temperature of the steel to just below its melting point. Simultaneously, mill rolls located around the pipe force the two edges of the formed sheet/ plate together to join them. ERW is generally used for smaller diameter tube / pipe with relatively low wall thicknesses. See also SAW pipe . European Union Allowances (EUA) European Union Allowances are carbon credits, each with a value of one tonne of CO2 emissions, and are the main kind of credit in Europe’s Emissions Trading System (see emissions trading scheme entry). Currently, in phase II (2008-2012) of the programme, most EUAs are allocated by national governments to polluting plants. Plants with more EUAs than they need can sell them on carbon markets, while plants which emit more gases than they have allocations for have to buy EUAs to cover the shortfall. In phase III (2013-2020) of the ETS free allocations of EUAs will be slowly reduced, forcing facilities to cut emissions or buy more credits to cover their emissions. Ex-works The ex-works price of a consignment is the price at the plant/works gate. No transport included, as distinct from CFR , C&F, CIF etc. Exchange traded option This is a contract which gives the holder the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell a stipulated quantity of a specified asset at a predetermined price (strike price) on a regulated exchange on or before a set future date. Exchange traded options can either be “call” options or “put” options, the former conferring a right to buy, the latter the right to sell. These options have the attraction of standardised contracts – unlike over-the-counter options whose terms can be customised – liquidity , price visibility and the use of a clearing house, which ensures the contract is fulfilled. Extrusion Extrusion is method of producing lengths of steel to a particular profile by forcing the metal though a die cut to the cross-sectional shape required. The result is a profile with good dimensional tolerances (near net shape), though not as dimensionally accurate as a machined part. The method is used to produce a wide range of shapes, from rounds, squares, “L” shapes, “T” shapes and tube , though to complex sections that can be difficult to make by any other method. The latter are often specific to a particular application, and a stock of ready-made dies will be held by an extrusion works ready for when these sections are needed. The starting material for an extrusion press is usually a pre-heated round billet and, depending on steel type, sections up to a size that will fit within a 250mm diameter circle would be typical of what an extruder can produce. The method is also widely used for non- ferrous metals, particularly aluminium, as well as plastics. F Feasibility study (bankable feasibility study) A detailed study looking at the technical, economic, social and legal viability of a mining project. Risks are identified and quantified. Provides enough information to decide whether or not the project should go ahead. A bankable feasibility study is the basis on which lenders provide the necessary capital for a project.   See stainless steel . Ferro-Alloys These are the condiments of steelmaking. They are alloys of iron with other key elements, which, when added to the steel , melt determine whether the metal will have the properties which make it suitable for use as paper clips, a car body, an aircraft undercarriage, a beam in a high-rise building, etc. Three ferro-alloys account for most demand: ferro- manganese , the most widely used, confers strength and hardness , as well as desulphurising and deoxidising the steel ; ferro- silicon is a deoxidiser that improves steel strength , heat resistance and magnetic/electrical properties; and ferro-chrome, which is essential for making stainless steel , but is also used in other alloy steels to give hardness and impact resistance. Ferro-nickel This is an alloy of nickel and iron which provides a convenient way of adding nickel units during the production of stainless steel , other nickel containing steels, and foundry alloys.   Ferro- nickel typically contains 20-38% nickel with most of the balance as iron, plus traces of other elements which can include carbon, phosphorus, cobalt, copper and silicon .   Although ferro- nickel is mostly used in producing austenitic and duplex grades of stainless, it can also be present in small quantities in ferritic and martensitic grades.   This ferro-alloy is typically produced in convenient sizes and forms – such as small ingots, pellets and cones - for ease of charging to the stainless steel melting/ refining process. A steelworks' end products - such as bar, plate , beams , coil. Flat products Plate , strip and sheet, including strip /sheet coated with zinc, tin or other materials. Flotation A liquid concentration process in which the desirable mineral particles attach themselves to bubbles and float away from the waste particles. Flux Limestone or other slag -forming material charged to a furnace to remove impurities from the iron or steel . FOB, FOT A sales contract negotiated on a free on board (FOB) basis means the seller pays for the goods and the cost of transporting them to the port of shipment and loading them. The buyer pays for shipping, unloading, and transportation to the final destination, as well as insurance. Risk passes to the buyer as goods cross the ship’s rail. Free on truck (FOT) places similar conditions on the supplier, but at his premises, when goods are to be transported to the customer by road. Forging This is a way of producing individual metal parts by mechanical impact. It is suitable for working a wide range of steels, and can done with the metal cold, warm or hot. Forging differs from casting in that the metal changes shape while in a solid rather than molten state. Forgings are used principally where strength and in-service integrity are key requirements. They are stronger than cast or machined parts because the mechanical deformation allows the grain structure of the metal to closely follow the part’s finished shape. Cold forging tends to be for smaller parts, and offers precise dimensions and high productivity. With warm forging the ductility of the metal is increased, so reducing tool loadings. Hot forging, which is performed at the metal’s recrystallisation temperature, allows deformation of larger workpieces. Examples would include shafts for power station turbines or jumbo jet main undercarriage components. There are a number of forms of forging which involve containing the metal workpiece to a greater or lesser degree. The starting material may be steel bar, billet or ingot, and this is often sourced externally from steelmakers. Formability This describes the ability of steel to undergo deformation into a new shape without losing its structural integrity, and to retain the new shape without partly or fully springing back to its original profile , or curling at the edges into an unwanted shape. Formable steels will have good ductility (ability to change shape without failure). It is because of its strength and good formability, along with its relatively low cost and ease of joining, that steel finds such a wide range of applications. Free-cutting steel Also known as free-machining steel , this has very good cutting properties during mechanical machining operations like drilling, turning and milling. It is used for making engineering components and is most commonly supplied to the machinist as hot rolled, cold drawn, turned or precision ground bar. These are typically round, square or hexagonal. Good free-cutting steels will allow fast material feed rates and high cutting/drilling speeds (for maximum productivity), low cutting forces (for long tool life), and generate swarf ( steel offcuts) that is easy to clear away from the machining area. A key feature of these steels is that they allow good dimensional tolerances and a good surface finish to be achieved. The key element in making these steels so machineable is lead, and to some extent sulphur. Apart from carbon, the other main constituents are manganese , phosphorus and silicon . Adding tellurium enhances machining rates. (See also, leaded steel .) Full Hard Full Hard is a category of temper that applies to cold-reduced flat-rolled carbon and stainless steels. During cold reduction from hot rolled coil the characteristics of the steel change and it becomes work hardened. This full-hard steel is often supplied without any subsequent annealing to soften its structure, although the mill or customer may pass the coil through a tension-leveller to improve flatness. Full-hard steel , with its minimal ductility and formability , has limited direct use, and is really for flat working applications and those involving minimal bending and forming, with generous radii. It is resistant to impact. However, much full-hard coil is subsequently hot-dip coated with zinc or tin, or is pre-painted. The heat involved in these operations tempers the steel , increasing its ductility and widening its applications. Half-hard sheet is more formable, and can be bent up to 90 degrees around a radius equal to the sheet thickness. Full recourse financing See non-recourse financing . Futures contract In commodities a futures contract is an agreement between two parties to buy or sell a specified amount of a commodity, on an agreed future date, at a price that is set at the time that the contract is agreed. Futures contracts are traded on a futures exchange, such as the London Metal Exchange , and are sometimes referred to as exchange traded derivatives. It is possible to have contract settlement dates in excess of two years forward. A common variation on a futures contract is an options contract. This gives the buyer, or holder of the contract the right, but not the obligation to exercise the futures contract. G Galvanizing This is the application of a thin layer of zinc or zinc-aluminium alloy to steel to provide corrosion resistance. The two principal coating methods are continuous galvanizing and batch (or general) galvanizing. Continuous galvanizing is used to coat flat-rolled steel (mostly cold reduced, but some hot rolled), and also wire and tube . Zinc is applied either by hot-dip coating (the steel passes through a pot of molten zinc) or electrolytic coating (deposition takes place in a series of electrolytic cells). Hot dip is the most common method as it is cheaper. The key stages on a continuous hot-dip line for strip are pre-cleaning, heating, coating, air-knife (to control coating thickness), cooling and re-coiling. An electrolytic line has no heating or cooling stages. Continuous lines operate with an endless steel strip created by welding the end of one coil to the start of the next. This highly productive coating process can typically throughput 200,000-500,000 tonnes/year of coil. Batch galvanizing is the coating of individual finished items or components (typically street furniture) by dipping them in a large bath of molten zinc. Galvannealed sheet A hot-dip galvanised sheet which after the zinc coating stage on a continuous galvanising line passes through a further furnace. This re-heating enables iron in the carbon steel strip to migrate into the zinc layer to form a zinc-iron alloy. Galvannealed strip has a dull grey appearance without the characteristic spangle of hot-dip, and is both easier to weld and smoother than a conventional zinc finish. These characteristics make it popular with car manufacturers. Gangue The worthless minerals extracted when mining an ore deposit. Gauge See reversing mill. Global Depository Receipts These are certificates issued by an international bank in more than one country denoting ownership of foreign-based shares, and they can be traded in various capital markets around the world. Global depository receipts facilitate the trading of shares. They are frequently used by companies in emerging markets seeking to raise funds by listing for the first time on a major foreign stock exchange. Very similar in concept and use are American depositary receipts. In the steel industry, global depository receipts have featured in moves by Russian mills such as Evrazholding, Severstal and Novolipetsk to list on the London or other overseas stockmarkets. Global Warming What is...global warming? Global warming is a term used to describe the increase in the Earth’s temperature due to man-made and other emissions of “greenhouse gases” over the last 300 years or so. Greenhouse gases are released mainly by burning fossil fuels, like coal, oil and natural gas; they include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). Steelmaking produces large quantities of CO2. The so-called “greenhouse effect”, whereby the Earth’s atmosphere traps the sun’s energy, is exacerbated by the release of greenhouse gases because they act like the glass in a greenhouse – letting sunlight in, but preventing its heat from escaping.   The metal content of an ore measured in grams per tonne or as a percentage. Green pipe This steel pipe or tube is generally produced to J-55, and is thus suitable for OCTG duties. However, it comes with a slightly altered chemistry, generally higher carbon and manganese , which allows it to be upgraded to N-80, L-80 or even P-110, via heat treatment like quenching and tempering . Greenfield This describes the construction of anything from a manufacturing or distribution facility to a retail or housing development on previously undeveloped land. It may be agricultural land, an urban open space, or just open country.   Gross tonnes (gt) Gross tonnes (gt) are a measure of the total internal volume of a ship. One important application is in setting crewing levels. See also deadweight tonnes, lightweight tonnes and compensated gross tonnes. See DRI. Heat treatment This involves the heating and then cooling of metal, and is used to alter steel ’s internal structure, and therefore its properties, without changing its shape and size. Although often associated with increasing the strength of steel , it can improve formability , restore ductility or make the steel softer. Heat treatment techniques include annealing , carburising and quenching . Heavy sections Beams and columns used to build large structures such as multi-storey buildings and bridges. Hematite or Haematite An iron oxide mineral (Fe2O3) widely used in the production of pig iron in a blast furnace. It is generally cheaper and easier to beneficiate than magnetite (Fe3O4), and also requires a lot less energy to crush and grind. However, it can contain impurities. (see also iron ore ) High speed steel High speed steel (HSS) is so called because of its ability when used for cutting tools to cut faster than those made of high carbon tool steels . Key properties include high working hardness , wear resistance and toughness , good compressive strength and an ability to perform at temperatures up to 5000C without losing hardness This performance is achieved through the addition of several alloying elements such as chromium , tungsten, molybdenum , vanadium or cobalt, as well as through appropriate high temperature heat treatment . Carbon content is usually below 1%. The main use of high-speed steels is for the manufacture of cutting tools such as drills, milling cutters, gear cutters, saw blades etc. HSS can be coated – typically with titanium nitride – to increase a tool's hardness and lubrication. High strength, low alloy (HLSA) High strength low alloy is a term applied to flat rolled steels which, through the addition of small amounts of various specialised alloying elements, exhibit good strength with excellent formability . Corrosion resistance can also be enhanced. Typically these steels have moderately low carbon content (0.05-0.1%) and use one or more of the alloying elements niobium (columbium), titanium and vanadium at around the 0.01-0.05% level, hence their alternative name microalloyed steels. HSLA steels have found widespread use in applications such as the automotive industry, where good formability is needed during body panel production, but strength is required for the in-service conditions encountered by vehicles. Hire Rolling See Corex . HMS 1 & HMS 2 HMS stands for heavy melting scrap , and 1 & 2 are the two grades within that definition. They are widely traded, particularly in the western hemisphere. Both HMS 1 & 2 comprise obsolete scrap only. That is iron and steel recovered from items demolished or dismantled at the end of their life. Because both grades guarantee a minimum piece thickness – at least 1/4inch (6.3mm) for HMS 1, and 1/8in for HMS 2 – consignments have a high density. Both also have defined maximum dimensions (usually 60in x 24in), and should be prepared to facilitate handling and charging to a furnace. This density, sizing and preparation makes for efficient furnace operation by minimising the time to charge enough scrap for a full melt. In contrast, thin mixed scrap greatly increases charging time, cutting furnace productivity. Variations on maximum piece size are covered by ISRI (North America’s Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries) codes. HMS is usually traded as a blend of 1 & 2, either a premium blend (80:20) or lower grade mixes (70:30) and (60:40). Other major heavy scrap grades include Japan’s H2 and A3 from the CIS. Home scrap See hot rolled coil. Hot end Both hot end and cold end are terms used in connection with steelworks which are integrated from iron/steelmaking through to rolling and coating. Hot end refers to stages in which metal is either molten, or is solid but can only be worked at elevated temperatures. So it includes the blast furnace and converter ( iron ore based steelworks), and electric arc furnace ( scrap based steelmaking), along with any secondary metallurgy stages, casting and hot rolling. Cold end is a term for production stages performed with the metal at ambient temperature, which for flat products mostly includes cold rolling and coiling/decoiling, along with operations like surface treatment and coating, where the metal may be undergo temporary reheating heating – as in hot dip galvanizing , tinning or painting. Long products are generally hot rolled to their final shape, so ‘ cold end ’ includes further processing like wire drawing , mechanically applying a bright finish to stainless steel , and despatch operations like bundling. Hot idling This is a procedure for temporarily maintaining a furnace on standby without producing any iron. The main chamber is kept fully charged with coke (but not with limestone and iron ore , the two other bulk ingredients for iron making), and the amount of air entering the furnace is significantly reduced, slowing combustion while maintaining the refractory lining at temperatures that prevent deterioration. The term “ banking ” is also used for this procedure. Blast furnaces are not usually hot idled for more than a few weeks unless all the iron is completely drained from the furnace, and they can be returned to full iron making capacity within a matter of days. Normally blast furnaces can be operated continuously for up to about 15 years between major maintenance work, a period known as a “ campaign ”. Hot rolled coil (HRC) The most common form of flat steel product. Rolled on a hot strip mill , it is typically 2-25mm thick and up to 2,250mm wide. Hot strip mill See galvanizing . Hydroforming This is a way of producing fully formed steel parts by using internal hydraulic pressure within a tubular blank to achieve the desired final shape. Its attractions are that complex parts, often requiring quite significant deformation, can be produced simply from a single piece of steel , rather than from multiple pieces which then have to be welded together. Also, production from a single workpiece means the required mechanical performance can be achieved with thinner steel . The most common applications are in the automotive sector where hydroforming is used to shape tubular parts into important structural components like engine support cradles, suspension parts, impact beams and some bodywork items. Production involves placing the tubular steel feedstock into a die and then subjecting it to internal pressure to force the steel into the shape of the die that encloses it. Several steelmakers are involved in hydroforming as part of their bid to get closer to their automotive customers. Some produce the tubular blanks used to form specific parts, while others are actually producing finished components. See wide flange beams . Idling Idling is a temporary cessation of production with the inactive plant maintained in good order in readiness for a quick restart. It is distinct from planned maintenance shutdowns. See also mothballing and shuttering . Incoterms International commercial terms (Incoterms) are standard trading definitions which are widely used in commercial transactions to clearly apportion costs, responsibilities and risks between buyer and seller. They were devised by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), and first appeared in 1936. In international trade, language differences can very easily lead to misunderstandings in contract terms, in conditions and in definitions, hence the need for clearly defined commercial terms which mean the same to everyone wherever they operate. Included in the Incoterms vocabulary are terms like FOB (free on board) and CFR (cost and freight) – see separate entries. The ICC says that correct use of Incoterms goes a long way towards providing the legal certainty upon which mutual confidence between business partners must be based. The latest edition is “Incoterms 2000", published on 1 January 2000. Induction Furnace Unlike the electric arc furnace (EAF) which provides heat energy via electrodes submerged within the furnace charge , induction furnaces heat the charge indirectly. An alternating electrical current is passed through a coil surrounding the refractory-lined furnace vessel. This creates magnetic fields which cause electrical currents (eddy currents) in the iron/ steel scrap charge , heating and melting it. Once the charge is in a molten state the eddy currents generate a stirring action. The capital cost of the induction furnace is lower than the EAF, it uses less power per tonne melted and there are no recurring electrode costs. However there is a size constraint. They typically range from 5-100t capacity for steel melting, but most operating units are towards the lower end. This makes them smaller than most EAFs. Induction furnaces are mainly used by foundries, except in India where they also account for several million tonnes/year of mainstream steel production. Although cleaner than the cupola furnace, which is also popular with foundries, the induction furnace does require a reliable electricity supply. Indurating furnace These furnaces form a key part of one of the process routes for preparing iron ore fines for use in blast furnaces, and are specifically used when iron ore pellets are being produced. Raw or “green” pellets need to be baked to give them sufficient mechanical strength to withstand further handling during transportation and charging to a blast furnace or to a direct reduced iron furnace. In an indurating furnace, the pellets are loaded on to a travelling grate to a depth of approximately 30-60cm where they are preheated (typically to 800-9000C), before entering a higher temperature stage (around 1,200-1,3500C) which in some designs is a continuation of the travelling grate, and in others take the form of a rotary kiln. Once hardened the pellets are cooled ready for use. The other route to preparing iron ore fines is to agglomerate them by sintering with coke and limestone . Ingot casting Liquid steel cast in a mould into an unwrought mass. Now largely superseded by continuous casting . Integrated steel mill A steelworks which operates the complete cycle of production processes – taking in iron ore , coal and other raw materials, and delivering finished steel products. Interstitial-free steel This is flat-rolled steel which is completely deoxidised and with very low carbon content. It has very good deep drawing characteristics, and as such is widely used in the automotive industry for body panels and similar highly formed pressed components. The interstitial-free (IF) description relates to the fixing of dissolved nitrogen and carbon atoms in the metals structure by micro-alloying during production using titanium or niobium. The removal of these solutes improves the steel ’s formability . Optimum properties are achieved through careful control of steel chemistry during melting, and subsequent close control of casting , rolling, and annealing operations. Iron & Steel Iron is a naturally occurring element which was first smelted from its ore into a tough silvery/white metal about 2,400 BC. Cast iron is hard and brittle, while wrought iron is soft and malleable. Iron from a blast furnace ( pig iron ) is an alloy of iron and carbon (about 4%), along with smaller quantities of silicon , manganese , phosphorus, sulphur and other elements. Iron is a far less versatile metal than steel , which is also an alloy of iron. It is produced in a BOF and has a much reduced carbon content. Other elements, particularly manganese , are adjusted or added to achieve specific properties. There are many thousand different steel grades. Even high carbon steels contain no more than about 1.5% carbon, though some high alloy steels reach 2.5%. Carbon allows hardening of the steel via heat treatment . Iron ore This is found in commercial quantities in various parts of the world, the largest and best deposits being in Brazil and Australia. Ore can have up to around 65% ferrous (iron) content, but often it is lower and can be less than half this. Lower grades need to be concentrated (beneficiated) prior to shipment. (See also: hematite and iron ore pricing ) Iron ore pricing Internationally-traded iron ore is priced in US cents per unit of iron contained in a ton of ore . The usual measure is a dry metric tonne unit (excluding moisture content), although dry long ton units are sometimes used. A unit of iron is 1% of iron, and a typical current price is 75 cents per dry metric tonne unit (see Dry metric tonne unit ). So, at this price for ore assaying 63% iron, a tonne sells for $0.75x63 = US$47.25 (excluding freight). Iron ore types differ, so there is a wide range of prices to account for varying physical and chemical properties, including the presence of deleterious matter such as silica and sulphur. Lump ore and pelletized ore – which can be charged directly into the blast furnace – attract a premium over fine ore which needs pre-processing (usually sintering). The Steel Index provides a weekly, independent iron ore reference price. Get a free trial at www.thesteelindex.com . J Joint Implementation (JI) Joint Implementation is the mechanism under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change by which developed (Annex 1) countries can invest in emissions reduction projects in other developed countries. Each project is awarded with a number of Emission Reduction Units equal to the amount of emissions saved. Jumbo sections These are extra large H- profile structural steel sections. They are specified where there is a need for exceptional strength or load bearing capability in buildings and other structures. When used for horizontal load bearing they are referred to as jumbo beams, and as jumbo columns when applied in vertical load bearing duties. Jumbo sections are rolled from blooms or beam blanks in a beam mill, and typically have a web depth of 500mm or more. K Killed steel This is steel that has been treated with a deoxidising agent such as aluminium or silicon while molten and prior to casting . The aim is to significantly lower or totally remove the steel ’s oxygen content so that there is no gas formed during subsequent solidification. The resulting cast steel is non-porous and very homogeneous, and as either a flat or long product can undergo significant forming or drawing during subsequent processing. See secondary metallurgy . Lance In steelmaking, lances are hollow steel bars which can resist very high temperatures. They are used to introduce additional elements into the melting vessel after it has been charged with its principal raw materials (molten iron and scrap for basic oxygen steelmaking, and scrap and/or direct reduced iron and/or cold pig iron in electric arc furnaces). In both types of steelmaking a lance is principally used to inject oxygen into the melt. This is essential in BOF steelmaking to achieve the chemical conversion of iron into steel , whereas in EAFs, oxygen injection is more usually associated with generating additional energy in the melt to reduce electricity consumption. In EAFs, lances are also used to inject fossil fuels such as coal/ coke for slag control. Oxygen injection via lances is also an essential feature of several secondary metallurgy ( steel refining ) techniques. Landed price equivalent This is basically a freight cost adjustment on a delivered commodity price. In the steel industry the term came to prominence via iron ore miner BHP Billiton, which successfully argued that delivered prices for Australian ore into Asian ports should reflect buyers’ willingness also to source ore from further afield (Brazil) and pay the correspondingly higher freight element in those landed ore costs.   Laycan This is an abbreviation of ‘laydays and cancelling date’, and refers to the earliest and latest dates between which a vessel must be available to load at a specified port or be delivered to the time charterer. LD process See BOF. Leaded steel Lead is added to steel to enhance its machinability, and is a key feature of premium low-carbon free-cutting (free-machining) steels. Lead’s much lower melting point and the fact that it is insoluble in steel , means that during machining it melts and forms a lubricating layer at the point of contact between machining tool and the steel being turned, milled or drilled. This lubrication allows faster machining through higher rotational and material feed speeds, and enhances cutting tool life. The lead in the steel also helps reduce deformation stresses. Some free-machining steels contain bismuth or tellurium as a substitute for lead, but leaded steels are still regarded as the superior product. Their importance to the engineering industry is recognised by the European Union, which exempts leaded steels from its restriction of hazardous substances directive provided the lead content is no more than 0.35%. However, leaded steel swarf or turnings do require more specialised and more costly disposal. (See also, free-cutting steel .) Levelling This is usually the final stage in the preparation of cold reduced steel strip or coil prior to its delivery/use. The role of a leveller is to correct shape defects in the strip , such as edge wave and centre buckle, and make the delivered product as flat as possible. There are two principal types of levelling machine: roller levellers (or multi-roll levellers) and tension levellers. In the former, the strip is flattened by bending it up and down as it passes over and under a set of as many as 20 or so small diameter rolls. In contrast, tension levellers use a combination of bending over fewer small diameter rolls while applying significant longitudinal tension to the strip . As these two types of levelling are best suited to treating different strip defects, it is not unusual for them to be used in tandem. Light sections Small-sized structural steel sections (usually < 80-100mm). Lightweight tonnes (lwt) Lightweight tonnes (lwt) are a measure of a vessel’s actual weight with no cargo, crew, passengers or fuel (equivalent to the weight of water displaced), and are mostly used when selling a ship for scrap . See also gross tonnes, deadweight tonnes and compensated gross tonnes. Limestone Limestone is a key ingredient in blast furnace ironmaking along with iron ore and coke . While the role of iron ore is to provide the metallic input and coke the process heat and reducing gases while also playing a structural role within the furnace, limestone is there to react with impurities introduced by the other two ingredients to form a slag which can be removed from the furnace without contaminating the iron. The heat inside the blast furnace (up to 1,800oC) converts limestone into calcium oxide and CO2 gas. Calcium oxide readily reacts with impurities like silica, sulphur, alumina and magnesia to form a slag . This percolates down through the furnace to settle on top of the liquid iron where it can be tapped off. The limestone used for ironmaking may be pure calcium limestone or dolomite (containing some magnesia), or a blend of the two. It is crushed and screened to approximately 10-35mm and charged to the furnace at a rate of approximately 250kg/tonne of liquid iron. Depending on its composition blast furnace slag can be used in road construction and cement production. Limited recourse financing See non-recourse financing . Linepipe This is large diameter steel pipe , typically upwards of 300 mm, which is used to transfer large volumes of crude oil, natural gas, water and other fluids. Most is of welded construction, but some is seamless. Crude oil pipelines are generally of smaller diameter, have thinner walls and use steel of lower grade than natural gas lines. This is due to the lower density of gas and the higher operating pressures used to achieve efficient transmission. A workhorse grade of steel for oil pipelines is API X65, and diameters are typically in the range 300-800 mm, but can be higher. Overland natural gas pipelines typically use grades like API X70 and X80, and are usually of 800-1,420 mm diameter. Subsea sections can require higher grades and diameters tend to be smaller than for onshore sections , typically 800-900mm, although wall thicknesses can be higher. Liquidity In the context of metals and other commodities, a market has liquidity if there is sufficient material available for trading, and enough buyers and sellers interested in trading, for individual lots to be bought and sold quickly and without individually causing a significant movement in the price of the commodity. The greater the number of active buyers and sellers, the more liquid the market. London Metal Exchange The London Metal Exchange (LME) offers futures and options contracts for non- ferrous metals, steel and plastics. It was established in London over 130 years ago, and until recently only traded in non- ferrous metals. The exchange provides a transparent forum for establishing prices on the day of trading (cash) and for hedging prices months and even years forward. With its longer established contracts – like copper, aluminium, nickel , lead, zinc and tin – LME prices are used as a reference worldwide. Its steel billet contracts were launched in 2008. Being a principal-to-principal market, only member firms are able to trade. They provide the physical industry with access to the market, to the risk management tools and to the delivery mechanism. Trading takes place via open-outcry trading on the floor of the exchange, through an inter-office telephone market and through the LME’s electronic trading platform. LME approved warehouses around the world provide a point of delivery of last resort or source of metal in extremes of market supply and demand. Long products Steel products other than flat products . Includes bar, rod , beams and rail. Lump ore This is one of the three forms in which iron ore is purchased by integrated steel mills (the other two being fines and pellets). It is generally in the size range 10-40mm and commands a price premium over fines (which need to be sintered into a lumpy charge for use in the blast furnace), but lump ore is cheaper than pellets. M Magnetite This iron oxide is one of the two principal types of iron ore used in iron making (the other is haematite/hematite). Most of the very large reserves of this ore occur in banded iron formations, much of which can be surface mined. But magnetite (Fe3O4) also occurs as black beach sands, of which those found in New Zealand are typical. Malleability A steel which is malleable can be deformed by compressive forces without cracking or rupturing during its working into a new shape by rolling, forging , hammering etc. Forging steels should be able to tolerate sudden impacts without rupture, while steels which are tolerant of more gradual compressive changes can successfully be rolled into thinner gauges or smaller diameters. Malleability, or the lack of it, is one of the key properties used in describing the physical characteristics of a metal. The others include toughness , hardness , ductility and strength . Manganese This is the most widely used alloying addition in steelmaking, and is present in virtually every grade of steel . Manganese (Mn) has three key benefits. It combines with sulphur in the melt to improve the hot working properties of the resulting steel , it acts as a deoxidant, and it makes an important contribution to the final toughness and hardness of the steel . It is mostly added as ferro-manganese (FeMn), but can be added as silico-manganese (SiMn) depending on the final steel grade required. FeMn is produced from manganese ore or concentrate mostly in electric arc furnaces, and is generally categorised as high, medium or low carbon material. In commercially traded grades the Mn content is often in the range 75-80%, though it can be 65-82%. Carbon content is usually in the range 1.5-7.5%. Manganese can also be added to the melt in the form of spiegeleisen – pig iron with a high manganese content. Martensitic steel Medium-size structural steel sections (usually 100-400mm). Meltshop This is a commonly used term which describes the part of a steelworks which is involved in melting, refining and casting steel . It is particularly associated with electric arc furnace based steelworks, where the production of steel from scrap and other metallics, its subsequent refining and then its casting usually all take place under one roof. The key equipment embraced by this term are the electric arc furnace, the ladle furnace (for refining the liquid steel ), and the continuous casting machine (for producing long or flat semi-finished products for rolling). Meltshop is a less appropriate description for the liquid metal activities of an integrated steelworks, where molten iron is produced in a blast furnace, sent to a converter shop elsewhere on site (to be converted into steel ), and then transferred to a continuous caster. Merchant Bar Merchant bar is a range of commodity carbon steel long products widely used in the manufacture and fabrication of a broad range of items. It includes round, square and hexagonal bars , angles, channels and flats. Maximum diameter or width is usually 80-100mm, although flats up to 150mm wide are included. These are a staple item for many steel stockholders, large or small. Merchant pig iron Most pig iron is produced in blast furnaces for subsequent steelmaking at integrated steelworks, and is transferred as molten iron from BF to nearby oxygen converters. But a much smaller tonnage is produced for sale as a steelmaking or foundry raw material. This merchant pig iron is mostly made in coke or charcoal fuelled BFs and sold as ingot. Electric arc furnace (EAF) steelmaking, rather than foundry castings, is the main application. Some integrated steel mills also sell surplus pig iron . Total global merchant trade is around 25m tonnes/year, with some 17m t/y internationally traded, according to International Pig Iron Association data. The figures exclude China, which has a very large, but difficult to quantify, domestic market, and is an occasional exporter. Pig iron is a supplement to ferrous scrap in the EAF, and may be used instead of, or in addition to direct reduced iron or hot briquetted iron in order to make higher grades of steel that may not be achievable using only scrap . Mesh Steel rods or bars welded into an open lattice for reinforcing flat concrete structures. Metallurgical coal See coking coal . Mill scale Mill scale forms on the surface of steel when oxygen reacts with very hot metal to form iron oxides. This occurs immediately after casting , and during reheating and hot rolling. The scale, which can range in size from a few microns to several centimetres across, has to be removed, otherwise it will damage the surface finish of the steel during any subsequent rolling. High pressure water jets are used to blast away the scale, and on a hot strip mill this occurs as the steel passes down the run-out table from the roughing mill . Some mills, particularly plate mills, also offer customers the option of having any residual mill scale removed by shot blasting. In integrated steel mills this iron-rich scale can be recycled by returning it to the sinter plant. However, contamination of the scale with oils and hydraulic fluids during its collection can restrict reuse for technical and environmental reasons. Mill stand See reversing mills. Mineral resources and reserves A resource is an occurrence of minerals that is believed to have the potential to be technically and economically extracted. The degree of confidence that is held in the estimated quantity, quality and mineability of the minerals is reflected in the different categories assigned to resources – namely ‘inferred’ (the least certain), ‘indicated and ‘measured’ (the clearest indication of expected grade and tonnage). A mineral reserve is part of a resource that more detailed geological and metallurgical evaluation has shown to be economically mineable. The degree of certainty in this evaluation is given by the categorisation of reserves as either ‘probable’ or ‘proven’. Mini Mills  Although this term is becoming less widely used, it refers to scrap -based steelworks, usually producing mainstream/commodity products, which are mainly sold into local/regional markets. Mini-mills first flourished in northern Italy and the USA from the mid-1960s as basic, privately owned, non-unionised, entrepreneurial operations producing long products . They capitalised on the increased volumes of scrap that were becoming available as open hearth steelmaking gave way to BOFs, a low cost base and their proximity to local markets. Minis have grown in scope, scale and geographical presence, often dominating long products supply in the regions where they operate. They have become increasing active in making more demanding grades/shapes/sizes of longs, and moved into flat products , including galvanized and plate The most stunning example of mini-mill evolution is Nucor, which is now one of the largest producers of steel in the USA. Molybdenum In steelmaking this high melting point metal is used as an alloying element in engineering and stainless steels. It improves corrosion resistance and hardenability, enables steel to perform at elevated temperatures – and confers higher strength at these temperatures – and improves weldability. In stainless steels the highest content is about 6%, but the most widely used moly-containing grade of stainless (austenitic 316 / 1.4401) has 2.5-3% Mo. In other alloy steels the moly content is usually below 1%, but there can be as much as 9-10% in high speed steels. Molybdenum containing steels are used to meet demanding in-service duties in a wide range of applications – from mining and power generation, to the automotive, aerospace, process and oil/gas sectors. Mothballing This is the long term closure of a facility, but with it decommissioned and subsequently maintained in such a way that it can be brought back into service if required – although this would take longer than if the plant were idled. See scrap . Nickel This silvery-white metal with a high melting point (1,454oC) has corrosion resistant properties and is workable, despite being hard with good strength and toughness . Nickel is an important constituent of stainless steel , and increases the tensile strength of carbon steel . It is also essential to some other alloys capable of operating at very high temperatures and/or in very aggressive environments. Electro-plating, portable batteries and coinage are other applications. Canada, Russia and the Pacific rim, particularly New Caledonia, are the major producers. Stainless steel accounts for 60-65% of global consumption (~1.2m t/y), and collectively, metallurgical applications take over 90% of nickel demand. In stainless steel , nickel is most associated with austenitic grades (typically 4-22% Ni). It is sometimes present in ferritic and martensitic grades, but at low concentrations. In duplex grades the Ni content can be up to about 7%. The LME is the basis of nickel pricing (as refined cathode, 99.8% Ni). The metal can be added to the stainless steel making process as cathode, cut cathode, ferro-nickel (~30-35% Ni) or nickel pig iron . Stainless scrap is also an important source. Nickel pig iron This is a low purity ferro-nickel which is produced and used exclusively in China as an alternative to primary nickel or conventional ferro-nickel in the stainless steel industry. Much of it goes into the production of the low- nickel , high- manganese content 200 series stainless. Small blast furnaces, and increasingly electric arc furnaces (EAFs), smelt low grade lateritic (oxide) nickel ores imported from Southeast Asia, to make a product with a nickel content ranging from as low as 1.5% to up to 25% or more. Conventional FeNi typically contains around 40% Ni. The higher grade nickel pig iron mostly comes from EAF producers. Production economics are highly dependent on world primary nickel prices, as well as on coke and electricity costs. Other constituents in nickel pig iron are small amounts of chromium , sulphur and silica, and unwelcome levels of phosphorus and carbon – which need to be lowered. Iron accounts for the balance, and can add significantly to the value of the product, as can chromium , depending on their prevailing market prices. Non-prime This term embraces a range of material, but mostly it is steel which is unsuitable for its originally intended application – either because of its metallurgy or physical condition – or is in excess of the tonnage required to fulfil a particular contract ( over-rolled ). Much non-prime is the result of defects created during steelmaking and downstream processing – and as a result this steel does not have the mill certification associated with prime material. Additionally, a mill may deliver what it believes to be prime steel only to have it rejected on arrival – so called ‘field rejects’ – usually because of visible defects caused by improper handling or incorrect presentation. Also, some steel comes on to the market because it is surplus to a specific project or production run, or is simply the result of a purchasing error. Non-recourse financing This is financing where the lender is only entitled to repayment from the revenue or profits of the project/activity that the loan is funding, and not from any other assets of the borrower. This is in contrast to full-recourse financing, where the borrower fully guarantees the debt, and repayment is not in any way conditional on revenue from the activity being funded. Between the two, and with similarities to non-recourse financing, is limited-recourse financing. Here the majority of loan repayment comes from project/activity revenue, but the lender also seeks other assurances of repayment from sponsors, contractors, raw materials suppliers, governments etc, as well as guarantees of cash flow – such as by a project securing advance sales contracts. A common option in regions where financial risks are higher. Normalising This is a process similar to annealing , where metal is heated to a high temperature and held at this temperature for several hours to improve grain structure. But unlike with annealing , where the metal is cooled slowly in the furnace, it is cooled more swiftly by removing it from the furnace to cool in air. This makes the metal stronger and harder than it would be after annealing , and because of this the normalising process is often employed to treat steel plate used for pressure vessel fabrication. Steel casting , forging and rolling are both processes that might produce grain structures in the metal that require normalising before it is used or further processed. See scrap . OCTG This is shorthand for Oil Country Tubular Goods, a category of steel tube used in oil and gas drilling and extraction. Much of it is seamless, but welded tube is also very prominent. OCTG comes in three forms, drill pipe , casing and oil well tubing . It does not include pipe for conveying oil/gas from the point of production to the refinery or customer; this is linepipe . Drill pipe connects the drill bit with the drilling motor during well drilling and is usually about 2-6.5in (50-165mm) outside dia. Drilling mud is pumped down the pipe to cool the drill bit, while drilled material travels up it to the surface. The very demanding operational conditions mean drill pipe is always seamless. Casing acts as the liner and structural wall of oil/gas wells, preventing contamination of the well and of the surrounding water table, and can be up to 26in dia. Casing accounts for about three quarters of all OCTG shipments. The third type is oil well tubing . This is used to bring oil/gas out of a well and is usually around 2-4.5in dia. Oil well tubing See OCTG . Open hearth steelmaking Open hearth steelmaking has largely been superseded by basic oxygen, and in some instances by electric arc furnaces (BOFs and EAFs), and today accounts for less than 3% of world crude steel output. Where plants still exist – notably in Russia and Ukraine, but also India – they are mostly being phased out. When introduced in the mid-19th century, open hearth (OH) steelmaking offered the potential to make higher quality steels than existing processes (mostly the Bessemer converter ). The process could also accept a high proportion of ferrous scrap at a time when this was becoming plentiful in newly industrialising countries. Steelmaking takes place in a shallow bath – typically of about 500 tonnes capacity – within a refractory-lined chamber. Heat energy is usually supplied by the combustion of preheated gas and air above the bath surface. The charge of cold and/or molten pig iron and scrap can be supplemented with iron ore and limestone . It takes several hours to produce each batch of steel , so OH steelmaking is far less efficient that the BOF (and EAF) routes. It is also both more labour intensive and more polluting. Open outcry This is a style of trading which is used in several commodity and futures exchanges, although electronic trading is tending to gradually erode the extent of its use. During an open outcry trading session a broker announces verbally and by hand signals his/her interest in buying or selling a commodity and gives the price and required date for delivery. Should another broker in the ring accept these terms, the price quoted becomes the latest price for the delivery date specified. Trading in ‘the ring’ at the London Metal Exchange is one example of an exchange using the method, and the New York Mercantile Exchange and Chicago Mercantile Exchange are two others. In most exchanges using open outcry the trading floor is call ‘the pit’. Ore A mixture of valuable minerals and gangue from which at least one of the minerals can be profitably extracted. OTC (over-the-counter) trading In the context of metals trading, OTC (over-the-counter) trading refers to an agreed forward trading position between trader and client that is not a standard contract in the sense that it is not arranged and transacted on a commodities exchange such as the London Metal Exchange . OTC contracts are established between traders or brokers and their clients over the telephone or electronically, rather than on the trading floor. A key attraction of these contracts compared to futures contracts is their flexibility. An OTC contact can be for a grade or quantity of metal mutually agreed with the broker, while exchange-listed futures have to be traded for the specifications detailed in the futures contract and can only be traded in multiples of the fixed lots sizes of the contract. OTC also allows trading of exchange listed products to continue outside of exchange opening hours. This form of transaction is also very useful for brokers and traders who are too small to meet the requirements to trade an exchange listed future, or elect not to do so. Outsell prices These are the prices at which stockholders and service centres sell steel to their customers. In normal market conditions the outsell price is higher than the price at which the steel was bought by the stockist from a mill, trader or other supplier because of the cost incurred in breaking large mill-size orders into much smaller consignments. Over-rolled See non-prime . Oxidizing atmosphere An oxidising atmosphere contains sufficient oxygen for this to combine with (oxidise) certain other elements if they are present. An everyday example is the rusting of steel , which is essentially the oxidation of the metal in the presence of moisture to form a surface layer of iron oxide. An oxidising atmosphere is key to the success of the basic oxygen steelmaking process for converting liquid pig iron into steel . Oxygen is blown through the molten iron in the BOF vessel, where it combines with and removes unwanted carbon as carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. P PCI (pulverised coal injection) This is principally a cost reducing technique in ironmaking. It involves substituting part of the normal coke charge to a blast furnace with coal that is cheaper than the hard coking variety needed for coke making. PCI also reduces environmental impact because less cokemaking capacity is required. The low-volatile coal used for PCI can typically be 20% cheaper than coking coal . Also pulverisation is less capital intensive than coke making. Coal is prepared by pulverising it into very small particles before injection into the furnace, typically at rates of 120-150kg per tonne of liquid iron production. This is about one third of the normal coke requirement of a blast furnace operating without PCI. PCI Coal The coals used by steelmakers for pulverised coal injection (PCI) into blast furnaces are broadly speaking steam coals (which are mostly used by coal-fired power stations) rather than the coking coals used to produce coke . The desirable qualities in a PCI coal relate both to its thermal performance in the furnace, and to its physical characteristics (which vary depending on the individual coal preparation, handling and injection techniques used). Coal with a low phosphorus, low sulphur and low ash content is sought, and other key qualities are a good calorific value and good combustibility. As already indicated, coking qualities are not required. High volatility coals are desirable for their ready combustibility, but high volatility is not synonymous with a high calorific value (which increases the coke replacement rate that can be achieved), so there has to be something of a compromise here. The behaviour of ash, char and any remnant coal particles in the furnace is also an important consideration when selecting coals for PCI. Peeled bar A small, round, marble-sized ball of iron ore manufactured as feed for blast furnaces (see pelletizing ). Pelletizing The process by which iron ore is crushed, ground into a powder, rolled into balls and fired in a furnace to produce strong, marble-sized pellets that contain 60% to 65% iron. Raw iron ore pellets are generally manufactured within certain size categories and with mechanical properties high enough to maintain usefulness during the stresses of transference, transport, and use. Both mechanical force and thermal processes are used to produce the correct pellet properties. Pickled & Oiled Pickling is a continuous operation that requires the decoiling and subsequent recoiling of the HRC so that it can pass through the acid-based liquid pickling process. This cleans the steel , removing surface scale, rust and dirt or grease, before rinsing and drying. Applying a surface oil film after pickling helps protect the steel from corrosion and assists further processing operations, such as press-forming, by providing lubrication to the die. Pig iron See welded and seamless tube/pipe . Plate Plate is thick, flat-rolled steel produced from slab or ingot, and is mostly sold as discrete pieces but also coiled. It is available in carbon, alloy and stainless grades. The majority of the plate produced is in the thickness range 5-80mm and overlaps with hot rolled coil at the lower gauges. Most carbon plate is quarto or discrete plate rolled on reversing mills, but a minority is produced on hot strip mills as coiled, or continuously produced plate. Quarto plate (see separate entry) can be over 5 metres wide and up to 400mm thick. Coiled plate is normally up to about 12-14mm thick and mostly less than 2 metres wide. Much plate is produced to specific customer requirements, and this greatly reduces the size of the freely traded plate market. Most commodity trade is in 8-50mm thick material, and two popular European grades are S235 and S355. Main applications include heavy machine building, various civil, industrial and offshore structural applications, wind turbine towers and off-road equipment. Ship plate spans the gap between commodity and the higher grades specified for boilers and pressure vessels, large diameter oil/gas pipe and other energy sector uses, including some offshore. Position limit A limit set by an exchange on the number of options or futures contracts one trader, or a group of traders, can hold on the same side of a commodity market. The aim is to ensure stable market conditions by preventing control and manipulation of the market by one or a small group of traders. Exchanges set position limits for contracts bearing in mind prevailing trading volumes. Powder metals These are metals that have been converted into fine powders for subsequent processing into finished parts. The powder is most typically produced by atomisation, whereby a steam of molten metal is separated into very small particles by a high pressure jet of gas or liquid, with the particles solidifying before they are collected. Electrolytic, chemical and mechanical methods are also used. Ferrous and non- ferrous powder metals are employed to make both large and small complex components with good dimensional accuracy and a homogenous structure. This is often done by compacting powder in a die before sintering (heating) at just below the metal’s melting point. Other methods include injection moulding and forging . Pre-feasibility study A preliminary assessment of the economic viability of a deposit which forms the basis for jusifying a more extensive and expensive feasibility study. Precipitation hardening This is a heat treatment technique which is used on some grades of stainless steel , as well as certain non- ferrous metals like aluminium, nickel and titanium. Its purpose is to significantly raise the strength and hardness of the metal, but the downside of using the process is a reduction in ductility . The metal being treated has to be held at elevated temperatures for longer than is the case with tempering *, and because of this extended time period – which can be several days – the process is sometimes described as age hardening . At the end of the heating period the metal is cooled using air, oil or water. Price-fix hedge This is an instrument that enables the hedger – often a miner or end user of metals – to lock in a future price for a commodity for an extended forward period, sometimes up to several years ahead. Profile Q Quarto Plate Quarto plate is hot rolled from slab . Desired thickness is achieved by passing the slab back and forth through the mill (a 4-high, hence “quarto”, reversing mill). This distinguishes it from plate rolled on a multiple stand (tandem) mill without reversing direction (continuously produced plate , CPP).    Quarto plate mills tend to be dedicated to plate rolling, and can achieve a wider, thicker product than on a tandem mill . It ranges from 5-400mm thick (though usually up to 150mm), can exceed 5,000mm wide and be as much as 35m long. A single quarto plate can weigh 35t or more.    Depending on steel grade – and the term applies to carbon, alloy and stainless – applications include shipbuilding, pressure vessels/boilers, offshore structures, large oil/gas pipe , construction/mining plant, railway stock, and engineering moulds/dies. Quenched and tempered steel This is a complex process to describe fully because it involves fundamental changes to metallurgical structure. But in outline, pre-heated steel is rapidly cooled (quenched), increasing its hardness and brittleness. It is then reheated (usually to between 400-600C) resulting in reduced brittleness but greater toughness and the desired ductility . Control of time and temperature during tempering is critical, and is specific to each grade of steel treated. Quenching and tempering is used both on flat and long products . It is, for example, applied to bar used for manufacturing fasteners like bolts, or when making wire for automotive engine valve springs. In flat products , the high strength structural and wear resistance plate achievable with this process would typically go into mining equipment. Quenching R Re-rollable scrap This is steel scrap which is in such a form and condition for it to be possible to make it suitable for another application by rolling into a saleable product, rather than it taking the normal scrap recycling route of melting, casting and rolling. Re-rolling is a production route which is more prevalent in emerging economies than in industrialised countries, and a wide range of steel sizes and shapes are traded in this sector, including plate , bar, rebar, sections and profiles, as well as specific items like steel rails and railcar axles. Demolition scrap is a principal source of re-rollable steel , but in the Indian subcontinent another major supply of such material comes from the ship breaking industry. Real consumption A steel bar, normally having surface deformations, for use in reinforcing concrete. Rectangular hollow sections Rectangular hollow sections (RHS) are tubular products rolled from steel strip . They are made by first forming the strip into a longitudinally welded tube before rolling through further mill stands to change the shape to a rectangular, rather than circular, cross-section.   Also generically known as hollow structural sections (HSS), they are often also made with a square cross-section.   Rectangular hollow sections are predominantly, though not exclusively made from carbon steels, and are usually cold formed, rather than rolled with the steel pre-heated (hot formed).   A typical size range for cold formed RHS is 50-450mm x 25-250mm, with a steel thickness of 2-15mm. Hot formed RHS can be produced with larger sections and with a greater steel thickness. RHS have a wide range of mechanical and structural applications in the engineering and construction sectors. Reducing atmosphere In a reducing atmosphere, oxidation is prevented because there is little or no oxygen, or other oxidising gases present. Hydrogen is a typical reducing atmosphere. Refining See secondary metallurgy . Refractories These are used to line and insulate the vessels involved in iron and steel making (blast furnaces, torpedo cars, basic oxygen converters, ladle furnaces, tundishes) as well as the various heating furnaces used to ensure cast steel is at the correct temperature for hot rolling. They are often made of magnesite in combination with alumina, dolomite, silica and sometimes carbon. They are mostly used as bricks, but refractory material can be applied directly to form a lining. Refractories need to be resistant to high temperatures (up to more than 1,500 degrees C) and be strong at these temperatures. Those used in hot metal production must not contaminate the melt and must be resistant to erosion by molten metal, slag and fluxes. However refractories do gradually degrade, and although minor defects can be repaired in situ, eventually a full or partial reline is needed. In the case of a blast furnace this may be every 10-15 years, but is more frequent with other equipment which can more readily be taken offline for short periods. Reheat furnace Reheat furnaces are used to ensure that partly worked steel , which has been allowed to cool, arrives at its next processing stage at the optimum temperature. They are mostly used for semi-finished items like slabs, blooms , billets and beam blanks, but also tubes. There are several different configurations, notably walking beam, walking hearth, pusher and rotary hearth. Such furnaces are usually gas or oil fired, and during its residence time the steel goes through three stages: preheating, heating and soaking. In walking beam and walking hearth furnaces the steel is moved through the furnace in a series of lifting/forward movements. With pusher furnaces, each piece of steel pushes the one in front, propelled by a pusher arm at the entrance. With the rotary hearth, the steel reaches its process temperature after one revolution on the horizontal hearth, and this type of furnace is also frequently used for forgings and for the heat treatment of rolled steel . Reserves See mineral resources and reserves . Reversing, tandem & continuous mills Steel is rolled to reduce its thickness ( gauge ) by passing it between a pair of rolls in a rolling mill (a mill stand ). But as it is rare to achieve the desired final thickness or cross-section in one step (single pass); the steel will need to go through the same mill several times (with a reduced roll gap, and/or changed roll profile each time), or transferred to other mill stands for further reduction/shaping. When steel is rolled back-and-forth through the same mill, this is a reversing mill. When it moves directly in a continuous process to other mill stands, this is a tandem or continuous mill . These can achieve far higher throughputs than a reversing mill. Tandem mills are associated with flat products and typically have 4 or 6 stands. Continuous mill is a long products term, and can be followed by an indication of the number of stands and product (eg. 8-stand bar mill, 10-stand rod mill etc). Revert scrap See scrap . Rimmed steel This type of steel is produced during ingot casting , with the resulting ingot having a very pure surface layer, or rim. This feature is due to the absence or near absence of a deoxidising agent during steel production, which allows carbon monoxide to be formed from the oxygen and carbon in the melt. As this gas migrates to the surface, other elements (eg.carbon, phosphorus and sulphur) gravitate towards the centre of the ingot to leave a much purer layer or rim on the outside. After hot rolling this steel has a good surface finish which is low in carbon. The overall carbon content of rimmed steel is usually below 0.25%. Also known as drawing quality steel , it is usually used for cold processes such as forming, heading and bending. Rod See wire rod . Rolling mill A machine which converts semi- finished steel ( semis ) into finished steel products by passing them through sets of rotating cylinders which squeeze the steel into the desired shape. Rolled steel products include bar, rod , plate , beams , coil etc. Roughing mill The principal function of these mills is to roll hot semis down to the correct entry dimensions for subsequent rolling stages, while removing as much surface scale as possible. These are reversing mills, ie the steel goes back-and-forth through the mill (multiple passes) until the desired dimensions are achieved. S SAW pipe Both electric resistance welded (ERW) and submerged arc welded (SAW) tube or pipe is mostly produced by first forming steel sheet or plate into a cylinder and then welding the longitudinal gap to form a seam. SAW is a form of electric arc welding . A power supply is used to strike an arc between a consumable electrode and the pipe . This heats the steel , and filler metal in the electrode melts and flows into the seam. Fluxes in the electrode blanket the welding operation, suppressing sparks, fumes and ultra-violet radiation. SAW is mostly associated with larger, thicker-walled pipe manufacture. See also ERW pipe . SBQ   SBQ, or special bar quality , is a predominantly North American term to describe steel long products for more demanding processing or end-use applications than can be met by commodity grades. Elsewhere the term “ engineering steels ” is widely used. The chemistry and production routes for SBQ are more complex than for merchant bar and other commodity grades, and they are generally machined, forged or cold drawn during subsequent processing. The main application area is the automotive industry for engine, transmission, steering and suspension components, but these steels find widespread applications from hand tools to electric motors and in the petrochemicals and other industrial sectors. Scarfing See conditioning . Scrap All steel is 100% recyclable without loss of quality. Obsolete scrap is derived from steel -containing goods at the end of their useful lives (a drinks can, a 15-year-old car, a 50-year-old building). Revert scrap ( home scrap ) is steel waste produced and recycled within a steelworks. New production scrap ( prompt scrap ) is generated when steel is cut and formed during the manufacturing of finished products or components. The scrap is returned to steelworks and foundries. (see also: HMS 1 & HMS 2, and busheling ). See also: re-rollable scrap . Seamless tube/pipe Seamless tubes have greater strength than welded tubes because of their homogenous microstructure, but are much more expensive to produce. They are made by rolling a preheated billet between offset rolls (the axes form an “x”) At high rolling speeds and pressures this configuration sets up stresses in the centre of the billet that facilitate its piercing with a pointed bar, or plug, to create a tube shell . This shell is then elongated in a multi-stand rolling mill with a mandrel, or long bar with a shaped end, inserted inside the tube to achieve the desired wall thickness and a limited range of diameters. Tube diameter can also be achieved with a sizing collar, but for significant diameter changes the tube is reheated and passed through a stretch-reducing mill – a multi-stand mill that reduces outside diameter but not wall thickness. Boiler tubing, the oil and gas industries, and automotive transmission components are typical applications. Secondary metallurgy Steel ’s precise composition can vary from customer to customer, and steelmakers use a secondary metallurgy vessel (often referred to as a ladle furnace) between the steelmaking and casting operations to allow molten steel to be brought to the required specification. Typically the composition, purity and temperature of the steel are adjusted at this intermediate stage by adding alloying elements or by more sophisticated treatments such as vacuum degassing . Key operations can include deoxidation, desulphurisation and dephosphorisation. Not only does the use of secondary metallurgy enable a larger range of steel grades to be cast, but fine tuning steel composition in a separate furnace greatly improves the productivity of the main steelmaking unit. This is because with metallurgical adjustments taking place elsewhere, the time from steelmaking raw materials in, to tapped liquid steel out, is shortened. Secondary refining See cogging mill . Semis Semis is short for semi- finished steel , which is the name given to large, uniform cast pieces that require further processing in order to be transformed into finished long, flat and tubular steel products. Most semis are continuously cast, and take the form of blooms and billets (for rolling into long products like bar and sections , or for making seamless tube ) and slab (for rolling flat products like coil and sheet). But there are still a few mills without continuous casting and they cast ingots for subsequent processing. Also, some producers of certain alloy steels specifically cast ingots for metallurgical reasons. All semis have to be hot worked in order to achieve the required dimensional changes. This is mostly by rolling, but can be by rolling/piercing (for tube ) or by forging (for individual components). Sendzimir mill The Sendzimir mill is specifically designed for processing stainless steel and other metals which rapidly work harden during cold rolling, making gauge reduction difficult. A typical Sendzimir rolling stand is immediately recognisable by its large number of small diameter back-up rolls (typically about 20) clustered around two small-diameter work rolls . This is in contrast to the large diameter work rolls and two or four large back-up rolls on most rolling mills. The large number of back-up rolls on the Sendzimir allows very high reduction forces to be exerted on the passing sheet, and gauges down to 0.025mm are not unusual for stainless steel – although several passes through the mill may be required to achieve this. After each cold reduction, stainless coil must be annealed before it can be further processed. The original design was developed the Polish engineer Tadeusz Sendzimir, but this type of mill is also referred to as a Z-mill or cluster mill , and apart from rolling stainless, is used for silicon and certain carbon steels, as well as some non- ferrous metals. Service centre see stockholder Shale gas This is a natural gas – mostly composed of methane – which is trapped within sedimentary geological formations known as shale (a fine grained, flaky deposit predominantly composed of clay). The gas is the result of the decomposition of organic matter within the shale bed. Exploitation of this resource has been most rapid and most successful in the US, where it has significantly altered the economics of energy supply, but there are believed to be many other parts of the world where it could be economic to extract shale gas. The gas is released using a process called hydraulic fracturing, where water and chemicals are pumped into the shale at high pressure to break up the formation and allow the gas to escape and be collected. The main impact of the rise in shale gas extraction on steelmaking has been a revival of interest in gas-based production of direct reduced iron. Sheared scrap Shearing is used to cut large pieces of scrap into more manageable sizes, and is most frequently associated with the processing of heavy and demolition scrap . Shears are heavy duty static pieces of equipment. Sheet pile A sheet pile is a length of narrow, hot rolled strip , up to 20-25 metres long, which is given a profile either during hot rolling or through subsequent cold forming to enhance rigidity and provide an interlocking system along its edges. Sheet piles are driven vertically into soft ground, and their edge profile allows each successive pile to interlock with the previous one to form a continuous retaining wall. The piles are typically 3-20mm thick and around 600-800mm wide. Temporary applications include coffer dams used to retain ground or water during the preparation of building foundations or bridge piers. These piles can be removed and reused. Permanent applications include river and harbour walls, bridge abutments, and walls in basements and underground car parks. Although sheet piling can provide a water barrier, it is not totally watertight. Short ton See Ton Shot peening This cold working process involves the bombardment of a metal surface with small spherical particles of steel , glass or ceramic in order to improve the in-service life of machined or fabricated components. Each piece of shot, travelling at high velocity, acts as a miniature peening hammer as it hits the metal surface, forming a small indentation or dimple in the surface. The effect of this is to create a compressive layer at and near to the metal’s surface which serves to counteract any tensile forces set up in the component during manufacture, and makes the part less susceptible to fatigue or stress failures during service. Although the process may resemble sand blasting, shot peening slightly deforms the metal’s surface, rather than abrading it. Shredded scrap Shredding transforms mixed metallic scrap into a more homogeneous product. It is done in a shredder, a powerful piece of enclosed equipment with rotating hammers which break down the incoming material. Shredded scrap ’s regular consistency is attractive to electric arc furnace operators as it is easy to charge and offers uniform steel chemistry. Shuttering Shuttering means the permanent closure of a facility. The only way back for such units is through a subsequent sale to a new owner who is prepared to bring them back on line. See also idling and mothballing . Silicon Silicon is one of the most abundant elements in the earth’s crust. As well as being used in carbon and stainless steel making in the form of ferro-silicon, it is the basis for most semiconductors, is used as silica in the production of glass and ceramics, and finds application as silicon metal in aluminium refining . In steel refining , ferro-silicon (FeSi) acts as a deoxidiser to reduce carbon loss, but is also used to improve tensile strength and heat resisting qualities, and to enhance the magnetic properties of steels used in electrical equipment (see also electrical steels ). In foundry iron production FeSi improves casting performance. FeSi is produced from silica, coke and iron/ scrap in electric furnaces, and is the most energy intensive of the bulk ferro-alloys to make. The most widely used grades contain 75% silicon, although lower grades are traded. Small amounts of aluminium and calcium are also present, normally 1-2%. Silicon steel See electrical steel . Sinter This lumpy material is produced by integrated steelworks for use as a raw material in ironmaking, and is the main way of introducing iron ore into blast furnaces. Sinter is made by mixing iron ore fines , coke and a flux , such as limestone , placing this mixture on a steel conveyor belt, and igniting it. The resulting high temperature causes the constituents to fuse into a porous clinker but not to melt. Iron ore fines are the principal iron source for steelmakers, but without such agglomeration they would be difficult to charge to the blast furnace and, in the large volumes required, would form a dense impermeable mass once inside the furnace, seriously affecting the efficiency of the ironmaking process. Skelp The steel strip feedstock used by welded tube/pipe mills. It is of the width required to give the correct tube diameter after forming by mill rolls either into a circular section for the longitudinal welding of its two edges, or into a spiral to produce a spirally welded pipe . Skin pass mill This is a specialised rolling mill which is used as a final stage in the processing of hot or cold reduced steel coil to enhance product quality. Basically the steel coil is rolled not with the aim of achieving significant further reductions in gauge , but to give the sheet better and consistent mechanical and geometrical properties throughout its length – properties such as good elongation tolerance, flatness and surface finish. Gauge reduction is minimal. The skin pass mill can be located as an in-line unit immediately following a hot or cold rolling line, or be a stand-alone facility. In the latter case the mill will have a decoiler on the entry side and a recoiler on the exit side. Skin pass mills, which are also often referred to as temper mills, can be single or 2-stand units and have a 2-high or 4-high mill roll configuration. Mills with a 2-stand configuration are usually considered preferable when processing harder materials. Slab A semi-finished product (semi) of flat cross-section, but usually more than 200mm thick, used for rolling into a plate or coil. Slabbing mill See cogging mill . Slag Flux materials are charged into a furnace to remove impurities from the iron or steel as a slag. After solidifying the slag can be reclaimed for use as an aggregate or, in the case of high-phosphorus slag, a fertiliser Slitting See SBQ . Special steels As opposed to ordinary mild or carbon steels, special steels are alloyed to achieve particular mechanical properties to suit specific end-uses. Examples include steels for cutting tools, roller bearings or springs. (see also: SBQ ) Spread This is the difference in two prices, for example the contango or backwardation between two prompt dates, or the difference between the bid and offer price. Spring steel This steel will tolerate continual deflection under load, but recover to its original form once the loading is removed. It is a medium carbon steel (0.4-0.95%) available both as a long product (bar, wire) or in flat form. High yield strength is important and the key alloying additions used to determine the steel ’s final properties are silicon and manganese . There is a considerable difference in the in-service requirements imposed on spring steels, with automotive engine valve springs an example of the top end of the performance range. These have to operate with precision at a rate of several thousand compression cycles per minute over a normal engine lifespan of several thousand hours. Most springs are made from hardened and tempered steel , though to ease the manufacture of larger springs these may be produced from annealed steel and hardened after fabrication. Stainless Steel Good corrosion resistance due to a high chromium content is the key characteristic. Opinions vary on the level of chromium (Cr) at which a steel becomes stainless, but it is at least 10.5%. Nickel (Ni) and molybdenum (Mo) are often present, and manganese , copper, titanium, silicon + other alloying elements may be added. The principal grades are austenitic (typically 16-26%Cr, 6-22Ni); ferritic (10.5-28%Cr with no/low Ni); martensitic (higher carbon content than ferritic and typically 12-19%Cr with low/no Ni); and duplex, a dual-phase austenitic/ ferritic steel (Cr>21%, Ni <8%). Austenitics are non-magnetic, easily formed, but harden rapidly during processing (typically used in the process industries, heat exchangers, cutlery). Ferritics are less corrosion resistant, easily formed and magnetic (catering, architectural, materials handling). Martensitics are magnetic, have higher strength , are less easily worked (surgical instruments, shafts, fasteners). Duplex is strong with good impact resistance (desalination, heat exchangers). Stainless steel was discovered in 1913 by Harry Brearly, a metallurgist from Sheffield. Stamp charging A method for improving the productivity of coke ovens by compacting, or stamping, the crushed coking coal prior to charging to the coke oven chamber. This increases the bulk density of the charge by 30-35% and raises oven productivity by 10% or more. It also allows the use of a greater proportion of lower quality coal, and improves CSR ( coke strength after reaction with CO2) values. Standard tube This tube or pipe is mostly used for conveying fluids such as air, water, gas and steam. It is distinct from linepipe , which is of much larger diameter and designed for transporting crude oil, gas and related hydrocarbon products in large volumes over long distances. Some standard tube has mechanical applications, but the product that is designated as mechanical tube or pipe is generally produced to higher specifications in order to meet the requirements of a wide range of engineering applications in machinery or sub-assemblies. In car and truck manufacture, for example, mechanical tube is used for drive shafts, steering and suspension parts, and in seat frames. But its applications are widespread, from appliances and agricultural and construction equipment to furniture. Steckel mill This is a piece of equipment usually associated with the production of flat rolled steel , and is essentially a reversing hot rolling mill where steel slab is reduced to strip by passing back and forth though either single or twin mill stands until the desired gauge is reached. The key difference compared to the reversing mill is that a Steckel mill has coiling reels on the entry and exit sides of the mill stand to hold the steel between passes, instead of horizontal run-out tables. These coilers are usually enclosed and heated, allowing the temperature of the steel to be maintained during the rolling sequence. The Steckel mill is a much less expensive and space consuming route to hot rolled coil than via a tandem mill , but the downside is far lower productivity and generally a lower quality product due to thermal issues. Because of their restricted throughput, these mills are often installed at steelworks with annual outputs of up to around 1m tonnes/year, and where finished grades are normally produced in small batches –such as at stainless and speciality steel mills. Some carbon steel mini-mills also use them. Steel Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon which is produced from melting and refining pig iron and/or scrap iron, steel or DRI. It has a carbon content which is normally in the range 0.002% to 1.7%. The proportion of carbon greatly influences the properties of the steel, but it is usually supplemented by other elements – most frequently manganese and silicon – to achieve certain physical properties such as hardness , ductility and strength . Carbon steel is the most common form. Within this grouping mild steel generally has a carbon content of up to 0.25%, medium carbon steel contains carbon in the range 0.25-0.45%, and high carbon steel is above 0.45%. Alloy steels, for example SBQ grades, and stainless and tool steels , have additional elements added, such as tungsten, chromium and nickel , to achieve a very specific in-service performance. Stockholder A steel merchant who maintains a stock of steel products in a warehouse for sale in small lots to end-users. The merchant will often undertake processing work, such as slitting coil, cutting-to-length and blanking to suit the steel to particular end-uses. Also known as a steel service centre when such additional processing is undertaken. Strength See toughness . Strip Thin flat steel normally produced in a continuous strip and wound into a coil weighing up to 40 tonnes for further processing. Structural hollow sections See rectangular hollow sections . Structural steel Structural steel is produced specifically for building construction with a specific shape or cross section, chemical composition and strength . These parameters and more, such as storage, are regulated to particular standards in most industrialised countries. (see also, wide flange beams ) Substrate This is a prepared material on to which another finish or coating is to be applied. For example, the substrate for continuously galvanized steel is steel coil which is free of corrosion, grease and other contaminants. However, once galvanized, this coil often then becomes the substrate for a subsequent coating operation such as painting. Surcharge This is an addition to the normal mill price of steel to cover the cost of alloying elements used in producing certain grades. In some cases surcharges also reflect energy costs. Surcharges were introduced when the price of alloying elements, such as nickel , became much more volatile, moving sharply away from their historic, and more stable, price range. Mills were faced with sharply escalating prices and introduced surcharges to protect their margins. Clearly over time surcharge values move down as well as up. Apart from nickel , other elements typically factored into mill surcharge calculations include chrome, molybdenum , manganese , titanium, vanadium , silicon and iron ( scrap ). Surcharges can play a very influential role in setting the transaction price (base price + surcharge) of stainless steel , and can significantly exceed the base price. They are also a factor in the pricing of other alloy steels like electrical sheet and engineering/ SBQ * grades, as well as carbon steels in some markets ( scrap surcharge). Values are usually adjusted monthly based on recent past alloy/ scrap price movements. Swap This typically refers to the exchange of an open futures contract for some other form of collateral. It could be swapped for another futures contract , for an option contract or for physical material. Syndicated Loan When there is a requirement for a very large loan, such as for financing a new steelworks, a group of banks, or other financial institutions qualified to conduct credit transactions, often work together as a syndicate to provide the necessary funds to the borrower. Banks favour this approach to minimise their exposure to a default on the loan and to avoid large, unexpected losses. Up to 20 banks could be involved, though usually it is fewer. There is always a lead bank, and although this arranges the syndicate it only guarantees the part of the loan that it commits to. There may be more than one lead bank. Participating banks are invited by the lead bank(s) to join the syndicate. The correspondent bank, which manages the loan, is usually the lead bank. T Taconite Taconite is a relatively low grade source of iron ore , where the iron content, as magnetite * and some hematite is usually in the range 25-40%, and is present with other minerals such as quartz and carbonates. It is named after a type of rock formation found in the Taconic Mountains of New York state, USA. Tailor Welded Blanks These are shaped sheets made up by welding different grades and/or thicknesses of steel together to form a blank which is ready for final stamping by car makers – say for an inner door panel or engine compartment. Tailor welded blanks (TWBs) were developed to reduce vehicle weight. Previously all car body parts had to be of a grade and thickness of steel capable of meeting the most demanding duties of that component. With TWBs it is possible to achieve a better utilisation of steel by putting material with appropriate properties and gauges only where it is needed. The rest can be cheaper steel . As well as reducing weight, TWBs can reduce the number of parts and therefore final assembly costs. But clearly the cost savings in steel purchasing are offset by the higher costs of preparing a TWB versus a normal plain blanked sheet. Also their surface finish means they are not suitable for visible parts. Tandem mill See reversing mill. Tap-to-tap time This is a measure of productivity in electric arc furnace (EAF) steelmaking. It defines the time it takes to complete a melting cycle from the end of emptying (tapping) the molten steel produced in one melting operation to completion of tapping the steel from the next one. Various refinements have helped to reduce tap-to-tap times so that a typical EAF cycle is now well under one hour. Principal amongst these was the introduction of electric refining furnaces. Steel from the EAF is transferred to an adjacent refining furnace for any melt composition adjustments prior to casting , so freeing the main furnace for charging and melting the next load. Twin shell furnaces further reduce the tap-to-tap time. These have two adjacent melting vessels sharing a common power source. One of these is charged while the other is melting, and as soon as tapping of the first unit commences, power is transferred to the second furnace to commence melting. Preheating scrap prior to charging using the EAF’s hot off-gases also helps cut melting times. Technored See skin pass mill . Temper rolling A second cold rolling for coil in which the reduction in gauge is minimal. Can be used to achieve a bright finish . Tempering This is a heat treatment process applied to steels which have been hardened for a particular application (by heating and rapidly cooling), but as a result have become too brittle for the end-use for which they are intended. To temper steel it is heated and held at an elevated temperature (but below its hardening or annealing * temperatures). This allows the metallurgical structure which was locked in place by the fast cooling used in the hardening process to modify itself slightly. The steel is then allowed to cool – usually slowly, though some steels can be cooled rapidly. The result is a strong, ductile and hard steel . Steelmakers can achieve a wide range of key physical properties by careful control of tempering temperatures and process times. Tension leveller See levelling . Terne plate This is a thin lead/tin alloy coating applied to sheet steel for corrosion protection. The coating is typically alloyed in the ratio of about 80-90% lead to 10-20% tin with traces of antimony, the tin being present to ensure that the coating bonds effectively to the steel substrate . Terne plate was first produced about 150 years ago, and the name is thought to derive from the French term for ‘dull’. One of the main applications used to be for the production of automotive fuel tanks, with the coating acting as a lining for the internal surfaces, but a variety of factors, including legislation, weight and safety considerations, have seen the industry move away from this material. Theoretical weight The theoretical weight of a consignment of steel is a figure derived from a calculation based on steel density and product size. It is quoted in kilograms/metre or kilograms/square metre depending on whether the calculation is for long products (using the steel ’s cross sectional dimension), or for flat products (when thickness is the key dimensional input). A typical standard reference would be 7.85kg/mm thickness of 1square metre of carbon steel . Formulae exist for calculating the theoretical weight of simple profiles like round bar and plate , or for more complicated shapes like hexagonal bars , channels and beams (taking into account any radii). Special handheld calculators can be bought for this task. Because of dimensional deviations during rolling, the calculated theoretical weight of a finished consignment of steel is likely to be different to the actual value, and for this reason it is generally only used when a piece count is important for stockists, or for reference purposes during estimating. Thin slab casting In steelworks producing flat rolled products, molten steel is continuously cast into slabs in excess of 200mm thick. These are either allowed to cool before reheating for hot rolling, or kept hot in a nearby furnace before being sent on to the hot mill. With thin slab casting (TSC) the molten steel is cast as a much thinner slab – usually around 50-60mm thick. This allows the mill to use a simpler hot rolling line (no roughing/breakdown mill) so reducing capital and operating costs. Connecting the exit of the caster to the entry of the hot mill with a tunnel furnace is common practice to minimise energy losses and shorten overall production times. Because TSC was pioneered by scrap -based mini-mills (like Nucor) who were targeting the less sophisticated part of the flat rolled steel market, they could also cut costs by having fewer mill stands in the hot mill – typically four rather than six or seven. Thin strip casting Unlike slab and thin slab casting , this route produces 1-2mm thick steel strip direct from the caster, thus eliminating much of the rolling equipment associated with 200mm-plus thick conventional slabs, and 50-60mm thin slabs. The first such commercial plant, at Nucor’s Crawfordsville steelworks in the USA (which also pioneered thin slab casting ), employs a single-stand hot rolling mill immediately following the caster to further reduce the thickness of the 1,350mm wide strip to below 1mm. At the heart of the strip casting process are two horizontal counter-rotating rolls separated by a narrow gap. Steel poured into the cavity formed by the top part of these adjacent rolls solidifies by the time it emerges from the gap between them. Apart from the lower capital cost associated with thin strip casting , the minimal rolling requirements and elimination of any slab reheating or temperature maintenance between casting and rolling stages, reduces operating costs. Nucor’s plant was operating commercially by 2005, but take-up of the technology elsewhere has been slow. Tin Free Steel Although classed along with tinplate as a tinmill product, tin-free steel is a chromium -coated, corrosion-resistant steel which, like tinplate , is used for food and other packaging applications. It is correctly known as electrolytic chromium coated steel ( ECCS ). The coating is applied to a cold-rolled, low- carbon steel coil substrate in a continuous electrolytic process using chromic acid. The result is a very thin layer of chromium and chromium oxide. Apart from its packaging uses, it does find other applications, such as in some electrical equipment. Compared to tinplate , ECCS is easier to recycle because tin is a contaminant in scrap . Tinplate Tinplate is cold reduced steel sheet coated with a thin layer of tin. It has good corrosion resistance and food compatibility – although many products require a thin coating of lacquer to maximise the shelf life of the contents. Around 90% of tinplate is used in packaging, with food and drinks cans the biggest market, but it is also widely used for other consumer and general packaging, such as aerosols, paints and oils. Tin is applied in a continuous process where decoiled steel (tinplate feedstock is called blackplate ) passes through an electrolytic plating bath containing tin in solution. Tinplate can be produced with different coating thicknesses on either side of the sheet. The coating on each side is typically in the range 2.8-5.6 grams/sq metre, but can be 1-14 g/m2. (11.2 g/m2 on each side equates to one pound “per basis box”, a unit of measure still used in the USA.) Overall tinplate thickness is usually in the range 0.13-0.49mm. Toll Processing Toll Processing describes an arrangement where the producer or owner of a metallurgical raw material, or of a partly or fully rolled metal product, sends this for further treatment by a third party prior to further in-house processing or sale. He receives back the original material in a different form, and while the third party charges for the work undertaken, it has no ownership rights. In the steel industry, tolling work usually relates to additional rolling operations or the application of final coatings or special finishes. The term hire rolling is also widely used. In other parts of the metals industry, toll processing is used to transform raw materials into primary metal, and at times it has been particularly prevalent in aluminium (alumina smelted into slab or ingot). The decision whether to process steel in-house or externally can be down to a number of factors, including historical precedent, economics of production, or commercial confidentiality. Ton The ton is a unit of weight, but takes various forms. A metric ton (usually written tonne) is 1,000 kilograms (kg) and is the most widely used. A long ton is 2,240 pounds (lb). Historically it was used across the British empire, but now is only likely to be encountered in the USA for bulk commodities like scrap and iron ore . Also know as a gross ton. (Equates to 1.015 tonnes) A short ton is 2,000lb and is predominant in the USA. Also known as a net ton, and in South Africa as a harbour ton. (Equates to 0.906 tonnes) There are other tons. Deadweight ton (dwt) is a measure of a ship’s carrying capacity (cargo, fuel, crew etc). Traditionally measured in long tons, this is increasingly being quoted in tonnes. Tool steels Carbon and alloy steels for making tools used in a wide range of applications – cutting, punching, pressing, forging , digging, moulding and extrusion . Key requirements are hardness and resistance to abrasion so that tools remain effective over long periods. Resistance to deformation is also important, as is toughness and good compressive and impact resistance. Good machinability can be a requirement. Carbon content is in the range 0.4-2.1%, and the steel may contain several of the following alloying elements: manganese , chromium , tungsten, silicon , molybdenum , vanadium , nickel and cobalt. Some tool steels are stainless steels. Tool steels are heat treated, and the higher carbon grades tend to be for cutting and stamping applications. Those categorised as “ cold working ” are for applications where surface temperatures remain below 200oC; “hot working” denotes applications above 200 °C. Torpedo ladle Torpedo ladles – or torpedo cars – are large, well insulated vessels used to transport liquid iron from blast furnace to steel converter .    They have a distinctive appearance, being long, circular in cross-section, but with a larger circumference in the middle than at either end. Clearly good, robust insulation is essential to prevent significant heat loss or a blow-out and spillage of the metal.    Torpedo ladles can contain several hundred tonnes of iron at temperatures approaching 1,500oC, and are moved by locomotive along dedicated rail tracks. They may travel just a few hundred metres or up to several kilometres.    A modern blast furnace can produce around 10,000 tonnes of iron daily, so several torpedo ladles would normally be in use. Toughness, hardness, ductility, strength Toughness is a measure of a material’s ability to resist fracture by absorbing the stress and strain imposed by sudden loading/impact. It tends to improve with increasing temperature. Tough material may undergo some deformation in absorbing sudden impacts, and a very tough material will have high strength (ability to resist deformation) and high ductility (ability to change shape without failure). Toughness is the opposite of brittleness. Hardness defines a material’s ability to resist permanent deformation or changes to its shape when under load, or to resist cutting, scratching or other forms of abrasion. So in general, the harder a material the greater its wear resistance. Traded option See seamless and welded tube/pipe . Tube shell This is the feedstock for seamless tube rolling mills. It takes the form of a billet which has been pierced to form a basic tube form ready for further rolling to the desired diameter and wall thickness. Tundish The tundish is a refractory lined vessel whose role is to provide a reservoir of molten metal for the continuous casting of steel slab , billets or blooms . Newly produced liquid steel is transferred from the basic oxygen furnace (BOF), electric arc furnace (EAF) or ladle furnace (LF) into this holding vessel which is positioned at the top of the caster. A short refractory pipe directs the metal from a hole in the base of the tundish to the top of the caster mould(s). Some casters are equipped with a ladle turret. This can hold two ladles from the meltshop and its use facilitates long casting sequences. The second ladle is moved into position over the tundish once the first ladle is emptied (and returned to the meltshop for refilling) so keeping the tundish well charged with liquid steel . Tunnel furnace These are long, horizontal, refractory-lined, heated rectangular enclosures which are used to maintain steel semis leaving the caster at rolling temperature as they are transferred to the rolling mill . Their function is to save energy and raise productivity by avoiding the usual cooling and subsequent reheating of semis prior to hot rolling. The furnace, which can be more than 100 metres long, also acts as a buffer between caster and mill to assist rolling mill scheduling. As semis move slowly through the tunnel, conveyed by a series of rolls, their temperature is maintained by burners mounted at intervals along the sidewalls. Tunnel furnaces were first developed around 20 years ago with the advent of thin slab casting . Turned bar V Vacuum degassing Vacuum degassing (VD) is used following steel making to reduce the carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and sulphur content of molten steel . Phosphorus can also be reduced. The process takes place under vacuum in a ladle furnace, and is frequently employed by both volume and special steels producers. When dealing with high- chromium steels, VD allows very low carbon content to be achieved without heavy chromium losses from the melt. Vacuum degassing has become widespread as demand for higher quality steels has grown in sectors like automotive, construction, offshore, pipe making and rails. In alloy steel products like bearings VD steels improve fatigue life, while in flat products , very low carbon VD steels are well suited to demanding processing and fabrication. Vanadium About 80% of world vanadium production goes into steelmaking, but it is also an important constituent of certain high performance non- ferrous aerospace alloys. It is usually added to steel as a ferro-alloy (FeVa). In steel , vanadium increases tensile strength , toughness and fatigue resistance, as well as improving the hardenability of some grades and conferring rust resistance. An early application was armour plate . Today, vanadium’s main applications are in high- strength low-alloy sheet for the automotive sector, in engineering steels – such as for axles, crankshafts and gears – and in spring and high-speed tool steels . In stainless steels it is typically used for producing grades needed for applications like surgical instruments. Vertical edgers These are used in conjunction with roughing mills to ensure correct slab width prior to further rolling. The edger’s rolls keep the sides of the steel slab square as well as controlling width. VOD Vacuum oxygen decarburisation is a method for reducing the carbon content of molten steel . Oxygen is blown on to the surface of the metal, which is held in sealed vessel at reduced pressure. Very low carbon levels are possible. This method is often used in stainless steel production. Volatile matter In coking coal this term refers to any constituents of the coal, apart from moisture, which are released (vaporised) at higher temperatures. These are usually mostly hydrocarbons, but also sulphur. Along with other properties such as ash and moisture content, volatile matter content is one of the key parameters used in defining the quality of a coal. See reheat furnace . Warrant In the context of metals trading on the London Metal Exchange , a warrant is a document signifying title to a particular consignment or lot of metal, stored in a defined location within a specific LME approved warehouse. Every warrant states the brand of the metal, the number of pieces, the overall weight of the consignment or batch, and the storage rental. Prior to receiving the warrant, the buyer will not necessarily know the specific LME approved brand or grade of the metal he has bought, nor its precise location. The existence of approved warehouses as a point of delivery or source of metal against exchange contracts in times of metal surplus or shortage, is fundamental to the LME’s status as a physically deliverable market. It is the responsibility of the warehouse to check that the identity of the metal is visible, that it is kept in good condition and is properly secured. Welded tube/pipe This is made from hot rolled or cold reduced strip , sheet or plate . Small and medium diameters are produced in continuous, multiple-roll mills that progressively bend incoming, unheated strip into a circular cross-section prior to welding along the longitudinal seam. Tube may subsequently be cold-drawn through dies to achieve precise dimensions and finish. This is cheaper than the seamless process but welded tube generally has a lower mechanical and pressure performance. Large diameters are made from discrete plate . First this is bent into a “U” shape, then an “O” shape, which is welded prior to mechanical or hydraulic expansion – the “E” of the UOE process – to achieve final dimensions. This pipe can be 400-1,600mm diameter. Spiral welded tube / pipe uses HR strip that is twisted as it goes through a mill to form a hollow spiral which is then welded. It is cheap to make but has traditionally had a lower integrity than conventional welded pipe – though it is improving. Diameters of up to 2,500mm are possible. Welding This method of joining metals is essential for certain types of pipemaking and is widely used in structural steel fabrication, shipbuilding etc. The workpieces are melted at the point where they are to be joined using a very localised, high temperature energy source, and a filler material is added to create a small additional amount of molten metal. When this cools the workpieces fuse together to form a strong joint. Pressure is sometimes applied to the workpieces during welding. The commonly used energy sources are an electric arc and a gas flame. Submerged arc welding (SAW) is widely used in the large scale production of steel tube and pipe from strip , sheet or plate . In this electric arc process, the molten weld area is protected from the atmosphere by a layer of conductive flux in order to prevent any contamination. Wide Flange Beams These heavy duty structural sections are often referred to as H- beams and I-beams (because of their cross-sectional appearance). They are mainly used in the frames of industrial and hi-rise structures, are internationally traded and are a stockholder item in standard lengths. Dimensions are in metric, except in the USA where they are sold as “W” shapes in inches. H- beams are mainly hot rolled from blooms . They are classified by depth (web plus end-flange thickness – hence the “W” notation in the US) and weight per unit length. These parameters are typically up to 1,000mm-plus and 600 kg/metre respectively. They are sometimes confused with I-beams , which have similar uses but narrower flanges and smaller web depths and steel thicknesses. Wire Drawing This is the process by which steel wire is produced from a larger diameter feedstock, usually wire rod . Wire is the smallest diameter steel product, and to achieve the gauges needed for manufacturing items like fencing, nails, tyrecord and ultra-fine filtration gauzes, the cold rod is pulled through a series of drawing dies, each of successively smaller bore diameter. A continuous multi-die wire- drawing machine can have up to 15 blocks, each containing a die. These have a metal casing but the forming hole is made in a ‘nib’ of tungsten carbide, or natural or synthetic diamond. Though mostly round, wire can be flat or have other profiles. A wide range of steels may be drawn, from the mild steel used for paper clips and champagne cork wire, to spring grades and the high strength steels needed for suspension bridge cables and piano wire. Wire Rod Hot rolled from low, medium and high carbon or alloy steel billet , wire rod is delivered as coil, most commonly at 5.5mm dia, but in sizes up to 60mm dia. Close control of final cooling is a critical part of production. Low carbon rod is used for undemanding applications like fencing wire and concrete reinforcing mesh , while medium and high carbon rod goes into higher performance uses like steelcord for car tyre reinforcement. Some rod (cold heading carbon and alloy grades) is used to make fasteners (bolts, screws, nails, rivets), and alloy rod is commonly machined into products like engineering bearings. Some rod provides filler metal in welding operations. Work rolls See back-up rolls . Wrought iron This is a type of iron, which unlike hard, brittle pig iron – such as is tapped from a blast furnace – is tough and malleable, allowing it to be forged and welded. It has a high tensile strength and is more corrosion resistant than steel . Wrought iron has a very low carbon content – lower than many steels – but importantly it has traces of manganese /sulphur/phosphorus/ silicon -containing slag which give it a fibrous structure and which contributes to its desirable properties. Production is by melting and then stirring new pig iron or scrap cast iron to lower the carbon content, a process known as “puddling”. This is followed by forging to optimise slag content. Wrought iron was widely used for structural, engineering and decorative applications, and consumption declined after the mid-nineteenth century once steel became more widely available. Small amounts are produced today for artistic applications and restoration work. Arguably the most famous example of wrought iron in action is the Eiffel Tower, Paris. Wrought metals Metals which after melting, casting and solidifying have been further worked in a hot or cold condition to alter their shape and/or dimensions by rolling, forging , extruding and drawing .

i don't know

The behavior of sound in rooms and concert halls is a separate science. what is its name?

Behavior of Sound Waves - Sound | HowStuffWorks Behavior of Sound Waves Like light waves and other waves, sound waves are reflected, refracted, and diffracted, and exhibit interference. Reflection Sound is constantly being reflected off many different surfaces. Most of the time the reflected sound is not noticed, because two identical sounds that reach the human ear less than 1/15 of a second apart cannot be distinguished as separate sounds. When the reflected sound is heard separately, it is called an echo. Sound is reflected from a surface at the same angle at which it strikes the surface. This fact makes it possible to focus sound by means of curved reflecting surfaces in the same way that curved mirrors can be used to focus light. It also accounts for the effects of so-called whispering galleries, rooms in which a word whispered at one point can be heard distinctly at some other point fairly far away, though it cannot be heard anywhere else in the room. (Statuary Hall of the United States Capitol is an example.) Reflection is also used to focus sound in a megaphone and when calling through cupped hands. The reflection of sound can pose a serious problem in concert halls and auditoriums. In a poorly designed hall, a speaker's first word may reverberate (echo repeatedly) for several seconds, so that the listeners may hear all the words of a sentence echoing at the same time. Music can be similarly distorted. Such problems can usually be corrected by covering reflecting surfaces with sound-absorbing materials such as draperies or acoustical tile. Clothing also absorbs sound; for this reason reverberation is greater in an empty hall than in one filled with people. All these sound-absorbing materials are porous; sound waves entering the tiny air-filled spaces bounce around in them until their energy is spent. They are, in effect, trapped. The reflection of sound is used by some animals, notably bats and toothed whales, for echolocation—locating, and in some cases identifying, objects through the sense of hearing rather than the sense of sight. Bats and toothed whales emit bursts of sound of frequencies far beyond the upper limits of human hearing, as high as 200,000 Hz in the case of whales. Sounds with short wavelengths are reflected even from very small objects. A bat can unerringly locate and catch even a mosquito in total darkness. Sonar is an artificial form of echolocation. Refraction When a wave passes from one material to another at an angle, it usually changes speed, causing the wave front to bend. The refraction of sound can be demonstrated in a physics laboratory by using a lens-shaped balloon filled with carbon dioxide to bring sound waves to a focus. Diffraction When sound waves pass around an obstacle or through an opening in an obstacle, the edge of the obstacle or the opening acts as a secondary sound source, sending out waves of the same frequency and wavelength (but of lower intensity) as the original source. The spreading out of sound waves from the secondary source is called diffraction. Because of this phenomenon, sound can be heard around corners despite the fact that sound waves generally travel in a straight line. Interference Whenever waves interact, interference occurs. For sound waves the phenomenon is perhaps best understood by thinking in terms of the compressions and rarefactions of the two waves as they arrive at some point. When the waves are in phase so that their compressions and rarefactions coincide, they reinforce each other (constructive interference). When they are out of phase, so that the compressions of one coincide with the rarefactions of the other, they tend to weaken or even cancel each other (destructive interference). The interaction between the two waves produces a resultant wave. In auditoriums, destructive interference between sound from the stage and sound reflected from other parts of the hall can create dead spots in which both volume and clarity of sound are poor. Such interference can be reduced by use of sound-absorbing materials on reflecting surfaces. On the other hand, interference can improve an auditorium's acoustical qualities. This is done by arranging the reflecting surfaces in such a way that the level of sound is actually increased in the area in which the audience sits. Interference between two waves of nearly but not quite equal frequencies produces a tone of alternately increasing and decreasing intensity, because the two waves continually fall in and out of phase. The pulsations heard are called beats. Piano tuners make use of this effect, adjusting the tone of a string against that of a standard tuning fork until beats can no longer be heard. Up Next

Acoustics

What kind of animal is an iguana?

Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Concert Hall Acoustics Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Concert Hall Acoustics (but you couldn't afford the consulting fee)

i don't know

What is the name given to the molten rock beneath the surface of the Earth?

What name is given to the molten rock below the Earth's surface? | Reference.com What name is given to the molten rock below the Earth's surface? A: Quick Answer The molten rock below the Earth’s surface is known as magma. Magma is a combination of a molten and semi-molten rock mixture that is extremely hot. Magma is between 1,292 and 2,372 degrees Fahrenheit, or 700 and 1,300 degrees Celsius. Full Answer Magma is a dynamic and fluid substance that is capable of creating new landforms. This molten rock starts in the upper part of the mantle and the lower portion of the crust. When magma erupts from a volcano or other vent, the molten rock is referred to as lava. When lava cools on the Earth’s surface and forms a solid structure, it is called igneous rock.

Magma

Which disease is spread in minute water drops?

Igneous Rock: Face of the Earth Home | Games | Glossary | Bulletin Board | Landforms | Rock Cycle | Processes | SKC Homepage Igneous Rock On the earth's surface, there are three types of rocks, metamorphic, sedimentary, and igneous. In northern Canada, much of the hard rock found is igneous rock. Igneous rock is rock formed by the hardening and crystallization of molten material that originates deep within the earth. The word "igneous" comes from the Greek word for fire; some people call igneous rock a fire ball rock. Rocks that have hardened from magma, the hot liquid beneath the earth's crust, are called igneous rocks. The inside of the earth is very hot - hot enough to melt rocks. The deeper you get the hotter it gets. Below the surface, the molten rock is called magma; at the earth's surface it becomes lava, nothing has changed only the name of the liquid. Igneous rock is made by fire. Small wonder the magma from which igneous rock is formed can reach temperatures close to 1200 degrees Celsius. As the super hot magma cools, it solidifies to form a rock and that rock is called igneous rock. When most people think of igneous rock they vision a volcano erupting pumice and lava. Igneous rocks form directly by crystallization from materials from a magma melt. Igneous rocks crystalize after the magma reaches the earth's surface. Igneous rock is divided into 2 groups, extrusive and intrusive. Extrusive rocks form when magma flows onto the surface of the earth or floor of the ocean through deep cracks or fissures and at volcanic vents, and then cools and hardens. Intrusive rock results when magma solidifies beneath the earth's surface in mines and tunnels or at the surface where it has been exposed by geological uplifting and by erosion. In general, extrusive rocks have a finer grained texture than intrusive rocks; intrusive rocks vary from thin sheets to huge, irregular masses. Since magma that forms intrusive rocks solidifies slowly, most intrusive rocks have larger crystals than extrusive rocks.

i don't know