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Which 13th-century Mongol warlord controlled probably a larger area than anyone in history, from the Yellow Sea to the Black Sea?

Mongols. A history of the Mongols (Monguls)        From the first explosion of Mongol military might from the steppes of central Asia in the early decades of the 13th century to the death of Timur in 1405, the nomads of central Asia made a last, stunning return to center stage in world history. Mongol invasions ended or interrupted many of the great empires of the postclassical period, while also extending the world network that had increasingly defined the period. Under Chinggis Khan - who united his own Mongol tribesmen and numerous nomadic neighbors into the mightiest war machine the world had seen to that time - central Asia, northern China, and eastern Persia were brought under Mongol rule. Under Chinggis Khan's sons and grandsons, the rest of China, Tibet, Persia, Iraq, much of Asia Minor, and all of southern Russia were added to the vast Mongol imperium. Though the empire was divided between Chinggis Khan's sons after his death in 1227, the four khanates or kingdoms -which emerged in the struggles for succession -dominated most of Asia for the next one and one-half centuries. The Mongol conquests and the empires they produced represented the most formidable nomadic challenge to the growing global dominance of the sedentary peoples of the civilized cores since the great nomadic migrations in the first centuries A.D. Except for Timur's devastating but short-lived grab for power at the end of the 14th century, nomadic peoples would never again mount a challenge as massive and sweeping as that of the Mongols.        In most histories, the Mongol conquests have been depicted as a savage assault by backward and barbaric peoples on many of the most ancient and developed centers of human civilization. Much is made of the ferocity of Mongol warriors in battle, their destruction of great cities, such as Baghdad, in reprisal for resistance to Mongol armies, and their mass slaughters of defeated enemies. Depending on the civilization from whose city walls a historian recorded the coming of the Mongol "hordes," they were depicted as the scourge of Islam, devils bent on the destruction of Christianity, persecutors of the Buddhists, or defilers of the Confucian traditions of China. Though they were indeed fierce fighters and capable of terrible acts of retribution against those who dared to defy them, the Mongols' conquests brought much more than death and devastation.        At the peak of their power, the domains of the Mongol khans, or rulers, made up a vast realm in which once-hostile peoples lived together in peace and virtually all religions were tolerated. From the Khanate of Persia in the west to the empire of the fabled Kubilai Khan in the east, the law code first promulgated by Chinggis Khan ordered human interaction. The result was an important new stage in international contact. From eastern Europe to southern China, merchants and travelers could move across the well-policed Mongol domains without fear for their lives or property. The great swath of Mongol territory that covered or connected most of Europe, Asia, and the Middle East served as a bridge between the civilizations of the Eastern Hemisphere. The caravans and embassies that crossed the Mongol lands transmitted new foods, inventions, and ideas from one civilized pool to the others and from civilized pools to the nomadic peoples who served as intermediaries. Like the Islamic expansion that preceded it, the Mongol explosion did much to lay the foundations for more human interaction on a global scale, extending and intensifying the world network that had been building since the classical age.        This section will explore the sources of the Mongol drive for a world empire and the course of Mongol expansion. Particular attention will be given to the nomadic basis of the Mongol war machine and the long-standing patterns of nomadic-sedentary interaction that shaped the character, direction, and impact of Mongol expansion. After a discussion of the career and campaigns of Chinggis Khan, separate sections of this chapter will deal with Mongol conquest and rule in Russia and eastern Europe, the Middle East, and China. The chapter will conclude with an assessment of the meaning of the Mongol interlude for the development of civilization and the growth of cross-cultural interaction on a global scale. In both their destructive and constructive roles, the Mongols generated major changes within the framework of global history. The Mongol Empire Of Chinggis Khan        Mongol legends suggest that the ancient ancestors of the Mongols were forest-dwelling hunters, and the hunt persisted as a central element in Mongol culture. By the time the Mongols are first mentioned in the accounts of the sedentary peoples, who traded with them and periodically felt the fury of their lightning raids, most of them had adopted the life-style of the herding, horse-riding nomads of the central Asian steppes. In fact, in most ways the Mongols epitomized nomadic society and culture. Their survival depended on the well-being of the herds of goats and sheep they drove from one pasture area to another according to the cycle of the seasons. Their staple foods were the meat and milk products provided by their herds, supplemented in most cases by grain and vegetables gained through trade with sedentary farming peoples. They also traded hides and dairy products for jewelry, weapons, and cloth manufactured in urban centers. They dressed in sheepskins, made boots from tanned sheep hides, and lived in round felt tents that were processed from wool sheared from their animals. The tough little ponies they rode to round up their herds, hunt wild animals, and make war, were equally essential to their way of life. Both male and female Mongol children could ride as soon as they were able to walk. Mongol warriors could literally ride for days on end, sleeping and eating in the saddle. Ponies were the Mongols' most prized possessions. Deprived of their horses on the harsh and vast steppes, tribespeople could not survive long. Thus, horse stealing became a major object of interclan and tribal raids and an offense that brought instant death if the original owners caught up with the thieves.        Like the Arabs and other nomadic peoples we have encountered, the basic unit of Mongol society was the tribe, which was divided into kin-related clans whose members camped and herded together on a regular basis. When threatened by external enemies or in preparation for raids on other nomads or invasions of sedentary areas, clans and tribes could be combined in great confederations. Depending on the skills of their leaders, these confederations could be held together for months or even years. But when the threat had passed or the raiding was done, clans and tribes invariably drifted back to their own pasturelands and campsites. At all organizational levels leaders were elected by the free males of the group. Though women exercised considerable influence within the family and had the right to be heard in tribal councils, males dominated positions of leadership. The elected leaders normally exhibited the qualities and skills that were essential to survival in the steppe environment where rash action or timid hesitation could lead to the destruction of a leader's kinsmen and dependents.        Courage in battle, usually evidenced from youth by bravery in the hunt, and the capacity to forge alliances and attract dependents were vital leadership skills. A strong leader could quickly build up a large following of chiefs from other clans and tribal groups. Some of these subordinates might be defeated rivals who had been enslaved by the victorious chief, though often the life-style of master and slave differed little. Should the leader grow old and feeble or suffer severe reverses, his once-loyal subordinates would quickly abandon him. He expected this to happen, and the subordinates felt no remorse. Their survival and that of their dependents hinged on attaching themselves to a strong tribal leader.   The Making Of A Great Warrior: The Early Career Of Chinggis Khan        Indo-European and then Turkic-speaking nomads had dominated the steppes and posed the principal threat to Asian and European sedentary civilizations in the early millennia of recorded history. But peoples speaking Mongolian languages had enjoyed moments of power and actually carved out regional kingdoms in north China in the 4th and 10th centuries A.D. In fact, in the early 12th century, Chinggis Khan's great-grandfather, Kabul Khan, had led a Mongol alliance that had won glory by defeating an army sent against them by the Qin kingdom of north China. Soon after this victory, Kabul Khan became ill and died, and his successors could neither defeat their nomadic enemies nor hold the Mongol alliance together. Divided and beaten, the Mongols fell on hard times.      Chinggis Khan, who as a youth was named Temujin, was born in the 1170s into one of the splinter clans that fought for survival in the decades after the death of Kabul Khan. Temujin's father was an able leader, who managed to build up a decent following and negotiate a promise of marriage between his eldest son and the daughter of a stronger Mongol chief. Just when the family fortunes seemed to be on the upswing, Temujin's father was poisoned by the agents of a rival nomadic group, according to Mongol accounts. Suddenly, Temujin, who was still a teenager, was thrust into a position of leadership. But most of the chiefs who had attached themselves to his father refused to follow a mere boy, whose prospects of survival appeared to be slim.        In the months that followed, his much-reduced encampment was threatened and finally attacked by a rival tribe. Temujin was taken prisoner in 1182, locked into a wooden collar, and led in humiliation to the camp of his enemies. After a daring midnight escape, Temujin rejoined his mother and brothers and found refuge for his tiny band of followers deep in the mountains. Facing extermination, Temujin did what any sensible nomad leader would have done: he and his people joined the camp of a more powerful Mongol chieftain, who had once been aided by Temujin's father. With the support of this powerful leader, Temujin revenged the insults of the clan that had enslaved him and another that had taken advantage of his weakness to raid his camp for horses and women. These successes and Temujin's growing reputation as a warrior and military commander soon won him allies and clan chiefs eager to attach themselves to a leader with a promising future. Within a decade, the youthful Temujin had defeated his Mongol rivals and routed the forces sent to crush him by the Tartars and other nomadic peoples. In 1206, at a kuriltai, or meeting of all of the Mongol chieftains, Temujin -renamed Chinggis Khan -was elected the khaghan, or supreme ruler, of the Mongol tribes. United under a strong leader, the Mongols prepared to launch a massive assault on an unsuspecting world. Building The Mongol War Machine        The men of the Mongol tribes that had elevated Chinggis Khan to leadership were in many ways natural warriors. Trained from youth not only to ride but also to hunt and fight, they were physically tough, mobile, and accustomed to killing and death. They wielded a variety of weapons, including lances, hatchets, and iron maces. None of their weapons was as demoralizing for enemy forces as their powerful short bows. A Mongol warrior could fire a quiver of arrows with stunning accuracy without breaking the stride of his horse. He could hit enemy soldiers as distant as 400 yards (compared to a range of 250 yards for the English longbow) while charging straight ahead, ducking under the belly of his pony, or leaning over the horse's rump while retreating from superior forces. The fact that the Mongol armies were entirely cavalry meant that they possessed speed and a mobility that were demoralizing to enemy forces. Leading two or three horses to use as remounts, Mongol warriors could spend more than one week in the saddle and, when pressed, cover 80 or 90 miles per day. They could strike before their enemies had prepared their defenses, hit unanticipated targets, retreat back to the steppes after suffering temporary reverses, and then suddenly reappear in force.        To a people whose very life-style bred mobility, physical courage, and a love of combat, Chinggis Khan and his many able subordinate commanders brought organization, discipline, and unity of command. The old quarrels and vendettas between clans and tribes were overridden by loyalty to the khaghan, and energies once devoted to infighting were now directed toward conquest and looting in the civilized centers that fringed the steppes on all sides. The Mongol forces were divided into armies made up of basic fighting units called tumens, consisting of 10,000 cavalrymen. Each tumen was further divided into units of 1000, 100, and 10 warriors. Commanders at each level were responsible for the training, arming, and discipline of the cavalrymen under their charge. The tumens were also divided into heavy cavalry, which carried lances and wore some metal armor, and light cavalry, which relied primarily on the bow and arrow and leather helmets and body covering. Even more lightly armed and protected were the scouting parties that rode ahead of Mongol armies and, using flags and special signal fires, kept the main force apprised of the enemy's movements.      Chinggis Khan also created a separate messenger force, whose bodies were tightly bandaged to allow them to remain in the saddle for days, switching from horse to horse to carry urgent messages between the khaghan and his commanders. Military discipline had long been secured by personal ties between commanders and ordinary soldiers. Mongol values, which made courage in battle a prerequisite for male self-esteem, were also buttressed by a formal code that dictated the immediate execution of a warrior who deserted his unit. Chinggis Khan's swift executions left little doubt about the fate of traitors to his own cause or turncoats who abandoned enemy commanders in his favor. His generosity to brave foes was also legendary. The most famous of the latter, a man named Jebe, nicknamed "the arrow," won the khaghan's affection and high posts in the Mongol armies by standing his ground after his troops had been routed and fearlessly shooting Chinggis Khan's horse out from under him.        A special unit supplied Mongol armies with excellent maps of the areas they were to invade, based largely on information supplied by Chinggis Khan's extensive network of spies and informers. New weapons, including a variety of flaming and exploding arrows, gunpowder projectiles, and later bronze cannons, were also devised for the Mongol forces. By the time his armies rode east and west in search of plunder and conquest in the 2d decade of the 13th century, Chinggis Khan's warriors were among the best armed and trained and the most experienced, disciplined, and mobile soldiers in the world.   Conquest: The Mongol Empire Under Chinggis Khan        When he was proclaimed the khaghan in 1206, Temujin was probably not yet 40 years old. At that point, he was the supreme ruler of nearly one-half million Mongol tribesmen and the overlord of one to two million more nomadic tribesmen who had been defeated by his armies or had voluntarily allied themselves with this promising young commander. But Chinggis Khan had much greater ambitions. He once remarked that his greatest pleasure in life was making war, defeating enemies, forcing ". . . their beloved [to] weep, riding on their horses, embracing their wives and daughters." He came to see himself and his sons as men marked for a special destiny; warriors born to conquer the known world. In 1207, he set out to fulfill this ambition. His first campaigns humbled the Tangut kingdom of Xi-Xia in northwest China, whose ruler was forced to declare himself a vassal of the khaghan and pay a hefty tribute. Next the Mongol armies attacked the much more powerful Qin Empire, which the Manchu-related Jurchens had established a century earlier in north China.        In these campaigns, the Mongol armies were confronted for the first time with large, fortified cities their adversaries assumed could easily withstand the assaults of these uncouth tribesmen from the steppes. Indeed, at first the Mongol invaders were thwarted by the intricate defensive works that the Chinese had perfected over the centuries to deter nomadic incursions. But the adaptive Mongols, with the help of captured Chinese artisans and military commanders, soon devised a whole arsenal of siege weapons. These included battering rams, catapults that hurled rocks and explosive balls, and bamboo rockets that spread fire and fear in besieged towns.        Chinggis Khan and the early Mongol commanders had little regard for these towns, whose inhabitants they regarded as soft and effete. Therefore, when resistance was encountered, the Mongols adopted a policy of terrifying retribution. Though the Mongols often spared the lives of famed scholars -whom they employed as advisors -and artisans with particularly useful skills, towns that fought back were usually sacked once they had been taken. The townspeople were slaughtered or sold into slavery; their homes, palaces, mosques, and temples were reduced to rubble. Towns that surrendered without a fight were usually spared this fate, though they were required to pay tribute to their Mongol conquerors as the price of their deliverance.   First Assault On The Islamic World; Conquest In China        Having established a foothold in north China and solidified his empire in the steppes, Chinggis Khan sent his armies westward against the Kara-Khitai Empire established by a Mongolian-speaking people a century earlier. Having overwhelmed and annexed the Kara-Khitai, in 1219 Chinggis Khan sent envoys to demand the submission of Muhammad Shah II, the Turkic ruler of the Khwarazm Empire to the west. Outraged by the audacity of the still little-known Mongol commander, one of Muhammad's subordinates had some of Chinggis Khan's later envoys killed and sent the rest with shaved heads back to the khaghan. These insults, of course, meant war, a war in which the Khwarazm were overwhelmed. Their great cities fell to the new siege weapons and tactics the Mongols had perfected in their north China campaigns. Their armies were repeatedly routed in battles with the Mongol cavalry. Again and again, the Mongols used their favorite battle tactic in these encounters. Cavalry was sent to attack the enemy's main force. Feigning defeat, the cavalry retreated, drawing the opposing forces out of formation in the hopes of a chance to slaughter the fleeing Mongols. Once the enemy's pursuing horsemen had spread themselves over the countryside, the main force of Mongol heavy cavalry, until then concealed, attacked them in a devastating pincers formation.        Like the Russians, Hungarians, Chinese, and numerous other adversaries, the Khwarazm never seemed to catch on to these well-executed ruses, and many a proud and much larger army was destroyed in the Mongol trap. Within two years, his once flourishing cities in ruin, his kingdom in Mongol hands, Muhammad Shah II, having retreated across his empire, died on a desolate island near the Caspian Sea. In addition to greatly enlarging his domains, Chinggis Khan's victories meant that he could incorporate tens of thousands of Turkic horsemen into his armies. With his forces greatly enlarged by these new recruits, he once again turned eastward, where in the last years of his life his armies destroyed the Xi-Xia kingdom and overran the Qin Empire of north China. By 1227, the year of his death, the Mongols ruled an empire that stretched from eastern Persia to the North China Sea.   Life Under The Mongol Yoke        Despite their fury as warriors and the horrible destruction they could unleash on those who resisted their demands for submission and tribute, the Mongols proved remarkably astute and tolerant rulers. Chinggis Khan himself set the standards in this regard, and most of these were followed by his more able successors. He was a complex man. He was capable, as we have seen, of gloating over the ruin of his enemies, but was also open to new ideas and committed to building a world where the diverse peoples of his empire could live together in peace. Though illiterate, Chinggis Khan was neither the ignorant savage nor the cultureless vandal often depicted in the accounts of civilized writers - usually those who had never met him. Once the conquered peoples had been subdued, he took a keen interest in their arts and learning, though he refused to live in their cities. Instead he established a new capital at Karakorum on the steppes and summoned the wise and clever from all parts of the empire to the lavish palace of tents with gilded pillars where he lived with his wives, closest advisors, and personal bodyguards that now numbered over a thousand of the best and most loyal troops.        At Karakorum, Chinggis Khan consulted with Confucian scholars about how to rule China; with Muslim engineers about how to build siege weapons and improve trade with the lands farther west; and with Daoist holy men, whom he hoped could provide him with an elixir that would make him immortal. Though he himself followed the shamanistic (focused on the propitiation of nature spirits) beliefs of his ancestors, all religions were tolerated in his empire. He was visited by Muslim mullahs, Buddhist and Daoist monks, and Christian missionaries. The followers of these faiths, as well as smaller religious communities, such as the Jews and Zoroastrians, worshipped without fear of persecution throughout his empire.      Chinggis Khan and his advisors sought to establish the basis for lasting peace and prosperity in his domains. Drawing on the advice and talents of both Muslim and Chinese bureaucrats, an administrative framework was created. A script was devised for the Mongolian language in order to facilitate record keeping and the standardization of laws. Chinggis Khan promulgated a legal code that was enforced by a special police force. Much of the code was aimed at putting an end to the divisions and quarrels that had so long occupied the Mongols. Grazing lands were systematically allotted to different tribes, and harsh penalties were established for rustling livestock or stealing horses. On the advice of his Chinese counselors, Chinggis Khan resisted the temptation to turn the cultivated lands of north China into a vast grazing area, which of course would have meant the destruction of tens of millions of peasants. Instead he ordered that the farmers be regularly taxed to support his courts and future military expeditions.      Above all, the Mongol conquests brought a peace to much of Asia that in some areas persisted for generations. In the towns of the empire, handicraft production and scholarship flourished and artistic creativity was allowed free expression. Chinggis Khan and his successors actively promoted the growth of trade and travelers by protecting the caravans that made their way across the ancient Asian silk routes and by establishing rest stations for weary merchants and fortified outposts for those harassed by bandits. One Muslim historian wrote of the peoples within the domains of the khaghan that they "enjoyed such a peace that a man might have journeyed from the land of sunrise to the land of sunset with a golden platter upon his head without suffering the least violence from anyone." Secure trade routes made for prosperous merchants and wealthy, cosmopolitan cities. They also facilitated the spread of foods such as sorghum, sugar, citrus fruits, and grapes; inventions such as firearms, printing, and windmills; and techniques ranging from those involving papermaking to those for improving irrigation from one civilization to another. Paradoxically, Mongol expansion, which began as a "barbarian" orgy of violence and destruction, had become a major force for economic and social development and the enhancement of civilized life.   The Death Of Chinggis Khan And The Division Of The Empire        When the Mongols had moved west to attack Kara Khitai in 1219, support was demanded from the vassal king of Xi-Xia. The Tangut ruler had impudently responded that if the Mongols were not strong enough to win wars on their own, they were best advised to refrain from attacking others. In 1226, his wars in the west won, Chinggis Khan turned east with an army of 180,000 warriors to punish the Tanguts and complete a conquest that he regretted having left unfinished over a decade earlier. After routing a much larger Tangut army in a battle fought on the frozen waters of the Yellow River, the Mongol armies overran Xi-Xia, plundering and burning and mercilessly hunting down any Tangut survivors. As his forces closed in on the Tangut capital and last refuge, Chinggis Khan, who had been injured in a skirmish some months earlier, fell grievously ill. After impressing upon his sons the dangers of quarreling among themselves for the spoils of the empire, the khaghan died in August of 1227.        With one last outburst of Mongol wrath, this time directed against death itself, his body was carried back to Mongolia for burial. The Mongol forces escorting the funeral procession hunted down and killed every human and animal in its path. As Chinggis Khan had instructed, his armies also treacherously slaughtered the unarmed inhabitants of the Tangut capital after a truce and surrender had been arranged.      The vast pasturelands the Mongols now controlled were divided between Chinggis Khan's three remaining sons and Batu, a grandson and heir of the khaghan's recently deceased son Jochi. Towns and cultivated areas like those in north China and parts of Persia were considered the common property of the Mongol ruling family. A kuriltai was convened at Karakorum, the Mongol capital, to select a successor to the great conqueror. In accordance with Chinggis Khan's preference, Ogedei, his third son, was elected grand khan. Though not as capable a military leader as his brothers or nephews, Ogedei was a crafty diplomat and deft manipulator, skills much needed if the ambitious heads of the vast provinces of the empire were to be kept from each others' throats.      For nearly a decade, Ogedei directed Mongol energies into further campaigns and conquests. The areas that were targeted by this new round of Mongol expansion paid the price for peace within the Mongol Empire. The fate of the most important victims -Russia and eastern Europe, the Islamic heartlands, and China -will be the focus of much of the rest of this chapter. As we shall see, the Mongols were by no means finished with their efforts to build a world empire and to alter the course of global history.   The Mongol Drive To The West        While in pursuit of the Khwarazm ruler, Muhammad Shah II, the Mongols had made their first contacts with the rich kingdoms to the west of the steppe heartlands of Chinggis Khan's empire. Raids of reconnaissance into Georgia and across the Russian steppe convinced the Mongol commanders that the Christian lands to the west were theirs for the taking. Russia and Europe were added to their agenda for world conquest. The subjugation of these regions became the project of the armies of the Golden Horde, which was named after the golden tent of the early khans of the western sector of the Mongol Empire. The territories of the Golden Horde, which covered much of what is today south-central Russia, made up the four great khanates into which the Mongol Empire had been divided at the time of Chinggis Khan's death. The khanate to the south, called the Ilkhan Empire, claimed the task of completing the conquest of the Muslim world that had begun with the invasion of the Khwarazm domains. Though neither Europe nor the Islamic heartlands were ultimately subdued, Mongol successes on the battlefield and the fury of their assaults affected the history of the regions that came under attack, particularly Russia and the Islamic world.        In a very real sense the Mongol assault on Russia was a side campaign, a chance to fine-tune the war machine and win a little booty while en route to the real prize, western Europe. As we saw in Chapter 15, in the first half of the 13th century when the Mongol warriors first descended, a more united Russia had been divided into numerous petty kingdoms, centered on trading cities such as Novgorod and Kiev. By this time Kiev, which had originally dominated much of central Russia, had been in decline for some time. As a result there was no paramount power to rally Russian forces against the invaders. Despite the dire warnings spread by those who had witnessed the crushing defeats suffered by the Georgians in the early 1220s, the princes of Russia refused to cooperate. They preferred to fight alone and be routed individually.      In 1236, Chinggis Khan's grandson Batu led a Mongol force of upwards of 120,000 cavalrymen into the Russian heartlands. From 1237 to 1238 and later in 1240, these "Tartars," as the Russian peoples called them, carried out the only successful winter invasions in Russian history. In fact, the Mongols preferred to fight in the winter. The frozen earth provided good footing for their horses and frozen rivers gave them access rather than blocking the way to their enemies. One after another, the Mongol armies defeated the often much larger forces of local nomadic groups and the Russian princes. Cities such as Rizan, Moscow, and Vladimir, which resisted the Mongol command to surrender, were razed to the ground; their inhabitants were slaughtered or led into slavery. As a contemporary Russian chronicler observed, "no eye remained to weep for the dead." Just as it appeared that all of Russia would be ravaged by the Mongols, whom the Russians compared to locusts, Batu's armies withdrew. The largest cities, Novgorod and Kiev, appeared to have been spared. Russian priesti thanked God; the Mongol commanders blamed the spring thaw, which slowed the Mongol horsemen and raised the risk of defeat in the treacherous mud.      Salvation yielded to further disasters when the Mongols returned in force in the winter of 1240. In this second campaign, even the great walled city of Kiev, which had reached a population of over 100,000 by the end of the 12th century, fell. Enraged by Kievan resistance -its ruler had ordered the Mongol envoys thrown from the city walls -the Mongols reduced the greatest city in Russia to a smoldering ruin. The cathedral of Saint Sophia was spared, but the rest of the city was systematically looted and destroyed, its inhabitants smoked out and slaughtered. Novgorod again braced itself for the Mongol onslaught. Again it was, according to the Russian chroniclers, "miraculously" spared. In fact it was saved largely due to the willingness of its prince, Alexander Nevskii, to submit, at least temporarily, to Mongol demands. In addition, the Mongol armies were eager to move on to the main event, the invasion of western Europe.      The crushing victories of Batu's armies initiated nearly two and one-half centuries of Mongol dominance in Russia. Russian princes were forced to submit as vassals of the khan of the Golden Horde and to pay tribute or risk the ravages of Mongol raiders. Mongol exactions fell particularly heavily on the Russian peasantry, who had to yield up their crops and labor to both their own princes and the Mongol overlords. Impoverished and ever fearful of the lightning raids of Mongol marauders, the peasants fled to remote areas or became, in effect, the serfs (see Chapter 16) of the Russian ruling class in return for protection.      The decision on the part of many peasants to become the lifetime laborers of the nobility resulted in a major change in the rural social structure of Russia. Until the mid-19th century, the great majority of the population of Russia would be tied to the lands they worked and bound to the tiny minority of nobles who owned these great estates. Some Russian towns made profits on the increased trade Mongol links made possible, and sometimes the gains exceeded the tribute they paid to the Golden Horde. No town benefited from the Mongol presence more than Moscow. Badly plundered and partially burned in the early Mongol assaults, the city was gradually rebuilt and its ruling princes steadily swallowed up nearby towns and surrounding villages. After 1328, Moscow also profited from its status as the tribute collector for the Mongol khans. Its princes not only used their position to fill their own coffers, they annexed further towns as punishment for falling behind on the payment of their tribute.      As Moscow grew in strength, the power of the Golden Horde declined. Mongol religious toleration benefited both the Orthodox church and Moscow. The Metropolitan, or head of the Orthodox church, was made the representative of all the clergy in Russia, which did much to enhance the church's standing. The choice of Moscow as the seat of the Orthodox leaders brought new sources of wealth to its princes and buttressed Muscovite claims to be Russia's leading city. In 1380, those claims received an additional boost when the princes of Moscow shifted from being tribute collectors to being the defenders of Russia. In alliance with other Russian vassals, they raised an army that defeated the forces of the Golden Horde at the battle of Kulikova. Their victory and the devastating blows Timur's attacks dealt the Golden Horde two decades later effectively broke the Mongol hold over Russia. Mongol forces raided as late as the 1450s, and the princes of Muscovy did not formally renounce their vassal status until 1480. But from the end of the 14th century, Moscow was the center of political power in Russia, and it was armies from Poland and Lithuania that posed the main threat to Russian peace and prosperity.        Though much of the Mongolnimpact was negative, their conquest proved in a number of ways a decisive turning point in Russian history. In addition to their meaning for Moscow and the Orthodox church, Mongol contacts led to changes in Russian military organization and tactics and the political style of Russian rulers. Claims that the Tartars were responsible for Russian despotism, either Tsarist or Stalinist, are clearly overstated. Still, the Mongol example may have influenced the desire of Russian princes to centralize their control and minimize the limitations placed on their power by the landed nobility, the clergy, and wealthy merchants. By far the greatest effects of Mongol rule, however, were those resulting from Russia's relative isolation from Christian lands farther west. On the one hand, the Mongols protected a divided and weak Russia from the attacks of much more powerful kingdoms such as Poland, Lithuania, and Hungary as well as the "crusades" of militant Christian orders like the Teutonic Knights, which were determined to stamp out the Orthodox heresy. On the other hand, Mongol overlordship cut Russia off from key transformations in western Europe that were inspired by the Renaissance and led ultimately to the Reformation. The Orthodox clergy, of course, would have had little use for these influences, but their absence severely reduced the options available for Russian political, economic, and intellectual development. Mongol Incursions And The Retreat From Europe        Until news of the Mongol campaigns in Russia reached European peoples such as the Germans and Hungarians farther west, Christian leaders had been quite pleased by the rise of a new military power in central Asia. Rumors and reports from Nestorian Christians, chafing under what they perceived as the persecution of their Muslim overlords, convinced many in western Europe that the Mongol Khan was none other than Prester John. Prester John was the name given to a mythical, rich and powerful Christian monarch whose kingdom had supposedly been cut off from Europe by the Muslim conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries. Sometimes located in Africa, sometimes in central Asia, Prester John loomed large in the European imagination as a potential ally who could strike the Muslim enemy from the rear and join up with European Christians to destroy their common adversary. The Mongol assault on the Muslim Khwarazm Empire appeared to confirm the speculation that Chinggis Khan was indeed Prester John.      The assault on Christian, though Orthodox, Russia made it clear that the Mongol armies were neither the legions of Prester John nor more partial to the Christians than any other people who stood in their way. The rulers of Europe were nevertheless slow to realize the magnitude of the threat the Mongols posed to western Christendom. When Mongol envoys, one of whom was an Englishman, arrived at the court of King Bela of Hungary demanding that he surrender a group of nomads who had fled to his domains after being beaten by the Mongols in Russia, he contemptuously dismissed them and Batu's demand that he submit to Mongol overlordship. Bela reasoned that he was the ruler of a powerful kingdom, while the Mongols were just another ragtag band of nomads in search of easy plunder. As had so often been the case in the past, his foolish refusal to negotiate provided the Mongols with a pretext to invade. Their ambition remained the conquest and pillage of all western Europe. That this goal was clearly attainable was demonstrated by the sound drubbing they gave to first the Hungarians in 1240 and then to a mixed force of Christian knights led by the German ruler, King Henry of Silesia. In both battles, the Mongols used the time-tested tactic of retreat and envelopment. In the first engagement 70,000 Christian soldiers perished; in the second, 40,000 Europeans died, many of them the elite of eastern European knighthood.        These victories left the Mongols free to raid and pillage from the Adriatic Sea region in the south to Poland and the German states of the north. It also left the rest of Europe open to Mongol conquest. Just as the kings and clergy of the western portions of Christendom were beginning to fear the worst, the Mongol forces disappeared. The death of the Khaghan Ogedei, in the distant Mongol capital at Karakorum, forced Batu to withdraw in preparation for the struggle for succession that was under way. The campaign for the conquest of Europe was never resumed. Perhaps Batu was satisfied with the huge empire of the Golden Horde that he ruled from his splendid new capital at Sarai; most certainly the Mongols had found richer lands to plunder in the following decades in the Muslim empires of the Middle East. Whatever the reason, Europe was spared the full fury of the Mongol assault. Of the civilizations that fringed the steppe homelands of the Mongols, only India would be as fortunate. The Mongol Assault On The Islamic Heartlands        After the Mongol conquest of the Khwarazm Empire, it was only a matter of time before they struck westward against the far wealthier Muslim empires of Mesopotamia and North Africa. The conquest of these areas became the main project of Hulegu, another grandson of Chinggis Khan and the ruler of the Ilkhan portions of the Mongol Empire. As we saw in Chapter 12, one of the key results of Hulegu's assaults on the Muslim heartlands was the capture and destruction of Baghdad in 1258. The murder of the Abbasid caliph, one of some 800,000 people who were reported to have been killed in Mongol retribution for the city's resistance, brought an end to the dynasty that had ruled the core regions of the Islamic world since the middle of the 8th century. A major Mongol victory over the Seljuk Turks in 1243 also proved critical to the future history of the region, because it opened up Asia Minor to conquest by a different Turkic people, the Ottomans, who would be the next great power in the Islamic heartlands.      The opening sieges of Hulegu's campaigns had also destroyed the Assassins, who had posed a major threat to Sunni Muslims for centuries. The hundreds of mountain fortresses of the sect were captured and destroyed. One of these, Alamut, held out for three years despite the Mongol siege engines. Finally, the leader of the sect was taken prisoner and sent to the khaghan at Karakorum. Refused an audience, the last of the Assassins' commanders was murdered by his captors.      Despite the removal of the Assassin menace, it is understandable that Muslim historians treated the coming of the Mongols as one of the great catastrophes in the history of Islam. The murder of the caliph and his family left the faithful without a central authority; the sack of Baghdad and numerous other cities from central Asia to the shores of the Mediterranean devastated the focal points of Islamic civilization. The Mongols had also severely crippled Muslim military strength, much to the delight of the Christians, especially those like the Nestorians who lived in the Middle East. Some Christians offered assistance in the form of information; others, especially the Nestorians from inner Asia, served as commanders in Hulegu's armies. One contemporary Muslim chronicler, Ibn al-Athir, found the tribulations the Mongols had visited on his people so horrific that he apologized to his readers for recounting them and wished that he had not been born to witness them. He lamented that:        . . . in just one year they seized the most populous, the most beautiful,      and the best cultivated part of the earth whose inhabitants excelled in      character and urbanity. In the countries that have not yet been overrun      by them, everyone spends the night afraid that they may yet appear there,      too. . . . Thus, Islam and the Muslims were struck, at that time, by a      disaster such as no people had experienced before.        Given these reverses, one can imagine the relief the peoples of the Muslim world felt when the Mongols were finally defeated in 1260 by the armies of the Mameluk, or slave, dynasty of Egypt at Ain Jalut. Ironically, Baibars, the commander of the Egyptian forces, and many of his lieutenants had been enslaved by the Mongols some years earlier and sold in Egypt, where they rose to power through military service. The Muslim victory was won with the rare cooperation of the Christians, who allowed Baibars's forces to cross upopposed through their much diminished, crusader territories in Palestine. Hulegu was in central Asia, engaged in yet another succession struggle, when the battle occurred. Upon his return, he was forced to reconsider his plans for conquest of the entire Muslim world. The Mameluks were deeply entrenched and growing stronger; Hulegu was threatened by his cousin Berke, the new khan of the Golden Horde to the north, who had converted to Islam. After openly clashing with Berke and learning of Baibars's overtures for an alliance with the Golden Horde, Hulegu decided to settle for the sizeable kingdom he already ruled, which stretched from the frontiers of Byzantium to the Oxus River in central Asia. The Mongol Impact On Europe And The Islamic World        Though much of what the Mongols wrought on their westward march was destructive, some benefits were reaped from their forays into Europe and conquests in Muslim areas. By example, they taught new ways of making war and impressed on their Turkic and European enemies the effectiveness of gunpowder. As we have seen, Mongol conquests facilitated trade between the civilizations at each end of Eurasia, making possible the exchange of foods, tools, and ideas on an unprecedented scale. The revived trade routes brought great wealth to traders such as those from north Italy, who set up outposts in the eastern Mediterranean, along the Black Sea coast, and as far east as the Caspian Sea. Because the establishment of these trading empires by the Venetians and Genoese provided precedents for the later drives for overseas expansion by peoples such as the Portuguese and English, they are of special significance in global history.      Perhaps the greatest long-term impact of the Mongol drive to the west was indirect and unintended. In recent years a growing number of historians have become convinced that the Mongol conquests played a key role in transmitting the fleas that carried bubonic plague from central Asia to Europe and the Middle East. The fleas may have hitched a ride on the livestock the Mongols drove into the new pasturelands won by their conquests or on the rats who nibbled the grain transported by merchants along the trading routes the Mongol rulers fostered between east and west. Whatever the exact connection, the Mongol armies unknowingly paved the way for the spread of the dreaded Black Death across the steppes to the Islamic heartlands and from there to most of Europe in the mid-14th century. In so doing, they unleashed possibly the most fatal epidemic in all human history. From mortality rates higher than half the population in some areas of Europe and the Middle East to the economic and social adjustments that the plague forced wherever it spread, this accidental, but devastating, side effect of the Mongol conquests influenced the course of civilized development in Eurasia for centuries to come.   The Mongol Interlude In Chinese History        Soon after Ogedei was elected as the great khan, the Mongol advance into China was resumed. Having conquered Xi-Xia, the Mongol commanders now turned to the Qin Empire to the east, which had proven the most resistant of all the kingdoms assaulted under the leadership of Chinggis Khan. During the Mongol campaign, the Chinese Song ruler to the south, seeing a chance to weaken the long-standing "barbarian" threat from the northeast, made the mistake of allowing Mongol armies to pass through his lands to attack the Qin and even sent troops to help with the siege of the Qin capital. By 1234 the Qin had been overwhelmed, and the buffer between the Song and the Mongols had been all but destroyed. But the Mongols still did not occupy most of the Qin domains or attempt to govern them directly. The Song rulers then betrayed the Mongol alliance by attempting to garrison some of the cities they had jointly besieged. The Mongols returned in force, making short work of the rump state of Qin and sweeping onward into the Song-ruled south.        In the campaigns against the Song, the Mongol forces were directed by Kubilai Khan, one of the grandsons of Chinggis Khan and a man who would play a pivotal role in Chinese history for the next half century. Even under a decadent dynasty that had long neglected its defenses, south China proved one of the toughest areas for the Mongols to conquer. From 1235 to 1279, the Mongols were continually on the march; they fought battle after battle and besieged seemingly innumerable, well-fortified Chinese cities. In 1260, Kubilai assumed the title of the great khan, much to the chagrin of his cousins who ruled other parts of the empire. A decade later in 1271, on the recommendation of Chinese advisors, he changed the name of the Mongol dynasty to the Sinicized Yuan. Though he was still nearly a decade away from fully defeating the last-ditch efforts of Confucian advisors and Chinese generals to save the Song dynasty, Kubilai ruled most of China, and he now set about the task of establishing Mongol control on a more permanent basis.   Kubilai Khan And The Mongol Presence In China        Kubilai had long been fascinated by Chinese civilization. Even before he had begun the conquest of the Song Empire, Kubilai had surrounded himself with Chinese advisors, some Buddhist, others Daoist or Confucian. His capital at Tatu in the north (present-day Beijing) was built on the site occupied by earlier dynasties, and he introduced Chinese rituals and classical music into his own court. But he did not then, nor later when he had conquered the south, listen to the pleas of his Confucian advisors to reestablish the civil service exams, which had been discontinued by the Qin rulers. Thus, from the outset, Kubilai was ambivalent in his attitude toward the ancient civilization that was slipping piecemeal under Mongol control. He was determined to preserve Mongol separateness and to keep the scholar-gentry from gaining too much power -hence the refusal to reintroduce the exams. But he also adopted a Chinese life-style, was anxious to follow Chinese precedents, and became a major patron of the arts and a promoter of Chinese culture in general. Despite his efforts to preserve Mongol identity, Kubilai's choice of China as the site of his capital and his deep involvement in Chinese affairs signaled, in effect, the passing of an overarching command of the far-flung Mongol Empire. From the late 13th century onward, the main divisions of the empire were ruled and governed as virtually independent realms.        Kubilai promulgated many laws to preserve the distinction between Mongol and Chinese. He forbade Chinese scholars to learn the Mongol script, which was used for records and correspondence at the upper levels of the imperial government. Mongols were forbidden to marry ethnic Chinese, and only women from nomadic families were selected for the imperial harem. Even friendships between the two peoples were discouraged. Mongol religious ceremonies and customs were retained, and a tent encampment in the traditional Mongol style was set up in the imperial city, even though Kubilai usually resided in a Chinese-style palace. Kubilai and his successors continued to enjoy key Mongol pastimes such as the hunt, and Mongol military forces remained separate from Chinese.      In the Yuan era, a new social structure was established in China with the Mongols on top and their central Asian nomadic and Muslim allies right below them in the hierarchy. These two groups occupied most of the offices at the highest levels of the bureaucracy. Beneath them came the north Chinese and below them the ethnic Chinese and the minority peoples of the south. Though ethnic Chinese from both north and south ran the Yuan bureaucracy at the regional and local levels, they could ordinarily exercise power at the top only as advisors to the Mongols or other nomadic officials. At all levels, their activities were scrutinized by Mongol functionaries from an enlarged and much-strengthened censors' bureau. Gender And The Cultural Barriers        Mongol women in particular remained aloof from Chinese culture, at least Chinese culture in its Confucian guise. Like their counterparts in the Tang era, some of the wives of the emperors exercised considerable political power at the court. Perhaps the most notable in this regard was Kubilai's wife, Chabi, who not only gave him critical advice on how to counter the schemes of his ambitious brother but also promoted the interests of the Buddhists in the highest circles of government. At one point, she intervened to frustrate a plan to turn cultivated lands near the capital into pasturelands for the Mongols' ponies. After the conquest of the Qin, Chabi convinced Kubilai that lenient treatment of the survivors of the defeated royal family was the best way to reconcile the peoples of north China to Mongol rule.        It was not just the imperial consorts who enjoyed a remarkable degree of influence and freedom compared to their Chinese counterparts. Mongol women refused to adopt the practice of foot-binding that so constricted the activities of Chinese women. They retained their rights to property and control within the household and the capacity to move freely about town and countryside. No more striking evidence can be found than accounts that describe Mongol women riding to the hunt, both with their husbands and at the head of their own hunting parties. The daughter of one of Kubilai's cousins even went to war, and she refused to marry until one of her many suitors proved able to throw her in a wrestling match. Unfortunately, the Mongol era was too brief to reverse the trends that were lowering the position of Chinese women. As neo- Confucianism gained ground under Kubilai's successors, the arguments for the confinement of women multiplied.   Mongol Adoption Of Chinese Ways        Though Kubilai Khan was much more taken with Chinese culture and eager to adopt Chinese ways than most of his Mongol followers, those who settled down in China invariably became Sinified to varying degrees. This was perhaps inevitable when one considers that at most there were only a few hundred thousand Mongols residing in the midst of a Chinese population of perhaps 90 million. Much to the dismay of Mongol purists fresh from the steppes, Kubilai modeled much at his capital and court at Tatu after Chinese precedents. His palace was laid out like those of Chinese emperors and made up primarily of Chinese-style buildings, despite the tents in the parklands and altars for sacrifices to the Mongol deities. The upper levels of the bureaucracy were organized and run, minus the civil service exams, along Tang-Song lines. Kubilai put the empire on the Chinese calendar, listened to Chinese music, and offered sacrifices to his ancestors at a special temple in the imperial city. He also summoned the best Confucian scholars to give his son a proper Chinese education, a move that perhaps more than any other demonstrated his determination to civilize his Mongol followers.   Mongol Tolerance And Foreign Cultural Influences        Like Chinggis Khan and a number of other Mongol overlords, Kubilai had an unbounded curiosity and very cosmopolitan tastes. His generous patronage drew to his splendid court scholars, artists, artisans, and office seekers from many lands. Some of the most favored came from regional Muslim kingdoms to the east that had also come under Mongol rule. Muslims were included in the second highest social grouping, just beneath the Mongols themselves. Persians and Turks were admitted to the inner circle of Kubilai's administrators and advisors. Muslims designed and supervised the building of his Chinese-style imperial city and proposed new systems for the more efficient collection of taxes. Persian astronomers imported more advanced Middle Eastern instruments for celestial observations, corrected the Chinese calendar, and made some of the most accurate maps that the Chinese had ever seen. Muslim doctors ran the imperial hospitals and added translations of 36 volumes on Muslim medicine to the imperial library. Though some of Kubilai's most powerful advisors were infamous for their corrupt ways, most served him well and did much to advance Chinese learning and technology through the transmission of texts, instruments, and weapons from throughout the Muslim world.        In addition to the Muslims, Kubilai welcomed travelers and emissaries from many foreign lands to his court. Like his grandfather, Kubilai displayed a strong interest in all religions and insisted on toleration in his domains. Buddhists, Nestorian Christians, Daoists and Latin Christians made their way to his court. The most renowned of the latter were members of the Polo family from Venice in northern Italy, who traveled extensively in the Mongol Empire in the middle of the 13th century. Marco Polo's account of Kubilai Khan's court and empire is perhaps the most famous travel account written by a European. Marco accepted fantastic tales of grotesques and strange customs, and he may have cribbed parts of his account from other sources. Still, his descriptions of the palaces, cities, and wealth of Kubilai's empire enhanced European interest in the "Indies" and helped to inspire efforts by navigators like Columbus to find a water route to these fabled lands.   Social Policies And Scholar-Gentry Resistance        Kubilai's efforts to promote Mongol adaptation to Chinese culture were overshadowed in the long run by countervailing measures to preserve Mongol separateness. The ethnic Chinese, particularly in the south, who made up the vast majority of his subjects were never really reconciled to Mongsl rule. Despite Kubilai's cultivation of Confucian rituals and his extensive employment of Chinese bureaucrats, most of the scholar-gentry regarded the Mongol overlord and his successors as uncouthhbarbarians whose policies endangered Chinese traditions. As it was intended to do, Kubilai's refusal to reinstate the examination route to administrative office prevented Confucian scholars from dominating politics. The favoritism he showed Mongol and other foreign officials further alienated the scholar-gentry.        To add insult to injury, Kubilai went to great lengths to bolster the position of the artisan classes, who had never enjoyed high standing, and the merchants, whom the Confucian thinkers had long dismissed as parasites. The Mongols had from the outset shown great regard for artisans, often sparing them the slaughter meted out to their fellow city dwellers because of their useful skills. During the Yuan period in China, merchants also prospered and commerce boomed, partly owing to Mongol efforts to improve transportation and expand the supply of paper money. The Mongols developed -with amazing speed for a people who had no prior experience with seafaring -a substantial navy that played a major role in the conquest of the Song Empire. After the conquest of China was completed, the great Mongol war fleets were used to put down pirates, who threatened river and overseas commerce, and, toward the end of Kubilai's reign, for overseas expeditions of conquest and exploration. Thus, during the Yuan period, artisans and traders enjoyed a level of government backing and social status that was never again equaled in Chinese civilization.      Ironically, despite the Mongol's ingrained suspicion of cities and sedentary life-styles, both flourished in the Yuan era. The urban expansion begun under the Tang and Song dynasties continued, and the Mongol elite soon became addicted to the diversions of urban life. Though traditional Chinese artistic endeavors, such as poetry and essay writing, languished under the Mongols in comparison with their flowering in the Tang-Song eras, popular entertainments, particularly musical dramas, flourished. Perhaps the most famous of Chinese dramatic works, The Romance of the West Chamber, was written in the Yuan period, and dozens of major playwrights wrote for the court, the rising merchant classes, and the well-heeled Mongol elite. Actors and actresses, who had long been relegated by the Confucian scholars to the despised status of "mean people," achieved celebrity and some measure of social esteem. All of this rankled the scholar-gentry, who bided their time, waiting for the chance to restore Confucian decorum and what they believed to be the proper social hierarchy for a civilized people like the Chinese.        Initially at least, Kubilai Khan pursued policies toward one social group, the peasants, that the scholarly class would have heartily approved. He issued edicts forbidding Mongol cavalrymen from turning croplands into pasture and restored the granary system for famine relief that had been badly neglected in the late Song. Kubilai also sought to reduce peasant tax and corvee-labor burdens, partly by redirecting peasant payments from local non-official tax farmers directly to government officials. He and his advisors also formulated a revolutionary plan to establish elementary education at the village level. Though the level of learning they envisioned was rudimentary, such a project - if it had been enacted - would have provided a major challenge to the elite-centric educational system that hitherto had dominated Chinese civilization.      If the scholar-gentry were upset over reports of the impending educational reforms, the peasants grew disgruntled about a further rural project that was put into effect. All peasant households were organized into 50-unit clusters that were intended to enhance peasant cooperation, improve farming techniques, and increase productivity. Because each cluster was supervised by state officials and each household was responsible for reporting misdeeds by members of the others, the scheme was also clearly a device for asserting state control. Because in practice its control functions were favored at the expense of its potential for agrarian improvement, the reorganization was increasingly resented by the peasants, whose discontent had much to do with the rapid demise of the Yuan dynasty.   The Fall Of The House Of Yuan        Historians often remark on the seeming contradiction between the military prowess of the Mongol conquerors and the short life of the dynasty they established in China. Kubilai Khan's long reign encompassed a good portion of the nine decades that the Mongols ruled all of China. Already by the end of his reign, the dynasty was showing signs of weakening. Song loyalists raised the standard of revolt in the south, and popular hostility toward the foreign overlords was expressed more and more openly. The Mongol aura of military invincibility was badly tarnished by Kubilai's rebuffs at the hands of the military lords of Japan and the failure of the expeditions that he sent to punish them, first in 1274 and a much larger effort that was mounted in 1280. The defeats suffered by Mongol forces engaged in similar expeditions to Vietnam and Java in this same period further undermined the Mongols' standing.        Kubilai's dissolute life-style in his later years, partly brought on by the death of his favorite wife Chabi and, five years later, the death of his favorite son, set the tone for a general softening of the Mongol ruling class as a whole. Kubilai's successors lacked his capacity for leadership and cared little for the tedium of day-to-day administrative tasks. Many of the Muslim and Chinese functionaries to whom they entrusted the finances of the empire enriched themselves through flagrant graft and corruption. This greatly angered the hard-pressed peasantry who had to bear the burden of rising taxes and demands for forced labor. The scholar-gentry played on this discontent by calling on the people to rise up and overthrow the "barbarian" usurpers.        By the 1350s, the signs of dynastic decline were apparent. Banditry and piracy were widespread, and the government's forces were too feeble to curb them. Famines hit many regions and spawned local uprisings that grew to engulf large portions of the empire. Secret religious sects, such as the White Lotus Society, were formed that were dedicated to the overthrow of the dynasty. Their leaders' claims that they had magical powers to heal their followers and to confound their enemies helped prompt further peasant resistance against the Mongols. As had been the case in the past, rebel leaders quarreled and fought with each other. For a time chaos reigned as the Yuan regime dissolved, and those Mongols who could escape the fury ofpthe mob retreated back into central Asia. The restoration of peace and order came from an unexpected quarter. Rather than a regional military commander or aristocratic lord, a man from an impoverished peasant family, Ju Yuanzhang, emerged to found the Ming dynasty that would rule China for most of the next three centuries.   Analysis: The Eclipse Of The Nomadic War Machine        As the shock waves of the Mongol and Timurid explosions amply demonstrated, nomadic incursions into the civilized cores have had an impact on global history that far exceeds what one would expect, given the relatively small numbers of nomadic peoples and the limited resources of the regions they inhabited. From the time of the great Indo-European migrations in the formative epoch of civilized development in the 3d and 2d millennia b.c. (see Chapters 2, 3 and 4) through the classical and postclassical eras, nomadic peoples periodically emerged from their steppe, prairie, and desert fringe homelands to invade, often build empires, and settle in the sedentary zones of Eurasia, Africa, and the Americas. Their intrusions have significantly altered political history by destroying existing polities and even -as in the case of Assyria and Harappa -whole civilizations. They have also generated major population movements, sparked social upheavals, and facilitated critical cultural and economic exchanges across civilizations. As the Mongols' stunning successes in the 13th century illustrate, the capacity of nomadic peoples to break through the defenses of the much more populous civilized zones and to establish control over much richer and more sophisticated peoples arose primarily from the advantages the nomads possessed in waging war.        A reservoir of battle-ready warriors and mobility have from ancient times proven the key to success for expansion-minded nomads. Harsh environments and ongoing intertribal and interclan conflicts for survival within them produced tough, resourceful fighters who could live off the land on the march and who regarded combat as an integral part of their lives. The horses and camels on which pastoral peoples in Eurasia and Sudanic Africa relied gave them a degree of mobility that confounded the sedentary peoples who sought to ward off their incursions. The mounted warriors of nomadic armies possessed the advantages of speed, surprise, and superior intelligence, which was gathered by mounted reconnaissance patrols. The most successful nomadic invaders, such as the Mongols, also proved willing to experiment with and adapt to technological innovations with military applications. Some of these, such as the stirrup and various sorts of harnesses, were devised by the nomads themselves. Others, such as gunpowder and the siege engines -both Muslim and Chinese -that the Mongols used to smash the defenses of walled towns, were borrowed from sedentary peoples and adapted to the nomads' fighting machines.        Aside from the considerable military advantages that accrued from nomadic life-styles and social organization, their successes in war owed much to the weaknesses of their adversaries in the sedentary, civilized zones. The great empires that provided the main defense for agricultural peoples against nomadic incursions were even in the best circumstances diverse and overextended polities, in which imperial control -and protection -diminished steadily as one moved away from the capital and core provinces. Imperial boundaries were usually fluid, and the outer provinces were consistently vulnerable to nomadic raids, if not conquest.        Classical and postclassical empires, such as the Egyptian and Han and the Abbasid, Byzantine, and Song enjoyed great advantages over the nomads in terms of the populations and resources they controlled. But their armies were, almost without exception, too slow, too low on firepower, and too poorly trained to resist large and well-organized forces of nomadic intruders. In times of dynastic strength in the sedentary zones, well-defended fortress systems and ingenious weapons -such as the cross bow, which could be fairly easily mastered by the peasant conscripts -proved quite effective against nomadic incursions. Nonetheless, even the strongest dynasties depended heavily on "protection" payments to nomad leaders and the divisions among the nomadic peoples on their borders for their security. And even the strongest sedentary empires were periodically shaken by nomadic raids into the outer provinces. When the empires weakened or when large numbers of nomads were united under able leaders, such as Muhammad and his successors or Chinggis Khan, nomadic assaults made a shambles of sedentary armies and fortifications.        In the centuries after the Mongol and Timurid explosions, which in many ways represented the apex of nomadic power and influence on world history, this age-old pattern of interaction between nomads and farming town-dwelling peoples was fundamentally transformed. This transformation resulted in the growing ability of sedentary peoples to first resist and then dominate nomadic peoples, and it marks a major watershed in the history of the human community. Some of the causes of the shift were immediate and specific. The most critical of these was the devastation wrought by the Black Death on the nomads of Central Asia in the 14th century. Though the epidemic proved catastrophic for large portions of the civilized zones as well, it dealt the relatively sparse nomadic populations a blow from which they took centuries to recover. The more rapid demographic -relating to population trends -resurgence of the sedentary peoples greatly increased their already considerable numerical advantage over the nomadic peoples in the following centuries. The combination of this growing numerical advantage, which in earlier epochs the nomads had often been able to overcome, with key political and economic shifts and technological innovations proved critical in bringing about the decline of the nomadic war machine.      In the centuries after the Mongol conquests, the rulers of sedentary states found increasingly effective ways of centralizing their political power and mobilizing the manpower and resources of their domains for war. Some improvements in this regard were made by the rulers of China and the empires of the Islamic belt. But the sovereigns of the nascent states of western Europe surpassed all other potentates in advances in these spheres. Stronger control and better organization allowed a growing share of steadily increasing national wealth to be channeled toward military ends. The competing rulers of Europe also invested heavily in technological innovations with military applications, from improved metalworking techniques to the development of ever more potent gunpowder and firearms. From the 15th and 16th centuries, the discipline and training of European armies also improved markedly. With pikes, muskets, fire drill, and trained commanders, European armies were more than a match for the massed nomad cavalry that had so long terrorized sedentary peoples.      With the introduction early in the 17th century of light, mobile field artillery into European armies, the nomads' retreat began. States such as Russia, which had centralized power on the western European model, as well as the Ottoman Empire in the eastern Mediterranean and the Qing in China, which had shared many of the armament advances of the Europeans, moved steadily into the steppe and desert heartlands of the horse and camel nomads. Each followed a conscious policy of settling part of its rapidly growing peasant population in the areas taken from the nomads. Thus, nomadic populations were not only brought under the direct rule of sedentary empires, their pasturelands were plowed and planted wherever the soil and water supply permitted.        These trends suggest that the nomadic war machine had been in decline long before the new wave of innovation that ushered in the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century. But that process sealed its fate. Railways and repeating rifles allowed sedentary peoples to penetrate even the most wild and remote of the nomadic refuges and subdue even the most determined and fierce of nomadic warriors, from the Plains Indians of North America to the bedouin of the Sahara and Arabia. The periodic nomadic incursions into the sedentary zones, which had reoccurred sporadically for millennia, had come to an end.   Conclusion: The Mongol Legacy and an Aftershock: The Brief Ride of Timur   [See Timur The Lame: In 1398 Timur-i Lang's central Asian armies left Delhi completely destroyed and India politically fragmented.]        As we have seen, the Mongol impact on the many areas where they raided and conquered varied considerably. The sedentary peoples on the farms and in the cities, who experienced the fury of their assaults and the burden of their tribute exactions, understandably emphasized the destructive side of the Mongol legacy. But the Mongol campaigns also decisively influenced the course of human history in the ways they altered warfare and the political repercussions they generated in invaded areas. Mongol armies, for example, provided openings for the rise of Moscow as the central force in the creation of a Russian state, they put an end to Abbasid and Seljuk power, and they opened the way for the Mameluks and the Ottomans. The Mongol Empire promoted trade and important exchanges among civilizations, though, as the spread of the black death illustrates, the latter were not always beneficial. Mongol rule also brought stable, at times quite effective, government and religious toleration to peoples over much of Asia. On balance, it can be argued that the cost of these by-products of Mongol expansion was far too high. However high the price, there can be little doubt that the Mongol interlude changed the course of human history in major ways. It represented the most significant involvement of nomadic peoples in the development of civilization since the transition to sedentary agriculture in the Neolithic epoch.        Just as the peoples of Eurasia had begun to recover from the upheavals caused by Mongol expansion, a second nomadic explosion from central Asia plunged them again into fear and despair. This time the nomads in question were Turks, not Mongols, and their leader, Timur-i Lang or Timur the Lame, was from a noble landowning clan, not a tribal, herding background. Timur's was a decidedly divided personality. On the one hand, he was a highly cultured individual who delighted in the fine arts, lush gardens, and splendid architecture, and who could spend days conversing with great scholars such as the Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun. On the other, he was a ruthless conqueror, apparently indifferent to human suffering and capable of commanding his troops to commit atrocities on a scale that would not be matched in the human experience until the 20th century. Beginning in the 1360s, his armies moved out from his base at Samarkand to conquests in Persia, the Fertile Crescent, India, and southern Russia.      If his empire did not begin to compare with that of the Mongols in size, he outdid them in the ferocity of his campaigns. In fact, Timur is remembered for little more than truly barbaric destruction -for the pyramids of skulls he built with the heads of the tens of thousands of people slaughtered after the city of Aleppo in Asia Minor was taken, or the thousands of prisoners he had massacred as a warning to the citizens of Delhi in north India not to resist his armies. In the face of this wanton slcughter, the fact that he spared artisans and scientists to embellish his capital city at Samarkand counts for little. Unlike the Mongols, his rule brought neither increased trade and significant cross-cultural exchanges nor internal peace. Mercifully, his reign was as brief as it was violent. After his death in 1405, his empire was pulled apart by his warring commanders and old enemies anxious for revenge. With his passing, the last great challenge of the steppe nomads to the civilizations of Eurasia came to an end.

Genghis Khan

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Genghis Khan - Wikipedia, Photos and Videos Genghis Khan NEXT GO TO RESULTS [51 .. 100] WIKIPEDIA ARTICLE This article is about the Mongolian emperor. For other uses, see Genghis Khan (disambiguation) . "Temujin" redirects here. For the video game, see Temujin (video game) . Genghis khan Genghis Khan as portrayed in a 14th-century Yuan era album. Original size is 47 cm wide and 59.4 cm high. Paint and ink on silk. Now located in the National Palace Museum , Taipei , Taiwan . Reign Spring 1206 in a kurultai at the Onon River , Mongolia Successor August 18, 1227 [3] (aged c. 65) Spouse Genghis Khan ( /ˈdʒɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn/ , often pronounced /ˈɡɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn/ ; [4] [5] Mongolian : Чингис хаан, Çingis hán; Mongolian pronunciation:  listen ) ) c. 1162 – August 18, 1227, born Temüjin, was the founder and Great Khan (Emperor) of the Mongol Empire , which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death. He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of Northeast Asia . After founding the Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started the Mongol invasions that conquered most of Eurasia . Campaigns initiated in his lifetime include those against the Qara Khitai , Caucasus , and Khwarazmian , Western Xia and Jin dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by wholesale massacres of the civilian populations – especially in the Khwarazmian and Western Xia controlled lands. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China . Before Genghis Khan died, he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor and split his empire into khanates among his sons and grandsons. [6] He died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. He was buried in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia. [7] His descendants extended the Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia by conquering or creating vassal states in all of modern-day China, Korea , the Caucasus , Central Asia, and substantial portions of modern Eastern Europe, Russia, and Southwest Asia . Many of these invasions repeated the earlier large-scale slaughters of local populations. As a result, Genghis Khan and his empire have a fearsome reputation in local histories. [8] Beyond his military accomplishments, Genghis Khan also advanced the Mongol Empire in other ways. He decreed the adoption of the Uyghur script as the Mongol Empire's writing system. He also practiced meritocracy and encouraged religious tolerance in the Mongol Empire, and unified the nomadic tribes of Northeast Asia. Present-day Mongolians regard him as the founding father of Mongolia . [9] Although known for the brutality of his campaigns [10] and considered by many to have been a genocidal ruler, Genghis Khan is also credited with bringing the Silk Road under one cohesive political environment. This brought communication and trade from Northeast Asia into Muslim Southwest Asia and Christian Europe , thus expanding the horizons of all three cultural areas. Contents Temüjin was related on his father's side to Khabul Khan , Ambaghai , and Hotula Khan , who had headed the Khamag Mongol confederation and were descendants of Bodonchar Munkhag (c. 900). When the Jurchen Jin dynasty switched support from the Mongols to the Tatars in 1161, they destroyed Khabul Khan . [11] Temüjin's father, Yesügei (leader of the Borjigin clan and nephew to Ambaghai and Hotula Khan ), emerged as the head of the ruling Mongol clan. This position was contested by the rival Tayichi'ud clan, who descended directly from Ambaghai . When the Tatars grew too powerful after 1161, the Jin switched their support from the Tatars to the Keraites . Birth Autumn at the Onon River , Mongolia, the region where Temüjin was born and grew up. Little is known about Temüjin's early life, due to the lack of contemporary written records. The few sources that give insight into this period often contradict. Temüjin's name was derived from the Mongol word temür meaning "of iron", while jin denotes agency [12] thus temüjin means "blacksmith". [13] Temüjin was probably born in 1162 [2] in Delüün Boldog , near the mountain Burkhan Khaldun and the rivers Onon and Kherlen in modern-day northern Mongolia , close to the current capital Ulaanbaatar . The Secret History of the Mongols reports that Temüjin was born grasping a blood clot in his fist, a traditional sign that he was destined to become a great leader. He was the second son of his father Yesügei who was a Kiyad chief prominent in the Khamag Mongol confederation and an ally of Toghrul Khan of the Keraite tribe. [14] Temüjin was the first son of his mother Hoelun . According to the Secret History, Temüjin was named after the Tatar chief Temüjin-üge whom his father had just captured. Yesukhei's clan was Borjigin (Боржигин), and Hoelun was from the Olkhunut sub-lineage of the Khongirad tribe. [15] [16] Like other tribes, they were nomads . Temüjin's noble background made it easier for him to solicit help from and eventually consolidate the other Mongol tribes.[ citation needed ] Early life and family Temüjin had three brothers Hasar , Hachiun , and Temüge , one sister Temülen , and two half-brothers Begter and Belgutei . Like many of the nomads of Mongolia, Temüjin's early life was difficult. His father arranged a marriage for him and delivered him at age nine to the family of his future wife Börte of the tribe Khongirad . Temüjin was to live there serving the head of the household Dai Setsen until the marriageable age of 12. While heading home, his father ran into the neighboring Tatars , who had long been Mongol enemies, and they offered him food that poisoned him. Upon learning this, Temüjin returned home to claim his father's position as chief. But the tribe refused this and abandoned the family, leaving it without protection. For the next several years, the family lived in poverty, surviving mostly on wild fruits, ox carcasses , marmots , and other small game killed by Temüjin and his brothers. Temujin's older half-brother Begter began to exercise power as the eldest male in the family and would eventually have the right to claim Hoelun (who was not his own mother) as wife. [17] Temujin's resentment erupted during one hunting excursion when Temüjin and his brother Khasar killed Begter . [17] In a raid around 1177, Temujin was captured by his father's former allies, the Tayichi'ud , and enslaved, reportedly with a cangue (a sort of portable stocks). With the help of a sympathetic guard, he escaped from the ger (yurt) at night by hiding in a river crevice.[ citation needed ] The escape earned Temüjin a reputation. Soon, Jelme and Bo'orchu joined forces with him. They and the guard's son Chilaun eventually became generals of Genghis Khan. At this time, none of the tribal confederations of Mongolia were united politically, and arranged marriages were often used to solidify temporary alliances. Temüjin grew up observing the tough political climate, which included tribal warfare , thievery , raids , corruption, and revenge between confederations, compounded by interference from abroad such as from China to the south. Temüjin's mother Hoelun taught him many lessons, especially the need for strong alliances to ensure stability in Mongolia. Marriage to Börte As previously arranged by his father, Temüjin married Börte of the Onggirat tribe when he was around 16 in order to cement alliances between their two tribes. Soon after the marriage, Börte was kidnapped by the Merkits and reportedly given away as a wife. Temüjin rescued her with the help of his friend and future rival, Jamukha , and his protector, Toghrul Khan of the Keraite tribe. She gave birth to a son, Jochi (1185–1226), nine months later, clouding the issue of his parentage. Despite speculation over Jochi, Börte would be Temüjin's only empress, though he did follow tradition by taking several morganatic wives. [18] Börte had three more sons, Chagatai (1187–1241), Ögedei (1189–1241), and Tolui (1190–1232). Genghis Khan also had many other children with his other wives, but they were excluded from succession. The names of at least six daughters are known, and while they played significant roles behind the scenes during his lifetime, no documents have survived that definitively provide the number or names of daughters born to the consorts of Genghis Khan. [19] Uniting the Mongol confederations See also: Proto-Mongols and List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans The locations of the Mongolian tribes during the Khitan Liao dynasty (907–1125) In the early 13th century, the Central Asian plateau north of China was divided into several tribes of confederation , including Naimans , Merkits , Tatars , Khamag Mongols , and Keraites , that were all prominent and often unfriendly toward each other, as evidenced by random raids, revenge attacks, and plundering . Early attempts at power Temüjin began his ascent to power by offering himself as an ally (or, according to other sources, a vassal ) to his father's anda (sworn brother or blood brother ) Toghrul , who was Khan of the Keraites , and is better known by the Chinese title " Wang Khan ", which the Jurchen Jin dynasty granted him in 1197. This relationship was first reinforced when Börte was captured by the Merkits. Temüjin turned to Toghrul for support, and Toghrul offered 20,000 of his Keraite warriors and suggested that Temüjin involve his childhood friend Jamukha , who had himself become Khan of his own tribe, the Jadaran . [20] Although the campaign recaptured Börte and utterly defeated the Merkits , it also paved the way for the split between Temüjin and Jamukha. Before this, they were blood brothers (anda) vowing to remain eternally faithful. Rift with Jamukha and defeat at Dalan Balzhut As Jamukha and Temüjin drifted apart in their friendship, each began consolidating power, and they became rivals. Jamukha supported the traditional Mongolian aristocracy , while Temüjin followed a meritocratic method, and attracted a broader range and lower class of followers. [21] His earlier defeat of the Merkits, and a proclamation by the shaman Kokochu that the Eternal Blue Sky had set aside the world for Temüjin, Temüjin began rising to power. [22] In 1186, Temüjin was elected khan of the Mongols . Threatened by this rise, Jamukha attacked Temujin in 1187 with an army of 30,000 troops. Temüjin gathered his followers to defend against the attack, but was decisively beaten in the Battle of Dalan Balzhut. [22] [23] However, Jamukha horrified and alienated potential followers by boiling 70 young male captives alive in cauldrons. [24] Toghrul , as Temüjin's patron, was exiled to the Qara Khitai . [25] The life of Temüjin for the next 10 years is unclear, as historical records are mostly silent on that period. [25] Return to power Around the year 1197, the Jin initiated an attack against their formal vassal, the Tatars , with help from the Keraites and Mongols . Temüjin commanded part of this attack, and after victory, he and Toghrul were restored by the Jin to positions of power. [25] The Jin bestowed Toghrul with the honorable title of Ong Khan, and Temüjin with a lesser title of j'aut quri." [26] Around 1200, the main rivals of the Mongol confederation (traditionally the "Mongols") were the Naimans to the west, the Merkits to the north, the Tanguts to the south, and the Jin to the east. Jurchen inscription (1196) in Mongolia relating to Genghis Khan's alliance with the Jin against the Tatars. In his rule and his conquest of rival tribes, Temüjin broke with Mongol tradition in a few crucial ways. He delegated authority based on merit and loyalty, rather than family ties. [27] As an incentive for absolute obedience and the Yassa code of law, Temüjin promised civilians and soldiers wealth from future war spoils. When he defeated rival tribes, he did not drive away their soldiers and abandon their civilians. Instead, he took the conquered tribe under his protection and integrated its members into his own tribe. He would even have his mother adopt orphans from the conquered tribe, bringing them into his family. These political innovations inspired great loyalty among the conquered people, making Temüjin stronger with each victory. [27] Rift with Toghrul Senggum , son of Toghrul (Wang Khan), envied Temüjin's growing power and affinity with his father. He allegedly planned to assassinate Temüjin. Although Toghrul was allegedly saved on multiple occasions by Temüjin, he gave in to his son [28] and became uncooperative with Temüjin. Temüjin learned of Senggum's intentions and eventually defeated him and his loyalists. Genghis Khan and Toghrul Khan , illustration from a 15th-century Jami' al-tawarikh manuscript One of the later ruptures between Temüjin and Toghrul was Toghrul's refusal to give his daughter in marriage to Jochi , Temüjin's first son. This was disrespectful in Mongolian culture and led to a war. Toghrul allied with Jamukha , who already opposed Temüjin's forces. However, the dispute between Toghrul and Jamukha, plus the desertion of a number of their allies to Temüjin, led to Toghrul's defeat. Jamukha escaped during the conflict. This defeat was a catalyst for the fall and eventual dissolution of the Keraite tribe. The next direct threat to Temüjin was the Naimans (Naiman Mongols), with whom Jamukha and his followers took refuge. The Naimans did not surrender, although enough sectors again voluntarily sided with Temüjin. In 1201, a khuruldai elected Jamukha as Gür Khan , "universal ruler", a title used by the rulers of the Qara Khitai . Jamukha's assumption of this title was the final breach with Temüjin, and Jamukha formed a coalition of tribes to oppose him. Before the conflict, several generals abandoned Jamukha, including Subutai , Jelme's well-known younger brother. After several battles, Jamukha was turned over to Temüjin by his own men in 1206. According to the Secret History, Temüjin again offered his friendship to Jamukha . Temüjin had killed the men who betrayed Jamukha, stating that he did not want disloyal men in his army. Jamukha refused the offer, saying that there can only be one sun in the sky, and he asked for a noble death. The custom was to die without spilling blood, specifically by having one's back broken. Jamukha requested this form of death, although he was known to have boiled his opponents' generals alive. Sole ruler of the Mongol plains (1206) Genghis Khan proclaimed Khagan of all Mongols. Illustration from a 15th-century Jami' al-tawarikh manuscript. Mongol Empire circa 1207 The part of the Merkit clan that sided with the Naimans were defeated by Subutai , who was by then a member of Temüjin's personal guard and later became one of the most successful commanders of Genghis Khan. The Naimans' defeat left Temüjin as the sole ruler of the Mongol steppe – all the prominent confederations fell or united under his Mongol confederation. Accounts of Genghis Khan's life are marked by claims of a series of betrayals and conspiracies. These include rifts with his early allies such as Jamukha (who also wanted to be a ruler of Mongol tribes) and Wang Khan (his and his father's ally), his son Jochi , and problems with the most important shaman , who allegedly tried to drive a wedge between him and his loyal brother Khasar . His military strategies showed a deep interest in gathering intelligence and understanding the motivations of his rivals, exemplified by his extensive spy network and Yam route systems. He seemed to be a quick student, adopting new technologies and ideas that he encountered, such as siege warfare from the Chinese . He was also ruthless, demonstrated by his tactic of measuring against the linchpin , used against the tribes led by Jamukha. As a result, by 1206, Temüjin had managed to unite or subdue the Merkits , Naimans , Mongols , Keraites, Tatars , Uyghurs , and other disparate smaller tribes under his rule. This was a monumental feat. It resulted in peace between previously warring tribes, and a single political and military force. The union became known as the Mongols. At a Khuruldai , a council of Mongol chiefs, Temüjin was acknowledged as Khan of the consolidated tribes and took the new title "Genghis Khan". The title Khagan was conferred posthumously by his son and successor Ögedei who took the title for himself (as he was also to be posthumously declared the founder of the Yuan dynasty ). Religion Genghis Khan was a tengrist , but was religiously tolerant and interested in learning philosophical and moral lessons from other religions. He consulted Buddhist monks, Muslims , Christian missionaries, and the Taoist monk Qiu Chuji . [29] Genghis Khan, and the following Yuan Emperors forbade Islamic practices like Halal butchering , forcing Mongol methods of butchering animals on Muslims , and other restrictive degrees continued. Muslims had to slaughter sheep in secret. [30] Genghis Khan directly called Muslims and Jews " slaves ", and demanded that they follow the Mongol method of eating rather than the halal method. Circumcision was also forbidden. Jews were also affected, and forbidden by the Mongols to eat Kosher . [31] Among all the [subject] alien peoples only the Hui-hui say "we do not eat Mongol food". [Cinggis Qa'an replied:] "By the aid of heaven we have pacified you; you are our slaves. Yet you do not eat our food or drink. How can this be right?" He thereupon made them eat. "If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime." He issued a regulation to that effect ... [In 1279/1280 under Qubilai] all the Muslims say: "if someone else slaughters [the animal] we do not eat". Because the poor people are upset by this, from now on, Musuluman [Muslim] Huihui and Zhuhu [Jewish] Huihui, no matter who kills [the animal] will eat [it] and must cease slaughtering sheep themselves, and cease the rite of circumcision. [32] Military campaigns Main article: Mongol conquest of Western Xia During the 1206 political rise of Genghis Khan, the Mongol Empire created by Genghis Khan and his allies shared its western borders with the Western Xia dynasty of the Tanguts . To the east and south was the Jin dynasty , founded by the Manchurian Jurchens , who ruled northern China as well as being the traditional overlords of the Mongolian tribes for centuries. Battle between Mongol warriors and the Chinese . Genghis Khan entering Beijing . Genghis Khan organized his people, army, and his state to first prepare for war with Western Xia, or Xi Xia, which was close to the Mongolian lands. He correctly believed that the more powerful young ruler of the Jin dynasty would not come to the aid of Xi Xia. When the Tanguts requested help from the Jin dynasty, they were refused. [28] Despite initial difficulties in capturing its well-defended cities, Genghis Khan managed to force the emperor of Xi Xia to submit to vassal status. Jin dynasty Main article: Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty In 1211, after the conquest of Western Xia, Genghis Khan planned again to conquer the Jin dynasty . Wanyan Jiujin, the field commander of the Jin army, made a tactical mistake in not attacking the Mongols at the first opportunity. Instead, the Jin commander sent a messenger, Ming'an , to the Mongol side, who defected and told the Mongols that the Jin army was waiting on the other side of the pass. At this engagement fought at Yehuling , the Mongols massacred hundreds of thousands of Jin troops. In 1215, Genghis besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Zhongdu (modern-day Beijing ). This forced the Jin ruler, Emperor Xuanzong , to move his capital south to Kaifeng , abandoning the northern half of his empire to the Mongols. Between 1232 and 1233, Kaifeng fell to the Mongols under the reign of Genghis's third son, Ögedei Khan. The Jin dynasty collapsed in 1234, after the siege of Caizhou . Qara Khitai Main article: Qara Khitai Kuchlug , the deposed Khan of the Naiman confederation that Temüjin defeated and folded into his Mongol Empire, fled west and usurped the khanate of Qara Khitai (also known as the Western Liao, as it was originally established as remnants of the Liao dynasty ). Genghis Khan decided to conquer the Qara Khitai and defeat Kuchlug, possibly to take him out of power. By this time the Mongol army was exhausted from ten years of continuous campaigning in China against the Western Xia and Jin dynasty. Therefore, Genghis sent only two tumen (20,000 soldiers) against Kuchlug, under his younger general, Jebe , known as "The Arrow". With such a small force, the invading Mongols were forced to change strategies and resort to inciting internal revolt among Kuchlug's supporters, leaving the Qara Khitai more vulnerable to Mongol conquest. As a result, Kuchlug's army was defeated west of Kashgar . Kuchlug fled again, but was soon hunted down by Jebe's army and executed. By 1218, as a result of defeat of Qara Khitai, the Mongol Empire and its control extended as far west as Lake Balkhash , which bordered Khwarazmia , a Muslim state that reached the Caspian Sea to the west and Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea to the south. Khwarazmian Empire Main article: Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia In the early 13th century, the Khwarazmian dynasty was governed by Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad . Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in Khwarazmia as a commercial trading partner using the Silk Road , and he initially sent a 500-man caravan to establish official trade ties with the empire. However, Inalchuq , the governor of the Khwarazmian city of Otrar , attacked the caravan, claiming that the caravan contained spies and therefore was a conspiracy against Khwarazmia. The situation became further complicated because the governor later refused to make repayments for the looting of the caravans and handing over the perpetrators. Genghis Khan then sent again a second group of three ambassadors (two Mongols and a Muslim) to meet the Shah himself instead of the governor Inalchuq. The Shah had all the men shaved and the Muslim beheaded and sent his head back with the two remaining ambassadors. This was seen as an affront and insult to Genghis Khan. Outraged, Genghis Khan planned one of his largest invasion campaigns by organizing together around 100,000 soldiers (10 tumens ), his most capable generals and some of his sons. He left a commander and number of troops in China, designated his successors to be his family members and likely appointed Ögedei to be his immediate successor and then went out to Khwarazmia. Genghis Khan watches in amazement as the Khwarezmi Jalal ad-Din prepares to ford the Indus . The Mongol army under Genghis Khan, generals and his sons crossed the Tien Shan mountains by entering the area controlled by the Khwarazmian Empire . After compiling intelligence from many sources Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, which was divided into three groups. His son Jochi led the first division into the northeast of Khwarazmia. The second division under Jebe marched secretly to the southeast part of Khwarazmia to form, with the first division, a pincer attack on Samarkand . The third division under Genghis Khan and Tolui marched to the northwest and attacked Khwarazmia from that direction. The Shah's army was split by diverse internecine feuds and by the Shah's decision to divide his army into small groups concentrated in various cities. This fragmentation was decisive in Khwarazmia's defeats, as it allowed the Mongols, although exhausted from the long journey, to immediately set about defeating small fractions of the Khwarazmian forces instead of facing a unified defense. The Mongol army quickly seized the town of Otrar , relying on superior strategy and tactics. Genghis Khan ordered the wholesale massacre of many of the civilians, enslaved the rest of the population and executed Inalchuq by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes, as retribution for his actions. Near the end of the battle the Shah fled rather than surrender. Genghis Khan ordered Subutai and Jebe to hunt him down, giving them 20,000 men and two years to do this. The Shah died under mysterious circumstances on a small island within his empire. The Mongols' conquest, even by their own standards, was brutal. After the capital Samarkand fell, the capital was moved to Bukhara by the remaining men, while Genghis Khan ordered two of his generals and their forces to completely destroy the remnants of the Khwarazmian Empire, including not only royal buildings, but entire towns, populations, and even vast swaths of farmland. Significant conquests and movements of Genghis Khan and his generals. The Mongols attacked Samarkand using captured enemies as body shields. After several days only a few remaining soldiers, loyal supporters of the Shah , held out in the citadel. After the fortress fell, Genghis supposedly reneged on his surrender terms and executed every soldier that had taken arms against him at Samarkand. The people of Samarkand were ordered to evacuate and assemble in a plain outside the city, where they were killed and pyramids of severed heads raised as a symbol of victory. [33] Ata-Malik Juvayni , a high official in the service of the Mongol empire, wrote that in Termez , on the Oxus , "all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain". [33] The city of Bukhara was not heavily fortified, with a moat and a single wall, and the citadel typical of Khwarazmian cities. The city leaders opened the gates to the Mongols, though a unit of Turkish defenders held the city's citadel for another twelve days. Survivors from the citadel were executed, artisans and craftsmen were sent back to Mongolia, young men who had not fought were drafted into the Mongolian army and the rest of the population was sent into slavery. As the Mongol soldiers looted the city, a fire broke out, razing most of the city to the ground. [34] Genghis Khan had the city's surviving population assemble in the main mosque of the town, where he declared that he was the flail of God, sent to punish them for their sins. Meanwhile, the wealthy trading city of Urgench was still in the hands of Khwarazmian forces. The assault on Urgench proved to be the most difficult battle of the Mongol invasion and the city fell only after the defenders put up a stout defense, fighting block for block. Mongolian casualties were higher than normal, due to the unaccustomed difficulty of adapting Mongolian tactics to city fighting. As usual, the artisans were sent back to Mongolia, young women and children were given to the Mongol soldiers as slaves, and the rest of the population was massacred. The Persian scholar Juvayni states that 50,000 Mongol soldiers were given the task of executing twenty-four Urgench citizens each, which would mean that 1.2 million people were killed. The sacking of Urgench is considered one of the bloodiest massacres in human history . In the meantime, Genghis Khan selected his third son Ögedei as his successor before his army set out, and specified that subsequent Khans should be his direct descendants. Genghis Khan also left Muqali , one of his most trusted generals, as the commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China while he was out battling the Khwarezmid Empire to the west. Georgia, Crimea, Kievan Rus and Volga Bulgaria Main articles: Mongol invasions of Georgia and Armenia and Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria Mongol "Great Khans" coin, minted in 1221 at Balk, Afghanistan , AH 618 After the defeat of the Khwarazmian Empire in 1220, Genghis Khan gathered his forces in Persia and Armenia to return to the Mongolian steppes. Under the suggestion of Subutai , the Mongol army was split into two forces. Genghis Khan led the main army on a raid through Afghanistan and northern India towards Mongolia, while another 20,000 (two tumen ) contingent marched through the Caucasus and into Russia under generals Jebe and Subutai. They pushed deep into Armenia and Azerbaijan . The Mongols destroyed the kingdom of Georgia , sacked the Genoese trade-fortress of Caffa in Crimea and overwintered near the Black Sea . Heading home, Subutai's forces attacked the allied forces of the Cuman – Kipchaks and the poorly coordinated 80,000 Kievan Rus' troops led by Mstislav the Bold of Halych and Mstislav III of Kiev who went out to stop the Mongols' actions in the area. Subutai sent emissaries to the Slavic princes calling for a separate peace, but the emissaries were executed. At the Battle of Kalka River in 1223, Subutai's forces defeated the larger Kievan force. They may have been defeated by the neighbouring Volga Bulgars at the Battle of Samara Bend . There is no historical record except a short account by the Arab historian Ibn al-Athir , writing in Mosul some 1100 miles away from the event. [35] Various historical secondary sources – Morgan, Chambers, Grousset – state that the Mongols actually defeated the Bulgars, Chambers even going so far as to say that the Bulgars had made up stories to tell the (recently crushed) Russians that they had beaten the Mongols and driven them from their territory. [35] The Russian princes then sued for peace. Subutai agreed but was in no mood to pardon the princes. As was customary in Mongol society for nobility, the Russian princes were given a bloodless death. Subutai had a large wooden platform constructed on which he ate his meals along with his other generals. Six Russian princes, including Mstislav III of Kiev , were put under this platform and crushed to death. The Mongols learned from captives of the abundant green pastures beyond the Bulgar territory, allowing for the planning for conquest of Hungary and Europe . Genghis Khan recalled Subutai back to Mongolia soon afterwards, and Jebe died on the road back to Samarkand. The famous cavalry expedition led by Subutai and Jebe, in which they encircled the entire Caspian Sea defeating all armies in their path, remains unparalleled to this day, and word of the Mongol triumphs began to trickle to other nations, particularly Europe. These two campaigns are generally regarded as reconnaissance campaigns that tried to get the feel of the political and cultural elements of the regions. In 1225 both divisions returned to Mongolia. These invasions added Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire while destroying any resistance along the way. Later under Genghis Khan's grandson Batu and the Golden Horde , the Mongols returned to conquer Volga Bulgaria and Kievan Rus' in 1237, concluding the campaign in 1240. Western Xia and Jin Dynasty Western Xia dynasty , Jin/Jurchen dynasty , Song dynasty and Kingdom of Dali in 1142. The vassal emperor of the Tanguts (Western Xia) had earlier refused to take part in the Mongol war against the Khwarezmid Empire. Western Xia and the defeated Jin dynasty formed a coalition to resist the Mongols, counting on the campaign against the Khwarazmians to preclude the Mongols from responding effectively. In 1226, immediately after returning from the west, Genghis Khan began a retaliatory attack on the Tanguts. His armies quickly took Heisui, Ganzhou , and Suzhou (not the Suzhou in Jiangsu province), and in the autumn he took Xiliang -fu[ disambiguation needed ]. One of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle near Helan Mountains but was defeated. In November, Genghis laid siege to the Tangut city Lingzhou and crossed the Yellow River , defeating the Tangut relief army. According to legend, it was here that Genghis Khan reportedly saw a line of five stars arranged in the sky and interpreted it as an omen of his victory. In 1227, Genghis Khan's army attacked and destroyed the Tangut capital of Ning Hia and continued to advance, seizing Lintiao -fu, Xining province, Xindu -fu, and Deshun province in quick succession in the spring. At Deshun, the Tangut general Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for several days and personally led charges against the invaders outside the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis Khan, after conquering Deshun, went to Liupanshan ( Qingshui County, Gansu Province) to escape the severe summer. The new Tangut emperor quickly surrendered to the Mongols, and the rest of the Tanguts officially surrendered soon after. Not happy with their betrayal and resistance, Genghis Khan ordered the entire imperial family to be executed, effectively ending the Tangut lineage. Succession Genghis Khan and three of his four sons. Illustration from a 15th-century Jami' al-tawarikh manuscript The succession of Genghis Khan was already a significant topic during the later years of his reign, as he reached old age. The long running paternity discussion about Genghis's oldest son Jochi was particularly contentious because of the seniority of Jochi among the brothers. According to traditional historical accounts, the issue over Jochi's paternity was voiced most strongly by Chagatai. In The Secret History of the Mongols , just before the invasion of the Khwarezmid Empire by Genghis Khan, Chagatai declared before his father and brothers that he would never accept Jochi as Genghis Khan's successor. In response to this tension, [36] and possibly for other reasons, Ögedei was appointed as successor. Ögedei Main article: Ögedei Khan Ögedei Khan, born Ögedei (c. 1186 – December 11, 1241) was the third son of Genghis Khan and second Great Khan ( Khagan ) of the Mongol Empire. He continued the expansion that his father had begun and was a world figure when the Mongol Empire reached its farthest extent west and south during the invasions of Europe and Asia. Jochi Main article: Jochi Genghis Khan was aware of the friction between his sons (particularly between Chagatai and Jochi) and worried of possible conflict between them if he died. He therefore decided to divide his empire among his sons and make all of them Khan in their own right, while appointing one of his sons as his successor. Chagatai was considered unstable due to his temper and rash behavior, because of statements he made that he would not follow Jochi if he were to become his father's successor. Tolui , Genghis Khan's youngest son, was not to be his successor because he was the youngest and in the Mongol culture, youngest sons were not given much responsibility due to their age. If Jochi were to become successor, it was likely that Chagatai would engage in warfare with him and collapse the empire. Therefore, Genghis Khan decided to give the throne to Ögedei. Ögedei was seen by Genghis Khan as dependable in character and relatively stable and down to earth and would be a neutral candidate and might defuse the situation between his brothers. Jochi died in 1226, during his father's lifetime. Some scholars, notably Ratchnevsky, have commented on the possibility that Jochi was secretly poisoned by an order from Genghis Khan. Rashid al-Din reports that the great Khan sent for his sons in the spring of 1223, and while his brothers heeded the order, Jochi remained in Khorasan . Juzjani suggests that the disagreement arose from a quarrel between Jochi and his brothers in the siege of Urgench . Jochi had attempted to protect Urgench from destruction, as it belonged to territory allocated to him as a fief. He concludes his story with the clearly apocryphal statement by Jochi: "Genghis Khan is mad to have massacred so many people and laid waste so many lands. I would be doing a service if I killed my father when he is hunting, made an alliance with Sultan Muhammad, brought this land to life and gave assistance and support to the Muslims." Juzjani claims that it was in response to hearing of these plans that Genghis Khan ordered his son secretly poisoned; however, as Sultan Muhammad was already dead in 1223, the accuracy of this story is questionable. [37] Death and burial Main article: Tomb of Genghis Khan Mongol Empire in 1227 at Genghis Khan's death Genghis Khan died in August 1227, during the fall of Yinchuan , which is the capital of Western Xia . The exact cause of his death remains a mystery, and is variously attributed to being killed in action against the Western Xia, illness, falling from his horse, or wounds sustained in hunting or battle. [38] [39] [40] According to The Secret History of the Mongols , Genghis Khan fell from his horse while hunting and died because of the injury. He was already old and tired from his journeys. The Galician–Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Western Xia in battle, while Marco Polo wrote that he died after the infection of an arrow wound he received during his final campaign. [41] Later Mongol chronicles connect Genghis's death with a Western Xia princess taken as war booty. One chronicle from the early 17th century even relates the legend that the princess hid a small dagger and stabbed him, though some Mongol authors have doubted this version and suspected it to be an invention by the rival Oirads . [42] Years before his death, Genghis Khan asked to be buried without markings, according to the customs of his tribe. After he died, his body was returned to Mongolia and presumably to his birthplace in Khentii Aimag , where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the Onon River and the Burkhan Khaldun mountain (part of the Kentii mountain range). According to legend, the funeral escort killed anyone and anything across their path to conceal where he was finally buried. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum , constructed many years after his death, is his memorial, but not his burial site. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum in the town of Ejin Horo Qi , Inner Mongolia , China In 1939 Chinese Nationalist soldiers took the mausoleum from its position at the 'Lord's Enclosure' (Mongolian: Edsen Khoroo) in Mongolia to protect it from Japanese troops. It was taken through Communist-held territory in Yan'an some 900 km (560 mi) on carts to safety at a Buddhist monastery, the Dongshan Dafo Dian, where it remained for ten years. In 1949, as Communist troops advanced, the Nationalist soldiers moved it another 200 km (120 mi) farther west to the famous Tibetan monastery of Kumbum Monastery or Ta'er Shi near Xining , which soon fell under Communist control. In early 1954, Genghis Khan's bier and relics were returned to the Lord's Enclosure in Mongolia. By 1956 a new temple was erected there to house them. [43] In 1968 during the Cultural Revolution , Red Guards destroyed almost everything of value. The "relics" were remade in the 1970s and a great marble statue of Genghis was completed in 1989. [44] On October 6, 2004, a joint Japanese-Mongolian archaeological dig uncovered what is believed to be Genghis Khan's palace in rural Mongolia, which raises the possibility of actually locating the ruler's long-lost burial site. [45] Folklore says that a river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find (the same manner of burial as the Sumerian King Gilgamesh of Uruk and Atilla the Hun ). Other tales state that his grave was stampeded over by many horses, and that trees were then planted over the site, and the permafrost also did its part in hiding the burial site. Genghis Khan left behind an army of more than 129,000 men; 28,000 were given to his various brothers and his sons. Tolui, his youngest son, inherited more than 100,000 men. This force contained the bulk of the elite Mongolian cavalry . By tradition, the youngest son inherits his father's property. Jochi , Chagatai , Ögedei Khan , and Kulan's son Gelejian received armies of 4,000 men each. His mother and the descendants of his three brothers received 3,000 men each. Mongol Empire Mongol Empire The Mongol Empire was governed by a civilian and military code , called the Yassa , created by Genghis Khan. The Mongol Empire did not emphasize the importance of ethnicity and race in the administrative realm, instead adopting an approach grounded in meritocracy . The exception was the role of Genghis Khan and his family. The Mongol Empire was one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse empires in history, as befitted its size. Many of the empire's nomadic inhabitants considered themselves Mongols in military and civilian life, including Mongols , Turks and others and included many diverse Khans of various ethnicities as part of the Mongol Empire such as Muhammad Khan . There were tax exemptions for religious figures and, to some extent, teachers and doctors. The Mongol Empire practiced religious tolerance because Mongol tradition had long held that religion was a personal concept, and not subject to law or interference.[ citation needed ] Sometime before the rise of Genghis Khan, Ong Khan, his mentor and eventual rival, had converted to Nestorian Christianity . Various Mongol tribes were Shamanist, Buddhist or Christian. Religious tolerance was thus a well established concept on the Asian steppe. Modern Mongolian historians say that towards the end of his life, Genghis Khan attempted to create a civil state under the Great Yassa that would have established the legal equality of all individuals, including women . [46] However, there is no evidence of this, or of the lifting of discriminatory policies towards sedentary peoples such as the Chinese. Women played a relatively important role in Mongol Empire and in family, for example Töregene Khatun was briefly in charge of the Mongol Empire when next male Khagan was being chosen. Modern scholars refer to the alleged policy of encouraging trade and communication as the Pax Mongolica ( Mongol Peace). Genghis Khan realised that he needed people who could govern cities and states conquered by him. He also realised that such administrators could not be found among his Mongol people because they were nomads and thus had no experience governing cities. For this purpose Genghis Khan invited a Khitan prince, Chu'Tsai , who worked for the Jin and had been captured by the Mongol army after the Jin dynasty was defeated. Jin had captured power by displacing Khitan. Genghis told Chu'Tsai, who was a lineal descendant of Khitan rulers, that he had avenged Chu'Tsai's forefathers. Chu'Tsai responded that his father served the Jin dynasty honestly and so did he; also he did not consider his own father his enemy, so the question of revenge did not apply. This reply impressed Genghis Khan. Chu'Tsai administered parts of the Mongol Empire and became a confidant of the successive Mongol Khans. Military Main article: Mongol military tactics and organization Reenactment of Mongol battle Genghis Khan put absolute trust in his generals, such as Muqali , Jebe and Subutai , and regarded them as close advisors, often extending them the same privileges and trust normally reserved for close family members. He allowed them to make decisions on their own when they embarked on campaigns far from the Mongol Empire capital Karakorum . Muqali, a trusted lieutenant, was given command of the Mongol forces against the Jin dynasty while Genghis Khan was fighting in Central Asia, and Subutai and Jebe were allowed to pursue the Great Raid into the Caucasus and Kievan Rus' , an idea they had presented to the Khagan on their own initiative. While granting his generals a great deal of autonomy in making command decisions, Genghis Khan also expected unwavering loyalty from them. The Mongol military was also successful in siege warfare , cutting off resources for cities and towns by diverting certain rivers, taking enemy prisoners and driving them in front of the army, and adopting new ideas, techniques and tools from the people they conquered, particularly in employing Muslim and Chinese siege engines and engineers to aid the Mongol cavalry in capturing cities. Another standard tactic of the Mongol military was the commonly practiced feigned retreat to break enemy formations and to lure small enemy groups away from the larger group and defended position for ambush and counterattack . Another important aspect of the military organization of Genghis Khan was the communications and supply route or Yam , adapted from previous Chinese models. Genghis Khan dedicated special attention to this in order to speed up the gathering of military intelligence and official communications. To this end, Yam waystations were established all over the empire. [47] Khanates Several years before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons Ögedei , Chagatai , Tolui , and Jochi (Jochi's death several months before Genghis Khan meant that his lands were instead split between his sons, Batu and Orda ) into several Khanates designed as sub-territories: their Khans were expected to follow the Great Khan , who was, initially, Ögedei. Modern-day location of capital Kharakhorum Following are the Khanates as Genghis Khan assigned them: Chagatai Khanate : Chagatai Khan , Genghis Khan's second son, was given Central Asia and northern Iran . Blue Horde to Batu Khan, and White Horde to Orda Khan, both were later combined into the Kipchak Khanate , or Khanate of the Golden Horde , under Toqtamysh . Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, had received most of the distant Russia and Ruthenia . Because Jochi died before Genghis Khan, his territory was further split up between his sons. Batu Khan launched an invasion of Russia, and later Hungary and Poland, and crushed several armies before being summoned back by the news of Ögedei's death. After Genghis Khan See also: List of Mongol rulers Genghis Khan's son and successor, Ögedei Khan Contrary to popular belief, Genghis Khan did not conquer the whole area of the eventual Mongol Empire. At the time of his death in 1227, the empire stretched from the Caspian Sea to the Sea of Japan . Its expansion continued for one or more generations. Under Genghis's successor Ögedei Khan the speed of expansion reached its peak. Mongol armies pushed into Persia, finished off the Western Xia and the remnants of the Khwarezmids, and clashed with the imperial Song dynasty of China, and eventually took control of all of China in 1279. They also pushed further into Russia and eastern Europe. Perceptions Like other notable conquerors, Genghis Khan is portrayed differently by conquered peoples than those who conquered with him. Negative views persist in histories written by many cultures from different geographical regions. They often cite the systematic slaughter of civilians in conquered regions, cruelties and destruction by Mongol armies. Other authors also cite positive aspects of Genghis Khan's conquests. Positive Genghis Khan on the reverse of a Kazakhstan 100 Tenge coin. The coin was minted as a collectable to honor the warlord, and is not used in common transactions. Genghis Khan is credited with bringing the Silk Road under one cohesive political environment. This allowed increased communication and trade between the West, Middle East and Asia, thus expanding the horizons of all three cultural areas. Some historians have noted that Genghis Khan instituted certain levels of meritocracy in his rule, was tolerant of religions and explained his policies clearly to all his soldiers. [48] In Turkey, Genghis Khan is considered a great military leader, and it is popular for male children to carry his title as name. [49] In Mongolia Genghis Khan had been revered for centuries by Mongols and certain other ethnic groups such as Turks , largely because of his association with Mongol statehood, political and military organization, and his victories in war. He eventually evolved into a larger-than-life figure chiefly among the Mongols and is still considered the symbol of Mongolian culture . During the communist period in Mongolia, Genghis was often described as a reactionary, and positive statements about him were avoided. [50] In 1962, the erection of a monument at his birthplace and a conference held in commemoration of his 800th birthday led to criticism from the Soviet Union and the dismissal of secretary Tömör-Ochir of the ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party Central Committee . Portrait on a hillside in Ulaanbaatar, 2006 In the early 1990s, the memory of Genghis Khan underwent a powerful revival, partly in reaction to its suppression during the Mongolian People's Republic period. Genghis Khan became one of the central figures of the national identity. He is considered positively by Mongolians for his role in uniting warring tribes. For example, Mongolians often refer to their country as "Genghis Khan's Mongolia", to themselves as "Genghis Khan's children", and to Genghis Khan as the "father of the Mongols" especially among the younger generation. However, there is a chasm in the perception of his brutality. Mongolians maintain that the historical records written by non-Mongolians are unfairly biased against Genghis Khan and that his butchery is exaggerated, while his positive role is underrated. [51] In Mongolia today, Genghis Khan's name and likeness appear on products, streets, buildings, and other places. His face can be found on everyday commodities, from liquor bottles to candy, and on the largest denominations of 500, 1,000, 5,000, 10,000, and 20,000 Mongolian tögrög (₮). Mongolia's main international airport in Ulaanbaatar is named Chinggis Khaan International Airport . Major Genghis Khan statues stand before the parliament [52] and near Ulaanbaatar. There have been repeated discussions about regulating the use of his name and image to avoid trivialization. [53] Genghis Khan is regarded as one of the prominent leaders in Mongolia's history. [54] He is responsible for the emergence of the Mongols as a political and ethnic identity because there was no unified identity between the tribes that had cultural similarity. He reinforced many Mongol traditions and provided stability and unity during a time of almost endemic warfare between tribes. He is also credited for introducing the traditional Mongolian script and creating the first written Mongolian code of law, the Ikh Zasag ("Great Administration"). [55] Mongolian President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj has noted that the Ikh Zasag heavily punished corruption and bribery, [56] and he considers Genghis Khan a teacher for anti-corruption efforts who sought equal protection under the law for all citizens regardless of status or wealth. On the 850th anniversary of Genghis's birth, the President stated "Chinggis ... was a man who deeply realized that the justice begins and consolidates with the equality of law, and not with the distinctions between people. He was a man who knew that the good laws and rules lived longer than fancy palaces." [57] In summary, Mongolians see him as the fundamental figure in the founding of the Mongol Empire and therefore the basis for Mongolia as a country. From 2012, Mongolia is to celebrate Chinggis Khaan's birthday as a national holiday, on the first day of winter according to the Mongolian lunar calendar (not to be confused with the Asian new year). [58] In Japan Japanese like Kenchō Suyematsu have claimed that the ethnic Japanese Minamoto no Yoshitsune was Genghis Khan. [59] Mixed Genghis Khan Monument in Hohhot , Inner Mongolia , China There are conflicting views of Genghis Khan in the People's Republic of China. The legacy of Genghis and his successors, who completed the conquest of China after 65 years of struggle, remains a mixed topic.[ citation needed ] China suffered a drastic decline in population . [60] The population of north China decreased from 50 million in the 1195 census to 8.5 million in the Mongol census of 1235–36. An unknown number of people migrated to Southern China in this period. [61] In Inner Mongolia there are a monument and buildings dedicated to him and considerable number of ethic Mongols in the area with a population of around 5 million, almost twice the population of Mongolia . While Genghis never conquered all of China, his grandson Kublai Khan completed that conquest and established the Yuan dynasty that is often credited with re-uniting China. There has been much artwork and literature praising Genghis as a military leader and political genius. The Mongol-established Yuan dynasty left an indelible imprint on Chinese political and social structures for subsequent generations with literature during the preceding Jin dynasty relatively fewer. Genghis Khan supported the Chinese Daoist sect leader Qiu Chuji and after personally meeting him in what is now Afghanistan, gave him control of all religious affairs in northern China. Negative Main article: Destruction under the Mongol Empire Invasions like the Battle of Baghdad by his grandson are treated as brutal and are seen negatively in Iraq. This illustration is from a 14th-century Jami' al-tawarikh manuscript. In the Middle East, and particularly in Iran , Genghis Khan is almost universally condemned as a destructive and genocidal warlord who caused enormous destruction to the population of these areas. [62] Steven R. Ward wrote that "Overall, the Mongol violence and depredations killed up to three-fourths of the population of the Iranian Plateau, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Some historians have estimated that Iran's population did not again reach its pre-Mongol levels until the mid-20th century." [63] In Afghanistan (along with other non-Turkic Muslim countries), he is generally viewed unfavorably, though some groups display ambivalence as it is believed that the Hazara of Afghanistan are descendants of a large Mongol garrison stationed there. [64] [65] The invasions of Baghdad , Samarkand , Urgench , Kiev , Vladimir among others caused mass murders, such as when portions of southern Khuzestan were completely destroyed. His descendant Hulagu Khan destroyed much of Iran's north and sacked Baghdad although his forces were halted by the Mamluks of Egypt , but Hulagu's descendant Ghazan Khan returned to beat the Mamluks out of Levant, Palestine and even Gaza. According to the works of the Persian historian Rashid-al-Din Hamadani , the Mongols killed more than 70,000 people in Merv and more than 190,000 in Nishapur . In 1237, Batu Khan , a grandson of Genghis Khan, launched an invasion into Kievan Rus'. Over the course of three years, the Mongols annihilated all of the major cities of Eastern Europe with the exception of Novgorod and Pskov . [66] Giovanni de Plano Carpini , the Pope's envoy to the Mongol Great Khan, travelled through Kiev in February 1246 and wrote: “ They [the Mongols] attacked Russia, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Russia; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery. [67] ” The Mongol invasion of Hungary . The dismounted Mongols, with captured women, are on the left, the Hungarians, with one saved woman, on the right. Among the Iranian peoples , Genghis Khan, along with Hulagu and Timur are among the most despised conquerors in the region. [68] [69] Although the famous Mughal emperors were proud descendants of Genghis Khan and particularly Timur , they clearly distanced themselves from the Mongol atrocities committed against the Khwarizim Shahs, Turks , Persians , the citizens of Baghdad and Damascus , Nishapur , Bukhara and historical figures such as Attar of Nishapur and many other notable Muslims . However, Mughal Emperors directly patronized the legacies of Genghis Khan and Timur; together their names were synonymous with the names of other distinguished personalities particularly among the Muslim populations of South Asia. In much of Russia, Middle East, Korea , China, Ukraine , Poland and Hungary, Genghis Khan and his regime are blamed for considerable destruction and loss of population. Descent Main article: Descent from Genghis Khan In addition to most of the Mongol nobility up to the 20th century, the Mughal emperor Babur 's mother was a descendant. Timur (also known as Tamerlane), the 14th century military leader, and many other nobilities of central Asian countries claimed descent from Genghis Khan. During the Soviet purge most of the Mongol nobility in Mongolia were purged. Physical appearance Genghis Khan on the Mongolian 1,000 tögrög banknote The closest depiction generally accepted by most historians is the portrait currently in the National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan, which was drawn under the supervision of his grandson Khubilai during the Mongol Yuan dynasty and depicts Genghis Khan with typical Mongol features. [70] Depictions in modern culture Statue of Genghis Khan at his mausoleum , China There have been several films, novels and other adaptation works on the Mongolian ruler. Mural of siege warfare, Genghis Khan Exhibit in San Jose, California, US Films Sid Meier's Civilization Name and title There are many theories about the origins of Temüjin's title. Since people of the Mongol nation later associated the name with ching (Mongolian for strength), such confusion is obvious, though it does not follow etymology. The gate of Genghis Khan Mausoleum, Ordos , Inner Mongolia One theory suggests the name stems from a palatalised version of the Mongolian and Turkic word tenggis, meaning "ocean", "oceanic" or "wide-spreading". ( Lake Baikal and ocean were called tenggis by the Mongols. However, it seems that if they had meant to call Genghis tenggis they could have said, and written, "Tenggis Khan", which they did not.) Zhèng (Chinese: 正) meaning "right", "just", or "true", would have received the Mongolian adjectival modifier -s, creating "Jenggis", which in medieval romanization would be written "Genghis". It is likely that the 13th century Mongolian pronunciation would have closely matched "Chinggis". [72] The English spelling "Genghis" is of unclear origin. Weatherford claims it derives from a spelling used in original Persian reports. Even at this time some Iranians pronounce his name as "Ghengiss". However, review of historical Persian sources does not confirm this. [73] According to the Secret History of the Mongols , Temüjin was named after a powerful warrior of the Tatar tribe that his father Yesügei had taken prisoner. The name "Temüjin" is believed to derive from the word temür, meaning iron (modern Mongolian: төмөр, tömör). The name would imply a blacksmith or a man strong like iron. No evidence has survived to indicate that Genghis Khan had any exceptional training or reputation as a blacksmith. But the latter interpretation (a man strong like iron) is supported by the names of Genghis Khan's siblings, Temülin and Temüge, which are derived from the same root word. Name and spelling variations Genghis Khan, the title is spelled in variety of ways in different languages such as Mongolian Chinggis Khaan, English Chinghiz, Chinghis, and Chingiz, Chinese : 成吉思汗; pinyin : Chéngjísī Hán, Turkic : Cengiz Han, Çingiz Xan, Çingiz Han, Chingizxon, Çıñğız Xan, Chengez Khan, Chinggis Khan, Chinggis Xaan, Chingis Khan, Jenghis Khan, Chinggis Qan, Djingis Kahn, Russian : Чингисхан (Čingiskhan) or Чингиз-хан (Čingiz-khan), etc. Temüjin is written in Chinese as simplified Chinese : 铁木真; traditional Chinese : 鐵木眞; pinyin : Tiěmùzhēn. When Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty in 1271, he had his grandfather Genghis Khan placed on the official record as the founder of the dynasty or Taizu ( Chinese : 太祖). Thus, Genghis Khan is also referred to as Yuan Taizu (Emperor Taizu of Yuan, Chinese : 元太祖) in Chinese historiography . Timeline Turnbull, Stephen (2003). Genghis Khan & the Mongol Conquests 1190–1400. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN   1-84176-523-6 .   Valentino, Benjamin A. (2004). Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN   0-8014-3965-5 .   Primary sources Juvaynī, Alā al-Dīn Atā Malik, 1226–1283 (1997). Genghis Khan: The History of the World-Conqueror [Tarīkh-i jahāngushā]. tr. John Andrew Boyle. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN   0-295-97654-3 .   Juvaini, 'ala-ad-Din 'Ata-Malik (1958). History of the World-Conqueror . tr. John Andrew Boyle. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 361. Retrieved April 16, 2012.   Rashid al-Din Tabib (1995). A Compendium of Chronicles: Rashid al-Din's Illustrated History of the World Jami' al-Tawarikh . The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, Vol. XXVII. Sheila S. Blair (ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN   0-19-727627-X .   Rashid al-Din Tabib (1971). The Successors of Genghis Khan (extracts from Jami' Al-Tawarikh) . UNESCO Collection of Representative Works : Persian heritage series. tr. from the Persian by John Andrew Boyle. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN   0-231-03351-6 .   The Secret History of the Mongols: A Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century [Yuan chao bi shi]. Brill's Inner Asian Library vol. 7. tr. Igor de Rachewiltz . Leiden; Boston: Brill. 2004. ISBN   90-04-13159-0 .  

i don't know

Which is the principal island of Japan?

What Are the Four Main Islands of Japan? By Matt Rosenberg Updated August 06, 2016. Japan's "mainland" consists of four primary islands: Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku. In total, the country of Japan includes 6,852 islands, many of which are very small and uninhabited. When trying to remember where the major islands are located, you can think of the archipelago of Japan as a letter "j."  Hokkaido is the j's dot. Honshu is the long body of the j. Shikoku and Kyushu make up the j's sweeping curve. The Island of Honshu Honshu is the largest island and the core of Japan. It is also the seventh largest island in the world. On the island of Honshu, you will find the majority of the Japanese population and most of its major cities including the capital of Tokyo. Because it is the center of Japan, Honshu is connected to the other primary islands via undersea tunnels and bridges.  Roughly the size of the state of Minnesota, Honshu is a mountainous island and home to many of the country's active volcanoes. Its most famous peak is Mt. Fuji. Major Cities: Tokyo, Hiroshima, Osaka-Kyoto, Nagoya, Sendai, Yokohama, Niigata Key Mountains: Mount Fuji (Japan's highest point at 12,388 feet/3776 meters), Mount Kita, Mount Hotaka, Hilda Mountains, Ou Mountains, Chugoku Range Other Key Geographic Features: Lake Biwa (Japan's largest lake), Mutsu Bay, Inawashiro Lake, Tokyo Bay The Island of Hokkaido Hokkaido is in the northernmost and second largest of the main Japanese islands. It is separated from Honshu by the Tsugaru Strait. Sapporo is the largest city on Hokkaido and also serves as the island's capital. The climate of Hokkaido is distinctly northern. It is known for its mountainous landscape, a number of volcanoes, and natural beauty. It is a popular destination for skiers and outdoor adventure enthusiasts and Hokkaido is home to many national parks, including Shiretoko National Park. During the winter, drift ice from the Ohotsk Sea creeps toward the northern coast and this is a popular site starting in January. The island is also known for its many festivals, including the popular Winter Festival. Major Cities: Sapporo, Hakodate, Obihiro, Asahikawa, Obihiro, Kitami, Shari, Abashiri, Wakkanai Key Mountains: Mount Asahi (highest point on the island at 7516 feet/2291 meters), Mount Hakuun, Mount Akadake, Mount Tokachi (active volcano), Daisetsu- zan Mountains Other Key Geographic Features: Sounkyo Gorge, Lake Kussharo, Lake Shikotsu The Island of Kyushu The third largest of Japan's big islands, Kyushu is to the southwest of Honchu. The largest city is Fukuoka and this island is known for its semi-tropical climate, hot springs, and volcanoes. Kyushu is known as the "Land of Fire" because of its chain of active volcanoes, which include Mount Kuju and Mount Aso. Major Cities: Fukuoka, Nagasaki, Kagoshima Key Mountains: Mount Aso (active volcano), Mount Kuju, Mount Tsurumi, Mount Kirishima, Sakura-jima, Ibusuki Other Key Geographic Features: Kumagawa River (largest on Kyushu), Ebino Plateau, multiple small islands The Island of Shikoku Shikoku is the smallest of the four islands and is located to the east of Kyushu and southeast of Honshu. It is a picturesque and cultural island, boasting many Buddhist temples and the home of famous haiku poets. Also a mountainous island, Shikoku's mountains are small in comparison to others in Japan as none of the island's peaks is higher than 6000 feet (1828 meters). There are no volcanoes on Shikoku. Shikoku is home to a Buddhist pilgrimage that is known worldwide. Visitors can walk around the island - either clockwise or counter-clockwise - visiting each of the 88 temples along the way. It is one of the oldest pilgrimages in the world. Major Cities: Matsuyama, Kochi Key Mountains: Mount Sasagamine, Mount Higashi-Akaishi, Mount Miune, Mount Tsurugi Other Key Geographic Features: Inland Sea, Hiuchi-nada Sea, Bingonada Sea, Iyo-nada Sea

Honshu

What is the dominant classical language of the Indian subcontinent?

Japan Japan Area: 377,835 square kilometers (145,883 square miles) Highest point on mainland: Mount Fuji (Fujiyama) (3,776 meters/12,388 feet) Lowest point on land: Hachiro-gata (4 meters/13.1 feet below sea level) Hemispheres: Northern and Eastern P.M. = noon GMT Longest distances: 3,008 kilometers (1,869 miles) from northeast to southwest; 1,645 kilometers (1,022 miles) from southeast to northwest Land boundaries: None Coastline: 29,751 kilometers (18,486 miles) Territorial sea limits: 22 kilometers (12 nautical miles) 1 LOCATION AND SIZE The country of Jah2n is a crescent-shaped island chain in eastern Asia, bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the east and the Sea of Japan to the west. With a total area of about 377,835 square kilometers (145,883 square miles), the country is slightly smaller than the state of California, and consists of forty-seven prefectures. 2 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES Japan has no territories or dependencies. 3 CLIMATE Most of Japan is in the temperate zone, with the exception of the subtropical southern island chains. There are four distinct seasons: winter (December through February), spring (March through May), summer (June through August), and autumn (September through November.) The average annual temperature is 15°C (59°F) with a winter range of -9°C to 16° C (15°F to 61°F) and a summer range of 20°C to 28°C (68°F to 82°F). Humidity is high, ranging from 50 percent to 75 percent. The peak rainy season is from May to October, with some regional variations. Yearly rainfall averages 100 to 250 centimeters (39 to 98 inches). Southern Shikoku Island is particularly vulnerable to typhoons, which are violent cyclonic storms from the Pacific. In regions bordering the Sea of Japan, the winter monsoon, laden with snow, can be destructive. Snowfall is generally heavy along the western coast, where it covers the ground for almost four months. Floods are common, especially in the Pacific coastal areas. Because this land is sinking, large embankments and dikes have been erected against rivers that flow at a level well above the surrounding plains. During periods of heavy rains, waters bearing great quantities of alluvium can break through the embankments, inundating adjacent fields and covering them with a thick carpet of gravel and sand. Sometimes typhoons, bringing fresh torrents of water to the rivers, convert whole plains into vast lakes and sweep away roads and railroads. 4 TOPOGRAPHIC REGIONS Japan has four principal islands. From north to south, they are Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyūshū. The four major islands are separated only by narrow straits and form a natural geographic entity. The nation also has more than three thousand smaller islands, including the Ryukyu archipelago, which extends far to the southwest of the main islands. The terrain on all of the major islands is primarily mountainous. The lowland areas that exist are mainly along the shore and are densely populated. The mountains remain largely covered by forest. Japan lies along the boundary between the Eurasian, North American, and Pacific Tectonic Plates. As a result, earthquakes are common throughout the islands, as are volcanoes. 5 OCEANS AND SEAS Seacoast and Undersea Features The islands of Japan are so narrow that no point in the country lies more than 150 kilometers (93 miles) from sea waters. To the west, the Sea of Japan separates Japan from the Asian mainland. To the north lies the Sea of Okhotsk, and the East China Sea is to the south. All of these seas are extensions of the Pacific Ocean, which lies to the east of Japan. Another extension of the Pacific, the Philippine Sea, lies to the far southeast, along the coast of the Ryukyu archipelago. Warm and cold ocean currents blend in the waters surrounding Japan. Undersea earthquakes often expose the Japanese coastline to dangerous tidal waves, known as tsunamis . Japan's coral reefs have been severely damaged by sedimentation from construction and agricultural activity, and by over-fishing. Environmentalists continue to try to protect the remaining intact reefs around southern islands such as Okinawa, where land development poses a threat. Sea Inlets and Straits The islands of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyūshū enclose Japan's narrow Inland Sea. The Korean Strait, approximately 200 kilometers (124 miles) across, separates southwest Japan from South Korea and links the East China Sea to the Sea of Japan. The Sōya Strait (La Perouse Strait) runs between northern Japan and Russia's Sakhalin Island; this strait links the Sea of Japan to the Sea of Okhotsk. Tsugaru Strait separates Hokkaido and Honshu Islands, linking the Sea of Japan to the Pacific Ocean. Islands and Archipelagos The northern island of Hokkaido (78,719 square kilometers/30,394 square miles) was long looked upon as a remote frontier area because of its forests and rugged climate. Hokkaido is divided along a line extending from Cape Sōya to Cape Erimo. The eastern half includes the Daisetsu Mountains, at the foot of which lie the plains of Tokachi and Konsen. The western half is milder and less mountainous. Honshu, Japan's largest island (225,800 square kilometers/87,182 square miles), curves south to southwest between Hokkaido and Kyūshū. Tohoku, the northern region of Honshu, has flat, well-drained alluvial plains. In the center of Honshu is the Kanto region, which includes the Tokyo-Yokohama metropolis. The Chubu region, lying west of Kanto, has three distinct districts: Hokuriku, a "snow country" coastal strip on the Sea of Japan with stormy winters; Tosan, the central highlands, including the Japanese Alps; and Tokai, a narrow corridor lying along the Pacific coast. The Kinki region of Honshu lies to the southwest and consists of a narrow area stretching from the Sea of Japan on the north to the Pacific Ocean on the south. It includes Japan's second-largest commercial-industrial complex, centered on Osaka and Kobe, and the two former imperial cities of Nara and Kyoto. The Chugoku region occupies the western end of Honshu and is divided into two distinct districts by mountains running through it. The northern, somewhat narrower, part is called "San'in" (shady side), and the southern part, "San'yo" (sunny side.) The Inland Sea separates western Honshu from Shikoku Island (18,545 square kilometers/7,160 square miles). Mountains divide the island into a northern sub-region on the Inland Sea and a southern part on the Pacific Ocean. Most of the population lives in the northern zone. The southern part is mostly mountainous and sparsely populated. Kyūshū (37,437 square kilometers/14,454 square miles), the southernmost of the main islands, is divided by the Kyūshū Mountains, which run diagonally across the middle of the island. The northern part is one of Japan's most industrialized regions. There are thousands of other small islands in Japan's possession. Some of the largest located near the main islands are Tsushima, Sado, Rishiri, and Awaji Islands, as well as the Gotō, Oki, and Amakusa Islands. Japan also has many islands located further out in the Pacific Ocean. These include the Nanpo Chain, the Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands, Iwo Jima, and the Volcano Islands; the latter are located some 1,100 kilometers (683 miles) south of central Honshu. The Ryukyu Archipelago includes over two hundred islands and islets, of which fewer than half are populated. They extend in a chain from southeast of Kyūshū to within 193 kilometers (120 miles) of Taiwan. Okinawa (1,256 square kilometers/485 square miles) is the largest and most populated of the Ryukyu Islands. Japan in engaged in a territorial dispute with Russia concerning several small islands north of Hokkaido: Etorofu, Kunashir and the Shikotan and Habomai Island groups. Coastal Features Japan's coastline has been highly modified by projects such as land reclamation, port construction, and sea wall erection. At the head of most of the bays where Japan's major cities are located the land is subsiding (sinking), causing buildings to sink up to 4.5 centimeters (1.5 inches) annually. Since 1935, the port area of Osaka has subsided as much as 3 meters (10 feet). Global warming, which is a general increase in the average temperature worldwide, also threatens the beaches of Japan. An estimated 90 percent of Japan's coast would disappear with a 1-meter (3.4-feet) rise in the sea level. The coastline of Hokkaido Island has a rough diamond shape, with the capes of Sōya in the north, Shiretoko-Masakai in the east, Erimo in the south, and Kamui in the west forming its corners. Oshima, a southwestern peninsula of Hokkaido, curves around Uchira Bay and ends in the promontories of Shiragami and Esan. Honshu has large indentations along its Pacific coast, such as the Bōsō, Izu, and Kii peninsulas, and the bays of Ishinomaki, Tokyo and Ise (Nagoya). On the Pacific side, flat shores are found at the head of the principal bays where the major cities are situated. North of Tokyo Bay is a type of landscape called suigo ("land of water"), where the plain is exactly at sea level, protected by levees and locks and by a system of pumps. In contrast to the Pacific coast, Honshu's Sea of Japan shoreline is less indented, with the central Noto Peninsula and Wakasa Bay serving as exceptions to long curves of flat shoreline. Shikoku Island has a violin shape, with the Inland Sea on the north and Tosa Bay curving into the south. The southern and western coasts of Kyūshū Island, including Kagoshima Bay, are deeply fragmented and fractured. 6 INLAND LAKES The landscape of Japan contains numerous and varied lakes. The largest is Lake Biwa, 673 square kilometers (260 square miles) in area, which fills a fault basin on Honshu. Lake Biwa is affected by pollution as well as the demand for fresh water from the cities of Osaka and Kyoto. The second-largest lake is Kasumiga (168 square kilometers/65 square miles) near Tokyo. These are followed by Saroma (150 square kilometers/58 square miles) on Hokkaido, Inawashiro (103 square kilometers/40 square miles) in Bandai-Asahi National Park of northern Honshu, and Nakaumi (89 square kilometers/56 square miles) Eleven areas in Japan have been designated as Wetlands of International Importance under the Ramsar International Convention on Wetlands. Those on Honshu include Lake Biwa and its surrounding marshes; Izu-numa and Uchi-numa lakes and peat swamps; Katano-kamoike pond/marsh, a major bird habitat; and Yatsu-higata, a mudflat shorebird habitat near Tokyo. The Hokkaido sites are Akkeshiko and Bekambeushi-shitsugen, a lake and saltmarsh complex; Kiritappu-shitsugen, a peat bog; Kushiro-shitsugen, a wildlife habitat containing reedbeds; Kutcharo-ko, a reed swamp; and Utonai-ko, a lake with surrounding swamps. There are also wetland sites on Okinawa and Niigata Islands. Japan's wetlands are threatened by pollution, reclamation of land for development, and extraction of water. 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS Although the country is exceptionally well watered, the absence of large plains has prevented the formation of a major river system. The longest river, the Shinano, is only 367 kilometers (228 miles) long and the second longest is the Tone, 322 kilometers (200 miles). Both are in central Honshu. The third longest is Hokkaido's Ishikari River (268 kilometers/166 miles). Japan's rivers tend to flow swiftly and thus most are unsuitable for navigation. The mountainous terrain and the absence of glaciers make the river flow highly irregular. Early summer rains account for a large part of the annual precipitation and can turn slow streams into raging torrents. In winter, the riverbeds are transformed into wide stretches of gravel furrowed by thin trickles of water. Rivers are used mostly for hydroelectric production and for irrigation. Extensive dams have been built for flood control, hydropower, and irrigation diversion, disrupting natural river ecosystems. 8 DESERTS There are no desert regions on Japan. 9 FLAT AND ROLLING TERRAIN Japan has few regions of level, open, land. Most of those that exist are areas in which masses of river-borne soil have accumulated. Accordingly, most of the plains are located along the coasts. The largest is Kanto, where Tokyo is located. Others include the Nobi plain that surrounds Nagoya, the Kinki plain in the Osaka-Kyoto area, the Sendai plain in northeastern Honshu, and the Ishikarai and Tokachi Plains on Hokkaido. Japan's plains are almost completely urbanized, so that little of the natural ground cover remains. About 67 percent of Japan's land is forested. This percentage includes plantations of cedar and cypress species that replaced natural forests during the twentieth century, as well as secondary forest and stands of old-growth trees. Most of Japan's forest consists of temperate tree species, including conifer, deciduous, and alpine types. There are also subtropical forests on the Ryukyu Islands. Nearly all of Japan's remaining forests are situated in mountainous areas. Many are under official protection as national parks and Forest Ecosystem Reserves. Continuing threats to the forests include construction of dams, roads, and recreational areas. Foothills border the coastal plains of Japan. Away from the coasts, ascending terraces mark the foothills, which provide a transition from these plains to the mountain ranges. On the approaches to the mountains, the slopes become steeper and are laced by numerous watercourses, isolating groups of hills. The Hakone hills, in central Honshu, are typical of this type of terrain. 10 MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES The Japanese islands are essentially the summits of submerged mountain ridges that have been uplifted near the outer edge of the Asian continental shelf. Consequently, mountains take up some 75 percent of the land. A long spine of mountain ranges runs roughly north to south down the middle of the archipelago, dividing it into two halves. Although the mountains are steep, most of them are not very high. Central Honshu Island, however, has a convergence of three mountain chains, the Akaishi, Kiso, and Hida, forming the Japanese Alps, which include many peaks that exceed 3,048 meters (10,000 feet). Other ranges include the Ōu, Chūgoku, Daisetsu, and the Kitami Mountains. Snow lingers late into spring on the Japanese Alps, but there are no true glaciers in Japan. The highest point in the country is the renowned Mount Fuji (Fujiyama), a symmetrical dormant volcano that rises to 3,776 meters (12,388 feet) in central Honshu, outside of the Japanese Alps. The second-highest peak is Kitadake (3,192 meters/10,472 feet) and the third-highest is Hotakadake (3,190 meters/10,466 feet). Both are in central Honshu. Ten percent of the world's volcanoes are found in Japan. Of Japan's 265 known volcanoes, 20 have been active since the beginning of the twentieth century. They are particularly numerous in Hokkaido, the Fossa Magna region of central Honshu, and Kyūshū. The mountainous areas of Japan contain wide craters and cones of every form, ranging from the ash cone of Mount Fuji on Honshu to the volcanic dome of Daisetsu on Hokkaido. Recent eruptions have included Mount Unzen, on Kyūshū Island, during 1991-93; Mount Usu on Hokkaido in March 2000; and Mount Oyama on Miyako Island, south of Tokyo, during September and October 2000. Landslides that shake loose entire mountainsides are generally composed of clay and may reach depths of 6 to 23 meters (20 to 75 feet), widths of several hundred feet, and lengths up to 4 kilometers (2.5 miles). Such landslides are especially frequent on the Sea of Japan side of Honshu. 11 CANYONS AND CAVES Japan's rivers have cut deep gorges through the mountain ranges. Suwa, Minakami, and Momiji Canyons on the Tone River in the Japanese Alps are known for their whitewater rapids. Kurobe Gorge, in central Honshu, is Japan's deepest, plunging 1,500 to 2,000 meters (4,921 to 6,562 feet). It has a dam at its south end. Dakigaeri Gorge is a national park in northern Honshu. The Oobako and Kobako Canyons on Hokkaido feature rocky terrain and waterfalls, as does Soun-kyo Gorge. Noteworthy river gorges on the other islands include Oboke Gorge on Shikoku Island, and Takachiho and Yabakei Gorges on Kyūshū Island. 12 PLATEAUS AND MONOLITHS Volcanic activity has shaped many of Japan's plateaus, while others consist of ancient limestone. The Shiga Highlands, in Jo-Shin-Etsu National Park, central Honshu, is a lava plateau 1,400 to 1,700 meters (4593 to 5,577 feet) in height. The Hachimantai Plateau, volcanic in origin, in northern Honshu, is 1,400 to 1,600 meters (4,593 to 5,249 feet) above sea level. The Akiyoshi-dai Plateau of western Honshu is a limestone platform that is riddled with 420 caves. The Atetsu Plateau, in the same region, is also limestone-based. Northern Honshū's Bandai Plateau contains lakes and marshes. Other plateaus on Honshu include Nihon Daira near Mount Fuji; Midagahara in the Japanese Alps; and the Musashino Plateau, near Tokyo. The Ebino Plateau, 1,200 meters (3,937 feet) above sea level, stands within Japan's first national park, Kirishima Yaku, on Kyūshū island. The Takachihokyo Plateau, near Kyūshū's Mount Aso, is lava-based with a river-eroded valley and rock formations. DID YOU KNOW? Mount Bandai (1,819 meters/6,003 feet) is a volcano that lies 240 kilometers (150 miles) northeast of Tokyo in one of the most popular tourist areas in Japan. Mount Bandai forms part of the Bandai-Asahi National Park. 13 MAN-MADE FEATURES Tsujunkyo Bridge is Japan's largest stone-arch aqueduct bridge. Located in the Shiroito Plateau of Kyūshū, the bridge has a width of about 6 meters (20 feet) and a length of about 76 meters (249 feet). The bridge has been used since 1854 to bring water into Yabe town from the Shiroito Plateau over the deep ravine formed by the Todoroki River. The aqueduct is a vital source of drinking water and of irrigation waters for rice farms. The Seikan Submarine Tunnel, completed in March 1988, is the longest tunnel in the world. The tunnel runs beneath the Tsugaru Strait, connecting Hokkaido and Honshu Islands. It is a part of the railway that runs between Aomori City on Honshu and Hako-date City on Hokkaido. The length of the tunnel is 53.85 kilometers (33.5 miles), with 23.3 kilometers (14.5 miles) of it underwater. The railway track also runs 240 meters (787 feet) below the sea surface, making it the deepest rail track in the world. The Tokyo Bay Aqualine Expressway, completed in 1997, includes the fourth-longest vehicular tunnel in the world. The 15-kilometer (9.3-mile) expressway spans the Tokyo Bay, connecting the cities of Kisarazu and Kawasaki. The expressway includes a 4.4-kilometer (2.7-mile) bridge from Kisarazu and a 9.5-kilometer (5.9-mile) undersea tunnel from the Kawasaki side, which is world's longest undersea tunnel, running 60 meters (197 feet) deep under the surface of the water. The bridge and tunnel areas meet at the artificial island of Umi-hotaru, lying in Tokyo Bay. The Akashi Kaikyo Bridge that links the city of Kobe with Awaji-shima Island is currently the world's longest suspension bridge. Two main towers suspend two thick cables to create the 1,991-meter- (6,529-feet-) long bridge. Italy expects to complete construction of a larger suspension bridge in 2005. DID YOU KNOW? Japan is very prone to earthquakes, with more than fifteen hundred of them recorded annually. Most of these are minor tremors, but the occasional major earthquake can result in thousands of deaths. The Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923 was one of the most destructive of all time, causing powerful tremors and resulting in fires that destroyed most of Tokyo and Yokohama, with a loss of more than one hundred thousand lives. More recently, the Kobe earthquake on January 17, 1995, which measured 7.2 on the Richter scale, killed more than five thousand people and destroyed over one hundred thousand buildings. Japan has become a world leader in researching the causes and prediction of earthquakes, as well as in the construction of earthquake-proof buildings. 14 FURTHER READING Booth, Alan. The Roads to Sata: A 2,000-Mile Walk through Japan. Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1997. Bornoff, Nicholas. The National Geographic Traveler: Japan. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, 2000. Sutherland, Mary. National Parks of Japan. Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1995. Periodicals Zick, Arthur. "Japan's Sun Rises Over the Pacific." National Geographic , November 1991, 36-67. Web Sites

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In which 1954 battle did the Vietminh defeat the French and end their influence in Indochina?

French defeated at Dien Bien Phu - May 07, 1954 - HISTORY.com French defeated at Dien Bien Phu Share this: French defeated at Dien Bien Phu Author French defeated at Dien Bien Phu URL Publisher A+E Networks In northwest Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh’s Viet Minh forces decisively defeat the French at Dien Bien Phu, a French stronghold besieged by the Vietnamese communists for 57 days. The Viet Minh victory at Dien Bien Phu signaled the end of French colonial influence in Indochina and cleared the way for the division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel at the conference of Geneva. On September 2, 1945, hours after the Japanese signed their unconditional surrender in World War II, communist leader Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam, hoping to prevent the French from reclaiming their former colonial possession. In 1946, he hesitantly accepted a French proposal that allowed Vietnam to exist as an autonomous state within the French Union, but fighting broke out when the French tried to reestablish colonial rule. Beginning in 1949, the Viet Minh fought an increasingly effective guerrilla war against France with military and economic assistance from newly Communist China. France received military aid from the United States. In November 1953, the French, weary of jungle warfare, occupied Dien Bien Phu, a small mountain outpost on the Vietnamese border near Laos. Although the Vietnamese rapidly cut off all roads to the fort, the French were confident that they could be supplied by air. The fort was also out in the open, and the French believed that their superior artillery would keep the position safe. In 1954, the Viet Minh army, under General Vo Nguyen Giap, moved against Dien Bien Phu and in March encircled it with 40,000 Communist troops and heavy artillery. The first Viet Minh assault against the 13,000 entrenched French troops came on March 12, and despite massive air support, the French held only two square miles by late April. On May 7, after 57 days of siege, the French positions collapsed. Although the defeat brought an end to French colonial efforts in Indochina, the United States soon stepped up to fill the vacuum, increasing military aid to South Vietnam and sending the first U.S. military advisers to the country in 1959. Related Videos

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What nationality are the Gurkhas, who have fought for the British and Indian armies since 1815?

French Indochina War – History Wars Weapons About French Indochina War The French Indochina War, also called the First Indochina War, was an armed conflict which was fought between the French Far East Expeditionary Corps , led by France, and the communist Viet Minh insurgent guerrilla army, in French Indochina from December 19, 1946, to August 1, 1954. The Far East Expeditionary Corps were French colonial forces which belonged to French Union, supported by Emperor Bao Dai’s Vietnamese National Army. The Viet Minh was a clandestine armed force which was led and commanded by Ho Chí Minh and Vo Nguyen Giap. Although the conflict engulfed the entire country and also extended into the neighboring French Indochina protectorates of Laos and Cambodia, most of the battles were fought in Tonkin in Northern Vietnam. Following the reoccupation of Indochina by the French following the end of World War II , the area having fallen to the Japanese, the Viet Minh launched a rebellion against the French authority governing the colonies of French Indochina. The first few years of the war involved a low-level rural insurgency against French authority. However, after the Chinese communists reached the Northern border of Vietnam in 1949, the conflict turned into a conventional war between two armies equipped with modern weapons supplied by the United States and the Soviet Union. French Union forces included colonial troops from the whole former empire (Moroccan, Algerian, Tunisian, Laotian, Cambodian, Vietnamese and Vietnamese ethnic minorities), French professional troops and units of the French Foreign Legion. The use of metropolitan recruits was forbidden by the governments to prevent the war from becoming even more unpopular at home. It was called the “dirty war” (la sale guerre) by supporters of the Left in France and intellectuals (including Sartre) during the Henri Martin Affair in 1950. Although the strategy of pushing the Viet Minh into attacking a well defended base in a remote part of the country at the end of their logistical trail was validated at the Battle of Na San , the lack of construction materials (especially concrete), tanks (because of lack of road access and difficulty in the jungle terrain), and air cover prevented an effective defense. The decisive battle which practically put an end to the war in Indochina was the Battle of Dien Bien Phu , which was fought in 1954. Other important military operations and battles of the French Indochina War were: the Battle of Cao Bang (1947) , Battle of Hoa Binh ,  Battle of Dong Khe , Battle of Mang Yang Pass , Operation Brochet , Operation Camargue, Operation Hirondelle , Operation Mouette , Operation Castor . After the war, the Geneva Conference on July 21, 1954, made a provisional division of Vietnam at the 17th parallel, with control of the north given to the Viet Minh as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh, and the south becoming the State of Vietnam under Emperor Bao Ðai, in order to prevent Ho Chi Minh from gaining control of the entire country. A year later, Bao Dai would be deposed by his prime minister, Ngo Dinh Diem, creating the Republic of Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh’s refusal to enter into negotiations with south Vietnam about holding nationwide elections in 1956, as had been stipulated by the Geneva Conference, would eventually lead to the Vietnam War. Weapons used in the French Indochina War The weapons used by both the French Far East Expeditionary Corps and the French Foreign Legion units during the First Indochina War were practically American World War II Weapons, which were also used in the Korean War. French infantry elements used the M1 Garand , the BAR (Browning Automatic Rifle), the Thompson submachine gun, the French FM 24/29 light machine gun (FM: fusil mitrailleur), and the French MAS-36 bolt-action rifle for the snipers. The artillery consisted of French 150mm and 155mm howitzers, and US M101 howitzers, which fired 105 mm high explosive (HE) semi-fixed ammunition and had a maximum range of 7 miles. The most important armored vehicle which the French Army deployed in Indochina was the US M24 Chaffee tank. At the beginning of the armed conflict the Viet Minh troops used both old French and Japanese rifles such as the Lebel M1886 and the MAS-36 rifles (French), and the Arisaka rifle (Japanese). However, by 1949, the Viet Minh began to be supplied with the Soviet SVT-40 semi-automatic rifles which they obtained via China; and by 1954, at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, the communist forces were already using the AK 47 assault rifle. The Viet Minh artillery units used the Soviet 152 mm howitzer-gun M1937, and at Dien Bien Phu they deployed 140 field howitzers, 50 heavy mortars, 70-80 recoilless guns, 36 anti-aircraft guns, and 12 Soviet made Katyusha rocket launchers. French Indochina War (Video)

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Which major export of Bangladesh is used to make sacking?

Exports and Imports - Bangladesh | By Bangladesh Channel City finder Quality Exports of Bangladesh Like many other third-world countries, Bangladesh relies quite heavily on exports to provide for the needs of its densely populated nation. The same products sold locally will generally fetch a much lower price than they would on the international market. This means that it is far more profitable for the country to engage in exportation than it is to engage in local trade. While this may mean that a large percentage of the countries GDP is sent off abroad as Bangladesh exports instead of being enjoyed by the country’s own people, it also allows for a steady influx of foreign currency . Currently Bangladesh’s main export items are garments, jute and jute-related goods, leather, frozen fish and seafood. Just three years ago the country made over $2,000 billion from export trade. The majority of the country’s trade is conducted with the USA but a small portion of exports also sees its way to Germany, the UK, France and Italy. However these figures should not mislead you into thinking that the country is well-off. As one of the poorest and most densely populated countries in the world, the majority of these profits will generally make their way into the pockets of a few wealthy while the rest will be thinly spread out amongst those involved in the production of these goods. To add to this, the country’s economy depends on an erratic monsoon cycle as well as drought and flooding which makes regular harvesting difficult. Besides these Bangladesh exports , the country is also engaged in the production of rice, tea, sugar wheat, ship scrap metal, textiles , fertilizer, pharmaceuticals, ceramic tableware and newsprint. Though yields can at times be quite high, the country still faces widespread poverty and it is struggling to free itself from this. Some progress has been made, but there are still many people living below the breadline in Bangladesh.  

Jute

What was the former name of Iran?

Future Fibres: Jute Future Fibres   Jute Known as the ‘golden fibre’ jute is one of the longest and most used natural fibre for various textile applications.   The Plant Jute is extracted from the bark of the white jute plant (Corchorus capsularis) and to a lesser extent from tossa jute (C. olitorius). It is a natural fibre with golden and silky shine and hence called the Golden Fibre. Jute is an annual crop taking about 120 days (April/May-July/August) to grow. It thrives in tropical lowland areas with humidity of 60% to 90%. Jute is a rain-fed crop with little need for fertilizer or pesticides.  Yields are about 2 tonnes of dry jute fibre per hectare. Jute is one of the most affordable natural fibres and considered second only to cotton in amount produced and variety of uses of vegetable fibres.   The fibre Jute is long, soft and shiny, with a length of 1 to 4 m and a diameter of from 17 to 20 microns. Jute fibres are composed primarily of the plant materials cellulose (major component of plant fibre) and lignin (major components of wood fibre). The fibres can be extracted by either biological or chemical retting processes. Given the expense of using chemicals to strip the fibre from the stem biological processes are more widely practices. Biological retting can be done by either by stack, steep and ribbon processes which involve different techniques of  bundling jute stems together and soaking in water to help separate the fibres from the stem before stripping. After the retting process, stripping begins. In the stripping process, non-fibrous matter is scraped off, leaving the fibres to be pulled out from within the stem. Environmental benefits Jute fibre is 100% bio-degradable and recyclable and thus environmentally friendly. A hectare of jute plants consumes about 15 tonnes of carbon dioxide and releases 11 tonnes of oxygen. Cultivating jute in crop rotations enriches the fertility of the soil for the next crop. Jute also does not generate toxic gases when burnt. Uses of Jute Jute is a versatile fibre. During the Industrial Revolution, jute yarn largely replaced flax and hemp fibres in sackcloth. Today, sacking still makes up the bulk of manufactured jute products.  A key feature of jute is its ability to be used either independently or blended with a range of other fibres and materials. While jute is being replaced by synthetic materials in many of these uses, some take advantage of jute's biodegradable nature, where synthetics would be unsuitable. Examples of such uses include containers for planting young trees, geotextiles for soil and erosion control where application is designed to break down after sometime and no removal required. Advantages of jute include good insulating and antistatic properties, as well as having low thermal conductivity and moderate moisture retention. Textiles The major manufactured products from jute fibre are: Yarn and twine, sacking, hessian, carpet backing cloth and as well as for other textile blends. It has high tensile strength, low extensibility, and ensures better breathability of fabrics. The fibres are woven into curtains, chair coverings, carpets and area rugs and are also often blended with other fibres, both synthetic and natural. The finest threads can be separated out and made into imitation silk. Jute can also be blended with wool. By treating jute with caustic soda, crimp, softness, pliability, and appearance is improved, aiding in its ability to be spun with wool.    Packaging Jute is extensively used for sacking for agriculture goods as well as being used increasingly in rigid packaging and reinforced plastic and is replacing wood in pulp and paper. By-products Diversified by-products from jute include its use in cosmetics, medicine, paints, and other products. Jute sticks are used as fuelling and fencing materials in the rural areas of jute producing countries. These are good substitute for forest wood and bamboo for production of particle boards, pulp and paper. Producers Jute is a product of South Asia and specifically a product of India and Bangladesh. About 95% of world jute is grown in these two south Asian countries. Nepal and Myanmar also produce a small amount of jute. Pakistan, although it does not produce much, imports a substantial amount of raw jute, mainly from Bangladesh, for processing. Production and trade Jute production fluctuates, influenced by weather conditions and prices. Annual output in the last decade ranges from 2.5 to 3.2 million tonnes, on a par with wool. India and Bangladesh account for about  60% and 30%, respectively, of the world’s production., Bangladesh exports nearly 40% as raw fibre, and  about 50% as manufactured items. India exports nearly 200 000 tonnes of jute products, the remainder being consumed domestically. Market Outlook As the demand for natural fibre blends increases, the demand for jute and other natural fibres that can be blended with cotton is expected to increase. Jute’s profile in the textile industry has expanded beyond traditional applications and is being used in various higher value textiles for furnishings as well as in composites particularly as a wood fibre. Although currently diversified jute products account for a small percentage of total consumption this segment could expand rapidly with further investment in resources and expertise. In terms of conservation agriculture, jute also has a set role and is now accepted as an environmental, cost effective material for various soil applications. Jute Developments Several projects are being carried out in Bangladesh by the Common Fund for Commodities (CFC) to improve the capacity of jute producers and support industry diversification. Jute Reinforced Polyolefines for Industrial Applications, Phase II: Material Optimization and Process Up-Scaling for Commercialization The project aims at developing and industrially testing jute fibre reinforced thermoplastic composites for various uses to replace glass fibre and other products. Materials optimization and process up-scaling is expected to promote investment and greater use of jute fibre in various industries thereby opening up new market niches for jute fibre. Entrepreneurship Development in Diversified Jute Products The project involves poor women and other rural and urban unemployed and underemployed: hence significant alleviation of poverty is expected from the project. The project pilots the application of new physico-chemical treatments for jute dyeing, bleaching and proofing, and the integrated production of value-added jute blended products through small-scale spinning and weaving employing small-scale hand looms and power looms and the manufacturing of home textiles. Model chemical treatment plants in India and Bangladesh are used to demonstrate the treatment of chemical effluent to minimize the polluting effects of dyes and other chemical applications. Other projects have been commissioned to examine the markets for geo-textile applications and projects to improve efficiency of production for various jute uses. Together these projects build capacity in jute processing and help position the fibre more strongly on international markets and increase awareness of the fibres potential.

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Which river runs 1,560 miles to the Bay of Bengal?

Ganges River | river, Asia | Britannica.com Ganges River Allahabad Ganges River, Hindi Ganga, great river of the plains of the northern Indian subcontinent. Although officially as well as popularly called the Ganga in Hindi and in other Indian languages, internationally it is known by its conventional name, the Ganges. From time immemorial it has been the holy river of Hinduism . For most of its course it is a wide and sluggish stream, flowing through one of the most fertile and densely populated regions in the world. Despite its importance, its length of 1,560 miles (2,510 km) is relatively short compared with the other great rivers of Asia or of the world. The Brahmaputra and Ganges river basins and their drainage network. Rising in the Himalayas and emptying into the Bay of Bengal , it drains one-fourth of the territory of India , and its basin supports hundreds of millions of people. The greater part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain , across which it flows, is the heartland of the region known as Hindustan and has been the cradle of successive civilizations from the Mauryan empire of Ashoka in the 3rd century bce to the Mughal Empire , founded in the 16th century. Morning prayers along the Ganges River, Varanasi, India. Gavin Hellier—Photographer’s Choice/Getty Images For most of its course the Ganges flows through Indian territory, although its large delta in the Bengal area, which it shares with the Brahmaputra River , lies mostly in Bangladesh . The general direction of the river’s flow is from northwest to southeast. At its delta the flow is generally southward. Physical features Physiography The Ganges rises in the southern Great Himalayas on the Indian side of the border with the Tibet Autonomous Region of China . Its five headstreams—the Bhagirathi , the Alaknanda, the Mandakini, the Dhauliganga, and the Pindar—all rise in the mountainous region of northern Uttarakhand state. Of those, the two main headstreams are the Alaknanda (the longer of the two), which rises about 30 miles (50 km) north of the Himalayan peak of Nanda Devi, and the Bhagirathi, which originates at about 10,000 feet (3,000 metres) above sea level in a subglacial meltwater cave at the base of the Himalayan glacier known as Gangotri . Gangotri itself is a sacred place for Hindu pilgrimage . The true source of the Ganges, however, is considered to be at Gaumukh, about 13 miles (21 km) southeast of Gangotri. Gangotri, glacier in the Himalayas of Uttarakhand state, northern India, and one of the sources of … © afateev/Fotolia Eyjafjallajökull volcano The Ganges-Yamuna area was once densely forested. Historical writings indicate that in the 16th and 17th centuries wild elephants, buffalo, bison, rhinoceroses, lions, and tigers were hunted there. Most of the original natural vegetation has disappeared from the Ganges basin, and the land is now intensely cultivated to meet the needs of an ever-growing population. Large wild animals are few, except for deer, boars, and wildcats and some wolves, jackals, and foxes. Only in the Sundarbans area of the delta are some Bengal tigers, crocodiles, and marsh deer still found. Ganges river dolphin, or susu (… Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Fish abound in all the rivers, especially in the delta area, where they form an important part of the inhabitants’ diet. In the Bengal area common fish include featherbacks (Notopteridae family), barbs (Cyprinidae), walking catfish , gouramis (Anabantidae), and milkfish (Chanidae). The Ganges river dolphin —or susu (Platanista gangetica), a nearly sightless cetacean with highly developed sonar capabilities—can be found throughout the Ganges-Brahmaputra basin, but it is considered endangered because of encroaching human activity. Many varieties of birds are found, such as mynah birds, parrots, crows, kites, partridges, and fowls. In winter, ducks and snipes migrate south across the high Himalayas, settling in large numbers in water-covered areas. People Ethnically, the people of the Ganges basin are of mixed origin. In the west and centre of the basin they were originally descended from an early population—possibly speaking Dravidian or Austroasiatic languages—and were later joined by speakers of Indo-Aryan languages . In historical times Turks, Mongols, Afghans, Persians, and Arabs came from the west and intermingled with them. To the east and south, especially in Bengal, peoples speaking Austroasiatic, Indo-Aryan, and Tibeto-Burman languages have joined the population over the centuries. Europeans, arriving still later, did not settle or intermarry to any large extent. Hindu pilgrims bathing in the Ganges River at Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh state, India. Frans Lemmens—The Image Bank/Getty Images Historically the Gangetic Plain has constituted the heartland of Hindustan and its successive civilizations. The centre of the Mauryan empire of Ashoka was Patna (ancient Pataliputra), on the Ganges in Bihar. The centres of the great Mughal Empire were at Delhi and Agra , in the western Ganges basin. Kannauj on the Ganges, in central Uttar Pradesh north of Kanpur , was the capital of the feudal empire of Harsha , which covered most of northern India in the mid-7th century. During the Muslim era, which began in the 12th century, Muslim rule extended not only over the plain but over all Bengal as well. Dhaka and Murshidabad in the delta region were centres of Muslim power. The British, having founded Calcutta (Kolkata) on the banks of the Hugli River in the late 17th century, gradually expanded their dominion up the valley of the Ganges, reaching Delhi in the mid-19th century. A large number of cities have been built on the Gangetic Plain . Among the most notable are Saharanpur , Meerut , Agra (the city of the famous Taj Mahal mausoleum), Mathura (esteemed as the birthplace of the Hindu god Krishna), Aligarh , Kanpur, Bareilly , Lucknow , Allahabad , Varanasi (Benares or Kashi; the holy city of the Hindus), Patna, Bhagalpur , Rajshahi , Murshidabad, Kolkata, Haora (Howrah), Dhaka, Khulna , and Barisal . In the delta Kolkata and its satellite towns stretch for about 50 miles (80 km) along both banks of the Hugli, forming one of India’s most-important concentrations of population, commerce, and industry. The religious importance of the Ganges may exceed that of any other river in the world. It has been revered from the earliest times and today is regarded as the holiest of rivers by Hindus. While places of Hindu pilgrimage, called tirtha s, are located throughout the subcontinent, those that are situated on the Ganges have particular significance. Among those are the confluence of the Ganges and the Yamuna near Allahabad, where a bathing festival, or mela, is held in January and February; during the ceremony hundreds of thousands of pilgrims immerse themselves in the river. Other holy places for immersion are at Varanasi and at Haridwar. The Hugli River at Kolkata also is regarded as holy. Other places of pilgrimage on the Ganges include Gangotri and the junction of the Alaknanda and Bhagirathi headstreams in the Himalayas. The Hindus cast the ashes of their dead into the river, believing that this gives the deceased direct passage to heaven , and cremation ghats (temples at the summit of riverside steps) for burning the dead have been built in many places on the banks of the Ganges. Ship laden with cremation ashes to be deposited in the Ganges River, Varanasi, India. © Charles A. Crowell/Black Star Economy Irrigation Use of the Ganges water for irrigation, either when the river is in flood or by means of gravity canals, has been common since ancient times. Such irrigation is described in scriptures and mythological books written more than 2,000 years ago. Megasthenes , a Greek historian and ambassador who was in India, recorded the use of irrigation in the 4th century bce. Irrigation was highly developed during the period of Muslim rule from the 12th century onward, and the Mughal kings later constructed several canals. The canal system was further extended by the British. The cultivated area of the Ganges valley in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar benefits from a system of irrigation canals that has increased the production of such cash crops as sugarcane , cotton, and oilseeds. The older canals are mainly in the Ganges-Yamuna Doab (doab meaning “land between two rivers”). The Upper Ganga Canal, which begins at Hardiwar, and its branches have a combined length of 5,950 miles (9,575 km). The Lower Ganga Canal, extending 5,120 miles (8,240 km) with its branches, begins at Naraura. The Sarda Canal irrigates land near Ayodhya , in Uttar Pradesh. Higher lands at the northern edge of the plain are difficult to irrigate by canal, and groundwater must be pumped to the surface. Large areas in Uttar Pradesh and in Bihar are also irrigated by channels running from hand-dug wells.The Ganges-Kabadak scheme in Bangladesh, largely an irrigation plan, covers parts of the districts of Khulna, Jessore, and Kushtia that lie within the part of the delta where silt and overgrowth choke the slowly flowing rivers. The system of irrigation is based on both gravity canals and electrically powered lifting devices. Navigation In ancient times the Ganges and some of its tributaries, especially in the east, were important transportation routes. According to Megasthenes, the Ganges and its main tributaries were being navigated in the 4th century bce. In the 14th century, inland-river navigation in the Ganges basin was still flourishing. By the 19th century, irrigation-cum-navigation canals formed the main arteries of the water-transport system. The advent of paddle steamers revolutionized inland transport, stimulating the growth of indigo production in Bihar and Bengal. Regular steamer services ran from Kolkata up the Ganges to Allahabad and far beyond, as well as to Agra on the Yamuna and up the Brahmaputra River. Small sailing vessel on the Padma River (main stream of the Ganges [Ganga] River) near the ferry … joiseyshowaa The decline of large-scale water transport began with the construction of railways during the mid-19th century. The increasing withdrawal of water for irrigation also affected navigation. River traffic now is insignificant beyond the middle Ganges basin around Allahabad, mainly consisting of rural rivercraft (including motorboats, sailboats, and rafts). West Bengal and Bangladesh, however, continue to rely on the waterways to transport jute, tea, grain, and other agricultural and rural products. Principal river ports are Chalna, Khulna, Barisal, Chandpur, Narayanganj, Goalundo Ghat, Sirajganj, Bhairab Bazar, and Fenchuganj in Bangladesh and Kolkata, Goalpara, Dhuburi, and Dibrugarh in India. The partition of British India into India and Pakistan in 1947—with eastern Bengal becoming East Pakistan until in 1971 it declared its independence as Bangladesh—produced far-reaching changes, virtually halting the large trade in tea and jute formerly carried to Kolkata from Assam by inland waterway. In Bangladesh inland water transport is the responsibility of the Bangladesh Inland Water Transport Authority. In India the Inland Waterways Authority of India formulates policy for and develops and maintains an extensive system of national waterways, while the publicly owned Central Inland Water Transport Corporation, Ltd., is responsible for transporting cargo in the waterway system and maintains the transport vessels as well as the facilities at several ports. Approximately 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of waterways in the Ganges basin from Allahabad to Haldia are included in the system. The Farakka Barrage at the head of the delta, just inside Indian territory in West Bengal, began diverting Ganges waters south into India in 1976. The Indian government argued that hydrological changes had diverted Ganges water from the port of Kolkata over the preceding century and resulted in the deposition of silt and the intrusion of saline seawater. India constructed the dam to ameliorate the condition of Kolkata by flushing away the seawater and raising the water level. The Bangladeshi government maintained that the Farakka Barrage deprived southwestern Bangladesh of a needed source of water. In 1996 both countries signed an agreement resolving the dispute by apportioning the waters of the Ganges between the two countries. Catastrophic floods in Bangladesh in 1987 and 1988—the latter being among the most severe in the country’s history—prompted the World Bank to prepare a long-term flood-control plan for the region.

Ganges

Which sheikhdom is the capital of the United Arab Emirates?

Ganges Restaurant | Ganges Indian Restaurant & Takeaway Location Ganges Restaurant “Indian Curry Cottage” was opened back in 1972, when our father Mohammad Ali opened the doors with his family, at the heart of Sale. It was originally known as “The Ganges Restaurant”. A new & improved version of the original Ganges Restaurant is back with a sign of contemporary Indian & Bangladeshi food. The name ‘Ganges’ is known all throughout the land of India and the world. The river Ganges runs for 1,560 miles from the Himalayas all the way to the Bay of Bengal and is more than just owing water. The Ganges in Sale is all about the reputation  the family has built over the years as the original pioneers of authentic Asian cuisine in the not – almost 40 years of dining experience. Our main focus is providing original Indian & Bangladeshi dishes using our signature recipes & fresh ingredients. We would like to thank all our customers for their endless support. This renovation is our way of saying thank you so we would like to invite you all & welcome you to dine with us, enjoy our food and relaxing surroundings. Please book your table to avoid disappointment.

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What is the capital of Hong Kong?

What is the capital city of Hong Kong? | Reference.com What is the capital city of Hong Kong? A: Quick Answer The capital of Hong Kong is Hong Kong. An area of the city known as Victoria used to house the capital. It has since moved to a more central location within the city. Full Answer Hong Kong is an independent city-state of China. This means that it ultimately falls under Chinese rule, but for economic and trade purposes, and as part of the agreement that transferred rule of Hong Kong from the U.K. to China, it is somewhat self-governing. Ultimately, China is responsible for Hong Kong's defense and foreign affairs. Hong Kong maintains independence in all other areas of government. It also continues to maintain its own currency.

Victoria

"Who founded the modern republic of Turkey and, in 1934, took a name meaning ""Father of the Turks""?"

Hong Kong, About Hong Kong crafted cages, liquor and perfume About Hong Kong Travel to the land of Hong Kong that attracts you to its edifying attractions initializing from the urban sophistication to the beautiful landscapes, from inexplicable temples to commercial ardor that surely grasp your glance. British opium merchants founded the region while being expelled from Guangzhou. Location of Hong Kong Hong Kong is nestled on the eastern region of the Pearl River Delta area, engulfed by the People's Republic of China towards the southeastern coastal side, where the South China Sea faces the province from the southern side, and the Guangdong area from the northern side. Physical Hong Kong Map Hong Kong is constituted with three major provinces namely Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, and the New Territories. From the north end the province of the Kowloon Peninsula is well connected to the New Territories, which thereby is linked to the Mainland China through the streams of Sham Chun River (Shenzhen River). The place is comprised of 262 islands near the South China Sea where Ap Lei Chau province is compactly inhabited. Lantau is the largest province where the local natives reside while the region of Hong Kong Island falls in the second position as far as concentration of population is concerned. Hong Kong originated from the literary word, which meant as fragrant harbor, where innumerable aromatic trees were widely found in the area of Aberdeen and Wong Chuk Hang along the Hong Kong Island. Steep slopes with slightly rugged mountains cover the landscape area of Hong Kong.The Tai Mo Shan that stands at a height of 958 meters is known as the highest point within the region. The northwestern region of the New Territory is enclosed with lowlands where Victoria Harbour, the deepest natural maritime port that passes through the Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula reside. Climate of Hong Kong Get a typical sub-tropical, kind of weather condition in Hong Kong, where the climate is generally temperate in nature. The best time to tour to this fabulous place is during the month of November and December, when climate tends to be breezy and cozy along with bright and sunny. The months of January and February are comparatively cloudy, where the dry northerly winds bring along the cool windy weather. One can feel the high humid conditions in the month of March and April. The southeastern regions are affected with fog and drizzle that could be severe at times. The month of May to August are hot and humid accompanied with occasional showers and thunderstorms that affect the area during the mornings. Afternoon temperatures can ascend to about 31 C whereas the night temperature could descend to about 26 C soaring high in humidity. The month of July is dry whereas the September is hit with tropical cyclones with rainfall affecting the region consecutively for few days with subsequent landslips and flooding. The month of May and September are usually affected with heavy downpour where August being the wettest month. The driest month of the region is during the month of January. Hong Kong is affected with sultry cyclones, winter monsoon winds, and thunderstorms with tempest that affect the region between the months of April to September. Flora And Fauna of Hong Kong The Flora and fauna in Hong Kong is subjected to the climatic condition of the region along with the successive status change in the sea level and by the human effects within the region. Hong Kong is constituted with about: 2600 assorted species of plants, 450 species of birds, 80 species of reptiles and 20 species of amphibians. Catch up with mangrove plantation along the Deep Bay area, such as Pak Nai and Tsim Bei Tsui. The native plants of the region are Monteiro's Caterpillar Orchid, Entire Lip Ginger, Hong Kong Bamboo, Subglabrous Cane, Hong Kong Camellia, Bauhinia, Hong Kong Asarum, and Two-colored Bulbophyllum. The native animals of the region are Chinese White Dolphin, Romer's Tree Frog, Hong Kong Newt, Hong Kong Cascade Frog and many others. People Of Hong Kong The Hong Kong natives are known for their strong ethics and are efficient workers who put in lot of efforts in whatever task they are assigned with. Hong Kong is a diverse land with innumerable religion thriving in where one may come across strong societal bonding. The people of Hong Kong are hardworking, adjustable, well cultured and knowledgeable along with being industrialist in nature. The religions thriving within the area are: Buddhism, from India, Taoism and, Confucianism from China. Taoism religion carries the principle of 'tao' (the pathway), and 'wuwei' (submissiveness and obedience). Confucianism was acclaimed in the northern regions of China, which is based on the philosophy of living and existing. Buddhism made its origin in the Indian Territory but monks who voyaged from India through the Silk Road established the religion in China. The natives even indulge in ancestral reverence by honoring their dead and departed ancestors. All the major religions seem to flourish within the area. The people value money a lot, and for them they value each and every minute, which is precious for them. The city in no way sleeps, and as being a major trading port has attracted innumerable tourist to the region. The population of Hong Kong consists of 90 percent of Chinese in the form of Cantonese residing within the Mainland China area. The other groups residing here are: The Cantonese are hostile in nature when they are offended. Hakka are the next generation of Chinese dwelling in the region who are supposedly the oldest landowners. Hoklo and Tanka are considered as a 'boat people' who reside along the waters next to Aberdeen, Yau Ma Tei, and other typhoon based refuge. Shanghainese and Chiu Chows Fuzhou carry a shrewd business skills reside within this province. Arts, Culture And Music Of Hong Kong Art: Visit The Hong Kong Museum of Art, known to retain the cultural heritage of the region along with displaying the art of international standards within the area. Watch out for age-old Chinese objects made out of bronze and ceramics along with paintings at the University Museum and Art Gallery of Hong Kong (UMAG). Culture: The culture of Hong Kong is mainly influenced by the Chinese traditions. Several Chinese celebrations are hosted here, among which the most celebrated one being The Chinese New Year, Ching Ming Festival, Modern Winter Solstice, Dragon Boat Festival and Mid-autumn Festival. Lion dance is something quite auspicious for the native residing here that carries along the significance of good luck. It is said when this lion dance is undertaken close to a house or a shop, it is customary to return them with a red packet containing sufficient cash in lieu to it. The MK Culture that originated from Mong Kok is based on the custom of dressing that attracts several younsters. The people indulge in tea drinking celebration along with offering a cup of it to the guests visiting a native's house. Music: Cantopop is the most popular type of pop music celebrated within the region that is delivered in Cantonese. Cantonese opera has a significant place in the location. The Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra is quite popular within the area.

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What is the Japanese product kakiemon?

Japanese info   Nippon (1891 - 1921) The McKinley Tariff, which took effect October 1,1890, required that all imported goods be stamped in English with their country of origin. Click here for information on the McKinley Tariff At the time, "NIPPON" was considered to be an acceptable name for Japan, so most Japanese ceramics of this period were backstamped "NIPPON" or "HAND PAINTED NIPPON." often with artist or maker marks as well. However, not all were stamped that way. There were still unmarked pieces, and pieces stamped "JAPAN" as well.  . If your piece does not have a country listed, it is possible it dates before the early 1890s. Of course, there are exceptions, so be careful making assumptions!  These are the so-called " Nippon wares". (Some of the finest examples of Japanese ceramics were made during this period). However, the rule doesn't apply for items exported other countries nor always in America because sometimes paper labels and the like were used. So while finding a back stamp saying " Nippon " is a useful dating aid its absence is not determinative. There is also the possibility of pieces having both"Hand Painted Nippon" and "Made in Japan" in the same mark.Some people might place a higher value on these but not everyone. There are also 'Transitional' marks which are identical to the 'Nippon' marks used previously but now state "Made in Japan". Companies later changed their marks.   Fake Nippon Fake Nippon first appeared on the market in the early 1980's. The early reproductions were poorly decorated and had fake back stamps which could easily be differentiated from the authentic back stamps by knowledgeable collectors. However, many novice Nippon collectors were fooled by these pieces and unknowingly added these "fakes" to their collections. Over time the companies making these fake pieces have perfected the M-in-wreath back stamp. It is impossible to tell the authentic back stamp from this new fake! Additionally, other authentic back stamps such as the Maple Leaf and Rising Sun were also being used on fake pieces. While these fake back stamps were slightly different from the authentic back stamps and definitely not as perfect as the M-in-wreath fake back stamp, they could fool collectors. Recently, thanks to the efforts of the Noritake Company, U.S. Customs has ruled that the fake M-in-wreath mark is counterfeit and not allowed for importation into the United States. Because of this ruling, wholesalers, for the time being, have stopped marking their fake Nippon with the Noritake Company back stamps (including the Maple Leaf, Rising Sun, and RC marks). Fake Nippon is now being sold 'unsigned'; that is, with no back stamp. The items come into the United States with a paper label identifying the country it was made in. Of course, the paper label is easily removed leaving the item 'unsigned.' In addition to changes in the back stamps, the actual mold style and decoration of the fake Nippon has been improving. In fact some of the newer fakes are being copied from original patterns used during the Nippon era, making them reproductions not fakes. The quality of these reproductions, while much improved over past fakes, is still not quite right and the feel of the porcelain is wrong. However, the overall quality of these reproductions is getting better all of the time and it's imperative for collectors to be aware of this   Site of Nippon Collector's club; http://www.nipponcollectorsclub.com/ .  Noritake (1921 - 1941) 1921-1941  - often called the NORITAKE ART DECO Era  This was also the beginning of the "Made in Japan" period and the reason for keeping Noritake separate from this era is the fact that the quality in many cases was much superior for Noritake pieces than for "Made in Japan". Noritake is still famed for their 'Art Deco' pieces made between the 1920s and 1930s. Many collectors consider the Noritake Art Deco pieces the best of Made in Japan ceramics. They were consistenly of better quality and most beautifully decorated, and today they are very avidly collected and are priced accordingly! Most early pieces marked Nippon in western or in Japanese Kanji characters seems to have been manufactured by or sold through the company that later would become Noritake Company. In many instances Nippon and Noritake are one and the same and both markings can be found on pieces. The forerunner of Noritake was first established in 1876. From around the 1890's until 1921 the Nippon Toki Kaisha Ltd had according to the McKinley Tariff Act of 1890 marked their export porcelain with their country of origin as in "Nippon" but in western characters, which is kind of fun in an upstanding Edo period Samurai way. For Nippon collectors the bad news is that this mark only signifies the country of origin and implies no other information. So, even if early Morimura imports were likely to have been marked this way, so would other imports from Japan too. After the WWI most back stamps were changed to state " Japan" or "Made in Nippon was infrequently used even after 1921.   Noritake History   In 1876 Baron Ichizaemon Morimura IV formed a trading company called Morimura Kumi (Morimura Brothers) with offices in Tokyo, and a retail and wholesale office in New York for the export of traditional Japanese products such as chinaware, curios, paper lanterns and other gift items. Ichizaemon Morimura VI was a visionary and a supporter of a modernization of Japan . One thing he clearly saw was the business potential if the quality of Japanese art and skilled craft could be adapted to the needs and taste of the American consumer. Morimura brothers was still a many faceted importing company of which the porcelain were just one part.   Beside running a china decorating facility of their own during 1878 to 1884, the Morimura brothers also bought and distributed porcelain blanks to be decorated by independent porcelain decorators in nearby regions. From 1884 Morimura Kumi subcontracted decorating firms in Tokyo, Nagoya and Kyoto . The quality of the Early Noritake wares varied with the skill of the individual decorators. The early marks from this period seems to have been the country of origin i.e Ni hon or "Nippon" written by brush in traditional Japanese Kanji characters. The word "Nippon " also meaning Japan but in western characters    A visit by Ichizaemon Morimura IV to the World Fair in Paris in this period helped shape the idea of trying to manufacture a high quality, modern, western style dinnerware for export, in Japan . In January 1, 1904 the Nippon Toki Kaisha Ltd  the forerunner to the present Noritake Company was formed. The factory was located near a source of good and plentiful raw materials and in a community rich with skilled potters. The site was the small village of Japan's ceramic production, on the main island of Honshu . The first Japanese registry for a Noritake back stamp is reported as 1908 for use in Japan .     In 1910 the first china products from the new company would leave Japan for the U.S. The first reported U.S. registry for a Noritake back stamp for importing is 1911. Not until 1914 after a long series of trials and errors the first fine porcelain dinnerware suitable for export was produced. One of the first patterns to be produces was the " Sedan". A piece of the dinnerware in the Noritake factory in Nagoya shows this to be a bleak white plate with a cream border of small flower sprays and the typical Noritake back stamp, the letter "M" in a wreath and the words "Hand painted." As a general rule the earliest dinnerware plates were mostly decorated with a liberal applications of gold. To identify the early Noritake porcelain, it is important to remember their intended adaptation to the western taste. The "M in a wreath" mark was used between c 1914 until 1940.  With the First World War came the understanding of the need for industrialization. The company soon undertook the production of necessary machinery for the use in its potteries and could by the early 1920's introduce assembly line techniques allowing for mass production of high quality, yet affordable, dinnerware.  Starting in the 1930's, Noritake expanded its market and opened a number of divisions throughout the Japan. Noritake also introduced something called the roller hearth kiln, a revolutionary mass manufacturing furnace which sped up production. At the height of Noritake's golden era, which ran from around 1912 to 1939, the company employed over 4000 artists in the painting shops alone. Unfortunately, during WW2, the factory was virtually destroyed, many of the key staff lost their lives in the War and virtually all of the early records were lost.   From the event of the back stamps giving up the "Nippon" mark and beginning with being marked " Japan" or "Made in Japan . I.e. in the early 1920's we can assume that all Noritake porcelain was actually designed in New York, for the US market. From the up market art deco designs of the late 1920s the designs of the 1930s took a markedly more pragmatic shape after the world-wide depression. Still, marketed in department stores and Five & Dimes, Noritake took "art deco" into America ’s homes and onto their tables. Much of the "lustreware" where a thin metallic film was applied over a bright single-color glaze, often with art deco theme decals in combination with hand painting, dates to this period.    From its early understanding of western taste and mass production, Noritake also early understood the western methods of mass marketing. It is thus not surprising to find that from the late 1920's throughout the 1930's, until the bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 put a most unwanted stop to normal business, "Hand Painted Imported Noritake China" was offered as a premium by the Larkin company of Buffalo, New York, to its millions of customers purchasing soap, beauty and home products by mail. Some patterns appear to have been specially designed for the Larking Company such as the "Azalea". Azalea was then sold as premiums to the Larkin club members and their home agents. Typical marks from the period c. 1925 to 1940 are the green Noritake mark #190.    In 1941 the export offices were closed and direct export to the US was not resumed before 1948. Noritake wares from circa 1948 to 1952 may bear a number of marks including "Made in Occupied Japan" and "Occupied Japan." In 1963 the company started to use its English name Noritake Company Ltd to which the Japanese company also officially changed its name in 1981.     Early Noritake china dinnerware featured the "Hand Painted Nippon" design around the familiar wreath-circled "M" for "Morimura" on the back stamp of most pieces.    "Noritake" appears on back stamps of other pieces, with either " Japan" or "Made in Japan " present on most of these. For a period following World War II from 1945 to 1948 Noritake China was sold under the label "Rose China". In 1953 the letter "N" for "Noritake" in a wreath replaced the long used "M" in a wreath. According to collectors, the number of known different Noritake marks are today more then 400.    Marks with the initials RC have a special place in the Noritake production. The first time we find them in the first marks registered in Japan in the 1908, where RC (Royal Crockery) is combined with a "Yajirobe" or a mechanical balance toy. According to Noritake symbolizing the universal problem of finding a balance in business, such as between quality and price. It is not clear how long this symbol was used but already in 1911 the first marks with the famous laurel wreath were registered. In 1911 also a series of circular marks with the RC drawn in an Art Noveu style were registered in Japan . In 1926 a back stamp with RC (Royal Crockery) with a right turned laurel twig registered in India for India and Southeast Asian market was used for the first time.    Immediately after the second WW, in 1946, the Noritake was temporary dropped from the marks and RC was reappearing as "Rose China" together with a picture of a rose and the words Made in Japan. Since the quality immediately after the war was not up to the pre-war standard, Noritake preferred to save the valuable Noritake brand name until later, still in 1947 we find the Noritake name used together with the Komaru (overcoming difficulties) symbol, sometimes over the telltale line "Made in Occupied Japan".    For today's collector, the ambiguities that surround Noritake and Morimura brothers can be overwhelming. The loss of extensive company records during World War II also makes some questions forever unanswerable. Beside the rare chance finds of new sources, stylistic comparison and a careful adding of one piece of information to another, is all that we will ever have on this. . Marumon ware   An extensive search has not produced any details about the Marutomo at this stage. We know that the Japanese word “Maru” translates to mark or circle. We also know that similar wares appear with the names “Marumon Ware” and “Maruhun Ware”, only these brands appear with the circled letter “K”. A lot of Marutomoware is advertised as 1920-1930. Marked on the base, Marumon Ware, the letter K in a circle, Made in Japan and Japanese writing underneath that. The Japanese were required to mark their exports Made in Japan , a practice which continued until the beginning of World War II, from 1941 until 1945. During the following years of American occupation of Japan (1945 to 1952), all exports from Japan were marked Made in Occupied Japan. After the Occupation, Japan marked her exports simply Japan.  It is believed that Marumon Ware was produced by a Division of the Noppon Toki Gomei Kaisha Company in the small town of Noritake. (See Noritake above) Giftcraft   ESD was a distributor for SOME of Lefton's products but there is no known connection other than that between ESD and Lefton. ESD did sell some Lefton items - but not all. And not all ESD sold was sold by Lefton. Giftcraft is another example of a distributor that sold the same things in Canada as Lefton sold in the US .  ESD is Enterprise Sales and Distributing headquartered in Toronto Canada (thus the Enterprise Exclusive labels). The owner was a friend of Mr. Lefton and was allowed at one time to "piggyback" on Lefton orders so that Lefton could order larger quantities and both companies would get better pricing from the Japanese manufacturer.  George Zoltan Lefton Company The Lefton mark can be found on a wide array of pottery, porcelain , and glass imported into the United States by the George Zoltan Lefton Company. The company was founded by this new immigrant from Hungary after he arrived in Chicago, Illinois in 1939 and established the company in 1940. George Lefton had previously worked in the clothing and sportwear industry, but he was a collector of fine porcelain and dreamed of entering that business. America offered the backdrop for even a new immigrant into the country to have a chance at commercal success. George Zoltan Lefton had always admired the quality and workmanship in finer Japanese and oriental porcelain, and after the end of World War II he pursued business relationships in post-war Occupied Japan to export Japanese porcelain to America through his company. George was one of the first American businessmen to enter post-war Japan. Early Lefton china was imported into the U.S. with a "Made in Occupied Japan" mark, used in the years immediately following World War II commencing in about 1946 1947. While not comparable to the best wares of European or Chinese porcelain manufacturers, Japanese porcelain was still of good quality and was produced at a cost that made it affordable for the average American family in the post-war years.  The export of china and ceramics was a key contributor to the emergence of Japan from the destitution of the war years and the reinvigoration of their economy.   Some of the items manufactured during that period are quite rare today. Mr. Lefton held his quality specifications high, therefore his items will be in high demand for a long time to come. His reputation earned him the name "China King". Until the mid 1970's, Japan was the main source of Lefton's pieces. Sources in Japan changed, which caused Lefton to look for other factories and suppliers. Some of them were Taiwan, Malaysia, and China. The majority that are sold in the secondary market were made in Japan. LEFTON MARKS Lefton marks include: stamps, labels, or numbers. Some pieces may have one of the three, two of the three, or all of the three. Some may have initially had a stamp and paper label. Paper labels wash off or get removed. Some of the early marks consisted of: (1946-1950)   a horse with a rider stating: "Handpainted, Exclusively Made in Occupied Japan, G.Z.L.,U.S.A.", stamped "Lamore China, Entirely Handmade, G.Z.L., U.S.A.,Made in Japan" (1948-1953)  "Made in Japan", "Lefton China, Hand Painted, Made in Japan" with a crown in the center; (1950-1955)   a crown encircled with "Lefton China,Hand Painted; (1949-1955)   a crown encircled with "Lefton China,Hand Painted, Reg.U.S. Pat. Off."; (1950-1955)   "Geo.Z.Lefton"; (1948-1953)   a crown with a capital cursive "L" above; (1955-Present)a crown encircled with "Lefton China, Hand Painted". There can also be "Royal Dover, Bone China" or "Made in Japan".   Japanese Porcelain marks  Japanese porcelain marks and backstamps are different from the Chinese. The old Japanese ceramic industry was with few exceptions a mere fraction of the Chinese. The production from design to sale was organized in a much smaller scale. Where the Chinese differentiated and made "everything", the Japanese specialized and made maybe only, teacups. Where the Chinese invented assembly line mass production, the Japanese had 'master potters', changing his signature as he went. Thus, we find a totally different philosophy behind the marks on the Japanese porcelain. They are more numerous, they can indicate the name of the factory, the potter, the decorator, the pattern, the customer, the exporter, the importer or maybe just say "Made in Japan", "Japan", "Nippon", "Happiness" or "Good luck" in any number of ways. Increasing the confusion are the hundreds of porcelain decorating firms active in the early to mid 20th century simultaneously putting many different marks on the same wares seemingly at random but probably for some reason. To take just one example, the Noritake company which has been active for about one hundred years only, are thought to have used over 400 different marks. That is four different marks per year, for a century.       Regarding dates, the following period names are the ones most commonly met with: The Edo period     (1603-1867) or Tokugawa period. is the period  in the history of Japan when Japanese society was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional Daimyo. It is roughly split into early, middle or late Edo. Sometimes the Genroku era (1688-1703) is distinguished. The  Meiji Period  (1868-1912) also known as the Meiji era, is a Japanese era which represents the first half of the Empire of Japan during which Japanese society moved from being an isolated feudalism to its modern form. The Taisho Period (1913-1926),  After Emperor Taisho who was the 123rd Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession, reigning from 30 July 1912, until his death in 1926. The Showa Period  (1926-1988) where "early Showa" is often used to cover the Showa reign before 1945. Showa era, is the period of Japanese history corresponding to the reign of the Showa Emperor, Hirohito The Heisei Period (1988-today). The Heisei era started on 8 January 1989, the first day after the death of the reigning Emperor, Hirohito. His son, Akihito, succeeded to the throne.        Japanese marks are normally read from top to bottom, and right to left. Signatures are usually followed by a suffix, for example Sei, tsukuru or saku all meaning "made", or Ga, Dzu or Fude meaning "painted" or "drawn". Then there are place names, Satsuma, Kutani, Seto etc. The best site to visit regarding Japanese porcelain etc. is the following;    Relationships between Korean,Chinese and Japanese "China" "China" or "chinawares" was coined by the Dutch who were the early importers of Oriental porcelain. I don't believe they really differentiated between Japan, China, Korean or any other oriental race. It was simply "chinaman" if you looked a certain way. It has long been believed that the origin of "china" started in China. But there have been much earlier instances of fired ceramic products. One of the early originators of fine pottery and ceramics was Korea who had ties with China and the Japanese were not far behind the Chinese and freely borrowed, hired (or stole) artists and techniques from both China and Korea. It is believed that Korean potters first discovered the necessary clay for making fine china in Japan in the 16th century.       It should be noted that the history ( and success) of fine china and pottery production has always been dependant upon the right materials for making these products. The English china industry took some time to catch up to the rest of the world in this area due to the lack of the right clays and additives needed. Once found in Japan, these materials allowed Japan to compete and rival the best of Chinese porcelain and although borrowing ideas and styles from the Chinese Ming dynasty they soon developed their own style and techniques. The history of  oriental "china" and porcelain is intertwined with all three nations. Korea, China and Japan. Korea Three Kingdoms Pottery  The Three Kingdoms of Korea (57 BC-668 AD), namely Silla, Goguryeo, and Baekje, provided the beginning of Korean ceramic history. Rough domestic wares for the people were produced from numerous kilns. Likewise a number of very sophisticated statues of royal figures, guardians, and horses, equivalent to Chinese Han Dynasty figures, used for domestic and imperial votive shrines, as well as for escorts of the dead in tombs of the nobles and kings, were turned on potter's wheels, while others were formed using the traditional hammered clay and coil method.  Silla Era Pottery  During the Unified Silla period (668–935) pottery was simple in colour, shape, and design. Celadon was subsequently the main production, with baekja porcelain wares developing slowly in the 14th century, when the pace accelerated with new glazes, better clays, and surprising variations of the white of different clays. The kilns at the time had to compete with Chinese wares on a variety of social levels. The Korean ceramic masters decided to distinguish Korean baekja or white porcelain from Chinese imports by maintaining simplicity in design when the practical problems of finding pure white glazes were solved. Dating of glazes from this era has revealed a celadon or jade patina beneath white glazes.     Baekja wares came from highly refined white clay, glazed with feldspar, and fired in large carefully regulated and very clean kilns. Despite the refining process, glazes in white colours always vary as a result of the properties of the clay itself; firing methods were not uniform, temperatures varied and glazes on pieces vary from pure white, in an almost snowy thickness, through milky white that shows the clay beneath deliberately in washed glaze, to light blue and light yellow patinas. The baekja wares reached their zenith immediately before the Joseon Dynasty came to power. Fine pieces have recently been found in the area about Wolchil Peak in the Diamond Mountains. The transitional wares of white became expressions of the Joseon Dynasty celebrations of victory in many pieces decorated with Korean calligraphy. Traditionally white wares were used by both the scholarly Confucian class, the nobility, and royalty on more formal occasions.Simultaneously, the Buddhist traditions demanded celadon-glazed wares, and cheongja pieces of celadon porcelain with more organic shapes drawing on gourds, with animal and bird motifs that evolved very quickly. In some ways these were over-decorated wares, using exaggerated forms, stylized repeating designs, and a wide variety of organic patterns.   Cheongja wares used refined earth clays with a bit of iron powder added, then a glaze with a bit of added iron powder added once again, then fired. The glaze dried to a hard finish and was duable with a slightly shinier and glossier finish, in an oily way, than whitewares.  Goryeo Dynasty     The Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392) achieved the unification of the Later Three Kingdoms under King Taejo. The works of this period are considered by some to be the finest small-scale works of ceramics in Korean history. Key-fret, foliate designs, geometric or scrolling flowerhead bands, elliptical panels, stylized fish and insects, and the use of incised designs began at this time. Glazes were usually various shades of celadon, with browned glazes to almost black glazes being used for stoneware and storage. Celadon glazes could be rendered almost transparent to show black and white inlays. While the forms generally seen are broad-shouldered bottles, larger low bowls or shallow smaller bowls, highly decorated celadon cosmetic boxes, and small slip-inlaid cups, the Buddhist potteries also produced melon-shaped vases, chrysanthemum cups often of spectacularly architectural design on stands with lotus motifs and lotus flower heads. In-curving rimmed alms bowls have also been discovered similar to Korean metalware. Wine cups often had a tall foot which rested on dish-shaped stands.  Joseon Dynasty Ceramics     During the Joseon Dynasty, (1392–1910) ceramic ware was considered to represent the highest quality of achievement from imperial, city, and provincial kilns, the last of which were export-driven wares. This was the golden age of Korean pottery, with a long period of growth in imperial and provincial kilns, and much work of the highest quality still preserved.   Wares evolved along Chinese lines in terms of colour, shape, and technique. Celadon, white porcelain, and storage pottery were similar, but with slight variations in glazes, incision designs, florality, and weight. The Ming influence in blue and white wares using cobalt-blue glazes existed, but without the pthalo blue range, and the three-dimensional glassine colour depth of Ming Dynasty Chinese works.   Simplified designs emerged early on. Buddhist designs still prevailed in celadon wares: lotus flowers, and willow trees. The form most often seen was that of pear-shaped bottles. Notable were thinner glazes, and colourless glazes for buncheong or stoneware. After the prolonged fall of the Ming dynasty, immigration of some Chinese master potters occurred in southern coastal Korea. Qing colouring, brighter and almost Scythian in enamel imitation, was rejected by Korean potters, in favour of simpler, less decorated wares in keeping with a new dynasty that built itself on military tradition.   Generally, the ceramics of this dynasty is divided into early, middle, and late periods, changing every two centuries, approximately; thus 1300 to 1500 is the early period, 1500 to 1700 the middle, and 1700 to 1900–1910 the late period. The wares began to assume more traditional Korean glazes and more specific designs to meet regional needs. This is to be expected, as the Scythian art influences were of the former dynasty. The rise of white porcelain occurred as a result of Confucian influence and ideals, resulting in purer, less pretentious forms lacking artifice and complexity.  Export Porcelain Nearly all exports of Korean ceramics went to Japan, and most were from provincial coastal kilns, especially in the Busan area. Export occurred in two ways: either through trading and the voluntary immigration of potters, or through outright invasion and theft of pottery and the forced relocation to Japan of families of potters who made the wares when the first method failed.The method of sending paper models of ceramics to Japan, having them approved and then having them manufactured began in the late 17th century, most often for the masters of Japanese Tea Ceremony.  Kilns   Central to Korean success were the chambered climbing kilns that were used throughout the Joseon dynasty and exported abroad, especially to Japan by Korean kiln-makers where they were renamed as noborigama in the Karatsu area from the 17th century on.Today most kilns used are electric kilns with computer controlled switchoffs, replacing first generation electric kilns with ceramic cones used as timers. There are, however, also artists using gas-fired kilns.   CHINA  Porcelain is generally believed to have originated in China. Although proto-porcelain wares exist, dating from the Shang Dynasty, by the Eastern Han Dynasty (100-200 CE) high firing glazed ceramic wares had developed into porcelain, and porcelain manufactured during the Tang Dynasty period (618–906) was exported to the Islamic world where it was highly prized.  The principle ingredients of Chinese porcelain was a white clay known as 'kaolin' and 'petunse' , a feldspatic rock (see "China FAQ on feldspathic or felspathic") .Early porcelain of this type was a hard paste porcelain with a feldspathic glaze as well, which fused with the body  becoming an integral part of it. The fusion made for a perfect surface. When glazed over an already bisquited (fired once) hard paste this fusion produced a slightly pitted surface often called 'chicken skin'.This includes the tri-color glazed porcelain, or sancai wares. Historian S.A.M. Adshead writes that true porcelain items in the restrictive sense that we know them today could be found in dynasties after the Tang,during the Song Dynasty, Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty, and Qing Dynasty.  By the Sui and Tang dynasties, porcelain had become widely produced. Eventually, porcelain and the expertise required to create it began to spread into other areas; by the seventeenth century, it was being widely imported to Europe. It is said that Marco Polo brought the first porcelain back to Europe from his famed expeditions and filled the heads of kings and alchemists with dreams of discovering it's secrets. Chinese porcelain (and other items as well) are usually dated as to the dynasty ( usually named after the reigning emperor)they originated in. 1- The Han Dynasty (206 BC - AD 220) The body was a grey stoneware over which a slip (liquid clay mixture, feldspathic)of transparent whitish glaze was washed. Named 'tzu' which refers to the material's resonance not it's translucency. In the West it has been termed 'proto-porcelain'. These wares tended to imitate the decoration and appearance of metal wares with patinated bronze, greens and reddish-browns, with decoration incised or combed and added in relief. 2 - The Six Dynasties (AD 220 - v589) This was when 'kaolin' and china stone or 'petunse' was discovered. These were the only ingredients capable of producing  the white body so necessary  for true porcelain. 3 - T'ang Dynasty (AD 618 - 906) This was when the first translucent (allows light to pass through but cannot be seen through) porcelain was made. A fine white body was made with a thick glaze which ran down the sides of the pot where it formed into 'teardrops' when it stopped short of the bottom. A common technique of firing these wares was to place them on a bed of sand hence forming the pebbled bottom with embedded grains of sand. 4 - Sung Dynasty (AD960 - 1279) 5 - Ming (1368 - 1644) 6 - Ch'ing Dynasty (or Manchu) (1644 - 1912) There are sub dynasties here such as; K'ang-hsi (1662 - 1722) JAPAN The earliest japanese production in china or porcelain wares was Kakiemon and Imari. Imari was simply the trans-shipment port for Arita wares. The kilns at Arita formed the heart of the Japanese porcelain industry, which developed in the 17th century, after the white kaolin clay was discovered in 1616 by abducted Korean potter Yi Sam-pyeong (1579–1655). Yi Sam-pyeong was kidnapped along with several thousand other Korean artisans by Japanese invaders during the Japanese invasions of Korea of 1592–1598. Arita soon came to rival the output of the Chinese kilns at Ching-te-Chen. Blue-and-white porcelain made at Arita was also widely exported to Europe through the Dutch East India Company, but "Imari porcelain" connotes Arita wares more specifically designed to catch the European taste.   Though sophisticated wares in authentic Japanese styles were being made at Arita for the fastidious home market. European export porcelains imitated Chinese underglaze blue decors (blue-and-white wares) or made use of enamel colors over underglazes of cobalt blue and iron red. The ware often used copious gilding, sometimes with spare isolated sprigged vignettes, but often densely patterned in compartments. There were two quite different styles in these wares. On the one hand a gaudy, brash brightly coloured and highly decorated style, the "Imari" style. The other ,"Kakiemon" is sometimes used as a generic term describing wares made in the Arita factories using the characteristic Kakiemon overglaze enamels and decorative styles  Kakiemon decoration is usually of high quality, delicate and with asymmetric well-balanced designs.  IMARI Imari porcelain is the European collectors' name for Japanese porcelain wares made in the town of Arita, in the former Hizen Province, northwestern Kyūshū, and exported from the port of Imari, Saga, specifically for the European export trade.Early experiments with overglaze colored enamels at Arita are associated with the famous Sakaida Kakiemon (1596–1666), whose name is memorialized in "Kakiemon" ware, the other main tradition in enamel decors. Dutch traders had a monopoly on the insatiable export trade, the first large order being placed at Arita by the Dutch East India Company in 1656. The trade peaked in the late 17th century and was slowly replaced by Chinese kilns in the early 18th century, as social conditions in China settled with the full establishment of the Qing Dynasty. Very fine "Chinese Imari" export wares were produced in the 18th century, eclipsing the original Japanese exports.  Chinese Imari patterns, as well as "Kakiemon" designs and palette of colors, influenced some early Orientalizing wares produced by the porcelain manufactories at Meissen, or later at Vincennes. Imari has always been popular with Romany women.European centers imitated the style of "Imari" wares, initially in faience at Delft in Holland, and in the early 19th century at Robert Chamberlain's factory at Worcester.    From the mid-17th century, Kakiemon wares were produced at the factories of Arita, Saga Prefecture, Japan with much in common with the Chinese "Famille Verte" style. The superb quality of its enamel decoration was highly prized in the West and widely imitated by the major European porcelain manufacturers.In 1971 it was declared an important "intangible cultural treasure" by the Japanese government.  There exist other Japanese ceramic arts. The most known are Imari, Arita Blue & White, Fukugawa, Kutani, Banko Earthenware and Satsuma pottery. Kakiemon    The Japanese potter Kakiemon Sakaida (1596-1666) is popularly credited with being one of the first in Japan to discover the secret of enamel decoration on porcelain, known as 'Akae'. The name "Kakiemon" was bestowed by his overload on Sakaida, who had perfected a design of twin persimmons (kaki: persimmon) and who then developed the distinctive palette of soft red, yellow, bleu and turquoise green. Kakiemon is sometimes used as a generic term describing wares made in the Arita factories using the characteristic Kakiemon overglaze enamels and decorative styles. However, authentic Kakiemon porcelains have been produced by direct descendants, now Sakaida Kakiemon XIV (1934-). Shards from the Kakiemon kiln site at Nangawara show that blue and white and celadon wares were also produced. Kakiemon decoration is usually of high quality, delicate and with asymmetric well-balanced designs. These were sparsely applied to emphasize the fine white porcelain background body known in Japan as NIGOSHIDE (milky white) which was used for the finest pieces. Kakiemon wares are usually painted with birds, flying squirrels, the "Quail and Millet" design, the "Three Friends of Winter" (pine, prunus and bamboo), flowers (especially the chrysanthemum, the national flower of Japan) and figural subjects such as the popular "Hob in the Well", illustrating a Chinese folk tale where a sage saves his friend who has fallen into a large fishbowl. However, because manufacture of NIGOSHIDE is difficult due to hard contraction of the porcelain body during firing, the production was discontinued from the former part of the 18th century to mid-20th century. In this period, Sakaida Kakiemon produced normal 'Akae' wares. Sakaida Kakiemon XII and XIII attempeted to reproduce NIGOSHIDE and succeeded in 1953. It has been manufactured till now.  Kakiemon in Europe The Kakiemon porcelain was imported into Europe. Augustus the Strong of Saxony and Mary II of England both owned examples. The earliest inventory to include Japanese porcelain in Europe was made at Burghley House, Lincolnshire, in 1688. These included a fabulous standing elephant with its trunk raised and a model of two wrestlers. Wares included bowls, dishes and plates, often hexagonal, octagonal or fluted with scalloped edges. The famed white "nigoshide" body was only used with open forms, and not for closed shapes such as vases, bottles and teapots, or for figures and animals. The hexagonal Kamiemon vases and covers known as "Hampton Court" vases were named after a pair at Hampton Court Palace, London, recorded in an inventory of 1696. Around 1730, this shape was copied at Meissen, Germany, which entered into a "sister city" contract with Arita, in 1979. The style was also adopted and copied in Chelsea and Worcester in the 1750's and by Samson Ceramics in the 19th century.   The Kakiemon porcelain proved a major influence on the new porcelain factories of the 18th-century Europe. Meissen copies could be extremely close to the originals, alternatively the factory painters might just have borrowed designs and use them with other shapes and styles. Kakiemon style was also adapted in Germany and Austria by the Du Paquier and "Vienna factories" and in France at Chantilly, Mennecy and Saint-Cloud. Kakiemon was also an influence on Dutch Delft pottery and Chinese export porcelain.  

Porcelain

Which river with a vast delta to the South china Sea rises as the Za Qu in Tibet?

Learn and talk about Kakiemon, Japanese porcelain, Saga Prefecture Art of enamelling[ edit ] Imari Kakiemon porcelain jar, Imari, Japan. The potter Sakaida Kakiemon (酒井田柿右衛門, 1596–1666) is popularly credited with being one of the first in Japan to discover the secret of enamel decoration on porcelain , known as akae. The name "Kakiemon" was bestowed upon Sakaida by his lord, after he perfected a design of twin persimmons (kaki), developing as well the distinctive palette of soft red, yellow, blue and turquoise green now associated with the Kakiemon style. Kakiemon is sometimes used as a generic term describing wares made in the Arita factories using the characteristic Kakiemon overglaze enamels and decorative styles. However, authentic Kakiemon porcelains have been produced by direct descendants, now Sakaida Kakiemon XIV (1934–2013). Shards from the Kakiemon kiln site at Nangawara show that blue and white and celadon wares were also produced. Kakiemon decoration is usually of high quality, delicate and with asymmetric well-balanced designs. These were sparsely applied to emphasize the fine white porcelain background body known in Japan as nigoshide (milky white) which was used for the finest pieces. Kakiemon wares are usually painted with birds, flying squirrels, the " Quail and Millet " design, the " Three Friends of Winter " ( pine , plum , and bamboo ), flowers (especially the chrysanthemum , the national flower of Japan) and figural subjects such as the popular "Hob in the Well", illustrating a Chinese folk tale where a sage saves his friend who has fallen into a large fishbowl. However, because manufacture of nigoshide is difficult due to hard contraction of the porcelain body during firing, the production was discontinued from the former part of the 18th century to mid-20th century. In this period, Sakaida Kakiemon produced normal 'akae' wares. Sakaida Kakiemon XII and XIII attempted to reproduce nigoshide and succeeded in 1953. It has continued to be produced since then. Europe[ edit ] Meissen hard porcelain vase, 1735. Indianische Blume ("Flowers of the Indies") in imitation of the Kakiemon style of Arita porcelain , Japan. Chantilly soft-paste porcelain bottle in the Kakiemon style, 1730–1735. The Kakiemon porcelain was imported into Europe via the Dutch East India Company , and beginning in the 1580s, through a variety of other avenues. Augustus the Strong of Saxony and Mary II of England both owned examples. The earliest inventory to include Japanese porcelain in Europe was made at Burghley House in 1688; these included a standing elephant with its trunk raised and a model of two wrestlers. Wares included bowls, dishes and plates, often hexagonal , octagonal or fluted with scalloped edges. The famed white nigoshide body was only used with open forms, and not for closed shapes such as vases, bottles and teapots, or for figures and animals. The hexagonal Kamiemon vases and covers known as " Hampton Court " vases were named after a pair at Hampton Court Palace, London, recorded in an inventory of 1696. Around 1730, this shape was copied at Meissen , Germany, which entered into a "sister city" contract with Arita, in 1979. The style was also adopted and copied in Chelsea and Worcester in the 1750s and by Samson Ceramics in the 19th century. [3] The Kakiemon porcelain proved a major influence on the new porcelain factories of 18th-century Europe.[ citation needed ] Meissen copies could be extremely close to the originals; alternatively, the factory painters sometimes just borrowed designs, and used them with other shapes and styles. Kakiemon style was also adapted in Germany and Austria by the Du Paquier and " Vienna factories" and in France at Chantilly , Mennecy and Saint-Cloud . Kakiemon was also an influence on Dutch Delft pottery and Chinese export porcelain. [3]

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Isfahan is a major city in which country?

Travel to Isfahan now - Panoramic Photography and Map - 360Cities Isfahan History and Overview Isfahan is located in central Iran, equidistant from the Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea. It sits on both the east-west and north-south trade routes which traverse the country. Isfahan has artifacts dating back to the Paleolithic period, and written history going back to ancient Aspandana. At one time Isfahan was among the largest cities in the world. It has twice been the capital city of Persia -- during the Parthian Empire and again in the sixteenth century Safavid dynasty. It was here that the Safavids declared Shi'a Islam to be the empire's official religion, one of the most important markers in Islamic history. Modern day Isfahan has one of the largest steel mills in the region, an air force base and a major oil refinery. The art and architecture in Isfahan rival anything else in the world in terms of beauty and intricacy. Getting There The airport is found 20km to the north-east of the city; you can reach it by taxi or bus. The airport shuttle bus goes to and from Enghelab-e Eslami Square. Transportation It costs about 4500 rials to hire a taxi for an hour, and it's a good idea to grab one if you plan on visiting some of the more distant sights. The main bus station is about 2km north of Shohoda Square. Here you can get buses to other cities in Iran, like Yazd or Tehran. Once a week a bus goes up to Istanbul. People and Culture Iranians are extremely hospitable and a growing number of them speak English, so it is possible to get by on a visit without needing to speak Farsi. As always, it's a good idea to familiarize yourself with the local customs before visiting a new place. In Iran, for example, it's not polite to blow your nose in company and it is not customary for men and women to shake hands. It is better to err on the side of caution if you are not sure how to avoid offending someone. The local currency is the rial, however locals speak about prices in tomans (one toman = ten rials). The rial is about 12,000IRR to the Euro as of February 2009 so you can see why they have a term for reducing the number by a factor of ten. US dollars and British pounds are the best currencies to bring with you, and be sure to declare all your currency at customs when you enter the country. The food in Iran favors fresh vegetables and fruits along with long grain rice, bread and grilled meats. Kebab is the the most common preparation of meat, did you know that came from Iran? Keep an eye out for Abgoosht, it's a thick lamb stew with lentils and potatos, served with bread in a special container. Things to do, Recommendations The Zayande Roud River is a nice place to go for a walk in some open space. Visit Naghshe Jahan square for the craftsmen's shops displaying amazing handiwork. Make sure you get some Gaz, it's the special candy of Isfahan, delicious! Before it's too hot in the mid-day, go for a walk at Najvan Park, it offers amazing views and a deep silent atmosphere. When you're ready to do some shopping there are several malls to pick from. Mojtame Park, Osun and Ali Ghapou malls are all located in Chaharbagh Abbasi Street. These are great for clothes, flowers, electronics etc. Jewelry time! Honor Gold Bazzar is a very big one-floor shopping mall where you can find all types of yellow and white gold, as well as silver. 18k gold is the standard of Iran. The Isfahan Old Bazzar is here at the end of the list because we like to save the best for last. This market sells everything you could want and then more. It's very beautiful to visit even if you aren't planning on buying anything, situated in the western wing of Naghshe Jahan Square. Text by Steve Smith.

Iran

Who was supposed to have told the Arabian Nights tales?

Isfahan | SILK ROAD site_1397_0020.jpg Isfahan was once one of the largest and most important cities in Central Asia, positioned as it is on the crossroads of the main north-south and east-west trade routes that cross Central Asia. The city was the splendid capital of the Seljuq and Safavid dynasties, and is renowned for its beauty, which has given rise to the Iranian saying that “Isfahan is half the world”. Commerce has always been central to the growth of Isfahan, to the extent that the Safavid Shah Abbas I (1588-1629) effectively re-routed the Silk Road through Isfahan and made the city his capital so that his empire would enjoy a trading monopoly. By the seventeenth century, the city attracted not only European merchants but also missionaries and mercenaries, as it became a religiously tolerant centre of mercantile and diplomatic activity in which merchants and travellers from a variety of cultures and religions rubbed shoulders. Isfahan first rose to international prominence as the capital of the great Seljuq Empire (1038-1194) which stretched from Central Asia to Syria. The Seljuqs had a huge impact on the cultural and architectural development of the city, and the consolidation of their empire was also significant in unifying a territory that had been competed for by diverse ethnic groups in central Asia for centuries; mainly, Arabic, Turkish, and local Iranian peoples. Under the Seljuqs, a new, uniquely Iranian, eastern Islamic architecture emerged in the city, and in particular, the traditional mosque layout (brought to Iran in 749 by its first Islamic rulers, the Abbasids) was replaced by a new design, based around four iwans (vast halls, open at one end), as represented in the Great Friday Mosque, the Masjid-i Jami. The Seljuq Turks excelled in the design of very large vaulted spaces and in the decorative articulation of buildings inside and out using complex brick patterns, and promoted the custom of organizing important urban buildings around an open, a large rectangular town square, known as a maidan. The Seljuqs also introduced large domed chambers into mosques in Iran. The domed chamber was known in the western Islamic mosques (Damascus, Cordoba, and others), where it usually served as a maqsura, a space reserved for the sultan and his court in the prime position in front of the mihrab (the niche indicating the direction of prayer toward Mecca.) The Seljuqs built unprecedentedly large examples of these domes, the first of which was inserted in the Great Friday Mosque at Isfahan in 1086-7. The Safavid Empire (1502 - 1736) saw a further development of Isfahan, although the city was not chosen straight away as the imperial capital.  Shah Abbas I, who reigned from 1588 to 1629, made the decision to move the capital from Qazvin to Isfahan in 1590, motivated both by the city's enormous economic potential and position at the crossroads of trade, and by concerns for security, given its central location at a safe distance from troubled borderlands. Favourable historical associations also set Isfahan apart from other Iranian cities – as the Seljuq capital, it associated Abbas with an illustrious dynasty of the past. The Safavids were a local, Iranian dynasty. It was not until the reign of Shah Abbas I that the city was renovated in a style that broke with Seljuq tradition, with the construction of many of the monuments and buildings for which Isfahan is renowned today. Wealth and labour were used to build bridges, roads and caravanserais to encourage and facilitate trade. The imperial household was transferred there, and followed by merchants and artisans who relocated along with them. At the centre of the new city, a magnificent new maidan (city square) was constructed, some 510 by 158 meters, named the "Design of the World" Maidan (Maidan-i Naqsh-i Jahan). Its design united all of the facets of the Safavid polity into one spatial diagram: worship (the Shah Mosque), commemoration (the Mosque of Sheikh Lutfallah), sovereign administration (the Imperial Palace), and trade (Qaisariya Bazaar). Abbas I's designers differentiated the new city from the old historical centre by organizing the street patterns on grids that were not oriented toward Mecca. The old and new maidans were connected by the winding covered street of the Great Bazaar, which ran for two kilometres and was covered by high stone and brick vaults by the order of Abbas I. English and Dutch traders lived near the bazaar, as Isfahan was home to one of the East India Company's warehouses. Where the Great Bazaar met the new maidan, a group of buildings were built constituting the Qaisariya Bazaar (that is, the Imperial Bazaar, built and maintained by the emperor). They housed imperial manufactures (wholesale silks and fine textiles, goldsmiths, silversmiths, jewellers), the state mint, a hospital, public bath, and a caravanserai. Unlike the shops of the Great Bazaar, these were arranged on a regular grid and aligned with the new city. Their importance to the regime was represented by the Qaisariya Gateway to the square; no other imperial bazaar in the Safavid realm had such a monumental entrance. A number of major religious buildings were also constructed in Isfahan in this period; including the Mosque of Sheikh Lutfallah (1603-1619), conflating the style of a mausoleum and a mosque, and the Shah Mosque (1611-1666) which has a towering 170-foot high domed chamber. Unprecedented use of colour dominates the decoration of the entrance gateways, domes, minarets, and some interior spaces of these buildings. The use of polychromatic tile as a surface ornament was known in other periods of Iranian history, but it was the Safavids who established colourful tiling as the most salient characteristic of Iranian architecture, and this decorative style reached its zenith in Isfahan.  

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Which is the highest mountain in the Alps?

The Alps - Highest Mountain Range in Europe The Alps   The Alps are the youngest and highest mountain system in Europe. They stretch across the western and southern part of the continent in a broad arc. The mountain range starts near the Mediterranean Sea on the  border between France and Italy. Then it curves north- and eastward through northern Italy, Switzerland Liechtenstein, southern Germany, Austria and Slovenia. The Alps are about 1,000 km long, the broadest section over 260 km wide. The highest peak, Mont Blanc, situated on the border between France, Italy and Switzerland, rises 4807 meters above sea level . Other famous peaks are the Monte Rosa, the Matterhorn, the Großglockner and the Zugspitze.   The whole mountain range is divided into three sections: The western Alps lie west of the Great St. Bernard Pass and include the highest mountains. The central Alps lie between the Great St. Bernard and Lake Constance. The eastern Alps stretch east of Lake Constance into Austria, northern Italy, southern Germany and Slovenia.  They are the lowest section of the mountain range .     How the Alps were formed Millions of years ago the area of today’s Alps  was covered by a large sea that separated Europe and Africa. The southern land mass started moving northwards. This movement folded rock layers at the bottom of the sea. Heat and pressure transformed the rock and  pushed the material upwards . Today these regions are the highest parts of the Alps. Most of the newly formed rock is granite and gneiss, but many ranges consist of limestone which also formed on the seabed. During the Ice Age, which started about a million years ago, the Alps were covered with a thick blanket of snow. Glaciers moved down valleys and made them wider and deeper. As they moved they took rock and other material with them, creating moraines. When glaciers started to melt water filled up behind these natural dams and created the alpine lakes we know today. The largest of these glaciers is the Aletsch in Switzerland which reaches a length of about 25 km. The longest glacier of the eastern Alps is the 8 km long Pasterze, at the foot of the Großglockner. The ice and snow of the alpine regions helped create the large rivers of today : the Rhine, Rhone, Danube and the Po. The Aletsch Glacier in Switzerland - Jo Simon on Flickr   Climate In general, the Alps have a highlands climate . Higher areas are colder than the valleys and they get more rainfall and snow because cold air cannot hold as much moisture as warm air. Sometimes warm dry foehn winds, blow downward along the mountain sides. The air originates in the Mediterranean area, climbs over the southern Alps where  it loses almost all of its moisture and on the back side becomes so dry and warm that its melts the snow and ice . This  often leads to a rise in temperature of up to 20 °C in the  colder valleys .   Plants and vegetation Many  kinds of plants grow in the various areas of the Alps. The valleys have rich, green pastures with beech and oak trees growing in the lower regions. These trees are deciduous, which means  they lose their leaves each year. The higher areas are dominated by evergreens mainly  spruce, pine and fir trees. Above the tree line, which is located between 1700 and 2000 meters above sea level you can find alpine meadows, mosses, shrubs and unique flowers like the Edelweiss.  The highest parts of the Alps (regions above 2 800 metres) are covered  with snow, ice and barren rock.   Animals Animals living in alpine regions must become used to living in higher mountain locations. The ibex is a sturdy wild goat that lives above the tree line. alpine marmots are  thick-bodied squirrels that hibernate in burrows. The chamois is a graceful animal that looks like an antelope. Alpine marmot - Dev Anubis Economy Farming is an important economic  activity in valleys and on the sunny sides of the lower slopes. Small family farms are very common in alpine areas. The main crops are barley, oats and rye, as well as corn and wheat. Farmers also raise cattle, goats and sheep. Dairy farms produce milk and other products for a large part of the population. Wine is grown in sunny areas of the southern Alps up to a sea level of 600 meters. Most of the energy comes from the hydroelectric power plants that operate either high up in the mountains or on rivers. These power stations produce enough energy so that surpluses can be exported to other European countries. In the 20th century tourism became one of the main sections of the economy. Skiing resorts have become popular throughout the region. Famous winter resorts include Grenoble and Chamonix (France), St. Moritz (Switzerland), Garmisch-Partenkirchen (Germany) and Kitzbühel and the Arlberg in Austria . Numerous Olympic Games have also taken place in the Alps. Skiing resorts in the Alps   History and Transportation People have lived in the Alps for thousands of years. German cultures developed in the eastern Alps while Roman culture influenced the western part. By 500 B.C. Celtic tribes controlled much of the region. In the 1st century B.C. the Romans took over . They built roads through alpine valleys and across mountain passes to link Rome with its northern provinces. These roads allowed the Romans to expand their influence to other parts of central and western Europe. Throughout the Middle Ages these  routes  have been used by merchants , religious leaders and soldiers . During the past two centuries railroads, tunnels and motorways  have been built in order to connect the southern part of Europe with the north. There are more than 40 natural passes in the Alps. The Brenner Pass (1374 metres) is the most widely used pass of the eastern Alps. It connects  western Austria and  northern  Italy with a major motorway and a railroad. Building tunnels under the mountains belongs to the most difficult types of  construction work. The St. Gotthard Road Tunnel has a length of 17km and is one of the longest motorway tunnels in the world . It is part of the St. Gotthard road, the most frequently used transit route through the central Alps . The Great St. Bernard tunnel was the first major motorway  tunnel to connect Italy and Switzerland. The Mont Blanc road tunnel links France and Italy, and the Arlberg tunnel is the longest in the eastern Alps, connecting the Tyrol with  Vorarlberg.   Climbing the Alps Few people attempted to conquer the Alps in the early centuries . Many alpine peaks were first climbed during the mid 1800s when mountaineering became a popular sport. Today, professional guides use modern equipment to help people reach the highest peaks. Each year more than 2,000 alpinists  ascend  to the top of the Matterhorn which is considered to be one of the most difficult mountains to climb. In 1786 two Frenchmen became the first to reach the top of Mt. Blanc, Europe’s highest peak.     Environmental problems In the past two centuries many changes have taken place in the alpine region. Increased industrialisation and tourism have led to air and water pollution, slope erosion and the destruction of forests.  Increased trade between European Union countries has led to growing road traffic. The people of alpine valleys suffer from dust ,dirt  and noise produced by traffic . It is one of the big aims of the European Union to get more  traffic onto railroads in order to reduce pollution and make the Alps a better place to live and relax.   activity =something that you do aim = something that you really want to do alpinist = person who likes to climb mountains antelope = an animal with long horns that can run very fast arc = part of a curved line or circle ascend =to go up barley =a plant that you use to make food and alcohol barren = with nothing on it beech =large tree with a smooth grey cover blanket = cover, layer border = line between two countries broad = wide burrow = a place under the ground that animals make to live or sleep cattle = cows on a farm that produce milk or meat century = a hundred years conquer =here: climb up to the top of consider = think, believe consist of = to be made up of construction = building cover =to form a layer over something  create = make dairy farm = farm that makes and sells milk from its cows deciduous = trees that lose their leaves in winter develop = grow dominate = here: stand out, overlook dust = dirt that is in the form of dry powder economic =about the economy economy =system of buying and selling things in a country either =one of two things equipment = tools, machines , clothes that you need to do a job expand = to make bigger fir =tree with leaves shaped like needles; they do not fall off in winter fold = to move one part over another frequent = often glacier = large mass of ice that moves slowly down a mountain graceful = to move in a very nice way granite and gneiss = hard rocks that are changed by heat and pressure guide = person who leads tourists hibernate = to sleep the whole winter hydroelectric = to use water power to make electricity in general =on the whole include =contain, have length =how long something is limestone = rock that has calcium in it link = connect marmot = small animal with fur and short front legs  which lives under the ground meadow = field with wild grass and flowers Mediterranean = area between the southern part of Europe and the northern part of Africa melt = here: when snow and ice becomes water merchant = person who sells and buys things moisture = very, very small drops of water in the air moraine = pieces of rock and material that a glacier moves along moss = very small green plants that grow in a thick mass on trees or rock motorway = a very wide road for travelling fast over long distances mountain range = a group of mountains mountaineering = the sport of mountain climbing movement =when something  moves numerous = many oak =a large tree that is common in northern countries oats =grain from which flour is made ; it is used in cooking or as food for animals operate = work pasture = land or field covered with grass that cows or sheep can eat peak = the sharp pointed top of a mountain peak = the sharp pointed top of a mountain pine =a tall tree with long hard sharp leaves that do not fall off in winter pollution =when you make air, water or the ground dirty so it is dangerous for people popular = liked by a lot of people power station = a building where electricity is produced pressure =weight, force produce = make raise = to look after animals or grow plants so that they can be used as food range = here: group of mountains reach =get to resort = place where people go for their holidays rise = to go up or get higher rye = grain that is used for making dark bread sea level = the average height of the sea; it is used to measure how high mountains and other places are seabed = land at the bottom of the sea section = part situated = to be in a certain place slope = side of a hill or mountain soldier = member of an army who fights in a war spruce =a tree that grows in northern countries and has short leaves shaped like needles stretch = go from one place to another sturdy = strong suffer =here: to become worse because something bad is happening  surplus = more than what is needed take over = take control of throughout = in all of throughout = in the whole of ... transform = change transit = system of moving goods or people  from one place to another various = different

Mont Blanc

Which country is divided into cantons?

Alps - Peakbagger.com  Peakbagger.com Mountain range with well-recognized name Highest Point Italy (29%), Austria (24%), France (19%), Switzerland (12%), Germany (12%), Slovenia (3%), Hungary (2%) (numbers are approximate percentage of range area) Area 298,128 sq km / 115,107 sq mi Area may include lowland areas Extent 669 km / 416 mi North-South 1,014 km / 630 mi East-West Center Lat/Long 46° 1' N; 11° 11' E Map Link       Yahoo Search The Alps are the dominant range of Europe and one of the top five mountain areas of the world in mountain scenery and climbing challenge. Although only containing about fifty major peaks over 4000m (13,123'), the Alps rise very steeply from low bases and feature extensive glaciation on thousands of their summits. Americans used to the mountains of the western United States will be amazed at the rugged, snowy and steep faces of the Alps, which put the Rockies to shame. It has even been said that high Alpine peaks rise as high above the snowline as ones in the Himalaya and the Andes. The Alps are a wide and convoluted crescent of ranges and peaks arcing to the north of the Italian Peninsula, from the Julian Alps of Slovenia (once part of Yugoslavia) on the east to the Maritime Alps of the South of France on the west. Within this huge area are many sub-ranges: the Dolomites of northern Italy; the Hohe Tauern of Austria; the Bavarian Alps; the Cottian Alps, and countless others. The three highest, which together contain almost all of the 4000m giants, are the Pennine Alps on the Switzerland-Italy border, the Berner Oberland of central Switzerland, and the Mont Blanc Massif, where France, Switzerland and Italy meet. The sport of mountaineering was invented in the Alps, and the variety of peaks and routes that can be climbed is staggering, ranging from easy walk-ups to some of the hardest routes on earth. As a range in the heart of a densely settled and advanced continent, access to the Alps is good, perhaps too good: roads, trains, tunnels, cableways, and ski lifts honeycomb the range and often take casual tourists high up towards the peaks. An extensive network of huts in the Alps make backpacking in the American tradition almost unheard of. Map of Alps Click on red triangle icons for links to other ranges. Note: Range borders shown on map are an approximation and are not authoritative.

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In which Italian city would you find Leonardo's Last Supper?

Leonardo's Last Supper - Visit the masterpiece of Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo's Last Supper Book online the ticket to visit Leonardo's Last Supper The Last Supper is one of Leonardo da Vinci’s most popular works and the most famous of Last Supper’s representations ever created. Such a masterpiece dating back to the Renaissance is preserved at Santa Maria delle Grazie  - a church and Dominican convent in Milan – and represents an important piece for all those who love Leonardo da Vinci’s Renaissance painting. Leonardo’s Last Supper shows the dramatic moment of Jesus Christ’s final meal with his twelve Apostles, as mentioned in the Gospel according to John (13:21). During the meal, Jesus predicts that one of his disciples will betray him. The twelve apostles are placed around him and we can see they’re noticeably upset by the Prophet’s words. It is just in the representation of emotions on the faces of the 13 personages that stands the magnificence of Leonardo’s masterpiece: he makes visible the “soul motions”, an essential element for an artist, as mentioned by the same Leonardo in his A Treatise on Painting. Jesus with the Apostles - detail of the Last Supper Book online the ticket to visit Leonardo's Last Supper The Last Supper was oil-painted on plaster, with a particular technique: a panel painting on dry walls never used before for frescoes. Probably this is the distinctive feature that makes Leonardo’s works unique in the world: the experimentation of new techniques, which unfortunately were unsuitable for a good conservation with the passing of time. As a matter of fact, also The Last Supper had a series of serious problems for conservation and so it underwent several restorations, which gradually lessened the peculiar features of Leonardo’s painting. During 2nd World War, Santa Maria delle Grazie was seriously bombed but the painting remained intact and in 1977 it underwent its last great restoration that lasted over 20 years. The intervention of the world’s greatest experts was able not just to restore the work, but also, through careful studies, to totally recreate Leonardo da Vinci’s stroke, bringing to light again the uniqueness of The Last Supper. Apostles - detail of Leonardo's Last Supper Book online the ticket to visit Leonardo's Last Supper Nowadays, Leonardo’s masterpiece was made even more famous by the book written by Dan Brown The Da Vinci Code - and later by the movie – which fascinated millions people from all over the world, who today come to Milan to visit the famous painting and try to discover the mysteries the writer talked about. The painting and the Church Santa Maria delle Grazie are part of UNESCO World Heritage The Museum is open from Tuesday to Sunday from 8.15 a.m. to 7 p.m. (admission allowed until 6.45 p.m.). Close on Mondays, on 1st January, 1st May, 25th December.   Booking is required and it’s also possible to book online .   Below, you’ll find our suggestions for guided tours to see The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci:

Milan

Which is Italy's longest river?

15 Things You Should Know About 'The Last Supper' | Mental Floss 15 Things You Should Know About 'The Last Supper' Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper is one of the most admired, most studied, and most reproduced paintings the world has ever known. But no matter how many times you've seen it, we'll bet you don't know these details.  1. It's bigger than you think.  Countless reproductions have been made in all sizes, but the original is about 15 feet by 29 feet. 2. The Last Supper captures a climactic moment.  Everyone knows the painting depicts Jesus' last meal with his apostles before he was captured and crucified. But more specifically, da Vinci wanted to capture the instant just after Jesus reveals that one of his friends will betray him, complete with reactions of shock and rage from the apostles. In da Vinci's interpretation, the moment also takes place just before the birth of the Eucharist, with Jesus reaching for the bread and a glass of wine that would be the key symbols of this Christian sacrament.  3. You won't find it in a museum.  Although The Last Supper is easily one of the world’s most iconic paintings, its permanent home is a convent in Milan, Italy. And moving it would be tricky, to say the least. Da Vinci painted the religious work directly (and fittingly) on the dining hall wall of the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie back in 1495.  4. Although it’s painted on a wall, it's not a fresco.  Frescos were painted on wet plaster. But da Vinci rejected this traditional technique for several reasons. First off, he wanted to achieve a grander luminosity than the fresco method allowed for. But the bigger problem with frescos—as da Vinci saw it—was that they demanded the painter rush to finish his work before the plaster dried. 5. Da Vinci used a brand new technique on his future masterpiece. In order to spend all the time he needed to perfect every detail, da Vinci invented his own technique , using tempera paints on stone. He primed the wall with a material that he hoped would accept the tempera and protect the paint against moisture.  6. Very few of da Vinci's original brushstrokes remain. Although the painting itself was beloved, da Vinci's tempera-on-stone experiment was a failure. By the early 16th century, the paint had started to flake and decay, and within 50 years, The Last Supper  was a ruin of its former glory. Early restoration attempts only made it worse.  Vibrations from Allied bombings during World War II further contributed to the painting's destruction. Finally, in 1980, a 19-year restoration effort began. The Last Supper was ultimately restored , but it lost much of its original paint along the way.  7. A hammer and nail helped Da Vinci achieve the one-point perspective.  Part of what makes The Last Supper so striking is the perspective from which it's painted, which seems to invite the viewer to step right into the dramatic scene. To achieve this illusion, da Vinci hammered a nail into the wall, then tied string to it to make marks that helped guide his hand in creating the painting's angles.  8. Renovations eliminated a portion of The Last Supper. In 1652, a doorway was added to the wall that holds the painting. Its construction meant that a lower central chunk of the piece—which included Jesus' feet—was lost. 9. The Last Supper's Judas may have been modeled after a real criminal.  It is said that the look of every apostle was based on a real-life model. When it came time to pick the face for the traitorous Judas (fifth from the left, holding a bag of telltale silver), da Vinci searched the jails of Milan for the perfect looking scoundrel. 10. There may be a biblical Easter Egg here. To the right of Jesus, Thomas stands in profile, his finger pointing up in the air. Some speculate that this gesture is meant to isolate Thomas's finger, which becomes key in a later Bible story when Jesus rises from the dead. Thomas doubts his eyes, and so is entreated to probe Jesus' wounds with his finger  to help him believe. 11. The meaning of its food is up for debate.  The spilled salt before Judas has been said to represent  his betrayal , or alternately, is seen as a sign of his bad luck in being the one chosen to betray. The fish served has similarly conflicted readings . If it is meant to be eel, it might represent indoctrination and thereby faith in Jesus. However, if it's herring, then it could symbolize a nonbeliever who denies religion.  12. It's inspired some wild theories. In The Templar Revelation , Lynn Picknett and Clive Prince propose that the figure to the left of Jesus is not John, but Mary Magdalene, and that The Last Supper is key evidence in a cover-up of the true identity of Christ by the Roman Catholic Church. Musicians have speculated that the true hidden message in The Last Supper is actually an accompanying soundtrack. In 2007, Italian musician Giovanni Maria Pala created 40 seconds of a somber song using notes supposedly encoded within da Vinci's distinctive composition.  Three years later, Vatican researcher Sabrina Sforza Galitzia translated the painting's "mathematical and astrological" signs into a message from da Vinci about the end of the world. She claims The Last Supper predicts an apocalyptic flood that will sweep the globe from March 21 to November 1, 4006.  13. The Last Supper also inspired popular fiction.  And not just The Da Vinci Code. A pervasive part of the painting's mythology is the story that da Vinci searched for ages for the right model for his Judas. Once he found him, he realized it was the same man who had once posed for him as Jesus. Sadly, years of hard-living and sin had ravaged his once-angelic face. As compelling a story as this is,  it’s also totally false .  How do we know this story isn’t true? For one thing, it's believed that da Vinci took about three years to paint The Last Supper, mostly due to the painter's notorious tendency to procrastinate. For another, stories of spiritual decay manifesting itself physically have long existed. It's likely that someone along the way decided to saddle The Last Supper with a similar narrative in order to give its moral message a sense of historical credibility. 14. It's been mimicked for centuries.  Fine art and pop culture have paid tribute to The Last Supper with a cavalcade of imitations and parodies. These range from a 16th century oil painting reproduction to new interpretations from Salvador Dali , Andy Warhol , Susan Dorothea White , and Vik Muniz , who made his out of chocolate syrup.  Recreations of The Last Supper's distinctive tableau can also be found in the Mel Brooks comedy History of the World, Part 1 , Paul Thomas Anderson's stoner-noir Inherent Vice , and Luis Buñuel's Viridiana, which was declared "blasphemous" by the Vatican. It's also been a plot point in The Da Vinci Code and Futurama . 15. Want to see The Last Supper in person? Better book (way) in advance. Though The Last Supper is one of Italy's must-see sites, the convent in which it is located was not built for big crowds. Only 20 to 25 people are allowed in at a time in visiting blocks of 15 minutes. It is recommended visitors book tickets to see The Last Supper at least two months in advance. And be sure to dress conservatively, or you may be turned away from the convent. More from mental_floss...

i don't know

On which river does Verona stand?

Verona, Italy: City of Romance and Beauty RSS Feed Verona, Italy: City of Romance and Beauty Venice is the incomparable city of canals. Rome, the seat of the Empire stretching back into antiquity. Florence is known for its art. Yet there is another city that should be added to this list of Italian stars -- Verona, a UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) designated world heritage site. The riches of Verona -- its colorful history, elegant shops, vibrant markets and lively atmosphere make it one of the under-discovered gems of Italy. Our New Book Verona History Nestled along the banks of the Adige River, Verona has long been a desirable city. The Romans favored its location, colonizing it in 89 B.C. Even today the Roman heart of the city is easy to find. The Arena is still at its center, and there are bronze maps literally embedded in the side-walks that show that old city within modern Verona. Later on, Verona became the site of the free-for-all turf wars that characterized much of Italian (and European) history. These tug-of-war power struggles led to a series of rivalries culminating in the late 1200s with the ascendancy of the della Scalas (also known as the Scaligeri) who added a love of art to their pursuit of power. Their names, after the founding father's Bartolomeo della Scala, had a canine theme. Cangrande I (Big Dog) was the patron of Dante (of Dante's Inferno fame). Not a family to sit idly, under Cangrande's watch Verona captured several smaller cities. The dynasty was continued by the heirs, Mastino II (the Mastiff) and Cansignorio (Lord Dog). Eventually, fearing the end of their reign, the Castelvecchio was built, perhaps a monument to the family's might and power. The buildings today are among Verona's priceless architectural heritage. Eventually Verona decided to join the tiny empire of Venice, although that relationship was not without strife. From that point, rulers came and rulers went, including both Napoleon and Austria, until finally Verona become one of the Kingdom of Italy in the mid 1800s. Verona Sightseeing Start with the Roman Arena in the Piazza Bra. The Arena was built in the 1st Century AD and is one of the best preserved Roman amphitheaters in Italy. Seating 25,000 people, it is actually used today as a theater for the July and August opera season. The setting couldn't be more perfect, although you may want to bring a cushion and make reservations in advance. Although the Roman Gavi Arch and several town gates still exist, the other important piece of Roman Verona is the Teatro Romano which is still used as a summer theater. It's located in another section of the city, across the river via the Ponte Pietra (Stone Bridge). The Piazza Bra is an stylish area lined with cafes, government buildings and shops but this elegance belies its history as a local livestock marketplace. There is a tourist information office at the southern end of the Piazza near the town hall which may be a good place to start your touring. From the Bra, enjoy a stroll up the Via Mazzini past the fashionable shops. It's for pedestrians only so take your time and savor the stores, and the people. The Via Mazzini ends at Via Cappello, the street where Juliet lived and loved Romeo. The house at No. 23 Via Cappello is, as expected, a major tourist stop. There's the famous balcony (which may have been built later on), and a statue of Juliet in the courtyard. The question of whether these famous lovers really existed is still debated, but if you are patient you can wait your turn to stand next to her statue for a photo opportunity. Although the perhaps fictional, perhaps real Juliet has a house and statue, there is much less to show the (possible) existence of her lover, Romeo. A plaque supposedly marks No. 4 Via Arche Scaliger as the house of Romeo. A short walk going the other way on the Via Cappello will take you to the Piazza Delle Erbe, site of historical (and architecturally fascinating) buildings as well as a colorful fruit and vegetable market. A little further is the Piazza dei Signori, and the pantheon of the della Scala, the Scaliger Tombs. Whether by design or happenstance the feeling of the Tombs is rather forbidding, and certainly adds to the mystique. This whole area is crammed with magnificent buildings, and intriguing history. There's even a place where the old roman road peeks out from under the courtyards and walkways. Of all the buildings created during the last Scaligeri building frenzy, Castelvecchio (built in the mid 1300s) is the largest and certainly the most impressive. Not only does the Castle guard its section of the Adige river, it projects its own bridge, the Ponte Scaligero, across to the other side. Today the fortress is Verona's top art museum with exhibits arranged in chronological order from works of gold dating back to the 4th through 7th centuries. There is, of course, an abundance of churches. In particular, visit Verona's Duomo (cathedral), built in the 12th century, on top of a pre-existing medieval church. It has a Romanesque facade and gothic elements. There is much to see there, but don't miss the Assumption by Titian. Opera performed in a Roman Arena, plays and entertainment in a Roman Theater, restaurants, cafes, shops, history, architecture, a river winding through the city, and a hint of romance. It doesn't get much better. Visit Verona, and fall in love with a city. For more information on visiting go to Verona Tourism Have a comment to share? Like us on Facebook - OffbeatTravelCom and post your comment. Read more about Travel in Italy Neala McCarten

Adige

Which poet died while helping the Greeks fight for their independence?

Cities Along the Po River, Italy: Cremona, Sabbioneta, Ferrara, Venice, Verona and more RSS Feed Cities Along the Po River, Italy: Cremona, Sabbioneta, Ferrara, Venice, Verona When considering touring Italy, most visitors probably want to see the major cities of Florence, Rome, Venice. Without a doubt, these are the highlights for a reason. But smaller towns can provide a better understanding of Italian history and offer their own fascination. These places were the backdrop for the struggle for power that comprised much of the drama of Italian history. And beside, they are gorgeous. Our New Book Cremona Cremona, founded by the Romans in 218 BC, is quite simply the violin capital of the world. The streets are lined with the shops of makers of all manner of stringed instruments. In addition to the church and the baptistery, we were treated to a demonstration of violin-making and a visit to the collezione di Palazzo Comunale where the town collection is on display, the oldest by Andrea Amati dates back to 1566. These beloved instruments are played regularly to keep them in good physical condition and we were treated to a short but lovely concert. It's hard to miss the town's connection with Stradivarius, who is perhaps the most famous of the illustrious line of violin-makers of Cremona. The Stradivarian Museum contains objects from his workshop, there's a statue to him on the Piazza Stradivari, and the Tomb of Stradivari in the Piazza Roma. The International Violinmakers School is also located in Cremona at the Palazzo Raimondi. If you aren't on a tour, your first stop must be the tourist information office in the Piazza del Comune, for a map and information. Parma Our next stop was the town of Parma. Parma is indeed the home of famed Parma ham and Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese. Although famous for its food, Parma was once the capital of a grand duchy ruled over by the Farnese family. It was, for a time, a possession of Austria. It is also known for a scent produced locally, Violetta di Parma. Roncole & Busseto These are the towns associated with the famous composer Giuseppe Verdi. He was actually born in Roncole, which has changed its name to Roncole-Verdi in his honor. His home is the main attraction of the tiny village. His professional career began when Antonio Barezzi, a wealthy merchant, asked him to move to Busseto and become a music teacher for his daughter, Margherita. Barezzi became not only Verdi's patron, but also his father-in-law when Verdi married Margherita in 1836. A monument to Verdi overlooks the town square, which is also the site of the annual Verdi Festival. There is, of course, a museum to the famous son, and a tiny gem of a theatre built in his honor. It is said that Verdi never actually set foot in the theater which opened in 1868. Verdi was against building it, saying the theater was too expensive and would be useless in the future. But the town fathers went ahead regardless of his resistance. He was absent at its opening even though one of his most famous operas, Rigoletto, was performed. The elegant theater has been restored and reopened, but in a sense Verdi was right. It holds only 300 people. Sabbioneta In the politics of the independent cities that made up much of Italy, Sabbioneta may be a footnote, but it is the footnote of a visionary. By some accounts Vespasiano Gonzaga Colonna (1531-1591) was not a nice man, but as the founder of Sabbioneta he had a dream, to turn an old castle and a tiny village into a planned utopian city. In a few years (variously estimated somewhere between 10 and 30) he planned and built an elegant star-shaped town with a grid system of streets, magnificent palaces (and churches) and a roofed theater. Unfortunately, he died shortly after Sabbioneta was completed and his widow was unable to hold on to the city, which passed out of the hands of his family. The Duke's private residence is noted for its heavily frescoed walls and impressively long gallery, surpassed in length only by the Vatican and Uffizi galleries. The Ducal Palace (Palazzo Ducale) includes equestrian figures of Vespasiano and his Gonzaga ancestors. There is also rumored to be a synagogue somewhere in the town, the remnant of the Jewish community from the 16th century. Tours are available for many of the buildings. Although it's lovely to wander here and there enjoying the sights at your own pace, it's the stories that bring the history of the city to life. The tourist office (Ufficio del turismo) is located by the Garden Palace. Montova (also known as Mantua) As we journeyed from one city to another, it soon became clear that the history of Italy is intertwined with the story of the Gonzagas, one of the richest and most powerful families. Mantova was the seat of that dynasty. The 500-room Ducal Palace (Palazzo Ducale) took centuries to build. The Palazzo Te, built by Federigo Gonzaga for his mistress, stands outside of the walled part of the city. It is another highlight of a visit. The city itself has ancient stone churches, small shops, lovely squares and sidewalk cafes. We spent the morning in the city and it wasn't nearly enough time. Verona Verona has everything, tumultuous history, ruins stretching back to Roman era, sophistication and great beauty. The ancient heart of the city contains a huge amphitheatre built by the Romans in the 1st century AD. This arena, one of the largest outside of the Roman coliseum, is now restored and used as an opera house during the summer season. It makes up one side of the Piazza Bra, the gracious town square. The tourist information office is also located there. Even if you don't come during the opera season, there is the lure of romance at 23 Via Cappello, Juliet's House. The story of Romeo and Juliet has some basis in truth. The house (and balcony) form a popular attraction. The Piazza Dei Signori is another part of the tumultuous history of Verona. It contains the Scaligieri Graves. The Scaligeri ruled Verona for over 120 years starting about 1260. Their ruthless tactics earned them the nicknames of Mastino (mastiff) and Can Grande (big dog), but they are also credited with bringing some measure of peace to a city which had been the battlegrounds for rival families. Towards the end of their rule the Scaligeri built Castelvecchio. Today the attraction is its impressive size with a unique bridge stretching over the Adige River. It also contains a permanent collection of Veronese art from the 14th to 18th century. Verona also has intimate street markets lined with buildings still showing their early frescoes (Piazza delle Erbe) and elegant shopping streets paved with marble (Via Mazzini). Ferrara Called the capital of the Este family, who flourished around the 13th to 15th centuries, Ferrara is famous for its wide streets and Renaissance palaces. Originally a medieval town, by the end of the 1400s the city was sufficiently prosperous that Duke Ercole I commissioned an architect to create a new Renaissance city and join it to the older medieval section. The project included constructing new palaces, villas and parks with a clearly more modern and airy feel. Here again, try to arrange for a tour of the castles. It is the history, the stories of the people who lived, loved and fought that brings meaning to these stone buildings. Padua The city is best known for its University founded in 1222, among the oldest in Europe, and the Scrovegni Chapel with its frescoes produced by the artist Giotto. There are 36 frescoes depicting the lives of Mary and Jesus. Plant lovers will probably want to visit the Botanical Garden founded in 1545 containing rare plants and the old library and botany collection of the University. Venice Without a doubt, Venice deserves its reputation. It is a heart-breakingly beautiful city. Built on 117 separate islands, Venice has an extensive water bus system (as well as water taxis) rather than ground transportation. It has narrow paths, houses whose front doors literally open onto the water and no cars, and around every corner is a canal and a bridge and one magnificent building after another. But it is also a tourist magnet with all the problems that go with that popularity. The cruise ships pull in and disgorge thousands of visitors who line up to visit St. Mark's Basilica, buy gelato in the Piazza San Marco, and stroll along the Grand Canal. And for some reason we haven't been able to understand, they like to feed the pigeons and have their picture taken covered in birds. (The River Cloud II being a small vessel can only disgorge about 90 visitors at most.) Venice is also a big city with the hustle and bustle of commerce. Part of that commerce is the lucrative tourist trade. There's no shortage of shops catering to visitors selling Venetian masks, Murano glass, and more. Venice is divided into sestieres or boroughs. The most famous is San Marco which contains the major sights. Visit the Galleria dell'Academia with its collection of Venetian masters, the Peggy Guggenheim Gallery with its more modern works. Stand near the Bridge of Sighs that links the Doges' Palace to the old prisons. Stroll along the streets and discover tiny museums and churches. The Venetian lagoon also contains the Lido with its beaches and waterfront hotels, Murano, home of the deservedly famous (but not necessarily inexpensive) Murano glass, and the charming island of Burano known for its lace (which is usually imported rather than produced locally). The pity of Venice is that it is sinking into the lagoon. During rains the water can rise up and cover the piazzas, seep into hotel lobbies and threaten the viability of a beautiful marvel of engineering. And in the summer it is overrun with tourists. But see it anyway. It is worth it.

i don't know

From which country did Iceland become independent in 1944?

Iceland country profile - BBC News BBC News Read more about sharing. Close share panel A sparsely-populated North Atlantic island, Iceland is famous for its hot springs, geysers and active volcanoes. Lava fields cover much of the land and hot water is pumped from under the ground to supply much of the country's heating. Iceland became an independent republic in 1944 and went on to become one of the world's most prosperous economies. However, the collapse of the banking system in 2008 exposed that prosperity as having been built on a dangerously vulnerable economic model. The affluence enjoyed by Icelanders before 2008 initially rested on the fishing industry, but with the gradual contraction of this sector the Icelandic economy developed into new areas. Area 103,000 sq km (39,769 sq miles) Major language Icelandic Life expectancy 80 years (men), 84 years (women) Currency krona President: Gudni Johannesson Image copyright AFP Image caption President-elect Gudni Johannesson, with his wife Eliza Reid, at an election party in Reykjavik in June 2016. University historian Gudni Johannesson won Iceland's presidential election in June 2016 on his 48th birthday. He secured 39.1% of the vote, ahead of Halla Tomasdottir, a private equity executive, on 27.9%. A political outsider, he campaigned for the largely ceremonial post by pledging to restore Icelanders' faith in their system of government after years of public dissatisfaction with politicians first sparked by the country's banking collapse in 2010. Mr Johanesson succeeded Olafur Ragnar Grimsson, who stepped down in August 2016 after 20 years. Prime minister: Sigurdur Ingi Johannsson (resigned) Image copyright EPA Image caption Mr Johannsson resigned in October 2016 after a snap parliamentary election Sigurdur Ingi Johannsson resigned as prime minister in October 2016 after a snap election saw his Progressive Party lose more than half of its seats. The parliamentary election was triggered by the resignation of Mr Johannsson's predecessor, Sigmundur Gunnlaugsson, during public protests in April 2016 after leaked legal documents from the Panama law firm Mossack Fonseca revealed his offshore holdings. No party gained a parliamentary majority in an election dominated by public anger at Iceland's traditional elites and a strong desire for political change. While the anti-establishment Pirate Party made significant gains, the conservative Independence Party, a governing coalition partner since 2013, emerged as the biggest party but will need the support of at least two other parties to form a coalition government. MEDIA National radio and TV is provided by the Icelandic National Broadcasting Service (RUV), a public-service broadcaster owned by the state. The RUV is obliged to promote the Icelandic language and the nation's history and cultural heritage. Its services are funded by a licence fee, and by advertising revenues. Press titles include privately-owned and party-affiliated newspapers. The constitution guarantees press freedom. Some key dates in Iceland's history: 1918 - Iceland achieves full self-government under the Danish crown. Image copyright Getty Images Image caption A view of Iceland's capital Reykjavik 1940 - German forces occupy Denmark. British forces occupy Iceland. 1941 - The United States takes over the defence of Iceland and stations tens of thousands of troops there. 1943 - The Treaty of Union with Denmark runs out, with Denmark still occupied by Nazi Germany. 1944 - Icelanders vote in a referendum overwhelmingly to cut all ties with Denmark and become a republic. The Republic of Iceland is proclaimed. 1944 - Iceland becomes a member of Nato. 1970 - Iceland joins European Free Trade Association (EFTA).

Denmark

In which capital city is the Tivoli amusement park?

Iceland: Maps, History, Geography, Government, Culture, Facts, Guide & Travel/Holidays/Cities Iceland not Enthusiastic About Joining the EU Geography Iceland, an island about the size of Kentucky, lies in the north Atlantic Ocean east of Greenland and just touches the Arctic Circle. It is one of the most volcanic regions in the world. More than 13% is covered by snowfields and glaciers, and most of the people live in the 7% of the island that is made up of fertile coastland. The Gulf Stream keeps Iceland's climate milder than one would expect from an island near the Arctic Circle. Government Constitutional republic. History The earliest inhabitants of Iceland were Irish hermits, who left the island upon the arrival of the pagan Norse people in the late 9th century. A constitution drawn up c. 930 created a form of democracy and provided for an Althing , the world's oldest practicing legislative assembly. The island's early history was preserved in the Icelandic sagas of the 13th century. In 1262–1264, Iceland came under Norwegian rule and passed to ultimate Danish control through the unification of the kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark (the Kalmar Union) in 1397. In 1874, Icelanders obtained their own constitution, and in 1918, Denmark recognized Iceland, via the Act of Union, as a separate state with unlimited sovereignty. It remained, however, nominally under the Danish monarchy. During the German occupation of Denmark in World War II, British, then American, troops occupied Iceland and used it for a strategic air base. While officially neutral, Iceland cooperated with the Allies throughout the conflict. On June 17, 1944, after a popular referendum, the Althing proclaimed Iceland an independent republic.

i don't know

On which river does Prague stand?

Vltava River | river, Czech Republic | Britannica.com river, Czech Republic Volga River Vltava River, German Moldau, river , the longest in the Czech Republic , flowing 270 miles (435 km). Its drainage basin is 10,847 square miles (28,093 square km). The river rises in southwestern Bohemia from two headstreams in the Bohemian Forest , the Teplá Vltava and the Studená Vltava. It flows first southeast, then north across Bohemia, and empties into the Elbe (Czech: Labe) River at Mělník, 18 miles (29 km) north of Prague . Prague and České Budějovice are on the Vltava. At České Budějovice, in the river’s middle basin, is an extensive lake region. The middle and lower course of the Vltava is gorgelike, with rapids and incised meanders. Large hydropower dams with associated lakes provide recreational facilities. The Vltava’s principal tributaries are the Lužnice and Sázava (east) and the Otava and Berounka (west). The river is celebrated as the second subject in a cycle of six symphonic poems under the general title of Má vlast (“My Country”) by the Czech composer Bedřich Smetana . Prague on the banks of the Vltava River. Havaska in Prague (national capital, Czech Republic) The physical attractions and landmarks of Prague are many. Among the finest is the Charles Bridge (Karlův most), which stands astride the Vltava River. The winding course of the Vltava, with its succession of bridges and changing vistas, contrasts with the ever-present backdrop of the great castle of Hradčany (Prague Castle), which dominates the left-bank region of the city from... in Bohemian Forest ...Arber (Javor; 4,777 feet [1,456 m]) on the Bavarian (western) side and Plechý (Plöckenstein; 4,521 feet [1,378 m]) on the Czech (eastern) side. The Šumava is the source for the Vltava (German: Moldau) River, which cuts a broad trough through part of the region and is a source of hydroelectric power. Forests, both coniferous and deciduous, cover more than a third of the... 2 References found in Britannica Articles Assorted References Corrections? Updates? Help us improve this article! Contact our editors with your feedback. MEDIA FOR: You have successfully emailed this. Error when sending the email. Try again later. Edit Mode Submit Tips For Editing We welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles. You can make it easier for us to review and, hopefully, publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind. Encyclopædia Britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience. You may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered. Any text you add should be original, not copied from other sources. At the bottom of the article, feel free to list any sources that support your changes, so that we can fully understand their context. (Internet URLs are the best.) Your contribution may be further edited by our staff, and its publication is subject to our final approval. Unfortunately, our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions. Submit Thank You for Your Contribution! Our editors will review what you've submitted, and if it meets our criteria, we'll add it to the article. Please note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors, and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed. Uh Oh There was a problem with your submission. Please try again later. Close Date Published: July 20, 1998 URL: https://www.britannica.com/place/Vltava-River Access Date: January 19, 2017 Share

Vltava

Which European country restored its monarchy in 1975?

Tour Prague & Budapest in 8 Days | Rick Steves 2017 Tours Tour: 10/23/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 The tour was interesting,well organized and the guide was excellent. We were unsure about going to this part of Europe but after this tour, we would definitely go back. Favorite "WOW" moment "Seeing the beauty of Prague and finding that it was equally or more beautiful than other cities we had visited." Julie Tour: 10/23/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 This was a wonderful experience! Our tour guide Peter was excellent, as were the local guides, Martin in particular. Wonderful balance of planned/guided activities with free time. Wonderful suggestions for our free time and meals. Experienced things we would have missed on our own. Absolutely awe inspiring. We were fortunate to be with a wonderful group of people also. Favorite "WOW" moment "Too many "wow" moments to name. Just the view across the river in each city, daytime and nighttime. The beautiful city views from the many tower vantage points. Learning first hand what life under communist occupation was like from people who experienced it. Just the entire trip!!" Edward Tour: 10/23/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Very educational and enjoyable. The tour group was congenial, both diverse and unified. The director was always available and responsive, and it was nice to have real local expertise in both cities. Good balance of group activities and free time. Favorite "WOW" moment Tour: 10/23/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Great ion of tours and knowledgeable guides. We also had a group that was highly intellectual, a welcome relief. Favorite "WOW" moment "The Jewish Quarter in Prague. We did spend an extra day looking at the sites that weren't covered." Jeanne Tour: 10/23/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 This was our first Rick Steves tour. We found it to be an excellent value. The hotels were very nice and the restaurants and meals with local cuisine and ambience were terrific. The activities were a nice balance of historical and cultural experiences. If we had done this trip on our own, we would surely have missed out on interesting and important sites and activities. Favorite "WOW" moment "The entire time in Prague was an extended "wow" moment. The old city is the most beautiful and enchanting city...on par with Venice. Everywhere we went and everything we saw and learned left me agog." Scott Tour: 10/23/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 This was an outstanding tour of both Prague and Budapest. Our tour leader Peter was outstanding in every way and made every effort to ensure that we had an excellent experience. The tour had the perfect balance of organized activities and free time. The local guides were incredible, especially Martin, whose descriptions of communism and the suffering of Jews during the Holocaust were compelling (although very sad). We were also blessed that we had a great group of people on this tour. Favorite "WOW" moment "Basically, the whole trip was a WOW moment! To pick a few would include the walk across the Charles Bridge, climbing the many towers in both cities for incredible views, the discussions of communism and the events that ended communism, the cruse of the Danube and the fellowship we experienced at the group dinners. Also, a very emotional moment was the walk through the Pinkas Synagogue and seeing all the names of the Czech Jews sent away to concentration camps by the Nazis." Sean Tour: 10/02/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Really loved the tour. Each city was beautiful and fascinating. Our guides were fantastic! Hotels were great and perfectly located. Really like the walking/public transportation approach to getting around. Favorite "WOW" moment "Wenceslas Square in Prague as explained to us by Jana was the highlight of Prague for me. Loved the background about life under Communism and the Velvet Revolution. Budepest in general greatly exceeded my expectations, and George's descriptions of the 1956 uprising and the ultimate fall of Communism in Hungary were thrilling." John Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Favorite "WOW" moment "Maybe I remember this most because it was last, but after lots of amazing architecture, history (some new perspectives on the WWII and Soviet occupation), food, etc, we got to catch the Margaret Island musical fountain and light show. It was a nice relaxing moment, and in its way like seeing a good fireworks display." Debra Tour: 10/02/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 The tour was lovely. It was a very nice mix of planned events and free time. The hotels were very centrally located. The group dinners were good food and great company. Our guide was super informative and extremely helpful. I had expected both Prague and Budapest to be beautiful cities but the architecture and atmosphere of the cities were amazing. Even the bridges were awesome. Hanging out in the cafés and bakeries during a free afternoon was a joy. Favorite "WOW" moment "In Prague, I visited Terezin. It was devastatingly sad and made history so very real. In Budapest, it was the thermal baths. Not really what I expected. I had been torn about whether I really cared to experience them, but I am so glad I did. I really enjoyed the experience." Mary Ellen Tour: 10/02/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 This was a very educational tour. I learned so much Eastern Europe history. I am eager to study more. Our guide was very well informed and a great teacher. The tour allowed us to explore on our own as well as participate in the guided tour. Favorite "WOW" moment "Seeing the parliament building at night in Budapest and attending the concert in the Spanish synagogue in Prague." Kevin Tour: 10/02/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Once again, on our 4th RS city-tour (Paris, Rome, and Istanbul ), our high expectations were exceeded. . In addition to great information and experiences, we were well educated about life up until the 20th century and after the World Wars. Favorite "WOW" moment "The evening concert at the Spanish synagogue in Prague, and the evening visit to the parliament building in Budapest. Not on the tour, but a guilty pleasure was the Apple museum in Prague- a treat for Apple/Steve Jobs fanboys!" Denise Tour: 10/02/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 This was our first Rick Steves tour. We have been to Europe several times, but never central/eastern Europe. We had an exceptional trip. The tour had a good balance of structured activities and independence. We learned a lot about the history of the places we visited, but we would have liked more focus on that, and less time and energy spent on the top tourist sites. It was truly outstanding to hear about the recent history of The Czech Republic and Hungary from our tour guides who were there Favorite "WOW" moment "Believe it or not, it was the gas station on the bus ride from Prague to Budapest. It was an everyday place, very functional, but also very beautiful and enjoyable. It's on a freeway exit; it seems to be part of a local chain. It showed the character of the place we were, not standardization. The food was beautiful and delicious. It was an example of how cultured and sophisticated Europe is." Frank Tour: 10/02/16 Overall rating: rating 3 of 5 Heavy on history ! I felt like I heard the same story over and over. I understand it is useful/necessary to get background on the environment, but not as if I was being lectured. I wanted more "lightness" and fun to the trip. I thought the trip was light on Hungary and heavy on Czech Republic. Just because more Czech buildings survived WW2 doesn't mean it deserved more time/emphasis. Granted, the tour leaders were knowledgable. Favorite "WOW" moment "I had no "Wow" moment to the tour." Veronica Tour: 10/02/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Our guide George Farkas was extraordinary. His knowledge, enthusiasm, caring and guidance was more that we could have ever expected. Favorite "WOW" moment "Evening Danube boat ride in Budapest. All the golden buildings along the shore were magical!" Mary Ellen Tour: 10/02/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 the guides were very knowledgeable the places visited were great. I have a much better appreciation of both cities. Favorite "WOW" moment "The concert at the Spanish synagogue in Prague and the cooking class in Budapest." Linda Tour: 10/02/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 George and the other guides lived in the countries they discussed with us and were learned about the history, geography and art. The guided tours focused on the correct range of subjects, often interrelated, and gave us a basis for branching out in our free time. I liked the mix of religion, history, art, culture, markets, and local food. Each guide had lived under Communist rule and gave us the benefit of his or her first hand experiences. Each hotel provided excellent breakfasts. Favorite "WOW" moment "My wow moment was the Municipal Building in Prague, an amazing art deco, arts and crafts structure. Our guide for this visit knew the history of the movement and the artists. This is a beautiful building." Theodore Tour: 09/25/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 I found the tour first rate. Saw all the major sites in Prague and Budapest and the guides consistently gave what seemed to me to be well-informed and knowledgeable commentary about all the things we saw in each city. Very much enjoyed our stay in the Leonardo in Prague. The staff were friendly and helpful. Pretty much everybody spoke excellent English, but nevertheless were pleasantly wiling to hear and respond to our rudimentary Czech. Favorite "WOW" moment "Took an evening boat tour on the Danube while in Budapest and found the sites along the river, particularly on the Buda side, to be beautiful." Pamela Tour: 09/25/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 Jana was a terrific guide who included so many personalized touches, including a private opera concert and numerous personal "tastes" of local foods/liquers. She made herself very available for advice & directions. We were most curious about life in those two cities under Communist rule & the local guides were able to provide some personal insights. We enjoyed the variety of foods and pastries, especially at the Lotz Hall and Cafe in Budapest. Good variety of activities between the 2 cities! Favorite "WOW" moment "The intriguing Ruins area in Budapest were totally unexpected! Its history as the Jewish Ghetto and the tragic demise of its citizens gave an eerie pall during the day. But at night it came alive and was crawling with young people and tourists drawn to its bizarre bombed out architecture, campy decorating & hint of surreal. It seems like an area that is/will spawn many creative art forms." David Tour: 09/25/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 I enjoyed the tour very much. Our lead guide Jana was outstanding. Her personal touches to the tour made it very enjoyable. She was very upbeat and fun to be with, along with her knowledge of the history of the places we visited. Favorite "WOW" moment "Visting the Ruins bar area in Budapest." Laura Tour: 09/25/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 the tour program was very thoughtfully organized, the local guides were terrific and the group worked well together. Jana did an outstanding job bringing local culture and history into the tour experience; her food and drink gifts were terrific. The program worked really well in part because we had time away from the group to explore on our own. It brought new energy back to the group and gave all an opportunity to share experiences. Favorite "WOW" moment "The Jewish ghetto in Prague was a moving and powerful experience. the local guide was very knowledgeable and informative." Madeleine Tour: 09/25/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 It was really great. I was on the tour with my father, who is an active 90 year old, who was in Prague for a conference when the Russian tanks rolled in. My husband and I were in Prague and Budapest in 1985, traveling with a friend from Amsterdam, and both my dad and I were amazed at the changes in these two cities. We especially enjoyed the emphasis, as always, on learning the history of these countries and wonderful cities. Favorite "WOW" moment "Every day was a "wow," we saw something beautiful or interesting each and every day." Debra Tour: 09/25/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 As our first tour, we didn't really know what to expect. We usually plan our own trips using our Rick Steve's guidebooks. We could not be happier with our decision to book a tour. We were impressed with how well organized the trip was. Jana, George and Katerina were fantastic guides!! Their knowledge and passion for the cities made our experience a memorable one. The itinerary was perfect as well as our amount of free time. We had a great group and would definitely book another tour!! Favorite "WOW" moment "My WOW moment was seeing Budapest at night on our river cruise!! Such a beautiful sight! I also enjoyed our impromptu fireworks display after our private concert in Budapest." Matthew Tour: 09/25/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 Well planned, well thought out, no detail overlooked. kowledgeable lead guide and super staff of supporting guides. Favorite "WOW" moment "How many Hungarians disappeared between the end of WW II and the end of communist rule in 1991 because the regime did not like you." Maryanne Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Fabulous in one word. Favorite "WOW" moment "The first night was quite special. Jana picked a wonderful restaurant in the Little Quarter and surprised us with entertainment by musicians known to Rick Steve's viewers. It was a wonderful evening getting to know the other tour members and enjoying good food and entertainment." Helene Tour: 09/25/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Jana is a superb guide and the local guides, Katarina especially, and George were outstanding, fun to be with, and energized to make ours a very enjoyable and informative tour. Favorite "WOW" moment "Prague and its beauty.the colors are soft and elegant. And music everywhere!" Whitney Tour: 09/25/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Well paced and with an excellent mix of activities. Every one of our guides was knowledgeable and provided an interesting perspective on not just history, but real people and their lives in that country. They were also infinitely patient;) Favorite "WOW" moment "Loved Katerina's personal stories about making Hungarian history, but then I'm a storyteller too. Appreciated when we were able to hang out a little at the Ruin bar - neve seen anything like that -- off tour with Janna." Susan Tour: 09/18/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 this was my first tour so i have no comparison, however, everything moved smoothly, informed in advance of activities and had some great experiences. Favorite "WOW" moment "i enjoyed several things, the boat danube cruise, making the dinner, and the private concert in prague." Debra Tour: 09/18/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 It was an unforgettable tour.I fell in love with Prague and Budapest.They are so different but so beautiful.Our guide Jana was wonderful and the local guide in both cities were so knowledgeable. The daily activities were well thought out and planned.Our hotel accommodations and the food/drink were very good! I really appreciate that with the tour we were given the experience needed to comfortably explore the cities on our own.The public transport was daunting at first but we became old hands. Favorite "WOW" moment "The Jewish ghetto in Prague. Both the Pinkas and the Spanish Synagogue. For very different reasons." Hamilton Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 We had an excellent experience overall. Favorite "WOW" moment "Hungarian Parliament house at night from the Danube. Although the narration on the boat was terrible." Michael Tour: 09/18/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 most interesting; our guide Jana was fabulous and made the trip. Prague and Budapest were quite different and it was apparent. having most of the afternoons to ourselves was great; 3-4 hours of walking and touring in the morning was just the right amount. only concern was the size of the group: 27. too big but not as big as some of the other tours we saw (Prague especially was overrun with tours and tour groups). Favorite "WOW" moment "first evening dinner in Prague with the musicians was great. I think the stories of the communists and the Nazis was rather sobering and you could see for yourself their effects in the architecture, communist-era buildings, the museums certainly, and just the difference today in people's attitudes and the vibrancy of both cities. the local guides in each city, in addition to Jana, our tour guide, had both lived through the Communist era, and had alot of stories: sad, chilling, very real." David Tour: 09/18/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 We have traveled a lot in Europe over the past 20 years, mostly on our own with the help of Rick's guidebooks. We were worried about the rigidity of a "tour", but we were very pleasantly thrilled with the outcome. The participants were great folks, very like-minded in their passion for travel and learning. The guides were fantastic, but Jana was "off the charts" great. I can not imagine a better leader/friend/teacher/Mom to carry us through Prague and Budapest. The activities were spot-on. Favorite "WOW" moment "There were emotional, impactful moments like the Jewish Memorial in Prague that are life memories. There were great "fun" moments like the first night's dinner and music. I have not had a ton of exposure to opera, so my favorite "Wow" moment was probably the opera soloists that performed for us on our last night in Prague. I felt that the trip was full of lovely surprises." Ed Tour: 09/18/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 I was very satisfied. the tour provided a variety of experiences: historical info, interesting buildings, cultural such as the musical events in Prague and cooking class in Budapest. The guides, especially Jana, were terrific. And the schedule was doable. the folks in our group got along well together quite well. Favorite "WOW" moment "the opera singers in Prague. It was a private concert and their arias were superb." Richard Tour: 09/18/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 A very good tour. We covered all the sights worth seeing. The experiences were special, like the opening night meal in Prague with a charming group of people waiting on us. Favorite "WOW" moment "The Hungarian parliament building at night from the Danube boat." Sandra Tour: 09/18/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 Good balance of scheduled activities and free time. More local history and perspective from guides than expected. Favorite "WOW" moment "Prague Castle Orchestra and opening dinner in Prague was amazingly fun! Private Opera arias concert was great!" Marlee Tour: 09/18/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 I thought this was a great tour. Jana did an outstanding job of leading/guiding the group. Martin in Prague and the gentleman (sorry, i forgot his name - my bad!) in Budapest were both outstanding. The hotels were well located and nice and comfortable with good breakfasts. The folks in our group were great. The only thing I could improve on would be a slightly smaller group. Favorite "WOW" moment "There were so many. For visceral impact the Holocaust synagogue in Prague was incredibly powerful. For fun the cooking class in Budapest was a blast." John Tour: 09/18/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 First RS tour. Was quite enjoyable with just the right amount of time with guides split with free time in cities. Excellent coordination and tour directing. Plenty of historical information and question answering. Favorite "WOW" moment "Seeing the "mock" art in both Prague and Budapest, made in retaliation to various occupations." Anna Tour: 09/11/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Great tour. Two beautiful cites. Jana was excellent! She really spoiled us. Great food and tour guides. Enjoyed everything about it - people, food, hotels, beer, transportation, parks, etc.. Favorite "WOW" moment "View of Charles Bridge from many different places. Having a beer at Letna gardens. Slav Epic." Bette Tour: 09/11/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Knowledgeable tour guides. Great tour. Lots of variety in places visited. Good mix of free time and tour time. Guides shared personal experiences of life under communism and now their life of freedom. Guides truly interested in sharing their communities with us. Favorite "WOW" moment "Listening to tour guides talk about the Velvet Revolution on the walking tour. An experience that you would not get from reading a guide book. The cooking class in Budapest was a real treat. Roasting sausages at the restaurant in Budapest." Mike Tour: 09/11/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 Very good tour to introduce the traveler to Czek and Hungary. Enough so, that I would go back to both cities. History is fascinating, settings are beautiful. The beer speaks for itself. Favorite "WOW" moment "My WOW moment was our local tour guide in Prague. Her passion, knowledge of history, and the sharing of her life under communism was amazing. Great sense of humor." Patricia Tour: 09/11/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 My overall experience was very good. I enjoyed each day's adventure. Both cities were so amazing and so different. They were a good combination. Favorite "WOW" moment "Hard to say. Maybe the Charles Bridge in Prague and the beautiful Parliament Building in Budapest. I've seen them in pictures and on TV but they were still so awesome when you saw them in person." Robin Tour: 09/11/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Excellent tour, we saw and learned so much and had a great time doing it. The no grumps agreement is a winner too. Very good tour guide, Jana, and local tour guides were so good too. We saw so much and experienced so much. I definitely want to come back to both cities! So many beautiful churches and synagogues. The Mucha museum was wonderful, as was the Municipal House. Loved the river boat cruise in Budapest - so lovely. Wonderful history brought to life by our guides. Favorite "WOW" moment "Looking across the Vltava River to the castle on the hill, so beautiful when all lit up. And seeing the Parliament building all lit up at night on our river cruise in Budapest. Hanging out in the thermal baths was a treat too!" Lisa Tour: 09/11/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 Hearing Jana and our Prague local guide share their personal stories about growing up in the Czech Republic were eye-opening. The cooking class exceeded my expectations. Jana taught us how to navigate cities by subway, tram and bus. It was extremely helpful during our free time. I arrived in Prague a day early. Should have stayed in Budapest an extra day. This tour could have been one full longer. I skipped the Budapest baths to see more sites in the city. Spent one free afternoon at Terezin. Favorite "WOW" moment "Typically when I travel to Europe I see a lot of churches, cathedrals and basilicas. This tour included the opportunity to see some Jewish history for a change. I visited one of the oldest historic Jewish cemeteries and seven synagogues, although the vast majority of them were no longer in use as places of worship. I also had the opportunity to visit the Terezin concentration camp outside of Prague. Talk about making an impression." Monica Tour: 09/11/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 Overall it was very good. We had great guides, both tour leader and local guides. The hotels were very good too, well-situated and comfortable with excellent breakfasts. I have a few suggestions about changing the Budapest format. My only negative experience was w/the quality of the food in restaurants. Favorite "WOW" moment "Sailing on the Danube in the evening in Budapest. The Prague scenery: church domes & spires, the river, bridges,historic buildings, etc. The street music and the opera concert in the Smetana Museum." Barb Tour: 09/11/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 This was our 3rd Rick Steves tour and again loved it! This one was slightly different since it focused on just 2 places instead of the numerous ones on the other 2 tours so we actually had the opportunity to delve more deeply into each place which was a nice change. The format and details of the Rick Steves tours from the smaller group, to the outstanding tour and local guides, to the fun extra touches (like the cooking school in Budapest) have made us true fans and recommend it to everyone! Favorite "WOW" moment "As always with the Rick Steves tours there are numerous "wow" moments but without a doubt my most favorite "wow" was the outstanding local guide, Sarka, in Prague. She has the ability, not to mention passion, to bring history alive and make it fascinating to listen to more than any other guide I have had!" Marilyn Tour: 09/04/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Great guides, perfect accommodations, and an on-site introduction to the history of Prague & Budapest. I vaguely knew about Nazi and Soviet occupation, but was able to speak to people who had lived through it all. They brought the long history to life. Favorite "WOW" moment "The Prague Castle Orchestra on our first evening was a delight. Other than that, there were too many "wow" moments to count!" Wendy Tour: 09/04/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 This is my 4th tour with Rick Steves' Europe. Still like the overall format of about 1/2 day with the guide with the rest of the day to myself. However, it was noticeable that fewer meals are included in the package than on past tours; a couple of days were all on our own. On the other side of the coin, Katerina arranged some very nice coffee breaks that were included. Favorite "WOW" moment "How about 3? The tour of synagogues in Prague was very affecting. Was close to tears in the memorial (converted/former synagogue) and was amazed by the beauty of the Spanish Synagogue. The first evening in Prague, with the "orchestra" was great fun. And in Budapest, learning about the history (all their "liberations") from Elemer was powerful." Abigail Tour: 09/04/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Katerina was fantastic, she was very helpful and did everything she could to ensure everyone was comfortable and had whatever they needed. Katerina is a very knowledgeable tour guide and I'd love to take another tour with her again. Favorite "WOW" moment "I enjoyed everything. The boat ride in Budapest at night in the Danube river was very memorable." Ken Tour: 09/04/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Prague and Budapest are wonderful tourist cities. Interesting history, lovely buildings, fascinating cultures/people. KatCa was marvelous. Favorite "WOW" moment "Just the ambience of being in these historic cities" Michael Tour: 09/04/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 this was my 2nd rick steves tour. I went mainly to see the architecture of prague & Budapest. I didn't see everything on my list, but most. the tour director was very good & we did all that was planned. the focus of the tour was the transition from communism-soviet to democracy & I can appreciate that, but I wanted to see more architecture or art/architecture that would have even reflected that. Favorite "WOW" moment "I am roman catholic, so I always have a list of churches I want to see which I did. I got to see many of them & I was impressed, but the wow moment was the in prague on the jewish quarter tour. I am so happy we went into both synagogues. the wow as I expected was the Spanish synagogue. other wows were the prague art neavou municipal house. in Budapest I was wowed by the opera house, the Danube cruise at night & the thermal baths. so there were memorable moments in each city." Andrea Tour: 09/04/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 The tour was perfectly outlined. Our tour guide Katerina was very knowledgeable about her country, its history and put a personal touch to each story. It was absolutely the very best to have our own personal tour guide to explain the sites and not have to carry around a tour book. Our tour group was just the greatest group of people. I enjoyed the fact that the group was small after I saw groups of 100 touring and trying to get close enough to hear their guide. Favorite "WOW" moment Tour: 09/04/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 We took this trip on impulse. It came together over a couple of weeks, and we are very pleased that it worked out. Prague and Budapest were not previously on any of our "must see" lists, but the tour sounded unique, and an opening popped up that fit our schedules, so we took advantage of the opportunity. I have heard several people say that Prague is their favorite European city. Now I understand why that it. Both Prague and Budapest are cities rich in history with amazing architecture. Favorite "WOW" moment "There is an iconic view of Old Prague from the King Charles Bridge. I am quite sure millions of photos have been taken from that spot, and there is a reason for that - the view of Prague Castle in the distance above the river is spectacular. Sometimes we forget what real history is, and it takes getting out of the boundaries of the U.S. to understand that. Having a terrific guide to explain that history to you is a big plus. Very enjoyable." Janet Tour: 09/04/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 The tour experience was fantastic. I love that we receive tickets to mass transit and can easily find ourselves around the cities. The tour director was kind and knowledgeable. The added guides in the cities added a special understanding of the political and historical past and present. Both of these guides, Martin and Elemer, were very special. Favorite "WOW" moment "Only one moment? I think Budapest by night is extraordinary. The lights give a whole new feel to the city. It is magical and it inspired us to walk up the hill to he statue of the woman with the palm leaf (girl with the fish!) We also secured seats at Hungarikum bistro on our own (go there at 6:00 when they open!) and had a wonderful dinner. Our first dinner in the Czech republic with the musicians was also fabulous!" Jonathan Tour: 09/04/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 All I can say is that I'm glad we took this Rick Steves tour. We don't usually travel with tours, but when we do we go with Rick's tours. Favorite "WOW" moment "Don't know if there is any one moment that stood out from all the rest." Susan Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Favorite "WOW" moment "1)Evening boat tour on the Danube in Budapest showed spectacular views. 2)Cooking school experience in Buda was so fun. That was the best meal of the trip! 3)Modigliani art exhibit at the National Gallery in Budapest was something we did on our free time. It was incredible to see his paintings from all over Europe! 4)We were serenaded by musicians at our first dinner in Prague. The Bohemian music was beautiful." Debbie Tour: 08/28/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Meeting Katerina and Sanel that first afternoon set the positive course for the week ahead. Their expertise, guidance, knowledge and concern for our well being was evident immediately. Everyday provided us with a new appreciation of the freedom won by the people of Prague and Budapest. Our group was great and in a brief time period enjoyed the opportunity to share the sights, history,goulash and more goulash. All had interesting questions, comments, and observations. What a special week for me! Favorite "WOW" moment "The cooking class in Budapest was especially fun for the group. The event went effortlessly and instructors easy to follow. Everyone had pride in the dish they prepared and collectively the meal was delicious!" Lis Tour: 08/28/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Both cities are beautiful and very accessible. My sister in law and I both had a wonderful time and came back with lots of great memories. We especially liked the use of local transit and lots of walking, which gave us an excellent way to feel we could "own" the cities during our free time. Also the relatively small size was appreciated, as we could get to know each member of the tour group. (On one of our free nights, we attended a concert where the woman next to us was in a tour of over 100!) Favorite "WOW" moment "Probably the biggest "wow" was viewing the Hungarian Parliament, illuminated, from the cruise on the Danube River. And the saddest, most touching sight was the bronze shoes, the monument on the Danube shore to the Jews who were killed there in WWII. The shoes look as though their owners had just stepped out of them. Including the smallest children's shoes." Marta Tour: 08/28/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 It was informative and interesting. I have a great fondness for the two guides, especially Katka. It was not particularly fun, however. It might have been the chemistry, but I can't say there was laughter or any particular joy. I think perhaps encouraging a more light-hearted approach at times would be useful, as this was really the first trip I have taken that had no real laughter. Favorite "WOW" moment "I loved the city of Prague" Darrel Tour: 08/28/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Even though I am not a history buff, I learned a lot from just being in those places and having excellent guides. It was very enjoyable and the free time gave us opportunity to explore on our own. I enjoyed to boats. The Jazz boat in Prague and the night on the Danube in Budapest. "Katka" went out of her way to help us even on our time off. Favorite "WOW" moment "Probbly the lighted government buildings along the Danube in Budapest on the night tour." Barb Tour: 08/28/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 The tour guides were excellent and very informative. They brought the history of both these cities alive. We were given many suggestions and instructions regarding our free time. The food was good, the cooking class was fun, the hotels were good. All in all an excellent tour. Favorite "WOW" moment "The wow moment for me was the "Shoe display" along the Danube River in Budapest. It brought the the very sad history of the Jewish people to life for me. Very powerful and very sad." Alan Tour: 06/26/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 This was our second Rick Steves' tour and we were not disappointed. The smaller group size, superior guides, and crafted experiences were very enjoyable. Meeting others with a zeal for travel in our group made the trip memorable. Favorite "WOW" moment "It is hard to pick out one "wow" moment from Prague and Budapest. In Prague, the musical experience at dinner at Vysoky dum, walking the Charles Bridge, and free time to see the views from Petrin Tower and St. Nicholas Church were unforgettable. In Budapest, an afternoon at the Szechenyi Thermal Bath was an enjoyable way to unwind and a unique experience." Julie Tour: 06/26/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 A fun and informative Rick Steves tour. Peter and Andrea were very knowledgeable guides and Peter planned interesting and unexpected extras for us. Afternoons were free to explore the cities on our own, or rest up for the evening's activities! Fellow tour members were all very nice and enjoyable to be around. I highly recommend this tour if you are interested in the history and culture of the "heart of Europe!" Favorite "WOW" moment "Several favorites: a private concert at dinner in Prague with 2 local musicians playing classical music between courses! Also, a music concert at the Spanish Synagogue (absolutely beautiful!) in Prague with music from Mozart, Smetana, Gershwin, among other greats. Visiting the cathedral and Opera House in Budapest. The view of the Prague Castle at night." Elizabeth Tour: 06/26/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Our trip to Prague and Budapest was the first tour I have ever been on despite 5 previous trips to Europe with family. The tours' excellent organization of all the many scheduling details freed me to fully focus on enjoying exploring each city. The itinerary provided a wide range of enriching cultural experiences every day and the perfect mix of group and individual activities. Favorite "WOW" moment "Soaking on a sunny Saturday afternoon in the Szechenyi Baths in Budapest. We were surrounded by local Czech families who were there to relax just like us and as we smiled and laughed with each other despite language differences, I kept thinking that if every neighborhood in the world had a community thermal bath, there might not be any wars!" Kathleen Tour: 06/26/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Excellent throughout. Really appreciated expert tour leaders for specific parts of our tour and the 25 diverse people in our group ages 15 to 70s. Did not hear a whisper of complaint from anyone. Everyone got along, was on time, kept pace and was mutually respectful. Positive throughout following RS tour expectations! Accommodations, food, entertainment, tours, tickets, transportation, free time...all well thought out and flowed (it felt) seamlessly. Favorite "WOW" moment "First night dinner and especially arranged local entertainment was over the top excellent. The Spanish Synagogue (and concert we saw there one evening) in Prague and cooking class in Budapest and personalized tour of Opera house in Budapest were experiences that I loved and would not have had on my own." Sherry Tour: 06/26/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Peter made us feel welcome and connected to each other right away. He was very patient and guided us through what to expect each day, making us look forward with anticipation! We had just the right amount of structure and free time for me. Our group was very cohesive and fun, making it easy for a single person to join in. The hotels were lovely and the breakfasts amazing.I want to come back for more! Favorite "WOW" moment "There were several, but probably the Concert at the Spanish Synagogue. After a day of walking through Prague, it was the perfect ending to a lovely day. The music was beautiful, fun and riveting. The acoustics were superb. What a treat." Patricia Tour: 06/26/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 Very much enjoyed the tour. I was pleasantly surprised that there was more variety of ages. Favorite "WOW" moment "Municipal House in Prague was great. The guide (I'm sorry that I forget her name) was very, very good! The "wow" was the ability to get around both cities on our own, particularly not knowing the language." Garlan Tour: 06/12/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 This was my first "guided" tour with a group, and I must say I was very pleased with the experience! I've followed Rick Steve's show and have purchased several DVDs over the years, so I had a really high expectation going in. The tour did not disappoint. From a very knowledgeable and friendly tour guide(s) to the accommodations, to the sites [INVALID]ed for our group activities, it was a great success. I also appreciated the fact that we had ample "down time" to explore on our own. Favorite "WOW" moment "While its hard to pick just one, my "wow" moment would be the concert we attended in the Spanish Synagogue in Prague. A beautifully ornate setting for a tremendous presentation! I didn't realize I would appreciate the classical music and singing so much. This is definitely a keeper for future tours! Another great "wow" moment was in Budapest when we attended a cooking class put on by Chef Paul of Chef Parade. This was a very fun class that helped our group bond even more. Another keeper!" Leonard Tour: 06/12/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 Our overall experience was great. We had a really small group (8 people) and the age seemed to skew a bit younger (30-40's) than our previous Rick Steve's tour to Italy. There was also a higher percentage of single travelers. Favorite "WOW" moment "I don't know if there was a single "wow" moment. I think my best memories will be of just hanging out in Prague with the rest of the group trying to find a cool bar to drink at or just soaking in the local flavor. I also enjoyed the cooking class in Hungary. We have already cooked two of the dishes that we learned in the class with great results since we've returned home." Joan Tour: 05/29/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 I had a great time. What made the tour special for me were the guides. Kafka and Jana were fabulous. They shared personal stories with us about living under communism and after the "velvet revolution". This made it so much more interesting and also is so much easier to retain than just learning facts and dates. When placed in a perspective of how historical events affected them as individuals and their families, it gave their stories much more depth and meaning. Favorite "WOW" moment "There were a few: The cooking class in Budapest, the Danube boat cruise at night and the unique black light theatre in Prague." Susan Tour: 05/29/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Katka and Jana were outstanding, both in knowledge and the personal care they gave the group: Telling us which bus to take when the group activity was over for the day, getting postage stamps for the group, having the coins necessary for the toilet at the bus stop, having a sack breakfast arranged for early departures,and scouting out the music options for free evenings. They did a professional job and we were very pleased. Favorite "WOW" moment "A tie between the cooking class, the black light theater and the evening boat ride." John Tour: 05/29/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 Excellent guides. They were very informative and professional, and were with us the entire time. The tour covered all the highlights with lots of supplemental information and some added bonuses as well. Because the tour was comprehensive we were kept busy but there was enough free time each day to explore other things or rest. Favorite "WOW" moment Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 Enjoyed the companionship of tour group, who were all enthusiastic travelers interested in everything. Favorite "WOW" moment ""Danube By Night" boat ride." Jim Tour: 05/29/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 I really liked the tour. My grandparents were from the Czech Republic and I had never been there. Prague is beautiful. I loved the Slav Epic by Mucha and the black light theater. I thought more people spoke English. Many young people don't. But people want to be helpful. Budapest has many beautiful buildings. Loved evening cruise on the Danube. St Matthias church beautiful. Both cities have very good transportation systems, but take time to learn. More help on those would be very good. Favorite "WOW" moment "The Slav Epic by Mucha was fantastic. I wanted more time there." Kelly Tour: 05/29/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 I enjoyed this tour very much. I learned so much about the history and culture of these cities and countries. Favorite "WOW" moment "Seeing Budapest with the Danube running through it - just beautiful" Robert Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Terrific learning experience. "Evening Boat ride on the Danube." Matthew Tour: 05/22/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Prague is now my favorite European city. Castles, cobblestones, clocks and communists. I loved it. Our guide, Jana, was personable and professional. Her love for Prague was evident throughout the time there. Budapest with its rich history and Danube River shouldn't be missed by anyone who truly wants "to see Europe." Favorite "WOW" moment "Hearing the personal stories of Jana and our local guides who grew up under communist oppression and now have the freedoms most Americans just take for granted." Jennifer Tour: 05/22/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 The Prague-Budaest tour was amazing. Jana, our tour guide went above and beyond to make the tour very personal and educational. I would highly recommend this tour to everyone. The private opera for our group was awesome. I learned a lot of history and the culture of these two countries. I highly recommend this tour to anyone. Favorite "WOW" moment "The private opera, the night cruise down the Danube river." Mark Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 We loved everything "The River boat cruise on the Danube was pretty great." Maya Tour: 05/22/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Both cities are beautiful, and with the great knowledge of Jana, our guide, Prague and Budapest came to life in so many dimensions. We were exposed to the history, the architecture, food, music, and the people. And we left with the feeling of wanting to return, which is what those cities want you to do. Favorite "WOW" moment "There were several. But the one that stands out was our "personal" concert at Smetana Museum. Both singers established such an intimate performance. I felt as if I was transformed to the 19th century when singers and musicians performed in the salons of the great mansions." Lynnae Tour: 05/22/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 I watched Rick's programs on Prague and Budapest before going on the trip and that helped me make decisions on what to see and do in our free time-- such as seeing the Slav Epic in Prague and going to the thermal baths in Budapest. Overall I like the city tours because it allows you to get to know the city in more depth than you would with a country tour that has multiple stops. This was my first time in eastern Europe and I just loved it. Favorite "WOW" moment "My favorite "wow moment" was the Danube River cruise in Budapest. Seeing the buildings lit up at night along with the informative tv narrative made a memorable evening." Irene Tour: 05/22/16 Overall rating: rating 4 of 5 This was our fist Rick Steve's tour, and we were not disappointed. We loved the small group of 24, of varying ages groups. The most important reason we enjoyed the tour was because we liked the balance of daily activities combined with independent free time. The other we enjoyed immensely was the variety of experiences the tour offered which we would probably not have done on our own. We also liked the fact that we were able to walk to most places or take local transportation. David Tour: 05/22/16 Overall rating: rating 3 of 5 This was our 2nd Rick Steves' tour and we took it 2 weeks after our first tour ended. The group size was good (24 people), the tour guide (Jana) was great; she was from Prague and was very enthusiastic about her town and Budapest. Favorite "WOW" moment "Probably the Jewish Quarter in Prague and the Art Nouveau buildings in Budapest." Vera Tour: 05/22/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 We had a fantastic time on our trip. The tour guides were great and gave us not only their extensive knowledge of the history of Prague and Budapest but also their personal experiences with communism and their transitions into the current governments. Favorite "WOW" moment "It is difficult for me to narrow my wow moments down to one favorite. I was wowed by my first view of Charles Bridge with the 15th century city on the other side as well as the impact of stepping into Old Town Square and the astronomical clock. I was wowed by the charm of our first dinner with our group as we enjoyed violin and accordion music along with great food in the charming restaurant.I was also surprised and wowed by the colorful roof on the Matthias Church in Buda." William Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 Favorite "WOW" moment "The 4 star hotels. Location and views from outside the hotels, the Charles Bridge views." Jane Tour: 05/15/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 We did a lot of research before choosing this tour. We were not disappointed! Wonderful schedule and outstanding tour guides. Besides being so accommodating they were exceedingly knowledgeable. Favorite "WOW" moment "Tour guide took us to a synagogue for personal reasons (anniversary of my father's death). She did all of the research and found the perfect opportunity to go. To say she bent over backwards would be an incredible understatement." David Tour: 05/15/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 This was our first Rick Steves tour and it was absolutely wonderful. Just the right mix of being with the group and having time to ourselves to explore. We have never done any tours before, preferring to make our own way, but we signed up for this one because we knew we would miss much in both cities without either a local guide or someone to help us navigate to the important sites. Our tour guide Eszter was absolutely fabulous. Knowledgeable, friendly, and incredibly organized. Favorite "WOW" moment "While Prague was our favorite city, the parliament buildings and the evening cruise on the Danube in Budapest were unforgettable. Overall the architecture and the history of the cities, Czech Republic and Hungary were the highlights." Adrienne Tour: 05/15/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 The tour was amazing! As someone who has always preferred to travel independently, guidebook in hand, I was quite skeptical about what a tour would offer. Was I ever surprised. The tour guide and the specialty guides were far more knowledgeable than any of the books. We were able to see so much more. There was enough balance between the formal 'tour' times and independent discovery times. The people on the tour were intelligent and interesting, too. Favorite "WOW" moment "There are way too many 'wows' to place a favorite. My husband and I joked that we always asked our children what their favorite place was and they never could answer. We now understand why. The tour guides provided so much historical information at each site, making the trip so meaningful." Celie Tour: 05/15/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 I learned and experienced so much of the culture and people of the 2 cities. Candid discussions with local tour guides helped me get a balanced perspective - all this beauty, all this culture, all this history, same human dilemmas. Favorite "WOW" moment "Highlights: folk performers at first night dinner in Prague walking across the Charles Bridge amidst the throngs of walkers Danube River cruise cooking class in Budapest Taking the subway by myself to the train station and buying my train ticket to my next destination rates up there pretty high. Confidence that I could go back to those cities and find my way around." Teri Tour: 05/15/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 I most enjoyed learning the history of the region. The guides were extremely knowledgeable and our fellow travelers asked interesting and intelligent questions. Favorite "WOW" moment Tour: 05/15/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 I loved the tour. Ester was a wonderful guide. Warm and well informed. I loved the people who told us about Prague and Budapest. There was a good balance between structured time and free time. Favorite "WOW" moment "There were so many wow moments. All of old Prague was a big wow. I loved our night tour on the boat on the Danube in Budapest." Ulrich Tour: 05/15/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 It was for me and my wife Maggie the first time to be part of a guided tour and I must say it was one fabulous experience and totally met all our expectations. We learned more about the architecture, culture, social life and historic events in Prague/Czech Republic and Budapest/Hungary than we would have done on our own. We have seen sites and experiences culinary treats that we likely would have missed. Favorite "WOW" moment "Maggie and I experienced quite a few "wow" moments in Prague and in Budapest. The one that sticks out was definitely the Danube river cruise at night with the perfect full moon (not sure how Eszter arranged that). Another one was for me the tour at the Budapest Opera, especially since I am working at a major Performing Arts Center." Ann Marie Tour: 05/15/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 I have told everyone how great this Rick Steves' tour was starting with the customs officer back in the U.S. (He watches Rick's show.) We did and saw so much more than we would on our own, and yet we had lots of free time on our own too. Everyone in our group was friendly and sociable. Our guide was extremely helpful and hard working. I hope you are paying her well! She definitely earned it. With tickets, transport and other details arranged for us, we had more time to enjoy these places. Favorite "WOW" moment "Every day there was a "wow" moment. I absolutely loved St. Matthias Church in Budapest. So different from many churches that I've been in. The patterns covering every inch of the interior were unbelievable. I've seen so many churches over the years that I might have skipped this one if it weren't on the Rick Steves' itinerary! Glad I didn't miss it. Danube cruise and cooking class also fabulous!" Reona Tour: 05/15/16 Overall rating: rating 5 of 5 This was my first Rick Steves tour.I was supposed to go with a friend who got sick en route and was unable to join me. The tour leader encouraged me to continue on my own and I am glad that I did. Eszter was outstanding. We had excellent local guides and the group was very friendly and congenial. It was well organized with a very good balance of guided tours and free time. Eszter was excellent about suggestions for our free-time, dinner and sights as well as directions in how to get there. Favorite "WOW" moment "There were many wow moments. Crossing the Charles Bridge and finding a local dance group performing was enchanting. Cruising the Danube at night in Budapest and seeing the Parliament Building, and other major structures lit up was exquisite. Not being a beer drinker, but discovering that I could drink 1/2 glass of Czech beer was fun. Probably my biggest wow moment was finding that I could travel on a trip like this alone, without initially knowing anyone and make new friends and enjoy myself." Margarida

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In which autonomous region of Spain are the cities of Cadiz and Cordoba?

Andalucía | Article about Andalucía by The Free Dictionary Andalucía | Article about Andalucía by The Free Dictionary http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Andaluc%c3%ada Also found in: Dictionary , Thesaurus , Wikipedia . Related to Andalucía: Andalusian Andalusia (ăndəlo͞o`zhə, –shə), Span. Andalucía (än'dälo͞othē`ä), autonomous region (1990 pop. 7,100,060), 33,675 sq mi (87,218 sq km), S Spain, on the Mediterranean Sea, the Strait of Gibraltar, and the Atlantic Ocean. Spain's largest and most populous region, it covers most of S Spain, comprising the provinces of Almería, Cádiz, Córdoba, Granada, Huelva, Jaén, Málaga, and Seville (Sevilla), all named for their chief cities. Andalusia is crossed in the north by the Sierra Morena and in the south by mountain ranges that rise in the snowcapped Sierra Nevada to the highest peak in mainland Spain, Mulhacén (11,417 ft/3,480 m); between the ranges lies the fertile basin of the Guadalquivir River. Economy and People Despite the natural wealth of the region, poverty is widespread; Andalusian farm laborers are among the poorest in Europe, and many unemployed Andalusians have migrated to more industrialized regions of Spain. With its subtropical climate, Andalusia has many affinities with Africa, which it faces. Barren lands contrast with richly fertile regions where cereals, grapes, olives, sugarcane, and citrus and other fruits are produced. Industries, based generally on local agricultural produce, include wine making, flour milling, and olive-oil extracting. Much farming has become mechanized. Cattle, bulls for the ring, and fine horses are bred. The rich mineral resources, exploited since Phoenician and Roman times, include copper, iron, zinc, and lead. Moorish influence is still strong in the character, language, and customs of the people. One of Europe's most strikingly colorful regions, Andalusia, with its tradition of bull fights, flamenco flamenco, Spanish music and dance typical of the Romani (Gypsy), or gitano. Flamenco dancing is characterized by colorful costumes, intense and erotic movements, stamping of the feet (zapateado), and clapping of the hands (palmada ..... Click the link for more information.  music and dance, and Moorish architecture, provides the strongest external image of Spain, especially to North Americans. Increasing tourism has made the service industry the fastest growing economic sector. History In the 11th cent. B.C., the Phoenicians settled there and founded several coastal colonies, notably Gadir (now Cádiz Cádiz , city (1990 pop. 156,903), capital of Cádiz prov., SW Spain, in Andalusia, on the Bay of Cádiz. Picturesquely situated on a promontory (joined to the Isla de León, just off the mainland), it is today chiefly a port exporting wines and other ..... Click the link for more information.  and, supposedly, the inland town of Tartessus, which became the capital of a flourishing kingdom (sometimes identified with the biblical Tarshish Tarshish , in the Bible. 1 Eponym of a country distant from Palestine which cannot be accurately identified; Cyprus, Spain, and Tarsus (S Asia Minor) have been suggested. ..... Click the link for more information. ). Greeks and Carthaginians came in the 6th cent. B.C.; the Carthaginians were expelled (3d cent. B.C.) by the Romans, who included S Spain in the province of Baetica. The emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Theodosius were born in the region. Visigoths ended Roman rule in the 5th cent. A.D., and in 711 the Moors Moors, nomadic people of the northern shores of Africa, originally the inhabitants of Mauretania. They were chiefly of Berber and Arab stock. In the 8th cent. the Moors were converted to Islam and became fanatic Muslims. ..... Click the link for more information. , crossing the Strait of Gibraltar, established there the center of their western emirate (see Córdoba Córdoba or Cordova , city (1990 pop. 307,275), capital of Córdoba prov., S Spain, in Andalusia, on the Guadalquivir River. Modern industries in the city include brewing, distilling, textile manufacturing, metallurgy, and tourism. ..... Click the link for more information. ). Andalusia remained under Moorish rule until most of it was conquered in the 13th cent. by the kings of Castile; the Moorish kingdom of Granada Granada, city (1990 pop. 268,674), capital of Granada prov., S Spain, in Andalusia, at the confluence of the Darro and Genil rivers. Formerly (17th cent.) a silk center, Granada is now a trade and processing point for an agricultural area that is also rich in minerals. ..... Click the link for more information.  survived; it, too, fell to the Catholic kings in 1492. The Moorish period was the golden age of Andalusia. Agriculture, mining, trade, and industries (textiles, pottery, and leather working) were fostered and brought tremendous prosperity; the Andalusian cities of Córdoba, Seville Seville , Span. Sevilla, city (1990 pop. 678,218), capital of Seville prov. and leading city of Andalusia, SW Spain, on the Guadalquivir River. Connected with the Atlantic by the river and by a canal accessible to oceangoing vessels, Seville is a major port as well as an ..... Click the link for more information. , and Granada, embellished by the greatest Moorish monuments in Spain, were celebrated as centers of culture, science, and the arts. From the 16th cent. Andalusia generally suffered as Spain declined, although the ports of Seville and Cádiz flourished as centers of trade with the New World. Gibraltar was ceded to Britain in 1713, and in 1833 Andalusia was divided into the present eight provinces. With Catalonia, Andalusia was a stronghold of anarchism during the Spanish republic (est. 1931); however, it fell early to the Insurgents in the Spanish civil war Spanish civil war, 1936–39, conflict in which the conservative and traditionalist forces in Spain rose against and finally overthrew the second Spanish republic. The Second Republic ..... Click the link for more information.  of 1936–39. The region later saw recurrent demonstrations against the national government of Francisco Franco. In 1981 it became an autonomous region and in 1982 it elected its first parliament. Andalusia (ăndəlo͞o`shə, –zhə), city (1990 pop. 9,269), seat of Covington co., S Ala., in a farming and forestry area; inc. 1844. Its manufactures include processed peanuts and pecans, meat products, textiles, lumber, and plywood. Andalusia a region of S Spain, on the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, with the Sierra Morena in the north, the Sierra Nevada in the southeast, and the Guadalquivir River flowing over fertile lands between them; a centre of Moorish civilization; it became an autonomous region in 1981. Area: about 87 280 sq. km (33 700 sq. miles)

Andalusia

Which European country colonized Brazil?

Andalucia travel guide - Holidays, tourism, airports, travel, hotels, car hire, golf, flights | In Andalucia Andalucia Travel Guide Andalucia Alhambra (Granada) Welcome to In-Andalucia.com. We aim to provide you with the best Andalucia travel guide unbiased information for hotels, golf courses and car hire in Andalucia, a complete travel guide about Andalucia towns, cities and airports, including a full information guide of Malaga Airport . Andalucia is the autonomous region covering the south of Spain, including the provinces of Malaga, Sevilla, Granada, Cadiz, Almeria, Jaen, Huelva and Cordoba. Also you can find differents guides and information in or main menu. Our aim is to supply you with all the necessary Andalucia travel information in order to make your holiday perfect. For golf, hotels. Check for car hire in Andalucia at top page. If you are planning a Andalucia holidays - visit In-Andalucia.com first!

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Which country was defeated by the USSR in the Winter War of 1939?

World War II -- Finland Winter War World War II Finland: The Winter War (November 1939-March 1940) Figure 1.--This Finnish mother and child are evacuees from the massive Soviet Army invading their small country. Here they have just arrived at a govrnment evacuee camp and have been given name tags. The prss caption read, "Somewnere in Finland: The distress of the Russ-Finish war and the hardship it is working on the people is registered on the face of this peasant mother from Lapland shown on arrival at a Finnish evacuee camp with her child. Note the picturesque attire of the woman and child and the name tag each is wearing. Most homesteads in the far northenr regions hav been evcuated away from the Russian invaders. This picture arrived by clipper today. The photograph was dated January 19, 1940. It was the Soviet Union not Germany that first struck after the invasion of Poland. Finland is located on the far northern perifery of Europe. Rarely has Finland played a significant role in European history. For a few months, however, it was the Finns who galantly resisted totalitarian resistance. The first effective resistance after a decade of totalitarian successes. Only 2 months after seizing eastern Poland, the Soviet Union invaded Finland (November 30, 1939). This was the beginning of what became known as the Winter War. Stalin's goals are unclear. The Soviets claomed they wanted a security belt to the west. This may have been the first step in regaining old Tsarist borders using the samectactics persued against the Baltic Republics. Finland after Poland was the next step in that process. Soviet planes and naval vessels bombarded Finish cities. The international community was apauled. Roosevelt called it the "rape of Finland". [Freidel, p. 324.] Former Ameican President Herbert Hoover, who had organized American relief efforts for Belgium during World War I, headed voluntary war relief for the Finns. (The President hoped that Hoover would work with Mrs. Roosevelt to assist with Government sponsored civilian war relief for the Allies. Such was Hoover animosity toward Roosevelt, however, that he refused. If he had agreed, he suely would have eventually headed American World War II relief efforts. [Freidel, p.325.] The outnummered and out-gunned Finns inflicted enormous losses on the Red Army, but the weight iof Soviet power eventually forced the Finns back. The Finns and Soviets eventually reached a peace agreement (March 1940). Given the scale of the Soviet victory, historians have decribed the terms of the peace settlement as 'moderate', but Stalin's calculations are still debated. The Soviets got the security belt they wanted around Lenningrad. The Soviet invasion of Finland had significant repercussions. The Allies for a time considered actively aiding Finland, but the Germans offensives in the West soon made that impossible. The Red Army energed victorious from the Winter War (1939-40), but at considerable cost. The poor performance of the Red Army in Finland was a factor in Hitler's decission to attack the Soviet Union before Britain had been defeated. Karelia The border area between southern Finland and the Soviet Union is Karelia. It is the area between the White Sea and the Gulf of Finland. It is an extensive area which includes the two largest lakes in Europe, Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega. What is often referred to as the Karelian Isthmus is located between the Baltic Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga. To the south is Ingria, the land of the closely related Ingrian people. The traditional western boundary was the Neva river itself but was eventually shifted northward into the Karelian isthmus to follow the Sestra River which since Napoleonic times was the Russo-Finnish border.The River Svir on the other side of Lake Lagoda completed the souther border of Karelia. Lake Saimaa marked the Western border while Lake Onega and the White Sea mark the Eastern border. The land to the north was occupied by nomadic Samis (Lapps), but unlike the south there were no natural border onky trackless woods (taiga) and tundra. Karelia became the primary bone of comtention between Finland an the Soviet Union during World War II. This clash was not new. Russian Novograd and the Swedes fought over the area during the medieval era. It was the border area between Swedish controled Finland and the Tsarist Empire. The issue was settled for a time by the Great Northern War in which Russia seized Finland. With Finland part of the Tsarist Empire, Karelia became a dead issue. This changed after the Russian Revolution when Finland managed to achieve its independence and Karelia again became an international border area. Finland had almost all of Karelia and it included because of its southern location, a substantial part of the best aricultural land in Finlnd. Soviet-Finnish Negotiations (Spring 1938-Summer 1939) As Hitler chieve one success after another, Stalin became increasingly concerned about Hitler's intensions and the failure of the allies to confront him. Finnland had been a part of the Tsarist Empire and Stalin was interested inacyiring territory lost by Russia at the end of the war. It is not ckear what his long term intenions were, but he was especially interested in strebgening Soviet defenses. Finnland with a populatio of only 3.5 million people was not a threat in itself. Finnish territory include land located very near Leningrad which if occupied by the Germans would make the city diffucult to defend. The Soviets initiated talks with the Finns to acquire teritory thought to be esentialy to defending the city (Spring 1938). This was at the same time that Hitler seized Austria. Nothing was accomplishd. The Finns were not peepared to hand over territory and did not think that the sovietswould launch an invsion to seize it. The Finns assured the Soviets that they woukd never allow the Germans to violate their neutrality. TheSiviets rejected this as insuffucent. The Soviets wanted more than guarantees. They wanted territory and basing rights. In addition to territory north of Lnningrad, they wanted a base on the northern coast of the Gulf of Finland to prevent hostile (meaning Germn) naval forces from entering the Gulf of Finland leading to Lenningrad. The Finns were convinced that Stalin had more in mind and fiving into these demands would only lead to additional more unreasonable demands. Given what happened in the Baltic, they may have been right. NAZI-Soviet Non-Agression Pact (August 23, 1939) NAZI Foreign Minister Ribbentrop and newly appointed Soviet Commissar for Foreign Affairs Molotov on August 23, 1939, signed the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. At the time of the signing, British and French delegations were in Moscow trying to reach an understanding with Stalin. Hewas convinced, however, that they were tring to draw him into a war with Hitler. The two countries which until that time had been bitter foes, pledged not attack each other. Any problems developing between the two countries were to be delt with amicably. It was last for 10 years. The Pact shocked the world and the purpose was immedietly apparent. It meant that Germany could attack Poland without fear of Soviet intervention. Thus after defeating Poland, Germany did not have to fear a full-scale European war on two fronts. What was not known at the time was that there was a secret protocol to the pact which in effect divided Eastern Europe betwen the two countries. This protocol was discoered after the end of the World War II in 1945. The Soviets continued to deny this protocol until 1989. The NAZIs 8 days after signing the Pact invade Poland on September 1, 1939, launching World War II. Although the Soviet's did not enter the War against Britain and France, the Soviets were virtual NAZI allies as they provided large quantaies of strategic materials, especially oil. Communist parties in Britainand France opposedthe war effort. The Communst Party in America opposed President Roosevelt's efforts to expand defense spending and assist Britain and France NAZI Invasion of Poland (Sptember 1, 1939) The NAZIs 8 days after signing the Pact invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, launching World War II. Britain and France declared war September 3. The Germans more than any other military, correctly assessed the lessons of World War II. The War in Europe began on September 1, 1939 when the German blitzkrieg smashed Poland in only a few weeks. The Panzers crossed the Polish frontier on September 1 along with a devestating strike by the Luftwaffe. The Polish Army and Air Force was shattered. Britain and France declared war September 3. Within 6 days Cracow, the center of Polish nationhood, fell. Pincer movements began on September 9 to encirle the major remaining Polish forces. Once certain of Polish defeat, Stalin ordered the Red Army to attack from the East. German and Russian forces met at Brest-Litovsk on September 18. Warsaw fell a few days later after a ruthless bombing assault. The Blitzkrieg tactics that were to prove so devestaing in the West during 1940 were all on display in 1939. Neither the British or French showed much attention, abscribing Polish defeat to military incompetance. The French had promissed the Poles an offensive in the West. It never came. [Fest, pp. 602-603.] Poland's fate was sealed on September 17, when the Soviets invaded Poland from the east. Soviet Invasion of Poland (September 17, 1939) Once certain of Polish defeat, Stalin ordered the Red Army to attack from the East. Poland's fate was sealed on September 17, when the Soviets invaded Poland from the east. Already shattered by the NAZI invasion, the Polish Army offered little resistance to the Soviets. German and Russian forces met at Brest-Litovsk on September 18. Polish soldiers were internened in camps by the Soviets. Soviet actions in eastern Poland were extremely brutal. An estimated 0.1 million Poles were killed by the Soviets (1939-41). The most publicized killings were the Polish officers shot by the NKVD in the Katyn Forrest, but this was only a part of the wide spread executions of Poles by the Soviets. Some estimates suggest that 2.0 million Poles were deported to Siberia and other areas in the Soviet Union. Soviet Goals Soviet goals and by this we mean, Stalin's goals, are not known. Here only Stalin knows what his goals were in Filand. Presumably he told Molotov. Neither have left a historical record of what their goals were. The damands they made on Finland were to create a security zone to better protect Lenningrad. It is unclear just who the Soviets were concerned about. At the time the Soviets were a NAZI ally. Thus one might think that the security zone was aimed at the Allies. But the Allies had not way of opening aar against the oviets. Perhaps Stalin was thining about the NAZIs even at this stage of the War. There was no indication in 1939 of a diplomatic or military reltionship between Finland and NAZI Germany. Unlike many European countrids, there was mno appreciazble Fascost movemdent in Finland. If this was Stalin's concern, the Soviet invasion simply drove the Finns into the hands of the NAZIS. It is unclear if the Soviet demands were the limits to the Soviet goals or what seems more likely, the first step in the process they would persue in the Baltic states of actually taking over the country. Once the War began the Soviets sought to replace the Finnish government with a pro-Soviet puppet regime--the "Terijoki government". Soviet Demands The Soviet Government presented demands to the Finnish Government. The Soviets wanted Finnish territory along the south-eastern border with the Soviet Union. The Soviets justified the demand as necessary to build a security belt to the west. Finland was the next step in that process. Lenningrad was only 20 miles from the Finish border. The Soviets wanted to push the border 16 more miles into Finish terrirory. The Finnish Governments rejected to Soviet demands as "unthinkable". Soviet Attack (November 30, 1939) It was the Soviet Union not Germany that first struck after the invasion of Poland. Only 2 months after seizing eastern Poland, the Soviet Union invaded Finland, launching the Winter War (November 30, 1939). Soviets estimates were that they would smash the small Finnish Army in 10 days. The fact that they attacked furing tha late-Fll and the bulk of the war was fiught in the Winter shows how confident Red Army commandders were if vittory. The Soviet attacks began at 06.50 AM without any formal declaration of war. The Red Army crossed the border with a force outnumbering the Finns 4 to 1 in men and 200 to 1 in ttanks. [Edwards] The Red Air Force and Navy bombarded Finish cities. The air attacks seem to have been terror raids rather than attacks on military targets. It is unclear why this was. Many Red Air Force commanders were arrested in the Purges. Thus may reflect a lack of competence. Air warfare was very new. Commanders mat have thought that air attacks on cities would convince the Finns to comply with the Soviet demands. Soviet Pupet Government Stalin at the same time the Red army invaded established a puppet government for a new Finnish Democratic Republic. It was headed by the Finnish communist Otto Wille Kuusinen. It became known as the Terijoki Government because the village of Terijoki was the first place the Red Army occupied or 'liberated' in Soviet terms. [Chubaryan and Shukman, p. xxi.] Marxiest ideology led the soviets to believe that the Finnish working class would rally to the advance of the Red Army. This did nit occur and Stalin with no fanfare dropped the idea. The Finnish working class remaimed loyal to the legitately elected Government. [Trotter, p.61.] Finnish Forces The Finns were totally unprepared for a war. Finland was amall country nor did it have the resources to build a substantial military as was the case of the Soviet Union. The Finns were poorly equipped and after the initial fighting found themselves desperatly short of munitions. The small Finnish Army and volunteers while lsacking virtually everything in terms of military rquipmebt, however, devised a strategy to stop the huge, but poorly trained Red Army. The highly motivated and well-led Finninsh soldiers was an importantv factor in the War. Red Army Purges Most historians believe that Stalin's purge of the Red Army was a major factor in he poor Red army performance in the Wintr war. The professional core of the Red Army was consumed by Stalin's purges. Stalin had carried out a massibe purge of the Red Army just 2 -years before laubching the Red Army. The purge included perhaps 80 percent of the experienced commnders. This surely had a major impact on the Red Army's performance in Finland. [Edwards] The same was true of the other branches, including the Red Air Force and the Red Navy. This was one element in Stalin's Great Terror . Soviet Air Raids Finland had a very small air force when Stalin launched the Winter war and only minimal air defenses. Helsinki was protected by the 1st Anti Aircraft Regiment. They had four heavy anti-aircraft batteries of three to four guns each, one light AA battery and one AA machine gun company. Other cities had minimal air defenses. They Finns faced the largest air force in the world the Soviet or Air Force (VVS). Air wafare was still relatively new. War plans were still largely theoretical. Many Red air Force commanders were coinsumed in Stalin's purges. But even had this not happed, there was no well thoughout Soviet plan as to how to effectively use its air superiority. The Soviet air attacks were mostly conducted by the long-range bombing and reconnaissance group of the Soviet Air Force (VVS), the Aviatsiya Dalnego Deystviya (ADD). This group was under the direct ontrol of the Soviet High Command (Strvka). The Soviet bomber fleet was diverse, in part because Stalin wa obssed with building a massive force and unwilling to retire obsolete types. Three hours after the Red Army attacked along the Finnish border, Red Air Force planes bombed Helsinki. The most intensive bombing raids of the War occurred long the first few days. we are not sure why. One would have expected Soviet air attacks to hve intensifed as the ground war faltered. The Soviets bombed Helsinki only eight times during the Winter War, dropping a mere 350 bombs on the city. Some 97 people were killed and 260 injured. Some 55 buildings were destroyed. In World War II terms this was miniscule. Civilans in other cities were more affected. The Red Air Force carried out 2,075 bombing raids on 516 localities. Nearly 1,000 Finnish civilians were killed. The city of Viipuri, a priority Soviet target , was esentially leveled, hit by nearly 12,000 bombs. The small Finnish Air Force was largely committed to protecting Finnish cities and could not support the Army. The Finns could not stop the Soviet bombers, but did inflict losses. They are believed to have shot down 240 Red Air Force planes. [Trotter, pp. 187-93.] The Soviet air offensive was basically ineffective despite thecsize of the Red ir Firce. Unlike the Luftwaffe, the Red air Force was not skilled at close air force. It was used as more of a strategic bomber force. The trouble with this was thatFinnland was not a highly undustrilized country and there were few targts of importance. The rail system was the main Soviet target. The Soviet pilots went after small village depots of limited importance. They cut the rail lines repeatly, but the damage was easily repaired. Finns would have the trains running again in a a few hours. The Soviet bombings like the land invasion led to sharp ctiticm abroad. President Roosevelt asked the Soviets to refrain from bombing Finnish cities. Soviet Fireign Minister Molotov replied that "Soviet aircraft have not been bombing cities, but airfields, you can't see that from 8,000 kilometers away in America." International Condemnation Unlike Poland, however, Finland was not cut off from the outsude world. These air attacks and the land invasion were followed in detil by the international press and the Soviet Union was widely condenned. Germany had receivd the bulk of the onus for the early invasion of Poland, even though the Soviet Union had invaded from the East. This time the spot light was on Soviet agression. Soviet Attack Stalls Soviet troops at first advanced with some success, except in Karelia where there was a well organized defensive system. This became known as the "Mannerheim line". After the initial success, the Soviet offensive stalled. The Soviets used World War I tactics of frontal attacks on fixed defenses. Red Army tactics were often just massed frontal attacks on prepared positions. Whole battaloins were desimated. The Red Army was defeated in major engagements such as the Battle of Suomussalmi. The Soviets in the north advanced primarily on the roads. There were very few roads and the ones that existed were poorly developed. This left the Soviet columns exposed. The Finns effectively developed small-unit tactics. Ski troops in white camouflage proved highly effetive in hitting Soviet supply lines and dark-uniformed Red army soldiers huddled around camp fires. Field kitchens were another favorite target. [Edwards] Moving on skis in the back country the Finns were able to encircle and cut off Soviet units. Generally these were small units, but whole divisions were eventually surrounded and destroyed. The Soviet 44th infabtry Division (25,000 men) was virtually destroyed by an attacking Finnish force 0f 6,300 men. [Edwards] This was an important source of equipment as the Finns began the War with a small, poorly equipped army. Evacuations Finland carried out a series of evacuations during World War II beginning with the Soviet invsion launching the Winter War. The Finns evacuated the population away from the front lines early in the War. They also evcuated children from the cities to Scandinavin countries (Sweden, Norway and Denmark). Here the fear was both air raids as well as the danger that the whole country would be overrun by the Soviet colosus. As the Soviet weight of numbers began to overwealm the Finnish defenders, more evacuations followed. The Soviets escalated their teritorial demands presenting the Finnish delegtion at Moscow with substantial new demands. Once the Moscoe Peace Treaty was finally signed ending the war (March 1940), the Finns began evacuating the territory to be turned over to the Soviets. This was whole families. They were not mandatory evacuations. But few Finns wanted to remain in Soviet territory even though it meant leaving land tended by families for centuries. Many were urprised because the Soviets escalated the territirial demands during the neogitaions. The Finns in Karelia took what they could carry and their livestock and headed for what was to become the new Finnish border with only few days notice. They were allowed to keep their posswssions undr the terms of the treaty, but the builfings and machinery had to be left intact. This was no small matter for the Finns. Some 410,000 Finns streamed out of Karelia, over 10 percent of the country's population. This did not end the evacuations. There would also be evacuations associated with the Continuation War. Allied Assistance Finland is located on the far northern perifery of Europe. Rarely has Finland played a significant role in European history. For a few months, however, it was the Finns who galantly resisted totalitarian resistance. The first effective resistance after a decade of totalitarian successes. The Finns fought the Red Army while the Allies offered only moral support. The Allies (Britain and France) at the time were at war with Germany. Even so, the Allies for a time considered actively aiding Finland. Reaching Finland was, however, virtually impossivle. Finish ports were on the Baltic. The Germans controlled the Baltic. Allied convoys would also face Red Army and Navy attacks. Part of the reason for the planned Allied operation in Norway was to open supply lines to Finland. The negotiated peace and the NAZI attacks in Norway (April 1940) and the West (May 1940) made such aid moot. American War Relief President Roosevelt called the Soviet invasion the "rape of Finland". [Freidel, p. 324.] Former Ameican President Herbert Hoover, who had organized American relief efforts for Belgium during World War I, headed voluntary war relief for the Finns. (The President hoped that Hoover would work with Mrs. Roosevelt to work on Government sponsored civilian war relief for the Allies. Such was Hoover animosity toward Roosevelt that he refused. If he had agreed, he suely would haave eventually headed American World War II relief efforts. [Freidel, p.325.] Renewed Soviet Attacks Stlalin after the reverses in Finland appointed new commanders. Marshall Timichenko was put in chrge of the offensive. Timichenko during the Great Patriotic War was go prove one of the more competent Red Army Commanders. Red Army losses were heavy, but the Soviets could replace those losses. The Red Army adjusted tactics. And against the much smaller Finnish Army were able to make considerable progress, albeit at considerable cost. It was the vast disparity in military force, however, that decided the issue. The Soviets had the advantage of strong artillery support. The Soviets gradually ground down Finnish resistance. The Soviets not only had a massive air force and army, but were well equipped with artillery and armor. The Finns had very limited equipment and could not import the needed equipment. The Finns soon ran low on both munitions and men to sustain the front. Soviet tactics were simple and increasingly effective. Advances were preceeded by powerful artillery bombardments. The red Army had a string artiller component, the Finns next to nothing. The Artillery pinding was followed by massed frontal assaults, using tanks and infantry. The Finns were gradually worn down by the continuing attacks, In addition they had to deal with aerial bombardments, the frigid weath, and theeir in bility to reinforce and adquately supply the soldiers at the front. The Soviets breeched the Mannerheim Line, the main Finnish defence line on the Karelian isthmus (February 11, 1940). The Finns had to fall back to secondary defence lines. A series of Finnish retreats followed. The Finnish Army was on he brink of cllapse (early-March 1940). Peace Treaty: The Peace of Moscow (March 13, 1940) The intense military phase of the Winter War ended with major Soviet advances (late-February 1940). Fighting dragged on at a low-level while the two countries conducted peace negotiations. Finnish forces were able to hold the front, but it was obvious that it was just a matter of time before the Soviets with their vast military capacity achieved a complete victory. Also the Finnish Government saw that foreign aid was not arriving. It is unclear why Stalin did not pursue the war to total victory. One factor may have been the huge losses sustained by the Red Army. The tarnashing of the Soviet image in the world press may have been a factor. We suspect that NAZI diplomats may have also intervened, but Hitler until he had succeeded in the West, did not want trouble with Stalin. Here we do not yet have details. We do know that Hitler was disturbed about the Soviet invasion. The two countries agreed to a cease fire (Match 13, 1940). The Soviets received very substantial concessions from the Finns. The Soviets obtained their security belt and more. The terms have been described as "remarkably moderate terms". [Hart] The territorial concessions focused on positions helpful in defending Leningrad in any future war. [Axell, p. 55.] On the whole, however, the Winter War had been embarassment to the Soviets. One Red Army General commented that just enough ground was won 'to bury our dead'. But this meant only that the Soviets did not occupy the entire country, as they had dome their share of Poland. Finland ceded substantial territories, land along the southeastern border approximately to the line drawn by the Peace of Uusikaupunki in 1721. This included Finland's second-largest city, Viipuri; the islands in the Gulf of Finland (the object of the 1938-39 negotiations), land in the Salla sector in northeastern Finland (near the Murmansk Railroad), Finland's portion of the Rybachiy Peninsula in the Petsamo area, and the naval base at Hanko on the Gulf of Finland for which the Soviets were given 30 year lease. This amounted to 10 percent of Finnish territory, including some of the country's most productive farmland. More importantly over 10 percent of Finland's population lived in the ceeded territories. The Treaty provided time for the population to move out of the territory to be turned over to the Soviets. Nearly all of the residents, about 0.4 million Finns, moved out of the ceded territory back to Finland leaving behind their homes, shops, and farms rather than live under Soviet rule. It is unclear to what extent this represented an historic fear of the Russians or fear of Soviet Communism. Finland managed, however, to salvage its independence. Historians debate why Stalin did not continue the War to its completion, the conquest of Finland. One historian writes, "Stalin was anxious to settle with Finland so he could turn his attention to Poland and the Baltic countries, which the Red Army would soon occupy and the NKVD would 'pacify' using terror, deportations, and executions." [Fischer] POWs Historians have debated the Soviet Union's relatively correct behavior in Finland to the massive attrocities underway in Finland. A factor here is that the Soviets never occupied areas with large civilian population. Funnish civiliand fled the territory transferred to the Soviets. The treatment of POWs seensxti have been relatively correct. There was an exchange of POWs. The principal attrocity committed as a result of the War occured after the peace settlement. Soviets POWs repatriated by the Finns were encarcerated in NKVD prison camps. About 5,000 of these men then disappeared. It is believed that the NKVD executed them. Consequences The Soviet invasion of Finland had significant repercussions. The Red Army energed victorious from the Winter War (1939-40), but at considerable cost. The Soviets at the time minimized the losses. Soviet estimates released during the Khrushev thaw estimated that as many as 1 million Red Army soldiers were killed. Some observers contend that sounds unrealistically high. We know that Red Army losses were very large. The precise number may never be known. Historians contend that the poor performance of the Red Army in Finland was a factor in Hitler's decission to attack the Soviet Union before Britain had been defeated. Of course Hitler's war aims from the beginning was on the East. The poor performance of the Red Army in the Winter War may have enduced him to minimize the dangers. [Edwards] The precise importance of the Winter War in Hitler's thinking will probably never be known. Another impact was on the battle readiness of the Red Army. The Winter War meant that some Red Army units had battle experiene. This is another factor that is difficult to assess, but There is no doubt that the War and subsequent demands on Finland pushed the Finn's into the aems of the NAZIs, giving them a valuably ally in Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union. On the other hand, had it not been for the Winter War, the Red Army may have been even less prepared than proved to be the case when the NAZIs attacked (June 1941). On the other hand, the Soviet losses in the Winter War had been very sizeable. Soviet Aggressions The Soviet attack on Finland was followed by a series of other aggressions. Although it is the NAZI aggressions that are most commonly addressed in World War II histories, the Soviet Union compiled nearly as long a list of aggressions as the NAZIs. Operating within secret protocols to the Non-agression Pact, Hitler and Stalin were in fact close partners in the waging of aggressive war. The Great Patriotic War fought against the NAZIs after the 1941 German invsion came to be an icon in Soviet history. Left unsaid was the fact that Hitler and Stalin were partners in the virtul partition of Europe. The Continuation War (1941-44) The NAZI's launched Operation Barbarossa (June 22, 1941). Finland joined the Germans only 3 days later (June 25). Actually the Finns claim that the Soviets initiated hostilities with air attacks on Finnish cities. Prime minister Rangell then declared in a sppech to Parliament that Finland was at war with Soviet Union. I'm not sure if any historian has fully accessed the motives of the Finnish Government. Surely the desire to recover the lost territory was the primary factor. There may have been other factors such as the view at the time that the Stalin and the Skviet Union was a mortal threat to Finnland. Finland joined the Germans as a co-beligerent but not an ally or member of the Axis. The Finns refer to this as the Coninuation War. The Finnish Army innitiated an offensive om the cease-fire line (June 30). The Finns refused, however, to go significantly beyond the lost territory, much to Hitler's despleasure. This was a major reason that the NAZIs failed to capture Lenningrad. Sources Axell, Albert. Stalin's War Through the Eyes of His Commanders (London: Arms and Armour, 1997). Bayer, James and Orvik, Nils. The Scandinavian Flank as History, 1939-1940 (Kingston Ont: Queen's University, 1984). Chubaryan, Alexander O. and Harold Shukman. Stalin and the Soviet�Finnish war 1939�40 (London: Frank Cass. 2002). Edwards, Robert. The Winter War: Russia's Invasion of Finland, 1939-40 (2008). Fischer. Benjamin B. "The Katyn Controversy: Stalin's Killing Field". Fridel, Frank. Franklin D. Roosevelt: Rendezuous with Destiny (Little Brown: Boston, 1990), 710p. Hart, Liddell. Trotter, William R. The Winter war: The Russo�Finno War of 1939�40 (London: 1991). The Trotter book was first published in the United states as A Frozen Hell: The Russo�Finnish Winter War of 1939�40.

Finland

What is the name of the bay between northern Spain and western France, known for its rough seas?

American Rifleman | “Where Will We Bury Them All?” Finnish Arms Of The Winter War “Where Will We Bury Them All?” Finnish Arms Of The Winter War by Tom Laemlein - Thursday, October 3, 2013 SUBSCRIBE There are so many Russians, and our country so small, where will we find room to bury them all?” -Anonymous Finnish soldier Not many people in the United States remember when the Soviet Union cruelly invaded its tiny neighbor Finland in November 1939. It is not the kind of subject that the highly sanitized and “politically correct” history departments of our nation’s public schools are willing to discuss anymore. Our current generation of school children has no memory whatsoever of the power and the ambition that once drove the Soviet Union. But after World War I and the Russian Revolution, in that terrible era of war and suffering, any country sharing a border with the Soviets would dread the threats, being followed by unreasonable demands, and culminating in the attack that was sure to come. There is surely a lesson to be learned by examining how a tiny nation of dedicated riflemen defended their country against one of the largest armies the world has ever known. Just two months after the Nazis invaded Poland from the west and the Soviets attacked the Poles from the east, Stalin turned his attention north to Finland. The Russians claimed they needed a 20-mile wide buffer zone to “protect” Leningrad, home city of the communist revolution. Ultimately what they wanted was nearly all of Karelia, the Hanko Peninsula, the Rybachi Peninsula reaching into the far north of the Arctic, and four islands in the Gulf of Finland. All this territory had been hard-won by the Finns in their bloody war of independence from Bolshevik domination in 1918. By 1939, the Soviets had already bullied Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania into castrating “mutual assistance” pacts with their Russian neighbor. Throughout the autumn of 1939, Finnish diplomats tried to forestall the inevitable and keep the Russians talking. By Nov. 13, 1939, diplomatic relations had broken down. On Nov. 30, the Soviets invaded. On Dec. 14, the League of Nations expelled the USSR from its ranks for their unprovoked invasion of Finland. Not that the ineffectual League’s actions made any difference; the snow was already tinted red with blood. A Stumbling Red Colossus Nearly a half-million Red Army soldiers, supported by almost 2,000 tanks and hundreds of artillery pieces attacked Finland’s southern and eastern borders. The disproportionate numbers of the opposing forces are staggering. Along the vital Karelian Isthmus, more than 120,000 Soviet troops (with almost 1,500 armored vehicles) assaulted positions manned by a little more than 21,000 Finns (and fewer than 30 anti-tank guns). But the Soviets were disorganized and wholly unprepared. They were also hampered by a strange combination of overconfident, often incompetent, leaders operating without a clear strategy. The Red Army troops ranged from some of the better units within the Soviet forces to thousands of recent conscripts, barely trained and without the slightest preparation for the rugged terrain in which they were about to fight. The Soviet troops arrived without skis, without snow camouflage, and sometimes without proper winter clothing. Even if they had only been on a winter camping trip to Finland they would have been in significant danger from the extreme weather conditions. But the Russians had come to fight, and their inept leaders (those that remained after several years of Stalin’s brutal purges of Red Army officers) frequently blundered them into Finnish guns with no regard for casualties. In many cases, Soviet officers employed Napoleonic-era tactics against a determined Finnish opponent armed with 20th century arms. The resulting slaughter of Russian troops brought no tears from Moscow, and little change in strategy or tactics either. The world was about to learn how little the Soviets valued human life. “A Most Honorable Annihilation” Finland had little choice but to play for time. At the beginning of the war, Finland’s reserve stocks of ammunition were already dangerously low, having barely two months worth of rifle and machine gun cartridges available to the troops. With such limitations in mind the Finns hoped that global sentiment would be in their favor, with intervention coming from one or more of the Western powers before the country was completely overrun. In fact international opinion quickly rallied to Finland’s defense, but tangible military aid never came close to equaling the outpouring of good sentiments. Neighboring Sweden maintained its neutrality but managed to provide aircraft, some artillery and small arms (including the Swedish 6.5x55 mm variants of the Browning Automatic Rifle) as well as a number of volunteers. Sensing the oncoming of a brutal and ultimately unwinnable bloodletting, Finnish commander Baron Carl Gustaf Mannerheim braced for “a most honorable annihilation.” The Finnish Army was small but well practiced in the small-unit tactics that would serve it well. Their style was informal, but not undisciplined. What the Finns lacked in parade-ground spit and polish they more than made up for in superior fieldcraft and fighting spirit, or sisu. The volunteer Finnish Civil Guard (Suojeluskunta or SK) kept its ranks in top physical condition, with strong emphasis on cross-country skiing and marksmanship. Finnish Army units were often composed of men from the same region, drawing strength from their familiarity with each other as well as their officers. Regional pride drove many Finnish units to perform miraculous feats in the field. On one occasion, a small strike force of two under-strength companies slipped across frozen Lake Tolvajarvi in a night raid against an entire Soviet battalion, caught clustering around its bonfires. After the Soviet sentries were silently dispatched with knives, the Red Army battalion was decimated in less than five minutes with accurate rifle and light machine gun fire. The only Finnish casualty of the raid was its commander, Lt. Col. Pajari, who suffered a mild heart attack on the return trip. One small blessing for the Finns was that most of their small arms shared the same ammunition as their Soviet opponents. The more Maxim guns and Mosin-Nagant rifles they captured, the more guns and ammunition they had to use. The Finnish defenders gained copious amounts of their supplies the hard way-they took them off the dead bodies of their enemies. More Soviets Than Bullets The disparity in the numbers of troops and supplies available to the combatant forces soon made itself apparent. So too did the fatalistic nature of the Red Army, with its inexorable, almost zombie-like advance into the muzzles of Finnish guns. At the Russian crossings along the perfectly flat Taipale Peninsula, Finnish machine gunners mowed down one Soviet human wave attack after another. Thousands of Red Army soldiers fell to individual Maxim guns, whose gunners eventually went mad when the knowledge of the incredible amount of blood on their own hands sank in. Machine gunners fired until their water-cooled barrels boiled over despite the winter frost, while the snow before them turned red as hundreds, then thousands of fallen Soviet troops simply piled up into grotesque mounds. The brutal cycle of death repeated itself again and again as the Maxim guns chattered out 7.62x54 mm R slugs at 500 rounds per minute, even when the gunners broke down, the guns continued their deadly work unabated-and still the Russians came on. It appears as though Moscow’s cruel calculations came true with unerring accuracy. Even if each Finnish marksman struck down a Soviet soldier with every shot, Stalin still had more men to sacrifice than the Finns had bullets to fire. And the fatalistic Red Army soldiers were ready, willing and perfectly able to walk, stumble or crawl over the backs of their fallen comrades to achieve their objectives. They feared their own commissars more than they did the crack of a Finnish marksman’s rifle or the death rattle of his Suomi submachine gun. The Bolsheviks continued to pour into Finland. Advanced Small Arms Designs Finnish and Soviet troops used the same basic rifle, all variations in one form or another of the bolt-action Mosin-Nagant Model 1891, chambered in 7.62x54 mm R. Finnish ordnance experts had improved the design in their own factories, creating the Model 1891-24, Model 27, Model 28 and the Model 28-30-all of which offered superior fit and finish (no pun intended), and greater accuracy to the original Russian rifle. Finnish marksmanship was noted before the Winter War, and became legendary afterwards. Individual Finnish snipers achieved incredible scores in a “target rich” environment. One Finn sniper was credited with more than 200 kills in the short three-and-a-half month period of the Winter War. The Finns had advanced small arms design and manufacturing capabilities for such a small nation. Their secret weapon was the self-taught gun designer Aimo Lahti. His incredible portfolio of successful designs includes more than 50 firearms, highlighted by the Suomi Model 31 SMG, the Lahti-Saloranta Model 26 light machine gun, the Lahti Model 35 semi-automatic pistol and the massive Lahti Model 39 anti-tank rifle. The Suomi Model 31 9 mm Luger SMG gun saw its combat debut in the Winter War. The Suomi’s innovative 71-drum magazine had a huge impact on Soviet submachine gun designs in World War II. Weighing nearly 11 pounds unloaded, the Suomi is exceptionally heavy for a 9 mm SMG. But stories of its accuracy are legendary, and Finnish troops unleashed a hellstorm of Suomi fire against Soviet troops in the Winter War. Suomi SMGs were in relatively short supply, and it was a badge of distinction among Finnish troops to be a Suomi gunner. One of Lahti’s other inventions making its combat debut during the Winter War was the air-cooled Lahti-Saloranta Model 26 light machine gun. Chambered in 7.62x54 mm R, and using a 20-round magazine, the Model 26 was one of the first true light machine guns ever designed. While heavy (26 pounds) and rather complicated, it was accurate and reliable. With limited numbers of the Model 26 available, the Finns supplemented their stocks and made good use of captured Soviet DP-28 light machine guns. The Degtyaryova Pekhotny or DP-28 was simple and relatively reliable, and thousands of them fell into Finnish hands. The Soviets and Finns also shared similar designs in their heavy machine guns. The venerable Maxim gun was the backbone of the Finnish machine gun units. The Finns updated the action in their Maxims (dubbed the Model 32) to accept metallic link belts, increased the rate of fire and improved the sights. Another interesting Finnish innovation was the “snow cap,” a large flip-top opening on top of the water jacket that allowed the gunner’ to easily replenish the water cooling supply with handfuls of snow. A Costly Soviet Victory The Winter War ended in March 1940 with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty. Finland was forced to cede 11 percent of its territory to the Soviet Union along with 30 percent of its economic assets. The Soviets did not succeed in accomplishing their objective of a complete take-over of Finland. Not that they cared, but in addition to suffering humiliatingly heavy losses and military failure, the Soviets also lost their place among the League of Nations. Finland remained a sovereign nation, albeit with less territory, and certainly enhanced its international reputation. It was cold comfort though, and with the German invasion of France just two months away, the world’s attention would no longer be focused on Finland’s plight. The Winter War proved a costly victory for the Soviets. The Red Army lost approximately 126,875 dead or missing, 264,908 wounded and approximately 5,600 captured. In addition, they lost about 2,268 armored vehicles. The Finns suffered greatly to preserve their freedom. In the four months of combat, Finnish losses numbered approximately 26,662 dead and more than 39,000 wounded. A tiny nation of riflemen had held off the communist Red giant. The massive battles of World War II quickly obscured Finland’s sacrifice, and by the summer of 1941 the United States and our Allies were forced into an uneasy alliance with the Soviet Union, at least until the day that the Axis was defeated. National Archives photos; courtesy of armorplatepress.com. IN THIS ARTICLE

i don't know

Which city linked by canal with Rotterdam and Amsterdam, is the seat of the Netherlands government?

Netherlands | history - geography | Britannica.com Netherlands Alternative Titles: Holland, Kingdom of The Netherlands, Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, Nederland Netherlands National anthem of the Netherlands Official name Koninkrijk der Nederlanden (Kingdom of the Netherlands) Form of government constitutional monarchy with a parliament (States General) comprising two houses (Senate [75]; House of Representatives [150]) Head of state Literacy: percentage of population age 15 and over literate Male: (2009) 100% list of cities and towns in the Netherlands Netherlands, country located in northwestern Europe , also known as Holland. “Netherlands” means low-lying country; the name Holland (from Houtland, or “Wooded Land”) was originally given to one of the medieval cores of what later became the modern state and is still used for 2 of its 12 provinces (Noord-Holland and Zuid-Holland). A parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarch, the kingdom includes its former colonies in the Lesser Antilles: Aruba , Bonaire , Curaçao , Saba , Sint Eustatius , and Sint Maarten . The capital is Amsterdam and the seat of government The Hague . Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Windmills at Kinderdijk, The Netherlands. © Travelpix—FPG International The country is indeed low-lying and remarkably flat, with large expanses of lakes, rivers, and canals. Some 2,500 square miles (6,500 square km) of the Netherlands consist of reclaimed land , the result of a process of careful water management dating back to medieval times. Along the coasts, land was reclaimed from the sea, and, in the interior, lakes and marshes were drained, especially alongside the many rivers. All this new land was turned into polders, usually surrounded by dikes. Initially, man power and horsepower were used to drain the land, but they were later replaced by windmills, such as the mill network at Kinderdijk-Elshout, now a UNESCO World Heritage site . The largest water-control schemes were carried out in the second half of the 19th century and in the 20th century, when steam pumps and, later, electric or diesel pumps came into use. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Rembrandt van Rijn Despite government-encouraged emigration after World War II, which prompted some 500,000 persons to leave the country, the Netherlands is today one of the world’s most densely populated countries. Although the population as a whole is “graying” rapidly, with a high percentage over age 65, Amsterdam has remained one of the liveliest centres of international youth culture . There, perhaps more than anywhere else in the country, the Dutch tradition of social tolerance is readily encountered. Prostitution, “soft-drug” (marijuana and hashish) use, and euthanasia are all legal but carefully regulated in the Netherlands, which was also the first country to legalize same-sex marriage. Overview of Amsterdam. Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz This relative independence of outlook was evident as early as the 16th and 17th centuries, when the Dutch rejected monarchical controls and took a relatively enlightened view of other cultures , especially when they brought wealth and capital to the country’s trading centres. In that period Dutch merchant ships sailed the world and helped lay the foundations of a great trading country characterized by a vigorous spirit of enterprise. In later centuries, the Netherlands continued to have one of the most advanced economies in the world, despite the country’s modest size. The Dutch economy is open and generally internationalist in outlook. With Belgium and Luxembourg , the Netherlands is a member of the Benelux economic union , which in the 1950s and 1960s served as a model for the larger European Economic Community (EEC; now embedded in the European Union [EU]), of which the Benelux countries are members. The Netherlands is also a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and it plays host to a number of international organizations, especially in the legal sector, such as the International Court of Justice . World Wars The Dutch reputation for tolerance was tested in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, when an increase in immigration from non-European Union countries and a populist turn in politics resulted in growing nationalism and even xenophobia , marked by two race-related political assassinations, in 2002 and 2004, and the government’s requirement that immigrants pass an expensive ‘‘integration’’ test before they enter the country. Land European Monetary Union A region with a very specific character has been formed by the great rivers— Rhine , Lek , Waal , and Maas ( Meuse )—that flow from east to west through the central part of the country. The landscape in this area is characterized by high dikes along wide rivers, orchards along the levees formed by the rivers, and numerous large bridges over which pass the roads and railways that connect the central Netherlands with the southern provinces. Soils In the late Pleistocene Epoch (from about 126,000 to 11,700 years ago), the Scandinavian ice sheet covered the northern half of the Netherlands. After this period, a large area in the north of what is now the Netherlands was left covered by moraine (glacial accumulation of earth and rock debris). In the centre and south, the Rhine and Maas rivers unloaded thick layers of silt and gravel transported from the European mountain chains. Later, during the Holocene Epoch (i.e., the past 11,700 years), clay was deposited in the sheltered lagoons behind the coastal dunes, and peat soil often subsequently developed in these areas. If the peat soil was washed away by the sea or dug away by humans (for the production of fuel and salt), lakes were created. Many of these were reclaimed in later centuries (as mentioned above), while others now form highly valued outdoor recreational areas. Keukenhof Gardens, near Lisse, Netherlands. D.J. Ball—Stone/Getty Images Climate The climate of the Netherlands is temperate, with gentle winters, cool summers, and rainfall in every season. Southerly and westerly winds predominate, and the sea moderates the climate through onshore winds and the effect of the Gulf Stream . The position of the country—between the area of high-pressure air masses centred on the Azores and the low-pressure region centred on Iceland —makes the Netherlands an area of collision between warm and polar air masses, thus creating unsettled weather. Winds meet with little resistance over the flat country, though the hills in the south significantly diminish the velocity of the potent wind that prevails along the coast. On average, frost occurs 60 days per year. July temperatures average about 63 °F (17 °C), and those of January average 35 °F (2 °C). Annual rainfall averages about 31 inches (790 mm), with only about 25 clear days per year. The average rainfall is highest in summer (August) and autumn and lowest in springtime. The country is known—not least through the magnificent landscapes of Dutch painters—for its heavy clouds, and on an average day three-fifths of the sky is clouded. View over a Flat Landscape, oil on canvas by Philips Koninck, 1664; in … Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam Plant and animal life Most wild Dutch plant species are of the Atlantic district within the Euro-Siberian phytogeographic region. Gradients of salt and winter temperature variations cause relatively minor zonal differences in both wild and garden plants from the coast to more continental regions. The effects of elevation are negligible. Vegetation from coastal sand dunes, muddy coastal areas, slightly brackish lakes, and river deltas is especially scarce in the surrounding countries. Lakes, marshes, peatland, woods, heaths, and agricultural areas determine the general floral species. Clay, peat, and sand are important soil factors for the inland vegetation regions. Animal life is relegated by region according to vegetation. Seabirds and other sea life, such as mollusks, are found especially in the muddy Waddenzee area and in the extreme southwest. Migrating birds pass in huge numbers through the Netherlands or remain for a summer or winter stay. Species of waterbirds and marsh and pasture birds are numerous. Larger mammals, such as roe deer, red deer, foxes, and badgers, are mostly restricted to nature reserves. Some species, such as boars, beavers, fallow deer, mouflons, and muskrats, have been introduced locally or reintroduced. Some reptiles and amphibians are endangered. Numerous species of river fish and river lobsters have become scarce because of water pollution. There is a diversity of brackish and freshwater animals inhabiting the many lakes, canals, and drainage ditches, but the vulnerable species of the nutritionally deficient waters have become rare. Nature reserves have been formed by governmental and private organizations. Well-known reserves include the Naardermeer of Amsterdam, the Hoge Veluwe National Park, and the Oostvaardersplassen in the centre of the country. Some endangered species are protected by law. People Ethnic groups Popular belief holds that the Dutch are a mixture of Frisians , Saxons , and Franks . In fact, research has made plausible the contention that the autochthonous inhabitants of the region were a mixture of pre-Germanic and Germanic population groups who in the course of time had converged on the main deltaic region of western Europe. There emerged from these groups in the 7th and 8th centuries some major polities based on certain ethnic and cultural unities that then came to be identified as Frisians, Saxons, and Franks. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. The Dutch Republic originated from medieval statelets, and its legal successor, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, has attracted countless immigrants through the centuries. A strong impetus was the principle of freedom of thought, which engendered the relative tolerance that developed in the 16th and 17th centuries. These sentiments were—and are—most manifest in the prosperous commercial and industrial centres in the western provinces, which attracted many members of persecuted religious or political minorities. Among these were southern lowlanders, French Huguenots , and Portuguese Jews, along with many people who sought to improve their economic situation, such as Germans and non-Iberian Jews. In the 20th century, immigrants from the former Dutch overseas colonies added to the influx; they included Indonesians and peoples from the Moluccas and from Suriname on the northeast coast of South America . In recent decades, however, as Muslims from Turkey and Morocco arrived in large numbers, Dutch embracement of diversity has been more tenuous . At the beginning of the 21st century, not only did a virulent anti-immigrant movement emerge, but also the government required that immigrants pass a test in their country of origin relating to Dutch language and culture before they were allowed to enter the Netherlands. Young girl with braided hair and wearing Dutch folk dress, in tulip fields, Lisse, Netherlands. Steve Vidler/SuperStock Languages The language in the whole of the country is Dutch , sometimes referred to as Netherlandic , a Germanic language that is also spoken by the inhabitants of northern Belgium (where it is called Flemish). Afrikaans , an official language of South Africa , is a variant of the Dutch spoken by 17th-century emigrants from the Holland and Zeeland regions. Apart from Dutch, the inhabitants of the northern province of Friesland also speak their own language (called Frisian in English), which is closer to English than to either Dutch or German. In the major cities especially, many people are fluent in several languages, reflecting the country’s geographic position, its history of occupation, and its attraction for tourists. English, French, and German are among the languages commonly heard. The heritage of Dutch humanism The considerable hospitality exhibited by the Dutch is perhaps to some extent rooted in the spirit of humanism that was typical of the Dutch Republic of the 16th to the 18th century. Figures such as Desiderius Erasmus in the 16th century and Hugo Grotius in the 17th century epitomize that spirit. It resulted in a rather pragmatic mode of thinking that has dominated Dutch bourgeois culture since the 16th century, coexisting with growing commercial acumen . Evolving Dutch society came to encompass a diversity of religious traditions, from rigid Calvinism and more-tolerant forms of Protestantism to conformist Roman Catholicism . Calvinism was always the religion of the national elite, while Roman Catholicism could be practiced only behind closed doors before 1798 (when all religions were pronounced equal before the law), and at various times certain sects were persecuted. In comparison with some of its neighbours, the Netherlands historically has shown a remarkable degree of religious tolerance. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. In terms of formal allegiance , the present Dutch population can be divided into three almost equal groups relative to religion: Roman Catholics (the southern provinces of Limburg and Noord-Brabant are traditionally almost monolithically Catholic, but in terms of absolute numbers more Catholics live north of the great rivers than in Noord-Brabant and Limburg), Protestants (particularly the adherents to the Netherlands Reformed Church ), and the nonreligious. The adherents of Islam have developed a wide range of institutions in the Netherlands and constituted about 6 percent of the population at the turn of the 21st century. Old Church by a canal in the old inner town of Delft, Netherlands. J. Allan Cash Photolibrary/EB Inc. Secularization has made its mark in the Netherlands; the Christian Democrat parties of the centre, whose political platform included planks such as public funding for religious education, had attracted more than 50 percent of the vote up to the 1960s, but in the 1990s they were ejected from government for the first time in the 20th century. Nonetheless, the educational institutions and political parties that evolved in the late 19th and early 20th centuries along denominational lines remain as potent as the more or less secularized parties and institutions that sprang from socialist and liberal movements. The “pillarization” of Dutch society—that is, the founding of separate institutions such as hospitals, schools, and periodicals by various groups—commands much less religiosity and devotion now, but these organizations are still central to education, political life, and public service. These more or less converging societal groupings have not completely obliterated a range of age-old regional cultural distinctions. They are sometimes vividly preserved, as in the case of the northern province of Friesland , which proudly conserves the ancient Frisian culture. With more-recent immigration, new cultural groups are becoming significant. Settlement patterns Modern urbanization in the Netherlands took place mainly in the 20th century. In 1900 more than half the population was still living in villages or towns of fewer than 10,000 inhabitants. A century later this proportion had decreased to about one-tenth. There has, nevertheless, been a decrease in the city-proper populations of the large metropolitan centres. These inner cities are now becoming economic and cultural centres, their populations having spread outward in search of newer housing and greater living space in suburbs, new residential quarters of rural settlements, and new towns. In the 1960s and ’70s the authorities stimulated this development by subsidizing house building in a number of so-called growth nuclei and by moving several groupings of public offices from the western core area of the country to more-rural areas in the north, east, and south. More recently, however, government planning policy has aimed at again concentrating the population in and around the existing cities, especially in the western portion of the country. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. A discussion of homes built in waterways of the Netherlands. Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz In this part of the Netherlands, the bulk of the population is concentrated in the horseshoe-shaped urban core known as the Randstad (“Rim City,” or “City on the Edge”), comprising such cities as Rotterdam, The Hague , Leiden , Haarlem , Amsterdam, Hilversum , and Utrecht . Extensions of the Randstad stretch toward the east ( Arnhem , Nijmegen ) and the south ( Breda , Tilburg , Eindhoven ), thus forming the so-called Central Netherlands Urban Ring. Other urban centres are Groningen in the northeast, Enschede and Hengelo in the east, and Maastricht and Heerlen in the southeast. It is government policy to keep traditional towns and cities separated by strips of agricultural or recreational land. Demographic trends Exceptionally high fertility rates until the 1960s contributed to the Netherlands’ being one of the world’s most densely populated countries. Since then, trends have shifted, owing mainly to wider use of birth control pills (a consequence of growing secularization) and to the increased participation of women in higher education and the workforce. At the beginning of the 21st century, Dutch birth and death rates were both among the world’s lowest, resulting in a somewhat older society, with most population growth arising from immigration. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Emigrants exceeded immigrants by an average of almost 20,000 each year from 1947 to 1954. Thereafter the economy and labour potential of the more industrialized European countries attracted an increasing number of labour migrants from southern Europe, Turkey, and Morocco, so that the balance of in-migration and out-migration remained more or less static. From 1970 there was a continuous immigrant surplus, and in the early 21st century, one-fifth of the Netherlands’ population was made up of residents born abroad or with at least one foreign-born parent. In the late 1990s, with most other doors to immigration closed by government policy and the possibility of entry for family reunification largely expended, the numbers of applications for asylum were high. There was also an increase in the immigration of Dutch nationals from the Netherlands Antilles . Following legislation in 2001 that further tightened immigration restrictions, the annual number of asylum seekers fell, but the issue of immigration remained on the political forefront. For many years prior to 1970, internal migration showed a constant flow from the more rural provinces in the north, east, and south toward the more strongly urbanized western part of the country. After 1970, however, the trend toward migration to the west was reversed. Subsequent emigration was mainly from Zuid-Holland and Noord-Holland (the most heavily populated provinces) toward Utrecht and the less densely populated provinces, where government regional policy stimulated industrial growth— Groningen , Friesland, Drenthe , Gelderland , and Zeeland. Economy Since World War II , the Netherlands has been a highly industrialized country occupying a central position in the economic life of western Europe. Although agriculture accounts for a small percentage of the national income and labour force, it remains a highly specialized contributor to Dutch exports. Because of the scarcity of mineral resources—with the important exception of natural gas—the country is dependent on large imports of basic materials. Flower cultivation in the polders of South Holland near the border with North Holland in The … Russ Kinne/Comstock The Netherlands has a market economy, but the state traditionally has been a significant participant in such fields as transportation, resource extraction, and heavy industry. The government also employs a substantial percentage of the total labour force and effects investment policy. Nonetheless, during the 1980s, when the ideological climate favoured market economics, considerable privatization was initiated, government economic intervention was reduced, and the welfare state was restructured. State-owned companies such as DSM (Dutch State Mines) and KLM (Royal Dutch Airlines) were among those privatized. Nonetheless, the Netherlands has, relatively speaking, a highly regulated mixed economy. Since World War II, economic development has been consciously stimulated by government policy, and state subsidies have been granted to attract industry and services toward the relatively underdeveloped north and certain other pockets of economic stagnation. Despite these subsidies, the western part of the country remains the centre of new activity, especially in the service sector. Agriculture The country’s agricultural land is divided into grassland, arable farmland, and horticultural land. Dutch dairy farming is highly developed; the milk yield per acre of grassland and the yield per cow are among the highest in the world. A good percentage of the total milk production is exported after being processed into such dairy products as butter, cheese, and condensed milk. Meat and eggs are produced in intensively farmed livestock holdings, where enormous numbers of pigs, calves, and poultry are kept in large sheds and fed mainly on imported fodder. Most cereals for human consumption as well as fodder are imported. Horticulture carried on under glass is of special importance. The export of hothouse tomatoes, cucumbers, bell peppers, cut flowers, and houseplants has greatly increased, and the Netherlands now contains a substantial share of the total European horticultural area under glass. Open-air horticulture also produces fruit, vegetables, cut flowers, and bulbs, the latter from the world-famous colourful bulb fields. Only one-tenth of the land is forested. The Dutch fishing industry, while not large, is nevertheless significant. At the beginning of the 21st century, three-fourths of the fish consumed in the Netherlands was foreign-caught, yet about four-fifths of the total catch was exported. As a result, the country is unusual in exporting more fish than it imports. Float in the Bloemencorso, an annual flower festival held in September in Aalsmeer, The Netherlands. The J. Allan Cash Photolibrary Resources and power With the increasing use of oil and especially natural gas, coal mining (concentrated in the southeast) was discontinued in 1974 because of the rising cost of production. The Netherlands imports several million tons of coal annually to meet domestic and industrial needs, including those of such industrial installations as the steel works of IJmuiden at the mouth of the North Sea Canal . The production of crude oil, of which there are minimal deposits, covers only a small part of Dutch requirements. The wells are located near Schoonebeek, in the northeast, and in the southwest. Large amounts of crude oil are imported for refining in the Netherlands, and much of the refined petroleum is exported. The discovery of natural gas in 1959 had a tremendous influence on the development of the Dutch economy. The gas fields are in the northeastern Netherlands—with the largest field at Slochteren—and beneath the Dutch sector of the North Sea . Under the Geneva Convention of 1958, the Netherlands was allocated a 22,000-square-mile (57,000-square-km) block of the continental shelf of the North Sea, an area larger than the country itself. Technological advances led to an increase in offshore production in the last decades of the 20th century. One-third of the natural gas produced is exported, primarily to countries of the European Union (EU), helping to improve the balance of payments in the economic sector—in which the Netherlands has usually had its largest deficit. The natural gas discoveries began a trend in Dutch industries toward greater use of domestically produced fuel. One of the results of the reliance on gas is that nuclear power is very limited in the Netherlands. On the other hand, the flat maritime landscape is well suited to the use of wind turbines, which are increasingly employed in agricultural areas. Among the country’s other resources are zinc, extracted at Budel, sodium at Delfzijl, and magnesium at Veendam. Manufacturing Modern Dutch industrial development began relatively late, about 1870, and production rose even during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Further development became a priority after World War II, when ascending population figures and growing farm-labour surpluses necessitated the creation of tens of thousands of jobs each year. Manufacturing industries accounted for about one-fifth of the labour force in the early 21st century but only about one-eighth of production value. Important components of the manufacturing sector include food and beverages, metal, chemical, petroleum products, and electrical and electronics industries. Textile manufacturing, shipbuilding, and aircraft construction were important historically, but employment in those sectors has greatly declined. The government has encouraged new industrial development in the fields of microelectronics, biotechnology, and the so-called digital economy. Finance, trade, and services Commercial banking in the Netherlands is in the hands of a few large concerns, and there has been a trend toward mergers of banks and insurance companies over several decades. The state-owned Netherlands Central Bank supervises the banking system. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange , one of the oldest in the world, was founded in the early 1600s. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Trade is conducted mainly with Europe and North America . The member states of the EU are the Netherlands’ dominant trading partners, receiving three-fourths of Dutch exports and providing one-half of the country’s imports. In 1958 (just as the Common Market was established) some 40 percent of Dutch exports went to West Germany (now Germany), Belgium, Luxembourg, France, and Italy . By the beginning of the 21st century, the main trading partners were Germany, Belgium, the United Kingdom , France, Italy, the United States , Russia , and China. In the same period, the service industry accounted for about seven-tenths of the labour force and about two-thirds of gross domestic product (GDP), with tourism playing a vital role. The most frequent foreign visitors are Germans, Britons, Americans, and Belgians. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Labour and taxation Dutch employers are organized mainly in separate but closely cooperating organizations: one Roman Catholic and Protestant and one nondenominational. The labour force had a tripartite organization before the Socialist and Roman Catholic unions merged as Netherlands Trade Union Federation (Federatie Nederlandse Vakbeweging; FNV), leaving the Protestant union, the National Federation of Christian Trade Unions (Christelijk Nationaal Vakverbond; CNV), and a few small independent organizations far behind in membership. Employer organizations and labour unions are represented on the Joint Industrial Labour Council, established in 1945 for collective bargaining, and on the Social and Economic Council, which serves mainly to advise the government. These corporatist arrangements were substantially deregulated in the 1980s as neoliberal, market-oriented policies were carried out. Socioeconomic planning remains extremely important, however, and the Central Planning Bureau’s economic models are integral to all forms of economic policy. The Dutch government uses both direct and indirect taxation to finance its extensive welfare programs. In 1969 it began levying a value-added tax (VAT). In addition to a graduated personal income tax, there is also a property tax, a motor vehicle tax, an excise tax on certain products, an energy tax, and a tax on legal transactions. Transportation and telecommunications In the Netherlands transportation is of special importance because the country functions as a gateway for the traffic of goods between western Europe and the rest of the world. (Amsterdam, for example, has been the centre of diamond exchange for centuries.) Trade flows through Dutch harbours, continuing its passage by riverboat, train, truck, and pipeline. Maritime traffic accounts for more than half the total amount of goods loaded and unloaded in the Netherlands, and, indeed, the whole southern part of the North Sea may be likened to an immense traffic square, fed by the Thames, Rhine, Maas, and Schelde rivers, with links into the hinterland of the continent that make it one of the greatest commercial arteries of the world. Rotterdam has the country’s best-equipped modern harbour, the largest on the continent. Europoort , the region between Rotterdam and the North Sea, can easily be reached by the biggest oceangoing ships; it serves as an approach via the New Waterway Canal to Rotterdam harbour. For some 40 years, until it was eclipsed by busier Asian ports in the early 21st century, Rotterdam handled more tonnage than any other harbour in the world. In petroleum processing too, Rotterdam is one of the world’s leading centres, with facilities to receive the largest supertankers. The number of rivercraft is probably unsurpassed by any other country. Other important ports, though dwarfed by Rotterdam-Europoort, are Amsterdam and, on the Western Schelde , Flushing and Terneuzen. KLM initiated scheduled service between Amsterdam and London in 1920 and became one of the world’s leading airlines, merging with Air France in 2004 to form Air France-KLM. Amsterdam Airport ( Schiphol )—on the site of the former Haarlem Lake at about 13 feet (4 metres) below sea level—is among Europe’s largest airports. Smaller airports of international importance are Rotterdam (Zestienhoven), Eindhoven, and Maastricht. Overview of the port at Rotterdam, Netherlands. Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, Mainz In terms of internal traffic, motor vehicles, accommodated by a comprehensive road network, dominate both passenger and goods transport, despite the fact that there is a dense modern railway network. Dutch road haulage companies are market leaders and constitute a large slice of such business in the EU. Moreover, Dutch shipping companies handle about two-fifths of the EU’s freight transport by water. The Netherlands’ network of inland waterways, made up of some 3,000 miles (4,800 km) of rivers and canals, is linked with Belgian, French, and German systems. Besides such natural waterways as the Rhine, Lek, Waal, and Maas rivers, many artificial waterways—the Juliana Canal, the Amsterdam-Rhine River Canal (between Amsterdam and Tiel), the Maas-Waal Canal (west of Nijmegen), and others—connect the major ports on the coast with the hinterland. The telecommunications system in the Netherlands is highly advanced, with extensive fibre-optic and mobile networks. Per capita cell phone usage in the Netherlands is comparable to that of most western European countries (though considerably less pervasive than in Scandinavia); per capita personal computer use is high by western European standards. Page 1 of 3 Netherlands - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up) Although it is one of the smallest countries in Europe, the Kingdom of the Netherlands played an important role in the history of the continent. At one time it was a great sea power and a trade rival of England on the oceans of the world. The Dutch established colonies on several continents. Today the Netherlands is no longer a great colonial power, but it still plays a significant role in European affairs, and its location makes it a major gateway to Europe for sea, land, and air traffic. The capital is Amsterdam. Area 16,158 square miles (41,850 square kilometers). Population (2016 est.) 17,028,000. Article Contributors

The Hague

Which is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea?

Holland in One Day Sightseeing Tour - Amsterdam | Viator Holland in One Day Sightseeing Tour Duration: 9 hours 30 minutes (approx.) 5 star From USD $ 85.91 View price calendar We're sorry, we cannot confirm pricing due to the following: We're sorry, this tour or activity is not available at this time. Please try selecting another date and/or a different number of travelers. An error has occurred We're sorry! We've encountered a temporary glitch and cannot process your request. Our team is investigating the problem. In the meantime try pressing the back button, refreshing the page or returning to www.viator.com . Adult (Age 13+) Child (Age 4 to 12) Infant (Age 0 to 3) Important Info Finished touring Amsterdam and want to see more of Holland? Don’t miss this full-day tour featuring the highlight attractions of the Netherlands. Visit The Hague, the seat of the Dutch government, and watch how the blue-and-white Delft pottery is made. Admire the experimental architecture of Rotterdam, climb up the Euromast tower for stunning city views and explore the miniature park of Madurodam. Travel by air-conditioned coach and listen to an informative guide who shares anecdotes and history about the attractions you see along the way. Highlights Holland sightseeing day trip from Amsterdam to Delft, Rotterdam and The Hague Tour the city of Rotterdam and head up in the Euromast sightseeing tower for spectacular views Visit the Royal Delft, one of the most famous makers of blue-and-white Delft pottery Drive through The Hague and see Holland's important government buildings Why Our Insiders Chose This Tour This is the tour for you if you don't have much time but still want to see more than just Amsterdam. You get to visit Rotterdam, The Hague, and the home of Delft pottery. Recent Photos of This Tour Holland in One Day Sightseeing Tour ME with the Erasmus Bridge behind me Photo by: Rose J Plates at Royal Delft factory. Photo by: Rhiannon Amazing view of Rotterdam from Euromast! Photo by: Rhiannon very large and lots of stalls for a great variety of food and other products Photo by: GaryL view from the Euromast Tower Photo by: P V One hour free time in Delft Photo by: Gabriella G Photo by: Jane R. B 07 2015 and the river trip was amazing on the river amazingly amazing the way they tell everything is wow Photo by: Afia S Classic home from the 1500's. Amazing historical walk around Delpf. Photo by: Jiggee J Awesome way to see Holland quickly. Photo by: Jiggee J What You Can Expect See Holland in a nutshell at The Hague's Madurodam Take one day during your Amsterdam stay to see other top attractions in the Netherlands. Board a comfy coach in central Amsterdam, and throughout the day, hear informative commentary from your guide. Enjoy a 30-minute tour in Rotterdam, where your guide points out the experimental architecture that makes the city so unusual. Then, make your way up the Euromast sightseeing tower, 606 feet (185 meters), and soak up the peaceful panoramas of the city, the port and neighboring areas. Next, watch artisans at the Royal Delft make Holland’s iconic blue-and-white pottery, Delft Blue pottery. During the hour tour here, learn about the earthenware pottery’s origins in the 17th century inspired by Chinese pottery. After your Royal Delft visit, spend an hour discovering the charming city of Delft, a great place to grab lunch (own expense). Finally, pass through The Hague and gain insight into this historic city, home to the Dutch government. During the 30-minute drive, you'll see notable sights and landmarks including the Houses of Parliament. Your last visit will be the miniature city of Madurodam.  Your whirlwind Netherlands tour ends with drop-off in central Amsterdam in the evening. Subhash M December 2016 This tour was fantastic. I recommend it to anyone who wants to get a good idea of Netherlands on one day. Our tour guide was Pieter. He was a wealth of information about the history, geography, commerce and cultural differences between regions. Natalie December 2016 Two months later, we still fondly remember the tour of Rotterdam, Delft, and the Hague with Marion Maryanne. The tour was well composed in terms of stops and content as well as very competently conducted by Marion. We highly recommend both the tour and the guide to everyone. samuel jr m November 2016 Our guide was really good in providing all the information for the tour, too bad i forgot his name but i know he is from Italy, we all enjoy this trip and the planning was really great, we even have time to seat down for lunch and ordered salmon which was recommended by our guide and it taste really good. Robyn D November 2016 Covered a lot of country in a short time. Had adequate time to explore each location we stopped at. Tour guide was very knowledgeable. HEATHER L October 2016 The guide was extremely well versed in many languages and so knowledgeable with the history of netherlands. One of the most informative tours I had! Thank you yoyojojo! Dariya P October 2016 This was a great trip. We've seen very much in one day without being overly exhausted. Also, Rotterdam, Delft and The Haague are not the places that I would go see for a couple of days independently, so this short trip was just right to get a taste of the cities.

i don't know

Which city was the capital of West Germany from 1949 to 1990?

Capital of West Germany - definition of Capital of West Germany by The Free Dictionary Capital of West Germany - definition of Capital of West Germany by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Capital+of+West+Germany Also found in: Thesaurus , Encyclopedia , Wikipedia . Bonn  (bŏn, bôn) A city of west-central Germany on the Rhine River. Founded as a Roman garrison in the first century ad, it is noted as the birthplace of Ludwig van Beethoven (1770) and was the capital of West Germany (1949-1990). Bonn (bɒn; German bɔn) n (Placename) a city in W Germany, in North Rhine-Westphalia on the Rhine: the former capital (1949–90) of West Germany; university (1786). Pop: 311 052 (2003 est) Bonn (bɒn, bɔn) n. a city in W Germany, on the Rhine: the capital of West Germany 1949–90; capital of Germany 1990–99. 293,072. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Noun 1. Bonn - a city in western Germany on the Rhine River; was the capital of West Germany between 1949 and 1989 Deutschland , FRG , Germany , Federal Republic of Germany - a republic in central Europe; split into East Germany and West Germany after World War II and reunited in 1990 Translations

Bonn

"In which Cypriot town will you find the ""Tombs of the Rings""?"

Capital of West Germany from 1949 to 1990 | Crossword Puzzle Clue | CrosswordGiant.com Capital of West Germany from 1949 to 1990 Capital of West Germany from 1949 to 1990 Clue: Capital of West Germany from 1949 to 1990 We have 1 possible answer for the clue Capital of West Germany from 1949 to 1990 which appears 2 times in our database.

i don't know

In which country did Grand Duke Jean become head of state in 1964?

Luxembourg: Maps, History, Geography, Government, Culture, Facts, Guide & Travel/Holidays/Cities Prime Minister Resigns after Being Implicated in Spying Probe Geography Luxembourg is about half the size of Delaware. The Ardennes Mountains extend from Belgium into the northern section of Luxembourg. The rolling plateau of the fertile Bon Pays is in the south. Government Constitutional monarchy. History Luxembourg, once part of Charlemagne's empire, became an independent state in 963, when Siegfried, count of Ardennes, became sovereign of Lucilinburhuc (“Little Fortress”). In 1060, Conrad, a descendant of Siegfried, took the title count of Luxembourg. From the 15th to the 18th century, Spain, France, and Austria held the duchy in turn. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 made it a grand duchy and gave it to William I, king of the Netherlands. In 1839, the Treaty of London ceded the western part of Luxembourg to Belgium. The eastern part, continuing in personal union with the Netherlands and a member of the German Confederation, became autonomous in 1848 and a neutral territory by decision of the London Conference of 1867, governed by its grand duke. Germany occupied the duchy in World Wars I and II. Allied troops liberated the enclave in 1944. Luxembourg joined NATO in 1949, the Benelux Economic Union (with Belgium and the Netherlands) in 1948, and the European Economic Community (later the EU) in 1957. In 1961, Prince Jean, son and heir of Grand Duchess Charlotte, was made head of state, acting for his mother. She abdicated in 1964, and Prince Jean became grand duke. Luxembourg's parliament approved the Maastricht Accord, paving the way for the economic unity of the EU in July 1992. Crown Prince Henri was sworn in as grand duke in Oct. 2000, replacing his father, Jean, who had been head of state for 26 years.

Luxembourg

In which country was Pope John Paul II a cardinal before his election?

Royals gather for the Grand Duke Jean of Luxembourg's 95th birthday | Daily Mail Online The cream of the continent's royals gathered for the Grand Duke Jean of Luxembourg's 95th birthday - but how many do YOU recognise?  Royal guests from all over Europe gathered to help the Grand Duke Jean of Luxembourg celebrate birthday Queen Mathilde and King Philippe of the Belgians were on hand to help ring in the party Queen Sofia of Spain and King Constantine and Queen Anne-Marie of Greece also made an appearance in the snap His friends and family joined him at a concert at the Philharmonie Philharmonic Orchestra sang happy birthday to the Grand Duke Jean before presenting him with a birthday cake

i don't know

Which two countries have a border with Liechtenstein?

Liechtenstein travel guide - Wikitravel Time Zone UTC +1 The Principality of Liechtenstein (German: Fürstentum Liechtenstein) is a small, alpine German-speaking country doubly landlocked by Switzerland and Austria . It is the last remnant of the Holy Roman Empire and an independent nation with very close ties to Switzerland. It enjoys a very high standard of living and is home to some incredibly beautiful mountain scenery. The principality's capital, Vaduz , is mainly a modern city and a major centre of commerce and international banking. History[ edit ] The Principality of Liechtenstein was established within the Holy Roman Empire in 1719 and became a sovereign state in 1806. Until the end of World War I, it was closely tied to Austria , but the economic devastation caused by that conflict forced Liechtenstein to conclude a customs and monetary union with Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein remained neutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding economic growth. Shortcomings in banking regulatory oversight have resulted in concerns about the use of the financial institutions for money laundering and tax evasion. However, the days of bringing suitcases of money into banks for deposit without questions asked is over. Liechtensteiners are also very proud of the fact that their nation has never been physically involved in a battle or military confrontation with an "enemy state" and see their flag as a banner of peace. Economy[ edit ] Despite its small size and limited natural resources, Liechtenstein has developed into a prosperous, highly industrialized, free-enterprise economy with a vital financial service sector and living standards on a par with the urban areas of its large European neighbors. The Liechtenstein economy is widely diversified with a large number of small businesses. Low business taxes--the maximum tax rate is 20%--and easy incorporation rules have induced a large number of holding or so-called letter box companies to establish nominal offices in Liechtenstein, providing 30% of state revenues. The country participates in a customs union with Switzerland and uses the Swiss franc as its national currency. It imports more than 90% of its energy requirements. Liechtenstein has been, since May 1995, a member of the European Economic Area, an organization serving as a bridge between the EFTA and the EU. The government is working to harmonize its economic policies with those of an integrated Europe. Liechtenstein has one of the highest personal income rates (GDP Per Capita) in the world, with the base rate of income tax currently standing at just 1.2%. Liechtenstein was the home of the Curta calculator. Geography[ edit ] Liechtenstein is very mountainous and one of the world's two doubly-landlocked countries (Meaning that the countries that border it are themselves landlocked too) along with Uzbekistan . Most of Liechtenstein's population lives in the long and wide Rhine Valley in the western third. Roads are mainly laid out in a north-south pattern following the valley as well. To the north the main roads lead to the border with Austria, to the south they enter Switzerland, and to the west across the river the bridges also cross into Switzerland. Most of the eastern border with Austria is not passable and is only accessible by foot as it is very mountainous, though the north of the country is well connected by road to Feldkirch in Austria . The country's highest point is the Grauspitz, which stretches to 2,599m. Liechtenstein is 2.5 time bigger than San Marino and it is 81 times bigger than Monaco . Climate[ edit ] Liechtenstein has a continental climate featuring cold, cloudy winters with frequent snow or rain, making the country a moderately popular ski destination. Summers are cool to moderately warm, also often cloudy and humid. Entry requirements[ edit ] Liechtenstein is a member of the Schengen Agreement . There are no border controls between countries that have signed and implemented this treaty - the European Union (except Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Ireland, Romania and the United Kingdom), Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland. Likewise, a visa granted for any Schengen member is valid in all other countries that have signed and implemented the treaty. But be careful: not all EU members have signed the Schengen treaty, and not all Schengen members are part of the European Union. This means that there may be spot customs checks but no immigration checks (travelling within Schengen but to/from a non-EU country) or you may have to clear immigration but not customs (travelling within the EU but to/from a non-Schengen country). Please see the article Travel in the Schengen Zone for more information about how the scheme works and what entry requirements are. Despite the country being a member of the Schengen Agreement and the EEA , Liechtenstein is not a member of the EU . Therefore, travellers entering Liechtenstein from Austria (and vice versa) are subject to non-systematic customs controls, despite the fact that there are no immigration controls. Liechtenstein, however, maintains a complete customs union with Switzerland and is represented by Switzerland in embassies around the globe. Since 1923 there have been no border formalities needed for crossing between the two countries. In essence there is nothing more than a sign announcing your arrival in Switzerland or Liechtenstein (when you cross the Rhine or the land border), similar to the situation at smaller border crossings in many EU nations (Austria/Germany/France/Italy etc.). Stamp hunters can, however, get an authentic Liechtenstein entry stamp in their passport at Vaduz 's tourist office for 3.00 Swiss franc (CHF) or €2.50. The stamp is not available at the Liechtensteinisches Landesmuseum; the tourist office is the only place that you can purchase the stamp. Be aware that such memorial stamps may render your passport 'falsified' in the eyes of Finland's consular and border control officials. By plane[ edit ] Liechtenstein has no airports due to the size of the country. You can take a flight to Zürich Airport (115km). Although the airport was the only major airport near Liechtenstein, there were some limited services from Vienna to St. Gallen -Altenrhein Airport (53km) by Austrian Arrows . There was also a private airport in Bad Ragaz, very near the country. Another popular point of entry is through Friedrichshafen in Germany , which is served by low-cost airlines and Turkish Airlines. There is a heliport in Balzers owned and operated by Swiss Helicopter. From there, one can take scenic flights around the country or book shuttle flights, e.g. from or to Zurich airport. The latter being private charter flights, not scheduled ones, cost around 4000 CHF for up to five passengers. By train or bus[ edit ] The easiest way of getting to Liechtenstein by train is to travel to Sargans or Buchs in Switzerland, or Feldkirch in Austria, and then take a connecting bus to Liechtenstein. ÖBB, the Austrian federal railway company, runs a very limited train service from Buchs SG station in Switzerland , via Schaan - Vaduz station (near Schaan) to Feldkirch in Austria . Trains only run during weekday peak hours, which makes buses far more convenient. Fast trains from Zurich and many international train services serve Sargans during the day. Consult the SBB timetable [1] to find out what'll be quickest when you're travelling. There are lockers at Sargans station so you can leave your luggage there. The link [2] provides a plan of the station showing the lockers and where to catch the bus from. Liechtenstein buses are a distinctive light green colour. Tickets can be purchased from the driver. Bus route 11 runs from Sargans railway station to Feldkirch railway station via central Vaduz and Schaan . It leaves from outside each station approximately every 30 minutes during the day. A fare to Vaduz is 5.80 CHF from Sargans. Consider buying a whole network one-day pass (12 CHF) or one-week pass (24 CHF) if you are making multiple journeys. Bus route 12 runs every 15 minutes from the train station at Buchs (a town on the Swiss side of the border to Liechtenstein) to Schaan, from where connecting buses run to Vaduz . Tickets can be purchased on the bus for 3.40 CHF and it only takes about 10 minutes to Schaan and another 5 to Vaduz. Liechtenstein Bus route 14 is a more direct service from Feldkirch to Vaduz . By car[ edit ] The Swiss Autobahn A13/E34 runs along the Swiss side of the Rhine River, the border between Switzerland and Liechtenstein. There are several access points that cross the Rhine into Liechtenstein, the two that are most commonly used are the bridge crossing into the southern town of Balzers and the crossing into Vaduz. Parking in Vaduz is easy, with a large parking garage located below the Kunstmuseum. Driving in Liechtenstein is relatively safe, but extra care should be taken on narrow and winding mountain roads. Speed traps are everywhere! Hitch-Hiking[ edit ] Very easy indeed from Feldkirch in Austria. Rush hour sees lots of commuters head into the capital. A simple sign as you stand by the main road in Feldkirch should get you a lift within minutes. Get around[ edit ] Public transport in Liechtenstein is amazingly efficient and commonly used. The country's sole bus operator is LBA [3] . LBA fares are reasonable, a 7-day unlimited use card costs CHF 24. Another cheap way to travel, weather permitting, is by bike. The roads in Liechtenstein are in excellent condition and many (in the Balzers-Schaan corridor) even offer bike lanes. Biking through the whole country (entering from Austria going all the way south through to Switzerland) takes only a few hours, but is worth every minute of the wonderful alpine scenery! Talk[ edit ] The national language is German, but the main language in everyday use is Alemannic German dialect, which Liechtenstein shares with German-speaking Eastern Switzerland, Baden-Württemberg (south of Stuttgart, Germany), and Vorarlberg, Austria. Almost everyone can speak standard German when necessary, and English is also prevalent. French and Latin are also widely taught in the secondary public school system. Liechtenstein boasts a number of attractions that are of interest to visitors. Balzers Castle Balzers - Home to a beautiful church and a spectacular Gothic castle. Vaduz - The capital is the main shopping area in the country, with many souvenir stores and assorted restaurants. The city is also home to a modest cathedral and the decade-old Liechtenstein Kunstmuseum. A ski museum is north of the town centre. Schloss Vaduz - This imposing and historic castle, home to the royal family, overlooks the city of Vaduz and can be seen closer by following the Castle Trail starting in Vaduz. The castle is not open to the public, but it is possible to view it from quite close up. It is entirely possible to encounter the royal family at the Kunstmuseum, coming in and out of Schloss Vaduz or skiing during winter time. This is one benefit of such a small country. They are recognizable in their cars, which use their birth year for their licence plate number. Triesenberg - Go here if you want to have one of the best views to the swiss alps. Certainly a unique experience. Do[ edit ][ add listing ] Liechtenstein offers great hiking, road biking, and mountain biking terrain. Skiing and snowboarding are also offered at a reasonable price at the country's small resort, Malbun , in comparison to the expensive lift prices in neighboring Switzerland or Austria. Get up early one morning and drive up the mountains on the east side of the river. From here you have an incredible view over Vaduz & Switzerland that you can stand and admire. Costs[ edit ] Costs in Liechtenstein are roughly equivalent to those in Switzerland and are therefore somewhat more expensive than other European countries. You will find a few restaurants in the larger cities of Liechtenstein. There is also a McDonald's restaurant (opened in 1996; serves beer), which is very popular and is widely publicised by road signs throughout the country. The many small bakeries are a great place to get a warm, fresh roll or pastry. One recommended restaurant is the Old Castle Inn, Aeulestrasse 22, +423 232 1065, in the centre of Vaduz. It is impossible to miss and offers authentic food at a reasonable price and with a pleasant atmosphere. Contact[ edit ] Internet access is available with one station at Telecom Liechtenstein immediate south of Vaduz's centre on the main road, but this is only open during business hours. Most hotels and some bars/restaurants will have net access such as in Schaan . The last real Internet cafe disappeared, because every one in the country has net access in their homes, so the local market completely disappeared and only visitors need access. Drink[ edit ][ add listing ] The legal drinking/purchasing age is 16 for wine, beer, and cider. While the legal drinking/purchasing age is 18 for spirits and spirit-based beverages. There is a small amount of wine that is produced in Liechtenstein that is available in supermarkets and tourist shops throughout the country. Expect to pay around 25 Swiss Francs for an average bottle. The Prince even owns his own vineyard in Vaduz, off the main road. Beer is also available for purchase that is made with malt from Liechtenstein, although most of the beer itself is brewed in Switzerland. A variety of other European wines, beers, and soft drinks are also available. There is now a brewery in Liechtenstein that produces a variety of beers; lagers including Helles (blonde) and Hefe Weizen (unfiltered wheat) styles are brewed. There is also a one-man distillery in Triesen who makes liquors and schnapps from fruits. Tours on Saturdays. Sleep[ edit ][ add listing ] There are a few hotels in Liechtenstein, but they tend to run on the expensive side. There is one youth hostel located in Schaan, but it closes for the winter. You will probably be able to find cheaper accommodation in neighbouring Feldkirch , Austria. Camping Mittagspitz is the only full-service campsite in the Principality. It offers excellent facilities, a friendly reception and a fabulous reasonably priced restaurant. There are three other camp grounds in Liechtenstein. One in Bendern, one in Vaduz, and one in Triesen. All are pretty much full year round. Gasthaus Krone, Dorf 36, 9488 Schellenberg (next to post office and bus-station), ☎ +423 373 1168, [4] . Very inexpensive rooms. Familly run hotel and restaurant. 15 km away from Vaduz, regular (hourly) bus service to all parts of Liechtenstein. 60 CHF (double).   edit Learn[ edit ] Liechtenstein's university offers courses only in technical sciences. Without either Liechtenstein/Swiss or EU citizenship, a large bank balance and a fluency in German, it is unlikely to interest visitors. Work[ edit ] Finding work in Liechtenstein is difficult. A majority of non-nationals working in the Principality are Swiss, with a smaller number of Austrians and Germans. Liechtenstein is not a member of the European Union, so the government has no obligation to let nationals of EU member states work and live in the country. Stay safe[ edit ] Liechtenstein is easily one of the safest countries in the world, though it is not without its problems. The most common crime in Liechtenstein is of a non-violent nature, though the Principality maintains a well-equipped police force which maintains a presence on the streets. In the late 1990s, the Liechtenstein Landespolizei launched a crackdown on prostitution in Vaduz. Considering the largest cities nearby are Innsbruck and Zürich, outside of Schaan and Vaduz, the whole place can seem very rural. Drunk drivers and winter road conditions may be your only "realistic" concern. Speed limits are strictly enforced by speed cameras which will be very pricey. Don't speed, enjoy the scenery instead! The country's beautiful scenery is also very dangerous. Cases of hikers finding themselves in difficulty are very common, and extreme care should be taken when leaving the well-marked trails. Follow local advice, read local weather forecasts (newspapers in the Principality print individual forecasts for the different cities in Liechtenstein, which is beneficial because the difference in altitude often cause different weather conditions), and ensure that you have the correct equipment before setting out. Stay healthy[ edit ] There are excellent medical facilities in Liechtenstein, but it is more likely that you would be transferred to a hospital in Switzerland should you require medical attention. If you are an Austrian or EU citizen you may want to seek medical attention in neighbouring Feldkirch, Austria. Respect[ edit ] The Principality of Liechtenstein has existed for centuries as an independent state and this should be remembered. Liechtenstein is not part of Switzerland or Austria, and its citizens will not hesitate to remind you. Remember that this is a traditional Catholic country. On Sundays, the streets are almost dead except for the tourists and the tourist shops. Liechtensteiners are very proud of their national identity and would take offence at being wrongly labelled "German", "Austrian" or "Swiss". Those who may feel inclined to denounce the monarchy as a system of government should be advised: the prince is well loved and very popular, and he is certainly held in high esteem when discussing national politics. Get out[ edit ] Feldkirch , Austria and Lake Constance make for wonderful destinations.

switzerland and austria

In which country was Adolf Hitler born?

Liechtenstein country profile - BBC News BBC News Read more about sharing. Close share panel The Principality of Liechtenstein is a tiny, doubly-landlocked country tucked away between Switzerland and Austria and with mountain slopes rising above the Rhine valley. It owes much of its wealth to its traditional status as a tax haven, though it has in recent years taken steps to shake off its image as a tax haven and to reposition itself as a legitimate financial centre. The country has come through a lengthy political wrangle over the role and power of the hereditary monarchy. After an often bitter campaign, the people voted in March 2003 in a constitutional referendum to give Prince Hans-Adam sweeping new political powers. The following year he handed over practical power to his son, Crown Prince Alois. Read more country profiles - Profiles by BBC Monitoring LEADERS Head of state: Prince Hans-Adam II Regent and crown prince: Alois Image copyright AFP/Getty Images Image caption Prince Hans-Adam II Prince Hans-Adam, a successful banker, became head of state following the death of his father, Prince Franz Josef, in 1989. In August 2004 he handed over the day-to-day running of the principality to his son, Crown Prince Alois, while remaining titular head of state. In 2003 the royals won sweeping new powers in a constitutional referendum, which gave them the power to veto parliamentary decisions and to sack the government. Prime minister: Adrian Hasler Adrian Hasler of the centre-right Progressive Citizens Party (PCP) took office in March 2013, after his party came first in the February general election, winning 10 seats in the 25-seat parliament. He has vowed to reduce the country's budget deficit by cutting back on public spending. MEDIA Image copyright AFP/Getty Images Liechtenstein has a very sparse media scene, with the circulation figures of its newspapers at around 10,000 or less. Its citizens rely on foreign and satellite broadcasters for most TV and radio services. The press TIMELINE Some key dates in the history of Liechtenstein: 1719 - Liechtenstein acquires its present name and becomes an independent principality of the Holy Roman Empire. 1815 - Liechtenstein becomes a member of the German Confederation until 1866. Image copyright Getty Images Image caption View of Vaduz with Liechtenstein Castle in the background 1866 - Liechtenstein becomes fully independent. 1919 - The Hapsburg monarchy of Austria is abolished. Switzerland replaces Austria as the representative of Liechtenstein's interests abroad. 1921 - Liechtenstein adopts Swiss currency. 1923 - Liechtenstein enters customs union with Switzerland. 1938 - Prince Franz Josef II ascends to the throne. 1939 - Outbreak of World War II. Liechtenstein remains neutral. 1984 - Prince Franz Josef II hands over executive power to his son, Crown Prince Hans-Adam II. 1989 - Prince Franz Josef II dies. He is succeeded by Hans-Adam II. 1990 - Liechtenstein joins the United Nations. 2003 - People vote in referendum to give sweeping new political powers to Crown Prince Hans-Adam. 2004 - Prince Hans-Adam hands over day-to-day running of Liechtenstein to his son Prince Alois while remaining head of state. 2009 - Signs agreements on the sharing of financial information with a number of countries including the US, UK and Germany. OECD removes Liechtenstein from a blacklist of countries uncooperative on tax matters.

i don't know

Which two colors appear on the flag of Greece?

The Greek Flag The Greek Flag The pattern and colors of the Greek Flag have changed somewhat since the Revolution of the Hellenic Nation in 1821. Many people wonder why the founders of Democracy have chosen the symbols, pattern and colors that appear on the National Flag of Greece. It is difficult to reveal the true intentions of the people responsible for the selection of the flag. The design, symbols and pattern of the Flag The stripes represent the number of the syllables in the phrase: Eleftheria i Thanatos (Liberty or Death). Liberty or Death was the motto during the years of the Hellenic Revolution against the Ottoman Empire in the 19nth century [Others claim that the stripes reflect the number of letters in the Greek word for Freedom Eleftheria]. This word stirred the heart of the oppressed Greeks, it created intense emotions and inspired them to fight and gain their freedom after 400 years of slavery. The striped pattern was chosen because of its similarity with the wavy sea that surrounds the shores of Greece. The interchange of blue and white colors makes the Greek Flag on a windy day to look like the Aegean Pelagos (sea). Only the quaint islands are missing! The Hellenic Square Cross that rests on the upper left-side of the flag and occupies one fourth of the total area demonstrates the respect and the devotion the Hellenic people have for the Greek Orthodox Church and signifies the important role of Christianity in the formation of the modern Hellenic Nation. During the dark years of the Ottoman rule, the Greek Orthodox Church helped the enslaved Greeks to retain their cultural characteristics: the Hellenic language, the Byzantine religion and generally the Hellenic ethnic identity, by the institution of the Crypha Scholia (secret schools). The Crypha Scholia were a web of schools that operated secretly throughout Greece and were committed in transmitting to Greeks the wonders of their ancestors and the rest of their cultural heritage. Today, Christianity is still the dominant religion among Greeks. Therefore, the significance of the Cross is justified. The colors of the Flag Blue and White. These two colors symbolize the blue of the Hellenic Sea and the Whiteness of its restless waves! According to the mythic legends, the Goddess of Beauty and Love, Aphrodite (Venus) emerged from these waves. In addition, it reflects the blue of the Hellenic Sky and the White of the few clouds in it. There are some who speculate that the blue and white symbolize the similar color of the clothing (vrakes) of the Greek sailors during the War of Independence. Copyright Alexandros © 1996

Blue and White

Which is further north, Corsica or Sardinia?

The Flag Dispute between Greece and the Republic of Macedonia | MACEDONIA The Flag Dispute between Greece and the Republic of Macedonia Introduction Official Greece accuses its northern neighbour, the Republic of Macedonia for “stealing the Ancient Greek heritage”, which according to the Greek side also includes Ancient Macedonia and its symbols, one of them being the so called Sun of Vergina. The symbol was once used as an emblem on the flag of the Republic of Macedonia, which caused a dispute between the two countries (actually it was an unilateral protest from the Greek side). Greece is so fast in accusing other nations for “stealing history” that she forgets that  she is the one that actually stole a symbol of another nation- an old English flag: Whoops! Who’s the real thief now? Left: The flag used on the ships of the colonial English Honourable East India Company established in 1600; Right: The modern Greek flag initialy adopted in 1822. So, Greece nicked a foreign flag, changed the colors.. and Voila! We have a flag! Before you disagree, count the number of the stripes, both flags have 9. The Greeks claim that they represent the 9 sylables of their Independence War motto: “Elefteria i Thanatos!” (“Freedom or Death!”). Why should a 17 century English flag also have exactly 9 stripes then?  The Greek cross in the canton is evidently stolen from the red English St. George’s cross and re-painted in white. Shame… The East India Company flag changed over time. There has been much debate and discussion regarding the number of stripes on the flag and the order of the stripes. Historical documents and paintings show many variations from nine to thirteen stripes, with some images showing the top stripe being red and others showing the top stripe being white. In any case, its obvious that the whole concept of this flag was stolen by Greece and incorporated in its modern flag. Backround information There’s a geographical region in South-Eastern Europe called Macedonia. It was a single geographical entity until the Balkan Wars in 1913 when it was divided between: Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia and Albania. Thats how Greece got its own province of Macedonia (~50% of the whole region), a province especialy rich with Ancient Macedonian history and archaeology. There, the greek government imposed a harsh policy of ethnic cleansing and assimilation against the native ethnic Macedonians, and it also supported a colonisation of Greek refugees from Asia Minor, following the Greek-Turkish War in the 1920’s. The part once given to Serbia, later succeded to liberate itself during the antifascist struggle in the WWII and to proclaim itself as the Socialist Republic of Macedonia on August 2nd 1944. However, the other parts of the wider Macedonian region remained under foreign Greek, Bulgarian and Albanian annexation. That republic became a separate constituent country of the former Tito’s Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (a country- in- a- country). As such, within the communist Yugoslav federation, Macedonia had a statehood, its own government, state symbols, police, territorial army (home guard),  Macedonian Academy of sciences and arts, Macedonian Orthodox Church and even a bureau for foreign affairs. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, it proclaimed independence in September 1991 and it became what is now the independent Republic of Macedonia with capital of Skopje. The newly independent country was immediatly confronted by Greece. Official Greece denies the existence of a separate Macedonian nation, the existence of a separate ethnic Macedonian minority on its territory, and it perceived its neighbour as a threat to its northern province. Namelly, official Greece claims an exclusive right over the Ancient Macedonian heritage. Important elements of this are: the very name Macedonia and the Ancient Macedonian symbol, the 16-ray Vergina Sun (or Star), found in what is considered the alleged tomb of the king Phillip II, the father of Alexander the Great. Greece doesnt allow the Republic of Macedonia, which also claims relations to the Ancient Macedonia to use them in any way. Thats why: Greece, which has its own province of Macedonia demands that the Republic of Macedonia changes it constitutional name (although the UK which has a part called Northern Ireland doesnt demand from the Republic of Ireland to change its name; the US state New Mexico doesnt demand from the country Mexico to change its name). Greece also demanded from the Republic of Macedonia to change its own national flag, which featured the Vergina Sun, claimed by Greece as a Greek symbol (though Ancient Macedonia was not one of  the city-states that comprised the Ancient Greek world, actually it was their worst enemy, just imagine: Jews claiming the nazi swastika as their symbol). To achieve its goals, official Greece imposed an economic embargo on the Republic of Macedonia in the early 1990’s and started a nationalist lobbying campaign both at home and abroad. Then, the Republic of Macedonia followed a policy of peaceful coexistence with its neighbours. During the 1990s, it was the only former Yugoslav country which stayed away from the Yugoslav Wars and was often refered to as The Oasis of Peace. As a result of the Greek pressure, the Republic of Macedonia was forced to make many concessions to appease its southern neighbour and to prevent a further conflict: The Republic of Macedonia accepted to join the UN under a provisional name “the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia” ( F.Y.R.O.M. ) Certain changes were made to the Macedonian constitution (to show that the country doesnt have any territorial claims to Greece); The national flag of the Republic of Macedonia with the Vergina Sun was replaced with a new different flag The president Kiro Gligorov had to give a statement that the modern ethnic Macedonians are descendents of the Slavs who arrived in the Balkans in the 6th century, and who have nothing in common with Ancient Macedonia. However, despite accepting to be named FYROM in the UN, the Republic of Macedonia rejected to change its constitutional name for domestic use, and for billateral use with those countries who do not object it. Thats how the Republic of Macedonia was recognized under its constitutional name by the USA, Canada, Russian Federation, People’s Republic of China, Turkey and many other countries. The Flag dispute Its claimed that the Ancient Macedonians often used a stylized depiction of a sunburst (or a starburst) as their symbol. It can be seen with 16, 8 or 12 sun rays on many archaeological artefacts. Sometimes it can also include a rosette decoration in the middle. One of the most popular version of this symbol is the 16 rayed Sun of Vergina, found on the larnax (coffin) which allegedly contained the remains of King Phillip II. The Vergina Sun is claimed as a historical symbol by both the Republic of Macedonia and Greece, which both also claim relation to the Ancient Macedonians. However, Greece demands full exclusive right to the Ancient Macedonian heritage and doesnt want to share it with anyone else. As a result, the two countries have a long term unresolved dispute. In 1992, the newly independent Republic of Macedonia adopted a new flag which included the 16-ray Vergina Sun (on a red backround), which led to protests from official Greece. Under Greek pressure, in 1995 it was replaced with the current flag of the Republic of Macedonia, which includes a different stylized form of a sun. Flag of the Republic of Macedonia (1992-1995) Its important to note that the sun symbol was often featured in the old folklore art of the ethnic Macedonians, on their historical flags and other artefacts, and even on the coat of arms of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia, which includes a rising sun with 8 visible rays (the other 8 from the Vergina Sun being hidden behind the mountain). Traditional ethnic Macedonian folk art Traditional ethnic Macedonian jewerly CLICK TO ENLARGE: Left: flag of the emigrant ethnic Macedonian revolutionary society in St. Petersburg, Russia, 1914 feat. Alexander’s horse Buchephalos, represented as an unicorn according to the old legend , and a sun symbol in the bottom left angle; Right: Insurgent flag against the Ottoman rule, 1903 feat. a sun symbol on the left. The Coat of Arms initialy adopted for the Socialist Republic of Macedonia after WWII. Still in official use in the Republic of Macedonia. The main Greek rationale for the flag dispute was that the Sun of Vergina is allegedly a greek symbol, and that its use by the Republic of Macedonia is an act of stealing of the ancient greek heritage. Moreover, the Greek side emphasised the fact that the symbol was discovered on its territory. King Philip’s larnax However, Greece forgot to mention that her share of the whole Macedonian region was forcibly annexed by her armies in the Balkan Wars in 1913. Prior to that, the territory has never belonged to Greece. Also, its very important to mention that later, this symbol was also discovered on many archaeological artefacts found in the southern parts of the Republic of Macedonia, which were too part of the Ancient Macedonian Kingdom- a fact deliberately ignored by Greece, which continously repeats that: “There is only ONE Macedonia, and its in Greece”. CLICK TO ENLARGE: Certified museum copies of archaeological artefacts featuring the Ancient Macedonian Sun/Star symbol (known as the Vergina Sun), excavated in Ohrid, a city of a great historical and cultural significance once belonging to the Ancient Macedonian Kingdom, situated on the Ohrid Lake in the Republic of Macedonia. Shall we call the symbol the Sun of Ohrid from now on? Another important, but dubious Greek claim is that the symbol was firstly discovered during the excavations of the Ancient Macedonian Royal Tombs of Aigai, in the village of Vergina in Greek Macedonia, by prof. Manolis Andronikos in 1977. Some Greeks may agree that the symbol may have been known prior to that, but just as an artistic ornament without any historical significance. According to them, only after the discovery of the Royal Tombs, the true nature of this symbol was discovered- its an Ancient Macedonian royal emblem. An entertaining twist in this story is that they dont know (or dont want to know) that the symbol actually appeared publicly all around the globe decades before 1977. It was featured in its 8 ray version on the shields of the Ancient Macedonian warriors in the 1956 epic film Alexander The Great starring Richard Burton. Its an American movie, quite pro-Greek biased, so it cannot be accused of advocating the Republic of Macedonia’s point of view. Screenshot: Richard Burton sporting the Vergina Sun in Alexander The Great, 21 years before prof. Andronikos “discovered” it How come the Greeks are not aware that this symbol was internationaly recognized as an Ancient Macedonian royal or state emblem far before the prof. Andronikos’ discovery in 1977? The symbol that he “discovered” has been already used by the ethnic Macedonians for centuries, as we explained above. For the Greeks, until 1977, this symbol was largely (or completely) unknown. But anyway, Greece continues to claim an exclusive right to it. It even registered it in the World Intellectual Property Organization and finally, in 1993 it placed it on the newly created flag of its own Macedonian province, but on a blue backround. Flag of the Greek province of Macedonia However, almost 20 years since the start of this dispute, official Greece fails to explain: how come that many countries use same symbols on their flags, but they dont confront eachother because of that: Argentina and Uruguay Same sun symbol in different variations on the both flags. Its called the Sun of May, a representation of the Inca sun god Inti, and a bizzare fact is that it has 16 sunrays, exactly same number as the Vergina Sun. It appeared publicly for a first time on Argentinian coins in 1813. An additional bizzare thing is that, the flag of Uruguay features 9 alternating blue/ white stripes, exactly the same number and color as on the modern Greek flag (“Eleferia i Thanatos”?!). So should Argentina now sue Uruguay over “stealing” its sun symbol? Or should Greece sue Uruguay over the blue/white stripes? Or to sue them both over the “stolen” 16 rayed sun symbol?! You may say well, two neighbouring South American nations, they both have a right to claim the pre-Colombian heritage although they speak Spanish today. Good. Accordingly, can the modern ethnic Macedonians, considered Slavic by the Greeks, use the Vergina Sun then? Almost all of the Nordic countries use the Nordic Cross It was initially used on the Danish flag- the Dannebrog, and was later incorporated in the flags of: Norway, Iceland, Sweden and Finland. Can Greece explain, how come that Denmark doesnt object the use of this symbol by its Scandinavian neighbours? Isn’t it a “stealing of the Danish history”? Some may say that these nations are ethnicaly or historicaly interrelated, so maybe thats why they use a same symbol. That can be only a partially accepted explanation, because the Finns are not related to their Germanic neighbours, but to the Finno-Ugric peoples like the Hungarians. Also, historicaly, until proclaiming its independence, Finland was under Russian domination, and today is the only republic in a region filled with monarchies. Basically, Finland has very little incommon with Denmark, but still,  it uses a symbol taken from the Dannebrog, the Danish national pride since the Middle Ages! Poland, Indonesia and Monaco The whole “difference” between these flags is: between Poland and Inonesia- the order of the colors, and between Indonesia and Monaco only the the ratio. Basically, completely same flags of three completely unrelated nations. Republic of Ireland and the African country Ivory Coast The sole “difference” seems to be the order of the colors and the ratio. Same flags. Unrelated nations. England and Georgia Both England and Georgia use the red Cross of St. George on a white backround. The difference is that the Georgians have added 4 additonal smaller crosses around it. Otherwise- same. Unrelated nations. The English flag was inspired by the flag of Genoa (Italians, prepare a lawsuit! ;-)). The Czech Republic and Philipines Similar design. Unrelated nations. USA, Liberia and Malaysia Same stripes, same blue field in the upper left corner and even the star(s) are here. The Afro-American and the Liberian populations are indeed related, but what Malaysia has incommon with them? Should the US now sue Malaysia over stealing its national pride- The Stripes, which symbolize the 13 American colonies that rebeled against the British Crown? United Kingdom and the Autonomous Basque community within Spain The flag of the United Kingdom, the Union Jack features the 3 crosses: The red Cross of St. George from the English flag; the white St.Andrew’s cross from the Scottish flag and the red St. Patrick’s cross from the old Irish flag. Only the Welsh Red Dragon is missing. The design of the Basque flag was based on the Union Jack. Should the Queen Elizabeth II sue them now? Chile and the US state of Texas Almost same flags. US State of Hawaii Hold on, hold on! Did I just said the US STATE of Hawaii? How come that a federal unit of a country which once fought for independence against the Brits is now using the Union Jack?? Where are the Greeks now to protest the Hawaiian “stealing” of British heritage? Hawaii is not a British colony or a protectorate or a dominion or an overseas territory or whatever. Its part of the United States of America. And there are milions of other examples… So why all these countries dont just sue eachother for “stealing” eachother’s history and culture? (if we follow the offical Greek “logical” way of thinking) IMPORTANT NOTE: All those flags (with the exception of the Basque, the Texan and the Hawaiian flags) are flags of internationaly recognized independent countries. Yet, these flags have never been a cause of any international dispute. The flag of the Greek province of Macedonia has a much lower importance than them because it is a flag of a a geographical and historical province and not of an independent country. Moreover, the flag of Greek Macedonia has no historical significance. It was adopted recently just as a retaliation against the Republic of Macedonia. Contrary to that, all those nations listed above were fighting wars, conquering other countries and achieveing sport successes under those flag symbols for centuries. For them those symbols have a huge historical and national significance. Still, as you can see, they have absolutely no problem to share those symbols with other nations, unlike Greece which is jealously possesive over the Vergina Sun, although the symbol is most probably not Greek at all. Under that symbol King Philip and his son Alexander were killing Athenian soldiers and conquering and burning the greek city-states. What a paradox. But anyway, Greece continues to make such a great fuss about  it. The hysteria goes so far, that sometimes the Greek nationalists even forget their real national flag: the well-known one with the blue and white stripes and the cross in the upper left angle. Instead, they give so much importance to a recently adopted flag of a geographical province: Since the flag dispute with the Republic of Macedonia began, the Vergina Sun suddenly started to appear everyewhere in Northern Greece: on governmental buildings and offices; at celebrations and political meetings; on various documents, military insignia, tourist souvenirs and even everyday products such as hotel soaps, sugar bags and bus tickets (hopefuly not on condoms and toilet paper too, but everything’s possible in a country where unfortunatelly,  the extreme nationalism is an everyday fact). 100 Drachma coins (the former Greek currency later replaced by the euro) Hellenic Armed Forces arm patch Greek sugar bags (author: cakesniffer ) So after all this, we have a full right to ask: How come all those countries are allowed to have almost same flag designs only with minor differences, while at the same time, the Republic of Macedonia was not allowed to keep its 16-ray sun symbol? Wasn’t the red backround sufficient enough to differentiate it from the Greek blue version? Even if we decide to beleive in the official Greek claim that the modern ethnic Macedonians are not descendants of the Ancient Macedonians, but Slavs, still, this sun symbol was found in Ohrid in present-day Republic of Macedonia, so this country has every right to use it, in a same way that the modern Arabic Egyptians have nothing incommon with the Ancient pharaos, but still they are proudly promoting their country with the pyramids and the sphynx. Greece should finally get rid of its blind ultra chauvinism once and for all. We need peace, stability and cooperation in the Balkans. Like this:

i don't know

Which European country left the Commonwealth and declared itself a republic in 1949?

Today in history; April 18th 1949 - Ireland becomes a republic Today in history; April 18th 1949 - Ireland becomes a republic Results 1 to 10 of 21 6Likes 18th April 2012, 11:19 AM #1 Keith-M Ireland Act 1949 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For a country that seem (over) obsessed by irts history, I can't get over how this anniversary goes by generally unnoticed. IIt was a pivotal moment in the history of the country. We lost any remaining connections with the British monarch and lost our place in the Commonwealth without a vote of the people. DeValera (then leader of the opposition) was outraged because he saw it as effectibly copperfastening partition. 18th April 2012, 11:26 AM #2 Cruimh Posts 91,553 18th April 2012, 11:36 AM #3 LamportsEdge Posts 22,858 A very interesting area this- it is doubtful legally whether in fact Ireland was declared a Republic in pure legal terms. The 1949 was ostensibly to clear up that messy legal area but like misprision of felony bits of the legal apparatus of a Republic were missing and even now today Constitutional legal experts point out that Ireland is not in fact legally a Republic (chapter one of the any law student's book on Irish constitutional law available in any decent bookshop). What happened legally was that the 'Republic of Ireland' was legally agreed to be a translation of 'Eire'. 'Eire' itself has never legally been declared a Republic. This was all part of the debate that the 1949 Act was supposed to have cleared up- but as the law student's books will tell you on constitutional law oddly enough the Republic of Ireland's status as a title is only as a translation and not established as a fact of law. Quite obscure area this but once you look into it it does rather add to the notion that someone somewhere was being a bit iffy about the legal status of 'Eire' and then its agreed translation into English as the Republic of Ireland for some reason. And classically in terms of Irish politics that legal pothole remains unfilled DESPITE the Republic of Ireland Act in 1949. Lots there for the conspiracy theorists and the curious legal historian... Posts 192 I think we had a discussion about Roaring Meg on the Commonwealth thread a while back. What was interesting was the passage of the Ireland Act by Britain in response to Ireland leaving the Commonwealth - under which Irish citizens became the only non-Commonwealth nationals with an automatic right to live, work and vote in the UK with the same rights and priveleges as UK citizens. Again, we had that discussion elsewhere if you want to look for it. I agree, though, that it is rather puzzling that it's so often overlooked - especially since one the provisions of the Ireland Act was to effectively enshrine the Unionist veto on constitutional change in law. I suspect more would be made of it if the Act had been passed by a Conservative government. 458 Originally Posted by Born Again Scouser I think we had a discussion about Roaring Meg on the Commonwealth thread a while back. What was interesting was the passage of the Ireland Act by Britain in response to Ireland leaving the Commonwealth - under which Irish citizens became the only non-Commonwealth nationals with an automatic right to live, work and vote in the UK with the same rights and priveleges as UK citizens. Again, we had that discussion elsewhere if you want to look for it. . At the time I think all Commonwealth nationals had an automatic right to live and work in the UK

Éire

The shamrock is the national badge of which country?

Today in history; April 18th 1949 - Ireland becomes a republic Today in history; April 18th 1949 - Ireland becomes a republic Results 1 to 10 of 21 6Likes 18th April 2012, 11:19 AM #1 Keith-M Ireland Act 1949 - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For a country that seem (over) obsessed by irts history, I can't get over how this anniversary goes by generally unnoticed. IIt was a pivotal moment in the history of the country. We lost any remaining connections with the British monarch and lost our place in the Commonwealth without a vote of the people. DeValera (then leader of the opposition) was outraged because he saw it as effectibly copperfastening partition. 18th April 2012, 11:26 AM #2 Cruimh Posts 91,553 18th April 2012, 11:36 AM #3 LamportsEdge Posts 22,858 A very interesting area this- it is doubtful legally whether in fact Ireland was declared a Republic in pure legal terms. The 1949 was ostensibly to clear up that messy legal area but like misprision of felony bits of the legal apparatus of a Republic were missing and even now today Constitutional legal experts point out that Ireland is not in fact legally a Republic (chapter one of the any law student's book on Irish constitutional law available in any decent bookshop). What happened legally was that the 'Republic of Ireland' was legally agreed to be a translation of 'Eire'. 'Eire' itself has never legally been declared a Republic. This was all part of the debate that the 1949 Act was supposed to have cleared up- but as the law student's books will tell you on constitutional law oddly enough the Republic of Ireland's status as a title is only as a translation and not established as a fact of law. Quite obscure area this but once you look into it it does rather add to the notion that someone somewhere was being a bit iffy about the legal status of 'Eire' and then its agreed translation into English as the Republic of Ireland for some reason. And classically in terms of Irish politics that legal pothole remains unfilled DESPITE the Republic of Ireland Act in 1949. Lots there for the conspiracy theorists and the curious legal historian... Posts 192 I think we had a discussion about Roaring Meg on the Commonwealth thread a while back. What was interesting was the passage of the Ireland Act by Britain in response to Ireland leaving the Commonwealth - under which Irish citizens became the only non-Commonwealth nationals with an automatic right to live, work and vote in the UK with the same rights and priveleges as UK citizens. Again, we had that discussion elsewhere if you want to look for it. I agree, though, that it is rather puzzling that it's so often overlooked - especially since one the provisions of the Ireland Act was to effectively enshrine the Unionist veto on constitutional change in law. I suspect more would be made of it if the Act had been passed by a Conservative government. 458 Originally Posted by Born Again Scouser I think we had a discussion about Roaring Meg on the Commonwealth thread a while back. What was interesting was the passage of the Ireland Act by Britain in response to Ireland leaving the Commonwealth - under which Irish citizens became the only non-Commonwealth nationals with an automatic right to live, work and vote in the UK with the same rights and priveleges as UK citizens. Again, we had that discussion elsewhere if you want to look for it. . At the time I think all Commonwealth nationals had an automatic right to live and work in the UK

i don't know

In which capital city were the treaties signed that established the European Economic Community?

EUR-Lex - xy0023 - EN - EUR-Lex Text Treaty establishing the European Economic Community, EEC Treaty - original text (non-consolidated version) The EEC Treaty, signed in Rome in 1957, brings together France, Germany, Italy and the Benelux countries in a community whose aim is to achieve integration via trade with a view to economic expansion. After the Treaty of Maastricht the EEC became the European Community, reflecting the determination of the Member States to expand the Community's powers to non-economic domains. CREATION The establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in July 1952 was the first step towards a supranational Europe. For the first time the six Member States of this organisation relinquished part of their sovereignty, albeit in a limited domain, in favour of the Community. This first drive towards integration soon came to a halt with the failure of the European Defence Community (EDC) in 1954. Although there was reason to fear that the effort undertaken by the ECSC was doomed to fail, the Messina Conference of June 1955 endeavoured to add a new impetus to European construction. It was followed by a series of meetings of ministers or experts. A preparatory committee responsible for drafting a report on the creation of a European common market was created at the beginning of 1956. It met in Brussels under the Presidency of P.H. Spaak, the Belgian Minister for Foreign Affairs at the time. In April 1956 this Committee submitted two drafts, which corresponded to the two options selected by the Member States: the creation of a general common market; the creation of an atomic energy community. It was in Rome that the famous "Treaties of Rome" were signed in March 1957. The first Treaty established the European Economic Community (EEC) and the second the European Atomic Energy Community , better known as Euratom. Since ratification at national level did not pose any problems, these two Treaties entered into force on 1 January 1958. This summary fact sheet is uniquely devoted to the EEC Treaty. OBJECTIVES After the failure of the EDC, the economy, which was less subject to national resistance than other areas, became the focus of consensus in the field of supranational cooperation. The establishment of the EEC and the creation of the Common Market had two objectives. The first was to transform the conditions of trade and manufacture on the territory of the Community. The second, more political, saw the EEC as a contribution towards the functional construction of a political Europe and constituted a step towards the closer unification of Europe. In the preamble, the signatories of the Treaty declare that: "- determined to lay the foundations of an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe, resolved to ensure the economic and social progress of their countries by common action to eliminate the barriers which divide Europe, affirming as the essential objective of their efforts the constant improvements of the living and working conditions of their peoples, - recognising that the removal of existing obstacles calls for concerted action in order to guarantee steady expansion, balanced trade and fair competition; - anxious to strengthen the unity of their economies and to ensure their harmonious development by reducing the differences existing between the various regions and the backwardness of the less-favoured regions; - desiring to contribute, by means of a common commercial policy, to the progressive abolition of restrictions on international trade; - intending to confirm the solidarity which binds Europe and the overseas countries and desiring to ensure the development of their prosperity, in accordance with the principles of the Charter of the United Nations; - resolved by thus pooling their resources to preserve and strengthen peace and liberty, and calling upon the other peoples of Europe who share their ideal to join in their efforts...". These intentions were fleshed out by creating a common market and a customs union and by developing common policies. THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE TREATY The EEC Treaty provided for the establishment of a common market, a customs union and common policies. Articles 2 and 3 of the Treaty directly address these three issues. They state that the Community's primary mission is to create a common market and specify the measures that it must undertake to achieve this objective. The establishment of a common market Article 2 of the EEC Treaty specifies that "The Community shall have as its task, by establishing a common market and progressively approximating the economic policies of member states, to promote throughout the community a harmonious development of economic activities, a continuous and balanced expansion, an increase in stability, an accelerated raising of the standard of living and closer relations between the states belonging to it". This common market is founded on the famous "four freedoms", namely the free movement of persons, services, goods and capital. It creates a single economic area establishing free competition between undertakings. It lays the basis for approximating the conditions governing trade in products and services over and above those already covered by the other treaties (ECSC and Euratom). Article 8 of the EEC Treaty states that the Common Market will be progressively established during a transitional period of 12 years, divided into three stages of four years each. To each stage there is assigned a set of actions to be initiated and carried through concurrently. Subject to the exceptions and procedures provided for in the Treaty, the expiry of the transitional period constitutes the latest date by which all the rules laid down must enter into force. The market being based on the principle of free competition, the Treaty prohibits restrictive agreements and state aids (except for the derogations provided for in the Treaty) which can affect trade between Member States and whose objective is to prevent, restrict or distort competition. Finally, the overseas countries and territories are associated with the Common Market and the customs union with a view to fostering trade and promoting jointly economic and social development. The establishment of a customs union The EEC Treaty abolishes quotas and customs duties between the Member States. It establishes a common external tariff, a sort of external frontier for Member States' products, replacing the preceding tariffs of the different states. This customs union is accompanied by a common trade policy. This policy, managed at Community level and no longer at state level, totally dissociates the customs union from a mere free-trade association. The effects of dismantling customs barriers and eliminating quantitative restrictions to trade during the transitional period were very positive, allowing intra-Community trade and trade between the EEC and third countries to develop rapidly. The development of common policies Certain policies are formally enshrined in the Treaty, such as the common agricultural policy (Articles 38 to 47), common trade policy (Articles 110 to 116) and transport policy (Articles 74 to 84). Others may be launched depending on needs, as specified in Article 235, which stipulates that: "If action by the Community should prove necessary to attain, in the course of the operation of the common market, one of the objectives of the Community and this Treaty has not provided the necessary powers, the Council shall, acting unanimously on a proposal from the Commission and after consulting the Assembly, take the appropriate measures." After the Paris Summit of October 1972, recourse to this Article enabled the Community to develop actions in the field of environmental, regional, social and industrial policy. The development of these policies was accompanied by the creation of a European Social Fund whose aim is to improve job opportunities for workers and to raise their standard of living as well as to establish a European Investment Bank in order to facilitate the Community's economic expansion by creating new resources. STRUCTURE The EEC Treaty consists of 240 articles in six separate parts, preceded by a preamble. the first part is devoted to the principles which underline the establishment of the EC via the common market, the customs union and the common policies; the second part concerns the foundations of the Community. It comprises four titles devoted respectively to the free movement of goods; agriculture; the free movement of persons, services and capital; and finally transport; the third part concerns Community policy and includes four titles relating to common rules, economic policy, social policy and the European Investment Bank; the fourth part is devoted to the association of overseas countries and territories; the fifth part is devoted to the Community institutions, with one title on the institutional provisions and another on the financial provisions; the final part of the Treaty concerns general and final provisions. The Treaty also includes four annexes relating to certain tariff positions, agricultural products, invisible transactions and overseas countries and territories. A total of twelve protocols were annexed to the Treaty. The first concerns the status of the European Investment Bank and the following concern various problems linked to specific countries (Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) or to a product such as mineral oil, bananas, green coffee. Finally, nine declarations were annexed to the final Act. INSTITUTIONS The EEC Treaty establishes institutions and decision-making mechanisms which make it possible to express both national interests and a Community vision. The institutional balance is based on a triangle consisting of the Council, the Commission and the European Parliament, all three of which are called upon to work together. The Council prepares the standards, the Commission drafts the proposals and the Parliament plays an advisory role. Another body is also involved in the decision-making procedure in an advisory capacity, namely the Economic and Social Committee. The Commission, an independent college of the governments of the Member States; appointed by common agreement, represents the common interest. It has a monopoly on initiating legislation and proposes Community acts to the Council of Ministers. As guardian of the treaties, it monitors the implementation of the treaties and secondary law. In this connection it has a wide assortment of measures to police the Member States and the business community. In the framework of its mission the Commission has the executive power to implement Community policies. The Council of Ministers is made up of representatives of the governments of the Member States and is vested with decision-making powers. It is assisted by the Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER), which prepares the Council's work and carries out the tasks conferred on it by the Council. The Parliamentary Assembly originally had only an advisory role and its members were not yet elected by direct universal suffrage. The Treaty also provides for the creation of the Court of Justice. In compliance with the Convention on certain common institutions, which was signed and entered into force at the same time as the Treaty of Rome, the Parliamentary Assembly and the Court of Justice are common to the EEC Treaties and the Euratom Treaty. With the entry into force of the Merger Treaty in 1967, the Council and the Commission become institutions shared by the three Communities (ECSC, EEC and Euratom) and the principle of budgetary unity was imposed. AMENDMENTS MADE TO THE TREATY This Treaty was amended by the following treaties: Treaty of Brussels, known as the "Merger Treaty" (1965)This Treaty replaced the three Councils of Ministers (EEC, ECSC and Euratom) on the one hand and the two Commissions (EEC, Euratom) and the High Authority (ECSC) on the other hand with a single Council and a single Commission. This administrative merger was supplemented by the institution of a single operative budget. Treaty amending Certain Budgetary Provisions (1970)This Treaty replaced the system whereby the Communities were funded by contributions from Member States with that of own resources . It also put in place a single budget for the Communities.. Treaty amending Certain Financial Provisions (1975)This Treaty gave the European Parliament the right to reject the budget and to grant a discharge to the Commission for the implementation of the budget. It established a single Court of Auditors for the three Communities to monitor their accounts and financial management. Treaty on Greenland (1984)This Treaty meant that the Treaties would no longer apply to Greenland and established special relations between the European Community and Greenland modelled on the rules which applied to overseas territories. Single European Act (1986)The Single European Act was the first major reform of the Treaties. It extended the areas of qualified majority voting in the Council, increased the role of the European Parliament (cooperation procedure) and widened Community powers. It set the objective of achieving the internal market by 1992. Treaty on European Union, known as the "Maastricht Treaty" (1992)The Maastricht Treaty brought the three Communities (Euratom, ECSC, EEC) and institutionalised cooperation in the fields of foreign policy, defence, police and justice together under one umbrella, the European Union. The EEC was renamed, becoming the EC. Furthermore, this Treaty created economic and monetary union, put in place new Community policies (education, culture) and increased the powers of the European Parliament (codecision procedure).Treaty of Amsterdam (1997) Treaty of Amsterdam (1997)The Treaty of Amsterdam increased the powers of the Union by creating a Community employment policy, transferring to the Communities some of the areas which were previously subject to intergovernmental cooperation in the fields of justice and home affairs, introducing measures aimed at bringing the Union closer to its citizens and enabling closer cooperation between certain Member States (enhanced cooperation). It also extended the codecision procedure and qualified majority voting and simplified and renumbered the articles of the Treaties. Treaty of Nice (2001)The Treaty of Nice was essentially devoted to the "leftovers" of Amsterdam, i.e. the institutional problems linked to enlargement which were not resolved in 1997. It dealt with the make-up of the Commission, the weighting of votes in the Council and the extension of the areas of qualified majority voting. It simplified the rules on use of the enhanced cooperation procedure and made the judicial system more effective. Treaty of Lisbon (2007) The Treaty of Lisbon makes sweeping reforms. It brings an end to the European Community, abolishes the former EU architecture and makes a new allocation of competencies between the EU and the Member States. The way in which the European institutions function and the decision-making process are also subject to modifications. The aim is to improve the way in which decisions are made in an enlarged Union of 27 Member States. The Treaty of Lisbon also reforms several of the EU’s internal and external policies. In particular, it enables the institutions to legislate and take measures in new policy areas. This Treaty has also been amended by the following treaties of accession: Treaty of Accession of the United Kingdom, Denmark and Ireland (1972) which increased the number of Member States of the European Community from six to nine. Treaty of Accession of Greece (1979) Treaty of Accession of Spain and Portugal (1985), which increased the number of Member States of the European Community from 10 to12. Treaty of Accession of Austria, Finland and Sweden (1994), which increased the number of Member States of the European Community to 15. Treaty of Accession of Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Slovenia (2003)This Treaty increases the number of Member States of the European Community from 15 to 25. Treaty of Accession of Bulgaria and Romania (2005). This Treaty increased the number of Member States of the European Community from 25 to 27. References

Rome

Which country was ruled for 40 years by the dictator Antonio Salazar?

Treaties Library » International & Area Studies Library » Portal to The European Union at Illinois » EU Institutions » Treaties Treaties Official Treaties are the foundations of the European Union and the primary source of EU law. Europa's European Treaties page provides an overview of the major treaties and includes links to explanatory texts for certain treaties (see lower-right corner of page). The Founding Treaties (Quotations taken from Europa's How the European Union Works ) Treaty Establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) Also known as "Treaty of Paris" Signed: April 18, 1951, Paris Came into force: July 23, 1952 Expired: July 23, 2002 Created the three "European Communities"--"the system of joint decision-making on coal, steel, nuclear power and other major sectors of the member states' economies." Established free trade area for many important economic and military resources. Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union Also known as "Treaty of Rome" Formerly known as the  Treaty Establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) Signed: March 25, 1957, Rome Came into force: January 1, 1958 Amended by the Treaty of Lisbon as of December 1, 2009 Created a common market aimed at facilitating the movement of goods, services, capital, and labor. Abolished all internal tariffs. Established a common agricultural policy (CAP) and a common external trade policy. Treaty Establishing the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) Also signed in Rome--same dates as above Euratom was established to facilitate and encourage cooperation in atomic energy development and use. Treaty on European Union (EU) Also known as "The Maastricht Treaty" Signed: February 7, 1992, Maastricht Came into force: November 1, 1993 Amended by the Treaty of Lisbon as of December 1, 2009 Established the European Union. Granted EU citizenship to every citizen of EU member states. Introduced central banking system and unified currency, the euro. "Introduced new forms of co-operation between the member state governments--for example on defence and in the area of 'justice and home affairs.' By adding this inter-governmental co-operation to the existing 'Community' system, the Maastricht Treaty created a new structure with three "pillars" which is political as well as economic. This is the European Union." Maastricht also renamed the EEC (created in the Treaty of Rome) to simply the EC--European Community--since the community's role had expanded beyond just economic concerns. Treaty of Lisbon Signed: December 13, 2007 came into force: December 1, 2009 The Treaty of Lisbon amends the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty Establishing the European Community. It increased the legislative and budgetary powers of the European Parliament, and created the function of President of the European Council.  The voting rules in the Council were also amended, calculating a double majority according to member states and according to EU population as a whole. The Treaty of Lisbon is also notable for containing the first explicit recognition of the right of a member state to leave the Union. Other Treaties (Quotations taken from Europa's How the European Union Works ) Single European Act (SEA) Signed: February 1986 Came into force: July 1, 1987 Expanded scope of EEC. "Amended the EEC treaty and paved the way for completing the Single Market." Treaty of Amsterdam Signed: October 2, 1997 Came into force: May 1, 1999 "Amended the EU and EC treaties, giving numbers (instead of letters) to the EU Treaty articles" Treaty of Nice Signed: February 26, 2001 Came into force: February 1, 2003 "Further amends the other treaties, streamlining the EU's institutional system so it can continue to work effectively after a new wave of member states joins in 2004" Treaties of Accession Various dates The founding treaties are amended whenever new member states join the European Union. The most recent such amendment was in 2005, when Romania and Bulgaria were admitted to the EU. A complete list of the accession treaties is here . The Treaties area of EUR-Lex contains the full text of all EU treaties, including The Founding Treaties [the European Coal and Steel Community (Paris, 1951), European Economic Community and European Atomic Energy Community (Rome, 1957), Treaty on European Union (Maastricht, 1992]

i don't know

What nationality was the 16th-century poet and soldier Camoens?

Luis de Camoes | Portuguese poet | Britannica.com Portuguese poet Alternative Titles: Luis Vaz de Camoens, Luis Vaz de Camoëns, Luís Vaz de Camões Luis de Camoes António Ferreira Luís de Camões, in full Luís Vaz de Camões, English Luis Vaz de Camoëns or Camoens (born c. 1524/25, Lisbon , Port.—died June 10, 1580, Lisbon), Portugal’s great national poet, author of the epic poem Os Lusíadas (1572; The Lusiads), which describes Vasco da Gama’s discovery of the sea route to India. Camões had a permanent and unparalleled impact on Portuguese and Brazilian literature alike, due not only to his epic but also to his posthumously published lyric poetry . Camoes, portrait miniature painted in Goa, 1581; in a private collection Courtesy of the Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Lisbon Life What little information there is about Camões in a strict biographical sense falls into three categories: statements by his first biographers in the 17th century, a few documents unearthed in the 19th century and scant subsequent research, and very abstract allusions (some chronologically uncertain) to his own life in his works. Successive biographers have woven the few concrete facts known about Camões’ life into a bewildering complexity of fantasy and theory that is unsupported by concrete documentary evidence. It is supposed that Camões was born in Lisbon around 1524 or 1525, when Portuguese expansion in the East was at its peak. Research has shown him to be a member of the impoverished old aristocracy but well-related to the grandees of Portugal and Spain. A tradition that Camões studied at the University of Coimbra or that he followed any regular studies, for that matter, remains unproved, though few other European poets of that time achieved such a vast knowledge of both classical and contemporary culture and philosophy. He is supposed to have been, in his youth, in territories held by the Portuguese in Morocco, but it is uncertain whether he had been exiled or was there because it was simply the place for a young Portuguese aristocrat to start a military career and to qualify for royal favours. It is also assumed that his youth in Lisbon was less than subdued. King John III pardoned him in 1553, when he was under arrest for taking part in a street brawl in which a royal officer was assaulted. The pardon hints that Camões would go to India in the king’s service, but none of his wanderings for nearly 17 years there has been documented. He was certainly there, judging from references in his works that reveal an intimate knowledge of the area’s social conditions. He surely did not make his fortune there, since he complains often in his poetry about his bad luck and the injustices he met with. While in the East, he took part in one or two military naval expeditions and, as he alludes to it in his epic, underwent shipwreck in the Mekong Delta. His years in the East can be assumed to have been like those of thousands of Portuguese scattered at the time from Africa to Japan, whose survival and fortunes were, as he says, always hanging from divine providence’s very thin thread. Diogo do Couto , a 16th-century historian of the Portuguese East, who never included Camões among the nobles he carefully listed for every skirmish, did note, however, that he found “that great poet and old friend of mine” stranded penniless in Mozambique and helped to pay his trip back to Lisbon. Britannica Stories Ringling Bros. Folds Its Tent Camões returned to Portugal in 1570, and his Os Lusíadas was published in Lisbon in early 1572. In July of that year he was granted a royal pension, probably in recompense for both his service in India and his having written Os Lusíadas. His mother, a widow, survived him and had the pension renewed in her name. Documents related to payments due and to the renewal are known, and through them the date of his death in 1580 has been accepted. It is not certain that he died of anything more than premature old age brought on by illnesses and hardships. Literary works A Study of Poetry The first edition of Camões’ Rimas was published in 1595, 15 years after his death. The editor, Fernão Rodrigues Lobo Soropita, had exercised scrupulous care in collecting the poems from manuscript songbooks, but even so he could not avoid the inclusion of some apocryphal poems. The increasing fame of Camões’ epic during the early 17th century also swept the lyrics into fame, and in the 17th century many efforts, not all of them praise-worthy, were made to unearth more poems. Prominent in this enterprise, but in a manner condemned by modern criticism , was Manuel de Faria e Sousa. Even in the 19th century, the Visconde de Juromenha added to the already excessive collection of lyrics, introducing into his edition of 1860–69 many poems from the songbooks, which were still comparatively unstudied. As a result the sonnets increased from 65 in the first edition to 352 in the Juromenha edition; the total number of poems, including sonnets, sextets, odes, octets, eclogues, elegies, and the Portuguese forms known as canções, redondilhas, motos, esparsas, and glosas had risen from 170 in the first edition to 593 by 1860. Britannica Lists & Quizzes Editor Picks: Exploring 10 Types of Basketball Movies With the work of Wilhelm Storck and Carolina Michaelis de Vasconcelos in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, there began a critical reaction which led to the elimination of many apocryphal poems. Although a complete restoration of Camões’ lyrics appears impossible, scholars continue the work of purifying the texts. Fortunately there are sufficient authentic poems to confirm Camões’ position as Portugal’s finest lyric poet. If he had remained at the Portuguese court, he would not have reached this high pinnacle despite his consummate artistry. But he exchanged the vanity and superficiality of court life for the hardships of a soldier’s life in Africa and India, and the exchange immeasurably enriched his poetry. For he no longer needed to conform to the standards of brevity required in court circles, and, more important still, so profound was the anguish he experienced because of his exile from home and the trials he underwent in the East that his anguish became an integral part of his being, enabling him to give to “yearning fraught with loneliness” (saudade-soledade) a new and convincing undertone unique in Portuguese literature . His best poems vibrate with the unmistakable note of genuine suffering and deep sincerity of feeling. It is this note that places him far above the other poets of his era. Although the canções and elegies show the poet’s full powers, the redondilhas must not be underestimated. In the production of these elegant trifles Camões was inimitable. He rejuvenated the ancient art of glossing by the apparent spontaneity and simplicity, the delicate irony , and the piquant phraseology of his verses and so raised courtly grace in poetry to its highest level. These poems also show a Camões who could be happy and carefree. Connect with Britannica Facebook Twitter YouTube Instagram Pinterest In their efforts to discover who inspired most of Camões’ lyric poems, critics have made, on very slender grounds, many contradictory suggestions of various women who may have figured in the poet’s life. But the real muse, if the poet had one, remains an enigma . Nor should it be forgotten in trying to resolve these questions that Camões himself said in one of his sonnets, “em várias flamas variamente ardia” (“I burnt myself at many flames”). The title of Camões’ epic poem, Os Lusíadas, is taken from the word Lusiads, which means “Portuguese” and is in turn derived from the ancient Roman name for Portugal, Lusitania. The work extols the glorious deeds of the Portuguese and their victories over the enemies of Christianity: victories not only over their fellowman but also over the forces of nature as motivated by the inimical gods of classical mythology. The courage and enterprise of Portuguese explorers had inspired the idea of a national epic during the 15th century, but it was left to Camões in the 16th century to put it into execution. It is impossible to say for certain when he decided to do so or when he actually began to write his epic. Os Lusíadas describes the discovery of the sea route to India by Vasco da Gama . The 10 cantos of the poem are in ottava rima and amount to 1,102 stanzas in all. After an introduction, an invocation, and a dedication to King Sebastian , the action, on both the historical and the mythological levels, begins. Da Gama’s ships are already under way in the Indian Ocean , sailing up the coast of East Africa , and the Olympian gods gather to discuss the fate of the expedition (which is favoured by Venus and attacked by Bacchus). The voyagers spend several days in Melinde on the east coast of Africa, and at the king’s request Vasco da Gama relates the entire history of Portugal from its origins to the inception of their great voyage (Cantos III, IV, and V). These cantos contain some of the most beautiful passages in the poem: the murder of Inês de Castro , who becomes a symbol of death for the sake of love; the battle of Aljubarrota; the vision of King Manuel I; the description of St. Elmo’s fire and the waterspout; and the story of Adamastor, the giant of classical parentage who, as the Cape of Good Hope , tells da Gama he will lie in wait to destroy the fleets coming back from India. Trending Topics Eyjafjallajökull volcano When they re-embark the poet takes advantage of leisure hours on board to narrate the story of the Doze de Inglaterra (Canto VI, 43–69). In the meantime, Bacchus, ever ready to impede the progress of the Portuguese in the East, convokes a council of the sea gods and incites them to arrange the shipwreck of the Portuguese fleet. This is prevented by Venus (Canto VI, 85–91), and Vasco da Gama is able to reach Calicut (Kozhikode, now in Kerala state, southwestern India), the end of his voyage. There his brother, Paulo da Gama, receives the king’s representative on board and explains the significance of the characters depicted on the banners that adorn the captain’s ship (Cantos VII and VIII). On their homeward voyage the mariners chance upon the island that Venus has created for them, and the nymphs reward them for their labours. One of the nymphs sings of the future deeds of the Portuguese (Cantos IX and X), and the entertainment ends with a description of the universe given by Thetis and Vasco da Gama, after which the sailors embark once more and the nymphs accompany them on their homeward journey. In Os Lusíadas Camões achieved an exquisite harmony between classical learning and practical experience, delicate perception and superb artistic skill, expressing through them the gravity of thought and the finest human emotions. The epic was his eulogy of the “dangerous life” (vida perigosa) and was a stern warning to the Christian monarchs, who, idling their time away in petty struggles, were failing to unite against the encroaching conquests of Islām in southeastern Europe. Realistic descriptions in the poem of sensual encounters, battles, and storms and other natural phenomena transcend the thrust of classical allusions that permeate the work and make for the high-flown yet fluent style of the poem. Os Lusíadas reveals an astonishing command of language and variety of styles and provides a fascinating portrait of an extraordinary man and poet. In his dramatic works Camões tried to combine national and classical tendencies. In his comedy Anfitriões (Enfatriões; “The Two Amphitryons”), an adaptation of Plautus’ Amphitryon, he accentuated the comic aspect of the myth of Amphitryon; in the comedy El-rei Seleuco (“King Seleucas”), he reduced the situation found in Plutarch (in which Seleucas’ son wins his stepmother from his father) to pure farce; and in Filodemo he developed the auto, a kind of morality play , which Gil Vicente had earlier made popular. But Camões seems to have regarded comedy as unimportant, as a mere curiosity and a recreation to which he could give only transitory attention. Nevertheless, by imposing classical restraint on the Vicentian auto, by increasing the importance of the plot, by transferring the comic element from the characters to the action, and by refining the farce, Camões indicated a possible means of rejuvenating 16th-century comedy in Portugal. Later dramatists, unfortunately, were incapable of following the lead he had given. Drama, however, is the least important aspect of Camões’ poetry. It was his epic and his lyrics, among which are some of the loveliest ever written, that made him one of the greatest poets of 16th-century Europe and have given him a lasting claim to fame. More about Luís de Camões 5 References found in Britannica Articles Assorted References

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Which group had most seats in the European Parliament after the 1989 election - the left, the centre or the right?

Alfredo de Mello on Luis de Camoens Luis de CAMOENS - 4 Alfredo de Mello [ The 1581 portrait of Luis de Camoens with the inscription in Marathi / Hindi which reads MahaKavi Camoi-ish  in other words: the Great Poet Camoens ] Personally I feel, that Camoens belongs to Goa also, and it is a pity that the Indian Govt. took down the Luis de Camoens statue which was erected in Old Goa.  A de M   CAMOENS  by Alfredo de Mello : continued from page 3   Pyrard wrote that "these slave girls do not dress in the fashion of Portugal, and use long pieces of silk cloth, which serve as skirts, and they have also very fine silk upper clothing which they call baju. Among these slaves one can find the most beautiful girls of all the nations of India". Pyrard informs that the slaves are obliged to bring to their lords all the licit and illicit gains, just as the Flemish merchant-traveler Johan Huighens van Lynschotten also reports, in his "Navigatio ac itinerarium" during his sojourn in 1583. This repugnant practice is also confirmed by Father Francisco de Sousa in his book "ORIENTE CONQUISTADO" ( part 6, chapters 21-22). Camoens became infatuated with a slave called Luisa Barbara. How could Camoens resist a woman who sang to him stanzas of the passionate Indian popular poetry ? One pad like the following: "I woke up thinking of you, without you there is no happiness and joy". Te�filo Braga , in his "History of Portuguese Literature: Camoens, his Life and Work" describes beautifully the magic spell of Barbara: "The poet could not remain impassive before the voluptuous flexuosity of those curves which make alive the movements that wrapped him up; neither from the languid looks of a morbidity which magnetizes and breaks the will by desire. Barbara was the type of a native girl, dark skinned; arms and neck such as a bronze sculpture of a complete correction, lewd hips by the habit of hieratical dances. which bestow all movements a feline flexuosity, wholly wrapping, completing the seduction by the maddening brilliancy of black almond shaped eyes which provoke an infinite desire, which illuminate the smile of a small mouth, bordered by extremely white teeth with which she chewed aromatic plants; a light way of walking such as a free gazelle; a primitive grace such as of a submissive animal, which offers itself at the first caress". Camoens was crazy about "this slave which has me enslaved"; Barbara had ensorcelled him. He wrote a poem called ENDECHA TO A SLAVE, WITH WHOM I HAD LOVE AFFAIRS IN INDIA, CALLED BARBARA". Endecha is a "sad melopoeia": Eu nunca vi rosa.... I never saw a rose...  Em suaves m�lhos.... In soft bouquets  Que para meus olhos ....That for my eyes  F�sse mais formosa.... Might be more beautiful Rosto singular.... A singular face  Olhos socegados.... Restful eyes Pretos e cansados.... Black and tired Mas n�o de matar.... But not of killing Pretid�o de amor.... Blackness of love T�o doce a figura.... So sweet a figure Que a neve lhe jura.... That the snow swears to her Que trocara a c�r....That it would swap its colour. Leda mansid�o.... Cheerful meekness  Que o siso acompanha.... That cleverness accompanies Bem parece estranha.... She well seems strange Mas barbara n�o..... But barbarous not. A magistrate of Goa, Alberto Osorio de Castro, gives us his vivid impression on these melopoeias of Camoens: " the most enchanting poem of an European to the grace of the woman of India. An Indian woman who inspired him, undoubtedly was some graceful calumbina (Kundbi) slave, or a Calavant as the dancing girls are known in Konkani, or a Devadassi, that is slaves of the gods". Other Viceroys followed after Constantino de Bragan�a (1558-61), namely Francisco Coutinho (1561-64) who died in Goa and was substituted temporarily (from 29th February 1564 until September 3, 1564) by Jo�o de Mendon�a, who had been commander of the fortress of Chaul; then the next viceroy was Antao de Noronha (1564-68), followed by Luis de Ataide ( 1568-71). Meanwhile poor Camoens eked out a living in Goa, by being a scribe, writing letters on behalf of illiterate persons, and giving the final touches to his epic poem "OS LUSIADAS". Camoens who was critical of the behaviour of the Portuguese, thought that it was unsafe for him to remain in Goa, and sailed en route to Portugal in 1569, but was stranded in the island of Mozambique for some months, because he had no money to pay for the fare up to Lisbon. Diogo do Couto, the 16th century historian, on another voyage back to Lisbon, found "that great poet and old friend of mine" and he together with other friends, chipped in to help Camoens to return to Lisbon in their carrack. His manuscript passed the censorship of the Inquisition, and finally King Sebastian issued a decree to have the LUSIADAS printed in 1572, and quickly this mighty opus reached Spain and Italy, where at first it was more appreciated than in Portugal itself. The King gave Camoens a miserly pension of 15$000 yearly, and Camoens lived in a little house, adjoining the church of St. Anne. Somehow Barbara followed him to Lisbon, and she was ever "the gentle slave who serves and adores". in the words of Camoens. In the Book of Visitations of the church of St. Anne one can read the inventory taken in 1572 of the house of the poet, and making reference to the concubine, there appears the following sentence: "�Barbara who lives together with a person, who, for just causes, one does not mention". Faria e Sousa points out a tradition of an ambulant female seller, who was brokenhearted about the poverty of the poet: " a black woman called Barbara, knowing about his misery, gave him sometimes a dish of food, with the money that she earned from her sales and sometimes the money that she got from her sales". In the year 1859, a French writer, Guy de la Chandelle, wrote a novel called "LA VIEILLESSE DU PO�TE" ( The old age of the Poet) and in this novel, Barbara appears as the owner of a pub called BACCHO ESCARRANCHADO, which actually existed in Lisbon, and that she and the faithful Malayan servant Antonio, took care of Luis de Camoens. Antonio was a beggar, and with the proceeds of his alms, he took care of Camoens, buying charcoal during the winter, until Antonio died of the plague in 1579. Camoens died on the 10th of June 1580, when Portugal was annexed to Spain, having Philip II as King. Portugal's King Sebasti�o had died in a reckless war campaign in North Africa, against the King of Fez , where the Moors allowed the Portuguese Army to advance inland, and finally surrounded and massacred the invaders at Alcaer Kibir in 1578. Sebasti�o was single, and his uncle Cardinal Henrique became regent until his death in 1580, when Spain's King Philip II became the sole heir to the throne. For sixty years Portugal was under the Spanish yoke, and during this period Portugal�s empire in Asia, Africa and Brazil suffered severe losses from the Dutch. Lynschotten was really a spy of the Dutch, and four years after his book was published, with accurate details of the "Estado da India", the Dutch realizing the moral and physical decay of the Portuguese nation, attacked and occupied the Portuguese settlements, followed later by the English. It is fitting to point out that the Jesuit Thomas Stephens ( Padre Estev�o) , who was responsible to convert to Catholicism the people of Salcete, turned out to be a spy: his letters to friends in England depicted the riches of India, and these accounts whetted the appetite of the English merchants and adventurers who established the first factory in Surat. Faria e Sousa wrote that "King Philip II could appreciate literature, and having read Camoens' heroic Poem, had him in great esteem... When he entered Lisbon on the 26th June 1581, desiring to see him, ordered that he be brought before him, and was greatly bereaved to hear that he had died a few months before". Torquato Tasso, a contemporary of Camoens, and the greatest Italian poet of the late Renaissance wrote: "It may be that the Empire of the Indies be lost from the hands of the successors of Manuel, and the superb Lisbon may not see arriving in its port the treasures of Africa and Asia; but the first glory of its immense conquests will live forever shining in the Poem of Camoens; the most remote nations will admire in the LUSIADAS the incredible valour of a handful of men, who facing terrible dangers, enormous and never seen before, and subduing populous nations, took to the extremities of the universe their virtues and the religion of their fathers". BIBLIOGRAPHY: * Te�filo Braga: Historia da Literatura Portuguesa: * Luis de Camoes: sua Vida e Obra * Vincent Cronin: A Pearl to India * Carmo Azevedo: an article in the Revista de Cultura (Instituto Cultural de Macau) . * Propercia Correia Afonso de Figueiredo: A Mulher na India Portuguesa ( Nova Goa 1933) * Fran�ois Pyrard de Laval : Voyage aux Indes Orientales. * Johan Huighens van Lynschotten : Navigatio ac itinerarium * Diogo do Couto: As D�cadas * Francisco Rodrigues Silveira: Memoirs of a soldier in India * Guy de la Chandelle: La vieillesse du Po�te( Paris 1859) CAMOES  by Alfredo de Mello  concludes Alfredo de Mello resubmitted to TGF on Aug 15 1999  

i don't know

Of which island is Valletta the capital?

Valletta - The Complete Guide to Malta's Capital City Quick facts – Valletta in a nutshell Population: 6,444 (2014 census) Malta’s capital (since 1571), and the smallest capital city in the EU (at just 0.55 sq km) Flanked by two natural harbours: Marsamxett and Grand Harbour Also called il-Belt (‘The City’) by the locals Commercial centre and place of work for thousands of Maltese working in government, finance and tourism. Parliament and a number of ministries reside within the city. Valletta was strategically built like a fort with bastion walls surrounding its perimeters by the Knights of Malta (Knights of the Order of St. John) Named after Grandmaster Jean Parisot de Valette, who founded the city in 1566. Rich in Baroque architecture, some buildings date back to the 16th century High concentration of historical sites More info NEW: Valletta travel guide! Get the most out of your visit to Malta's capital city with this 159-page Valletta travel guide packed with my best tips on: Detailed information on the top points of interest Walking routes and itineraries for up to three days of exploration 1-Day itinerary with "must sees" for short visits (perfect for cruise passengers!) Best places to eat and drink (including vegetarian and vegan options) Where and when best to stay in Valletta ...and more! Get your copy and get ready to explore! €9.99 Buy now History Besides being one of the smallest capitals in Europe, it’s also one of the youngest, having been founded a little over 450 years ago. The city was built by the Knights of the Order of St. John (also known as the Knights of Malta or the Knights Hospitaller), on a peninsula with large natural harbours on both of its flanks. Having survived The Great Siege by successfully warding off an attempt by the Ottoman Empire to invade the Maltese islands, the Knights strategically chose Valletta’s location for its highly defensible position. With funding from the Vatican, amongst other benefactors, the Knights built Valletta to fortify Malta as a stronghold for Roman Catholicism. Despite its small size, Malta had a significant military advantage due to its location and was the perfect location for the Knights to accommodate the sick and injured, which was (and still is!) their core mission (as opposed to being a military order as such). Even if you’re not into history much, if you really want to understand Valletta at its core, it pays to read up on the city’s history. Why and how was Valletta built? Who were the people that built Valletta? How is it that there’s so much to see in terms of history and culture? How to get to Malta’s capital city In a nutshell: All roads lead to Valletta, which means major road signs can be found all across Malta and finding your way there by car is easy. It also means that most bus routes start and terminate at the capital’s bus terminus that sits right outside the city’s walls. You can get pretty much anywhere on foot, considering the city’s small size and relatively little traffic (and pedestrianised centre). Alternatives are electric city cabs and (although not very practical) a few bus routes pass through a few of the main streets of the city. When it comes to accommodation in Valletta, these are the basic options: Traditional hotels – There are only a few, mostly high-end in and around Valletta Boutique hotels – Beautifully decorated classical buildings in the heart of the city Apartments rented out through sites like Airbnb.com , directly from owner. If you’re travelling on a budget it might be a challenge to find suitable accommodation, especially during the high season (June – September). If budget isn’t as big of an issue there’s good choice for unique, comfortable accommodation. Quick suggestions for hotels Hotels level 1 – High end Just outside the city (technically located in the neighbouring town of Floriana), Hotel Grand Excelsior and Hotel Phoenicia are two good options if your budget allows it. Inside the city’s walls, Casa Ellul has an excellent reputation (and a price tag to match) Hotels level 2 – Affordable ( < €100/night) The Grand Harbour Hotel is also pretty popular, although probably of a slightly lower quality. In any case, early booking is important with both of these hotels. The Osborne Hotel is located in one of the nicer parts of town and has a great reputation for offering value for money. Barrakka Suites is a modern, gorgeous looking hotel. If you find a good deal, you’re lucky. Otherwise, they tend to be a little more expensive than the average traveller is willing to spend per night. Restaurants & food recommendations Valletta’s nightlife isn’t known for its clubs with loud music, rather for dining and casual drinks. There’s a good choice of quality restaurants, none overly expensive, although few budget options are around. In general, it’s always advised to book a table for dinner, especially on weekends. Most of the options mentioned are quite popular so the earlier you book, the better a chance you stand of getting a table. These are my personal recommendations:  Top 10 Best Valletta restaurants guide Restaurants at the Valletta Waterfront Fancy a 10-15 minute walk down to the Valletta Waterfront? You’ll find a number of restaurants and bars here, housed in the old (but recently renovated) store rooms. Apart from the international Hard Rock franchise, you should also try Pepe Nero and Brown’s Kitchen for a good selection of food which is reasonably priced. Drinks & bars in Valletta Trabuxu is a casual but cool wine bar set up in a semi-basement cellar and rustic decor. Great place to get a good bottle of wine and a platter of cold cuts, cheeses, etc. Charles Grech is a local importer of liquors and opened a cafe at the start of Republic Street. In summer months, it’s a nice place to have a good drink while seated in Malta’s most popular street. Loop Bar is a recent addition, offering a nostalgic wink to days gone by on Strait Street, known as the hotspot for sailors stopping over in Valletta from the early to mid-20th century. Although having had the reputation of being a shady part of town, the area is also remembered in a positive light for its bustling nightlife of the time. Nice atmosphere and interesting interior to behold. Bridge Bar is located close to Victoria Gate, on the South end of Valletta and is a wine bar known to host jazz sessions on Friday nights in summer. Casual seating on the steps and the bridge just outside, combined with atmospheric lighting and good wine and platters make for a unique experience. The best place for info is their Facebook page . What to see and do There’s a lot to see in Valletta, in fact, you could easily spend three full days exploring the city without getting bored. The below is a starting point but check out my article on top points of interest and museums in Valletta and consider supporting my site by buying my Valletta travel guide eBook ! Top 5 points of interest The Upper Barrakka Gardens is a popular, yet quiet location on the southern side of Valletta, with magnificent views over Grand Harbour. It’s a great stop for a quick coffee and snack at its quaint kiosk and terrace. You can also enter Valletta from down at the harbour using the Upper Barrakka Lift and it’s a good place to be at noon and 4 pm sharp daily for the firing of the guns at the Saluting Battery down below. City Gate, the main entry point to Valletta is located on the city’s southern side that leads you straight into the city’s main street (Republic street). After you cross the footbridge overlooking the ditch and the impressive bastions on both sides of City Gate, the city’s entrance provides an instant glimpse of Valletta. The contrast between the modern Parliament building to your right, the older stately buildings to your left and the (slightly polished) ruins of the Royal Opera House (a scar left from heavy bombing during World War 2). The foundation stone of Valletta was laid on the site of the Church of Our Lady of Victories (located at the southern end of Merchants Street). This small 16th-century church was the first building to be erected in Valletta and still stands proudly today, having benefited from recent restoration works. Although small in size, there’s some gorgeous art to admire, primarily the ceiling paintings. Merchants Street is one of Valletta’s longest and most interesting streets, and a good starting point to get lost and explore some of its side streets with churches and quirky little shops and cafes. If you’re not afraid of a little “off the beaten path” exploration, there’s a set of steps across the road from the Mediterranean Conference centre that will lead you to St. Elmo Breakwater bridge. There are some great views out over Grand Harbour to take in! Top 5 Museums and attractions If you were in any doubt over how important religion and worship were to the Order of the Knights of St. John as well as the citizens of Malta, a visit to the St. John’s Co-Cathedral is the ultimate proof. With an unassuming exterior, you would never expect to find a place so richly decorated inside its walls and entering the cathedral for the first time is an awe-inspiring experience. Fort. St. Elmo is located at the tip of the peninsula on which Valletta was built. Built by the Knights, the fort was restored in recent years and is a sight to behold. The fort also houses the National War Museum, which contains a number of interesting artefacts covering centuries of war history in Malta. Being one of the most heavily bombed places on the planet during World War 2, Valletta (and Malta as a whole) endured a lot of hardship. At the heart of the British defence of the islands lay the top secret underground control centre. Nowadays referred to as the Lascaris War Rooms, the recently restored complex offers a glimpse of the important role the location played in keeping Malta out of the hands of the Axis powers. Although it might not be a mainstream attraction, I always highly recommend a visit to the Fortifications Interpretations Centre. They’ve done a great job to explain and visualise how and why Valletta was built the way it was. Even if you’re not a history buff there’s a lot to like about this museum. Did I mention entrance is free? The Grandmaster’s Palace (and State Rooms) functioned as the seat of power ever since it was built in the late 16th-century. It’s one of the most impressive buildings and interiors the city has to offer, and a combined visit to the Palace Armoury (a large collection of weaponry and armour) is well worth the time required. Top Things to do in Valletta Grab a coffee and a snack at one of the city’s cafes at Republic Square, St. John’s Square or at the Upper Barrakka Gardens Attend a theatre performance at the Manoel Theatre (3rd oldest operating theatre in Europe) or The Royal Opera House (open air) Witness the firing of the gun at noon and 4pm sharp (daily) from the Upper Barrakka Gardens, with stunning views out over Grand Harbour Share a bottle of wine while enjoying an evening of live Jazz music at Bridge Bar (Fridays during the summer months) Get lost in the city and spot the quirky balconies, fountains and other details the many historical buildings in Valletta feature. Don’t worry about getting lost, Valletta’s too small for that! Take a cruise around Grand Harbour and explore the views around. Take a quick ferry trip to Sliema and to Birgu and Senglea (localities on either side of Valletta) More Valletta FAQs When did Valletta become the capital of Malta? On 18 March 1571 Valletta succeeded Vittoriosa (and previously Mdina ) as the capital city of Malta. What does Valletta mean? The name has no meaning as such. The name Valletta stems from the name the founder of Malta’s capital city, Jean Parisot de Valette, who was Malta’s Grand Master (in the Order of the Knights of St John) from 1557 until his death in 1568. How was Valletta built? The narrow win on the Ottoman Empire in the Great Siege of 1565 proved that it would take a concerted effort to keep the strategic stronghold of Malta from falling into enemy hands. Built by the Knights of Malta, led by Jean Parisot de Valette, the foundation stone of Valletta was laid in 1566 by de Valette himself. With strong support from Pope Pius IV (who saw the importance of maintaining the island as a stronghold to defend Christendom), the city’s planning was based on a then-modern grid system of streets which would be easier to defend than traditional town planning. How far is Valletta from St. Julian’s? Not very. More specifically it’s a 15-minute drive by car and direct bus routes 12, 13 and 32 will get you there also, although it could take 30-45 minutes. If you’re staying in St. Julian’s it’s probably easier to catch the Sliema Ferry. Get on a bus (several routes go to the Sliema Ferry berthing location) and take a short boat ride across Marsamxett Harbour (while enjoying the view!) Is Valletta a modern city? No, it’s very much a historic city that’s still bustling with life and although it has developed over the centuries, its historical character remains. Is Valletta safe at night? Yes, it is. There are rarely any major incidents to note and crime rates are very low. What is Valletta 2018? Valletta has been earmarked as European Capital of Culture for 2018, together with partner city Leeuwarden in The Netherlands. It’s going to be a big year for the city, with preparations underway to host several cultural events. Get tips on some of Valletta's hidden secrets! Receive regular email updates with tips on lesser-known places to visit, hidden gems and new events coming up! The perfect way to make your visit to Valletta extra special. YES, I'm in!

Malta

In Norway, what are Hardanger and Sogne?

La Valletta, cruises to Malta | MSC Cruises Excursion code: MLT01 When in Malta, you can do no better than to pay not only the island’s current capital of Valletta, but also the former capital of Mdina a visit, both of which are the fascinating destinations on this half-day tour. Valletta is first up, where you will go to see the wonderful Barrakka Gardens – a beautifully landscaped public park – to savour breathtaking views of the Grand Harbour, after which you will head for St. John’s Co-Cathedral, built by the Knights of Malta in the second half of the 16th century. The ornately decorated interior is rich in treasures, including a masterpiece by Caravaggio. The tour then continues on to the medieval walled city of Mdina, which is situated in the middle of the island and is also called “The Silent City” due to restrictions imposed on motorised traffic. You will get to visit the Baroque-style St. Paul’s Cathedral, which presides impressively over the town, before enjoying a walk through the narrow streets and lanes of this piece of living history. Your tour then draws to a leisurely close with your return to the ship. Please note: as your visit to Mdina will be entirely on foot and involves long periods of walking, the tour is unsuitable for guests with walking difficulties. Even though all sites visited are wheelchair-friendly, Mdina terrain is mostly cobblestones and might be uncomfortable for guests using a wheelchair. If wheelchair guests want to take part, they must be accompanied by a paying helper to provide assistance with getting on and off the coach and their wheelchairs must be collapsible/foldable since the coach has neither a ramp nor a lift. Guests using a wheelchair who would like to participate in this tour are requested to contact the Shore Excursions’ Desk promptly once they are on board so that arrangements can be made. If the call falls on a Saturday afternoon, the visit to the St. John’s Co-Cathedral will be external; guests will visit the National Museum. Conservative attire recommended for visiting places of religious importance. This tour is not available on Sunday calls. May involve inclines, steps, uneven surfaces and/or extended periods of standing Difficulty Level Excursion code: MLT10 The islands of Malta and the nearby Gozo are home to an intriguing set of eleven prehistoric monuments, seven of which are classed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, namely the marvellous Megalithic Temples of Malta. One of these fascinating sites of early engineering and worship forms the first stop on this half-day tour and will take you to the southeast of the island. These temples are among the oldest free-standing buildings ever found in the world – some pre-date the Egyptian pyramids – and make highly evocative representatives of a bygone age. You’ll then continue on to the pretty fishing village of Marsaxlokk, situated on the shores of Malta’s second-largest natural bay, to see the traditional, brightly coloured “luzzu” fishing boats. In keeping with a seafaring tradition that possibly goes back as far as the Phoenicians, all of these luzzi have a pair of eyes painted on the bow, perhaps to make sure they always know where they’re going. Your coach ride back to the port and your ship then lets the tour draw to a leisurely close. Please note: this tour is not suitable for guests with walking difficulties or using a wheelchair. May involve inclines, steps, uneven surfaces and/or extended periods of standing Difficulty Level Excursion code: MLT24 If you want an introduction to the towns and the landscapes of Malta, join us on this panoramic coach drive around the island. Your first stop will be the old fortified town of Vittoriosa, located on the south side, and the first home of the Knights when they arrived in Malta 1530. Rich in tourist attractions, including the waterfront, the casino, Malta Maritime Museum and St. Lawrence’s Church to number but a few, you will enjoy a guided walking before to move to Senglea for a photo stop at the Vedette Watch Tower; keep your camera ready to frame the superb harbour views. Next on the list is a coach drive to to the pretty fishing village of Marsaxlokk, situated on the shores of Malta’s second-largest natural bay. Enjoy some free time and make sure not to miss the traditional, brightly coloured “luzzu” fishing boats. In keeping with a seafaring tradition that possibly goes back as far as the Phoenicians, all of these luzzi have a pair of eyes painted on the bow, perhaps to make sure they always know where they’re going. Last but not least on your tour list is the Blue Grotto, at Wied iz-Zurrieq. You will have the opportunity to view the Grotto from on top before you will be given some free time at Wiediz-Zurrieq for those who wishes to take the 20 minute boat ride (not included in the price). Please note: though all sites visited are wheelchair-friendly with the exception of the viewpoint to see the Blue Grotto, Vittoriosa terrain is mostly cobblestones and might be uncomfortable for guests using a wheelchair. If wheelchair guests want to take part, they must be accompanied by a paying helper to provide assistance with getting on and off the coach and their wheelchairs must be collapsible/foldable since the coach has neither a ramp nor a lift. Guests using a wheelchair who would like to participate in this tour are requested to contact the Shore Excursions’ Desk promptly once they are on board so that arrangements can be made. Long route by bus Wheelchair and disabled-friendly tour – Wheelchair guests must be accompanied by their own helper to get on/off the coach. Wheelchairs must be foldable as the coach is not provided with ramps or lifts. Once onboard, please contact Excursions Desk staff promptly so they can help make arrangements. May involve a limited quantity of steps, uneven surfaces and/or periods of standing Difficulty Level Excursion code: MLT04 To visit the island state of Malta, leave your ship and board a modern motorboat to embark on a relaxing sail along the scenic Maltese coastline, along the way passing by the lovely Cottonera area made up of Senglea, Cospicua and Vittoriosa, which are collectively known as The Three Cities. Nearly opposite Cottonera lies the Maltese capital, Valletta, whose harbour you will approach via the water route. The city has retained much of its architectural heritage and one of its most iconic sights is Valletta waterfront, a marvel of 18th-century Baroque architecture that has been extensively restored. Do take your camera to capture awe-inspiring views of the waterfront, while also enjoying a wine-tasting session at this unique location. Before returning to the port, you will stop at a renowned jewellery for shopping. Please note: the feasibility of the excursion is subject to wind / sea conditions on the day of call. This tour is not suitable for guests using a wheelchair; there is a flight of stairs to have access to the boat. Tasting included Book now The excursions in the program above are intended to provide MSC Guests with an idea of the different tours that can be arranged in each port of call; this program is merely a guide and confirmation of each excursion and its description and prices will be made during your cruise. Shore excursions programs and itineraries may vary depending on local conditions and/or any unforeseen events in relation to the timing on the day of the tour.   Some excursions are very popular and therefore availability cannot always be guaranteed, it is advisable to book in advance to avoid disappointment. The guides are guaranteed in English. Only for South America cruises, the guides are guaranteed in Brazilian Portuguese. Narration in other languages depends on the availability of guides. Please note that the final language of the tour will be confirmed on board during the cruise. Malta

i don't know

In which Polish city was the Solidarity union formed in 1989?

The Year 1989 – The End of Communism in Poland The Year 1989 – The End of Communism in Poland Created on Tuesday, 23 August 2011 08:03 Written by: Dudek Antoni Tags: European Network Remembrance and Soldiarity, 1989, End of Communism, Poland, Solidarity Movement The wave of strikes in the summer of 1980 and its consequence, the birth of NSZZ Solidarity started the deepest phase of the crisis of the communist state in Poland. The economic crisis, growing since 1976, had led to a destabilisation of the political system based on hegemonic position of the Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR) in 1980. The creation of NSZZ Solidarity and its over year long period of legal functioning significantly altered the social awareness, a change which could no longer be reversed by the so-called politics of normalisation, which began after the introducing of martial law in Poland in December 1981. The banning of Solidarity and the pacification of civil protests, which peaked on the 31st of August 1982 when demonstrations of supporters of the union took place in 66 cities, had not stopped the economic, social and political changes which put the People's Republic of Poland (PRL) in a state of chronic crisis and, after a change of the international situation, led to its downfall. Below I will try to enumerate the most important factors which, in my opinion, made the crisis grow and, in consequence, led to the breakdown of the system in 1989. 1. Changes in the USSR. This factor appeared last, only after the proclamation of the politics of perestroika by Mikhail Gorbachev in 1986 but has to be mentioned first as it played a crucial role in inclining the team of general Wojciech Jaruzelski to begin changes in the political system, which, eventually, led to its complete breakdown. In July 1986, during a meeting of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Gorbachev said, that the countries of Middle and Eastern Europe “can no longer be carried on our back. The main reason – the economy”. This meant that in the Kremlin opinion was prevalent, that the model of cooperation within the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, which was based on the transferable ruble, needed to be changed. The supply of petroleum and natural gas – the main export articles of the USSR – to the Comecon countries at set prices had no longer been profitable for the Soviet economy. It also was not a coincidence that one of Moscow's most important postulates after the government of Tadeusz Mazowiecki had been formed was the transition to USD as currency in mutual trade. Although the knowledge remains limited regarding the plans of the Soviet leadership in the second half of the 1980s, Andrzej Paczkowski was probably right to say that “Gorbachev did something like an amputation on the Brezhnev >Doctrine<, which lost its ideological sense and became more of a geopolitical rule. The former pressure Moscow put on Warsaw subsided no later than 1987-1988 and was replaced by extensive conformity of intentions and actions”. General Wojciech Jaruzelski's team's hands were bound at that time as far as system reforms go, but that did not prevent it from using the Soviet deterrent in contacts with the West, the opposition and the Church until the end of its regime. French researcher Jacques Levesque even claims, that Jaruzelski for a long time was not using the freedom which Gorbachev had given him. 2. The state of the economy. Although in 1983 economic growth was recorded for the first time in five years, it had not been the result of real changes in the economic system, but of the return of the economy to the old ruts, from which it had been removed first by Gierek's team's mistakes, later by the strikes of 1980-81 and finally by the militarisation of many companies and the economic sanctions undertaken by the Western countries against Poland. Already in 1985 economic growth slowed down because, according to one of the party's analyses, “the material-resource barrier, […] resulting from insufficient national reserves and low import possibilities, became very apparent”. Repeated by Jaruzelski's team after the introduction of martial law, declarations that the continuation of economic reforms, which officially began in 1981, is needed, quickly proved to be propaganda fiction. As general Jaruzelski correctly observed in 1982: “A paradoxical phenomenon accompanies the reform: on the one hand the liberalisation of the rules governing the economy and on the other the rigor of martial law”. The rigor of martial law had not been the main reason why the introduction of a real reform of the inefficient economic system of PRL was a failure, however. In fact the system could not be reformed, what was made clear by the unrelenting resistance of the people governing the economy. The situation is well illustrated by the example of closing down 106 unions of state-owned companies in 1982 in a reform which brought in their place 103 unions, different only in name. “Essentially there is no institutionalised force, which would comprehensibly introduce the reform into economic practice, there is no approach to the reform as a political-economic complex” - it was said in a lengthy analysis of the socio-political situation made in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and ordered by general Czesław Kiszczak in May 1984. According to Władysław Baka, the government's representative for the reform, during the meetings of the Council of Ministers in July 1983 and June 1984 plans aiming to openly “thwart the reform” were forced. One of their main supporters was supposedly Deputy Prime Minister Zbigniew Messner, who argued that “brought to completion, the model of socio-economic reform outlined by minister Władysław Baka means in essence the change of socio-political system” i.e. the fall of socialism. The continuation of the reform was defended, according to Baka, by Jaruzelski, but he changed his mind a year later on a National Council in Poznań and supported Messner's limited option instead. After a couple of months, in November 1985, the latter became Prime Minister and the office of government's representative for the reform was removed. Real reforms had not begun until 1988-89 when Mieczysław Rakowski's cabinet introduced regulations guaranteeing freedom of economic activity and liberalising the rules of sales with foreign countries. If the political system had not followed, Rakowski's reforms could have lead to the realisation of the so-called Chinese model of transformation, that is the introduction of market economy with the maintaining of authoritarian political system. 3. Instances of state privatisation. Compared to the general economic decay of the 1980s, the rise of the private sector in the economy was a curious occurrence. In the years 1981-1985 it had increased its production level by nearly 14% while the production of the national sector decreased by 0,2%. Private enterprise was still highly limited, however, and many key members of the PZPR criticised the instances of “certain groups getting richer without grounds”. However, gradually, especially in mid-level state apparatus, belief was getting stronger that without development of the private sector the deficit on the market of consumer goods could not be satisfied. The so-called Polonia (Polish diaspora) companies had a special position within the private sector. Foreigners of Polish descent were taking part in their establishment on the basis of the law from July 1982. “Polonia companies steal highly qualified cadre from the national sector. Some of the employees leave from foreign trade offices, they possess information which is a business and national secret. […] Cases of informal contacts with the employees of departments in charge of the Polonia companies are also frequent” - was the alert in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in May 1984. The Polonia companies became a sort of a testing ground for the authorities and especially for the secret service (both the SB and military). The behaviour of entities functioning within market mechanisms was tested and used in operational activities. What followed was a gradual acquaintance of part of the government elite with the thought of a need for radical breaking off with the economic system based on national property, originating in the 1940s. In such a way a climate appropriate for the reforms of the Rakowski government was beginning to appear, with the side-effect of the process of so-called nomenclature enfranchisement. 4. Deregulation of the political system. Its main symptom became the weakening of the position of the PZPR, hitherto playing a hegemonic role in the political system of PRL. The crisis of the years 1980-1981 and the martial law left the PZPR with about 1 million members less. Only in the middle of the decade had the party stopped shrinking and the number of members stabilised at 2.1 million. The process of aging of the party had not been stopped however, and the proportion of people under 29 years of age decreased from the level of 15% in 1981 to only 6.9% in 1986, while the average age of a PZPR member raised to 46 years of age. A similar process began to threaten also the ranks of the party apparatus, over 12 thousand functionaries strong. Personnel review of the members of Central Committee of the Polish United Workers' Party from 1984 showed that in the years 1985-1986 as many as 23% of its employees would reach retirement age. At the same time only 6% of over six hundred political employees of the Central Committee were younger than 35 years of age. The communist party was becoming old and was losing its influence, becoming less of a core of the political system and more of a tool of various pressure groups operating within the government apparatus. The most important of these groups was a part of the officers' corps of the Armed Forces. In the first year of martial law 32 officers were delegated to high positions in the party apparatus, and 88 more to national administration. Among them were 11 Ministers and Deputy Ministers, 13 voivodes and vice-voivodes and 9 secretaries of the Executive Committee of the Polish United Workers' Party. Furthermore 108 “lawyers in uniforms” were delegated to work in the prosecution service and civil judiciary. Besides the military men the role of higher functionaries of the Security Service (SB) and other people working in the economy apparatus also increased in the 1980s. All of them were obviously members of the PZPR but in reality often opposed many decisions and solutions forced by the functionaries of the PZPR apparatus. The leaders of the All-Poland Alliance of Trade Unions (OPZZ) were also members of the communist party. The Alliance was supposed to replace Solidarity in public consciousness. For this to happen, the leaders of the PZPR had decided, that leaders of the OPZZ had to receive a much wider autonomy than all the other socio-political organisations were given before, including the allied parties United People's Party and the Democratic Party. “We must include different opposing elements from the party itself […] controlling us from our system positions, constantly stinging us in our bottoms” - said general Jaruzelski about OPZZ in December 1986. Still, OPZZ with nearly 7 million members, in time became a force, which, especially in the late 1980s, contributed significantly to the limiting of the level of control of the PZPR over state apparatus and especially over the part, which governed the economy. 5. Evolution of social moods. After the introducing of martial law, the social moods became relatively stable. In 1983 nearly 40% of pollees believed that the economic situation would become better, 8% that it would become worse and the rest, over 50%, thought that it would remain the same or did not have an opinion. This state of a kind of waiting began to change in the middle of the decade in a direction very unfavourable for the authorities. While in December 1985 46% of the pollees described the economic situation as bad, in the following months the figure grew quite consistently: 55% in April, 58.5% in December 1986 and as much as 69.1% in April 1987. In the following months it was becoming even worse and that significantly affected the consciousness of the elite of the authorities. A team of three general Jaruzelski's advisors, the Secretary of the Central Committee of the PZPR Stanisław Ciosek, Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs Władysław Pożoga and the government spokesperson Jerzy Urban wrote in a memorial in January 1988 this about the matter: “The moods are below the red line, which means the critical point of explosion has been passed. There is no explosion because the tendencies are suppressed in the society by various stabilisers (historic experience, mainly of the 13th of December 1981, the role of the Church, lower influence of the opposition, apathy)”. The assessment was that such a state affected the authorities in a bad way and part of the apparatus “as usual in decadent times, begins to question the leadership, plot intrigues, plan future personal configurations. In time it will begin to plot”. It was therefore proposed to “make a drastic turn, in which there would be few words, many actions”. Ultimately such a turn of action, in the form of the Round Table Talks, happened a year later. According to Mirosława Marody “three types of experiences of the broadest social reach” were making the mood worse. The first was increasing inflation devaluing “life's work of individuals and their families”. The second was the “feeling of disproportion between the effort put into achieving and keeping a decent standard of living and its effects”. Its main source were the persistent problems with supplies (especially manufactured goods) and that created a stark contrast with not only the situation in the Western countries but also with often visited Soviet Bloc countries. The third experience generating social frustration according to Marody was “the belief that methods of action offered to the individuals by the system lead to nowhere”. This affected mainly the young and the broadly understood intelligentsia, most severely affected by the apathy increasing during the 1980s. 6. Church and political opposition activity. In the 1980s, in front of the eyes of the PRL's authorities, the Catholic Church turned from their main opponent into an important factor stabilising social mood. That is why, not abandoning various behind-the-stage actions aimed against the clergy, of which the kidnapping and killing of the priest Jerzy Popiełuszko by SB functionaries became a symbol, the leadership of the PZPR in practice accepted the unprecedented rise of the Church's potential which took place in the 1980s. It was apparent both in record-breaking number of new priests and temples built (according to government data in 1986 over three thousand churches were being built) as well as in quick development of Catholic press and publishing houses. In the middle of the decade there were 89 Catholic periodicals, with circulation of 1.5 million. Politics of the authorities regarding the founding of new churches and Clubs of Catholic Intellectuals had also been liberalised. Additionally, Church structures played a dominant role in the distribution of charity aid from the West, while its substantial amount constantly worried the authorities. The authorities expected that the liberal course would bring gradual increased acceptance of the system by the clergy. But the double dealing of the Church hierarchy, calculated for parallel dialogue with the authorities and discreet support of the moderate part of the opposition, disoriented Jaruzelski's team. They knew that the support of the Church would be necessary to introduce the system reform plans maturing since the middle of the decade but they could not determine to what extent the bishops would be willing to endorse them, nor how far they identified themselves with the aims of the opposition. Meanwhile, the opposition, despite its weakness apparent in the middle of the decade, became a constant factor generating resistance against the system. In late 1985 the Ministry of the Interior assessed that there were over 350 different opposition structures in Poland, over half of them active in the area of just 5 of the 49 then existing voivodeships: Warsaw, Wrocław, Gdańsk, Kraków and Łódź. According to the SB its hard core was 1.5 thousand people while over 10 thousand worked as distributors of newspapers, messengers and printers. The number of “active sympathisers” was estimated to be 22 thousand people, what would give in total “about 34 thousand people directly involved, to a larger or lesser extent, in illegal activity”. This opposition was divided into different groups opposing each other, but generally fitted into one of two categories, differing in their attitude to the PRL authorities. While the radical category, in which Fighting Solidarity created in 1982 by Kornel Morawiecki had the most potential, wanted to organise a general strike and overthrow the regime in a revolution, the moderate category, gathered around Lech Wałęsa and Temporary Coordinating Commission of Independent Self-governing Trade Union Solidarity assumed that the deteriorating economic situation and pressure from the West would finally force Jaruzelski's team to begin talks with the opposition. From the point of view of the authorities it was important for the moderate group to be stronger than the radical one and when, in 1988, the leadership of the PZPR finally decided to talk with Wałęsa and his collaborators, the opposition radicals turned out to be too weak to stop the Round Table Talks and later to boycott the contractual parliamentary elections in June 1989.   Prof. Antoni Dudek (born 1966) – political scientist, deals mainly with recent Polish political history. Member of the Council of the Institute of National Remembrance. related content

Gdańsk

Which French river flows into the sea at St. Nazaire and is famous for its chateaux?

Poland History and Timeline Overview 2,300 - Early Bronze Age cultures settle in Poland. 700 - Iron is introduced into the region. 400 - Germanic tribes such as the Celts arrive. CE 1 - The region begins to come under the influence of the Roman Empire. 500 - Slavic peoples start to migrate into the area. 800s - The Slavic tribes are united by the Polanie peoples. 962 - Duke Mieszko I becomes leader and founds the Polish state. He establishes the Piast Dynasty. 966 - The Polish people under Mieszko I adopt Christianity as their state religion. 1025 - The Kingdom of Poland is established. Boleslaw I becomes the first King of Poland. 1385 - Poland and Lithuania unite and form the Polish-Lithuanian union. This is the end of the Piast dynasty and the start of the Jagiellonian dynasty. 1410 - The Polish defeat the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald. The Golden Age of Poland begins. 1493 - The first Polish parliament is established. 1569 - The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is formed by the Union of Lublin. 1573 - Religious toleration is guaranteed by the Warsaw Confederation. The Jagiellonian dynasty comes to an end. 1596 - The capital of Poland is moved from Krakow to Warsaw. 1600s - A series of wars (Sweden, Russia, Tatars, Turks) brings the Poland's Golden Age to an end. Battle of Grunwald 1683 - King Sobieski defeats the Turks at Vienna. 1772 - A weakened Poland is divided between Prussia, Austria, and Russia in what is called the First Partition. 1791 - Poland establishes a new constitution with liberal reforms. 1793 - Russia and Prussia invade and once again divide Poland into the Second Partition. 1807 - Napoleon invades and conquers the region. He establishes the Duchy of Warsaw. 1815 - Poland comes under the control of Russia. 1863 - The Polish revolt against Russia, but they are defeated. 1914 - World War I begins. The Polish join Austria and Germany in the fight against Russia. 1917 - The Russian Revolution takes place. 1918 - World War I ends with Poland becoming an independent nation. Jozef Pilsudski becomes the leader of the Second Polish Republic. World War II Troops 1926 - Pilsudski makes himself dictator of Poland in a military coup. 1939 - World War II begins when Germany invades Poland from the west. The Soviet Union then invades from the east. Poland is divided between Germany and the Soviet Union. 1941 - German concentration camps are built throughout Poland including Auschwitz and Treblinka. Millions of Jews are killed in Poland as part of the Holocaust . 1943 - Jews living in the Warsaw Ghetto fight against the Nazis in an uprising. 1944 - The Polish resistance takes control of Warsaw. However, the Germans burn the city to the ground in response. 1945 - World War II comes to an end. Russians invade, pushing the German army out of Poland. 1947 - Poland becomes a communist state under the rule of the Soviet Union. 1956 - Protests and riots against Soviet rule occur in Poznan. Some reforms are granted. 1970 - People in Gdansk protest the price of bread. 55 protesters are killed in what is known as "Bloody Tuesday." 1978 - Karol Wojtyla is elected pope of the Catholic church. He becomes Pope John Paul II. Lech Walesa 1980 - The Solidarity trade union is established by Lech Walesa. Ten million workers join. 1981 - The Soviet Union imposes martial law to put an end to Solidarity. Lech Walesa is imprisoned. 1982 - Lech Walesa wins the Nobel Peace Prize. 1989 - Elections are held and a new government is formed. 1990 - Lech Walesa is elected President of Poland. 1992 - The Soviet Union begins removing troops from Poland. 2004 - Poland becomes a member of the European Union. Brief Overview of the History of Poland The history of Poland as a country begins with the Piast dynasty and Poland's first king Meisko I. King Meisko adopted Christianity as the national religion. Later, during the 14th century, the Polish kingdom reached its peak under the rule of the Jagiellonian dynasty. Poland united with Lithuania and created the powerful Polish-Lithuanian kingdom. For the next 400 years the Polish-Lithuanian union would be one of the most powerful states in Europe. One of the great battles of Poland occurred during this time when the Polish defeated the Teutonic Knights at the 1410 Battle of Grunwald. Eventually the dynasty ended and Poland was divided up in 1795 between Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Pope John Paul II After World War I, Poland became a country again. Polish independence was the 13th of United States President Woodrow Wilson's famous 14 points. In 1918 Poland officially became an independent country. During World War II, Poland was occupied by Germany. The war was devastating to Poland. Around six million Polish people were killed during the war, including around 3 million Jewish people as part of the Holocaust. After the war, the Communist Party took control of Poland and Poland became a puppet state of the Soviet Union. Upon the collapse of the Soviet Union Poland began to work towards a democratic government and a free market economy. In 2004 Poland joined the European Union. More Timelines for World Countries:

i don't know

In which city does the Council of Europe sit?

Composition of the ECHR - Judges, Sections, Grand Chamber Born on 5 July 1973 in Kyiv, Ukraine Human Rights Expert in Kyiv, 1994-2005 Master’s degree in law, Faculty of Law of Kyiv National University, 2003 Member of the Ukrainian Bar, 2003 Legal adviser, lawyer in Kyiv, 2000-2005 Lawyer in the Registry of the European Court of Human Rights, 2005-2009 Master 2 in Law and European Studies, specialised in human Rights in Europe, Faculty of Law of Strasbourg, 2007 Doctor of Philosophy in law, Academy of Advocacy of Ukraine, 2008 Lecturer in human rights law, Centre for International Protection, Strasbourg, 2008-2010 Adviser to the Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe, 2009-2010 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 15 June 2010 Vice-President of Section from 3 November 2015 to 31 October 2016. Helen Born on 1 June 1964 in Zurich, Switzerland Doctorate in environmental law, University of Zurich, 1993 Master of European Law (LL.M.), College of Europe in Bruges, Belgium, 1994 Research Fellow at Harvard University Law School, United States of America, 1995 Research Fellow at the European University Institute of Florence, Italy, 1996 Member of the American Society of International Law since 1996 Legal Counsel in a law firm in Switzerland, 1996-2011 Visiting researcher at the Max-Planck Institute for International Law of Heidelberg, Germany, 2000 Professor of International Law, Constitutional Law and European Law at the University of Lucerne, 2001-2004 Professor of International Law, Constitutional Law and European Law at the University of Zurich, 2004-2011 Board Member of the International Law Commission, Swiss Section, 2008-2011 Member of the United Nations Human Rights Committee (HRC), 2008-2011 Visiting Scholar at the Centre for Advanced Studies in Oslo, Norway, 2010 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 4 October 2011. Luis Born on 15 November 1947 in Leon, Spain B.A. in Law, University of Madrid, 1969 Master in Political Science, Michigan State University, 1975 Doctor of Law, University of Madrid, 1975 Assistant Professor of Constitutional Law, University of Madrid, 1975-1978 Professor of Constitutional Law, University of Extremadura (Cáceres), 1978-1995 Clerk at the Constitutional Court of Spain, 1982-1986 Judge of the Constitutional Court of Spain, 1986-1995 Alternative Representative and Legal Expert for the Venice Commission, 1995-2003 Professor of Constitutional Law, Universidad Carlos III (Madrid), 1995-2008 Vice-President of the General Council of the Judiciary, 1996-2001 Director of the Institute of Comparative Public Law, Universidad Carlos III, 2001-2003 Secretary of State for Justice, Ministry of Justice of Spain, 2004-2007 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 1 February 2008 Vice-President of Section from 1 November 2014 to 31 August 2015 President of Section since 1 Septembre 2015. András Born on 25 March 1949 in Budapest, Hungary Law degree at the ELTE Law School of Budapest, 1972 Various research fellow positions at the Institute for State and Law, Hungarian Academy of Sciences since 1972 PhD and Habilitation at the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 1977 and 1982 Founder and spokesperson of the Hungarian League for the Abolition of the Death Penalty, Budapest, 1988-1994 Legal Counsellor to the President of Hungary, 1991-1992 Chair of Comparative Constitutional Law, University Professor, Central European University (Budapest), 1993-2007 Member, American Law Institute, 1996 Member, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 1997 Recurrent Visiting Professor, Cardozo School of Law, New York, since 1990; Global Faculty, New York University Law School, since 1996 Board of Directors of the Open Society Justice Initiative of New York, 2001-2007 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 1 February 2008 Vice-President of Section from 1 January 2015 to 31 July 2015 President of Section since 1 August 2015 Vice-President of the Court since 1 November 2015. Mirjana "The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" Section President Born on 5 November 1963 in Strumica Law studies, Faculty of Laws, Ss Cyril and Methodius, University of Skopje, 1982-1986 Bar exam, Ministry of Justice, Skopje, 1992 Master of law (LL.M.), Faculty of Law, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, 2007 Doctor of law, Faculty of Law, University of Ljubljana, 2012 Legal Representative of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in Court proceedings, 1988 Member of working groups and Commissions set up by various Ministries and other State services, 1991-2003 Assistant Minister for Interior, heading the Department for administrative procedures, 1995-2001 Member of the Committee of experts on nationality at the Council of Europe, 1995-2004 Head of Department on Human Rights at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2001-2003 Member of the Steering Committee for Human Rights at the Council of Europe (CDDH), 2001-2003 President of State Election Commission, 2002-2003 Judge of the Constitutional Court, 2003-2008 Member of the Venice Commission, 2004-2008 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 1 February 2008 President of Section since 1 November 2015. Ledi Born on 22 February 1971 in Shkodër, Albania Law degree, Faculty of Law at the University of Tirana, 1989-1993 Law studies, Faculty of Law at the University of Trento, Italy, 1992-1993 Legal practice in Tirana, 1994-1998 and 1999-2006 Lecturer in Law (Public International Law, European Human Rights Law and European Union Law) at the University of Tirana, 1995-2007 and at the Albanian School of Magistrates, 1997-2007 LL.M in European Law Studies at the College of Europe in Bruges, Belgium, 1996-1997 Office of the OSCE Legal Counsellor in Albania, 1998-1999 Founder and Executive Director of the European Centre in Tirana, 1999-2006 Advisor ad personam to the President of the Republic, to the President of the Parliament and to Ministers of Justice and of European Affairs, 2000-2007 Chairman of the National Broadcasting Authority, 2006-2007 Member of the Venice Commission, 2006-2007 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 1 February 2008 Vice-President of Section since 5 January 2016. Nona Born on 8 December 1958 in Istanbul, Turkey Faculty of Political Science, Istanbul University, 1983 Faculty of Law, Marmara University, 1990 Master’s degree Public Law, Istanbul University, 1986 Master’s degree in European Law, “Centre européen universitaire”, Nancy II University, 1988 Doctor of Public Law, Istanbul University, 1992 European University Institute, Florence, 1990 Professor of International Law, Faculty of Law, Galatasaray University, 2003-2008 Director of the Research and Documentation Centre on Europe, Galatasaray University, 2002-2008 Head of Department of Public International Law, Faculty of Law, Galatasaray University, 2003-2008 Visiting Professor, Universities: Aix-Marseille III, Reims, Montpellier II, Strasbourg Robert Schuman Vice-Dean, Faculty of Law, Galatasaray University, 2004-2008 Judge at the European Court of Human Rights since 1 May 2008 Vice-President of Section from 1 November 2013 to 31 December 2014 President of Section since 1 January 2015 Vice-President of the Court since 1 November 2015. Nebojša Born on 17 October 1953 in Cetinje, Montenegro Bachelor of Arts, Faculty of Law of Titograd (recently Podgorica), 1976 Reseach assistant, Assistant professor, Full time professor, Podgorica Law Faculty, 1976-2008 PhD in International Public Law and International Relations, Belgrade Law Faculty, Belgrade University, 1986 Member of various Expert Groups for International Legal and Political Issues, 1993-2008 Director of the University of Montenegro, Law Faculty Human Rights Center, 2000-2008 Serbia and Montenegro representative in Steering Committee for Human Rights, Council of Europe, 2004-2006 Member of Judicial Council of Montenegro, 2003-2007 Head of Department in International law and International Relations, University of Montenegro, 1994-2008 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 15 April 2008. Kristina Seconded to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Diplomatic Legal Service, 1986-1989 Co-Agent for the Italian Government before the European Court and Commission of Human Rights, 1989-1997 Member of the Appeals Board of the Western European Union in London, 1991-1992 Member of various Council of Europe Steering Committees and Committees of Experts, in particular the Bureau of the Steering Committee for Human Rights, chaired 1999-2000 Advocate General at the Court of Cassation, 1997-2002 Member of the Italian Inter-ministerial Committee for Human Rights (1998-2003) Full member of the Appeals Board of the Western European Union in Brussels, 1998-2000 Ad hoc judge of the European Court of Human Rights, 2001-2003 Judge of the Court of Cassation, 2002-2003 Deputy Legal Adviser to the International Labour Office (ILO) in Geneva, 2003-2007 Legal Adviser and Director of the Office of Legal Services of the ILO, 2008-2010 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 5 May 2010. Vice-President of the Court and President of Section from 1 November 2012 to 31 October 2015 President of the Court since 1 November 2015. Vincent A. Born on 17 August 1952 in Sliema, Malta Diploma of Notary Public, Royal University of Malta, 1974 Doctor of Laws, Royal University of Malta, 1975 Member of the Malta Bar, 1976 Diploma in Criminology, University of Cambridge, 1977 Senior Counsel for the Republic in the Attorney-General’s Office, Malta, 1979 Member of the ad hoc Committee of Experts on the Legal Aspects of Territorial Asylum, Refugees and Stateless Persons of the Council of Europe, 1988-1994 Malta’s representative on the Steering Committee on Legal Co-operation of the Council of Europe as from 1988, Vice-Chairman then Chairman, 1988-2000 Assistant Attorney-General, 1988 then Deputy Attorney-General, 1989-1994 Senior Lecturer in Criminal Law and Law of Criminal Procedure, University of Malta, 1994 Judge of the Superior Courts of Malta, 1994 Chairman of the Multidisciplinary Group on Corruption of the Council of Europe, 1995-1997 Chief Justice and President of the Constitutional Court, of the Court of Appeal and of the Court of Criminal Appeal of Malta, 2002-2010 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 20 September 2010 Vice-President of Section since 3 November 2015. Angelika Born on 1 June 1963 in Munich, Germany Studies in Slavic languages and literature, 1982-1987; studies in law, University of Munich, 1984-1989 Magister Artium in Slavic languages and literature, University of Munich, 1987 Diploma in comparative law, University of Strasbourg, 1988 First and Second State exam in law, Universities of Munich and Heidelberg, 1989 and 1993 Doctor of Law, University of Würzburg, 1993 Research fellow at the Max-Planck-Institute for Foreign and International Social Law, Munich, 1993-2001 Visiting researcher Harvard University, 1994-1995 Legal advisor of the General Directorate Social Cohesion of the Council of Europe, 2001-2002 Full professor of law and Director of the Institute for Eastern European Law, University of Cologne, 2002-2010 Member of the Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations of the International Labour Organisation, 2004-2010 Substitute Member of the Venice Commission of the Council of Europe, 2006-2010 Vice-President of the University of Cologne, 2010 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 1 January 2011 Vice-President of Section since 13 November 2012 President of Section since 1 November 2015. Julia Born on 25 July 1974 in Tartu, Estonia Studies in law, University of Hamburg, Germany, 1994-1995 EU law expert, Ministry of Justice of Estonia, 1996-1999 Traineeship at the European Commission’s Legal Service, 1997 B.A. in law, University of Tartu, 1997 LL.M. in law, University of Münster, Germany, 1998 Lecturer in European law, Law Institute of Tallinn, later University of Tartu 1999-2006 Head of EU law Division, then EU Law and Foreign Relations Division, Ministry of Justice of Estonia, 1999-2002 Member of the board of the Centre for Policy Studies (PRAXIS), 2000-2004 Deputy Secretary General on Legislative Drafting, Ministry of Justice of Estonia, 2002-2004 Studies in law, European University Institute of Florence, Italy, 2002 Doctor iuris of law, University of Tartu, 2003 Justice at the Supreme Court of Estonia (member of administrative law and constitutional law chambers), 2004-2010 Member of the Consultative Council of European Judges (CCJE) of the Council of Europe, since 2004, Vice-President then President, 2006-2010 Traineeship at Federal Administrative Court of Germany, 2005 Judge ad hoc at the European Court of Human Rights, 2006 Associated professor and consequently Professor of European law, University of Tartu, 2006-2011 Traineeship at the Council of State, France, 2007 Member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, since 2010 President of Estonian Association for European Law since 2004, President of International Federation for European Law (FIDE), 2010 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 4 January 2011 Elected “2013 European of the Year” in Estonia by the European Movement Estonia, 2013 Vice-President of Section since 3 November 2015. Paulo Born on 5 October 1966 in Beira, Mozambique Law Degree, Faculty of Law, State University of Lisbon, 1989 Member of the Portuguese Bar Judge in the Criminal Court and the Correctional Court of Lisbon and President of the Courts of Nelas, Lagos and the Criminal Instruction Court of Lisbon, 1992-2004 Master of Law, Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Lisbon, 1994 Doctorate of Law, Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Lisbon, 2003 Assistant Professor, Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Lisbon, 2004-2008 Member of the Ministry of Justice Taskforce for Penal Reform of the Portugal, 2005-2007 Invited Professor on criminal law and procedure at the High Military Studies Institute of the Ministry of Defence of Portugal, since 2007 Associate Professor, Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Lisbon, 2008-2010 Associate Professor with tenure, Faculty of Law, Catholic University of Lisbon, since 2011 Visiting Professor, Illinois College of Law, United States of America, 2006-2007 Visiting Professor, Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China, 2006 Adjunct Professor, Illinois College of Law, United States of America, since 2009 Expert of the GRECO appointed by the Council of Europe, 2009-2010 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 1 April 2011. Linos-Alexandre Born on 9 May 1960 in Athens, Greece Law degree, University of Athens, 1983 Masters degree in International Law, University Robert Schuman of Strasbourg, 1984 Doctor of Law, University Robert Schuman of Strasbourg, 1990 Lawyer before the Supreme Civil and Criminal Court and the Supreme Administrative Court (on leave) Professor, Faculty of Law, University of Athens Member (1997-2009) and Chairman (2003-2004) of the Committee of experts of the Council of Europe for the Improvement of Procedures for the Protection of Human Rights (DH-PR) Member (2002-2009), Vice-Chairman (2004-2005) and Rapporteur (2008-2009) of the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) Member since 2000, then Vice-Chairman of the Greek National Commission for Human Rights, 2006-2011 Member of the European Union Network of independent experts in the field of fundamental rights, 2002-2006 Member of the Management Board since 2007 and member of the Executive Board of the Fundamental Rights Agency of the European Union, 2009-2011 Member of the Curatorium of the Hague Academy of International Law, since 2010 Member of the Scientific Board of the Revue trimestrielle des droits de l’homme and of the European Journal of International Law Member of the Administrative Board of the European Society of International Law Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 18 May 2011. Erik Born on 9 October 1950 in Oslo, Norway Law degree, University of Oslo, 1976 Counsellor since 1977, then Head of Division, Ministry of Justice, 1981-1986 Participated in the drafting process of Protocols No. 6 to No. 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights, 1977-1994 Part-time lecturer in human rights, University of Oslo, 1981-2003 Chairman, Committee of Experts for the drafting of the European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 1984-1985 Deputy Judge, Eiker, Modum and Sigdal, 1985-1986 Agent of the Government before the European Commission and the European Court of Human Rights, until 1993 Advocate, Attorney General’s Office (Civil Affairs) since 1986, Supreme Court Barrister, 1989-1993 Chairman, Steering Committee for Human Rights, Council of Europe, 1993-1994 Judge, Borgarting Court of Appeals, Oslo, 1993-1999 Fellow at the Human Rights Institute, University of Essex (UK), since 1995; honorary doctor, 2007 Member of the Board of the Norwegian Institute of Human Rights, 1995-1999 Judge (1999-2009), Vice-President (1999-2003), President (2003-2007), International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) Member of the UN Secretary-General’s Selection Panel for the appointment of judges of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, since 2007 Justice, Supreme Court of Norway, 2009-2011 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 1 September 2011 Vice-President of Section since 1 November 2016. André Judge Born on 21 June 1950 in Lyon, France Law degree at the University of Paris II, graduate of the Institute of Judicial Studies, 1973 Ecole Nationale de la Magistrature in Bordeaux, 1975 Deputy Secretary General to the first President of the Paris Appeal Court, 1979 Vice-President of the Senlis Regional Court, 1982 Secretary General to the President of the Paris Regional Court, 1984 Secretary General to the First President of the Paris Appeal Court, 1985 Secretary General to the First President of the Court of Cassation, 1988 Vice-President of the Paris Regional Court, 1990 Head of the Department of European and International Affairs in the Ministry of Justice, 1991-1994 Judge at the Paris Appeal Court, 1994 Associate professor at the University of Paris X-Nanterre in European Community Law, 1994 Judge at the Court of First Instance of the European Communities in Luxembourg, 1995 Section President at the Paris Appeal Court, commercial section, 2001 Vice-President of the European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice (CEPEJ) at the Council of Europe, 2002-2006 Judge at the Court of Cassation, 2005-2011 Visiting Scholar at the Law School of the University of Columbia in New-York, 2011 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 4 November 2011. Paul Born on 29 June 1954 in Wilrijk, Belgium Degree in Law, University of Antwerp and Catholic University of Leuven (KU Leuven), 1971-1976 Master of Laws, Northwestern University, Chicago, United States, 1977-1978 Doctor in Law, Catholic University of Leuven (KU Leuven), 1987 Member of the Brussels bar, 1976-1984 and 1987-1994 Auditor at the Council of State, 1984-1987 Judge (1994-2005), chamber president (2005-2012), Council of State Assistant, Catholic University of Leuven (KU Leuven), 1976-1986 Professor of human rights (since 1986), of civil procedure (1986-1995), of administrative procedure (1995-1997), of constitutional law (1997-2008), University of Leuven (KU Leuven) Member of the Human Rights Advisory Panel (United Nations, Kosovo), 2007-2012 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 13 September 2012 Vice-President of Section from 25 August 2015 to 31 October 2015. Helena Born on 16 October 1958 in Gothenburg, Sweden Master of Law, University of Uppsala, 1983 Maritime law course, University of Oslo, Norway, 1983 Assistant Judge and Associate Judge at the Administrative Court of Appeal and its courts of first instance, Stockholm, 1987-1993 Lecturer in Constitutional and Administrative Law, Faculty of Law, University of Stockholm, 1993-1994 Legal Adviser and Deputy Director in the Division of Constitutional Law of the Swedish Ministry of Justice, 1994-2003 Member and Chairperson of the Council of Europe Group of Specialists on Access to Official Information under the Steering Committee for Human Rights (CDDH), 1998-2000, 2004-2008 Assignments from the Council of Europe as expert as regards legislative projects in various Member States in Central and Eastern Europe and missions as part of the Council of Europe’s activities for development and consolidation of democratic stability in Member States, 1998-2005 Director and Head of the Pardons Division of the Swedish Ministry of Justice, 2002-2005 Sweden’s representative in the Council of Europe’s Steering Committee for Legal Cooperation (CDCJ), 2002-2005 Senior Judge and Head of Division at the County Administrative Court, Stockholm, 2005-2007 Chief Judge and Head of Division at the Administrative Court of Appeal, Stockholm, 2007-2011 Justice of the Supreme Administrative Court, 2011-2012 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 26 September 2012 Vice-President of Section since 10 November 2015. Aleš Juris Doctor (JUDr.), Faculty of Law, Charles University, Prague, 1978 Member of the Czech Bar, 1980 Advocate partner in a law firm, 1980-2012 Lecturer in constitutional and civil law at the Academy of Performing Arts, Prague, 1995-1997 Member of the Control Council of the Czech Bar Association, 2002-2005 President of the Private Law Section of the Czech Bar Association, 2002-2009 Member of the Consultative Advisory Body of the President of the Czech Republic for the areas of law and legislation, 2003-2012 Member of the Board of Directors of the Czech Bar Association, 2005-2012 Arbitrator at the Arbitration Court attached to the Economic Chamber of the Czech Republic and Agricultural Chamber of the Czech Republic, 2007-2012 Member of the Multi-jurisdictional Law Firms Committee of the Council of Bars and Law Societies of Europe (CCBE), 2007-2012 President of the Study and Legislative Collegium of the Czech Bar Association, 2009-2012 Vice-President of the Czech Bar Association, 2009-2012 Member of the Human Rights Committee of the CCBE, 2009-2012 Member of the Legislative Council of the Government of the Czech Republic, 2011-2012 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 1 November 2012. Krzysztof Born on 19 February 1968 in Kraków, Poland Master in Law, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, 1991 Junior lecturer, Faculty of Law and Administration, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, 1991-1999 Doctorate in law, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, 1998 Legal advisor (1998-2009), Senior legal advisor (2009-2012) of the Constitutional Court Lecturer, Faculty of Law and Administration, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, 1999-2010 Director of the School of French law, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, 2000-2012 Member of the European Scientific Council (European Group of Public Law), since 2006 Habilitation in law, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, 2009 Member of a Committee of experts appointed by the President of the first house of the Parliament (Sejm) for the preparation of a draft of a new chapter of the Polish Constitution on the European Union membership, 2009-2010 Professor at the Jagiellonian University, Kraków, since 2010 Director of the Coordination Centre for Foreign Law Schools, 2010-2012 Associate member of the International Academy of Comparative Law, since 2012 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 1 November 2012. Valeriu Born on 22 February 1959 in Mîndîc, Donduseni district, Republic of Moldova Law Degree, Faculty of Law, State University, 1975-1980 Lecturer in Civil and Civil Procedure Law, State University, 1980-1983 and 1986-1987 Doctorate in Law and post-graduate studies, All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Soviet Legislation of the USSR Ministry of Justice, Moscow, Russian Federation, 1983-1986 District Judge, Chisinau, 1987-1991 Lawyer, member of the Bar Association of the Republic of Moldova (since 1991), member of the Board of the Bar Association (since 2003) Legal advisor of many national and foreign banks and companies (1995-2011) Chairman of the Qualification Commission (1999-2003), Vice-President of the Bar Association (2003-2007) Member of the Scientific Advisory Board of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Republic of Moldova, since 2005 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 3 December 2012. Ksenija Born on 13 February 1964 in Zagreb, Croatia Dipl. Jur. Degree (J.D.), Faculty of Law, University of Zagreb, 1987 Master of Law (LL.M.), Yale Law School, New Haven, CT, USA, 1989 Doctor of Juristic Science (J.S.D.), Yale Law School, New Haven, CT, USA, 1996 Member of the New York State Bar, NY, USA, 1996-2008 Associate in General Corporate Practice, Sullivan & Cromwell, New York, NY, USA, 1995-1996 Legal Counsel in a case before the ICTY, The Hague, Netherlands, Hunton & Williams, New York, NY, USA, 1998-2000 Visiting Scholar, Yale Law School, New Haven, CT, USA, 2002-2003 Full Professor of Criminal Law, Faculty of Law, University of Zagreb (Associate Dean for Academic and Student Affairs, 2005-2007; Head of Criminal Law Department, 2008-2010) Vice-Rector, University of Zagreb, 2008-2012 Vice-president of the Committee of Experts on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (PC-ES), Council of Europe, 2006-2007 Vice-president of the Group of Specialists on Child Friendly Justice (CJ-S-CH), Council of Europe, 2009-2010 President of the Expert Committee drafting new Croatian Criminal Code (adopted by the Croatian Parliament in 2011), Ministry of Justice, Zagreb, 2009-2011 President of the Board, Croatian Centre for Human Rights (an independent national human rights institution), Zagreb, 2007-2012 Observing Member of the Management Board of the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2010-2012 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 2 January 2013. Dmitry Born on 23 May 1967 in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Law Degree, Faculty of Law, University of Sarajevo, 1987-1993 Trainee, European Commission of Human Rights, 1998 Legal expert, Office of the Ombudsperson for Human Rights, 1996-2000 Bar Exam, 2001 Registrar, Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2001-2007 Master Degree in European Studies, Interdisciplinary Postgraduate Studies in European Studies, University of Bologna and University of Sarajevo, 2003-2005 Judge (2007-2012), Vice-President (2008-2012), Constitutional Court of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Member of Association of Judges of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Lecturer, Centres for Education of Judges and Prosecutors of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska Member of the Board, Center for human Rights, University of Sarajevo Ad hoc Judge, European Court of Human Rights, 2010-2012 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 3 December 2012. Egidijus Born on 26 October 1961, in Vilnius, Lithuania M.A. in law, Vilnius University, 1984 PhD in law, Moscow State University, 1988 Habilitation, Vilnius University, 2008 Assistant lecturer (1984-1985, 1988-1991), Senior Lecturer (1991-1992), Associate professor (1992-1994), Professor and Head (2008-2009), Department of Theory and History of State and Law; Professor and Head (2009-2013), Department of Public Law, Faculty of Law, Vilnius University Advisor, State Re-Establishment Committee, Supreme Council of the Republic of Lithuania, 1990-1991 Member, legal professionals’ group for drafting the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania, 1992 Associate Professor (1992-2002), Professor (2002-2013) and Director (1992-1999), Institute of International Relations and Political Science, Vilnius University Assistant to the President, Constitutional Court of Lithuania, 1993-1997 President, Lithuanian Political Science Association, 1995-1998 Justice (1999-2008) and President (2002-2008), Constitutional Court of Lithuania President (as president of the constitutional court presiding at the Conference), Conference of the European Constitutional Courts, 2005-2008 President of the Council, Mykolas Romeris University, Vilnius, 2005-2009 Associate Member, International Academy of Comparative Law, since 2012 Member, Permanent Commission for the Assessment of Activities of Judges (Lithuania), 2012-2013 Member, Advisory Board, Ministry of Health (Lithuania), 2013 External Advisor to the Minister of Justice (Lithuania), 2013 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 1 November 2013. Robert Judge Born on 27 August 1972, in Reykjavik, Iceland Cand. jur. degree in Law (combined BA and Masters Degrees), Faculty of Law, University of Iceland 1997 Mag. jur. degree in European and Comparative Law, University of Oxford (University College) 2000, Clifford Chance Prize (proxime accessit), Civil Procedure Prize Deputy District Court Judge, 1997-1998 Legal Adviser to the Parliamentary Ombudsman, 1998-2001 Adjunct Professor of Law, Faculty of Law, University of Iceland, 2000-2002 Assistant Professor of Law, Faculty of Law, University of Iceland, 2002-2004 District Court Judge, 2004 Deputy to the Parliamentary Ombudsman, 2001-2004 Member of the Board, Human Rights Institute, University of Iceland, 2005-2013 Chairman of the Standing Committee of Experts on Criminal Law, Ministry of Justice, 2003-2008 and 2011-2013 Associate Professor of Law, Faculty of Law, University of Iceland, (tenure) 2004-2006 Editor of the Law Review, Lawyers' Association of Iceland, 2005-2013 Professor of Public Law, Criminal Procedure and Jurisprudence, Faculty of Law, University of Iceland, (tenure) 2006 Chairman of a Commission of Experts appointed by the Prime Minister of Iceland to investigate human rights abuses from 1947-1992 in child care institutions run by the state and municipal governments, 2007-2012 Chairman of a Commission of Experts elected by the Assembly of the National Church of Iceland to investigate allegations of sexual abuse by the former Bishop of Iceland, 2010-2011 Vice-Dean of the Faculty of Law, University of Iceland, 2007-2010 Dean of the Faculty of Law, University of Iceland, 2010-2013 Member of the Judicial Supervisory Board, 2011-2013 Independent Expert to the Lanzarote Committee of the Council of Europe, 2012 Icelandic Member of the European Committee on Crime Problems (CDCP), 2012-2013 Ad hoc Judge, EFTA Court, 2012-2013 Parliamentary Ombudsman of Iceland (provisional appointment and ad hoc), 2009-2013 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 1 November 2013. Iulia Born on 20 August 1967, in Timişoara, Romania L.L.B., University of Bucharest, School of Law, 1989 Master in International Public Law, University Aix-Marseilles III, 1991 S.J.D. in International Public Law, University Aix-Marseilles III, 1996 Habilitation in Law, University Paris XI, 1998 Ph.D. in Philosophy, University of Bucharest, Department of Philosophy, 1999 Senior “Jean Monnet” Fellow, New York University, School of Law, 2003-2004 Senior Fellow, Yale University, School of Law, Orville Centre for International Human Rights, 2004-2007 Trainee Prosecutor, Giurgiu Regional Prosecution Office, 1989-1990 Judge, Trial Court of the 2nd District of Bucharest, 1990-1995 Lawyer, Bucharest Bar Association, 1995-2013 Teaching Assistant (1995-1997), lecturer (1997-1998), reader (1998-2002), professor of International Law and Human Rights (2002-2013) and European Law (2007-2013), University of Bucharest Member of the Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, Council of Europe, 1998-2004 and 2008-2012 Member (2000–2007) and President (2000-2001) of the Sub-Commission on the promotion and protection of human rights, United Nations Member, Working Group on Indigenous Populations, United Nations, 2000-2004 Special Rapporteur of the United Nations Commission for Human Rights for the Democratic Republic of Congo, 2001-2004 Member, Working Group on Extreme Poverty and Human Rights, United Nations, 2003-2006 UN Special Rapporteur on Human Rights and the Human Genome, 2004-2007 Member (2006-2013), Rapporteur (2008-2010) and Vice-President (2012-2013), Human Rights Committee, United Nations Member, Executive Board of the European Society of International Law, 2004-2008 Member of the Presidential Commission for Analysis of the Constitution, Romania, 2007-2008 Member of the Fundamental Rights Agency of the European Union, 2010-2012 Director (Romania) of the European Master on Human Rights and Democratisation, European Inter-University Centre for Human Rights and Democratisation, Venice, 2007-2013 Arbitrator, International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes, Washington, 2008-2013 Research Professor, Justice and International Law in a Global World, Institute for Research in International and European Law, Sorbonne, 2012-2013 Judge, Constitutional Court of Romania, 2010-2013 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 18 December 2013. Jon Fridrik Born on 15 October 1955, in Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina LL.D. (1979), M.S. (1985), Dr. Sci. (1990), Law School of the University of Belgrade Assistant Professor (1992-1999), Associate Professor (1999-2005), Full Professor (2005-2015), Law School of the University of Belgrade Editor-in-Chief of the Archives for Law and Social Sciences, 2003-2008 Coordinator of the Council of Europe for the compatibility of the Serbia and Montenegro law with the Revised European Social Charter, 2003-2005 President of the Serbian Association for Labour Law and Social Security, 2008-2011 Member of the Serbian High Civil Service Council, 2005-2010 Member of the Presidency of the Serbian Association of Jurists, 2011-2015 External collaborator/expert of the International Labour Organisation, 2002, 2013 and 2014 Member of the Scientific Committee Forum for the Regulation of a Social Europe, 2011 Member of the Republican Board for prevention of conflict of interest, 2005-2009 Member of the Board of Anticorruption Agency of Serbia, 2009-2013 President of the Board of Anticorruption Agency of Serbia, 2013-2015 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 13 April 2015. Yonko Born on 27 December 1965, in Sofia, Bulgaria Master of Law, Faculty of Law, University of Sofia, 1991 Lawyer, registered with the Sofia Bar Association, 1993 Development and implementation of a training program for Bulgarian judges on the application of the European Convention on Human Rights, Council of Europe, 1991-2001 Founding member, Bulgarian Helsinki Committee, Sofia, 1992-2013 Founding member of the Board, Centre for Liberal Strategies, Sofia, 1993-2013 LL.M. (Master of Law), Harvard Law School, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1995 Founding member of the Board, Access to Information Foundation, Sofia, 1996 and 2002 Member of the Legal Advisory Committee of the European Roma Rights Centre, 1998-2010 Member of the Board, Media Development Center, Sofia, 2000-2003 Member of the Board, Open Society Institute, Sofia, 2001-2004 Lecturer and trainer for extensive training meant for practising lawyers on the case law of the European Court of Human Rights, since 2001 Member of the Board, Mental Disability Advocacy Center, Budapest, 2002-2006 Head of a working group with the task of drafting a strategy for institutional reform aimed at improving the implementation of judgments of the European Court of Human Rights, Ministry of Justice of Bulgaria, 2007-2008 Member of a working group drafting the first legal aid legislation, 2009 Chair of the Board and founding member, Risk Monitor, Sofia, 2009-2015 Member of the Board, Bulgarian Lawyers for Human Rights, 2009-2013 Member of the Board, Open Society Justice Initiative, New York, 2011-2015 Development and implementation of a web-based training course for practising lawyers, Council of Europe, 2012-2013 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 13 April 2015. Síofra Born on 20 September 1968, in Dublin, Ireland Bachelor of Civil Law, University College Dublin, 1986-1989 PhD on European law, European University Institute, Florence, Italy, 1989-1993 Lectures addressing practitioners, government agencies and academics on fundamental rights, EU law and European Court of Justice practice and procedure, 1992-2014 Visiting Fellow, Department of Public International Law, University of Cádiz, Spain, 1994-1995 Research Associate, Institute for Public Policy Research, London, 1994-1996 Assistant Director of the Centre for European Legal Studies, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom, 1995-1996 Fellow of Emmanuel College, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom, 1995-1996 Référendaire, Court of Justice of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 1996-1999 Visiting Fellow, Faculty of Law, University College Dublin, Ireland, 1999-2004 Référendaire and Chef de cabinet, Court of Justice of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 2000-2004 Visiting Professor, Department of Law, College of Europe, Bruges, Belgium, since 2003 Administrator, Research and Documentation Directorate, Court of Justice of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 2004-2005 Référendaire and Chef de cabinet, Court of Justice of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2005-2012 Member of the Editorial and Advisory Boards of the Common Market Law Review, since 2012 and 2015 Head of Unit, Research and Documentation Directorate, Court of Justice of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2012-2015 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 2 July 2015. Roderick Born on 2 November 1965, in St. Gallen, Switzerland Master of Law, University of St. Gallen, 1985-1989 Attorney’s license, bar exam in St. Gallen, 1992 Legal assistant, Court of Appeal, St. Gallen, 1992-2000 Judge, Court of Justice of the Principality of Liechtenstein, Vaduz, 2001-2015 Member of the Association of Jurists St. Gallen, since 1991 Member of the Liechtenstein Association of Judges, since 2001 Collaboration in numerous Liechtenstein working groups on legislative reforms, 2003-2015 Member (2003-2015), Head (2011-2015) of the Liechtenstein expert group against sexual abuse of children and juveniles Member of the Swiss Association of Criminal Law, since 2004 Member of the Swiss Group of Criminology, since 2006 Liechtenstein representative at the Council of Europe Committees of experts PC-ES on the protection of children against sexual exploitation and abuse, 2006-2007, and CAHVIO on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, 2009-2010 Member of the Liechtenstein delegations presenting national reports to the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2006, and the UN Human Rights Council, 2008 Liechtenstein representative at the European Committee on Crime Problems of the Council of Europe (CDPC), 2007-2015 Liechtenstein Deputy Member at the Consultative Council of European Judges (CCJE), 2008-2015, and the Council of Europe Committee of the parties to the Lanzarote Convention (T-ES), 2013-2015 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 1 September 2015. Mārtiņš Born on 25 March 1972, in Riga, Latvia Senior Adviser, Department of Case-law Analysis of the Latvian Supreme Court, 1993-1995 LL.B., qualification of a lawyer, University of Latvia, 1995 Deputy Director (1995-1998), Acting Director (1999-2001), Human Rights Institute, University of Latvia, Faculty of Law LL.M. in Human Rights, University of Nottingham, United Kingdom, 1998 Chief Editor of the Latvian Human Rights Quarterly, 2000-2001 Lecturer (1999-2012), Docent (2012-2013), Associate Professor (since 2013); Prorector (2008-2015), Riga Graduate School of Law Regular lecturer in the Latvian Judicial Training Centre and in training courses organised for judges of the Latvian Constitutional Court (2003-2004) and the Latvian Supreme Court (2003-2004, 2010) Dr.iur (LL.D) in Public International Law, Lund University, Sweden, 2010 Member of the Constitutional Rights Committee of the President of the Republic of Latvia, 2007-2012 Alternate member representing Latvia in the Management Board of the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2007-2012 Expert of the Latvian Council of Science, 2010-2012 and since 2014 Listed by the Latvian Government as ad hoc Judge of the European Court of Human Rights, 2012-2015 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 3 September 2015. Armen Born on 7 March 1964, in Yerevan, Armenia Diploma in Law, Yerevan State University, Law Department, 1981-1986 PhD, Institute of State and Law of Academy of Science of the USSR, Moscow, 1986-1989 Assistant Professor, Associate Professor, Senior Professor, Yerevan State University, Law Department, Division of Constitutional and International Law, 1989-2002 Doctor of Law, Academy of Public Administration of Russian Federation, Moscow, 1996-1997 Member of the Commission on Constitutional reforms, 1997-2001 Legal Advisor, Constitutional Court of Armenia, 1997-2005 Representative of the President of the Republic of Armenia on Constitutional reforms, 2001-2005 Rector, Public Administration Academy of Armenia, 2002-2006 Deputy Representative of Armenia, European Commission for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission), 2002-2011 Member of the Council of Justice of Armenia, 2004-2005 President of the European Law Association of Armenia, 2004-2011 Human Rights Defender (Ombudsman) of Armenia, Human Rights Defender’s Institution of Armenia, 2006-2011 Member of the Board of European Ombudsman Institute (2008-2011), external member (2011-2015) Graduated of the Human Rights Law Centre, School of Law, University of Nottingham, 2007 Member of the Armenian Bar Association of North America, Los Angeles, 2007-2011 Honorary Member of the French Association of Armenian Advocates and Lawyers (AFAJA), Paris, 2008-2011 Regional Representative, Regional Office for Central Asia of the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2011-2014 Head of the UN Human Rights Monitoring Mission in Ukraine, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2014-2015 Member (external) of the Commission of Constitutional amendments of Ukraine, 2015 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 17 September 2015. Stéphanie Born on 19 December 1955, in Vienna, Austria Law Studies, Law School, University of Vienna, 1973-1977 Doctor of Law, Law School, University of Vienna, 1977 Legal trainee in the District Court for Commercial Affaires and in the Regional Criminal Court, Vienna, 1980-1981 Habilitation for Constitutional and Administrative Law, University of Vienna, 1984 Associate Professor for Constitutional and Administrative Law, University of Vienna, 1985 Substitute Member of the Constitutional Court of Austria, 1995-2015 Visiting professor, University of Graz, 2000 Permanent Member of the Austrian Commission of Jurists, since 2000 Expert at the Austrian Constitutional Convention in the Austrian National Council, 2003-2005 Member of the Selection Committee for Civil Service Tribunal of the European Union, 2005-2009 Member of the Society of German Public Law Professors, since 2006 Chair of the Arbitration Commission, University of Vienna, 2006-2013 Substitute Member of the European Commission for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission), Council of Europe, 2006-2015 Vice-Chair of the Human Rights Advisory Board, Austrian Ministry of the Interior, 2008-2012 Vice-Chair of the Human Rights Advisory Board, Austrian Ombudsman Office, 2012-2013 Chair of the Independent Disciplinary Commission, Austrian Ministry of Science, Economy and Research, 2008-2015 Full Professor for Constitutional and Administrative Law, Law School, University of Vienna, since 2011 Chair (2013-2015) of Senate, Vice-Chair (2009-2011), University of Vienna Spokesperson for the Senates of Austrian Universities, 2013-2015 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 1 November 2015. Pere Born on 29 November 1968, in Andorra la Vella, Principality of Andorra Master’s Degree in Political Science, Toulouse Institute of Political Science, France, 1987-1990 Master’s Degree in Finance and Business Economics, Montpellier Business School, France, 1990-1992 Master’s Degree in Public Administration, National School of Administration, Paris, 1992-1994 Technical Director of the Interior Ministry, Andorra, 1995-1998 Judge of First Instance in charge of Administrative and Civil Litigation, Andorra, 1998-2011 PhD Public Law, University of Toulouse 1, 1999-2002 Member of the Bioethics Committee of the Council of Europe (DH-BIO), 2005-2015 Lecturer at the University of Andorra and the University Toulouse 1, since 2005 Judge of the Supreme Court of Andorra, 2011-2015 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 1 November 2015. Françoise Born on 6 November 1964 in Bojnice, Slovak Republic Law Studies at Comenius University, Bratislava, 1982-1987 JUDr, Faculty of law, Legal History, Comenius University, Bratislava, 1987-1988 Law teacher, Secondary Economic School, Bratislava, 1988-1991 Trainee Judge, Regional Court, Bratislava, 1991-1994 Judge, Ministry of Justice, 1993 Judge in Commercial Law, District Court, Bratislava, 1994-2002 PhD, Faculty of Law, Commercial Law, Comenius University, Bratislava, 1996-2001 Judge in civil law matters, District Court, Bratislava, 2002-2004 Judge in administrative law matters, Supreme Court, 2004 Agent of the Government before the European Court of Human Rights, 2005-2006 Member of the Committee of Experts on improving the process of the protection of human rights, 2005-2006 Judge in civil law matters, District Court, Bratislava, 2006-2007 Judge in administrative law matters, Supreme Court, 2007-2011 Member of the Consultative Council of European Judges (CCJE), 2010-2015 President of Panel, Administrative Law, Supreme Court, 2011-2015 Vice-President of the Slovak Association of Judges, 2012-2014 Member of the First-instance Chamber on the Slovak Bar exam, 2012-2015 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 29 December 2015. Pauliine Born on 22 June 1956 in Salo, Finland Master of Laws, University of Helsinki, 1979 Senior Officer in Legislative Affairs, Ministry of Justice, 1980-1984 Trained on the bench, Helsinki District Court, 1985 Senior Adviser in Legislative Affairs, Ministry of Justice, 1985-1995 Head of Division (1995-1997), Assistant General Counsel (1998-1999), Co-Director (1999-2000) of the European Investment Bank, Legal Directorate, Luxembourg Member (2000-2015), President (2006-2015) of the Supreme Court of Finland Member of the Board of the Finnish Law Association, 2001-2006 Member of the National Board of the Nordic Lawyers’ Conference, since 2005 Chairperson of the Judicial Appointments Board of Finland, 2006-2012 Chairperson of the Advisory Board of the Institute of European Economic Law, University of Helsinki, 2008-2011 Vice-President of the Network of the Presidents of the Supreme Judicial Courts of the European Union, 2008-2015 Dr. econ. h.c., Hanken University, School of Economics, Helsinki, 2009 Dr. jur. h.c., Faculty of Law, University of Helsinki, 2010 Dr. jur. h.c., Faculty of Law, University of Turku, 2015 Member of the Board of Trustees of the Academy of European Law (ERA), since 2008, President 2011-2016 Member of the Advisory Board of the Law Faculty, University of Helsinki, 2011-2015 Member of a committee set up by the Ministry of Justice of Finland for reforms in the justice system, 2012-2015 Member of the panel provided for by article 255 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, mandated to give an opinion on the suitability of candidates to perform the duties of judge or advocate general of the Court of Justice or the General Court, since 2014 Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 1 January 2016. Georgios Course on Anglo-Cypriot Legal Studies, University of Leicester, 1988-1989 Ph.D. in private international law, University of Exeter, United Kingdom, 1984 Ph.D. in comparative administrative law, University of Athens, Greece, 1998 Ph.D. in comparative family law, University of Salonica, Greece, 2007 Ph.D. in the European Convention on Human Rights and comparative constitutional law, University of Thrace, Greece, 2015 Practising Advocate before all courts in Cyprus, 1985-1990 Judge (1990-1999), President (1999-2016) of the Family Court in Cyprus International Hague Network Judge for Cyprus in abduction of children cases, 2000-2016 Cyprus Liaison in the European judicial network in family matters (2006-2016) and Cyprus family law expert for the purposes of the ERA’s training modules on European family law (2012-2016) Cyprus Judicial Liaison for asylum matters (2013-2016) Lecturer and Head of the Law Department of Philips College, Cyprus, 1986-1990 Secretary and Lecturer of the Cyprus Council of Legal Education, 1985-1990 Lecturer and Examiner of the Cyprus Bar Council, 2000-2004 Adjunct Law Professor at the University of Cyprus, 2009-2012 Visiting Associate Law Professor at Frederick University, Cyprus, 2014 Appointed by the Cyprus Law Commissioner to make recommendations for the amendment of a chapter of the Cyprus Penal Code (1989) Representative of Cyprus judiciary in a number of legal bodies and committees, including the Council of the E.U., 1998-2016 Vice-President of the Committee of the United Nations Association of Cyprus (2012-2016) and a member of the Committee for the Restoration of Human Rights Throughout Cyprus (1986-2000) Editor and main author of the series “Studia Juriis Cyprii”, 1988-2016 Author and joint author of various law books and articles Judge of the European Court of Human Rights since 18 April 2016. Marko

Strasbourg

In which year were East and West Germany unified?

The hemicycles | Around Plenary | Plenary | European Parliament Statistics The Chambers For plenary sittings, the 751 Members of the European Parliament meet in the Chambers in Strasbourg and Brussels. How are the seats allocated? The rules which determine the allocation of seats in each Chamber are laid down by the Conference of Presidents: Members of the European Parliament form groups based on their political affinity, not on their nationality. The Chairs of the political groups sit in the first row in the semi-circle opposite the President of the European Parliament. The third row is occupied by Bureau members (Vice-Presidents and Quaestors). Within the political groups, the remaining seats are generally allocated in alphabetical order. Chamber seating plans The two plans contain: a list in numerical order indicating for each seat the name of the Member to whom it is allocated; a list in alphabetical order indicating for each Member the number of the seat allocated to him/her. The seat numbering in Strasbourg is different from that in Brussels; also, a Member may occasionally occupy a different seat for technical or organisational reasons. The lists are updated for each part-session. See:

i don't know

On which of the Greek islands did Bacchus find Ariadne, according to legend?

Ariadne - about the name Ariadne About Ariadne Designs Who was Ariadne? Many clients ask us about our name so this page tells you something about Ariadne and why we chose the name We chose the name Ariadne because she is synonymous with webs and weaving. Ariadne herself was a Greek princess from mythology. Ariadne (Greek Αριάδνη), in Greek mythology (Latin Arianna), was daughter of King Minos of Crete and his queen, Pasiphaë, daughter of Helios, the Sun-titan. She aided Theseus in overcoming the Minotaur and escaping from the labyrinth using a ball of red fleece thread to guide him. According to legend Theseus abandoned Ariadne on the Island of Naxos. There is a famous painting by Titian in which the Greek god Bacchus falls in love with Ariadne (he raises her into heaven and turns her into a constellation). The figure of Ariadne originates from the Greek Island of Crete. The story of Ariadne and Theseus may symbolically represent the overthrow of the Minoan empire by Greece. The Minoans had a Goddess based culture and it could be that Ariadne is a representation of a Minoan Goddess. In Minoan culture acrobats leapt over bulls during major festivities, it is possible that the Minotaur is derived from the Minoan bulls. Sir Arthur Evans suggested that the labyrinth was in fact the royal palace of Knosos in Crete which he excavated. Knosos had over 1300 rooms and so was indeed like a labyrinth. The name Ariadne means "most holy", composed of the Cretan Greek αρι (ari) "most" and αδνος (adnos) "holy" or "pure". The name certainly suggests a possible link between Ariadne and the Minoan Goddess. Some have suggested that Ariadne was the Minoan snake Goddess . Other uses of the name Ariadne In mythology Ariadne was the bride of the god Dionysus. There is a " Saint Ariadne " and Ariadne is a female first name more common in Europe. These days you find the name Ariadne all over the web - but Ariadne Designs Ltd was one of the first companies to use the name in the context of the world wide web. We were formed originally in 1996 and have been developing innovative websites and spreading the word ever since. We are a company dedicated to improving the web through well designed websites. Just as Ariadne helped Thesius escape the labyrinth so we can help you to get through the maze of the World Wide Web. You can find out more about Ariadne from the following sources:

Naxos

Which country's parliament is called the Storting?

DIONYSUS (Dionysos) - Greek God of Wine & Festivity (Roman Bacchus) Liber, Bacchus Dionysus riding panther, Greek mosaic from Pella C4th B.C., Pella Archaeological Museum DIONYSOS (Dionysus) was the Olympian god of wine, vegetation, pleasure, festivity, madness and wild frenzy. He was depicted as either an older, bearded god or an effeminate, long-haired youth. His attributes included the thyrsos (a pine-cone tipped staff), a drinking cup and a crown of ivy. He was usually accompanied by a troop of Satyrs and Mainades (wild female devotees). MYTHS Dionysos was a son of Zeus and the princess Semele of Thebes. During the course of her pregnancy, the god's jealous wife Hera tricked Semele into asking Zeus to appear before her in his full glory. Bound by oath, the god was forced to comply and she was consumed by the heat of his lightning-bolts. Zeus recovered their unborn child from her body, sewed him up in his own thigh, and carried him to term. << More >> After his birth from the thigh of Zeus, Dionysos was first entrusted to the care of Seilenos (Silenus) and the nymphs of Mount Nysa, and later to his aunt Ino, Semele's sister, and her husband Athamas. Hera was enraged when she learned of the boy's location and drove the couple mad, causing them to kill both their children and themselves. << More >> The Thrakian king Lykourgos (Lycurgus) attacked Dionysos and his companions as they were travelling through his land and drove them into the sea. As punishment, the god inflicted him with madness causing him to murder his wife and son and mutilate himself with an axe. << More >> King Pentheus of Thebes refused to accept the god's divinity and tried to apprehend him. The god retaliated by driving the king's daughters into a crazed frenzy and they tore him apart limb from limb. << More >> Dionysos instructed the hero Ikarios (Icarius) of Athens in the art of winemaking. However, some shepherds, upon drinking the wine, thought they had been poisoned and killed him. The sorrowful god then set him amongst the stars as the constellation Bootes. << More >> As Dionysos was travelling through the islands of the Aegean Sea he was captured by a band of Tyrrhenian pirates who thought to sell him into slavery. The god infested their ship with phantoms of creeping vines and wild beasts, and in terror the men leapt overboard and were transformed into dolphins. << More >> Dionysos married princess Ariadne of Krete (Crete) whom he discovered abandoned by Theseus on the island of Naxos. << More >> The god launched a campaign against the Indian nation in the farthest reaches of Asia, leading an army composed of Satyrs, Mainades, and demigods. << More >> Dionysos journeyed to the underworld to recover his mother Semele and brought her to Olympos where Zeus transformed into the goddess Thyone. << More >> Many other myths are detailed over the following pages. SYMBOLS & ATTRIBUTES Dionysos' most distinctive attribute was the thyrsos, a pine-cone tipped staff. His other attributes included a drinking-cup (kantharos), fruiting grapevines and a panther. The god was usually clothed in a long robe (chiton) and cloak (himation) and crowned with a wreath of ivy-leaves. Below are some examples of his attributes as depicted in ancient Greek art:- 1. Pine-cone staff (thyrsos); 2. Thyrsos-staff head; 3. Grapevines; 4. Drinking-cup; 5. Wreath of ivy-leaves. SACRED ANIMALS & PLANTS Dionysos' sacred animals were the panther (leopard), tiger, bull and serpent. The god rode on the back of a panther or drove a chariot drawn by a pair of the beasts. His sacred plants were the grapevine, ivy, bindweed (prickly ivy) and pine tree. Devotees of the god wore wreaths of ivy and carried pine-cone tipped staffs. Below are examples of the god's animals as depicted in ancient Greek art and photos of his sacred plants:- 1. Panther; 2. Grapevine; 3. Ivy; 4. Bindweed; 5. Pine tree. DIONYSUS PAGES ON THEOI.COM This site contains a total of 14 pages describing the god, including general descriptions, mythology, and cult. The content is outlined in the Index of Dionysus Pages (left column or below). FAMILY OF DIONYSUS PARENTS [1] ZEUS & SEMELE (Hesiod Theogony 940, Homeric Hymn 1 & 7 & 26, Pindar Odes Pythian 3, Bacchylides Frag 19, Apollodorus 3.26, Pausanias 3.24.4, Diodorus Siculus 4.2.1, Hyginus Fabulae 179, Nonnus Dionysiaca, et al) [2] ZEUS & DIONE (Scholiast on Pindar's Pythian 3.177; Hesychius) [3] ZEUS & SELENE ( BENDIS ?) (Cicero De Natura Deorum 3.21-23) OFFSPRING See Family of Dionysos Dionysos was a son of Zeus, King of the Gods, and Semele, a mortal princess of Thebes. The god was known as the "twice-born" for his mother was slain by the lightning-bolts of Zeus during the course of her pregancy, but rescued by his father who carried him to term sown up inside his thigh. Dionysos' grandparents were the Titans Kronos (Cronus) and Rheia, King Kadmos (Cadmus) of Thebes and the goddess Harmonia. He was a great-grandson of Ares and Aphrodite (Harmonia's parents) and also a distant descendant of the god Poseidon. The god's half-brothers and sisters included Hermes, Ares, Aphrodite, Athena, Persephone, Apollon and Artemis. He married Ariadne, daughter of King Minos of Krete (Crete), and their sons became kings and princes of the best wine-producing regions in ancient Greece. << More >> Below are two graphics depicting Dionysos' family tree, the first with names transliterated from the Greek and the second with the common English spellings:-- ENCYCLOPEDIA Dionysus-Bacchus, Greco-Roman marble statue C2nd A.D., State Hermitage Museum DIONYSOS, the youthful, beautiful, but effeminate god of wine. He is also called both by Greeks and Romans Bacchus (Bakchos), that is, the noisy or riotous god, which was originally a mere epithet or surname of Dionysus, but does not occur till after the time of Herodotus. According to the common tradition, Dionysus was the son of Zeus and Semele, the daughter of Cadmus of Thebes (Hom. Hymn. vi. 56; Eurip. Bacch. init.; Apollod. iii. 4. § 3); whereas others describe him as a son of Zeus by Demeter, Io, Dione, or Arge. (Diod. iii. 62, 74; Schol. ad Pind. Pyth. iii. 177; Plut. de Flum. 16.) Diodorus (iii. 67) further mentions a tradition, according to which he was a son of Ammon and Amaltheia, and that Ammon, from fear of Rhea, carried the child to a cave in the neighbourhood of mount Nysa, in a lonely island formed by the river Triton. Ammon there entrusted the child to Nysa, the daughter of Aristaeus, and Athena likewise undertook to protect the boy. Others again represent him as a son of Zeus by Persephone or Iris, or describe him simply as a son of Lethe, or of Indus. (Diod. iv. 4; Plut. Sympos. vii. 5; Philostr. Vit. Apollon. ii. 9.) The same diversity of opinions prevails in regard to the native place of the god, which in the common tradition is Thebes, while in others we find India, Libya, Crete, Dracanum in Samos, Naxos, Elis, Eleutherae, or Teos, mentioned as his birthplace. (Hom. Hymn. xxv. 8; Diod. iii. 65, v. 75; Nonnus, Dionys. ix. 6; Theocrit. xxvi. 33.) It is owing to this diversity in the traditions that ancient writers were driven to the supposition that there were originally several divinities which were afterwards identified under the one name of Dionysus. Cicero (de Nat. Deor. iii 23) distinguishes five Dionysi, and Diodorus (iii. 63, &c.) three. The common story, which makes Dionysus a son of Semele by Zeus, runs as follows: Hera, jealous of Semele, visited her in the disguise of a friend, or an old woman, and persuaded her to request Zeus to appear to her in the same glory and majesty in which he was accustomed to approach his own wife Hera. When all entreaties to desist from this request were fruitless, Zeus at length complied, and appeared to her in thunder and lightning. Semele was terrified and overpowered by the sight, and being seized by the fire, she gave premature birth to a child. Zeus, or according to others, Hermes (Apollon. Rhod. iv. 1137) saved the child from the flames: it was sewed up in the thigh of Zeus, and thus came to maturity. Various epithets which are given to the god refer to that occurrence, such as purigenês, mêrorraphês, mêrotraphês and ianigena. (Strab. xiii. p. 628; Diod. iv. 5; Eurip. Bacch. 295; Eustath. ad Hom. p. 310; Ov. Met. iv. 11.) After the birth of Dionysus, Zeus entrusted him to Hermes, or, according to others, to Persephone or Rhea (Orph. Hymn. xlv. 6; Steph. Byz. s. v. Mastaura), who took the child to Ino and Athamas at Orchomenos, and persuaded them to bring him up as a girl. Hera was now urged on by her jealousy to throw Ino and Athamas into a state of madness, and Zeus, in order to save his child, changed him into a ram, and carried him to the nymphs of mount Nysa, who brought him up in a cave, and were afterwards rewarded for it by Zeus, by being placed as Hyades among the stars. (Hygin. Fab. 182; Theon, ad Arat. Phaen. 177; comp. Hyades.) The inhabitants of Brasiae, in Laconia, according to Pausanias (iii. 24. § 3), told a different story about the birth of Dionysus, When Cadmus heard, they said, that Semele was mother of a son by Zeus, he put her and her child into a chest, and threw it into the sea. The chest was carried by the wind and waves to the coast of Brasiae. Semele was found dead, and was solemnly buried, but Dionysus was brought up by Ino, who happened at the time to be at Brasiae. The plain of Brasiae was, for this reason, afterwards called the garden of Dionysus. The traditions about the education of Dionysus, as well as about the personages who undertook it, differ as much as those about his parentage and birthplace. Besides the nymphs of mount Nysa in Thrace, the muses, Lydae, Bassarae, Macetae, Mimallones (Eustath. ad Hom. pp. 982, 1816), the nymph Nysa (Diod. iii. 69), and the nymphs Philia, Coronis, and Cleis, in Naxos, whither the child Dionysus was said to have been carried by Zeus (Diod. iv. 52), are named as the beings to whom the care of his infancy was entrusted. Mystis, moreover, is said to have instructed him in the mysteries (Nonn. Dionys. xiii. 140), and Hippa, on mount Tmolus, nursed him (Orph. Hymn. xlvii. 4); Macris, the daughter of Aristaeus, received him from the hands of Hermes, and fed him with honey. (Apollon. Rhod. iv. 1131.) On mount Nysa, Bromie and Bacche too are called his nurses. (Serv. ad Virg. Eclog. vi. 15.) Mount Nysa, from which the god was believed to have derived his name, was not only in Thrace and Libya, but mountains of the same name are found in different parts of the ancient world where he was worshipped, and where he was believed to have introduced the cultivation of the vine. Hermes, however, is mixed up with most of the stories about the infancy of Dionysus, and he was often represented in works of art, in connexion with the infant god. (Comp. Paus. iii. 18. § 7.) When Dionysus had grown up, Hera threw him also into a state of madness, in which he wandered about through many countries of the earth. A tradition in Hyginus (Poet. Astr. ii. 23) makes him go first to the oracle of Dodona, but on his way thither he came to a lake, which prevented his proceeding any further. One of two asses he met there carried him across the water, and the grateful god placed both animals among the stars, and asses henceforth remained sacred to Dionysus. According to the common tradition, Dionysus first wandered through Egypt, where he was hospitably received by king Proteus. He thence proceeded through Syria, where he flayed Damascus alive, for opposing the introduction of the vine, which Dionysus was believed to have discovered (euretês ampelou). He now traversed all Asia. (Strab. xv. p. 687; Eurip. Bacch. 13.) When he arrived at the Euphrates, he built a bridge to cross the river, but a tiger sent to him by Zeus carried him across the river Tigris. (Paus. x. 29; Plut. de Flum. 24.) The most famous part of his wanderings in Asia is his expedition to India, which is said to have lasted three, or, according to some, even 52 years. (Diod. iii. 63, iv. 3.) He did not in those distant regions meet with a kindly reception everywhere, for Myrrhanus and Deriades, with his three chiefs Blemys, Orontes, and Oruandes, fought against him. (Steph. Byz. s.v. Blemues, Gazos, Gêreia, Dardai, Eares, Zabioi, Malloi, Pandai, Sibai.) But Dionysus and the host of Pans, Satyrs, and Bacchic women, by whom he was accompanied, conquered his enemies, taught the Indians the cultivation of the vine and of various fruits, and the worship of the gods; he also founded towns among them, gave them laws, and left behind him pillars and monuments in the happy land which he had thus conquered and civilized, and the inhabitants worshipped him as a god. (Comp. Strab. xi. p. 505; Arrian, Ind. 5; Diod. ii. 38; Philostr. Vit. Apollon. ii. 9; Virg. Aen. vi. 805.) Dionysus also visited Phrygia and the goddess Cybele or Rhea, who purified him and taught him the mysteries, which according to Apollodorus (iii. 5. § 1.) took place before he went to India. With the assistance of his companions, he drove the Amazons from Ephesus to Samos, and there killed a great number of them on a spot which was, from that occurrence, called Panaema. (Plut. Quaest. Gr. 56.) According to another legend, he united with the Amazons to fight against Cronus and the Titans, who had expelled Ammon from his dominions. (Diod. iii. 70, &c.) He is even said to have gone to Iberia, which, on leaving, he entrusted to the government of Pan. (Plut. de Flum. 16.) On his passage through Thrace he was ill received by Lycurgus, king of the Edones, and leaped into the sea to seek refuge with Thetis, whom he afterwards rewarded for her kind reception with a golden urn, a present of Hephaestus. (Hom. Il. vi. 135, &c., Od. xxiv. 74; Schol. ad Hom. Il. xiii. 91. Comp. Diod. iii. 65.) All the host of Bacchantic women and Satyrs, who had accompanied him, were taken prisoners by Lycurgus, but the women were soon set free again. The country of the Edones thereupon ceased to bear fruit, and Lycurgus became mad and killed his own son, whom he mistook for a vine, or, according to others (Serv. ad Aen. iii. 14) he cut off his own legs in the belief that he was cutting down some vines. When this was done, his madness ceased, but the country still remained barren, and Dionysus declared that it would remain so till Lycurgus died. The Edones, in despair, took their king and put him in chains, and Dionysus had him torn to pieces by horses. After then proceeding through Thrace without meeting with any further resistance, he returned to Thebes, where he compelled the women to quit their houses, and to celebrate Bacchic festivals on mount Cithaeron, or Parnassus. Pentheus, who then ruled at Thebes, endeavoured to check the riotous proceedings, and went out to the mountains to seek the Bacchic women; but his own mother, Agave, in her Bacchic fury, mistook him for an animal, and tore him to pieces. (Theocrit. Id. xxvi.; Eurip. Bacch. 1142; Ov. Met. iii. 714, &c.) After Dionysus had thus proved to the Thebans that he was a god, he went to Argos. As the people there also refused to acknowledge him, he made the women mad to such a degree, that they killed their own babes and devoured their flesh. (Apollod. iii. 5. § 2.) According to another statement, Dionysus with a host of women came from the islands of the Aegean to Argos, but was conquered by Perseus, who slew many of the women. (Paus. ii. 20. § 3, 22. § 1.) Afterwards, however, Dionysus and Perseus became reconciled, and the Argives adopted the worship of the god, and built temples to him. One of these was called the temple of Dionysus Cresius, because the god was believed to have buried on that spot Ariadne, his beloved, who was a Cretan. (Paus. ii. 23. § 7.) The last feat of Dionysus was performed on a voyage from Icaria to Naxos. He hired a ship which belonged to Tyrrhenian pirates; but the men, instead of landing at Naxos, passed by and steered towards Asia to sell him there. The god, however, on perceiving this, changed the mast and oars into serpents, and himself into a lion; he filled the vessel with ivy and the sound of flutes, so that the sailors, who were seized with madness, leaped into the sea, where they were metamorphosed into dolphins. (Apollod. iii. 5. § 3; Hom. Hymn. vi. 44; Ov. Met. iii. 582, &c.) In all his wanderings and travels the god had rewarded those who had received him kindly and adopted his worship : he gave them vines and wine. After he had thus gradually established his divine nature throughout the world, he led his mother out of Hades, called her Thyone, and rose with her into Olympus. (Apollod. l. c.) The place, where he had come forth with Semele from Hades, was shown by the Troezenians in the temple of Artemis Soteira (Paus. ii. 31. § 2); the Argives, on the other hand, said, that he had emerged with his mother from the Alcyonian lake. (Paus. ii. 37. § 5; Clem. Alex. Adm. ad Gr. p. 22.) There is also a mystical story, that the body of Dionysus was cut up and thrown into a cauldron by the Titans, and that he was restored and cured by Rhea or Demeter. (Paus. viii. 37. § 3; Diod. iii. 62; Phurnut. N. D. 28.) Various mythological beings are described as the offspring of Dionysus; but among the women, both mortal and immortal, who won his love, none is more famous in ancient history than Ariadne. The extraordinary mixture of traditions which we have here had occasion to notice, and which might still be considerably increased, seems evidently to be made up out of the traditions of different times and countries, referring to analogous divinities, and transferred to the Greek Dionysus. We may, however, remark at once, that all traditions which have reference to a mystic worship of Dionysus, are of a comparatively late origin, that is, they belong to the period subsequent to that in which the Homeric poems were composed; for in those poems Dionysus does not appear as one of the great divinities, and the story of his birth by Zeus and the Bacchic orgies are not alluded to in any way : Dionysus is there simply described as the god who teaches man the preparation of wine, whence he is called the "drunken god " (mainomenos), and the sober king Lycurgus will not, for this reason, tolerate him in his kingdom. (Hom. Il. vi. 132, &c., Od. xviii. 406, comp. xi. 325.) As the cultivation of the vine spread in Greece, the worship of Dionysus likewise spread further; the mystic worship was developed by the Orphici, though it probably originated in the transfer of Phrygian and Lydian modes of worship to that of Dionysus. After the time of Alexander's expedition to India, the celebration of the Bacchic festivals assumed more and more their wild and dissolute character. As far as the nature and origin of the god Dionysus is concerned, he appears in all traditions as the representative of some power of nature, whereas Apollo is mainly an ethical deity. Dionysus is the productive, overflowing and intoxicating power of nature, which carries man away from his usual quiet and sober mode of living. Wine is the most natural and appropriate symbol of that power, and it is therefore called "the fruit of Dionysus." (Dionusou karpos; Pind. Fragm. 89, ed. Böckh.) Dionysus is, therefore, the god of wine, the inventor and teacher of its cultivation, the giver of joy, and the disperser of grief and sorrow. (Bacchyl. ap. Athen. ii. p. 40; Pind. Fragm. 5; Eurip. Bacch. 772.) As the god of wine, he is also both an inspired and an inspiring god, that is, a god who has the power of revealing the future to man by oracles. Thus, it is said, that he had as great a share in the Delphic oracle as Apollo (Eurip. Bacch. 300), and he himself had an oracle in Thrace. (Paus. ix. 30. § 5.) Now, as prophetic power is always combined with the healing art, Dionysus is, like Apollo, called iatpos, or hugiatês (Eustath. ad Hom. p. 1624), and at his oracle of Amphicleia, in Phocis, he cured diseases by revealing the remedies to the sufferers in their dreams. (Paus. x. 33. § 5.) Hence he is invoked as a theos sôtêr against raging diseases. (Soph. Oed. Tyr. 210; Lycoph. 206.) The notion of his being the cultivator and protector of the vine was easily extended to that of his being the protector of trees in general, which is alluded to in various epithets and surnames given him by the poets of antiquity (Paus. i. 31. § 2, vii. 21. § 2), and he thus comes into close connexion with Demeter. (Paus. vii. 20. § 1; Pind. Isthm. vii. 3; Theocrit. xx. 33; Diod. iii. 64; Ov. Fast. iii. 736; Plut. Quaest. Gr. 36.) This character is still further developed in the notion of his being the promoter of civilization, a law-giver, and a lover of peace. (Eurip. Bacch. 420; Strab. x. p. 468; Diod. iv. 4.) As the Greek drama had grown out of the dithyrambic choruses at the festivals of Dionysus, he was also regarded as the god of tragic art, and as the protector of theatres. In later times, he was worshipped also as a theos chthonios, which may have arisen from his resemblance to Demeter, or have been the result of an amalgamation of Phrygian and Lydian forms of worship with those of the ancient Greeks. (Paus. viii. 37, § 3; Arnob. adv. Gent. v. 19.) The orgiastic worship of Dionysus seems to have been first established in Thrace, and to have thence spread southward to mounts Helicon and Parnassus, to Thebes, Naxos, and throughout Greece, Sicily, and Italy, though some writers derived it from Egypt. (Paus. i. 2. § 4; Diod. i. 97.) Respecting his festivals and the mode of their celebration, and especially the introduction and suppression of his worship at Rome, see Dict. of Ant. s. vv. Agriônia, Anthestêria, Halôa, Aiôra, and Dionysia. In the earliest times the Graces, or Charites, were the companions of Dionysus (Pind. Ol. xiii. 20; Plut. Quaest. Gr. 36; Apollon. Rhod. iv. 424), and at Olympia he and the Charites had an altar in common. (Schol. ad Pind. Ol. v. 10 ; Paus. v. 14 in fin.) This circumstance is of great interest, and points out the great change which took place in the course of time in the mode of his worship, for afterwards we find him accompanied in his expeditions and travels by Bacchantic women. called Lenae, Maenades, Thyiades, Mimallones, Clodones, Bassarae or Bassarides, all of whom are represented in works of art as raging with madness or enthusiasm, in vehement motions, their heads thrown backwards, with dishevelled hair, and carrying in their hands thyrsus-staffs (entwined with ivy, and headed with pine-cones), cymbals, swords, or serpents. Sileni, Pans, satyrs, centaurs, and other beings of a like kind, are also the constant companions of the god. (Strab. x. p. 468; Diod. iv. 4. &c.; Catull. 64. 258 ; Athen i. p. 33; Paus. i. 2. § 7.) The temples and statues of Dionysus were very numerous in the ancient world. Among the sacrifices which were offered to him in the earliest times, human sacrifices are also mentioned. (Paus. vii. 21. § 1; Porphyr. de Abstin. ii. 55.) Subsequently, however, this barbarous custom was softened down into a symbolic scourging, or animals were substituted for men, as at Potniae. (Paus. viii. 23. § 1, ix. 8. § 1.) The animal most commonly sacrificed to Dionysus was a ram. (Virg. Georg. ii. 380, 395; Ov. Fast. i. 357.) Among the things sacred to him, we may notice the vine, ivy, laurel, and asphodel; the dolphin, serpent, tiger, lynx, panther, and ass; but he hated the sight of an owl. (Paus. viii. 39. § 4; Theocrit. xxvi. 4; Plut. Sympos. iii. 5; Eustath. ad Hom. p. 87; Virg. Eclog. v. 30; Hygin. Poët. Astr. ii. 23; Philostr. Imag. ii. 17; Vit. Apollon. iii. 40.) The earliest images of the god were mere Hermae with the phallus (Paus. ix. 12. § 3), or his head only was represented. (Eustath. ad Hom. p. 1964.) In later works of art he appears in four different forms:-- 1. As an infant handed over by Hermes to his nurses, or fondled and played with by satyrs and Bacchae. 2. As a manly god with a beard, commonly called the Indian Bacchus. He there appears in the character of a wise and dignified oriental monarch; his features are expressive of sublime tranquillity and mildness; his beard is long and soft, and his Lydian robes (bassara) are long and richly folded. His hair sometimes floats down in locks, and is sometimes neatly wound around the head, and a diadem often adorns his forehead. 3. The youthful or so-called Theban Bacchus, was carried to ideal beauty by Praxiteles. The form of his body is manly and with strong outlines, but still approaches to the female form by its softness and roundness. The expression of the countenance is languid, and shews a kind of dreamy longing; the head, with a diadem, or a wreath of vine or ivy, leans somewhat on one side; his attitude is never sublime, but easy, like that of a man who is absorbed in sweet thoughts, or slightly intoxicated. He is often seen leaning on his companions, or riding on a panther, ass, tiger, or lion. The finest statue of this kind is in the villa Ludovisi. 4. Bacchus with horns, either those of a ram or of a bull. This representation occurs chiefly on coins, but never in statues. Source: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. CLASSICAL LITERATURE QUOTES DIONYSUS MYTHS SUMMARY I APOLLODORUS Satyr and Dionysus, Athenian red-figure kylix C5th B.C., Antikensammlung Berlin Several ancient poets and writers attempted to arrange the mythology of Dionysos into a tidy chronological narrative. However, these were artificial constructs--the stories were, for the most part, a loose collection of highly localised, unrelated cult myths. The mythographer Apollodorus provides us with the neatest of these narratives. Related myths not mentioned by this author are noted in the link boxes following each sub-section. I. THE BIRTH OF DIONYSUS Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3. 26 - 28 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "Zeus fell in love with Semele and slept with her, promising her anything she wanted, and keeping it all from Hera. But Semele was deceived by Hera into asking Zeus to come to her as he came to Hera during their courtship. So Zeus, unable to refuse, arrived in her bridal chamber in a chariot with lightning flashes and thunder, and sent a thunderbolt at her. Semele died of fright, and Zeus grabbed from the fire her six-month aborted baby, which he sewed into his thigh. After Semele's death the remaining daughters of Kadmos (Cadmus) circulated the story that she had slept with a mortal, thereafter accusing Zeus, and because of this had been killed by a thunderbolt. At the proper time Zeus loosened the stitches and gave birth to Dionysos, whom he entrusted to Hermes." For MYTHS of the birth of Dionysos see: (3) Dionysos Wrath: Lycurgus (Iliad version) III. DISCOVERS THE GRAPE VINE Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3. 31 : "Dionysos was the discoverer of the grapevine." In later antiquity the story was developed into a love match between Dionysos and the youth Ampelos "grape-vine." For the MYTH of Dionysos discovery of the vine see: (1) Dionysus Loves: Ampelus (boy transformed into the first grape-vine) V. DRIVEN MAD BY HERA, WANDERS EGYPT & SYRIA Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3. 32 : "After Hera inflicted madness upon him, he wandered over Aigyptos (Egypt) and Syria. The Aigyptian king Proteus first welcomed him." This story was probably invented to explain his connection between Dionysos, the Egyptian Osiris and the Phoenician god of wine. For MYTHS of Dionysos in Egypt and Syria see: VII. TRAVELS THROUGH THRACE & DRIVEN INTO THE SEA BY LYCURGUS Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3. 34 : "Now Lykourgos (Lycurgus), son of Dryas and king of the Edonians, who lived beside the Strymon River, was the first to show his hybris to Dionysos by expelling him Dionysos fled to the sea and took shelter with Nereus' daughter Thetis, but his Bakkhai (Bacchae) were taken captive along with the congregation of Satyroi (Satyrs) that accompanied him . . . the Edonians took Lykourgos to Mount Pangaion (Pangaeum) and bound him, and there in accordance with the will of Dionysos, he was destroyed by his horses and died." This story was connected with the orgiastic Thrakian cult of Sabazios. In Homer, the story is set during Dionysos' childhood, elsewhere he is an adult god travelling from land to land. For the MYTH of Dionysos & Lykourgos: VIII. TRAVELS TO THEBES & PUNISHES THE IMPIOUS PENTHEUS Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3. 35 : "Dionysos crossed Thrake (Thrace) and came to Thebes, where he compelled the women to leave their homes and cavort in a frenzy on Kithairon (Cithaeron). Now Pentheus, Ekhion's (Echion's) son by Aguae (Agave) and current lord of the land after Kadmos (Cadmus), tried to prevent these goings-on. He went up on Kithairon to spy on the Bakkhai, but was torn to pieces by his mother Agaue, for in her madness she thought he was a wild animal." This story was connected with the establishment of the god's orgies on Mount Kithairon in Boiotia. For the MYTH of Dionysos & Pentheus see: (5) Dionysus Favour: Boeotian Bacchantes (transformed into leopards) IX. TRAVELS TO ATHENS & TEACHES ICARIUS WINEMAKING Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2. 191 : "Dionysos came to Attika (Attica) . . . Ikarios (Icarius) received Dionysos, who gave him a vine-cutting and taught him the art of making wine. Ikarios was eager to share the god's kindness with mankind, so he went to some shepherds, who, when they had tasted the drink and then delightedly and recklessly gulped it down undiluted, thought they had been poisoned and slew Ikarios. But in the daylight they regained their senses and buried him. As his daughter was looking for him, a dog named Maira (Maera), who had been Ikarios' faithful companion, unearthed the corpse; and Erigone, in the act of mourning her father, hanged herself." For MYTHS of Dionysos, Ikarios and Erigone see: X. TRAVELS THE AEGEAN & PUNISHES THE TYRRHENIAN PIRATES Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 3. 36 : "When he [Dionysos] wanted passage across from Ikaria (Icaria) to Naxos he hired a trireme of Tyrrhenian pirates. But when they had him on board, they sailed past Naxos and headed for Asia where they planned to sell him. He thereupon changed the mast and the oars into snakes, and filled the boat with ivy and the sound of flutes. The men went mad and dove into the sea, where they became dolphins." Apollodorus places the story of Dionysos' Aegean wanderings after Argos (section 12). However, in the usual tradition, Dionysos arrives in Argos from the islands with Ariadne and an army of island women. For the MYTH of Dionysos & the pirates see: XI. ARRIVES ON NAXOS & MARRIES ARIADNE Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca E1. 9 : "Dionysos fell in love with Ariadne, and kidnapped her [from Naxos], taking her off to Lemnos where he had sex with her, and begat Thoas, Staphylos, Oinopion (Oenopion), and Peparethos [who became kings of the various islands of the Aegean]." Apollodorus describes the wedding of Dionysos and Ariadne in the Theseus section of his book. The story, however, belongs here in the chronology of the Dionysos saga. It seems unlikely she was originally connected with Theseus, since her story and children otherwise belong to an earlier generation of myth. For MYTHS of Dionysos on Naxos see: XII. TRAVELS TO ARGOS & PUNISHES THE IMPIOUS ARGIVES Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 28. 37 : "After Dionysos had demonstrated to the Thebans that he was a god, he went to Argos where again he drove the women mad when the people did not pay him honour, and up in the mountains the women fed on the flesh of the babies suckling at their breasts." In other versions of this story, the Argives were punished for the impiety of their king--Proitos, Akrisios or Perseus. In the local Argive legend Perseus warred with Dionysos and his troop of island women and Ariadne was killed in the fighting. For MYTHS of Dionysos in Argos see: XIII. RECOGNISED AS A GOD Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2. 37 : "With events like these, men learned that Dionysos was a god, and they began to honour him." The recognition of the divinity of Dionysos is applicable to all the previous stories of his wanderings. IV. RECOVERS HIS MOTHER FROM HADES & ENTERS OLYMPUS Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2. 37 : "He [Dionysos] retrieved his mother from Haides' realm, gave her the name Thyone, and escorted her up to the sky." This myth had a place in Argive cult, where Dionysos is said to have descended to Haides through the Alkyonean Lake. His quest to the underworld perhaps also included the recovery of his wife Ariadne, who had been slain by Perseus in the Argive war, in addition to recovering his mother Semele. Death and reincarnation was an important part of the Dionysian cult. The story of the binding of Hera, in which Dionysos led Hephaistos back to Olympos to release the goddess and was offered a seat amongst the twelve Olympians, is curiously absent from Apollodorus. The myth was extremely popular in Athenian vase painting. For MYTHS of Dionysos' journey to the Underwold and his apotheosis: (1) Divinity-Apotheosis of Dionysus (receives full honours as a god on earth) Several other stories are absent from Apollodorus' account. For other MYTHS of Dionysos' wanderings see: Silenus, Dionysus and Bacchante, Paestan red-figure vase C4th B.C., Musée du Louvre DIONYSUS MYTHS SUMMARY II AESCHYLUS The Theban legends of Dionysos were the subject of no less than five of the lost plays of Aeschylus: Semelê ê Hudrophoroi, Dionusos trophoi (or Trophoi), Bakchai, Xantriai, Pentheus. In addition, at least four others described the god's Thracian encounters: Edonoi, Lykourgos, Neaniskoi and the Bassarae. DIONYSUS MYTHS SUMMARY III SENECA Seneca's Hymn to Dionysos in the play Oedipus summarizes the god's story from birth to heavenly ascension. See Seneca Pseudo-Hymn to Dionysus DIONYSUS MYTHS SUMMARY IV NONNUS The late Roman-era Greek poet Nonnus wrote an epic poem describing the birth and adventures of Dionysos, centred on his War against the Indians. His account of the wanderings of Dionysos varies from that of Apollodorus, with its focus on stories of the East. I will provide an overview of this contents of this epic at a later stage (which due to its size is not possible to quote here in depth). The first fourteen books of the epic can be found here . HYMNS TO DIONYSUS I. THE HOMERIC HYMNS Homeric Hymn 1 to Dionysus 17 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C7th to 4th B.C.) : "[The hymn begins with the story of the nursing of the god on Mount Nysa.] . . . Be favourable, O Insewn (eiraphiot),Inspirer of frenzied women (gynaimanes)! we singers sing of you as we begin and as we end a strain, and none forgetting you may call holy song to mind. And so, farewell, Dionysos Insewn (eiraphiota) with your mother Semele whom men call Thyone." Homeric Hymn 7 to Dionysus : "I sing of Dionysos, the son of glorious Semele. [The story of his birth follows.] . . . Hail, child of fair-faced Semele! He who forgets you can in no wise order sweet song." Homeric Hymn 26 to Dionysus : "I begin to sing of Dionysos ivy-crowned (kissokomes) the loud-crying (eribromos), splendid son of Zeus and glorious Semele. The rich-haired Nymphai (Nymphs) received him in their bosoms from the lord his father and fostered and nurtured him carefully in the dells of Nysa, where by the will of his father he grew up in a sweet-smelling cave, being reckoned among the immortals. But when the goddesses had brought him up, a god oft hymned, then began he to wander continually through the woody coombes, thickly wreathed with ivy and laurel. And the Nymphai followed in his train with him for their leader; and the boundless forest was filled with their outcry. And so hail to you, Dionysos god of abundant clusters (polystaphylos)! Grant that we may come again rejoicing to this season, and from that season onwards for many a year." II. THE ORPHIC HYMNS Orphic Hymn 45 to Dionysus (trans. Taylor) (Greek hymns C3rd B.C. to 2nd A.D.) : "Come, blessed Dionysos, various-named, bull-faced, begot from thunder, Bakkhos (Bacchus) famed. Bassaros God, of universal might, whom swords and blood and sacred rage delight: in heaven rejoicing, mad, loud-sounding God, furious inspirer, bearer of the rod: by Gods revered, who dwellest with humankind, propitious come, with much rejoicing mind." Orphic Hymn 30 to Dionysus : "Dionysos I call loud-sounding and divine, inspiring God, a twofold shape is thine: thy various names and attributes I sing, O firstborn (protogonos), thrice begotten (trigonos), Bakkheion (Bacchian) king. Rural, ineffable, two-formed, obscure, two-horned, with ivy crowned, and Euion pure: bull-faced and martial, bearer of the vine, endued with counsel prudent and divine: Eubouleos (Eubuleus), whom the leaves of vines adorn, of Zeus and Persephoneia occultly born in beds ineffable; all-blessed power, whom with triennial offerings men adore. Immortal Daimon, hear my suppliant voice, give me in blameless plenty to rejoice; and listen gracious to my mystic prayer surrounded with thy choir of nurses fair." Orphic Hymn 46 to Licnitus : "Liknitos (Lictinus) Dionysos, bearer of the vine, thee I invoke to bless these rites divine: florid and gay, of Nymphai (NYmphs) the blossom bright, and of fair Aphrodite, Goddess of delight. 'Tis thine mad footsteps with mad Nymphai to beat, dancing through groves with lightly leaping feet: from Zeus' high counsels nursed by Persephoneia, and born the dread of all the powers divine. Come, blessed God, regard thy suppliant's voice, propitious come, and in these rites rejoice." Orphic Hymn 47 to Pericionius : "Bakkhos Perikionios (Bacchus Pericionius), hear my prayer, who madest the house of Kadmos (Cadmus) once thy care, with matchless force his pillars twining round, when burning thunders shook the solid ground, in flaming, sounding torrents borne along, propped by thy grasp indissolubly strong. Come, mighty Bakkhos, to these rites inclined, and bless thy suppliants with rejoicing mind." Orphic Hymn 50 to Lysius Lenaeus : "Hear me, Zeus' son, blest Bakkhos (Bacchus), God of wine, born of two mothers, honoured and divine; Lysios Euios (Lysius Evius) Bakkhos, various-named, of gods the offspring, secret, holy, famed. Fertile and nourishing, whose liberal care augments the fruit that banishes despair. Sounding, magnanimous, Lenaios power, of various-formed, medicinal, holy flower: mortals in thee repose from labour find, delightful charm, desired by all mankind. Fair-haired Euion, Bromios, joyful God, Lysios, insanely raging with the leafy rod. To these our rites, benignant power, incline, when favouring men, or when on Gods you shine; be present to thy mystics' suppliant prayer, rejoicing come, and fruits abundant bear." Orphic Hymn 52 to Trietericus : "Bakkhos (Bacchus) phrenetic, much named, blessed, divine, bull-horned, Lernaion, bearer of the vine; from fire descended, ranging, Nysion king, from whom initial ceremonies spring. Liknitos (Licnitus), pure and fiery bright, prudent, Eubouleos (Eubuleus) crown-bearer, wandering in the night; nursed in Mount Mero, all-mysterious power, triple, ineffable, Zeus' secret flower; Erikepaios (Ericepaeus), first-begotten named, of Gods the father and the offspring famed. Bearing a sceptre, leader of the choir, whose dancing feet phrenetic furies fire, when the triennial band thou dost inspire, Omadion, captor, of a fiery light, born of two mothers, Amphietos birght; love, mountain-wandering, clothed with skins of deer, Paian golden-rayed, whom all revere. Great annual god of grapes, the ivy crowned, Bassaros, lovely, virginlike, renowned. Come, blessed power, regard thy mystic's voice, propitious come, and in these rites rejoice." Orphic Hymn 53 to Amphietus : "Khthonion (Chthonian) Dionysos, hear my prayer, rise vigilant with Nymphai of lovely hair : great Bakkhos (Bacchus) Amphietos, annual God, who laid asleep in Persephone's abode, her sacred seat, didst lull to drowsy rest the rites triennial and the sacred feast; which roused again by thee, in graceful ring, thy nurses round thee mystic anthems sing; when briskly dancing with rejoicing powers, thou movest in concert with the circling hours. Come blessed, fruitful, horned, and divine, and on this sacred consecration propitious shine; accept the pious incense and the prayer, and make prolific the holy fruits thy care." III. OVID PSEUDO-HYMN Ovid, Metamorphoses 4. 14 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "[The Boiotian Bacchantes] called on Bacchus [Dionysos] by his many noble names: Lyaeus, Bromius; child of flaming fire; alone twice mothered and alone twice born; great lord and planter of the genial grape; Nyseus too, and Lenaeus and Thyoneus, whose locks are never shorn; Nyctelius, Iacchus, Euhan, father Eleleus; and all the countless titles that are yours, Liber [Dionysos], throughout the lands of Greece." IV. SENECA PSEUDO-HYMN Seneca, Oedipus 401 ff (trans. Miller) (Roman tragedy C1st A.D.) : "Let the people's hymn sound with the praise of Bacchus [Dionysos]. Bind your streaming locks with the nodding ivy, and in your soft hands grasp the Nysaean thyrsus! Bright glory of the sky, come hither to the prayers which thine own illustrious Thebes, O Bacchus, offers to thee with suppliant hands. Hither turn with favour thy virginal face; with thy star-bright countenance drive away the clouds, the grim threats of Erebus, and greedy fate. Thee it becomes to circle thy locks with flowers of the springtime, thee to cover thy head with Tyrian turban, or thy smooth brow to wreathe with the ivy's clustering berries; now to fling loose thy lawless-streaming locks, again to bind them in a knot close-drawn; in such guise as when, fearing thy stepdame's [Hera's] wrath, thou didst grow to manhood with false-seeming limbs, a pretended maiden with golden ringlets, with saffron girdle binding thy garments. So thereafter this soft vesture has pleased thee, folds loose hanging and the long-trailing mantle. Seated in thy golden chariot, thy lions with long trappings covered, all the vast coast of the Orient saw thee, both he who drinks of the Ganges and whoever breaks the ice of snowy Araxes. On an unseemly ass old Silenus attends thee, his swollen temples bound with ivy garlands; while thy wanton initiates lead the mystic revels. Along with thee a troop of Bassarids in Edonian dance beat the ground, now on Mount Pangaeus' peak, now on the top of Thracian Pindus; now midst Cadmean dames has come a maenad [Agaue], the impious comrade of Ogygian Bacchus, with sacred fawn-skins girt about her loins, her hand a light thyrsus brandishing. Their hearts maddened by thee, the matrons have set their hair a-flowing; and at length, after the rending of Pentheus' limbs, the Bacchanals, their bodies now freed from the frenzy, looked on their infamous deed as though they knew it not. Cadmean Ino, foster-mother of shining Bacchus, holds the realms of the deep, encircled by bands of Nereids dancing; over the waves of the mighty deep a boy holds sway, new come, the kinsman of Bacchus, no common god, Palaemon. Thee, O boy, a Tyrrhenian band [of pirates] once captured and Nereus allayed the swollen sea; the dark blue waters he changed to meadows. Thence flourish the plane-tree with vernal foliage and the laurel-grove dear to Phoebus; the chatter of birds sounds loud through the branches. Fast-growing ivy clings to the oars, and grape-vines twine at the mast-head. On the prow an Idaean lion roars; at the stern crouches a tiger of Ganges. Then the frightened pirates swim in the sea, and plunged in the water their bodies assume new forms: the robbers' arms first fall away; their breasts smite their bellies and are joined in one; a tiny hand comes down at the side; with curving back they dive into the waves, and with crescent-shaped tail they cleave the sea; and now as curved dolphins they follow the fleeing sails. On its rich stream has Lydian Pactolus borne thee, leading along its burning banks the golden waters; the Massgetan who mingles blood with milk in his goblets has unstrung his vanquished bow and given up his Getan arrows; the realms of axe-wielding Lycurgus have felt the dominion of Bacchus; the fierce lands of the Zalaces have felt it, and those wandering tribes whom neighbouring Boreas smites, and the nations which Maeotis' cold water washes, and they [i.e. the Skythians] on whom the Arcadian constellation looks down from the zenith and the wagons twain. He has subdued the scattered Gelonians; he has wrested their arms form the warrior maidens [i.e. the Amazones]; with downcast face they fell to earth, those Thermodontian hordes, gave up at length their light arrows, and became maenads. Sacred Cithaeron has flowed with the blood of Ophionian slaughter [i.e. of Pentheus]; the Proetides fled to the woods, and Argos, in his stepdame's [Hera's] very presence, paid homage to Bacchus. Naxos, girt by the Aegean sea, gave him in marriage a deserted maiden [Ariadne], compensating her loss with a better husband. Out of the dry rock there gushed Nyctelian liquor [wine]; babbling rivulets divided the grassy meadows; deep the earth drank in the sweet juices, white fountains of snowy milk and Lesbian wine mingled with fragrant thyme. The new-made bride is led to the lofty heavens; Phoebus [Apollon] a stately anthem sings, with his locks flowing down his shoulders, and twin Cupides [Erotes] brandish their torches. Jupiter [Zeus] lays aside his fiery weapons and, when Bacchus comes, abhors his thunderbolt. While the bright stars of the ancient heavens shall run in their courses; while Oceanus shall encircle the imprisoned earth with its waters; while full Luna [Selene the moon] gather again her lost radiance; while Lucifer [Eosphoros, the day sar] shall herald the dawn of the morning and while the lofty Bears [constellations Ursae] shall know naught of caerulean Nereus; so long shall we worship the shining face of beauteous Lyaeus [Dionysos]." PHYSICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF DIONYSUS Dionysus-Bacchus, Greco-Roman mosaic from Daphne C4th A.D., Rhode Island School of Design Museum Classical literature offers only a few, brief descriptions of the physical characteristics of the gods. Homeric Hymn 7 to Dionysus 1 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C7th to 4th B.C.) : "He [Dionysos] appeared on a jutting headland by the shore of the fruitless sea, seeming like a stripling in the first flush of manhood: his rich, dark hair was waving about him, and on his strong shoulders he wore a purple robe." Euripides, Bacchae 90 ff (trans. Buckley) (Greek tragedy C5th B.C.) : "[Dionysos] the bull-horned god (theos taurokeros), and he [Zeus] crowned him with crowns of snakes." Euripides, Bacchae 135 ff : "In the mountains . . . the leader of the dance is Bromios, euhoi! The plain flows with milk, it flows with wine, it flows with the nectar of bees. Bakkheus (Bacchus), raising the flaming torch of pine on his thyrsos, like the smoke of Syrian incense, darts about, arousing the wanderers with his racing and dancing, agitating them with his shouts, casting his rich locks into the air. And among the Mainades (Maenads) cries his voice rings deep." Euripides, Bacchae 230 ff : "Some stranger [Dionysos] has come . . . fragrant in hair with golden curls, having in his eyes the wine-dark graces of Aphrodite." Euripides, Bacchae 350 ff : "[Pentheus speaks:] ‘This effeminate stranger [Dionysos].’" Euripides, Bacchae 455 ff : "[Pentheus addresses Dionysos :] ‘Your body is not ill-formed, stranger, for women's purposes . . . For your hair is long, not through wrestling, scattered over your cheeks, full of desire; and you have a white skin from careful preparation, hunting after Aphrodite by your beauty not exposed to strokes of the sun, but beneath the shade.’" Pausanias, Description of Greece 5. 19. 6 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) : "[Amongst the scenes depicted on the chest of Kypselos dedicated at Olympia :] Dionysos is lying down in a cave, a bearded figure holding a golden cup, and clad in a tunic reaching to the feet. Around him are vines, apple-trees and pomegranate-trees." Philostratus the Elder, Imagines 1. 15 (trans. Fairbanks) (Greek rhetorician C3rd A.D.) : "There are countless characteristics of Dionysos for those who wish to represent him in painting or sculpture, by depicting which even approximately the artist has captured the god. For instance, the ivy clusters forming a crown are the clear mark of Dionysos, even if the workmanship is poor; and a horn just springing from the temples reveals Dionysos, and a leopard, though but just visible, is a symbol of the god." Callistratus, Descriptions 6 (trans. Fairbanks) (Greek rhetorician C3rd to 4th A.D.) : "[From a description of an ancient Greek statue of Kairos (Caerus) :] He resembled Dionysos; for his forehead glistened with graces and his cheeks, reddening to youthful bloom, were radiantly beautiful, conveying to the beholder's eye a delicate blush." Callistratus, Descriptions 8 : "[Description of an ancient Greek statue of Dionysos by Praxiteles :] On the statue of Dionysos . . . The hands of Praxiteles wrought works of art that were altogether alive. There was a grove, and in it stood Dionysos in the form of a young man, so delicate that the bronze was transformed into flesh, with a body so supple and relaxed that it seemed to consist of some different material instead of bronze : for though it was really bronze, it nevertheless blushed, and though it had no part in life, it sought to show the appearance of life and would yield to the very finger-tip if you touched it, for though it was really compact bronze, it was so softened into flesh by art that it shrank from the contact of the hand. It had the bloom of youth, it was full of daintiness, it melted with desire, as indeed Euripides represented him when he fashioned his image in the Bakkhai. A wreath of ivy encircled his head--since the bronze was in truth ivy, bent as it was into sprays and holding up the curly locks which fell in profusion from his forehead. And it was full of laughter, nay, it wholly passed the bounds of wonder in that the material gave out evidence of joy and the bronze feigned to represent the emotions. A fawn-skin clothed the statue, not such as Dionysos was accustomed to wear, but the bronze was transformed to imitate the pelt; and he stood resting his left hand on a thyrsos, and the thyrsos deceived the beholder's vision; for while it was wrought of bronze it seemed to glisten with the greenness of young growth, as though it were actually transformed into the plant itself. The eye was gleaming with fire, in appearance the eye of a man in a frenzy; for the bronze exhibited the Bakkhic madness and seemed to be divinely inspired, just as, I think, Praxiteles had the power to infuse into the statue also the Bakkhic ecstasy." [N.B. Extant statues of this type include the "Bacchus de Versailles" in the Louvre and the Dionysus in Madrid.] Ovid, Metamorphoses 3. 550 ff (trans. Melville) (Roman epic C1st B.C. to C1st A.D.) : "[Dionysos,] an unarmed boy . . . [who] in his service not the arts of war, weapons and cavalry, but tender garlands, myrrh-scented tresses and embroidered robes of gold and purple." Ovid, Metamorphoses 3. 664 ff : "[The Tyrrhenian pirates] discovered on this lonely spot, a boy [Dionysos], as pretty as a girl. He seemed to reel, half-dazed with wine and sleep, and almost failed to follow along. I gazed at his attire, his face, his bearing; everything I saw seemed more than mortal. I felt sure of it . . . [Later on the ship:] Ivy creeping, winding, clinging, bound the oars and decked the sails in heavy clusters. Bacchus [Dionysos] himself, grape-bunches garlanding his brow, brandished a spear that vine-leaves twined, and at his feet fierce spotted panthers lay, tigers and lynxes too, in phantom forms." Ovid, Metamorphoses 4. 18 ff : "You [Dionysos] have youth unfading; you're a boy for ever; you shine the fairest in the firmament. When you lay by your horns, your countenance is like a lovely girl's." Seneca, Hercules Furens 472 ff (trans. Miller) (Roman tragedy C1st A.D.) : "But dainty Bacchus does not blush to sprinkle with perfume his flowing locks, nor in his soft hand to brandish the slender thrysus, when with mincing gait he trails his robe gay with barbaric gold." Seneca, Oedipus 413 ff : "[Dionysos] bind your streaming locks with the nodding ivy, and in your soft hands grasp the Nysaean thyrsus! . . . Thee it becomes to circle thy locks with flowers of the springtime, thee to cover thy head with Tyrian turban, or thy smooth brow to wreathe with the ivy's clustering berries; now to fling loose thy lawless-streaming locks, again to bind them in a knot close-drawn; in such guise as when, fearing thy stepdame's wrath, thou didst grow to manhood with false-seeming limbs, a pretended maiden with golden ringlets, with saffron girdle binding thy garments. So thereafter this soft vesture has pleased thee, folds loose hanging and the long-trailing mantle. Seated in thy golden chariot, thy lions with long trappings covered, all the vast coast of the Orient saw thee." Seneca, Phaedra 753 ff : "Bacchus [Dionysos], from thyrsus-bearing India, with unshorn locks, perpetually young, thou who frightenest tigers with thy vine-clad spear, and with a turban bindest thy hornèd head." ANCIENT GREEK & ROMAN ART Valerius Flaccus, The Argonautica - Latin Epic C1st A.D. BYZANTINE Suidas, The Suda - Byzantine Greek Lexicon C10th A.D. OTHER SOURCES Source status of Dionysos pages:- 1. Fully quoted: Homer (Iliad & Odyssey), Hesiod, Homeric Hymns, Homerica, Apollodorus, Pausanias, Strabo, Herodotus, Orphic Hymns, Quintus Smyrnaeus, Callimachus, Parthenius, Aelian, Ovid (Metamorphoses), Hyginus (Fabulae & Astronomica), Apuleius, Aesop; 2. Partially or not quoted (Greek): Pindar, Greek Lyric (Fragments), Greek Elegaic (Fragments), Apollonius Rhodius, Diodorus Siculus, Antoninus Liberalis, Euripides, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Aristophanes, Plato, Theocritus, Lycophron, Plutarch, Philostratus & Callistratus, Nonnus, Oppian, Tryphiodorus, Colluthus, et. al.; 3. Partially or not quoted (Latin): Ovid (Fasti), Cicero, Statius, Propertius, Valerius Flaccus, et. al.

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"Which German city is known as ""Aix-la-Chapelle in French?"

CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Aachen Home > Catholic Encyclopedia > A > Aachen Aachen Help support New Advent and get the full contents of this website as an instant download . Includes the Catholic Encyclopedia, Church Fathers, Summa, Bible and more — all for only $19.99... (In French , Aix-la-Chapelle, the name by which the city is generally known; in Latin Aquae Grani, later Aquisgranum). The city of Aachen lies in a Prussian valley, surrounded by wooded heights, on the Wurm, a tributary of the Roer, on its way to the Meuse. Population, 1 December, 1905, 151,922 (including the Parish of Forst); Catholics , 139,485; Protestants , 10,552; Israelites , 1,658; other denominations, 227. 1990 Population: about 250,000 — Ed. The city owes its origin to its salubrious springs which were already known in the time of the Romans. There appears to have been a royal court in Aachen under the Merovingians, but it rose to greater importance under Charlemagne who chose it as his favourite place of residence, adorned it with a noble-imperial palace and chapel , and gave orders that he should be buried there. The precious relics obtained by Charlemagne and Otho III for the imperial chapel were the objects of great pilgrimages in the Middle Ages (the so-called "Shrine Pilgrimages") which drew countless swarms of pilgrims from Germany, Austria , Hungary , England, Sweden , and other countries. From the middle of the fourteenth century onwards, however it became customary to expose the four great relics only once in every seven years, a custom which still holds. These pilgrimages , the coronations of the German emperors (thirty-seven of whom were crowned there between 813 and 1531), the flourishing industries and the privileges conferred by the various emperors combined to make Aachen one of the first cities of the Empire. The decay of Aachen dates from the religious strife of the German Reformation . Albrecht von Muenster first preached Protestantism there in the year 1524 but was afterwards forbidden to preach the new views and executed on account of two murders committed during his stay in the cities of Maastricht and Wesel. A new Protestant community was soon, however, formed in Aachen, which gradually attained such strength as to provoke a rising in 1581, force the election of a Protestant burgomaster, and defy the Emperor for several years. The Ban of the empire was, therefore, pronounced against the city in 1597 and put in force by the Duke of Julich, the Catholic overlord of the city. The Catholics were restored to their rights , and the Jesuits invited to Aachen, in 1600. In 1611, however, the Protestants rose afresh, plundered the Jesuit college , drove out the Catholic officials in 1612, and opened their gates to troops from Brandenburg . The Ban of the Empire was again laid on the city, and executed by the Spanish general, Spinola. The Protestant ringleaders were tried or exiled, and many other Protestants banished. These troubles, together with a great fire which destroyed 4,000 houses, put an end to the prosperity of the city. Two treaties of peace were concluded at Aachen during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. By the first, dated 2 May 1668, Louis XIV was compelled, by the Triple Alliance between England, the Netherlands , and Sweden , to abandon the war against the Spanish Netherlands, to restore the Franche Comte, which he had conquered, and to content himself with twelve Flemish fortresses. The second treaty, dated 18 October, 1748, put an end to the War of the Austrian Succession. In 1793 and 1794, Aachen was occupied by the French, incorporated with the French Republic in 1798 and 1802, and made the capital of the Department of the Roer. By the terms of the French Concordat of 1801 Aachen was made a bishopric subject to the Archbishop of Mechlin , and composed of 79 first class, and 754 second class, parishes . The first and only bishop was Marcus Antonius Berdolet (b. 13 September, 1740, at Rougemont, in Alsace 3; d. 13 August, 1809), who, for the most part, left the government of his diocese to his vicar-general , Martin Wilhelm Fonck (b. 28 October, 1752, at Goch; d. 26 June, 1830, as Provost of Cologne Cathedral ). After the death of Bishop Berdolet the diocese was governed by Le Camus, Vicar General of Meaux; after his death, in 1814, by the two vicars-general Fonck and Klinkenberg. The Bull of Pius VII , "De Salute Animarum," dated 16 July, 1821 which regulated church matters in Prussia anew, did away with the bishopric of Aachen , and transferred most of its territory to the archdiocese of Cologne; a collegiate chapter, consisting of a provost and six canons, taking the place of the bishopric in 1825. In 1815 Aachen became Prussian territory. The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle sat there from 30 September to 11 November, 1818, and was attended by the sovereigns of Russia, Austria , and Prussia , and by plenipotentiaries from France and England, to determine the relations between France and the Powers. France obtained a reduction of the war indemnity and the early departure of the army of occupation, and joined the Holy Alliance; the other four Powers guaranteed the throne of France to the Bourbons, against any revolution that might occur. Aachen, under Prussian government, returned to prosperity, chiefly through the development of the coal mines in the neighborhood, which facilitated several extensive industries (such as the manufacture of linen, needles, machinery, glass, woolen, and half-woollen stuffs, etc.), but also in consequence of the large number of visitors to its hot springs. The minster ranks first among the church buildings ; it consists of three distinct parts: the octagon, the choir, and the crown, or ring, of chapels , the octagon forming the central portion. This last is the most important monument of Carolingian architecture , it was built between 796 and 804, in the reign of Charlemagne , by Master Odo of Metz, and modelled after the Italian circular church of San Vitale at Ravenna . It was consecrated by Pope Leo III . It is an eight-angled, domed building, 54 feet in diameter, with a sixteen-sided circumference of 120 feet, and a height of 124 feet. The interior of the dome is adorned with mosaics on a gold ground, executed by Salviati of Venice , in 1882, representing Our Lord surrounded by the four and twenty Ancients of the Apocalypse . The main building was decorated with marble and mosaics in 1902, after the designs of H. Schaper. Over the spot supposed to be the site of Charlemagne's grave hangs an enormous corona of lamps, the gift of the Emperor Frederick I, Barbarossa ; in the choir of the octagon, the so-called upper minster, stands Charlemagne's throne, made of great-slabs of white marble, where, after the coronation , the German emperors received the homage of their nobles. The rich upper choir , built in Gothic style, joins on to the eastern side of the octagon; it was begun in the second half of the fourteenth century, and dedicated in 1414. The thirteen windows , each 100 feet high, have been filled with new coloured glass; on the pillars between them stand fourteen statues (the Mother of God , the Twelve Apostles , and Charlemagne ), dating from the fifteenth century. Among the treasures of the choir should be mentioned the famous Gospel-pulpit, enriched with gold plates, the gift of the Emperor Henry II , the throne canopy of the fifteenth century the new Gothic high altar of 1876, and the memorial stone which marks the spot where the Emperor Otto III formerly lay. The lower portions of the bell-tower , to the west of the octagon, belong to the Carolingian period, the Gothic superstructure dates from 1884. Of the chapels which surround the whole building, the so-called Hungarian chapel contains the minster treasury, which includes a large number of relics , vessels , and vestments , the most important being those known as the four "Great Relics," namely, the cloak of the Blessed Virgin , the swaddling-clothes of the Infant Jesus , the loin-cloth worn by Our Lord on the Cross, and the cloth on which lay the head of St. John the Baptist after his beheading. They are exposed every seven years and venerated by thousands of pilgrims . Among the other Catholic churches of Aachen, the following may be mentioned: the Church of Our Lady, a Gothic church in brick, built by Friederich Statz in 1859 the Church of St. Foillan, the oldest parish church in the city, which dates, in its present form, from the Gothic period, and was renovated between 1883 and 1888; and the Romanesque Church of St. James, built between 1877 and 1888. The most important secular building is the Rathaus, built between 1333 and 1350, on the site of, and out of the ruins of, Charlemagne's imperial palace, and completely renovated between 1882 and 1903. The façade is adorned with the statues of fifty-four German emperors, the great hall (Kaisersaal) with eight frescoes from designs by Alfred Rethel . In Aachen there are foundations established by the Franciscans , Capuchins , Alexians , and Redemptorists . A number of female orders also have establishments, including: the Sisters of St. Charles, the Christensians, the Sisters of St. Vincent. Councils of aachen A number of important councils were held here in the early Middle Ages . In the mixed council of 798, Charlemagne proclaimed an important capitulary of eighty-one chapters, largely a repetition of earlier ecclesiastical legislation, that was accepted by the clergy and acquired canonical authority. At the council of 799, after a discussion of six days Felix, Bishop of Urgel , in Spain , avowed himself overcome by Alcuin and withdrew his heretical theory of Adoptianism. In the synods of 816, 817, 818, and 819, clerical and monastic discipline was the chief issue, and the famous "Regula Aquensis" was made obligatory on all establishments of canons and canonesses (see WESTERN MONASTICISM ), while a new revision of the Rule of St. Benedict was imposed on the monks of that order by the reformer Benedict of Aniane . The synod of 836 was largely attended and devoted itself to the restoration of ecclesiastical discipline that had been gravely affected by the civil wars between Louis the Pious and his sons. From 860 to 862 three councils were occupied with the question of the divorce of King Lothaire I from his wife, Theutberga. In 1166 took place the famous schismatic council, approved by the Antipope Paschal III , in which was decreed the canonization of Charlemagne , that was solemnly celebrated 29 December of that year.

Aachen

What emblem appears on the flag of Albania?

Aix la Chapelle - The Full Wiki The Full Wiki More info on Aix la Chapelle   Wikis Aix la Chapelle: Wikis Advertisements Note: Many of our articles have direct quotes from sources you can cite, within the Wikipedia article! This article doesn't yet, but we're working on it! See more info or our list of citable articles . Related top topics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the meteorite "Aachen", see Meteorite falls . Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) 1,604 /km2 (4,154 /sq mi) Other information 1306–1801 → listen ) ; French , and, historically, English : Aix-la-Chapelle, Latin Aquisgranum, Ripuarian : Oche, Dutch : Aken) is a historic spa city in North Rhine-Westphalia , Germany . It was a favoured residence of Charlemagne , and the place of coronation of the Kings of Germany . It is the westernmost city of Germany, located along its borders with Belgium and the Netherlands , 65 km (40 mi) west of Cologne . [1] Contents History Middle Age-style architecture can be found in Aachen. A quarry on the Lousberg which was first used in Neolithic times attests to the long occupation of the site of Aachen. No larger settlements, however, have been found to have existed in this remote rural area, distant at least 15 km from the nearest road even in Roman times, up to the early medieval period when the place is mentioned as a king's mansion for the first time, not long before Charlemagne became ruler of the Franks. Since Roman times, the hot springs at Aachen have been channeled into baths. [1] There are currently two places to "take the waters", at the Carolus Thermen complex and the bathhouse in Burtscheid [2] . There is some documentary proof that the Romans named the hot sulfur springs of Aachen Aquis-Granum, and indeed to this day the city is known in Spanish as Aquisgrán and in Polish as Akwizgran. The name Granus has lately been identified as that of a Celtic deity . In French-speaking areas of the former Empire , the word aquis evolved into the modern Aix. Advertisements Construction of Aix-la-Chapelle, by Jean Fouquet . After Roman times, Einhard mentions that in 765–6 Pippin the Younger spent both Christmas and Easter at Aquis villa ("Et celebravit natalem Domini in Aquis villa et pascha similiter."), [3] which must have been sufficiently equipped to support the royal household for several months. In the year of his coronation as King of Franks, 768, Charlemagne came to spend Christmas at Aachen for the first time. He went on to remain there in a mansion which he may have extended, although there is no source attesting any significant building activity at Aachen in his time apart from the building of the Palatine Chapel in Aachen (since 1929, cathedral) and the palatial presentation halls. Charlemagne spent most winters between 792 and his death in 814 in Aachen, which became the focus of his court and the political center of his empire. After his death, the king was buried in the church which he had built; his original tomb has been lost, while his alleged remains are preserved in the shrine where he was reburied after being declared a saint; his saintliness, however, was never very widely acknowledged outside the bishopric of Liège where he may still be venerated by tradition. [1] In 936, Otto I was crowned king of the kingdom in the collegiate church built by Charlemagne. Over the next 500 years, most kings of Germany destined to reign over the Holy Roman Empire were crowned " King of the Germans " in Aachen. The last king to be crowned here was Ferdinand I in 1531. [1] During the Middle Ages , Aachen remained a city of regional importance, due to its proximity to Flanders , achieving a modest position in the trade in woollen cloths, favoured by imperial privilege. The city remained a Free Imperial City , subject to the Emperor only, but was politically far too weak to influence the policies of any of its neighbors. The only dominion it had was over Burtscheid , a neighboring territory ruled by a Benedictine abbess and forced to accept that all of its traffic must pass through the "Aachener Reich". Even in the late 18th century, the Abbess of Burtscheid was prevented from building a road linking her territory to the neighbouring estates of the duke of Jülich ; the city of Aachen even deployed its handful of soldiers to chase away the road-diggers. From the early 16th century, Aachen lost power. A fire devastated the city in 1656. [4] Aachen became attractive as a spa by the middle of the 17th century, not so much because of the effects of the hot springs on the health of its visitors but because Aachen was then — and remained well into the 19th century — a place of high-level prostitution in Europe. Traces of this hidden agenda of the city's history is found in the 18th century guidebooks to Aachen as well as to the other spas; the main indication for visiting patients, ironically, was syphilis ; only by the end of the 19th century had rheuma become the most important object of cures at Aachen and Burtscheid. This explains why Aachen was chosen as site of several important congresses and peace treaties: the first congress of Aachen (often referred to as Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in English ) in 1668, leading to the First Treaty of Aachen in the same year which ended the War of Devolution . The second congress ended with the second treaty in 1748, finishing the War of the Austrian Succession . [1] The third congress took place in 1818 to decide the fate of occupied Napoleonic France. The 19th century By the middle of the 19th century, industrialization swept away most of the city's medieval rules of production and commerce, although the entirely corrupt remains of the city's mediæval constitution was kept in place (compare the famous remarks of Georg Forster in his Ansichten vom Niederrhein) until 1801, when Aachen became the " chef-lieu du département de la Roer " in Napoléon's First French Empire . In 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars , the Kingdom of Prussia took over and the city became one of its most socially and politically backward centres until the end of the 19th century. [1] Administered within the Rhine Province , by 1880 the population was 80,000. Starting in 1840, the railway from Cologne to Belgium passed through Aachen. The city suffered extreme overcrowding and deplorable sanitary conditions up to 1875 when the mediæval fortifications were finally abandoned as a limit to building operations and new, less miserable quarters were built to the eastern part of the city where drainage of waste liquids was the easiest. In the 19th century and up to the 1930s, the city was important for the production of railway locomotives and carriages, iron , pins , needles , buttons , tobacco , woollen goods, and silk goods. The 20th century Aachen was heavily damaged during World War II . It was taken by the Allies on October 21, 1944; the first German city to be captured. Aachen was destroyed partially — and in some parts completely — during the fighting , [1] mostly by American artillery fire and demolitions by fanatical Waffen-SS defenders. Damaged buildings included the mediæval churches of St. Foillan , St. Paul and St. Nicholas , and the Rathaus (city hall), although the Aachen Cathedral was largely unscathed. Only 4,000 inhabitants remained in the city; the rest had obeyed Nazi evacuation orders. Its first Allied-appointed mayor, Franz Oppenhoff , was murdered by an SS commando unit. It was in Aachen, in 1944, just after having crossed the German border, a U.S. Army chaplain held the first Jewish service in Germany since the beginning of World War II. This service was broadcast live on NBC [5] . The first discothèque opened here in 1959, the Scotch-Club .[citation needed] While the emperor' palace no longer exists, the church built by Charlemagne is still the main attraction of the city [6] . In addition to holding the remains of its founder, it became the burial place of his successor Otto III . Aachen Cathedral has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The main sights Tree-lined boulevard in Aachen German – Dutch – Belgian border as seen from the town area The Aachen Cathedral was erected on the orders of Charlemagne in 786 AD and was on completion the largest dome north of the Alps . On his death Charlemagne's remains were interred in the cathedral and can be seen there to this date. The cathedral was extended several times in later ages, turning it into a curious and unique mixture of building styles. The 14th-century city hall lies between two central places, the Markt (market place) and the Katschhof (between city hall and cathedral). The coronation hall is on the first floor of the building. Inside you can find five frescoes by the Aachen artist Alfre Rethel which show legendary scenes from the life of Charlemagne, as well as Charlemagne's signature. The Grashaus, a late medieval house at the Markt, is one of the oldest non-religious buildings in downtown Aachen. It hosts the city archive. The Grashaus was the former city hall before the present building took over this function. The Elisenbrunnen is one of the most famous sights of Aachen. It is a neoclassical hall covering one of the city's famous fountains. It is just a minute away from the cathedral. Just a few steps in southeastern direction lies the 19th century theatre . Also well known and well worth seeing are the two remaining city gates, the Ponttor, one half mile northwest of the cathedral, and the Kleinmarschiertor, close to the central railway station. There are also a few parts of both medieval city walls left, most of them integrated in more recent buildings, some others visible. There are even five towers left, some of which are used for housing. There are many other places and objects worth seeing, for example a notable number of churches and monasteries , a few remarkable 17th- and 18th-century buildings in the particular Baroque style typical of the region, a collection of statues and monuments, park areas, cemeteries, amongst others. The area's industrial history is reflected in dozens of 19th- and early 20th-century manufacturing sites in the city. Economy Ford Research Center, Aachen. Aachen has a large number of spin-offs from the university's IT-technology department and is a major centre of IT development in Germany. Due to the low level of investment in cross-border railway projects, the city has preserved a slot within the Thalys high-speed train network which uses existing tracks on its last 70 km from Belgium to Cologne. The airport that serves Aachen, Maastricht Aachen Airport , is located about 40 km away on Dutch territory, close to the town of Beek. Aachen was the administrative centre for the coal-mining industries in neighbouring places to the northeast; it never played any role in brown coal mining, however, neither in administrative or industrial terms. Products manufactured in or around Aachen include electronics, chemicals, plastics, textiles, glass, cosmetics, and needles and pins. Its most important source of revenue, the textile industries, have been dead for almost half a century now. Robert Browning 's poem "How they brought the good news from Ghent to Aix" refers to Aachen, but not to any historical fact. Transport Aachen's railway station , the Hauptbahnhof , was constructed in 1841 at the Cologne-Aachen railway line and replaced in 1905, moving it significantly closer to the city centre. It serves main lines to Cologne, Mönchengladbach and Liège as well as branch lines to Heerlen , Alsdorf , Stolberg and Eschweiler . ICE high speed trains from Brussels via Cologne to Frankfurt am Main and Thalys trains from Paris to Cologne also stop at Aachen Hauptbahnhof. Four RE lines and one RB line connect Aachen with the Ruhrgebiet , Mönchengladbach, Liège, Düsseldorf and the Siegerland . The euregiobahn, a regional railway system, reaches several minor cities in the Aachen region. There are four smaller stations in Aachen: Aachen West, Aachen-Schanz, Aachen-Rothe Erde and Eilendorf. Only slower trains stop at these, but Aachen-West has developed enormous importance due to the expanding RWTH Aachen university. Aachen is connected to the Autobahn A4 (West-East), A44 (North-South) and A544 (a smaller motorway from the A4 to the Europaplatz near the city centre). Due to the enormous amount of traffic at the Aachen road interchange, there is often serious traffic accumulation, which is why there are plans to expand the interchange in the coming years. The nearest airports are Düsseldorf International Airport (80 km), Cologne Bonn Airport (90 km) and Maastricht Aachen Airport (40 km). Sports The annual CHIO (short for the French Concours Hippique International Officiel) is the biggest equestrian meeting of the world and among horsemen considered to be as prestigious for equitation as the tournament of Wimbledon for tennis. Aachen was also the host of the 2006 FEI World Equestrian Games . The local football team Alemannia Aachen had a short spell in Germany's first division , after its promotion in 2006. However, the team could not sustain its status and is now back in the second division. Their stadium is called Tivoli . It has been built new until 2009 and has a capacity of 32.960 places. In southern Aachen is the biggest Aachener tennis club located called "TC Grün Weiss" with an annual International ATP Tournament. Awards Since 1950, a committee of Aachen citizens annually awards the Karlspreis (German for ‘Charlemagne Award’) to personalities of outstanding service to the unification of Europe. The International Charlemagne Prize of Aachen was awarded in the year 2000 to the President of the United States, Bill Clinton , for his special personal contribution to cooperation with the states of Europe, for the preservation of peace, freedom, democracy and human rights in Europe, and for his support of the enlargement of the European Union. In 2003 the medal was awarded to Valéry Giscard d'Estaing . In 2004, Pope John Paul II 's efforts to unite Europe were honoured with an ‘Extraordinary Charlemagne Medal’, which was awarded for the first time ever. Miscellaneous In the Carolus Thermen named for Charlemagne . For 600 years, from 936 to 1531, the Aachen Cathedral was the church of coronation for 30 German kings and 12 queens. Aachen is also famous for its carnival (Karneval, Fasching), in which families dress in colorful costumes. In 1372, Aachen became the first coin-minting city in the world to regularly place an Anno Domini date on a general circulation coin , a groschen . It was written MCCCLXXII. None with this date are known to exist any longer. The earliest date for which an Aachen coin still exists is dated 1373. Aachen has the hottest springs of Central Europe with water temperatures of 74 °C (165 °F ). The water contains a considerable percentage of common salt and other sodium salts and sulphur . In 1850 Paul Julius Reuter founded the Reuters News Agency in Aachen which transferred messages between Brussels and Aachen using carrier pigeons . The local specialty of Aachen is an originally stonehard type of sweet bread, baked in large flat loaves, called Aachener Printen . Unlike gingerbread ( German : Lebkuchen ), which is sweetened with honey, Printen are sweetened with sugar. Today, a soft version is sold under the same name which follows an entirely different recipe. Aachen is at the western end of the Benrath line that divides High German to the south from the rest of the West Germanic speech area to the north. Education The main building of RWTH Aachen University Typical Aachen street with early 20th century Gründerzeit houses RWTH Aachen University , established as Polytechnicum in 1870, is a centre of technological research, especially for electrical and mechanical engineering, computer sciences, physics, and chemistry. The university clinics attached to the RWTH, the Klinikum Aachen , is the biggest single-building hospital in Europe. [7] Over time, a host of software and computer industries have developed around the university. It also maintains a botanical garden (the Botanischer Garten Aachen ). FH Aachen , Aachen University of Applied Sciences (AcUAS) was founded in 1971. The AcUAS offers a classic engineering education in professions like Mechatronics, Construction Engineering, Mechanical Engineering or Electrical Engineering. German and international students are educated in more than 20 international or foreign-oriented programs and can acquire German as well as international degrees (Bachelor/Master) or Doppeldiplome (double degrees). Foreign students accounts for more than 21% of the student body. The German Army 's Technical School (Technische Schule des Heeres und Fachschule des Heeres für Technik) is in Aachen. International relations

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Where did Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin meet in 1945 to plan the final defeat of Germany?

BBC ON THIS DAY | 7 | 1945: Black Sea talks plan defeat of Germany Search ON THIS DAY by date   About This Site | Text Only 1945: Black Sea talks plan defeat of Germany Plans are being drawn up by London, Washington and Moscow for the final phase of the war against Germany. Leaders of the three countries, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, US President Franklin D Roosevelt and Marshal Joseph Stalin, have been meeting at a secret location in the Black Sea area. A statement issued this evening is the first official confirmation of the talks which are said to have begun three days ago. They were there to discuss the future of Europe now that the end of the war was assured People's War memories » According to the statement issued by the Ministry of Information in London the purpose of the meeting is to complete plans for the defeat of the "common enemy" and to build firm foundations for a lasting peace. The three leaders, who are also accompanied by their chiefs of staff, foreign secretaries and other advisers, are said to have reviewed the latest information from all the battle fronts in Europe. The statement continued: "There is complete agreement for joint military operations in the final phase of the war against Nazi Germany. The military staffs of the three governments are now engaged in working out jointly the detailed plans." Discussions on how to secure a lasting peace have also been held. Topics likely to be considered are the occupation and control of Germany, the political and economic problems of a liberated Europe and proposals for an international organisation to maintain peace. A further communiqu� is to be issued at the conclusion of the talks. The statement gave no further details of the exact location of the meeting. But the Black Sea was considered an ideal choice as it gave Marshal Stalin easy access to Moscow and news from the eastern front. There has been some speculation the three leaders might appeal over the heads of the German leadership to the people themselves to get out of a "lost war". The German media has already issued warnings that any such appeal should be ignored as an attempt to undermine the fighting will of its forces. It seems likely much of the conference will be spent on working out the details of the administration of an occupied Germany. Already General Charles de Gaulle of France has declared his country would like to be involved. There is also the thorny issue of a Russo-Polish settlement as well as a need to get urgently needed food and other supplies distributed as quickly as possible. Presidential aide remembers the Yalta conference In Context What became known as the Yalta or Crimea Conference ended on 11 February. Its location was revealed to be the former imperial palace at Livadia in Yalta. An official agreement was published in which the three leaders declared their intention to combine their military plans and work in close partnership to defeat Germany. They also drew up plans for the occupation of Germany and agreed France should be a fourth occupying power. The leaders announced their determination to stamp out Nazism and to disarm and disband all German armed forces and bring all war criminals to justice. All liberated territories in Europe were to have democratic government. On the question of Poland, they agreed on plans for a provisional government until a free election could be held and also on where the border should lie between Poland and the USSR. An agreement was reached, without Churchill's knowledge, on the Soviet Union's territorial demands for joining the war against Japan. The leaders also called for a Conference of United Nations to meet on 25 April 1945. Stories From 7 Feb

Yalta

Which country first tried unsuccessfully to build the Panama Canal?

'Big Three' meet at Yalta > Eastern Front > Key Moments > WW2History.com 'Big Three' meet at Yalta Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin met together for the last time at Yalta On 3 February 1945, Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt arrived at Yalta, a resort on the southern coast of the Crimea on the Black Sea. They were there to meet with Stalin to discuss the final attack on the Germans and Japanese and the future of the post-war world. They were meeting in the Crimea – a place Churchill described as the ‘Riviera of Hades’ – rather than anywhere else, for one simple reason; Stalin controlled where they met. It had been Stalin who had said that he would only meet the British and American leaders in Tehran back in November 1943, and it had been Stalin who had insisted this meeting would be on Soviet territory in the Crimea. It was a small – but significant – sign of Stalin’s power. Much has been written about Roosevelt’s physical appearance at the Yalta conference. Hugh Lunghi, who was there as part of the British mission, was shocked to see the American President: ‘His face was waxen to a sort of yellow, waxen and very drawn, very thin, and a lot of the time he was sort of sitting there with his mouth open sort of staring ahead. So that was quite a shock.’ Roosevelt would be dead less than four months after Yalta, and he was clearly a sick man already. But what is certain is that, despite his obvious ill-health, Roosevelt’s aims and strategies for the conference were in perfect sync with his previously expressed views. His illness did not prevent his politics from being consistent. The problem for the future of the world – at least in the eyes of Roosevelt’s critics – was that the American President was not overly concerned with the fate of Eastern Europe, with the exception of the fate of post-war Germany. Roosevelt’s focus was primarily on one practical measure – he wanted to get the Soviet Union to commit to fighting the Japanese after Germany had been defeated – and one ‘visionary’ measure – he wanted to get the Soviet Union to play an active part in the founding of the United Nations. Churchill, on the other hand, arrived at Yalta much more focused on European issues – principally the seemingly never-to-be-resolved question of the future of Poland. The trouble he faced was that he had talked with near brutal frankness to Stalin, back in October on his visit to Moscow, about the relative ‘percentages’ of ‘influence’ that the Soviet Union and Britain/America should have over a number of Eastern European countries. This – to Churchill – had already resulted in the Communist control of Greece being prevented. But now, having seemingly ‘given away’ influence in other countries like Romania, Hungary and Bulgaria, how could he have a non-brutal, ‘honourable’ conversation about Poland – a country that had deliberately been excluded by Churchill from the ‘percentages’ deal? As for Stalin, he was clearly looking to consolidate Soviet influence over the territory of Eastern Europe – territory that his troops had shed blood to gain. ‘Stalin behaves as if the only interests that are worth considering in the march across Europe are Soviet interests,’ says Professor Robert Service, talking of Stalin’s actions at Yalta, ‘and that the peoples of Eastern Europe and East Central Europe are lucky to be liberated and they should accept their liberation by the Red Army with grateful hands and allow the Red Army to do virtually as it wanted. So the future history of Eastern Europe is already there in 1944 and in 1945 – that there was going to be one superior state that’s going to have the right to act as it wants in Eastern Europe at the end of the Second World War. And it has won that right by all of the sacrifices of Soviet people in the so-called Great Patriotic War… We don’t yet know quite what was in Stalin’s mind, and we’ll never know because he didn’t keep a diary, but we can look at what he did in 1945 or earlier in 1944. He plans for an Eastern Europe that is subject to Soviet influence. That’s not the same as an Eastern Europe that’s fully communised, but it does mean that communist political influence is going to be very strong in those countries.’ The most divisive issue at the conference remained Poland. Though the boundaries of the new Poland had effectively been decided – like so much else – at the Tehran conference back in November 1943, there remained questions of detail, particularly about how the newly created Poland should be governed. Stalin had established his own puppet government of Poland – know as the ‘Lublin Poles’ – whilst the British and the Americans still supported the Polish government-in-exile based in London. Ultimately, at Yalta, both Churchill and Roosevelt decided to accept Stalin’s assurance that the Soviets would conduct free and democratic elections in Poland, and that a few of the politicians from the Polish government-in-exile would be absorbed into the new ruling group of Poland. It was scarcely a ringing declaration from the West that guaranteed the freedom and independence of the new Poland. In fact, as Admiral William Leahy told Roosevelt, ‘this [the agreement on Poland] is so elastic that the Russians can stretch it all the way from Yalta to Washington without even technically breaking it.’ Roosevelt simply replied, ‘I know Bill, but it is the best I can do for Poland at this time.’i But that was only half true, because Roosevelt had decided to focus on other – to him more important – issues at Yalta. And on both of Roosevelt’s key concerns – Japan and the UN – Stalin seemed to be amenable, agreeing to come into the war against the Japanese three months after the end of the war in Europe (in part in exchange for some Japanese territory) and to co-operate with the foundation of the United Nations. As for the issue of what territory in Eastern Europe fell under the influence of the Soviet Union, that was not high on FDR’s agenda. ‘Roosevelt was pressured by Eleanor Roosevelt about the Baltics,’ says Professor Robert Dallek. ‘He was pressured by the Poles about what he was doing for Poland. And behind the scenes he’s contemptuous of this. He says at one point: ‘Do you expect me to go to war with Stalin over the Baltics?’ Sure, democracy, freedom, the rhetoric tumbles off their lips; the declaration of liberty for the East, a declaration of freedom for the liberated countries from Nazi control in Eastern Europe; it’s rhetoric.’ Given that Stalin was to break his promises on Poland after Yalta, and given that within months after Yalta the relationship between the Soviet Union and the West was to deteriorate so badly, it’s easy to believe that Churchill and Roosevelt were either conned by Stalin or just shut their eyes to the true nature of his regime. But as Professor David Reynolds says, the truth is not that simple: ‘Every time you have a conference with the Russians all through the war the British and the Americans have this sense that it’s better than the last one… So there’s this feeling that they’re difficult, nasty people and all the rest of it, but we’re making progress. Okay, they treat some of their minorities badly and all the rest of it, but you sort of push that aside. And then the other thing I think is that these leaders, Churchill and Roosevelt, are saying to themselves at the back of their mind: what alternative do we have? If we say the Bear hasn’t changed its spots, if you’ll let me mix the metaphor, the Russian Bear is essentially the same, as brutal and as bloody as ever. What prospect does that open up for Europe? Better to go with our hopes than surrender to our fears, because by the end of 1943 it’s clear that the Soviet Union and the Red Army are going to be a force in Eastern Europe, and really there’s nothing you can do in London or Washington to stop that. The decisions, in a sense, have already been made by default through delaying the second front [i.e. the invasion of France by the Western Allies], if that was ever a real alternative. So all that you can try and do is ameliorate the situation in Eastern Europe. Indeed, that’s what Roosevelt says before he goes to Yalta to the senators. He says, look, what we’re going to try and do is ameliorate the situation in Poland as we can’t change it. So there is a sort of fact of life there that the Soviet Union is going to be a force to be reckoned with, and that’s part of why they’re trying to make the best they can of it. Roosevelt says during the Tehran conference when they have a conversation about Poland, ‘Wake me up when we get to Germany, I don’t care two hoots about Poland.’ And what he’s expressing there, and it’s the same for people like Cordell Hull, his Secretary of State, is that what matters is the big picture for the post-war world. It’s setting up a framework of great power co-operation within the general institutional structure of the United Nations. And if you can do that, particularly if you can get the Soviet Union in it, that’s what really matters compared to the suspicion and the alienation of the inter-war years.’ But, as far as Sir Max Hastings is concerned there was another reality operating at Yalta. ‘Churchill was also naïve,’ he says. ‘Churchill worked himself up into an almost emotional fever in his distress about the sacrifice of Poland and the fact that Polish freedom, which Britain had gone into the Second World War for, was to be sacrificed to the Russians. But Churchill refused to recognise the logic of his own position, that if the Western Allies had been serious about wanting to see that Eastern Europe was free, they would have had to have got into the war on a very big scale and they would have had to have had D-Day in 1943. If they then fought like tigers and accepted casualties many times the scale of those that they did, then they might have been able to save Eastern Europe and Poland from the Russians, though even then it’s pretty doubtful. But what would have happened if Roosevelt and Churchill had gone to their own electorates and said: ‘We are actually going to launch a major campaign on the continent which is going to cost hundreds of thousands of extra lives, not in order to accelerate the defeat of Hitler, but in order to make sure that all these poor Polish and Romanian and Czech and Hungarian peoples don’t fall prey to the wicked Russians.’ No British or American government could have survived that because the other thing one has to remember is the colossal popular enthusiasm for Russia, especially in Britain. British people are saying that they thought Russia was absolutely wonderful. Reading people’s diaries from that period it is absolutely extraordinary, the euphoric expressions of enthusiasm for Uncle Joe Stalin and what he was doing.’ So was Yalta – particularly the failure to get Stalin to agree an enforceable political process that would lead to a democratic Poland – a ‘betrayal’ of the democratic ideals that Britain and America had enshrined in the Atlantic Charter in 1941? Indeed, was it betrayal of the very ideals that underpinned the decision to send so many soldiers of the Western Allies into battle in the first place? ‘It’s a betrayal of the ideals,’ says Andrew Roberts, ‘because we went to war for the integrity of Poland and the independence of Poland. In fact what we wanted in April 1939 was a trip wire for Hitler, something that triggered a war. It could have been Poland, it could have been anywhere else frankly, the key thing was to get us into a war with Germany before Hitler took anymore of Europe. One could argue forever about whether or not it would have been better to have done it earlier at Munich but certainly by the time Poland was invaded there was no alternative.’ ‘But what we didn’t ever promise to the Poles was that we were going to be able to land an army on the other side of Europe. We didn’t ever promise them that we were going to attack Germany from the west, and we were in no position to do so either. So in that sense it was a betrayal of the ideals, but I’m not sure if it was really a betrayal of the country itself because there was simply nothing that could be done short of using a nuclear bomb, or threatening to, which was obviously impossible against our great and glorious comrade that had lost 20 million people fighting the Nazis. The key thing at Yalta was to try to get Stalin to stump up with the promise to go to war with Japan three months after the end of the war in Europe and also to try and get the Soviet Union into the United Nations organisation that was going to be set up after the war as well. After that you came up with free elections in Eastern Europe and so it wasn’t even the prime desiderata of the British and Americans. I think as well as wishful thinking there was a sense that the kinder and nicer you were to Stalin the more likely it would be that he was going to come into a world organisation that was inclusive... This sounds ridiculous coming from somebody who had, after all, denounced appeasements, which were precisely the same thing effectively only a decade earlier, but I think Churchill was an appeaser to the USSR up to and including Yalta.’ When Churchill returned from Yalta he told ministers that ‘Poor Neville Chamberlain believed he could trust Hitler. He was wrong. But I don’t think I’m wrong about Stalin.’ii  But, on the contrary, the next few months would demonstrate to Churchill that he had made just the same error as ‘poor’ Chamberlain had. Stalin had his own agenda for Eastern Europe. And it most certainly did not include the formation of a free and democratic Poland.   ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- i Quoted in James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom, Harvest Books, 2002, p. 572 ii Quoted in the entry for 23rd February 1945 in Ben Pimlott (ed.), The Political Diary of Hugh Dalton 1918-40, 1945-60, Jonathan Cape, 1987, p. 836 RELATED CONTENT

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Which family ruled Florence for three centuries from 1434?

Which family ruled Florence for three centuries from 1434? View the step-by-step solution to: Which family ruled Florence for three centuries from 1434? This question was answered on May 30, 2016. View the Answer Which family ruled Florence for three centuries from 1434? listone3 posted a question · May 30, 2016 at 3:58pm Top Answer It is called Medici... View the full answer {[ getNetScore(29827118) ]} rapidd answered the question · May 30, 2016 at 4:07pm Other Answers Here is the solution... View the full answer {[ getNetScore(29827013) ]} Here's the explanation you needed for... View the full answer {[ getNetScore(29827020) ]} The way to answer this question is ... View the full answer {[ getNetScore(29827022) ]} opiyopinto answered the question · May 30, 2016 at 4:00pm   The family Medici' The House of Medici  was an Italian banking family, political dynasty and laterroyal house that... View the full answer {[ getNetScore(29827120) ]} Feloo answered the question · May 30, 2016 at 4:07pm The Medici family, Explanation The Medici family, also known as the House of Medici, first attained wealth and political... View the full answer {[ getNetScore(29827152) ]}

House of Medici

Who were the Celtic-speaking peoples living in France and Belgium during Roman times?

THE MEDICI FAMILY THE MEDICI FAMILY Cosimo de Medici (1389-1464) INTRODUCTION While the Medici family was predominant, Florence became the cultural center of Europe and also became the cradle of new Humanism. BACKGROUND The Medici were possibly the richest family in Italy. In the 13th Century the family began to gain wealth. At the end of the thirteenth century, the family's wealth increased when one of the members of the family served as gonfalero (bearer of a high ceremonial office). In the fourteenth century their wealth increased again. Savestro de Medici led people in revolt against the ciompi (small artistanate) and later he became so popular that he became defacto dictator of Florence. Then in 1383 his wealth decreased when he was banished. Giovanni Bicci de Medici regained family power by making the family the richest family in Italy, possibly Europe. The growth in political power also increased when he became gonfalero in 1421. Giovanni's son, Cosimo de Medici, was to be the real founder of the family's fortune. In 1434, Cosimo controlled the government in Florence. For the sixty years Cosimo ruled Florence but he had no official title. He ruled in the early 15th Century when he ran for office. He held office in Florence's highest magistry and at the same time he managed interests in banking, trade, and industry. Later on in a political battle with another powerful family called the Albizzi family, Cosimo lost and was banished. But since a lot of people supported him, he was recalled and the Albizzi family was banished in return. Cosimo had done a lot for the city of Florence. He had spent lots of his money on his city and supported artists and sculptors. Churches were built and many large libraries were produced with the books he collected. After Cosimo had died he won the title of Pater Palrige (father of his country). Cosimo had two sons and while his first son, Pier, ruled things kind of slipped. Then once again their wealth increased because of his other powerful son named Lorenzo. Lorenzo was a poet, statsman, politician, banker, patron of artists, writer, philosopher, and he played an important role in Italian politics. He had spent some of his time writing poetry and carnival songs. Although he didn't occupy any official post, he did a lot of good things for the people. An example of one of his qualities was he paid for artists' education and supplied them with homes by buying their work. He was truly a man of the Renaissance. ACCOMPLISHMENTS One of the many accomplishments that the Medici family offered in the Renaissance period was when their wealth had first begun. One member became gonfaler standard bearer. From then on the word success fitted the Medici family well. While they ruled the city of Florence they did many incredible acts, such as spending money on their city, and making it the most powerful state in Italy. They also made it the world's most beautiful city. It became the cultural center of Europe and was known as an art center and cradle of New Humanism. They also spent some of their wealth on having the largest library in Europe; they brought in many Greek sources. They founded the Platonic Academy and supported artists by feeding them, educating them, and providing them with the necessities. Some of those artists were Donatello, Michelangelo, and Raphael. The family also did a lot of charitable acts such as cultivating literature and the arts. The Medici family was very helpful. IMPACT The Medici family members were very interested in the rebirth of learning in Europe and under their patronage the Renaissance flourished. The Medici family tree

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Which king of England had a mother and a son who were both beheaded?

Which king of England had a mother and a son who were both beheaded? View the step-by-step solution to: Which king of England had a mother and a son who were both beheaded? This question was answered on Jun 08, 2016. View the Answer Which king of England had a mother and a son who were both beheaded? EvaPierce posted a question · Jun 08, 2016 at 5:29am Top Answer lewismrk557 answered the question · Jun 08, 2016 at 5:29am Other Answers The way to approach this... View the full answer {[ getNetScore(29993848) ]} {[ getNetScore(29993853) ]} kandagorJacque answered the question · Jun 08, 2016 at 5:30am James I of England also called James VI of Scots.His mother, Mary... View the full answer {[ getNetScore(30015731) ]} View Full Answer or ask a new question Related Questions Most of our answers should be coming from the short stories we read in class. things such as The Illiad, Apology, and Funeral Orientation of Pericles. I need Recently Asked Questions Need an European History tutor? mathtutor1983 3 European History experts found online! Average reply time is less than an hour Get Homework Help Why Join Course Hero? Course Hero has all the homework and study help you need to succeed! We’ve got course-specific notes, study guides, and practice tests along with expert tutors and customizable flashcards—available anywhere, anytime. - - Study Documents Find the best study resources around, tagged to your specific courses. Share your own to gain free Course Hero access or to earn money with our Marketplace. - Question & Answers Get one-on-one homework help from our expert tutors—available online 24/7. Ask your own questions or browse existing Q&A threads. Satisfaction guaranteed! - Flashcards Browse existing sets or create your own using our digital flashcard system. A simple yet effective studying tool to help you earn the grade that you want!

James VI and I

Which battle of 1746 ended the Jacobite revolution?

MARYLAND MARYLAND Maryland was one of four of the original 13 English colonies that was specifically chartered for religious freedom, as a refuge from religious persecution. Maryland was the primary entry point for Catholics in the English colonies. Lord Baltimore George Calvert was secretary of state for King James I and converted to Catholicism in 1625. He resigned upon succession by the son Charles I rather than swear allegiance to the Anglican Church of England. However, Charles I repaid the Calverts for loyal service, and granted Lord Baltimore a proprietary charter for Catholics. When the first Lord Baltimore George Calvert died on April 15, 1632, the Charter was granted to his son Cecil Calvert, the Second Lord Baltimore, on June 20, 1632 to land from the south bank of the Potomac River north to the 40th Parallel. The Calverts wanted a refuge for Catholics but also believed in religious toleration for all Christians. King Charles, in the Charter written in Latin, titled the colony Terra Mariae, or Land of Mary, but did not specify for whom the colony was named. 1-3 With Catholics and Protestants aboard, Leonard Calvert, Cecil's younger brother, sailed 123 days on the Ark and the Dove and crossed the Atlantic; after sailing through the Chesapeake Bay and into the Potomac River, they landed on St. Clement's island on March 25, 1634, the feast of the Annunciation. They put up a cross there in honor of our Saviour Jesus Christ . The same day the Catholics gathered on shore for a Mass celebrated by one of the three Jesuit priests aboard, Father Andrew White SJ, who dedicated Maryland to Mary, the Mother of God. This was the first Roman Catholic Mass in the thirteen English-speaking colonies. To this day March 25 is celebrated as Maryland Day by the State of Maryland. 1-5 The seafarers then headed 17 miles downstream on the Potomac River and traveled up an inlet, which they named St. Mary's River, and landed at a village of the Yaocomico, a branch of the Piscataway Indians. Leonard Calvert purchased the village and adjacent land from the Indians on March 27, 1634, and this became St. Mary's City. St. Mary's County was founded in 1637. The settlers named the City, the County, and the Territory in honor of the Blessed Virgin Mary , a tradition that has been preserved among Maryland Catholics. It certainly helped that the beloved wife of Charles I was the devout Catholic Henrietta Maria. Leonard Calvert was the first governor of the Maryland Colony and lived in St. Mary's City, the County Seat. The Catholic Chapel in St. Mary's City was originally built in 1667. St. Mary's City became the first capital of Maryland and remained so until 1695. 1-7 The seventeenth century was a time of religious wars throughout Europe. England was no exception, which accounted for the various sects seeking religious freedom in the American colonies. The colonial history of Maryland was intertwined with events in England. King Charles I (1625-1649) was the second Stuart King, and followed his father King James I (who commissioned the King James Bible of 1611). King Charles married Henrietta Maria, the Catholic Princess of France in 1625. The Princess was named after her father Henry IV of France and signed her letters Henrietta while living in France. Protestant England was distressed with the Royal Family, because of the King's benevolence to Catholics, and because Henrietta took the royal children and her courtiers to Mass at her private chapel, and maintained her Catholic ties with the Pope and France. The struggle between the Monarchy and Parliament came to a head with King Charles I. King Charles was beheaded January 30, 1649. The Carolina states were named after King Charles I (Carolus in Latin), and Cape Henrietta Maria, at the juncture of the Hudson and James Bays in Northern Ontario, Canada, was named after the Queen. 8-9 Leonard Calvert and the Catholics had a difficult time in Maryland from the very beginning, as religious tension in England spilled over to the American colonies. Maryland Catholics gradually became outnumbered and conflict increased between Catholics and Protestants, especially after the Puritans, at the invitation of the Calverts, settled in Providence (now Annapolis) in 1648. To prevent strife, Lord Baltimore Cecil Calvert and the Maryland General Assembly formalized his original intent and passed the historic Toleration Act on April 21, 1649, a law to provide religious harmony among Christians. An Act Concerning Religion, which became known as The Toleration Act of Maryland , proved to be a compromise between Catholics and Protestants for toleration of Trinitarian Christian religions. 1-4, 10-11 Both Catholics and the Toleration Act of Maryland continued to suffer a rocky road throughout the colonial history of Maryland, especially after the Glorious Revolution of England in 1688, when the Catholic King James II was deposed by his Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange. The control of Maryland colony was then transferred from the Catholic proprietor to the Crown, which enabled the Protestant majority in the Maryland Assembly to repeal the Toleration Act of Maryland in 1692. Subsequently, Catholics in Maryland were not allowed to hold public office or practice law, and not even allowed to celebrate Mass in public or provide religious education for their children! Jesuit missionaries in particular, who had converted both Indians and Protestants alike, suffered persecution. The Capital of Maryland was moved in 1695 from St. Mary's City to Annapolis, which was more central to the state and had grown wealthy through the slave trade. The Anglican Church of England was established as the state Church in 1702, and Catholics were taxed for its support. In 1704, by order of the royal governor, the sheriff of St. Mary's County locked the doors of St. Mary's Chapel, which was later dismantled, brick by brick. And this was in the first colony that had been founded on the principle of religious toleration! The death of the Catholic Charles Calvert, the third Lord Baltimore (1675-1715), brought the Anglican Benedict Calvert (who died within two months) and his son the Anglican Charles Calvert II, the fifth Lord Baltimore, who served 1715-1751. Catholics subsequently lost the right to vote in 1718. 7, 11-14 However, Catholics maintained a presence through it all. The Irish Catholic Charles Carroll the Settler migrated to Maryland in 1688 and was appointed the Attorney General of Maryland. Frustrated in politics because of his faith, he turned his energy to procurement of Maryland property and became a wealthy planter. Three grandsons of Charles Carroll the Settler made important contributions to the formation of our young Nation. Several Catholic families seeking religious freedom left St. Mary's County and traveled northwest in 1728 to what is now Emmitsburg in Frederick County, Maryland. They named the mountain there St. Mary's and the valley St. Joseph's Valley. 12-14 Marylanders became united because of British oppression after the Seven Years War (1756-1763), beginning with the Stamp and Quartering Acts of 1765. The death of Frederick Calvert, the sixth and last Lord Baltimore (1751-1771), left Maryland Colony without British proprietary leadership. Charles Carroll of Carrollton received his chance to enter Maryland politics in a debate with the Loyalist Daniel Dulany in the Maryland Gazette in the first half of 1773 over an arbitrary fee schedule imposed upon Maryland on November 26, 1770 by the last British Governor Robert Eden (1769-1776). In four letters published under the pseudonym of First Citizen, Carroll eloquently defended Liberty and the natural rights of man, opposed taxation without representation, and asserted the nature of government was instituted for the general good. It was not lost on Marylanders that a Catholic was defending Protestants and Catholics alike. The Popular Party subsequently swept elections in May of 1773. In response to requests from Massachusetts and Virginia, the October 1773 session of the newly-elected colonial assembly established a Committee of Correspondence to coordinate efforts in safeguarding American interests, and then passed a tobacco inspection act without the offensive fee schedule. 12-15 The last colonial assembly met on April 19, 1774 and was prorogued (dissolved) by Governor Eden. Patriotic Marylanders then established a Provincial Government and held their first Annapolis Convention June 22-25, 1774. Charles Carroll was elected a representative from Anne Arundel County to the Convention, the first time a Catholic was elected to public office in 82 years. The 1774 Convention elected Matthew Tilghman as President and supported the American non-importation agreement and elected representatives to the First Continental Congress. The Annapolis Convention formed a Council of Safety in July 1775 with Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer as Chairman, to organize the defense of Maryland. Joining Samuel Chase, William Paca, and Thomas Stone in July of 1776 as elected representatives of Maryland to Philadelphia, Charles Carroll of Carrollton became the only Catholic signer of the U. S. Declaration of Independence . 12-15 The Maryland regulars performed bravely during the Revolutionary War. Their finest hour occurred at Brooklyn on Long Island, New York, when George Washington and the Continental Army were overwhelmed by the British. Washington knew he had to retreat and escape with his army to Manhattan on August 29, 1776. It was felt the hand of Providence aided their effort. Five British warships were unable to sail upriver and block the Army's escape because of a shift in winds. A daring overnight escape over the East River was not enough to evacuate all the troops, but a thick morning fog rolled in and covered the boats. 250 Marylanders attacked General Cornwallis and the British redcoats to cover the retreat, risking capture or death. George Washington exclaimed, "Good God, what brave fellows I must lose this day." He named the Maryland troops The Old Line, the name by which our state is still known - The Old Line State. 16 The Ninth Annapolis Convention adopted a Constitution in November 1776 which allowed freedom of religion for all Christians. Thomas Johnson was elected the first Governor of Maryland and began serving on March 21, 1777. Daniel Carroll II of Rock Creek signed the Articles of Confederation for Maryland on March 1, 1781, and also attended the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia and was a signer of the Constitution of the United States on September 17, 1787. Maryland became the seventh State of the Union when it ratified the U. S. Constitution on April 28, 1788. Thomas Johnson and Daniel Carroll of Maryland and David Stuart of Virginia were appointed by George Washington in 1791 as the three Commissioners for the new District of Columbia. Daniel Carroll donated a farm as the site for the building of the Capitol Building in Washington. And John Carroll, Daniel's brother, became the first American Bishop of the Catholic Diocese of Baltimore in 1789, a diocese which included the entire United States. Bishop Carroll founded Georgetown College in 1789. In 1806, he laid the cornerstone for the first American Cathedral, the Basilica of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Baltimore. During his tenure as Archbishop, Elizabeth Ann Seton opened the first Catholic elementary school in the United States in Baltimore, and Father John Dubois founded Mount St. Mary's College and Seminary in Emmitsburg, Maryland, both in 1808. Elizabeth Ann Seton, the first American Saint, also founded the Sisters of Charity at St. Joseph's Valley in Emmitsburg in 1809. 17-18 During the War of 1812 against Britain, the British attacked Washington, and burned the Executive Mansion, the Capitol Building, and the Library of Congress. They then sailed back up the Chesapeake Bay to Baltimore and attacked Fort McHenry on September 13, 1814. Following the 25-hour British bombardment of Fort McHenry, Francis Scott Key was so moved to see the American Flag still flying at dawn of September 14 that he wrote The Star-Spangled Banner. 19 THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNER Oh, say, can you see, by the dawn's early light, What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming? Whose broad stripes and bright stars, thru the perilous fight, O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming? And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there. O say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep, Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes, What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep, As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam, In full glory reflected, now shines on the stream: Tis the star-spangled banner: O, long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave! And where is that band who so vauntingly swore That the havoc of war and the battle's confusion A home and a country should leave us no more? Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps' pollution. No refuge could save the hireling and slave From the terror of flight or the gloom of the grave: And the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. O, thus be it ever when freemen shall stand, Between their loved home and the war's desolation! Blest with victory and peace, may the heav'n-rescued land Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation! Then conquer we must, when our cause. it is just, And this be our motto: "In God is our trust." And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave! September 14, 1814 EPILOGUE Maryland has flourished through the years. The Toleration Act of Maryland is significant as the first law towards the establishment of religious freedom in the history of our nation, and historians consider the Act the historical prelude to the First Amendment of the Constitution of the United States. In fact, the guarantee of religious freedom in the first Amendment of the U. S. Bill of Rights uses the same phrase as the Act: free exercise thereof. And The Star-Spangled Banner written in Baltimore served as the military Anthem until it was officially signed into law as the National Anthem of the United States of America on March 3, 1931. 20 Our Christian Heritage REFERENCES 1 Morison SE. Oxford History of the American People. Oxford University Press, New York, p 80, 1965. Samuel Eliot Morison, Professor of History at Harvard, wrote: "The province was named Maryland ostensibly after Queen Henrietta Maria but really in honor of the Virgin Mary." 2 Bennett, William J. America - The Last Best Hope. Thomas Nelson, Nashville, Volume l, page 43, 87-88, 2006. 3 Alvarez R. First and Forever - The Archdiocese of Baltimore. Editions du Signe, Strasbourg, France, 2006. 4 Personal Communication, St. Mary's County Government, St. Mary's County, Maryland, 2009. 5 Mother of Light Shrine, St. Clement's Island Museum, Colton's Point, St. Mary's County, Maryland. 6 Treacy WP. Old Catholic Maryland and Early Jesuit Missionaries. Bibliolife, Charleston, South Carolina, 1889, 2009. 7 Zimmermann M. "St. Mary's Chapel, Maryland." The Catholic Standard, Archdiocese of Washington, D. C., 7, July 19, 2012. 8 Morrill J (ed). Oxford History of Tudor and Stuart Britain. Oxford University Press, New York, 1996. 9 Spielvogel JJ. Western Civilization, Sixth Combined Edition, Thomson Wadsworth, Belmont, California, 2006. 10 The Toleration Act of Maryland, Courtesy of the Maryland State Archives, Maryland. 11 Marck JT. Maryland The Seventh State, A History. Fourth Edition, Creative Impressions, Glen Arm, Maryland, 1998. 12 Hanley TO. Charles Carroll of Carrollton: The Making of a Revolutionary Gentleman. Catholic University of America Press, Washington, DC, 1970. 13 Onuf PS. Maryland and the Empire, 1773: The Antilon - First Citizen Letters. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, 1974. 14 McDermott S. Charles Carroll of Carrollton. Scepter Press, New York, 2002. 15 Hoffman R. A Spirit of Dissension. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, 1973. 16 McCullough D. 1776 - The Illustrated Edition. Simon & Schuster, New York, page 161 and following, 2007. 17 Lomask M. John Carroll, Bishop and Patriot. (New York: Farrar Straus and Cudahy, 1956), 175-181. 18 Walters J. Elizabeth Ann Seton: Saint for a New Nation. Paulist Press, Mahwah, New Jersey, 2002. 19 Ravitch D, Editor. The American Reader. Harper, New York, 44-46, 1991. 20 Noonan JT. The Lustre of Our Country, The American Experience of Religious Freedom. University of California Press, Berkeley, 2-4, 90-91, 1998.

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"What Soviet ""man of steel"" was educated for the priesthood but was expelled from the seminary?"

Joseph Stalin - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com Google Joseph Stalin’s Early Years and Family Joseph Stalin was born Josef Vissarionovich Djugashvili on December 18, 1878, or December 6, 1878, according to the Old Style Julian calendar (although he later invented a new birth date for himself: December 21, 1879), in the small town of Gori, Georgia , then part of the Russian empire. When he was in his 30s, he took the name Stalin, from the Russian for “man of steel.” Did You Know? In 1925, the Russian city of Tsaritsyn was renamed Stalingrad. In 1961, as part of the de-Stalinization process, the city, located along Europe's longest river, the Volga, became known as Volgograd. Today, it is one of Russia's largest cities and a key industrial center. Stalin grew up poor and an only child. His father was a shoemaker and alcoholic who beat his son, and his mother was a laundress. As a boy, Stalin contracted smallpox, which left him with lifelong facial scars. As a teen, he earned a scholarship to attend a seminary in the nearby city of Tblisi and study for the priesthood in the Georgian Orthodox Church. While there he began secretly reading the work of German social philosopher and “Communist Manifesto” author Karl Marx , becoming interested in the revolutionary movement against the Russian monarchy. In 1899, Stalin was expelled from the seminary for missing exams, although he claimed it was for Marxist propaganda. After leaving school, Stalin became an underground political agitator, taking part in labor demonstrations and strikes. He adopted the name Koba, after a fictional Georgian outlaw-hero, and joined the more militant wing of the Marxist Social Democratic movement, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin . Stalin also became involved in various criminal activities, including bank heists, the proceeds from which were used to help fund the Bolshevik Party. He was arrested multiple times between 1902 and 1913, and subjected to imprisonment and exile in Siberia. In 1906, Stalin married Ekaterina “Kato” Svanidze (1885-1907), a seamstress. The couple had one son, Yakov (1907-1943), who died as a prisoner in Germany during World War II . Ekaterina perished from typhus when her son was an infant. In 1918 (some sources cite 1919), Stalin married his second wife, Nadezhda “Nadya” Alliluyeva (1901-1932), the daughter of a Russian revolutionary. They had two children, a boy and a girl. Nadezhda committed suicide in her early 30s. Stalin also fathered several children out of wedlock. Joseph Stalin’s Rise to Power In 1912, Lenin, then in exile in Switzerland, appointed Joseph Stalin to serve on the first Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party. Three years later, in November 1917, the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia. The Soviet Union was founded in 1922, with Lenin as its first leader. During these years, Stalin had continued to move up the party ladder, and in 1922 he became secretary general of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, a role that enabled him to appoint his allies to government jobs and grow a base of political support. After Lenin died in 1924, Stalin eventually outmaneuvered his rivals and won the power struggle for control of the Communist Party. By the late 1920s, he had become dictator of the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union Under Joseph Stalin Starting in the late 1920s, Joseph Stalin launched a series of five-year plans intended to transform the Soviet Union from a peasant society into an industrial superpower. His development plan was centered on government control of the economy and included the forced collectivization of Soviet agriculture, in which the government took control of farms. Millions of farmers refused to cooperate with Stalin’s orders and were shot or exiled as punishment. The forced collectivization also led to widespread famine across the Soviet Union that killed millions. Stalin ruled by terror and with a totalitarian grip in order to eliminate anyone who might oppose him. He expanded the powers of the secret police, encouraged citizens to spy on one another and had millions of people killed or sent to the Gulag system of forced labor camps. During the second half of the 1930s, Stalin instituted the Great Purge, a series of campaigns designed to rid the Communist Party, the military and other parts of Soviet society from those he considered a threat. Additionally, Stalin built a cult of personality around himself in the Soviet Union. Cities were renamed in his honor. Soviet history books were rewritten to give him a more prominent role in the revolution and mythologize other aspects of his life. He was the subject of flattering artwork, literature and music, and his name became part of the Soviet national anthem. His government also controlled the Soviet media. Joseph Stalin and World War II In 1939, on the eve of World War II, Joseph Stalin and German dictator Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) signed a nonaggression pact. Stalin then proceeded to annex parts of Poland and Romania, as well as the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. He also launched an invasion of Finland. Then, in June 1941, Germany broke the Nazi-Soviet pact and invaded the USSR, making significant early inroads. (Stalin had ignored warnings from the Americans and the British, as well as his own intelligence agents, about a potential invasion, and the Soviets were not prepared for war.) As German troops approached the Soviet capital of Moscow, Stalin remained there and directed a scorched earth defensive policy, destroying any supplies or infrastructure that might benefit the enemy. The tide turned for the Soviets with the Battle of Stalingrad , from August 1942 to February 1943, during which the Red Army defeated the Germans and eventually drove them from Russia. As the war progressed, Stalin participated in the major Allied conferences, including those in Tehran (1943) and Yalta (1945). His iron will and deft political skills enabled him to play the loyal ally while never abandoning his vision of an expanded postwar Soviet empire. Joseph Stalin’s Later Years Joseph Stalin did not mellow with age: He prosecuted a reign of terror, purges, executions, exiles to labor camps and persecution in the postwar USSR, suppressing all dissent and anything that smacked of foreign–especially Western–influence. He established communist governments throughout Eastern Europe, and in 1949 led the Soviets into the nuclear age by exploding an atomic bomb. In 1950, he gave North Korea’s communist leader Kim Il Sung (1912-1994) permission to invade United States-supported South Korea, an event that triggered the Korean War . Stalin, who grew increasingly paranoid in his later years, died on March 5, 1953, at age 74, after suffering a stroke. His body was embalmed and preserved in Lenin’s mausoleum in Moscow’s Red Square until 1961, when it was removed and buried near the Kremlin walls as part of the de-Stalinization process initiated by Stalin’s successor Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971). By some estimates, he was responsible for the deaths of 20 million people during his brutal rule. Tags

Joseph Stalin

What country sold land including the present-day states of Louisiana, Arkansas, and Oklahoma to the USA in 1803?

A Biography of Joseph Stalin a Leader of the Soviet Union | Kibin A Biography of Joseph Stalin a Leader of the Soviet Union Sign Up & Access Essays Already a member? Login here Pages: 1 This preview is partially blurred. Sign up to view the full document. Sign Up & Access Essays Already a member? Login here End of preview Upgrade to view the full document This is an unformatted preview. Sign up to view the full document End of preview Upgrade to view the full document Joseph Stalin Joseph Stalin was born on Dec 21 1876 in Gori Georgia Joseph Stalins original name was Iosef Vissaronovich Ozhungashvili but he adopted his name to Joseph Stalin which means man of steel World Book 825 His fathers name was Vissarion Ivanovich Djugashvili His father was a drunk and had a job being a shoemaker Since Josephs father didnt make much money Josephs mom Ekaterina Gleladaz Djugaholi who became a washerwoman to help support her family The Stalins lived in a small shack and Joseph was an only child When Joseph was a young boy Stalins father left him In 1888 Stalin was sent to a church school in Gori World Book 825He spent 5 years there and was a brilliant student Stalin received a scholarship at the religious seminary in Tbilisi To a surprise Stalin entered his school to study priesthood in the Georgian Orthodox Church in the year 1984 World Book 825 In 1898 Stalin joined a secret Marxist revolutionary group World Book 825 Stalin got expelled from his school for not appearing for an examination Stalin joined a Marxist movement and when it split in 1903 he went with more radical Bolsheviks In 1904 he married but his wife died of tuberculosis after 3 years World Book 825 He married again in 1919 but his 2nd wife killed herself leaving Stalin with a son and daughter World Book 825 The son became an alcoholic and his daughter defected to the United States During Stalins underground career he was arrested at least 6 times and spent time as an exile in Siberia He engaged in robbery murder labor agitation and served as editor and writer for various newspapers where he first used the name Stalin The Red Tsar httpgo2netcom When the communist come to power in 1922 Stalin got a great position as a Secretary General of Communist Party World Book 826 Before Lenin died he thought that Stalin was too vicious @Kibin is a lifesaver for my essay right now!! - Sandra Slivka, student @ UC Berkeley Wow, this is the best essay help I've ever received! - Camvu Pham, student @ U of M If I'd known about @Kibin in college, I would have gotten much more sleep - Jen Soust, alumni @ UCLA

i don't know

Which British monarch married Anne of Denmark?

Anne of Denmark (1574 - 1619) - Find A Grave Memorial London Borough of Richmond upon Thames Greater London, England British, Scottish Monarch. The daughter of Frederick II of Denmark and Sophia of Mecklenburg, she married King James VI of Scotland by proxy in August of 1589 and in person on November 23 of that year. She was unpopular with the people of Scotland, and when James ascended the throne of England as James I in 1603, she caused great embarrassment when she refused to take Anglican communion during their coronation. She had 8 children, only 3 survived infancy. As her husband had definite homosexual preferences, they lived largely separate lives. Anne occupied herself with entertainments at court, having a penchant for staging and acting in elaborate masques. This coupled with her Catholic faith, taste for expensive clothes and costly building projects made her as unpopular with her English subjects as she had been with the Scottish, and added to the great financial difficulties of James' reign. (bio by: Kristen Conrad)    

James VI and I

Which US president was shot five days after the end of the American Civil War?

Queen Anne | Facts Summary Information View articles featuring Queen Anne Queen Anne Summary Queen Anne was the last Stuart monarch and first married queen to rule England. Anne Stuart was born February 6, 1665, to James, Duke of York (who became James II) and his first wife, Anne Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon. She was one of two children to survive to adulthood—her older sister Mary Stuart, born April 30, 1662, was the other. Anne had poor health and was sent to France to live with her grandmother Queen Dowager Henrietta Maria, then her aunt, Henriette Anne, Duchess of Orléans, for medical treatment until 1870. Born into a time of religious controversy between Protestants and Roman Catholics following the English Civil War, Anne and Mary were brought up as strict Protestants at the insistence of their uncle, King Charles II, although their father was Roman Catholic, having escaped to France and served in its military during the war. When Anne was 12, her sister Mary married their cousin, William of Orange, a Protestant ally in the Netherlands. James had hoped to arrange her marriage with an heir to the French throne—and a Roman Catholic—but was outmaneuvered by the Lord Treasurer and Earl of Danby, who convinced King Charles II that a Dutch alliance would be more beneficial. Subsequently, James prohibited Anne from visiting her sister in the Netherlands, since he considered the country to be an enemy. This likely led Anne to strengthen her friendship with Sarah Jennings, who would become a longstanding friend and very influential in her court. In 1683 Anne married Prince George of Denmark, an arrangement negotiated secretly between James and King Louis XIV, who had hoped for an Anglo-Danish alliance against the Dutch and William of Orange. Prince George’s influence and interest in matters of state remained minimal throughout their marriage—he was easy-going, uninterested in politics, and had a drinking problem. Following her marriage, Anne kept her friend Sarah, now Sarah Churchill, close by making her lady of the bedchamber. They became so close that in personal communication, they dropped all pretense of titles and used pseudonyms when writing to each other: Anne was Mrs. Morley and Sarah was Mrs. Freeman. Anne had 17 pregnancies during her marriage: 12 were miscarriages or stillbirths and four of the children died in infancy. The one child who survived past infancy, Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, born July 24, 1689, was ill for much of his life—a source of constant worry for Anne—and died at the age of 11 in 1700. When Charles II died in 1685, James inherited the throne. Although he suppressed an initial uprising in Scotland, his grants of religious tolerance led to Parliamentary opposition and ultimately to James terminating Parliament by royal decree in 1685. He ruled without Parliament until 1688 and the Glorious Revolution. When William of Orange and Mary invaded England at the behest of Parliament, Anne supported them against their father at the urging of Sarah Churchill. The result of the revolution was a constitutional monarchy in which Parliament, not the monarchy, had ultimate control of the government. James was once again exiled to France, while William of Orange and Mary became joint monarchs, King William III and Queen Mary II. Mary essentially allowed William to rule; Anne did not get along with either of them. Mary died in 1694 of smallpox without having produced an heir. William continued to rule but did not remarry, so to determine succession and maintain a Protestant monarchy, the Act of Settlement was enacted in 1701, establishing Anne as successor to the throne and, after that, the Hanover branch of the monarchy. In 1702 William died and, at the age of 37, Anne was crowned queen on March 8, 1702. She was already suffering from gout, leading to a largely sedentary lifestyle and subsequent overall decline in her health. Anne immediately supported Spain in the War of Spanish Succession, declaring war on France on May 4, 1702. Sarah Churchill, the Duchess of Marlborough, remained a close advisor—Anne appointed her husband, the Duke of Marlborough, to command the English Army in the War of Spanish Succession. Anne also helped to negotiate the Act of Union, in which Scotland and England were united as Great Britain on May 1, 1707. King George died in October 1708, devastating Anne and precipitating a falling out with Sarah Churchill that would gradually worsen until Anne expelled her from court after a violent quarrel in 1710. Anne had gradually replaced Sarah with Abigail Masham, who used her influence to further the Tories, who negotiated an end to the War of Spanish Succession. Anne died August 1, 1714, the last Stuart monarch to rule England. Her health had declined to the point that she was often bedridden. Doctors attending her tried to cure her with bleeding, applying hot irons, and other cures of the time. She was succeeded by George I, who was a great-grandson of James I. George was 52nd in line to the throne but was the first Protestant in the line of succession. [srp post_limit=”2″ category_include=”126″ vf_everything=”no” widget_title=”Featured Queen Anne Articles” ” post_date=”no” string_break=” More…” post_content_type=”content” post_content_length=”50″ post_content_length_mode=”words” ] Articles Featuring Queen Anne From British History Magazine [tabby title=’Queen Anne Articles’][srp widget_title=”” widget_css_id=”testing-grid” post_type=”post” post_content_type=”content” post_content_length=”50″ post_content_length_mode=”words” post_title_length=”12″ post_title_length_mode=”words” post_date=”no” post_offset=”2″ category_include=”126″ string_break=” More…” layout_mode=”multi_column” srp post_limit=”200″ display_thumbnail=”no” vf_everything=”no”][tabbyending] Copyright 2014 British Heritage.

i don't know

"""What was the name of the Austrian-born dictator who succeeded Hindenburg as Germany's head of state?"

How Hitler Consolidated Power in Germany How Hitler Consolidated Power in Germany and Launched A Social Revolution The First Years of the Third Reich By Leon Degrelle I. Who Would End the Bankruptcy? "We have the power. Now our gigantic work begins." Those were Hitler's words on the night of January 30, 1933, as cheering crowds surged past him, for five long hours, beneath the windows of the Chancellery in Berlin. His political struggle had lasted 14 years. He himself was 43, that is, physically and intellectually at the peak of his powers. He had won over millions of Germans and organized them into Germany's largest and most dynamic political party, a party girded by a human rampart of hundreds of thousands of storm troopers, three fourths of them members of the working class. He had been extremely shrewd. All but toying with his adversaries, Hitler had, one after another, vanquished them all. Standing there at the window, his arm raised to the delirious throng, he must have known a feeling of triumph. But he seemed almost torpid, absorbed, as if lost in another world. It was a world far removed from the delirium in the street, a world of 65 million citizens who loved him or hated him, but all of whom, from that night on, had become his responsibility. And as he knew -- as almost all Germans knew at the end of January 1933 -- that this was a crushing, an almost desperate responsibility. Half a century later, few people understand the crisis Germany faced at that time. Today, it's easy to assume that Germans have always been well-fed and even plump. But the Germans Hitler inherited were virtual skeletons. During the preceding years, a score of "democratic" governments had come and gone, often in utter confusion. Instead of alleviating the people's misery, they had increased it, due to their own instability: it was impossible for them to pursue any given plan for more than a year or two. Germany had arrived at a dead end. In just a few years there had been 224,000 suicides - a horrifying figure, bespeaking a state of misery even more horrifying. By the beginning of 1933, the misery of the German people was virtually universal. At least six million unemployed and hungry workers roamed aimlessly through the streets, receiving a pitiful unemployment benefit of less than 42 marks per month. Many of those out of work had families to feed, so that altogether some 20 million Germans, a third of the country's population, were reduced to trying to survive on about 40 pfennigs per person per day. Unemployment benefits, moreover, were limited to a period of six months. After that came only the meager misery allowance dispensed by the welfare offices. Notwithstanding the gross inadequacy of this assistance, by trying to save the six million unemployed from total destruction, even for just six months, both the state and local branches of the German government saw themselves brought to ruin: in 1932 alone such aid had swallowed up four billion marks, 57 percent of the total tax revenues of the federal government and the regional states. A good many German municipalities were bankrupt. Those still lucky enough to have some kind of job were not much better off. Workers and employees had taken a cut of 25 percent in their wages and salaries. Twenty-one percent of them were earning between 100 and 250 marks per month; 69.2 percent of them, in January of 1933, were being paid less than 1,200 marks annually. No more than about 100,000 Germans, it was estimated, were able to live without financial worries. During the three years before Hitler came to power, total earnings had fallen by more than half, from 23 billion marks to 11 billion. The average per capita income had dropped from 1,187 marks in 1929 to 627 marks, a scarcely tolerable level, in 1932. By January 1933, when Hitler took office, 90 percent of the German people were destitute. No one escaped the strangling effects of the unemployment. The intellectuals were hit as hard as the working class. Of the 135,000 university graduates, 60 percent were without jobs. Only a tiny minority was receiving unemployment benefits. "The others," wrote one foreign observer, Marcel Laloire (in his book New Germany), "are dependent on their parents or are sleeping in flophouses. In the daytime they can be seen on the boulevards of Berlin wearing signs on their backs to the effect that they will accept any kind of work." But there was no longer any kind of work. The same drastic fall-off had hit Germany's cottage industry, which comprised some four million workers. Its turnover had declined 55 percent, with total sales plunging from 22 billion to 10 billion marks. Hardest hit of all were construction workers; 90 percent of them were unemployed. Farmers, too, had been ruined, crushed by losses amounting to 12 billion marks. Many had been forced to mortgage their homes and their land. In 1932 just the interest on the loans they had incurred due to the crash was equivalent to 20 percent of the value of the agricultural production of the entire country. Those who were no longer able to meet the interest payments saw their farms auctioned off in legal proceedings: in the years 1931-1932, 17,157 farms -- with a combined total area of 462,485 hectares - were liquidated in this way. The "democracy" of Germany's "Weimar Republic" (1918 -1933) had proven utterly ineffective in addressing such flagrant wrongs as this impoverishment of millions of farm workers, even though they were the nation's most stable and hardest working citizens. Plundered, dispossessed, abandoned: small wonder they heeded Hitler's call. Their situation on January 30, 1933, was tragic. Like the rest of Germany's working class, they had been betrayed by their political leaders, reduced to the alternatives of miserable wages, paltry and uncertain benefit payments, or the outright humiliation of begging. Germany's industries, once renowned everywhere in the world, were no longer prosperous, despite the millions of marks in gratuities that the financial magnates felt obliged to pour into the coffers of the parties in power before each election in order to secure their cooperation. For 14 years the well-blinkered conservatives and Christian democrats of the political center had been feeding at the trough just as greedily as their adversaries of the left. Thus, prior to 1933, the Social Democrats had been generously bribed by Friedrich Flick, a super-capitalist businessman. With him, as with all his like, it was a matter of carefully studied tactics. After 1945, his son, true to tradition, would continue to offer largess to the Bundestag Socialists who had their hands out, and, in a roundabout way, to similarly minded and equally greedy political parties abroad as well. The benefactors, to be sure, made certain that their gifts bore fruit in lucrative contracts and in cancelled fiscal obligations. Nothing is given for nothing. In politics, manacles are imposed in the form of money. Even though they had thus assured themselves of the willing cooperation of the politicians of the Weimar system's parties, the titans of German capitalism had experienced only a succession of catastrophes. The patchwork governments they backed, formed in the political scramble by claim and compromise, were totally ineffective. They lurched from one failure to another, with neither time for long-range planning nor the will to confine themselves somehow to their proper function. Time is required for the accomplishment of anything important. It is only with time that great plans may be brought to maturity and the competent men be found who are capable of carrying them out. Not surprisingly, therefore, any economic plans drawn up amid all this shifting for short-term political advantage were bound to fail. Nor did the bribing of the political parties make them any more capable of coping with the exactions ordered by the Treaty of Versailles. France, in 1923, had effectively seized Germany by the throat with her occupation of the Ruhr industrial region, and in six months had brought the Weimar government to pitiable capitulation. But then, disunited, despising one another, how could these political birds of passage have offered resistance? In just a few months in 1923, seven German governments came and went in swift succession. They had no choice but to submit to the humiliation of Allied control, as well as to the separatist intrigues fomented by Poincaré's paid agents. The substantial tariffs imposed on the sale of German goods abroad had sharply curtailed the nation's ability to export her products. Under obligation to pay gigantic sums to their conquerors, the Germans had paid out billions upon billions. Then, bled dry, they were forced to seek recourse to enormous loans from abroad, from the United States in particular. This indebtedness had completed their destruction and, in 1929, precipitated Germany into a terrifying financial crisis. The big industrialists, for all their fat bribes to the politicians, now found themselves impotent: their factories empty, their workers now living as virtual vagrants, haggard of face, in the dismal nearby working-class districts. Thousands of German factories lay silent, their smokestacks like a forest of dead trees. Many had gone under. Those which survived were operating on a limited basis. Germany's gross industrial production had fallen by half: from seven billion marks in 1920 to three and a half billion in 1932. The automobile industry provides a perfect example. Germany's production in 1932 was proportionately only one twelfth that of the United States, and only one fourth that of France: 682,376 cars in Germany (one for each 100 inhabitants) as against 1,855,174 cars in France, even though the latter's population was 20 million less than Germany's. Germany had experienced a similar collapse in exports. Her trade surplus had fallen from 2.872 billion marks in 1931 to only 667 millions in 1932 -- nearly a 75 percent drop. Overwhelmed by the cessation of payments and the number of current accounts in the red, even Germany's central bank was disintegrating. Harried by demands for repayment of the foreign loans, on the day of Hitler's accession to power the Reichsbank had in all only 83 million marks in foreign currency, 64 million of which had already been committed for disbursement on the following day. The astronomical foreign debt, an amount exceeding that of the country's total exports for three years, was like a lead weight on the back of every German. And there was no possibility of turning to Germany's domestic financial resources for a solution: banking activities had come virtually to a standstill. That left only taxes. Unfortunately, tax revenues had also fallen sharply. From nine billion marks in 1930, total revenue from taxes had fallen to 7.8 billion in 1931, and then to 6.65 billion in 1932 (with unemployment payments alone taking four billion of that amount). The financial debt burden of regional and local authorities, amounting to billions, had likewise accumulated at a fearful pace. Beset as they were by millions of citizens in need, the municipalities alone owed 6.542 billion in 1928, an amount that had increased to 11.295 billion by 1932. Of this total, 1.668 billion was owed in short-term loans. Any hope of paying off these deficits with new taxes was no longer even imaginable. Taxes had already been increased 45 percent from 1925 to 1931. During the years 1931-1932, under Chancellor Brüning, a Germany of unemployed workers and industrialists with half-dead factories had been hit with 23 "emergency" decrees. This multiple overtaxing, moreover, had proven to be completely useless, as the "International Bank of Payments" had clearly foreseen. The agency confirmed in a statement that the tax burden in Germany was already so enormous that it could not be further increased. And so, in one pan of the financial scales: 19 billion in foreign debt plus the same amount in domestic debt. In the other, the Reichsbank's 83 million marks in foreign currency. It was as if the average German, owing his banker a debt of 6,000 marks, had less than 14 marks in his pocket to pay it. One inevitable consequence of this ever-increasing misery and uncertainty about the future was an abrupt decline in the birthrate. When your household savings are wiped out, and when you fear even greater calamities in the days ahead, you do not risk adding to the number of your dependents. In those days the birth rate was a reliable barometer of a country's prosperity. A child is a joy, unless you have nothing but a crust of bread to put in its little hand. And that's just the way it was with hundreds of thousands of German families in 1932. In 1905, during the reign of Kaiser Wilhelm II, the birthrate had been 33.4 per one thousand. In 1921 it was only 25.9, and in 1924 it was down to 15.1. By the end of 1932, it had fallen to just 14.7 per one thousand. It reached that figure, moreover, thanks only to the higher birth rate in rural areas. In the fifty largest cities of the Reich, there were more deaths than births. In 45 percent of working-class families, there were no births at all in the latter years. The fall in the birthrate was most pronounced in Berlin, which had less than one child per family and only 9.1 births per one thousand. Deaths exceeded the number of new births by 60 percent. In contrast to the birthrate, politicians were flourishing as never before -- about the only thing in Germany that was in those disastrous times. From 1919 to 1932, Germany had seen no less than 23 governments come and go, averaging a new one about every seven months. As any sensible person realizes, such constant upheaval in a country's political leadership negates its power and authority. No one would imagine that any effective work could be carried out in a typical industrial enterprise if the board of directors, the management, management methods, and key personnel were all replaced every eight months. Failure would be certain. Yet the Reich wasn't a factory of 100 or 200 workers, but a nation of 65 million citizens crushed under the imposed burdens of the Treaty of Versailles, by industrial stagnation, by frightful unemployment, and by a gut-wrenching misery shared by the entire people. The many cabinet ministers who followed each other in swift succession for thirteen years -- due to petty parliamentary squabbles, partisan demands, and personal ambitions -- were unable to achieve anything other than the certain collapse of their chaotic regime of rival parties. Germany's situation was further aggravated by the unrestrained competition of the 25 regional states, which split up governmental authority into units often in direct opposition to Berlin, thereby incessantly sabotaging what limited power the central Reich government had at that time. The regional remnants of several centuries of particularism were all fiercely jealous of their privileges. The Treaty of Westphalia of 1648 had divided Germany into hundreds of Lilliputian states, most of them musical comedy kingdoms whose petty monarchs tried to act like King Louis XIV in courts complete with frills and reverential bows. Even at the beginning of the First World War (1914-1918), the German Reich included four distinct kingdoms (Prussia, Bavaria, Wurttemberg and Saxony), each with its own sovereign, army, flag, titles of nobility, and Great Cross in particolored enamel. In addition, there were six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, and three free cities. The Bavarian clung fiercely to his lederhosen, his steins of beer and his pipe. He took part in the war to preserve them. The Saxon would gladly have had a go-around with the haughty Prussian. Each was intent on his rights. And for all of them, faraway Berlin was a thorn in the side. Each regional state had its own separate government with parliament, prime minister and cabinet. Altogether they presented a lineup of 59 ministers who, added to the eleven Reich ministers and the 42 senators of the Free Cities, gave the Germans a collection of 112 ministers, each of whom viewed the other with a jaundiced eye at best. In addition, there were between two and three thousand deputies - representing dozens of rival political parties -- in the legislatures of the Reich, the 22 states and the three Free Cities. In the Reichstag elections of November 1932 -- held just months before Hitler become Chancellor -- there were no less than 37 different political parties competing, with a total of 7,000 candidates (14 of them by proxy), all of them frantically seeking a piece of the parliamentary pie. It was most strange: the more discredited the party system became, the more democratic champions there were to be seen gesturing and jostling in their eagerness to climb aboard the gravy train. To all appearances, the incumbents who had been elected were there forever. They received fat salaries (a Reichstag deputy got ten times what the average worker earned), and permitted themselves generous supplementary incomes in the form of favors provided by interested clients. A number of Socialist Reichstag deputies representing Berlin, for example, had arranged for their wives to receive sumptuous fur coats from certain Jewish financiers. In a parliamentary democracy, mandates are often very brief, and ministerial appointments even more so. The temptation is strong to get it while you can. Honest, dishonest, or piratical, these 112 cabinet ministers and thousands of legislative deputies had converted Germany into a country that was ungovernable. It is incontestable that, by January of 1933, the "system" politicians had become completely discredited. Their successors would inherit a country in economic, social and political ruins. Today, more than half a century later, in an era when so many are living in abundance, it is hard to believe that the Germany of January 1933 had fallen so low. But for anyone who studies the archives and the relevant documents of that time, there can be no doubt. Not a single figure cited here is invented. By January 1933, Germany was down and bleeding to death. All the previous chancellors who had undertaken to get Germany back on her feet -- including Brüning, Papen and Schleicher - had failed. Only a genius or, as some believed, a madman, could revive a nation that had fallen into such a state of complete disarray. When President Franklin Roosevelt was called upon at that same time to resolve a similar crisis in the United States, he had at his disposal immense reserves of gold. Hitler, standing silently at the chancellery window on that evening of January 30, 1933, knew that, on the contrary, his nation's treasury was empty. No great benefactor would appear to help him out. The elderly Reich President, Paul von Hindenburg, had given him a work sheet of appalling figures of indebtedness. Hitler knew that he would be starting from zero. From less than zero. But he was also confident of his strength of will to create Germany anew -- politically, socially, financially, and economically. Now legally and officially in power, he was sure that he could quickly convert that cipher into a Germany more powerful than ever before. What support did he have? For one thing, he could count on the absolute support of millions of fanatical disciples. And on that January evening, they joyfully shared in the great thrill of victory. Some thirteen million Germans, many of them former Socialists and Communists, had voted for his party. But millions of Germans were still his adversaries, disconcerted adversaries, to be sure, whom their own political parties had betrayed, but who had still not been won over to National Socialism. The two sides -- those for and those against Hitler -- were very nearly equal in numbers. But whereas those on the left were divided among themselves, Hitler's disciples were strongly united. And in one thing above all, the National Socialists had an incomparable advantage: in their convictions and in their total faith in a leader. Their highly organized and well-disciplined party had conted with the worst kind of obstacles, and had overcome them. Hitler poses with close comrades shortly after being named Chancellor on January 30, 1933. While it enjoyed extraordinarily popular support, the National Socialist movement had grown too fast, and problems deriving from that lay in wait ahead. Thousands of visionaries with nebulous dreams of domination, not to mention hotheads dreaming only of brawls and revolution in perpetuity, had found their way into the National Socialist ranks. The ambitious ones intended to rise to the top at any cost -- and as quickly as possible. Many of them were ill-prepared; some simply lacked morals. Many bitter disappointments were in store for Hitler because of them. Hitler sensed as much. He had ordered his party to halt recruitment of new members, and even directed that the SA -- the huge civilian paramilitary force that had carried him to power -- be reduced in size. Indeed, by 1933 SA stormtroop membership had grown to the incredible figure of 2,500,000 men, 25 times the size of the regular army, the Reichswehr. It was due to such pressures that Hitler was sometimes driven to rash action, contrary to his real desire or intent. Sometimes this meant expulsions, the use of force or cases of intransigence, even though his larger goal was to reunite the nation in peace, and accomplish his political and social programs without useless clashes. Hitler knew that he was playing with dynamite. Still, it was his conviction that he was being driven not just by his National Socialist movement, but by an inner, almost supernatural force. Whether one called it Providence or Destiny, it was this force, he felt, that had carried him to victory. His own force of character was such that it would yield to nothing. For Hitler, it was a foregone conclusion that he would forge a new Reich, a new world. Hitler knew that the task he had set himself would be immense and difficult to accomplish, that he would have to transform Germany in practically every respect: the structure of the state, social law, the constitution of society, the economy, civic spirit, culture, the very nature of men's thinking. To accomplish his great goal, he would need to reestablish the equilibrium of the social classes within the context of a regenerated community, free his nation from foreign hegemony, and restructure its geographic unity. Task number one: he would have to restore work and honor to the lives of six million unemployed. This was his immediate goal, a task that everyone else thought impossible to achieve. After he had once again closed the windows of the chancellery, Hitler, with clenched fists and resolute mien, said simply: "The great venture begins. The day of the Third Reich has come." In just one year this "great venture" would be in full swing, effecting a transformation from top to bottom in political, social and economic life -- indeed, in the German way of life itself. II. The Unification of the State "It will be the pride of my life," Hitler said upon becoming Chancellor, "if I can say at the end of my days that I won back the German worker and restored him to his rightful place in the Reich." He meant that he intended not merely to put men back to work, but to make sure that the worker acquired not just rights, but prestige as well, within the national community. The national community had long been the proverbial wicked stepmother in its relationship with the German working man. Class struggle had not been the exclusive initiative of the Marxists. It had also been a fact of life for a privileged class, the capitalists, that sought to dominate the working class. Thus the German worker, feeling himself treated like a pariah, had often turned away from a fatherland that often seemed to consider him merely an instrument of production. In the eyes of the capitalists, money was the sole active element in the flourishing of a country's economy. To Hitler's way of thinking, that conception was radically wrong: capital, on the contrary, was only an instrument. Work was the essential element: man's endeavor, man's honor, blood, muscles and soul. Hitler wanted not just to put an to the class struggle, but to reestablish the priority of the human being, in justice and respect, as the principal factor in production. One could dispense with gold, and Hitler would do just that. A dozen other things could be substituted for gold as a means of stimulating industry, and Hitler would invent them. But as for work, it was the indispensable foundation. For the worker's trust in the fatherland to be restored, he had to feel that from now on he was to be (and to be treated) as an equal, instead of remaining a social inferior. Under the governments of the so-called democratic parties of both the left and the right, he had remained an inferior; for none of them had understood that in the hierarchy of national values, work is the very essence of life; and matter, be it steel or gold, but a tool. The objective, then, was far greater than merely sing six million unemployed back to work. It was to achieve a total revolution. "The people," Hitler declared, "were not put here on earth for the sake of the economy, and the economy doesn't exist for the sake of capital. On the contrary, capital is meant to serve the economy, and the economy in turn to serve the people." It would not be enough merely to reopen the thousands of closed factories and fill them with workers. If the old concepts still ruled, the workers would once again be nothing more than living machines, faceless and interchangeable. What was required was to reestablish that moral equilibrium between the workers, human beings who shape raw materials, and a useful and controlled capitalism, returned to its proper function as a tool. This would mean changing an entire world, and it would take time. As Hitler knew full well, such a revolution could not be achieved while the central and regional governments continued in a state of anarchy, seldom accomplishing anything solid, and sometimes running amok. Nor could there be a revolution in society while dozens of parties and thousands of deputies of every conceivable stripe pursued their selfish interests under a political system that had thrashed about incoherently since 1919. Restoring the effectiveness of Germany's institutions on a nationwide basis was therefore an indispensable prerequisite to any social rebirth. "A fish rots from the head down," says a Russian proverb. And it was at the head that political Germany, prior to Hitler, was going bad. In the end, the "democratic" parties abdicated without even defending themselves. In 1930, the aged President Marshall von Hindenburg used his emergency powers under Article 48 of the Weimar constitution to enable a succession of semi-dictators to rule by decree. But even they could accomplish little. These last chancellors -- Herr Brüning, Herr von Papen, and General Schleicher -- were able to maintain rule only by executive decree. Their authority, artificially sustained by misuse of Article 48, was dependent on von Hindenburg and the camarilla advising him. Just how slim was their level of popular support was shown in a particularly humiliating 1932 Reichstag "vote of confidence," in which more than 90 percent of the deputies voted against him and his government. Hitler's accession to power abruptly brought an end to government impotence. As a condition of appointing him, however, Hindenburg had demanded that the new chancellor be hemmed in like a prisoner in his own government. In his first government, Hitler was obliged to name four times as many conservative -- or better, reactionary - ministers as his own men. Just two members of his first cabinet were National Socialists. Hindenburg's representatives were given the mission of keeping Hitler on a leash. At the Reichstag session of March 24, however, Hitler broke that leash, not with yet another executive decree (like his immediate predecessors), but by obtaining a two-thirds parliamentary majority for the "Enabling Act" that legally amed the constitution and gave him sweeping plenary powers for a period of four years. Four years in power to plan, create and make decisions. Politically, it was a revolution: Hitler's first revolution. And completely democratic, as had been every stage of his rise. His initial triumph had come through the support of the electorate. Similarly, sweeping authority to govern was granted him through a vote of more than two-thirds of the Reichtag's deputies, elected by universal suffrage. This was in accord with a basic principle of Hitler's: no power without the freely given approval of the people. He used to say: "If you can win mastery over the people only by imposing the power of the state, you'd better figure on a nine o'clock curfew." Nowhere in twentieth-century Europe had the authority of a head of state ever been based on such overwhelming and freely given national consent. Prior to Hitler, from 1919 to 1932, those governments piously styling themselves democratic had usually come to power by meager majorities, sometimes as low as 51 or 52 percent. "I am not a dictator," Hitler had often affirmed, "and I never will be. Democracy will be rigorously enforced by National Socialism." Authority does not mean tyranny. A tyrant is someone who puts himself in power without the will of the people or against the will of the people. A democrat is placed in power by the people. But democracy is not limited to a single formula. It may be partisan or parliamentary. Or it may be authoritarian. The important thing is that the people have wished it, chosen it, established it in its given form. That was the case with Hitler. He came to power in an essentially democratic way. Whether one likes it or not, this fact is undeniable. And after coming to power, his popular support measurably increased from year to year. The more intelligent and honest of his enemies have been obliged to admit this, men such as the declared anti-Nazi historian and professor Joachim Fest, who wrote: For Hitler was never interested in establishing a mere tyranny. Sheer greed for power will not suffice as explanation for his personality and energy -- He was not born to be a mere tyrant. He was fixated upon his mission of defending Europe and the Aryan race ... Never had he felt so dependent upon the masses as he did at this time, and he watched their reactions with anxious concern. These lines weren't written by Dr. Goebbels, but by a stern critic of Hitler and his career. (J. Fest, Hitler, New York: 1974, p. 417.) By February 28, 1933, less than a month after his appointment as chancellor, Hitler had already managed to free himself of the conservative ballast by which Hindenburg had thought to weigh him down. The Reichstag fire of the previous evening prompted the elderly President to approve a new emergency law "For the Protection of the People and the State," which considerably increased the powers of the executive. Hitler meant, however, to obtain more than just concessions ruefully granted by a pliable old man: he sought plenary powers legally accorded him by the nation's supreme democratic institution, the Reichstag. Hitler prepared his coup with the skill, the patience, and the astuteness for which he is legendary. "He possessed," historian Fest later wrote, "an intelligence that included above all a sure sense of the rhythm to be observed in the making of decisions." Hitler, von Hinderburg, and von Papen, in the Garrison church at the solemn "Day of Potsdam" ceremony. At first, Hitler carefully cultivated Hindenburg, the elderly First World War Feldmarschall who was fond of tradition. Accordingly, Hitler arranged a solemn ceremony in Hindenburg's honor in Potsdam, historic residence of the Prussian kings. This masterpiece of majesty, beauty, tradition and piety took place in Potsdam's Garrison Church on March 21, 1933, just days before the Reichstag was to reconvene. Hindenburg had served as an army officer for half a century. So that the old soldier might be reunited with his comrades, Hitler had arranged for veterans from all the wars in which Hindenburg had served to be present on this solemn occasion. From all around the country they came: veterans from the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 (62 years before), from the war of 1866 against the Austrian empire (67 years before), and even from the war of 1864 against Denmark (69 years before!). For someone on the retirement list of 1911, it must have been a heartwarming occasion to be reunited again with comrades from so long ago. With deference and apparent humility, and attired in formal dress for the occasion, Hitler bowed his head before the old man. In the stately church where the ceremony took place, Hitler had arranged that the chair of the former Kaiser, Wilhelm II, which had been unoccupied for 14 years, remained empty, so that Hindenburg could halt before it and make his salute, his marshal's baton raised, as if the monarch were still there. Hitler also quietly led Hindenburg down into the church crypt, to place wreaths on the tombs of his old master, Kaiser Wilhelm I, and of Frederick the Great. The President's old eyes were rimmed with tears. On that 21st day of March at Potsdam, the octogenarian President relived the glorious past of the German monarchy. This somber homage was his hour supreme. Hindenburg had always been a loyal servant of the Emperor, and this reminder of his former sovereign, and of the great days of his own long career, deeply moved him. Hitler was the first chancellor since the defeat of 1918 to so honor the tradition of Prussia and Germany. The young revolutionary chancellor had touched his heart. A month and a half earlier, Hindenburg had commissioned Papen, Hugenberg, and Neurath and other conservative ministers to pinch in Hitler "until he hollered." Now that was over. Hitler had won him over: in front of an empty armchair and before the tombs of Prussia's greatest kings. A year and a half later, as he lay dying, the old Feldmarschall would believe that he was back in the time of Hohenzollern dynasty, and in his delirium would address Hitler as "Majesty." This "Day of Potsdam" ceremony also won Hitler new support from among the country's many monarchists, giving them the impression that he has not altogether insensitive to the idea of restoring the monarchy. But the new chancellor's temporary prudence was calculated with precision. "There is no need to destroy the existing institutions," Hitler assured, "until there is something better to put in their place." He still had need of men like von Papen and other ruling-class troglodytes. He kept them at his side as he drove them around Potsdam on that historic day, the festive city bedecked not only with swastika banners but equally with the black-white-and-red flags of the Second Reich, resurrected for the occasion. Brass bands paraded around, blaring heroic marches calculated to make their old chests swell. Here too, the scarcely camouflaged aversion to the parvenu was softened. Hitler had tamed the aristocrats, both born and moneyed. They would no longer stand in his way. But it was above all Germany's army -- the Reichswehr -- that was the object of Hitler's most ardent courtship. In 1933, he desperately needed the army's support. The generals had tolerated his rise to power with reluctance. A corporal in the chancellory seemed intolerable to the haughty, monocled generals. Some ambitiously sought to supervise the nation's political machinery. They had not been consulted when Hitler was named Chancellor on January 30. The old Feldmarschall had even sternly sent away General von Hammerstein-Equord, who had come to tell Hindenburg of the General Staff's vote of disapproval. In the weeks since, the generals had barely tolerated the young outsider. Keenly aware that a coup d'état by this proud military caste could instantly sweep him and his party away, along with all his plans for the future, Hitler knew that he must proceed cleverly against the imperious generals. The Reichswehr was therefore accorded a position of honor at Potsdam. At the entry walkway to the royal palace, Reichswehr troops presented arms on one side, while a line of SA stormtroopers faced them on the other side. Unifying conservative military traditions of duty and honor with a revolutionary new force, together they formed the honor guard that symbolized a Germany restored to harmony. The young Chancellor greets the aging President at the "Day of Potsdam" ceremony, March 21, 1933. As for the generals, their tunics gleaming with decorations and their chests thrown out, they once again marched behind their old commander, a heroic retinue worthy of a great Germanic chieftain. At last, after fourteen years of disregard under the democratic Weimar Republic, they once again bathed in the golden light of martial glory. Corporal Hitler was perhaps not as contemptible as they had thought. The ex-corporal, standing at attention in top hat and formal dress suit, let them have their day of glory at Potsdam. He knew enough to let them bask in the limelight. Hitler had won his armistice. To reach the people, Hitler and Dr. Goebbels had quickly taken control of the nation's radio, from which they had for so long been barred (and which their adversaries had put to only mediocre use). Within a few weeks, they had succeeded in making radio their most effective tool. Each of Hitler's major speeches was broadcast to the nation with a hitherto unknown power. Radio also brought the spectacle of Potsdam to the people. Goebbels set up his microphones everywhere: in front of Hindenburg, behind Hindenburg, in the royal crypt, close to the military bands, and even on the rooftops of houses (where the announcers risked their necks to cover the pageantry). One of them was a young National Socialist Reichstag deputy named Baldur von Schirach, who in 1946 would find himself in the dock before the vengeful Allied judges of the Nuremberg Tribunal. All of Germany was on the edge of its seat as it listened for hours to the exciting coverage of the event. Millions of Germans thrilled to once again hear the stirring old melodies, and to closely follow Hindenburg's every move, almost as if they were there. During the dark days of the recent past, the venerated old warrior had represented tradition and hope. Now, thanks to Hitler's careful planning and management of this occasion, the ancient soldier embodied the promise of great national renewal. It was, as historian Fest has observed, "the feast of reconciliation gorgeously presented ... That day at Potsdam truly proved to be a turning point in history ... Many government officials, army officers, lawyers and judges, many members of the nationalistic bourgeoisie who had distrusted Hitler on rational grounds, abandoned their stand ... " (J. Fest, Hitler, New York: 1974, p. 405.) Potsdam was a grandiose theatrical stage on which all had played their parts, even -- by their very absence -- the lukewarm and Hitler's enemies on the left. Glued to their radio sets, all Germany had participated in the spectacle, at first fascinated, and then caught up in the emotion of the event. The next day, Berlin newspapers declared: "National enthusiasm swept over Germany yesterday like a great storm." "A strange mixture of tactician and visionary," Joachim Fest would later write, sizing up this extraordinary stage manager. For Hitler had led field marshals, generals, and other dignitaries, none of them fools, through his drill paces as though they had been so many animated tin soldiers. But Hitler's plans exted far beyond winning over the Old Guard. In order to establish his new state in definitive form, Hitler now proposed to obtain the official ratification of the Reichstag, which would establish his authority to govern as a virtual dictator for a period of several years. To gain such plenary powers lawfully, the German constitution had to be amed, and this would require approval by two thirds of the parliament's members. Hitler's party, having won 17,300,000 votes in the elections of March 5, 1933, for the new Reichstag, held a total of 288 seats - making it by far the largest single party. His conservative ally in the temporary partnership, Hugenberg's German National People's Party (DNVP), had captured 4,750,000 votes and held another 52 seats, giving the coalition a total of 340 deputies. After deducting the 81 "empty" Communist seats, the opposition now mustered just 226 members: 120 Social Democrats, 92 (Catholic) Center and BVP deputies, and 14 others. Although his coalition held a majority of seats, to alter the constitution Hitler needed a two thirds majority -- which meant 36 additional votes. At first sight, this goal seemed almost impossible. For more than a decade, the Catholic Center and Bavarian People's parties had been outspoken critics of Hitler and his National Socialist movement, unhesitatingly using religion as a partisan political weapon, and even denying religious burial to Catholic National Socialists murdered by Communist killers. Hitler, with the assistance of Göring (who was now president of the new Reichstag), would now have to win over that clerical flock. Center party leader Monsignor Kaas, a squat and pudgy prelate who found the collecting of votes to be more satisfying than the guidance of souls, was flattered and courted by Hitler, who dangled before him the promise of a rapprochement between the state and the Catholic Church, an earnest promise that Hitler would make good on the following summer. The beguiled prelate may have believed that he was going to lead errant sheep back to the fold. In any case, Hitler succeeded in persuading and seducing the Center party. Some deputies of the smaller opposition parties also yielded. When it came time to vote, Hitler was granted plenary powers with a sweeping majority of 441 votes to 94: he had won not just two thirds, but 82.44 percent of the assembly's votes. This "Enabling Act" granted Hitler for four years virtually absolute authority over the legislative as well as the executive affairs of the government. The five paragraphs of this "Law for the Alleviation of the Misery of the People and the Nation" were brief and to the point: Laws may be promulgated by the Reich government apart from the procedures provided for by the Constitution ... Laws promulgated by the Reich government may deviate from the Constitution provided they do not change the position of the Reichstag or of the Reichsrat. The powers of the Reich President are not changed. Laws promulgated by the Reich government will be prepared by the Chancellor and published in the "Official Journal." Unless otherwise specified, they become effective on the day following publication ... Treaties concluded by the Reich with foreign states that concern matters of national legislation do not require ratification by the legislative bodies. The Reich government is empowered to issue the regulations necessary for their execution. This law becomes effective on the day of publication, and remains valid until April 1, 1937. It also becomes invalid if the present government is replaced by another. Berlin, March 24, 1933 Von Hindenburg, Hitler, Frick, von Neurath, Krosigk Thus, a parliamentary democracy, exercising its constitutional powers, had legally established an authoritarian national state. Next, a solution was needed to problem of the horde of the competing regional, state and local parliaments, jurisdictions and authorities. For the most part, these authorities were virtual nullities, and there was no love lost between them. For fourteen years, though, they had acted together whenever a opportunity presented itself to thwart the central government in Berlin. It was inconceivable that a strong government such as the one Hitler had just established could function effectively with thousands of second-level politicians carping and questioning his every move. Anyway, Germans had in fact become sick and tired of the squandering of authority, the perpetual squabbling, the pettiness, discord, and the anarchy for which, in the final analysis, it was the people who paid. "It is a fact," French historian Bénoist-Méchin later observed, "that the unification of the states and the Reich answered one of the most profound aspirations of the German people. They had enough of being torn apart by the constant threats of secession of the provincial governments. For centuries they had dreamed of being part of a single community." (Histoire de l'Armée Allemande, vol. III, p. 117.) It seemed a simple enough task, because public opinion demanded the abolition of the administrative mess. But such a reform would necessarily bruise the vanity of thousands and collide head-on with many local special interests. A man who is a council president or a minister, even if only of a small state, does not easily resign himself to being no more than a private citizen, to once again becoming, let us say, a provincial lawyer scampering to the court house with coattails flying. The 2,400 legislative deputies would also be bitter about losing the good life they had come to know and expect. Gone the prestige, the deference, the awards, the vacation trips at public expense, the discreet gratuities! Who among us does not make a wry face when swallowing bitter medicine? But it had to be, for Hitler had his eyes fixed on the national goal: a unified nation. That did not mean, of course, that in eliminating the regional administrations Hitler had any desire to do away with the distinctive identities of the nation's various provinces. On the contrary, he believed that a nation's life ought never to be monopolized by its capital city, but should rather be nourished and constantly renewed by the blooming of dozens of centers of culture in regions rich in varied manners, mores and legacies of their past. He believed that the nation was the harmonious conjunction of these profound and original variations, and that a state conscious of its real powers ought to promote such variety, not smother it. The dispersion of political power had not favored such a variety, but had, on the contrary, diminished it, depriving it of the cohesion a large community brings. The Reich's 25 separate administrative entities, rivals of the central government and often of each other, were a source of disorder. A nation must consist of regions that know and esteem each other, and which gain mutual enrichment from their interlinking, rather than each withdrawing into a culture that is strangled by an exclusive and restrictive provincialism. And only a strong central authority could insure the flowering of all the various regions within a single collective entity. In sum, what Hitler intended was that each region should bring its share of original culture to the totality of a German Reich that had put an to so many fractious administrations. From 1871 to 1933, Germany's various national governments had come up against this obstacle of political particularism. Even so gifted a leader as Bismarck had not been able to overcome this persistent problem. And now, where the leaders of both the Second Reich and the Weimar Republic had failed, or had not dared to take the risk, Hitler, in a few months, was going to convert this long-standing division and discord into potent and effective unity. Hitler had scarcely moved into his office overlooking the chancellery garden, where squirrels cracked nuts in the trees and at times even leaped into the building itself, when he drew up a law to unify the Reich's many lands. The first of the states that would be made to toe the line was Bavaria, which up to that point had been a bulwark of belligerent separatism and hidebound monarchists. Hitler's intentions were no sooner known than several Bavarian ministers devised a plan to resurrect from retirement that old fogy, the ex-Prince Ruprecht, heir to Bavaria's Wittelsbach throne, who in November 1923, then as an ordinary private citizen, had, with a good deal of boasting, helped block Hitler's ill-fated putsch. Now the new chancellor responded to their little plot with sudden and crushing force, bringing the Bavarian state administration to heel in a single night. The next morning, Lieutenant General von Epp was named Reich Commissioner in Munich. Thereafter, almost all the other regional states rapidly collapsed, like a house of cards. The most difficult state to master was Prussia, an enormous bastion (a third of Germany) stretching across the heart of the country. Prussia truly constituted a state within the state, a special government. In 1931 its Socialist government had held Reich Chancellor Brüning completely in check. His humiliating defeat came notwithstanding their party's crushing defeat in the Prussian elections a short time earlier at the hands of Hitler's candidates. Chancellor von Papen found that he, too, had to come to grips with Prussia, which was nearly as strong as the central government. After he became Chancellor, Hitler was obliged for a time - because Hindenburg demanded it -- to let von Papen remain as Reich Commissioner of Prussia; and it was only with great effort on his part that Hitler managed to have Göring named as von Papen's Minister of the Interior in Prussia. The autonomy of the Prussian government, more than any other, had to be liquidated: otherwise, the central government would remain subject at any moment to embarrassment and hindrance in the city that was the capital of both Prussia and the Reich. The matter was particularly delicate because von Papen, the aristocrat, had to remain as Reich Commissioner of Prussia. To remove him would risk disapproval and even countermeasures by President von Hindenburg. Hitler at that point surpassed himself in versatility and guile. By dint of flattery and persuasion, within a month von Papen let himself be gently shoved out the door. Hitler all but dictated for him the text of his letter of resignation of April 7, 1933, in which the Vice Chancellor acknowledged that the Law on the Unification of the Lands of the Reich "was a legal edifice destined to be of great historic importance in the development of the German Reich." He further recognized that "the dualism existing between the Reich and Prussia" had to come to an. In his letter he even compared Hitler to Prince Otto von Bismarck. Although von Papen was being nudged out, Hitler soothed his wounded pride by publicly declaring that he never would have been able to carry out the political reunification of the Reich alone; that the great architect of the achievement had been von Papen. Without turning a hair, Hitler also wrote to Feldmarschall von Hindenburg: In assuming the functions of Reich Commissioner in Prussia during the difficult period following the 30th of January, Herr von Papen has deserved very great credit for contributing so strongly to the working out of a strict coordination between the policies of the Reich and those of the regional states. His collaboration with the cabinet of the Reich, to which he will henceforth be able to devote himself completely, will be of priceless assistance to me. The feelings I have for him are such that I rejoice in having the benefit of his cooperation, which will be of inestimable value to me. For his part the aged field marshal responded to this small masterpiece of hypocrisy with one of his own, this one addressed to von Papen: Dear Herr von Papen, I have just accepted your request that you be relieved of your duties as Reich commissioner of Prussia. I take this opportunity to thank you, in the name of the Reich and in my own name, for the eminent service you have rendered the nation by eliminating the dualism existing between the Reich and Prussia, and by imposing the idea of a common political direction of the Reich and the regional states. I have learned with satisfaction that you will henceforth be able to devote all your energies to the government of the Reich. With feelings of sincere comradeship, I remain your devoted von Hindenburg, President of the Reich Ex-Chancellor von Papen thus lost the only effective power he still held. Although he remained a member of the inner circle of Hitler's government (but for how long?), he was now really little more than a willing stooge. Hitler immediately named himself Statthalter of Prussia, and Göring as Minister President, thus bringing the greatest German state under firm control. One after another, the regional states were shorn of their sovereignty. The process was staged like a ballet. Act One: Regional parliamentary power is transferred smoothly to men who had Hitler's confidence. Act Two: Each man announces acceptance of the "Law of Unification." Act Three: Each regional parliament proclaims the of its own state autonomy and sovereignty. Act Four: In each region, Hitler appoints Reich Commissioner (or Statthalter), who is charged with carrying out the Chancellor's political directives. In the Grand Duchies of Baden and Saxony there were a few verbal skirmishes, but these were quickly squelched. In the Free City of Hamburg (population a million and a half), its leaders grumbled a bit for form's sake, but only a few hours of negotiations were required to make them see the light. In just a few weeks, the entire process was accomplished. Making use of the sweeping powers granted him by the Reichstag's overwhelming vote of approval on March 23, 1933, within a few months Hitler succeeded in transforming the faltering Reich government into a formidable instrument of action. Thanks to that mandate, and several special decrees signed by the President, he was thus able constitutionally to eliminate the rival authorities of numerous state governments and parliaments. "It all went much faster than we had dared hope," Goebbels commented with delight, and a shade of sarcasm. Precisely one year after Hitler had become Chancellor, a "Law for the Rebuilding of the Reich" spelled out the full extent of the change: Representation of the regional states is abolished. (a) The sovereign rights of the regional states are transferred to the government of the Reich. (b) The governments of the regional states are subject to the government of the Reich. The governors [Statthalter] are subject to the authority of the Reich Minister of the Interior. The government of the Reich may modify the constitutional rights of the regional states. The Minister of the Interior will issue the legal and administrative decrees necessary for the implementation of this law. This law will become effective on the day of its official publication. Berlin, January 30, 1934 Von Hindenburg, Hitler, Frick Bismarck, the "Iron Chancellor," could never have dreamed of political reunification on such an authoritarian and hierarchical basis. But Hitler had tried, and succeeded. Germany had now attained a level of concentrated power and authority more profound than any ever achieved in her history. And it had all been accomplished, moreover, by democratic means. After 1945 the explanation that was routinely offered for all this was that the Germans had lost their heads. Whatever the case, it is a historical fact that they acted of their own free will. Far from being resigned, they were enthusiastic. "For the first time since the last days of the monarchy," historian Joachim Fest has conceded, "the majority of the Germans now had the feeling that they could identify with the state." But what of the political parties? Although Hitler had succeeded in transforming the tens of millions of Bavarians, Saxons, Prussians and residents of Hamburg into citizens of one and the same Reich, under a single national administration, and even though the anthill of petty and more or less separatist states had been leveled, there still remained in Germany the contentious and divisive political parties. They had been discredited, to be sure, but the hearty ambitions of impenitent politicians could reawaken to erode the foundations of the new state. The party leaders were scarcely in a position to protest. On the preceding 23rd of March they themselves had overwhelmingly approved the fateful "Enabling Act." Now, with their wings clipped and their prerogatives taken away, they no longer served any useful purpose. They were not merely superfluous, they had become an encumbrance. How would Hitler get rid of them? III. Liquidation of the Parties On the day in March when the deputies of the Weimar Republic voted to relinquish their power, Hitler, standing before them in their own parliamentary bailiwick, utterly poised in his brown shirt, did not spare them. "It is for you, gentlemen of the Reichstag," he declared, "to decide between war and peace." But how, one might ask, could they take up the fight now, when they had in fact already given up the fight years earlier? At this point, Hitler was no longer even willing to let the last recalcitrant Reichstag deputies, the Social Democrats -- by now reduced to representing a mere 17.55 percent of the nation's voters -- assume the martyred pose of a persecuted fringe group. "You talk about persecution!" he thundered in an impromptu response to an address by the Social Democratic speaker. "I think that there are only a few of us [in our party] here who did not have to suffer persecutions in prison from your side ... You seem to have totally forgotten that for years our shirts were ripped off our backs because you did not like the color . . . We have outgrown your persecutions!" "In those days," he scathingly continued, "our newspapers were banned and banned and again banned, our meetings were forbidden, and we were forbidden to speak, I was forbidden to speak, for years on. And now you say that criticism is salutary!" The shoe was now on the other foot. "From now on we National Socialists will make it possible for the German worker to attain what he is able to demand and insist on. We National Socialists will be his intercessors. You, gentlemen, are no longer needed ... And don't confound us with the bourgeois world. You think that your star may rise again. Gentlemen, Germany's star will rise and yours will sink ... In the life of nations, that which is rotten, old and feeble passes and does not return." Finally, Hitler dismissed these bankrupt Socialists with the words: "I can only tell you: I do not want your votes! Germany shall be free, but not through you!" (Quoted in: J. Fest, Hitler, New York: 1974, p. 408 f.) Within just half a year, Hitler would succeed in liquidating all these now passé and essentially irrelevant political parties. Not just the Socialist Party, already rejected by the people themselves, but all the other conniving party politicians as well: the conservatives, a century behind the times, the myopic nationalists, and the boastful Catholic centrists -- all of them agents and collaborators in Germany's road to ruin between 1919 to 1933. All of these parties had clearly lost their drive. That some voters still supported them in early 1933, even after Hitler had become Chancellor, was largely out of habit. Their impetus was gone. The parties of the Weimar system had botched everything and let the nation go to ruin. Germany's collapse, her six million unemployed, the widespread hunger, the demoralization of an entire people: all this was their doing. Now that a strong leader with broad national support had taken their place, what could they do? As Joachim Fest would later write, they were "like a spider web with which one hoped to catch eagles." Hitler's millions of followers had rediscovered the primal strength of rough, uncitified man, of a time when men still had backbone. Theirs was a Dionysian power, one that they would conserve for the great challenges to come: it wouldn't be needed against the political parties. A mere shrug of the shoulders, and those would fall apart. It was fitting that the first to crumble was the Social Democratic party (SPD). It went out with a whimper. It had still shown some guts on March 23, when its Reichstag deputies refused to vote Hitler plenary powers. After 1945 the Socialist party would glory in that deed, while at the same time taking care not to add that less than two months later, on May 17, the Social Democratic deputies decided to approve Hitler's major address to the Reichstag on foreign policy. It was as if they felt themselves swept along by the surge of popular support for Hitler, even within the ranks of their own party. Along with the National Socialist deputies, they voiced their approval for Hitler's policy. From his perch as Reichstag president, Göring turned to glance at the turncoats, and commented: "The world has seen that the German people are united where their destiny is at stake." Now that the Social Democratic leadership, which for so long had railed against Hitler, decided to back him in the Reichstag, the party's rank and file could hardly be expected to oppose him. That day marked the of the Social Democratic party's credibility. Following the example of their own party leadership, the large SPD electorate would, understandably, now also vote for Hitler. After this act of capitulation, it was now child's play for Hitler to liquidate the Social Democratic party. Four weeks later, on June 22, it was officially dissolved. "No one," Fest has observed, "expected any show of resistance on the part of the SPD." The party's initials could more fittingly have been RIP: resquiescat in pace. The peace would be total. Apart from a few leftist members of the Reichstag who went into exile and led isolated and unproductive lives abroad, the now former Socialist deputies continued, each month, to pocket the pensions that Hitler had allowed them. They walked about unmolested on the streets of Berlin. A number of them, some with great success, even threw in their lot with the National Socialists. Gustav Noske, the lumberjack who became defense minister - and the most valiant defender of the embattled republic in the tumultuous months immediately following the collapse of 1918 - acknowledged honestly in 1944, when the Third Reich was already rapidly breaking down, that the great majority of the German people still remained true to Hitler because of the social renewal he had brought to the working class. After the "Reds," the "Whites" had their turn. Of the two dozen or so political parties that existed in Germany in 1932-1933, a number of the smaller ones quietly dissolved themselves without anyone even noticing their demise. They had been created for no reason other than to aid the political ambitions of their founders. But now, with no more Reichstag seats in sight, there was no further point in trying to recruit voters. The parties of the right, formerly important but now abandoned by their voters, were conscious of the futility of exping any further effort or money to subsist artificially. Now lacking any popular support, one after another they, too, voluntarily disbanded. The "German National People's Party," abandoned by its bourgeois supporters, was the first to give up the ghost. A few days later, on June 28, the "State Party" did the same. The "Bavarian People's Party" and the "German People's Party" took the same step on July 4. Of all the conservative mossbacks, the most difficult to get rid of was Alfred Hugenberg, the media titan who was still a minister in Hitler's cabinet. Nazis rather disrespectfully called him "the old porker in the beet patch." Hugenberg ultimately lost his cabinet post because he overplayed the role of zealous nationalist at a conference in London in June 1933, making a claim, premature to say the least, for the return to Germany of her colonies, and calling for German economic expansion into the Ukraine! Hitler regarded this as totally inopportune, particularly at a time when he was making every effort to reassure his skeptics and critics abroad. After this diplomatic blunder, Hugenberg had no choice but to resign. Thus departed the once powerful capitalist who had vowed, on January 30, to politically muzzle the newly named Chancellor. His dismissal was a double success for Hitler: by disavowing an international troublemaker, he reassured those outside the Germany who had been alarmed by Hugenberg's ill-chosen statements; and he rid himself of a political liability whose diplomatic gaffe had cost him whatever standing he had in von Hindenburg's esteem. The last political factor to go was the clerico-bourgeois "Center" party. Following its vote on March 23 to give Hitler plenary powers, the Center had forfeited all credibility as an opposition party. Its following dwindled away in indifference. After all, if Center leader Monsignor Kaas decided to side with the Führer in the Reichstag, why shouldn't the party's rank and file do likewise? Meanwhile, diplomatic negotiations with the Vatican on a concordat to regulate relations between the German state and the Catholic church were close to a favorable conclusion. In this effort, perhaps more than any other, Hitler manifested patience, cunning, and tact. He needed political peace with the Church, at least until, with the help of the hierarchy, he could count completely on the support of Germany's many Catholics. By voting for Hitler in the Reichstag, Center leader Kaas and his pious clerics had unsuspectingly fallen into a trap. On July 5, 1933, they declared themselves politically neutral and dissolved themselves as a party. As a contemporary observer noted: "All the things being abolished no longer concerned people very much." With regard to the rapid demise of the political parties and the other political forces of both the right and left, Joachim Fest aptly commented: "If anything could have demonstrated the sapped vitality of the Weimar Republic, it was the ease with which the institutions that had sustained it let themselves be overwhelmed." (Quoted in: J. Fest, Hitler, New York: 1974, p. 415.) To abolish the political parties and swallow up their once vast networks of voters took only a scant half year, and with little damage to life or limb. Hitler had succeeded in winning over or at least neutralizing those who had so recently reviled and jeered him. No one was more astonished at the rapidity with which the political parties had succumbed than Hitler himself. "One would never have thought so miserable a collapse possible," he remarked in July 1933, after having thrown the last shovelful of dirt on the graves of the Weimar Republic's once mighty parties. (J. Fest, Hitler, p. 415.) IV. Unification of the Labor Unions Only one significant political factor still remained: the Marxist trade unions. For many years they had represented one of the country's most potent forces. Although nominally only an economic factor, they had also been a major political factor, furnishing the Communists with their militants and the Social Democrats with the bulk of their voters. For fifteen years they had been a constant and fanatical pressure group, stirring up turmoil in the streets and formulating ever greater demands. The unions had long provided the Left with large amounts of money, funds that were continually replenished by the contributions of millions of union members. Here again, well before the collapse of party-ridden Weimar Republic, disillusion with the unions had become widespread among the working masses. They were starving. The hundreds of Socialist and Communist deputies stood idly by, impotent to provide any meaningful help to the desperate proletariat. Their leaders had no proposals to remedy, even partially, the great distress of the people; no plans for large-scale public works, no industrial restructuring, no search for markets abroad. Moreover, they offered no energetic resistance to the pillaging by foreign countries of the Reich's last financial resources: this a consequence of the Treaty of Versailles that the German Socialists had voted to ratify in June of 1919, and which they had never since had the courage effectively to oppose. The few palliative modifications that had been won, wrested with great difficulty from the rapacious Allies, had been achieved by Gustav Stresemann, the conservative foreign affairs minister. Although he enjoyed little or no support, even from the politicians, Stresemann fought stubbornly, in spite of faltering health, to liberate the Reich. Enduring fainting fits, and with a goiter, growing ever more enormous, knotted around his neck like a boa constrictor, Stresemann, even as he was dying, was the only Weimar leader who had seriously attempted to pry away the foreign talons from the flesh of the German people. In 1930, 1931 and 1932, German workers had watched the disaster grow: the number of unemployed rose from two million to three, to four, to five, then to six million. At the same time, unemployment benefits fell lower and lower, finally to disappear completely. Everywhere one saw dejection and privation: emaciated mothers, children wasting away in sordid lodgings, and thousands of beggars in long sad lines. The failure, or incapacity, of the leftist leaders to act, not to mention their insensitivity, had stupefied the working class. Of what use were such leaders with their empty heads and empty hearts -- and, often enough, full pockets? Well before January 30, thousands of workers had already joined up with Hitler's dynamic formations, which were always hard at it where they were most needed. Many joined the National Socialists when they went on strike. Hitler, himself a former worker and a plain man like themselves, was determined to eliminate unemployment root and branch. He wanted not merely to defend the laborer's right to work, but to make his calling one of honor, to insure him respect and to integrate him fully into a living community of all the Germans, who had been divided class against class. In January 1933, Hitler's victorious troops were already largely proletarian in character, including numerous hardfisted street brawlers, many unemployed, who no longer counted economically or socially. Meanwhile, membership in the Marxist labor unions had fallen off enormously: among thirteen million socialist and Communist voters in 1932, no more than five million were union members. Indifference and discouragement had reached such levels that many members no longer paid their union dues. Many increasingly dispirited Marxist leaders began to wonder if perhaps the millions of deserters were the ones who saw things clearly. Soon they wouldn't wonder any longer. Even before Hitler won Reichstag backing for his "Enabling Act," Germany's giant labor union federation, the ADGB, had begun to rally to the National Socialist cause. As historian Joachim Fest acknowledged: "On March 20, the labor federation's executive committee addressed a kind of declaration of loyalty to Hitler." (J. Fest, Hitler, p. 413.) Hitler than took a bold and clever step. The unions had always clamored to have the First of May recognized as a worker's holiday, but the Weimar Republic had never acceded to their request. Hitler, never missing an opportunity, grasped this one with both hands. He did more than grant this reasonable demand: he proclaimed the First of May a national holiday. Just as the Socialist party had gone from a vote in the Reichstag against Hitler (March 23, 1933) to a vote of support (May 17, 1933), so did the union leaders make a 180-degree turn within weeks. At one stroke, Hitler granted to the union what they had vainly asked of every previous government: a holiday celebrated by the entire nation. He announced that in order to honor Labor, he would organize the biggest meeting in Germany's history on the First of May at Tempelhof airfield in Berlin. Caught unprepared, but on the whole very pleased to take advantage of the situation by throwing in their lot with National Socialism and, what is more, to take part in a mass demonstration the like of which even Marxist workers could scarcely imagine, the union leadership called upon their leftist rank and file to join, with banners flying, the mass meetings held that May Day across Germany, and to acclaim Hitler. I myself attended the memorable meeting at the Tempelhof field in 1933. By nine o'clock that morning, giant columns, some of workers, others of youth groups, marching in cadence down the pavement of Berlin's great avenues, had started off towards the airfield to which Hitler had called together all Germans. All Germany would follow the rally as it was transmitted nationwide by radio. By noon hundreds of thousands of workers -- Hitlerites and non-Hitlerites - were massed on the vast field. The demonstrators observed impeccable order. Hundreds of tables, quickly set up by the Party, provided the ever-increasing throngs with sandwiches, sausages, and mugs of beer at cost, to refresh the new arrivals after their march. Everyone, of course, was standing, and would remain so for up to fourteen hours. A fabulous speaker's platform stood out against the sky, three stories high, flamboyant with huge flags, as impressive as a naval shipyard. As the hours went by, thousands of prominent figures took their seats, including many members of the foreign diplomatic corps. By the close of the day, a million and a half spectators stretched to the outermost edges of the immense plain. Soldiers and civilians mingled together. Fanfares sounded repeatedly. A political meeting no longer, it had become a festival, a sort of fantastic Bruegelian kermess, where middle-class burghers, generals and workers all met and fraternized as Germans and as equals. Night fell and Hitler appeared. His speaker's rostrum was indeed like the prow of a giant ship. The hundreds of beacons which had illuminated the great sea of humanity were now extinguished. Suddenly, Hitler burst forth from the dark, a solitary figure, high in the air, lit by the dazzling glare of spotlights. In the dark, a group of determined opponents could easily have heckled Hitler or otherwise sabotaged the meeting. Perhaps a third of the onlookers had been Socialists or Communists only three months previously. But not a single hostile voice was raised during the entire ceremony. There was only universal acclamation. Ceremony is the right word for it. It was an almost magical rite. Hitler and Goebbels had no equals in the arranging of dedicatory ceremonies of this sort. First there were popular songs, then great Wagnerian hymns to grip the audience. Germany has a passion for orchestral music, and Wagner taps the deepest and most secret vein of the German soul, its romanticism, its inborn sense of the powerful and the grand. Meanwhile the hundreds of flags floated above the rostrum, redeemed from the darkness by arrows of light. Now Hitler strode to the rostrum. For those standing at the of the field, his face must have appeared vanishingly small, but his words flooded instantaneously across the acres of people in his audience. A Latin audience would have preferred a voice less harsh, more delicately expressive. But there was no doubt that Hitler spoke to the psyche of the German people. Germans have rarely had the good fortune to experience the enchantment of the spoken word. In Germany, the tone has always been set by ponderous speakers, more fond of elephantine pedantry than oratorical passion. Hitler, as a speaker, was a prodigy, the greatest orator of his century. He possessed, above all, what the ordinary speaker lacks: a mysterious ability to project power. A bit like a medium or sorcerer, he was seized, even transfixed, as he addressed a crowd. It responded to Hitler's projection of power, radiating it back, establishing, in the course of myriad exchanges, a current that both orator and audience gave to and drew from equally. One had to personally experience him speaking to understand this phenomenon. This special gift is what lay at the basis of Hitler's ability to win over the masses. His high-voltage, lightning-like projection transported and transformed all who experienced it. Tens of millions were enlightened, riveted and inflamed by the fire of his anger, irony, and passion. By the time the cheering died away that May first evening, hundreds of thousands of previously indifferent or even hostile workers who had come to Tempelhof at the urging of their labor federation leaders were now won over. They had become followers, like the SA stormtroopers whom so many there that evening had brawled with in recent years. The great human sea surged back from Tempelhof to Berlin. A million and a half people had arrived in perfect order, and their departure was just as orderly. No bottlenecks halted the cars and busses. For those of us who witnessed it, this rigorous, yet joyful, discipline of a contented people was in itself a source of wonder. Everything about the May Day mass meeting had come off as smoothly clockwork. The memory of that fabulous crowd thronging back to the center of Berlin will never leave me. A great many were on foot. Their faces were now different faces, as though they had been imbued with a strange and totally new spirit. The non-Germans in the crowd were as if stunned, and no less impressed than Hitler's fellow countrymen. The French ambassador, André François-Poncet, noted: The foreigners on the speaker's platform as guests of honor were not alone in carrying away the impression of a truly beautiful and wonderful public festival, an impression that was created by the regime's genius for organization, by the night time display of uniforms, by the play of lights, the rhythm of the music, by the flags and the colorful fireworks; and they were not alone in thinking that a breath of reconciliation and unity was passing over the Third Reich. "It is our wish," Hitler had exclaimed, as though taking heaven as his witness, "to get along together and to struggle together as brothers, so that at the hour when we shall come before God, we might say to him: 'See, Lord, we have changed. The German people are no longer a people ashamed, a people mean and cowardly and divided. No, Lord! The German people have become strong in their spirit, in their will, in their perseverance, in their acceptance of any sacrifice. Lord, we remain faithful to Thee! Bless our struggle!" (A. François-Poncet, Souvenirs d'une ambassade à Berlin, p. 128.) Who else could have made such an incantatory appeal without making himself look ridiculous? No politician had ever spoken of the rights of workers with such faith and such force, or had laid out in such clear terms the social plan he pledged to carry out on behalf of the common people. The next day, the newspaper of the proletarian left, the "Union Journal," reported on this mass meeting at which at least two thirds -- a million -- of those attending were workers. "This May First was victory day," the paper summed up. With the workers thus won over, what further need was there for the thousands of labor union locals that for so long had poisoned the social life of the Reich and which, in any case, had accomplished nothing of a lasting, positive nature? Within hours of the conclusion of that "victory" meeting at the Tempelhof field, the National Socialists were able to peacefully take complete control of Germany's entire labor union organization, including all its buildings, enterprises and banks. An era of Marxist obstruction abruptly came to an : from now on, a single national organization would embody the collective will and interests of all of Germany's workers. Although he was now well on his way to creating what he pledged would be a true "government of the people," Hitler also realized that great obstacles remained. For one thing, the Communist rulers in Moscow had not dropped their guard -- or their guns. Restoring the nation would take more than words and promises, it would take solid achievements. Only then would the enthusiasm shown by the working class at the May First mass meeting be an expression of lasting victory. How could Hitler solve the great problem that had defied solution by everyone else (both in Germany and abroad): putting millions of unemployed back to work? What would Hitler do about wages? Working hours? Leisure time? Housing? How would he succeed in winning, at long last, respect for the rights and dignity of the worker? How could men's lives be improved -- materially, morally, and, one might even say, spiritually? How would he proceed to build a new society fit for human beings, free of the inertia, injustices and prejudices of the past? "National Socialism," Hitler had declared at the outset, "has its mission and its hour; it is not just a passing movement but a phase of history." The instruments of real power now in his hands -- an authoritarian state, its provinces subordinate but nonetheless organic parts of the national whole -- Hitler had acted quickly to shake himself free of the last constraints of the impotent sectarian political parties. Moreover, he was now able to direct a cohesive labor force that was no longer split into a thousand rivulets but flowed as a single, mighty current. Hitler was self-confident, sure of the power of his own conviction. He had no intention, or need, to resort to the use of physical force. Instead, he inted to win over, one by one, the millions of Germans who were still his adversaries, and even those who still hated him. His conquest of Germany had taken years of careful planning and hard work. Similarly, he would now realize his carefully worked out plans for transforming the state and society. This meant not merely changes in administrative or governmental structures, but far-reaching social programs. He had once vowed: "The hour will come when the 15 million people who now hate us will be solidly behind us and will acclaim with us the new revival we shall create together." Eventually he would succeed in winning over even many of his most refractory skeptics and adversaries. His army of converts was already forming ranks. In a remarkable tribute, historian Joachim Fest felt obliged to acknowledge unequivocally: Hitler had moved rapidly from the status of a demagogue to that of a respected statesman. The craving to join the ranks of the victors was spreading like an epidemic, and the shrunken minority of those who resisted the urge were being visibly pushed into isolation -- The past was dead. The future, it seemed, belonged to the regime, which had more and more followers, which was being hailed everywhere and suddenly had sound reasons on its side. And even the prominent leftist writer Kurt Tucholsky, sensing the direction of the inexorable tide that was sweeping Germany, vividly commented: "You don't go railing against the ocean." (J. Fest, Hitler, pp. 415 f.) "Our power," Hitler was now able to declare, "no longer belongs to any territorial fraction of the Reich, nor to any single class of the nation, but to the people in its totality." Much still remained to be done, however. So far, Hitler had succeeded in clearing the way of obstacles to his program. Now the time to build had arrived. So many others had failed to tackle the many daunting problems that were now his responsibility. Above all, the nation demanded a solution to the great problem of unemployment. Could Hitler now succeed where others had so dismally failed? V. Where To Find The Billions? As he stood, silent and preoccupied, at his chancellery window on that January evening, receiving the acclaim of the crowd, Hitler was seized with anxiety -- and not without reason. In his memoirs, Dr. Hjalmar Schacht recalled: "I had the impression that he was a man fairly crushed by the weight of the responsibility he was taking on -- That profound emotional upheaval of which I was a witness could not possibly have been mere playacting: it betrayed true feelings." (H. Schacht, Mémoires d'un magicien, vol. II, p. 52.) Hitler, however, was a man capable of overcoming such anxieties. Although he faced an agonizing national tragedy -- immense unemployment, general misery, almost total industrial stagnation -- which no other politician had been able even to ameliorate, this youthful leader would take on this challenge with an extraordinary sense of purpose and will. Hitler had no sooner been voted plenary powers than he rolled up his shirt-sleeves, and begun to carry out his well-laid plans. Unlike the other responsible -- or irresponsible -- politicians of twentieth-century Europe, Hitler did not believe that fighting for his country's economic health meant having to impassively accept one setback after another, stand idly by while industries died, or look on as millions of unemployed workers tramped the streets. In those days, the only solution to these problems that was accepted by politicians and economists in the democracies was to drastically cut sping, both governmental and private. Belt-tightening was the agreed-upon remedy. Thus, Germany's leaders prior to Hitler had cut salaries by 25 percent, limited payment of unemployment benefits to six months, and reduced total private investment by five sixths. The country's standard of living had collapsed like a deflated balloon. At the end of six months the unemployed obviously had not found new jobs. To the contrary, they were joined by long lines of new unemployed. Deprived of all means of subsistence, they gravitated to the welfare offices. People spent less and less, with the inevitable consequence that industries producing consumer goods closed their doors, one after another, for lack of orders, thereby sending thousands more unemployed into the streets. In 1932, Germany's industries were languishing, their production reduced by half. Yearly private investment had fallen from three billion marks to barely 500 million. No new blood had been injected into the industrial system, no workplaces modernized. The economy stagnated. The government not only lacked any new initiatives, it was almost bankrupt. Fiscal receipts had fallen to ten billion marks, of which the meager and short-term unemployment benefits alone absorbed two thirds. Germany couldn't wait for a business upswing to get the economy moving again. As Hitler had long understood, the government had to bring economic renewal by bold action and imaginative enterprise. Unemployment could be combated and eliminated only by giving industry the financial means to start up anew, to modernize, thus creating millions of new jobs. The normal rate of consumption would not be restored, let alone increased, unless one first raised the starvation-level allowances that were making purchases of any kind a virtual impossibility. On the contrary, production and sales would have to be restored before the six million unemployed could once again become purchasers. The great economic depression could be overcome only by restimulating industry, by bringing industry into step with the times, and by promoting the development of new products. Because Germany had no petroleum, for example, the production of synthetic gasoline (from coal) should be encouraged as much as possible. The technique was already known, but it needed to be applied. Similarly, Germany was able to produce an artificial substitute for rubber, "Buna." But the plans for its development and production were still stored away in file cabinets. Only a small percentage of practical new inventions ever left the records files. Great public works projects were another way to create new jobs, stimulate industrial activity, and revive the economy. For one thing, Germany's mediocre roads needed vast improvement. Moreover, the demands of the time called for the construction of a national network of modern highways. Radiating thousands of kilometers, these great concrete lifelines would encourage increased commerce and communication among the Reich's many regions. New highways would also encourage increased automobile production. Considering the potential, Germany was still quite backward in automobile production. It manufactured only one-fifth as many cars as France. Nearly ten years earlier, while in his prison cell, Hitler had already envisioned a formidable system of national highways. He had also conceived of a small, easily affordable automobile (later known as the "Volkswagen"), and had even suggested its outline. It should have the shape of a June bug, he proposed. Nature itself suggested the car's aerodynamic line. Until Hitler came to power, a car was the privilege of the rich. It was not financially within the reach of the middle class, much less of the worker. The "Volkswagen," costing one-tenth as much as the standard automobile of earlier years, would eventually become a popular work vehicle and a source of pleasure after work: a way to unwind and get some fresh air, and of discovering, thanks to the new Autobahn highway network, a magnificent country that then, in its totality, was virtually unknown to the German worker. From the beginning, Hitler wanted this economical new car to be built for the millions. The production works would also become one of Germany's most important industrial centers and employers. During his imprisonment, Hitler had also drawn up plans for the construction of popular housing developments and majestic public buildings. Some of Hitler's rough sketches still survive. They include groups of individual worker's houses with their own gardens (which were to be built in the hundreds of thousands), a plan for a covered stadium in Berlin, and a vast congress hall, unlike any other in the world, that would symbolize the grandeur of the National Socialist revolution. "A building with a monumental dome," historian Werner Maser has explained, "the plan of which he drew while he was writing Mein Kampf, would have a span of 46 meters, a height of 220 meters, a diameter of 250 meters, and a capacity of 150 to 190 thousand people standing. The interior of the building would have been 17 times larger than Saint Peter's Cathedral in Rome." (W. Maser, Hitler, Adolf, p. 100.) "That hall," architect Albert Speer has pointed out, "was not just an idle dream impossible of achievement." Hitler's imagination, therefore, had long been teeming with a number of ambitious projects, many of which would eventually be realized. Fortunately, the needed entrepreneurs, managers and technicians were on hand. Hitler would not have to improvise. Historian Werner Maser, although quite anti-Hitler -- like nearly all of his colleagues (how else would they have found publishers?) - has acknowledged: "From the beginning of his political career, he [Hitler] took great pains systematically to arrange for whatever he was going to need in order to carry out his plans." "Hitler was distinguished," Maser has also noted, "by an exceptional intelligence in technical matters." Hitler had acquired his knowledge by devoting many thousands of hours to technical studies from the time of his youth. "Hitler read an endless number of books," explained Dr. Schacht. "He acquired a very considerable amount of knowledge and made masterful use of it in discussions and speeches. In certain respects he was a man endowed with genius. He had ideas that no one else would ever have thought of, ideas that resulted in the ending of great difficulties, sometimes by measures of an astonishing simplicity or brutality." Many billions of marks would be needed to begin the great socioeconomic revolution that was destined, as Hitler had always inted, to make Germany once again the European leader in industry and commerce and, most urgently, to rapidly wipe out unemployment in Germany. Where would the money be found? And, once obtained, how would these funds be allotted to ensure maximum effectiveness in their investment? Hitler was by no means a dictator in matters of the economy. He was, rather, a stimulator. His government would undertake to do only that which private initiative could not. Hitler believed in the importance of individual creative imagination and dynamism, in the need for every person of superior ability and skill to assume responsibility. He also recognized the importance of the profit motive. Deprived of the prospect of having his efforts rewarded, the person of ability often refrains from running risks. The economic failure of Communism has demonstrated this. In the absence of personal incentives and the opportunity for real individual initiative, the Soviet "command economy" lagged in all but a few fields, its industry years behind its competitors. State monopoly tolls the death of all initiative, and hence of all progress. For all men selflessly to pool their wealth might be marvelous, but it is also contrary to human nature. Nearly every man desires that his labor shall improve his own condition and that of his family, and feels that his brain, creative imagination, and persistence well deserve their reward. Because it disregarded these basic psychological truths, Soviet Communism, right to the end, wallowed in economic mediocrity, in spite of its immense reservoir of manpower, its technical expertise, and its abundant natural resources, all of which ought to have made it an industrial and technological giant. Hitler was always adverse to the idea of state management of the economy. He believed in elites. "A single idea of genius," he used to say, "has more value than a lifetime of conscientious labor in an office." Just as there are political or intellectual elites, so also is there an industrial elite. A manufacturer of great ability should not be restrained, hunted down by the internal revenue services like a criminal, or be unappreciated by the public. On the contrary, it is important for economic development that the industrialist be encouraged morally and materially, as much as possible. The most fruitful initiatives Hitler would take from 1933 on would be on behalf of private enterprise. He would keep an eye on the quality of their directors, to be sure, and would shunt aside incompetents, quite a few of them at times, but he also supported the best ones, those with the keenest minds, the most imaginative and bold, even if their political opinions did not always agree with his own. "There is no question," he stated very firmly, "of dismissing a factory owner or director under the pretext that he is not a National Socialist." Hitler would exercise the same moderation, the same pragmatism, in the administrative as well as in the industrial sphere. What he demanded of his co-workers, above all, was competence and effectiveness. The great majority of Third Reich functionaries - some 80 percent -- were never enrolled in the National Socialist party. Several of Hitler's ministers, like Konstantin von Neurath and Schwerin von Krosigk, and ambassadors to such key posts as Prague, Vienna and Ankara, were not members of the party. But they were capable. While Hitler kept a close eye on opportunists (such as Franz von Papen, who was both intelligent and clever) he knew how to make the best use of such men, and to honor them and recognize their achievements. Similarly, he did not hesitate to keep on competent bureaucrats chosen by his predecessors. A good example was Dr. Otto Meissner, who had headed the presidential chancellery under the socialist Ebert and the conservative von Hindenburg, and who had done everything in his power, up to the last minute, to torpedo Hitler's accession to power. But Meissner knew his work, and Hitler wisely kept him on the job. Hitler treated him with respect and confidence, and Meissner served the the Föhrer faithfully and efficiently for twelve years. Perhaps the most remarkable such case is that of Dr. Hjalmar Schacht, the most discerning and competent of Germany's financiers in 1933. A Hitler supporter? By no means! Schacht never was and never would be a supporter of anyone but himself. But he was the best in the business: for getting the Reich's economy moving again, he had no equal. Ten years earlier, at the of 1923, Schacht had financially rescued the Weimar Republic by helping to invent the "Rentenmark." He was shrewd and imaginative, and thus capable of understanding and implementing the boldest of Hitler's plans. Schacht's personal ambition was immense, but this was yet another reason for Hitler to give him every possibility to rise as high as he could. Within weeks of taking power, Hitler appointed him President of the Reichsbank, and then, a year later, as Economics Minister as well. Schacht couldn't be happier. Dangerous? Of course! Doubly so, inasmuch as Schacht was a capitalist to the core, with close ties to major foreign banking interests, not excluding Jewish financiers in London and New York. Moreover, Schacht cared little for Hitler's revolutionary program, which regarded labor as the true source of national wealth. Hitler called on the brilliant Dr. Schacht to devise new ways of acquiring the funds necessary for what he inted to accomplish. That was a great deal, but it was all. The collaboration went no further: Schacht was never permitted to intervene in political matters. When Schacht's financial formulas had served their purpose, the collaboration would. Until he was dismissed as Reichsbank president in 1939, Hitler made good use of his extraordinary talents. But Schacht never forgave his dismissal, and would nurse a seething resentment. Determined to conjure up billions of marks as quickly as possible, and by any means available, in early February 1933 Hitler summoned Schacht's predecessor as Reichsbank president, Dr. Hans Luther, to his office. Luther, who had been appointed to his post in 1930 by a previous administration, had old-fashioned views of extreme prudence in the management of state funds. Since the state's coffers were nearly empty, he was all the more prudent. His detachable collar, stiff as a calling card, proclaimed the rigidity of his principles. He belonged to the old school of accountants who spend a dollar only when they have a dollar. Hitler was well aware that this capable man was not happy to be presiding over a central bank that lacked funds. It was not, however, to have Luther empty the state treasury that Hitler had summoned him, but to ask him to devise new means of financing Germany's recovery. It was a question of imagination, but Luther's brain was not a volcano of new ideas; it was a calculator. "How much money," Hitler asked him, "can you put at my disposal for creating jobs?" Luther Hesitated to respond immediately; his mental calculator began functioning. After working out the calculations in his mind, he responded as though speaking to the director of a large financial firm: "One hundred and fifty million." An eloquent answer, it showed just how completely Hitler's predecessors and their colleagues were lacking in their understanding of the scope of the resources that would be needed to save the Reich. One hundred and fifty million, at a time when the German government was pouring a billion marks every three months into unemployment benefits alone! With a budget of 150 million marks, the German treasury would have been hard put to spare even three or four marks a day to the five or six or seven million unemployed over one short week. Clearly, this question had never been put to Dr. Luther, and no Reich leader before Hitler had ever troubled to learn how to go about raising the funds that would be indispensable for carrying out a serious program to put Germany back to work. Obviously, then, Dr. Luther was not the person to put Hitler's program into effect. The new Chancellor then thought of Schacht, the sly old fox. He was always good for a trick, and now Hitler needed some of his magic. "Herr Schacht," he said, "we are assuredly in agreement on one point: no other single task facing the government at the moment can be so truly urgent as conquering unemployment. That will take a lot of money. Do you see any possibility of finding it apart from the Reichsbank?" And after a moment, he added: "How much would it take? Do you have any idea?" Wishing to win Schacht over by appealing to his ambition, Hitler smiled and then asked: "Would you be willing to once again assume presidency of the Reichsbank?" Schacht let on that he had a sentimental concern for Dr. Luther, and did not want to hurt the incumbent's feelings. Playing along, Hitler reassured Schacht that he would find an appropriate new job elsewhere for Luther. Schacht then pricked up his ears, drew himself up, and focused his big round eyes on Hitler: "Well, if that's the way it is," he said, "then I am ready to assume the presidency of the Reichsbank again." His great dream was being realized. Schacht had been president of the Reichsbank between 1923 and 1930, but had been dismissed. Now he would return in triumph. He felt vindicated. Within weeks, the ingenious solution to Germany's pressing financial woes would burst forth from his inventive brain. "It was necessary," Schacht later explained, "to discover a method that would avoid inflating the investment holdings of the Reichsbank immoderately and consequently increasing the circulation of money excessively." "Therefore," he went on, "I had to find some means of getting the sums that were lying idle in pockets and banks, without meaning for it to be long term and without having it undergo the risk of depreciation. That was the reasoning behind the Mefo bonds." What were these "Mefo" bonds? Mefo was a contraction of the Metallurgische Forschungs-GmbH (Metallurgic Research Company). With a startup capitalization of one billion marks - which Hitler and Schacht arranged to be provided by the four giant firms of Krupp, Siemens, Deutsche Werke and Rheinmetall -- this company would eventually promote many billions of marks worth of investment. Enterprises, old and new, that filled government orders had only to draw drafts on Mefo for the amounts due. These drafts, when presented to the Reichsbank, were immediately convertible into cash. The success of the Mefo program depended entirely on public acceptance of the Mefo bonds. But the wily Schacht had planned well. Since Mefo bonds were short-term bonds that could be cashed in at any time, there was no real risk in buying, accepting or holding them. They bore an interest of four percent -- a quite acceptable figure in those days -- whereas banknotes hidden under the mattress earned nothing. The public quickly took all this into consideration and eagerly accepted the bonds. While the Reichsbank was able to offer from its own treasury a relatively insignificant 150 million marks for Hitler's war on unemployment, in just four years the German public subscribed more than 12 billion marks worth of Mefo bonds! These billions, the fruit of the combined imagination, ingenuity and astuteness of Hitler and Schacht, swept away the temporizing and fearful conservatism of the bankers. Over the next four years, this enormous credit reserve would make miracles possible. Soon after the initial billion-mark credit, Schacht added another credit of 600 million in order to finance the start of Hitler's grand program for highway construction. This Autobahn program provided immediate work for 100,000 of the unemployed, and eventually assured wages for some 500,000 workers. As large as this outlay was, it was immediately offset by a corresponding cutback in government unemployment benefits, and by the additional tax revenue generated as a result of the increase in living standard (sping) of the newly employed. Within a few months, thanks to the credit created by the Mefo bonds, private industry once again dared to assume risks and expand. Germans returned to work by the hundreds of thousands. Was Schacht solely responsible for this extraordinary turnaround? After the war, he answered for himself as a Nuremberg Tribunal defendant, where he was charged with having made possible the Reich's economic revival: I don't think Hitler was reduced to begging for my help. If I had not served him, he would have found other methods, other means. He was not a man to give up. It's easy enough for you to say, Mr. Prosecutor, that I should have watched Hitler die and not lifted a finger. But the entire working class would have died with him! Even Marxists recognized Hitler's success, and their own failure. In the June 1934 issue of the Zeitschrift für Sozialismus, the journal of the German Social Democrats in exile, this acknowledgement appears: Faced with the despair of proletarians reduced to joblessness, of young people with diplomas and no future, of the middle classes of merchants and artisans condemned to bankruptcy, and of farmers terribly threatened by the collapse in agricultural prices, we all failed. We weren't capable of offering the masses anything but speeches about the glory of socialism. VI. The Social Revolution Hitler's tremendous social achievement in putting Germany's six million unemployed back to work is seldom acknowledged today. Although it was much more than a transitory achievement, "democratic" historians routinely dismiss it in just a few lines. Since 1945, not a single objective scholarly study has been devoted to this highly significant, indeed unprecedented, historical phenomenon. Similarly neglected is the body of sweeping reforms that dramatically changed the condition of the worker in Germany. Factories were transformed from gloomy caverns to spacious and healthy work centers, with natural lighting, surrounded by gardens and playing fields. Hundreds of thousands of attractive houses were built for working class families. A policy of several weeks of paid vacation was introduced, along with week and holiday trips by land and sea. A wide-ranging program of physical and cultural education for young workers was established, with the world's best system of technical training. The Third Reich's social security and workers' health insurance system was the world's most modern and complete. This remarkable record of social achievement is routinely hushed up today because it is embarrasses those who uphold the orthodox view of the Third Reich. Otherwise, readers might begin to think that perhaps Hitler was the greatest social builder of the twentieth century. Because Hitler's program of social reform was a crucially important - indeed, essential -- part of his life work, a realization of this fact might induce people to view Hitler with new eyes. Not surprisingly, therefore, all this is passed over in silence. Most historians insist on treating Hitler and the Third Reich simplistically, as part of a Manichaean morality play of good versus evil. Nevertheless, restoring work and bread to millions of unemployed who had been living in misery for years; restructuring industrial life; conceiving and establishing an organization for the effective defense and betterment of the nation's millions of wage earners; creating a new bureaucracy and judicial system that guaranteed the civic rights of each member of the national community, while simultaneously holding each person to his or her responsibilities as a German citizen: this organic body of reforms was part of a single, comprehensive plan, which Hitler had conceived and worked out years earlier. Without this plan, the nation would have collapsed into anarchy. All-encompassing, this program included broad industrial recovery as well as detailed attention to even construction of comfortable inns along the new highway network. It took several years for a stable social structure to emerge from the French Revolution. The Soviets needed even more time: five years after the Bolshevik revolution of 1917, hundreds of thousands of Russians were still dying of hunger and disease. In Germany, by contrast, the great machinery was in motion within months, with organization and accomplishment quickly meshing together. The single task of constructing a national highway system that was without parallel in the world might have occupied a government for years. First, the problem had to be studied and assessed. Then, with due consideration for the needs of the population and the economy, the highway system had to be carefully planned it all its particulars. As usual, Hitler had been remarkably farsighted. The concrete highways would be 24 meters in width. They would be spanned by hundreds of bridges and overpasses. To make sure that the entire Autobahn network would be in harmony with the landscape, a great deal of natural rock would be utilized. The artistically planned roadways would come together and diverge as if they were large-scale works of art. The necessary service stations and motor inns would be thoughtfully integrated into the overall scheme, each facility built in harmony with the local landscape and architectural style. The original plan called for 7,000 kilometers of roadway. This projection would later be increased to 10,000, and then, after Austria was reunited with Germany, to 11,000 kilometers. The financial boldness equalled the technical vision. These expressways were toll free, which seemed foolhardy to conservative financiers. But the savings in time and labor, and the dramatic increase in traffic, brought increased tax revenues, notably from gasoline. Germany was thus building for herself not only a vast highway network, but an avenue to economic prosperity. These greatly expanded transport facilities encouraged the development of hundreds of new business enterprises along the new expressways. By eliminating congestion on secondary roads, the new highways stimulated travel by hundreds of thousands of tourists, and with it increased tourism commerce. Even the wages paid out to the men who built the Reichsautobahn network brought considerable indirect benefits. First, they allowed a drastic cut in payments of unemployment benefits, or 25 percent of the total paid in wages. Second, the many workers employed in constructing the expressways -- 100,000, and later 150,000 - spent much of the additional 75 percent, which in turn generated increased tax revenues. Imagine the problems, even before the first road was opened for traffic, posed by the mobilization of so many tens of thousands set to work in often uninhabited regions, in marshy areas, or in the shadows of Alpine peaks! It's hard enough for 150,000 men to leave their homes and camp out in often rough terrain. But in addition, it was necessary, from the outset, to insure tolerable living conditions for the columns of men who had agreed to work by the sweat of their brows under the open sky. In France, it was all but unthinkable in those days for a man out of work to move even 20 kilometers away to search for a new job. He was practically glued to his native village, his garden, and the corner cafe. The Germans were fundamentally no different, but by 1933 they were fed up with their enforced idleness. By pouring concrete, using a pick, or whatever it took, this hard-pressed people would bring dignity back in their lives. No one balked at the inconvenience, the absence from home, or the long journey. The will to live a productive and meaningful life outweighed all other considerations. To keep up the worker's morale and spirit, lest he feel isolated or that he was merely being exploited, no effort was spared to provide material comfort, entertainment and instruction. The world had never before seen its like in any great construction project. At last, workers felt they were being treated like respected human beings who had bodies to be satisfied, hearts to be comforted, and brains to be enlightened. Camp sites, supply bases, and recreation facilities were systematically set up, with everything moving forward methodically as the construction advanced. Fourteen mobile crews that provided motion picture entertainment traveled along, moving from one construction site to the next. And always and everywhere, labor was honored and celebrated. Hitler personally dug the first spadeful of earth for the first Autobahn highway, linking Frankfurt-am-Main with Darmstadt. For the occasion, he brought along Dr. Schacht, the man whose visionary credit wizardry had made the project possible. The official procession moved ahead, three cars abreast in front, then six across, spanning the entire width of the autobahn. The Second World War would abruptly halt work on this great construction undertaking. But what was envisioned and created remains as a deathless testimony to a man and an era. Hitler's plan to build thousands of low-cost homes also demanded a vast mobilization of manpower. He had envisioned housing that would be attractive, cozy, and affordable for millions of ordinary German working-class families. He had no intention of continuing to tolerate, as his predecessors had, cramped, ugly "rabbit warren" housing for the German people. The great barracks-like housing projects on the outskirts of factory towns, packed with cramped families, disgusted him. The greater part of the houses he would build were single story, detached dwellings, with small yards where children could romp, wives could grow vegetable and flower gardens, while the bread-winners could read their newspapers in peace after the day's work. These single-family homes were built to conform to the architectural styles of the various German regions, retaining as much as possible the charming local variants. Wherever there was no practical alternative to building large apartment complexes, Hitler saw to it that the individual apartments were spacious, airy and enhanced by surrounding lawns and gardens where the children could play safely. The new housing was, of course, built in conformity with the highest standards of public health, a consideration notoriously neglected in previous working-class projects. Generous loans, amortizable in ten years, were granted to newly married couples so they could buy their own homes. At the birth of each child, a fourth of the debt was cancelled. Four children, at the normal rate of a new arrival every two and a half years, sufficed to cancel the entire loan debt. Once, during a conversation with Hitler, I expressed my astonishment at this policy. "But then, you never get back the total amount of your loans?," I asked. "How so?" he replied, smiling. "Over a period of ten years, a family with four children brings in much more than our loans, through the taxes levied on a hundred different items of consumption." As it happened, tax revenues increased every year, in proportion to the rise in expitures for Hitler's social programs. In just a few years, revenue from taxes tripled. Hitler's Germany never experienced a financial crisis. To stimulate the moribund economy demanded the nerve, which Hitler had, to invest money that the government didn't yet have, rather than passively waiting -- in accordance with "sound" financial principles -- for the economy to revive by itself. Today, our whole era is dying economically because we have succumbed to fearful hesitation. Enrichment follows investment, not the other way around. Since Hitler, only Ronald Reagan has seemed to understand this. As President, he realized that to restore prosperity in the United States meant boldly stimulating the economy with credits and a drastic reduction in taxes, instead of waiting for the country to emerge from economic stagnation on its own. Even before the year 1933 had ended, Hitler had succeeded in building 202,119 housing units. Within four years he would provide the German people with nearly a million and a half (1,458,128) new dwellings! Moreover, workers would no longer be exploited as they had been. A month's rent for a worker could not exceed 26 marks, or about an eighth of the average wage then. Employees with more substantial salaries paid monthly rents of up to 45 marks maximum. Equally effective social measures were taken in behalf of farmers, who had the lowest incomes. In 1933 alone 17,611 new farm houses were built, each of them surrounded by a parcel of land one thousand square meters in size. Within three years, Hitler would build 91,000 such farmhouses. The rental for such dwellings could not legally exceed a modest share of the farmer's income. This unprecedented owment of land and housing was only one feature of a revolution that soon dramatically improved the living standards of the Reich's rural population. The great work of national construction rolled along. An additional 100,000 workers quickly found employment in repairing the nation's secondary roads. Many more were hired to work on canals, dams, drainage and irrigation projects, helping to make fertile some of nation's most barren regions. Everywhere industry was hiring again, with some firms -- like Krupp, IG Farben and the large automobile manufacturers -- taking on new workers on a very large scale. As the country became more prosperous, car sales increased by more than 80,000 units in 1933 alone. Employment in the auto industry doubled. Germany was gearing up for full production, with private industry leading the way. The new government lavished every assistance on the private sector, the chief factor in employment as well as production. Hitler almost immediately made available 500 million marks in credits to private business. This start-up assistance given to German industry would repay itself many times over. Soon enough, another two billion marks would be loaned to the most enterprising companies. Nearly half would go into new wages and salaries, saving the treasury an estimated three hundred million marks in unemployment benefits. Added to the hundreds of millions in tax receipts spurred by the business recovery, the state quickly recovered its investment, and more. Hitler's entire economic policy would be based on the following equation: risk large sums to undertake great public works and to spur the renewal and modernization of industry, then later recover the billions invested through invisible and painless tax revenues. It didn't take long for Germany to see the results of Hitler's recovery formula. Economic recovery, as important as it was, nevertheless wasn't Hitler's only objective. As he strived to restore full employment, Hitler never lost sight of his goal of creating a organization powerful enough to stand up to capitalist owners and managers, who had shown little concern for the health and welfare of the entire national community. Hitler would impose on everyone -- powerful boss and lowly wage earner alike -- his own concept of the organic social community. Only the loyal collaboration of everyone could assure the prosperity of all classes and social groups. Consistent with their doctrine, Germany's Marxist leaders had set class against class, helping to bring the country to the brink of economic collapse. Deserting their Marxist unions and political parties in droves, most workers had come to realize that the less strikes and grievances their leaders incited only crippled production, and thus the workers as well. By the of 1932, in any case, the discredited labor unions were drowning in massive debt that realistically could never be repaid. Some of the less scrupulous union officials, sensing the oncoming catastrophe, had begun stealing hundreds of thousands of marks from the workers they represented. The Marxist leaders had failed: socially, financially and morally. Every joint human activity requires a leader. The head of a factory or business is also the person naturally responsible for it. He oversees every aspect of production and work. In Hitler's Germany, the head of a business had to be both a capable director and a person concerned for the social justice and welfare of his employees. Under Hitler, many owners and managers who had proven to be unjust, incompetent or recalcitrant lost their jobs, or their businesses. A considerable number of legal guarantees protected the worker against any abuse of authority at the workplace. Their purpose was to insure that the rights of workers were respected, and that workers were treated as worthy collaborators, not just as animated tools. Each industrialist was legally obliged to collaborate with worker delegates in drafting shop regulations that were not imposed from above but instead adapted to each business enterprise and its particular working conditions. These regulations had to specify "the length of the working day, the time and method of paying wages, and the safety rules, and to be posted throughout the factory," within easy access of both the worker whose interests might be angered and the owner or manager whose orders might be subverted. The thousands of different, individual versions of such regulations served to create a healthy rivalry, with every factory group vying to outdo the others in efficiency and justice. One of the first reforms to benefit German workers was the establishment of paid vacations. In France, the leftist Popular Front government would noisily claim, in 1936, to have originated legally mandated paid vacations -- and stingy ones at that, only one week per year. But it was actually Hitler who first established them, in 1933 -- and they were two or three times more generous. Under Hitler, every factory employee had the legal right to paid vacation. Previously, paid vacations had not normally exceed four or five days, and nearly half of the younger workers had no vacation time at all. If anything, Hitler favored younger workers; the youngest workers received more generous vacations. This was humane and made sense: a young person has more need of rest and fresh air to develop his maturing strength and vigor. Thus, they enjoyed a full 18 days of paid vacation per year. Today, more than half a century later, these figures have been surpassed, but in 1933 they far exceeded European norms. The standard vacation was twelve days. Then, from the age of 25 on, it went up to 18 days. After ten years with the company, workers got a still longer vacation: 21 days, or three times what the French socialists would grant the workers of their country in 1936. Hitler introduced the standard forty-hour work week in Europe. As for overtime work, it was now compensated, as nowhere else in the continent at the time, at an increased pay rate. And with the eight-hour work day now the norm, overtime work became more readily available. In another innovation, work breaks were made longer: two hours each day, allowing greater opportunity for workers to relax, and to make use of the playing fields that large industries were now required to provide. Whereas a worker's right to job security had been virtually non-existent, now an employee could no longer be dismissed at the sole discretion of the employer. Hitler saw to it that workers' rights were spelled out and enforced. Henceforth, an employer had to give four weeks notice before firing an employee, who then had up to two months to appeal the dismissal. Dismissals could also be annulled by the "Courts of Social Honor" (Ehrengerichte). This Court was one of three great institutions that were established to protect German workers. The others were the "Labor Commissions" and the "Council of Trust." The "Council of Trust" (Vertrauensrat) was responsible for establishing and developing a real spirit of community between management and labor. "In every business enterprise," the 1934 "Labor Charter" law stipulated, "the employer and head of the enterprise (Führer), the employees and workers, personnel of the enterprise, shall work jointly toward the goal of the enterprise and the common good of the nation." No longer would either be exploited by the other -- neither the worker by arbitrary whim of the employer, nor the employer through the blackmail of strikes for political ends. Article 35 of the "Labor Charter" law stated: "Every member of an enterprise community shall assume the responsibility required by his position in said common enterprise." In short, each enterprise would be headed by a dynamic executive, charged with a sense of the greater community -- no longer a selfish capitalist with unconditional, arbitrary power. "The interest of the community may require that an incapable or unworthy employer be relieved of his duties," the "Labor Charter" stipulated. The employer was no longer unassailable, an all-powerful boss with the last word on hiring and firing his staff. He, too, would be subject to the workplace regulations, which he was now obliged to respect no less than the least of his employees. The law conferred the honor and responsibility of authority on the employer only insofar as he merited it. Every business enterprise of twenty or more persons now acquired a "Council of Trust" (Vertrauensrat), two to ten members of which were chosen from among the staff by the chief executive. The law's implementation ordinance of March 10, 1934, further stated: The staff shall be called upon to decide for or against the proposed list in a secret vote, and all salaried employees, including apprentices of twenty-one years of age or older, will take part in the vote. Voting is done by putting a number before the names of the candidates in order of preference, or by striking out certain names. Unlike the enterprise councils (Betriebsräte) of pre-Hitler Germany, the Council of Trust was no longer a tool of one class. Comprising members from all levels of the enterprise, it was now an instrument of teamwork between classes. Obliged to coordinate their interests, former adversaries in the workplace now cooperated in establishing, by mutual consent, the regulations which determined working conditions. The Council has the duty to develop mutual trust within the enterprise. It will advise on all measures serving to improve carrying out the work of the enterprise, and on standards relating to general work conditions, in particular those that concern measures ting to reinforce feelings of solidarity between the members themselves and between the members and the enterprise, or ting to improve the personal situation of the members of the enterprise commun-ity. The Council also has the obligation to intervene to settle disputes. It must be heard before the imposition of fines based on workshop regulations. The law further required that, before assuming their duties, members of the Work Council had to take an oath before all their fellow workers to "carry out their duties only for the good of the enterprise and of all citizens, setting aside any personal interest, and in their behavior and manner of living to serve as model representatives of the enterprise." Every 30th of April, on the eve of the great national holiday of labor, Council terms ended and new elections were held. This helped to weed out incompetence, overcome stagnation, and prevent arrogance or careerism on the part of Council members. The business enterprise paid a salary to each Council member, just as if he were employed in the office or on the shop floor, and had to "assume all costs resulting from the regular fulfillment of the duties of the Council." The second institution established to insure the orderly development of the new German social system was the "Labor Commission" (Reichstreuhänder der Arbeit), the members of which were essentially conciliators and arbitrators. They were charged with dealing with and overcoming the inevitable frictions of the workplace. It was their function to see to it that the Councils of Trust functioned harmoniously and efficiently, and to ensure that a given business enterprise's regulations were carried out to the letter. Each of the thirteen Labor Commissions operated in its own district of the Reich. As arbitrators, they were independent of owners and employees. Appointed by the state, they represented rather the interests of everyone in the enterprise, and the interests of the national community. To minimize arbitrary or unfounded rulings, the Labor Commissions relied on the advice of a "Consultative Council of Experts," consisting of 18 members selected from a cross section of the economy in each territorial district. As a further safeguard of impartiality, a third agency was superimposed on the Councils of Trust and the thirteen Commissions: the Tribunals of Social Honor. Through these institutions, the German worker, from 1933 on, could count on a system of justice created especially for him, empowered to "adjudicate all grave infractions of the social duties based on the enterprise community." Examples of such "violations of social honor" were cases in which an employer, abusing his power, mistreated his staff, or impugned the honor of his subordinates; in which a staff member threatened the harmony of the workplace by spiteful agitation; or in which a Council member misused or published confidential business information discovered in the course of his work. Thirteen "Courts of Social Honor," corresponding to the 13 Commissions, were established. The presiding judge was not a party hack or ideologue; he was a career jurist, above narrow interest. The enterprise concerned played a role in the Tribunal's proceedings: two assistant judges, one representing management, the other a member of the Council of Trust, assisted the presiding judge. Each Court of Social Honor (Ehrengericht), like any other court of law, had the means to enforce its decisions. There were nuances, though. In mild cases, decisions might be limited to a reprimand. In more serious cases, the guilty party could be fined up to 10,000 marks. Special sanctions, precisely adapted to the circumstances, were provided for. These included mandatory change of employment and dismissal of a chief executive, or his agent, who was found delinquent in his duty. In the event of a contested decision, the finding could be appealed to a Supreme Court in Berlin -- yet another level of protection. In the Third Reich, the worker knew that "exploitation of his physical strength in bad faith or in violation of his honor" was no longer tolerated. He had obligations to the community, but he shared these obligations with every other member of the enterprise, from the chief executive to the messenger boy. Finally, the German worker had clearly defined social rights, which were arbitrated and enforced by indepent agencies. And while all this had been achieved in an atmosphere of justice and moderation, it nevertheless constituted a genuine social revolution. By the of 1933, the first effects of Hitler's revolution in the workplace were being felt. Germany had already come a long way from the time when grimy bathrooms and squalid courtyards were the sole sanitary and recreational facilities available to workers. Factories and shops, large and small, were altered or transformed to conform to the strictest standards of cleanliness and hygiene: interiors, so often dark and stifling, were opened up to light; playing fields were constructed; rest areas where workers could unbend during break, were set aside; employee cafeterias and respectable locker rooms were opened. The larger industrial establishments, in addition to providing the normally required conventional sports facilities, were obliged to put in swimming pools! In just three years, these achievements would reach unimagined heights: more than two thousand factories refitted and beautified; 23,000 work premises modernized; 800 buildings designed exclusively for meetings; 1,200 playing fields; 13,000 sanitary facilities; 17,000 cafeterias. To assure the healthy development of the working class, physical education courses were instituted for younger workers. Some 8,000 were eventually organized. Technical training was equally emphasized. Hundreds of work schools, and thousands of technical courses were created. There were examinations for professional competence, and competitions in which generous prizes were awarded to outstanding masters of their craft. Eight hundred departmental inspectors and 17,300 local inspectors were employed to conscientiously monitor and promote these improvements. To provide affordable vacations for German workers on a hitherto unprecedented scale, Hitler established the "Strength through Joy" program. As a result, hundreds of thousands of workers were now able to make relaxing vacation trips on land and sea each summer. Magnificent cruise ships were built, and special trains brought vacationers to the mountains and the seashore. In just a few years, Germany's working-class tourists would log a distance equivalent to 54 times the circumference of the earth! And thanks to generous state subsidies, the cost to workers of these popular vacation excursions was nearly insignificant. Were Hitler's reforms perfect? Doubtless there were flaws, blunders and drawbacks. But what were a few inevitable mistakes beside the immense achievements? Was Hitler's transformation of the lot of the working class authoritarian? Without a doubt. And yet, for a people that had grown sick and tired of anarchy, this new authoritarianism wasn't regarded as an imposition. In fact, people have always accepted a strong man's leadership. In any case, there is no doubt that the attitude of the German working class, which was still two-thirds non-Nazi at the start of 1933, soon changed completely. As Belgian author Marcel Laloire noted at the time: When you make your way through the cities of Germany and go into the working-class districts, go through the factories, the construction yards, you are astonished to find so many workers on the job sporting the Hitler insignia, to see so many flags with the swastika, black on a bright red background, in the most densely populated districts. Hitler's "German Labor Front" (Deutsche Arbeitsfront), which incorporated all workers and employers, was for the most part eagerly accepted. The steel spades of the sturdy young lads of the "National Labor Service" (Reichsarbeitsdienst) could also be seen gleaming along the highways. Hitler created the National Labor Service not only to alleviate unemployment, but to bring together, in absolute equality, and in the same uniform, both the sons of millionaires and the sons of the poorest families for several months' common labor and living. All performed the same work, all were subject to the same discipline; they enjoyed the same pleasures and benefited from the same physical and moral development. At the same construction sites and in the same barracks, Germans became conscious of what they had in common, grew to understand one another, and discarded their old prejudices of class and caste. After a hitch in the National Labor Service, a young worker knew that the rich man's son was not a pampered monster, while the young lad of wealthy family knew that the worker's son had no less honor than a nobleman or an heir to riches; they had lived and worked together as comrades. Social hatred was vanishing, and a socially united people was being born. Hitler could go into factories -- something few men of the so-called Right would have risked in the past -- and hold forth to crowds of workers, at times in the thousands, as at the huge Siemens works. "In contrast to the von Papens and other country gentlemen," he might tell them, "in my youth I was a worker like you. And in my heart of hearts, I have remained what I was then." During his twelve years in power, no untoward incident ever occurred at any factory he visited. Hitler was at home when he went among the people, and he was received like a member of the family returning home after making a success of himself. But the Chancellor of the Third Reich wanted more than popular approval. He wanted that approval to be freely, widely, and repeatedly expressed by popular vote. No people was ever be more frequently asked for their electoral opinion than the German people of that era -- five times in five years. For Hitler, it was not enough that the people voted from time to time, as in the previous democratic system. In those days, voters were rarely appealed to, and when they expressed an opinion, they were often ill-informed and apathetic. After an election, years might go by, during which the politicians were heedless and inaccessible, the electorate powerless to vote on their actions. To enable the German public to express its opinion on the occasion of important events of social, national, or international significance, Hitler provided the people a new means of approving or rejecting his own actions as Chancellor: the plebiscite. Hitler recognized the right of all the people, men and women alike, to vote by secret ballot: to voice their opinion of his policies, or to make a well-grounded judgment on this or that great decision in domestic or foreign affairs. Rather than a formalistic routine, democracy became a vital, active program of supervision that was renewed annually. The articles of the "Plebiscite Law" were brief and clear: The Reich government may ask the people whether or not it approves of a measure planned by or taken by the government. This may also apply to a law. A measure submitted to plebiscite will be considered as established when it receives a simple majority of the votes. This will apply as well to a law modifying the Constitution. If the people approves the measure in question, it will be applied in conformity with article III of the Law for Overcoming the Distress of the People and the Reich. The Reich Interior Ministry is authorized to take all legal and administrative measures necessary to carry out this law. Berlin, July 14, 1933. Hitler, Frick The electoral pledge given by Hitler that day was not vain rhetoric. One national referendum followed another: in 1933, in 1934, in 1936, and in 1938, not to mention the Saar plebiscite of 1935, which was held under international supervision. The ballot was secret, and the voter was not constrained. No one could have prevented a German from voting no if he wished. And, in fact, a certain number did vote no in every plebiscite. Millions of others could just as easily have done the same. However, the percentage of "No" votes remained remarkably low - usually under ten percent. In the Saar region, where the plebiscite of January 1935 was supervised from start to finish by the Allies, the result was the same as in the rest of the Reich: more than 90 percent voted "Yes" to unification with Hitler's Germany! Hitler had no fear of such secret ballot plebiscites because the German people invariably supported him. From the first months of 1933, his accomplishments were public fact, for all to see. Before end of the year, unemployment in Germany had fallen from more than 6,000,000 to 3,374,000. Thus, 2,627,000 jobs had been created since the previous February, when Hitler began his "gigantic task!" A simple question: Who in Europe ever achieved similar results in so short a time? More than two and a half million working-class homes once again knew bread and joy; more than ten million men, women and children of the working class, after years of want, had regained their vigor, and had been returned to the national community. Hitler's popularity took on some astonishing, indeed comical, aspects. "A brand of canned herring," Joachim Fest relates, "was called 'Good Adolf.' Coin banks were made in the form of SA caps. Bicarbonate of soda was recommended with the advertising slogan 'My Struggle (Mein Kampf) against flatulence'! Pictures of Hitler appeared on neckties, handkerchiefs, pocket mirrors, and the swastika decorated ash trays and beer mugs, or served as an advertisement for a brand of margarine." Annoyed by such fawning (and exploitative) use of his name, and the emblem of his party, Hitler ordered that it be discontinued immediately. The economic and social transformation of the Reich impressed observers no less than the political transformation wrought by the leader of National Socialism. Gottfried Benn, Germany's greatest poet of that era -- and a man of the Left -- wrote to an expatriate friend, Klaus Mann: I personally declare myself in favor of the new State, because it is my people that is making its way now. Who am I to exclude myself; do I know anything better? No! Within the limits of my powers I can try to guide the people to where I would like to see it -- My intellectual and economic existence, my language, my life, my human relationships, the entire sum of my brain, I owe primarily to this nation. My ancestors came from it; my children return to it -- There are moments in which this whole tormented life falls away and nothing exists but the plains, expanses, seasons, soil, simple words: my people. (See: J. Fest, Hitler, New York: 1974, p. 428.) In his detailed and critical biography of Hitler, Joachim Fest limited his treatment of Hitler's extraordinary social achievements in 1933 to a few paragraphs. All the same, Fest did not refrain from acknowledging: The regime insisted that it was not the rule of one social class above all others, and by granting everyone opportunities to rise, it in fact demonstrated class neutrality -- These measures did indeed break through the old, petrified social structures. They tangibly improved the material condition of much of the population. (J. Fest, Hitler, pp. 434-435.) Not without reason were the swastika banners waving proudly throughout the working-class districts where, just a year ago, they had been unceremoniously torn down. From The Journal of Historical Review, Fall 1992 (Vol. 12, No. 3), pp. 299-370.

Adolf Hitler

Who was the black educationist who was born a slave but became a leader in the search for civil rights in the early 1900s?

Adolf Hitler Adolf Hitler Hitler, Adolf (1889-1945), ruled Germany as dictator from 1933 to 1945. He turned Germany into a powerful war machine and provoked World War II in 1939. Hitler's forces conquered most of Europe before they were defeated in 1945.  Hitler spread death as no person has done in modern history. "Have no pity! Act brutally!" he told his soldiers. He ordered tens of thousands of those who opposed him to be executed, and hundreds of thousands to be thrown into prison. He was totally unscrupulous and believed that the strong must win, while the weak lose. In the struggle for power, any trick, however ruthless, was justified. His strength of will, his ability to lie, cheat, and flatter helped him to win power.  Hitler particularly persecuted Jews. He ordered them removed and killed in countries he controlled. Hitler set up concentration camps where about 3 million Jews were murdered. Altogether, Hitler's forces killed about 6 million European Jews as well as about 5 million other people that Hitler regarded as racially inferior or politically dangerous.  Adolf Hitler began his rise to political power in 1919, the year after World War I had ended. The German Empire had been defeated, and the nation's economy lay in ruins. Hitler joined a small group of men who became known as Nazis. He soon became their leader. Hitler and his followers believed he could win back Germany's past glory. He promised to rebuild Germany into a mighty empire that would last a thousand years.  Many people did not take Hitler seriously. But his fiery words and brilliant blue eyes seemed to hypnotize those who listened to him. Many Germans believed he was their protector and friend. His emotional speeches made crowds cheer "Heil, Hitler!" ("Hail, Hitler!" ).  Hitler became dictator of Germany in 1933 and quickly succeeded in regaining some territories taken from Germany as a result of World War I. He threatened war against Czechoslovakia in 1938, but was stopped by a combination of counterthreats and concessions. His forces invaded Poland in 1939. Then Great Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Canada declared war on Germany, and World War II began.  Hitler had a clear vision of what he wanted, and he had the daring to pursue it. But his aims had no limits, and he overestimated the resources and abilities of Germany. Hitler had little regard for experts in any field. He regularly ignored the advice of his generals and followed his own judgment, even while Germany was being defeated in the last years of the war. Finally, as United States, British, and Soviet troops closed in on the heart of Germany, during the first months of 1945, Hitler killed himself.  Early life  Boyhood. Adolf Hitler was born on April 20, 1889, in Braunau, Austria, a small town across the Inn River from Germany. He was the fourth child of the third marriage of Alois Hitler, a customs official. Alois Hitler was 51 years old when Adolf was born. Adolf's mother, Klara Polzl, was 28 years old. She was a farmer's daughter.  Alois Hitler was born to an unmarried woman named Anna Maria Schicklgruber. A wandering miller named Johann Georg Hiedler married her about five years later. Hiedler died in 1856, when Alois was 20 years old, having never recognized Alois as his child. In 1876, Hiedler's brother arranged for Alois to be registered as the legitimate son of Johann Georg and Maria Hiedler. The priest who made the entry spelled the name "Hitler." Years later, before he came to power, some of Hitler's political opponents called him Schicklgruber as an insult. Only four of Alois Hitler's eight children lived to adulthood. Adolf had a sister, Paula; a half brother, Alois; and a half sister, Angela.  About six years after Adolf's birth, his father retired and moved near Linz, Austria. Adolf received good marks in primary school, but he was a poor student in secondary school. His low marks angered his harsh, ill-tempered father. Alois wanted his son to have a career as a civil servant. But the boy wanted to be an artist.  Alois Hitler died in 1903, and Adolf left secondary school 21/2 years later at the age of 16. His mother drew a widow's pension and owned some property. Adolf did not have to go to work. He spent his time daydreaming, drawing pictures, and reading books.  Years in Vienna. In 1907, Hitler went to Vienna, the capital of Austria-Hungary. He wanted to be an art student, but he failed the entrance examination of the Academy of Fine Arts twice. His mother died in 1907. Adolf had an income from the money his mother left her children and inherited some money from his aunt. He also claimed an orphan's pension. Sometimes he sold his drawings and paintings. He lived comfortably and idly during most of his stay in Vienna, considering himself an artist.  Hitler also concerned himself with political observations, admiring the effective leadership and organization of the Social Democratic Party in Vienna. He developed a growing hatred for Jews and Slavs. Like many German-speaking Austrians, Hitler became fiercely nationalistic. No form of government could last, he thought, if it treated people of different nationalities equally.  Corporal Hitler. In 1913, Hitler moved to Munich, Germany. The Austrian Army called him for a physical examination, but he was found unfit for service.  World War I began in August 1914. Hitler volunteered immediately for service in the German Army and was accepted. He served valiantly as a messenger on the Western Front for most of the war, taking part in some of the bloodiest battles. He was wounded and twice decorated for bravery. But Hitler rose only to the rank of corporal. When Germany surrendered in November 1918, he was in a military hospital recovering from temporary blindness that resulted from his exposure in battle to mustard gas. He was deeply shaken by news of the armistice. He believed that the unity of the German nation was threatened, and that he must attempt to save Germany.  Rise to power  Defeat in World War I shocked the German people. Despair and turmoil increased as the army returned to a bankrupt country. Millions of Germans could not find work. A socialist-liberal republic replaced the defeated empire. After World War I, Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty held Germany responsible for the war. It stripped the nation of much territory and restricted the German Army to 100,000 men. It also provided for a 15-year foreign occupation of an area of western Germany called the Rhineland. But the harshest part was the demand that Germany pay huge reparations (payments for war damages). The sums demanded by the treaty were so great that they made peace difficult. Nationalists, Communists, and others attacked the new government. The nationalists demanded punishment for the "criminals" who had signed the treaty.  Birth of the Nazi Party. After Hitler recovered from the effects of the mustard gas, he returned to Munich and remained in the army until March 1920. In the autumn of 1919, he began to attend meetings of a small nationalist group called the German Workers' Party. He joined the party and changed its name to the National Socialist German Workers' Party. The group became known as the Nazi Party. The Nazis called for the union of all Germans into one nation, including the Austrians and German minorities in Czechoslovakia and other countries. They demanded that citizens of non-German or Jewish origin be deprived of German citizenship, and they called for the cancellation of the Treaty of Versailles.  Hitler was a skilful politician and organizer. He became leader of the Nazis and quickly built up party membership--partly by his ability to stir crowds with his speeches. Hitler attacked the government and declared that the Nazi Party could restore the economy, assure work for all, and lead Germany to greatness again.  Hitler also organized a private army he called storm troopers. He used brown-shirted uniforms and the swastika emblem to give his party and the storm troopers--known as the SA--a sense of unity and power (see SWASTIKA). The troopers fought the armies of the Communist, Social Democratic, and other parties who opposed Nazi ideas or tried to break up Nazi Party rallies. By October 1923, the storm troopers numbered 15,000 members. They had a considerable number of machine guns and rifles.  The Beer Hall Putsch. In 1923, Germany was in deep trouble. France and Belgium had sent troops to occupy the Ruhr District, the chief industrial region. German workers there responded by going on strike. The strike aggravated a crisis in Germany's economy, which had already been weakened by the reparations payments, and German money lost almost all value. Communist and nationalist revolts flared up throughout Germany, and the state of Bavaria was in open conflict with the central government in Berlin. Hitler saw an opportunity amid these troubles to overthrow both the Bavarian and national German governments.  On Nov. 8, 1923, at a rally in a Munich beer hall, Hitler proclaimed a Nazi revolution, or putsch. The next day, he tried to seize the Bavarian government in what became known as the Beer Hall Putsch. Hitler, supported by the German General Erich F. W. Ludendorff, led over 2,000 storm troopers on a march against the Bavarian government. But state police opened fire and stopped the procession, killing 16 marchers. The plot failed. Hitler was arrested and sentenced to five years in prison.  Mein Kampf. While he was imprisoned, Hitler began writing his book Mein Kampf (My Struggle). In the book, he stated his beliefs and his ideas for Germany's future, including his plan to conquer much of Europe. Territories lost in World War I would be recovered. Austria and parts of Czechoslovakia where Germans lived would be added to Germany. The growing German nation would seize lebensraum (living space) from Poland, the Soviet Union, and other countries to the east.  Hitler also wrote that Germans represented a superior form of humanity. They must stay "pure," he said, by avoiding marriage to Jews and Slavs. Hitler blamed the Jews for the evils of the world. He accused them of corrupting everything of ethical and national value. He said: "By defending myself against the Jews, I am doing the Lord's work." Democracy, said Hitler, could lead only to Communism. A dictatorship was the only way to save Germany from the threats of Communism and Jewish treason.  Rise of the Nazis. Hitler was freed about nine months after his trial. He left prison in December 1924.  Great changes had taken place in Germany during 1924. A schedule for Germany's reparations payments helped stabilize the German currency, and the nation showed signs of recovering from the war. Most people had work, homes, food, and hope for the future.  The government had outlawed the Nazis after the Beer Hall Putsch. Many party members had drifted into other political groups. After Hitler was released from prison, he began to rebuild his party. He gradually convinced the government that the party would act legally, and the government lifted its ban on the Nazis. Hitler won friends in small towns, in trade unions, and among farmers and a few business people and industrialists. He also set up an elite party guard, the Schutzstaffel, known as the SS. By 1929, though the Nazis had not yet gained substantial voter support, their organization and discipline had made them an important minority party.  By this time, Hitler had assembled some of the people who would help him rise to power. They included Joseph Goebbels, the chief Nazi propagandist; Hermann Goering, who became second in command to Hitler; Rudolf Hess, Hitler's faithful private secretary; Heinrich Himmler, the leader of the SS; Ernst Rohm, the chief of the SA; and Alfred Rosenberg, the party philosopher.  In 1930, the worldwide Great Depression hit Germany. Workers again faced unemployment and hunger. That same year, Germany agreed to the Young Plan of 1929 to reschedule reparations payments. In 1929, Hitler had launched a campaign to defeat the plan. This campaign made him a political force throughout the country. He led protest marches, organized mass meetings, and delivered speeches all over Germany.  Hitler used his old arguments in the campaign against the Young Plan and in a national election campaign that took place in 1930. But he toned down his violent speeches against Jews, which had failed to attract many votes. Hitler promised to rid Germany of Communists and other "enemies" and to reunite Germany and all the other parts of Europe in which German was spoken.  In 1932, five major elections were held in Germany as its leaders struggled to give the nation political stability. In the July elections for the Reichstag (parliament), the Nazis became Germany's strongest party, receiving nearly 38 per cent of the vote. Leaders of the other parties offered Hitler Cabinet posts in exchange for Nazi support. But as leader of the strongest party, he refused to accept any arrangement that did not make him chancellor (prime minister) of Germany.  The majority of the German people and the leading politicians did not want Hitler to become chancellor. They understood that he would make himself dictator and set up a reign of terror. Germany's president, Paul von Hindenburg, also had serious misgivings about Hitler. But the 85-year-old Hindenburg, persuaded by his friends and his son Oskar, accepted Hitler's promise to act lawfully if he were named to form a government. On Jan. 30, 1933, Hindenburg named Hitler chancellor.  Dictator of Germany  There were only two Nazis in the Cabinet besides Hitler--Goering and Wilhelm Frick. The rest of the 11-member Cabinet was made up of politicians who were more moderate than the Nazis. The vice chancellor, Franz von Papen, and his political allies thought this arrangement would limit Hitler's power. But Hitler had never settled for anything less than full control. He moved steadily toward dictatorship. There was no place for freedom under his government, which Hitler called the Third Reich (see REICH).  Rebuilding the Nazi Party  When Hitler left prison and tried to rebuild the party, he met with great difficulties. He was challenged in northern Germany by the " socialist Nazi left leader Gregor Strasser, who aimed his appeal at the workers. To meet the challenge, Hitler wooed certain extremist military groups, the leftovers from World War I. While the workers ignored Strasser's program, the military outcasts eagerly followed Hitler. At a party conference in May 1926, Hitler outflanked Strasser and won back the dictatorial chairmanship, which he subsequently reinforced by declaring the party program unalterable, thus undercutting any attempt to revive the controversy over socialism.  Social conditions still prevented the party from growing, however. Interest in extremist solutions had waned as Germany had regained economic and political stability. In addition, Hitler was prohibited from speaking, which deprived him of his most powerful weapon. His breakthrough came in 1929, when the German Nationalist party made him politically respectable by soliciting his help in its vicious campaign against the Young Plan's arrangements for German reparations. In September 1930, after the depression had hit Germany, the Nazis made their first substantial showing (18.3% of the vote) in national elections, and from then on Hitler seemed to rise irresistibly. He still used propaganda, demagoguery, and terror, but he now proclaimed, and defended against strong party opposition, a policy of legality. While his propaganda appealed to the lower class victims of the depression, his insistence on legality made him acceptable to the conservatives, nationalists, and the military.  Personal Life and Rise to Power  During this period, Hitler lived mainly from royalties for his book and fees for newspaper articles. He was able to afford an apartment in Munich, a villa in the Alps, and a car, but his style of life remained modest. He had a craving for pastries, movies, and Richard Wagner's music. His behavior still alternated between outbursts of energy and periods of inactivity and laziness. His sex life seems to have been abnormal. In 1928 he began a passionate affair with his niece Geli Raubal. The affair ended tragically in 1931 when Geli, feeling suffocated by his tyranny, committed suicide. After he became dictator, he made Eva Braun, a clerk, his mistress, but refused to marry her in order to preserve his image as a self-denying public servant.  In 1932, with Germany close to anarchy, Hitler's career approached its crisis. He narrowly lost to the incumbent Paul von Hindenburg in the presidential elections in April, and the Nazis polled their highest vote (37.2%) in the July elections. In the November elections, however, the Nazi vote decreased to 33.1%. Hitler had lost prestige through his stubborn insistence on "total power; the party was psychologically and financially exhausted; and the depression was beginning to wane. At this moment, a conservative group led by former Chancellor Franz von Papen arranged for Hitler to enter the government. On Jan. 30, 1933, the aged President Hindenburg appointed him chancellor in a coalition government with the conservatives.  The conservatives deluded themselves in thinking they could use Hitler for their own interests. Within four months, Hitler had dramatically established his mastery over them and over all other political groups. He had destroyed the Communist and Socialist parties and the labor unions; forced the bourgeois and right wing parties to dissolve; emasculated or destroyed the paramilitary organizations; eliminated the federal structure of the republic; and on March 23, 1933, won from a decimated and intimidated Reichstag an enabling law that gave him dictatorial powers. His success came from a combination of pseudo-democratic mass demonstrations; terror by the SA and the Nazi-controlled police, which accelerated after the Reichstag fire in February; and a seemingly conservative program that kept the conservatives quiescent.  Consolidation of Power  In early 1934, however, he faced new conflicts, mainly from within the party. The SA, still led by Roehm, and the Nazi left vigorously opposed his alliance with business and military leaders, and a group of monarchists was campaigning for a restoration of the monarchy. Hindenburg's deteriorating health raised the question of his succession. Hitler survived the crisis by adopting the most radical methods. He rallied behind himself the party leaders, the army, and Himmler 's SS (the Schutzstaffel, or Blackshirts), and on June 30, 1934, he struck. A number of SA leaders, monarchists, and other opponents were murdered; the influence of the SA was drastically reduced; and Hitler emerged as the undisputed master of Germany. When Hindenburg died on August 2, Hitler officially assumed the title of Fuhrer, or supreme head of Germany.  From 1935 to 1938 he consolidated his dictatorship. The basis of his power was still his control over the masses, who admired him as the "man of the people and falsely credited Germany's economic recovery to him. (Its real architect had been Hjalmar Schacht, a conservative banker.) In 1937-1938 the economy reached full employment, thanks to an increasingly reckless rearmament policy. Hitler also protected his position by promoting rivalries among his subordinates, and he encouraged Himmler to build a formidable apparatus of terror by means of the SS, the Gestapo, and the concentration camps. He then escalated the persecution of the Jews through the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, which deprived Jews of their citizenship and forbade marriages between Jews and non-Jews. Additional restrictive laws were passed during the next few years, and Hitler's policies resulted in a large-scale emigration of Jews, socialists, and intellectuals and in the virtual destruction of Weimar Germany's highly creative culture.  Preparations for War  In foreign affairs, as long as Hitler felt weak, he shielded his regime by peaceful declarations and by treaties, such as those with the Vatican in July 1933 and with Poland in January 1934. Nevertheless, he indicated his true intentions in October 1933, when he withdrew from the League of Nations. As his strength increased, he proceeded to remove the restrictions imposed by the Versailles Treaty by proclaiming open rearmament in March 1935 and by remilitarizing the Rhineland in 1936. Simultaneously, he tried to win the neutrality of Britain through a naval treaty in June 1935, and gained Italy's allegiance by supporting MUSSOLINI's Ethiopian war (1935-1936). The Italian alliance materialized in October 1936, strengthened by their joint interference in the Spanish Civil War.  From the outset, Hitler had been determined to conquer Lebensraum. In November 1937 he disclosed his war plans to his ministers, and when they objected, he dismissed Schacht and the heads of the army and of the foreign ministry. By replacing these men, he eliminated the last traces of the conservative alliance and cleared the way for war. Under the guise of a policy of self-determination, Hitler annexed Austria in March 1938 and the Sudetenland, the German-inhabited border areas of Czechoslovakia, in October. By disclaiming any further expansionist aims, he won approval of the Sudetenland occupation from Britain, France, and Italy at a conference in Munich.  When he nevertheless extended his rule over all of Czechoslovakia in March 1939 and then threatened Poland, Britain and France abandoned their appeasement policy and guaranteed Poland's integrity. Unimpressed, Hitler continued his preparations by signing a nonaggression pact with Russia on August 23. When he attacked an unyielding Poland on September 1, Britain and France surprised him by declaring war.  The Nazis, through Frick's key position as minister of the interior, controlled all national police authority. Goering controlled the Prussian police. An emergency decree signed by Hindenburg on Feb. 4, 1933, gave the Nazis legal authority to prohibit assemblies, to outlaw newspapers and other publications, and to arrest people on suspicion of treason. The Nazis were thus able to put down much of their political opposition. Goering created an auxiliary police force made up of thousands of storm troopers and ordered them to shoot in encounters with "enemies."  On Feb. 27, 1933, a fire began that destroyed the Reichstag building. Many historians believe that it was planned by the Nazis. A pro-Communist Dutch anarchist was found at the site of the fire and admitted that he had started it. The Nazis quickly blamed the Communists. Hindenburg signed another emergency decree that gave the government almost unlimited powers.  Elections for a new Reichstag were held on March 5, 1933. Hitler hoped to win more than 50 per cent of the vote for the Nazi Party. But the party received only 43.9 per cent despite using terror to influence voters.  After the election, the Communist deputies were arrested or not admitted to the Reichstag. This gave the Nazis a majority of the seats. On March 23, 1933, the Nazi-dominated Reichstag passed a law "for the removal of distress from the people and the state." This law, known as the Enabling Act, gave the government full dictatorial powers and, in effect, suspended basic civil and human rights for four years. When the president had signed it, Hitler had a firm "legal" basis on which to govern as he pleased. He had also destroyed the constitution through outwardly legal means.  By mid-July 1933, the government had outlawed freedom of the press, all trade unions, and all political parties except the Nazis. The Gestapo (secret state police) hunted down the enemies and opponents of the government. People were jailed or shot on suspicion alone. By the time Hindenburg died in August 1934, Hitler ruled Germany completely. He assumed the title Fuhrer und Reichskanzler (leader and reich chancellor).  The Nazis used the press, radio, and films to flood Germany with propaganda praising the New Order, Hitler's term for his reordering of German society and for his plans to reorder the rest of Europe. The regime applauded military training, rearmament, national pride, and industry. Jews were forced out of the civil service, universities and schools, and the professions and managerial positions. In 1935, German Jews were declared citizens of lesser rights. Thousands left the country. Many who stayed were sent to concentration camps along with hundreds of thousands of political suspects. A person needed official permission to accept work, change jobs, move, or travel abroad. The government regulated wages, housing, and production of goods. All workers and employers were supposed to belong to the German Labour Front, which was intended to replace Germany's trade unions. Through the Labour Front, the government regulated production, wages, working hours, and leisure activities.  Hitler also set up organizations for young people between the ages of 6 and 18. These groups included the Hitler Youth for boys 14 years and older and the Society of German Maidens for girls 14 years and older. The organizations were designed to condition German children to military discipline and to win their loyalty to the Nazi government. All German children were required to join such groups from the age of 10. They wore uniforms, marched, exercised, and learned Nazi beliefs. The Nazis taught children to spy on their own families and report any anti-Nazi criticism they might hear.  A network of spies kept watch on the German people and maintained an atmosphere of terror. The Reichstag met only to listen to Hitler's public speeches. Judges and courts continued to function, but Hitler or his lieutenants reversed any decision they did not agree with.  The road to war. From 1933 onward, Hitler prepared Germany for war. He rearmed the nation, first secretly, then in open violation of the Treaty of Versailles. No nation acted to stop him, and so Hitler's steps became bolder. Hitler planned to establish Germany as the world's leading power and to destroy the Jewish people.  In 1936, Hitler sent troops into the Rhineland, again violating the Treaty of Versailles. His generals had opposed this dangerous challenge to France. But Hitler guessed correctly that France would not stop him. The stationing of German troops in the Rhineland was the first of the Nazi dictator's victories without war.  In March 1938, Hitler's troops invaded Austria. Austria then became part of Germany. In September, France and Great Britain consented to Hitler's occupation of the German-speaking areas of Czechoslovakia that had belonged to Austria-Hungary before World War I ended . After this move, Hitler said he wanted no more territory. But after each success, he planned a new take-over. He took control of the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939.  Poland came next on Hitler's list. But Britain and France took action to try to stop any further German expansion. They guaranteed Poland's independence, saying that they would go to war against Germany if Hitler attacked Poland. Hitler doubted that they would do so. In August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed treaties of friendship. They promised mutual cooperation, trade privileges, and neutrality in case of war with other countries. A secret part of the treaties divided Poland between Germany and the Soviet Union and promised the Soviet Union other territory in eastern Europe. On Sept. 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland. Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later.  World War II. Hitler's armies overran Poland in just a few weeks. In the spring of 1940, they easily conquered Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France. Benito Mussolini, Italy's dictator, declared war on France and Britain on June 10, 1940, when the defeat of France seemed certain. On June 22, 1940, France signed an armistice with Germany.  Britain fought on alone. A major German air offensive failed to weaken British resistance. Hitler kept delaying an invasion of Britain. Instead, in July 1940, he began to consider an invasion of the Soviet Union. He explained to his generals that Britain would not surrender until its last potential ally on the European continent had been defeated.  In June 1941, the attack on the Soviet Union began. At first, the German forces made rapid progress. But their advance began to slow in November. By December, it was halted outside Moscow. An unusually bitter winter, Soviet reinforcements, and supplies sent by the United States helped the Soviet forces stop the Germans and begin to push them back during the winter. Renewed German attacks in 1942 and 1943 could not break through. During the Battle of Stalingrad, which lasted for five months during 1942 and 1943, the Soviets wiped out an entire German army of 300,000 men. This German defeat was a major turning point in the war.  While his empire lasted, Hitler directed the storm troopers, Nazi officials, and members of the army and the civil service in a campaign of mass slaughter. About 6 million Jews--over two-thirds of the Jews of Europe--were murdered. More than 3 million Soviet prisoners of war were starved and worked to death. Hitler's victims also included large numbers of Gypsies, Poles, Slavs, Jehovah's Witnesses, priests and ministers, mental patients, and Communists and other political opponents.  The German resistance had tried since 1938 to kill Hitler and overthrow the Nazis. But repeated plots failed. On July 20, 1944, Hitler narrowly escaped death when a German Army officer placed a bomb in Hitler's briefing room.  Early in 1945, the Allies marched into the heart of Germany against rapidly dwindling opposition. For a detailed story of Germany in the war, see WORLD WAR II.  Death. By April 1945, Hitler had become a broken man. His head, hands, and feet trembled, and he was tortured by stomach cramps. Eva Braun, Hitler's mistress since the 1930's, joined him at his headquarters in a bomb shelter under the Reich Chancellery in Berlin. She and Hitler were married there on April 29. The next day, they killed themselves. Aides burned their bodies. Seven days later, Germany surrendered.

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"Which French revolutionary was nicknamed ""the Incorruptible""?"

Marie Antoinette and the French Revolution . Famous Faces . Mad Max: Maximilien Robespierre | PBS Extended Interviews > Resources > For Educators > Mad Max: Maximilien Robespierre Maximilien Robespierre was born May 6, 1758 in Arras, France. Educated at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris as a lawyer, Robespierre became a disciple of philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau and a passionate advocate for the poor. Called "the Incorruptible" because of his unwavering dedication to the Revolution, Robespierre joined the Jacobin Club and earned a loyal following. In contrast to the more republican Girondins and Marie Antoinette, Robespierre fiercely opposed declaring war on Austria, feeling it would distract from revolutionary progress in France. Robespierre's exemplary oratory skills influenced the National Convention in 1792 to avoid seeking public opinion about the Convention’s decision to execute King Louis XVI. In 1793, the Convention elected Robespierre to the Committee of Public Defense. He was a highly controversial member, developing radical policies, warning of conspiracies, and suggesting restructuring the Convention. This behavior eventually led to his downfall, and he was guillotined without trial on 10th Thermidor An II (July 28, 1794), marking the end of the Reign of Terror. Famous Faces

Maximilien Robespierre

Where did Florence Nightingale establish a hospital to treat casualties of the Crimean War?

Template without comments    Robespierre, "The Candle of Arras," image from Decaux Robespierre was the best known and most influential of the members of the Committee of Public safety. He was rasied in Arras, but attended grammer school in Paris. His best friend during his school years was Camille Desmoulins, another prominent figure in the Revolution. Robespierre was a presence in all of the major events that occurred between 1789-1794. He was a representatvie at the Estates General , and had a large following in the radical Jacobin clubs of Paris and among the Sans-Culottes. During the reign of Terror , Robespierre was the most prominent member of the Commitee of Public Safety. He was a hard worker with strong principles, and he became known as the Incorruptible because of his honesty and rigid commitment to transforming France into a republic of Virtue. He was a cold man however, and was never as popular amoung the people of Paris as Marat , Desmoulins, or Danton . He believed more in the ideas of Rousseau than in men, and was suspicious of those around him. ( Dowd , 124). The fact that Robespierre allowed his two close associates to be killed in April of 1794, he lost the faith of the rest of France's governing body ( Spielvogel , 696). Eager to destroy him before he destroyed them, members of the Convention arrested Robespierre and guillotined him on 28 July 1794. His death brought to an end the radical period of the French revolution known as the Terror. Which member of the Friends of the ABC in Les MIserables resembles Robespierre? Click here to find out! For more information on reflectiond of Robespierre in Les Miserables click here .  

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Which rebellion was effectively ended by the Battle of Culloden?

BBC - History - British History in depth: The Jacobite Cause Print this page The Glorious Revolution To modern eyes the complex web of religious and political loyalties which underpinned Jacobitism can seem alien and unsympathetic. The whole movement might be said to span the century from the deposition of James II in the Glorious Revolution of 1688 to the lonely alcohol-sodden death of Bonnie Prince Charlie in 1788. A Catholic himself, James decided that by promoting edicts of religious tolerance, he would be able to surreptitiously re-establish Catholicism as the official faith of the British Isles. This notion produced near-hysteria in James's Protestant subjects - who had been taught to abhor this faith. When a son was born to the King and Queen, British Protestants were faced with the prospect of never waking up from their worst nightmare: a Catholic dynasty. They turned to James's Protestant son-in-law William of Orange. In 1688 he led a successful invasion of England. James panicked and fled. As Scotland wavered, James wrote an utterly tactless letter to the Scottish National Convention in Edinburgh. They declared for William. James's most zealous Scottish supporter, Viscount Dundee, turned to a military solution. The first Jacobite rising broke out. But it was not very popular at all. Most Scottish nobles took the attitude of wait and see. Dundee's forces destroyed William's with a devastating highland charge at the battle of Killiecrankie in 1689, but their leader died in his hour of glory. This left the movement headless. The wait and see-ers kept waiting, and the rising petered out. So how did Jacobitism come back from the political grave in Scotland? In a few words: William and The Union. So how did Jacobitism come back from the political grave in Scotland? In a few words: William and The Union. The new King's Scottish reign was characterised by government tactlessness and economic disasters. The most important of the latter was the Darien Scheme. William refused all English assistance to this Scottish venture to found a colony in Panama. When the scheme failed, leaving most of the would-be colonists dead, the King was widely blamed. Thus to the die-hard believers in the hereditary right of James were added the dissatisfied. Jacobitism became a magnet for almost anyone with a grudge against the government. The Union of 1707 then produced what was for many Scots the grudge to end all grudges. The ink was hardly dry on the treaty before it was being widely denounced, and Scotland was ripe for sedition. The French, who were at war with Britain, suddenly saw an advantage to be gained here. They would land the new Jacobite heir, James III 'The Old Pretender' in his ancestral kingdom and start a rebellion. It was an excellent opportunity to unite much of the nation, even many Presbyterians, on the Jacobite side against the Union. The abortive 1708 rising was dogged with bad luck, however, and possible sabotage. The invasion fleet arrived tardily in the Firth of Forth to find the Royal Navy waiting for them. The French commander refused to put the furious James ashore. The invasion that might have united Scotland against the Union was a damp squib. Top The '15 Rebellion Contemporary newspaper account of the Battle of Glen Sheil in 1719   © However Jacobitism was still very dangerous. The promised benefits of the Union had failed to arrive for many people. Instead, heavy excise duty and increased tax caused much ill feeling. Added to these were humiliations at the hands of the English-dominated Westminster parliament. Yet rebellion when it came, sprang from a most unexpected quarter. When George I of Hanover succeeded to the throne in 1715, he sacked one of Scotland's most influential politicians: John Erskine, Earl of Mar. Mar decided to retaliate by raising the standard for the house of Stuart. On one side of his banner he put the arms of Scotland and on the other 'No Union'. Thousands flocked to it. Soon almost the entire north of Scotland was in his hands. He did this without even bothering to warn the Jacobite court. This was not a phenomenon of a backward rural people rising for archaic notions of loyalty to the king over the water. There was strong support for the Jacobite cause in the trading burghs of north-east Scotland, as well as in the Highlands. Historian Bruce Lenman characterised the backbone of the rising as 'Patriotic Scots and Disgruntled Britons'. The government commander, the Duke of Argyll warned his own side that 'Beyond the Forth the rebels have a hundred to one at least against us'. The Union was in serious danger. Argyll seized the strategically vital ground around Stirling, but he was heavily outnumbered. Then at the battle of Sheriffmuir, when all seemed lost, Mar lost his nerve and suddenly withdrew. The belated landing of the Pretender couldn't retrieve things, and the leaders of the rising fled ingloriously to France. The 1715 was like no other Jacobite rising since Killiecrankie. It was totally indigenous to Britain and not started from abroad. It was also the only occasion when a sizeable rebellion also broke out in England - in heavily Catholic and financially broke Lancashire. This was not a phenomenon of a backward rural people rising for archaic notions of loyalty to the King over the water. The moment had passed, however, and the exiled Stuarts now became no more than useful pawns in foreign hands. The next European power to play the Jacobite card was Spain in 1719. Unluckily for the Spanish, their main invasion fleet was destroyed by a storm before it ever set sail for England. Only a tiny diversionary force made it to the north-west of Scotland. There they garrisoned the ancient fortress of Eilean Donan but were scattered by the energetic response of the local Hanoverian commander at the battle of Glen Shiel. Lowland Scotland had settled down under a Hanoverian regime, which though sometimes unloved, did not move it to outright revolt. Faced with the Stuart association with foreign enemies, most Scots preferred to keep a hold of their Hanoverian nurse 'for fear of finding something worse'. But what George II and his ministers could not inspire was enthusiasm, and this was to prove near-calamitous when the Jacobite card was played again. Top The '45 Rebellion Engraving of the Duke of Cumberland who defeated the Jacobites at the Battle of Culloden   © After major French invasion plans collapsed in 1744, Charles Edward Stuart put together his own tiny invasion force to land in Scotland. The Prince came without the men, money and guns that he had been expressly told that he needed. Instead, he brought himself and his unassailable self-belief. Guaranteed by Charles that he would be compensated if the rising failed, the Chief of Clan Cameron committed his people to the cause. In this case, the support of a few key western clans was crucial to the rising. Without them, the Jacobite standard could never have been raised: with them, the '45 was begun. The rebellion had remarkable initial success. Many Hanoverian troops had been withdrawn to fight the regime's wars abroad, and only a handful remained to defend Scotland. This, plus the general reluctance of the population to martyr themselves for George II, allowed Charles to occupy Edinburgh virtually unopposed. In a move to whip up popular support, he decreed the Union to be abolished. Meanwhile, the government forces under General Cope appeared belatedly to take him on. They were surprised by the Jacobite army at the battle of Prestonpans and torn apart, according to one observer in the space of 'seven or eight minutes'. Execution of the rebel lords at Tower Hill in 1746   © The Jacobite army now possessed Scotland. There was nothing to stop them marching into England - but was this a wise decision? Charles Edward assured his commanders that his loyal English subjects would join them, and that massive French military aid would be forthcoming. It soon turned out that the Prince's promises were mostly empty. The Jacobite army was in danger of being cut off from Scotland and massacred. At Derby, his military council forced a retreat. The decision sowed discord between the prince and his most gifted commander, Lord George Murray. Murray managed to carry off a successful retreat to Scotland, and then to win the battle of Falkirk against superior government forces. Little gratitude he got, however. Top Finished cause Battle of Culloden - a contemporary coloured print giving an artist's impression of the battle   © At Culloden, the fruits of Charles's rancour with Murray appeared. After the failure of a surprise night-attack on the government forces, the Prince insisted on taking command. He chose to give battle on the most unsuitable terrain possible for a Highland charge. Hanoverian artillery cut the Jacobite troops to pieces, and Culloden was a slaughter. The prince became the hunted fugitive in the heather, so well known to romantic legend. Ironically, the savage government repression after Culloden was as unnecessary as it was brutal. Ironically, the savage government repression after Culloden was as unnecessary as it was brutal. Many former Jacobites were only too willing to seek terms with the State. Within a relatively short time a large number of them were to be found serving the Hanoverians in a military capacity abroad. Jacobitism had been exposed by the '45 as no longer militarily viable. With the exception of a few half-hearted plots, it continued withering away. The Bonnie Prince died, a sad old drunkard, in Florence. His brother Cardinal Henry later effectively recognised the Hanoverians, although theoretically he maintained his own claim to the throne. Eventually admiration for Jacobitism was adopted, along with tartan, by the Hanoverians themselves as part of a general nostalgia for the good old days. There could be no more telling comment on the decease of Jacobitism as a political force.

Jacobite risings

What was the first permanent English settlement in the New World, now in ruins?

1000+ images about The Battle of Culloden and the Jacobite (army) on Pinterest | Duke, Highlanders and Inverness Forward During the Jacobite rising of 1745, Angus Mackintosh, twenty-second chief of Clan Mackintosh was a captain in the British Black Watch regiment.[1] However in his absence, his wife, Lady Anne Farquharson-MacKintosh raised men to fight for the Jacobite Charles Edward Stuart.[1] Command was given to MacGillivray of Dunmaglas, of the Clan MacGillivray.[1] They contributed to the Jacobite victory at the Battle of Falkirk Muir in 1746.[1] Following this victory Charles arrived at Moy on the 16… See More

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Who was the first president of independent Kenya?|

Jomo Kenyatta: First President of Independent Kenya - General Knowledge Facts General Knowledge Facts Select a Page Searching... Home » facts » Famous Personalities » featured » first president of Kenya » general knowledge facts » History » internet » Jomo Kenyatta » Kenya » Who is Who » world » World history » Jomo Kenyatta: First President of Independent Kenya Sunday, 8 September 2013 02:17 Jomo Kenyatta was the first president of independent  Kenya.He is considered as the founding father of Kenyan nation.He was the leader of the Kenyan independence movement.He has also authored many books.His is the father of the current president of Kenya ,Uhuru Kenyatta. He was born in 18th August 1893.After completing his education he joinded the movement for Independence.At that time Kenya was under British Colonial Rule.He was elected as the president of Kenyan African Union (KAU) in 1947.He was arrested and  sentenced to 7 years imprisonment in 1953.He was released in 1961 following public demand,after that he was admitted to the legislative council. He became the prime minister of Kenya after Independence was declared on  12 December 1963.When the constitution was amended to make Kenya  a republic  he was elected the first president of Kenya on June 1964.He was the president of Kenya  till his death on 1978. He died on 22nd August 1978 in Mombasa .

Jomo Kenyatta

Which country was ruled by the Romanov dynasty 1613-1917?

Jomo Kenyatta - Early Days to His Political Awakening Jomo Kenyatta - Early Days to His Political Awakening Part 1: From Early Days to His Political Awakening Jomo Kenyatta Monument, City Square, Nairobi.  Mark Daffey / Getty Images By Alistair Boddy-Evans Updated August 21, 2016. First president of Kenya and prominent independence leader. Born into dominant Kikuyu culture, Kenyatta became its most famous interpreter of Kikuyu traditions through his book Facing Mount Kenya. Date of Birth: Early 1890s1, Gatundu Division, Central Highlands, British East Africa (now Kenya) Date of Death: 22 August 1978 Early Life Jomo Kenyatta was born Kamau to parents Moigoi and Wamboi -- his father was the chief of a small agricultural village in Gatundu Division, Kiambu District - one of five administrative districts in the Central Highlands of British East Africa. Moigoi died when Kamau was very young and he was, as custom dictated, adopted by his uncle Ngengi to become Kamau wa Ngengi. Ngengi also took over the chiefdom and Moigoi's wife Wamboi. When his mother died giving birth to a boy, James Moigoi, Kamau moved to live with his grandfather, Kungu Mangana, who was a noted medicine man2 in the area. Around the age of 10, suffering form a jigger infection, Kamau was taken to the Church of Scotland mission at Thogoto (about 12 miles north of Nairobi), where surgery was successfully carried out on both feet and one leg. continue reading below our video 10 Facts About the Titanic That You Don't Know Kamau was impressed by his first exposure to Europeans and determined to join the mission school. He ran away from home to become a resident pupil at the mission, studying amongst other subjects, the Bible, English, mathematics, and carpentry. He paid the school fees by working as a houseboy and cook for a nearby white settler. British East Africa During World War I In 1912, having completed his mission school education, Kamau became an apprentice carpenter. The following year he underwent initiation ceremonies ( including circumcision ) and became a member of the kehiomwere age group. In August of 1914 Kamau was baptized at the Church of Scotland mission, initially taking the name John Peter Kamau, but swiftly changing it to Johnson Kamau. Looking to the future, he departed the mission for Nairobi to seek employment. Initially, he worked as an apprentice carpenter on a sisal farm in Thika, under the tutelage of John Cook, who had been in charge of the building program at Thogoto. As World War I progressed, able-bodied Kikuyu were forced into work by the British authorities, to avoid this, Kamau moved to Narok, living amongst the Maasai, where he worked as a clerk for an Asian contractor. It was around this time that he took to wearing a traditional beaded belt known as a 'Kenyatta', a Swahili word which means 'light of Kenya'. Marriage and Family In 1919 he met and married his first wife Grace Wahu, according to Kikuyu tradition. When it became apparent that Grace was pregnant, his church elders ordered him to get married before a European magistrate and undertake the appropriate church rites. (The civil ceremony didn't take place until November 1922.) On 20 November 1920 Kamau's first son, Peter Muigai, was born. Amongst other jobs he undertook during this period, Kamau served as an interpreter in the Nairobi High Court and ran a store out of his Dagoretti (an area of Nairobi) home. Jomo Kenyatta In 1922 Kamau adopted the name Jomo (a Kikuyu name meaning 'burning spear') Kenyatta, and began working for the Nairobi Municipal Council Public Works Department (once again under John Cook who is the Water Superintendent) as a store clerk and water-meter reader. It was also the start of his political career -- the previous year Harry Thuku, a well educated and respected Kikuyu, had formed the East African Association, EAA, to campaign for the return of Kikuyu lands given over to white settlers when the country became the British Crown Colony of Kenya in 1920. Kenyatta joined the EAA in 1922. A Start in Politics In 1925 the EAA disbanded under governmental pressure, but its members came together again as the Kikuyu Central Association, KCA, as formed by James Beauttah and Joseph Kangethe. Kenyatta worked as editor of the KCA's journal between 1924 and 1929, and by 1928 he had become the KCA's general secretary (having given up his job with the municipality to make time). In May 1928 Kenyatta launched a monthly Kikuyu-language newspaper called Mwigwithania (Kikuyu word meaning 'he who brings together') which was intended to draw all sections of the Kikuyu together. The paper, supported by an Asian-owned printing press, had a mild and unassuming tone, and was tolerated by the British authorities. The Territory's Future in Question Worried about the future of its East African territories, the British government began toying with the idea of forming a union of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanganyika. Whilst this was fully supported by white settlers in the Central Highlands, it would be disastrous to Kikuyu interests -- it was believed that the settlers would be given self-government and that the rights of the Kikuyu would be ignored. In February 1929 Kenyatta was dispatched to London to represent the KCA in discussions with the Colonial Office, but the Secretary of State for the Colonies refused to meet him. Undeterred, Kenyatta wrote several letters to British papers, including The Times. Kenyatta's letter published in The Times in March 1930 set out five points: The security of land tenure and the demand for land taken by European settlers to be returned Improved educational opportunities for Black Africans The repeal of Hut and poll taxes Representation for Black Africans in the Legislative Council Freedom to pursue traditional customs (such as female genital mutilation) His letter concluded by saying that a failure to satisfy these points "must inevitably result in a dangerous explosion -- the one thing all sane men with to avoid". He returned to Kenya on 24 September 1930, landing at Mombassa. He had failed on his quest for all except one point, the right to develop independent educational institutions for Black Africans. Next > Part 3: From the Mau Mau Rebellion to Presidency Notes 1 Kenyatta maintained he did not remember the year of his birth. Many sources now cite 20 October 1891 as the correct date. 2 Kenyatta refers to his grandfather in his book Facing Mount Kenya as a seer and a magician.

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Which country's liberalization program was halted by the invasion of 600,000 Soviet troops in 1968?

United States Relations with Russia: The Cold War United States Relations with Russia: The Cold War 1945-1949 1945-1946: Creation of Eastern European People's Republics Between November 1945 and December 1946, a number of the coalition governments established in the Eastern European countries occupied by Soviet troops during the war transformed into Communist "People's Republics" with strong ties to the Soviet Union. These included Yugoslavia (November 1945); Albania (January 1946); and Bulgaria (December 1946). The United States and Britain considered this an abrogation of agreements made at the Yalta Conference. February 1946: George Kennan's Long Telegram and the Policy of Containment On February 22, 1946, George F. Kennan, the Charg� d'Affaires at the Moscow Embassy, sent a long telegram to the Department of State detailing his concerns about Soviet expansionism. Kennan argued that the United States would never be able to cooperate successfully with the Soviets, because they saw the West as an enemy and would engage in a protracted battle to limit Western power and increase Soviet domination. Kennan argued that the United States should lead the West in "containing" the Soviets by exerting counterforce at various geographical and political points of conflict. Kennan published a public version of this argument in the July 1947 issue of the journal Foreign Affairs. Kennan's articulations of the policy of containment had a major influence on American foreign policy toward the Soviet Union. March 1946: Churchill's Iron Curtain Speech During a speech at Fulton, Missouri, on March 5, 1946, visiting British Prime Minister Winston Churchill proclaimed that Europe was divided by an "Iron Curtain" as the nations of Eastern Europe fell increasingly under Soviet control. Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia all fell under Communist control by early 1948. Spring 1946: Soviet Troops in Iran Responding to Iranian requests to the United Nations, on March 5, 1946, the United States sent a note to Moscow protesting the retention of Soviet troops in Iran, where Stalin wanted to establish Soviet influence. On April 3, the Soviet Union announced that its troops would leave by May 6. March 1947: Truman Doctrine The Soviets aimed also to establish influence over Turkey and Greece in an effort to seek access to the Mediterranean. President Truman delivered a speech before Congress on March 12, 1947, asking for $400 million to provide assistance for Greece and Turkey in the hopes of bolstering pro-Western governments there. In this speech, he enunciated the Truman Doctrine that would serve to justify the U.S. Cold War policy of containment. This doctrine described the U.S. policy of supporting free peoples who resisted subjugation from armed minorities or outside pressures. June 1947: U.S. Efforts to Control Atomic Energy In June 1947, the United States submitted proposals, know as the Baruch Plan, for the creation of an International Atomic Energy Development Authority to control all phases of the development and use of atomic energy. The United States offered to destroy its atomic weapons after international control and inspection became effective. The Soviet Union rejected the proposal. June 5, 1947: Marshall's Offer of Economic Assistance In a speech given at Harvard University on June 5, 1947, Secretary of State George C. Marshall offered U.S. assistance for the postwar economic rehabilitation of all European nations, including those that had adopted Communist governments. The Soviet Union denounced the Marshall Plan, saying it would infringe upon European sovereignty. Western European nations accepted Marshall's offer, while the Eastern European states followed Moscow's lead. 1948-1949: Berlin Airlift In the summer of 1948, the Soviet Union cut off access to the Western sectors of Berlin, situated in the Soviet occupation zone of Germany. The Western powers organized a massive airlift to supply West Berlin, and organized a counter-blockade of the Soviet zone. On May 12, 1949, the Soviets lifted their blockade. April 1949: North Atlantic Treaty Organization On April 14, 1949, twelve Western nations signed the North Atlantic Treaty providing for mutual support in the event of a military attack on any of the parties to the treaty and established the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The original members of NATO were Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States. September-October 1949: Creation of the two Germanys Recognizing that the Soviets would not honor agreements to reunite the German zones of occupation, the Western powers moved in the fall of 1949 to establish the Federal Republic of Germany out of the Western zones of occupation. The Soviets countered by supporting the creation of the German Democratic Republic in their zone. Berlin remained divided. September 1949: Soviet Atomic Bomb On September 22, 1949, President Truman announced that the Soviet Union had detonated its first atomic bomb. 1950-1959 February 1950: Sino-Soviet Treaty Despite U.S. efforts, mainland China became a Communist People's Republic. The Soviets and the Chinese signed a Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship on February 14, 1950. April 1950: NSC-68 In April 1950, Truman signed National Security Council Paper 68 (NSC-68) outlining U.S. justifications for a rapid and massive U.S. military build-up. NSC-68 cited Soviet consolidation of power in Eastern Europe, Soviet expansionist tendencies, and the need for the West to contain the Soviet Union as the justifications for the United States to pursue a significant buildup of its conventional military and nuclear resources. 1950-1953: Korean War Following World War II, the United States administered the southern occupation zone in Korea, while the Soviets administered the northern zone. Plans to unify the two zones never materialized. On June 25, 1950, North Korean forces crossed the 38th parallel into South Korea. U.S.-led United Nations forces responded, and battled the North Korean and Communist Chinese armies. The Soviet Union supplied North Korea and China. On July 27, 1953, the warring parties concluded an armistice that restored the 38th parallel, but failed to unite North and South Korea. November 1952: U.S. Hydrogen Bomb On November 1, 1952, the United States announced it had successfully detonated a hydrogen bomb. March 1953: Stalin's Death The Soviet Union's hard-line leader, Joseph Stalin, died on March 5, 1953, and the Soviet Union entered a period of collective leadership under which a handful of leaders from within the Presidium of the Communist Party shared leadership responsibilities. First Secretary of the Communist Party, Nikita Khrushchev, ultimately consolidated power and became the de facto leader of the Soviet Union. August 1953: Soviet Hydrogen Bomb On August 8, 1953, the Soviet Union announced it had hydrogen bomb capabilities. August 1954: Atomic Energy Act President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Atomic Energy Act in August 1954 to authorize the international exchange of information on the peaceful uses of atomic energy, and endorsed the development of commercial nuclear power. May 1955: Creation of the Warsaw Pact In response to NATO actions in the West, including the rearming of West Germany and the expansion of the treaty organization, on May 1, 1955, the Soviet Union concluded a military defensive alliance known as the Warsaw Pact with Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. May 1955: Austrian State Treaty The United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and France signed the Austrian State Treaty on May 15, 1955. This officially ended the four-power occupation of Austria and enabled the Austrians, who had pledged to remain neutral, to receive diplomatic recognition as an independent nation. July 1955: Big Four Geneva Summit Eisenhower met with Soviet Premier Nicolai Bulganin, British Prime Minister Anthony Eden, and French Premier Edgar Faure at a summit in Geneva in July 1955. Eisenhower offered an "Open Skies" proposal, calling for a U.S.-Soviet exchange of military blueprints and mutual aerial inspection of one another's military installations. The participants also discussed disarmament, German reunification through free elections, European security, and the need for East-West cultural and scientific exchange. February 1956: Twentieth Congress of Soviet Communist Party At the Twentieth Party Congress of the Soviet Communist Party in February 1956, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev publicly denounced aspects of Stalin's regime, including Stalin's harsh political purges and his "cult of personality." Khrushchev also reversed Stalinist policy by urging "the peaceful coexistence between states with differing political and social systems." This marked the beginning of a brief loosening of the most stringent forms of censorship in the Soviet Union. June 1956: Polish Uprising Riots against the Communist regime in Poland broke out at Poznan in June 1956, after workers demonstrated for better social and economic conditions. The revolt led the Polish Communist leadership to allow some reforms. Autumn 1956: Suez Crisis After the United States reneged on a deal to finance the building of the Aswan Dam, Egypt seized and nationalized the Suez Canal, through which the West received its oil supplies. This led to Israeli, British, and French military action against an Egyptian military supplied by the Soviets in the fall of 1956. While Western Europe focused on the Middle East, the Soviets moved to squash anti-communist rebellions in Poland and Hungary. Eisenhower, fearing that the Soviets would provide large-scale assistance to Egypt, convinced Britain, France, and Israel to retreat. October-November 1956: Hungarian Uprising Anti-Soviet popular uprisings began in Budapest and spread throughout Hungary in the autumn of 1956. On November 2, Hungarian Premier Imre Nagy, who had already promised the Hungarians free elections, denounced the Warsaw Pact and asked for United Nations support. On November 4, Soviet forces moved into Hungary and suppressed the revolt. The United States sponsored UN resolutions condemning the Soviet invasion, and called for the immediate withdrawal of Soviet troops. The U.S. Government also took measures to assist the many refugees who fled Hungary following the invasion. 1957-1958: Sputnik and the Space Race On October 5, 1957, the Soviets beat the United States into space by successfully launching the first man-made earth satellite, Sputnik I, into orbit. A month later, the Soviets sent up another satellite, this time carrying a dog. The United States did not launch its first satellite, Explorer I, until January 31, 1958. U.S. politicians warned of the dangers of Soviet superiority in technology and science, and speculated that the Soviets might possess superior missile stockpiles. 1958: Suspension of Nuclear Tests Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko announced the suspension of Soviet nuclear weapons tests on March 31, 1958. On October 25, the United States and Great Britain agreed to suspend nuclear weapons testing for one year. Three-power talks on a more permanent ban of nuclear testing began at Geneva on October 31. November 1958: Khrushchev's Berlin Demands Motivated by fears that the West planned to arm West Germany with nuclear weapons, in November 1958, Khrushchev demanded the termination of the four-power occupation of Berlin. The Soviets also threatened to conclude a separate peace treaty with East Germany, giving Soviets control over access to Berlin, unless negotiations began within 6 months. September 1959: Khrushchev Visits the United States Following brief meetings with Eisenhower upon his arrival in Washington on September 15, 1959, Khrushchev embarked on a 10-day trip to New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco, farm communities in Iowa, and Pittsburgh, arranged to acquaint him with the American way of life. Eisenhower and Khrushchev then engaged in substantive talks for 2 days at Camp David. Khrushchev also visited Eisenhower's farm at Gettysburg. Just before he left, Khrushchev addressed the American people on national television. This was first visit to the United States of a Soviet leader since the establishment of U.S.-Soviet relations in 1933. September 1959: Khrushchev-Eisenhower Meeting at Camp David Khrushchev met with President Eisenhower at Camp David, on September 26-27, 1959. The two leaders agreed to expand exchanges and to remove the Soviet deadline for a Berlin settlement, but no progress was made on disarmament or the reunification of Germany. They agreed to meet again at a four-power summit in Paris in May 1960. December 1959: Antarctic Treaty On December 1, the United States, the Soviet Union, and ten other countries signed a treaty to internationalize and demilitarize the Antarctic continent. 1960-1969 May 1960: The U-2 Incident On May 1, 1960, the Soviets shot down an American U-2 reconnaissance jet flying over Soviet territory. Since June 1956, Eisenhower had approved secret overflights of Soviet territory, and gained valuable proof that the Soviets had not gained missile superiority over the Americans. Not knowing that the Soviets had captured the pilot and gotten a confession confirming the spy mission, Eisenhower claimed the aircraft was merely a weather plane. Khrushchev presented the pilot as proof that the American President had lied. May 1960: Paris Summit Eisenhower, Khrushchev, British Prime Minister Harold MacMillan, and French President Charles de Gaulle met from May 16-17, 1960, in Paris. However, the meetings collapsed when Khrushchev walked out after Eisenhower refused to apologize for the U-2 incident. May 1960: United States Unveils "Great Seal Bug" at the United Nations On May 26, 1960, U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. unveiled the Great Seal Bug before the UN Security Council to counter Soviet denunciations of American U-2 espionage. The Soviets had presented a replica of the Great Seal of the United States as a gift to Ambassador Averell Harriman in 1946. The gift hung in the U.S. Embassy for many years, until in 1952, during George F. Kennan's ambassadorship, U.S. security personnel discovered the listening device embedded inside the Great Seal. Lodge's unveiling of this Great Seal before the Security Council in 1960 provided proof that the Soviets also spied on the Americans, and undercut a Soviet resolution before the Security Council denouncing the United States for its U-2 espionage missions. June 1961: Vienna Meeting President John F. Kennedy and Khrushchev met in Vienna in June 1961, primarily to discuss the status of Berlin. Other topics of discussion included the conflict in Laos and disarmament. The leaders were unable to resolve the most vexing questions pertaining to Berlin, but agreed that further discussions on Laos should be continued at the Foreign Minister level. Summer 1961: Berlin Crisis In July 1961, the Soviets threatened to take decisive action on Berlin. Kennedy warned that the United States would not tolerate any changes in Berlin's status. He activated 150,000 reservists, and advised the American people of the danger of an attack, possibly even a nuclear attack. Both leaders announced an increase in their defense expenditures. East Germans fled in large numbers to West Germany. On August 13, Khrushchev sealed off East Berlin from the West by erecting the Berlin Wall on Soviet-controlled territory. October 18-29, 1962: Cuban Missile Crisis After receiving intelligence that the Soviet Union was placing medium-range ballistic nuclear missiles in Cuba, on October 14, 1962, President Kennedy announced a naval quarantine of Cuba to block further Soviet missile deliveries, and demanded the removal or dismantling of the missiles already in Cuba. On October 28, Khrushchev agreed to stop work on the Cuban missile sites and to remove the missiles that were already in place. In return, the United States pledged not to follow through on its threat to invade Cuba. June 1963: Establishment of the "Hotline" The United States and the Soviet Union signed a memorandum of understanding in Geneva in June 1963 to establish a direct communications link, or "hotline," between the two governments for use in a crisis. August 1963: Limited Test Ban Treaty In August 1963, the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty outlawing nuclear tests in the atmosphere, in outer space, and underwater. October 1964: Fall of Khrushchev Communist Party bureaucrats forced Khrushchev from power on October 14, 1964. Alexei Kosygin became Premier, and Leonid Brezhnev became First Secretary of the Communist Party. March 1965: U.S. Troops to Vietnam In March 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson committed the first U.S. combat ground troops to Vietnam to aid the South Vietnamese Government in its war against Soviet-assisted North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces. January 1967: Treaty on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space The United States and the Soviet Union signed the Treaty on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space on January 27, 1967. This agreement banned weapons of mass destruction from orbiting satellites, celestial bodies, or outer space. June 1967: Johnson and Kosygin Meeting Following Kosygin's visit to the United Nations, where he supported the Arab nations' proposals for ending the Middle East conflict in the aftermath of the June 1967 Arab-Israeli war, Johnson met with him in Glassboro, New Jersey that same month. The leaders discussed the Middle East, disarmament, and the Vietnam War. During the conference, the Soviet Union served as intermediary in conveying North Vietnamese willingness to negotiate in exchange for a halt to the U.S. bombing. July 1968: Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty On July 1, 1968, sixty-two nations, including the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, signed the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty, designed to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and encourage the peaceful uses of atomic energy. August 1968: Soviet Invasion of Czechoslovakia Soviet, Polish, East German, Bulgarian, and Hungarian troops invaded Czechoslovakia on August 20, 1968, and deposed the reformist government of Alexander Dubcek, who had begun a program of economic and political liberalization (the "Prague spring"). The United States co-sponsored a UN Security Council resolution condemning the invasion and calling for the prompt withdrawal of Warsaw Pact forces; it also suspended a number of U.S.-Soviet exchange agreements and delayed ratification of the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty. Brezhnev later justified the invasion with the assertion, known as the Brezhnev Doctrine, that when internal or external forces hostile to socialism sought to restore the capitalist order in any socialist state, all other socialist states had the right to intervene. November 1969: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks The United States and the Soviet Union held preliminary Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) in Helsinki on November 17, 1969. Formal SALT negotiations began in Vienna on April 16, 1970. September-October 1969: Soviet Submarine Base in Cuba In the fall of 1969, the United States protested the arrival of a Soviet flotilla and the construction of a Soviet submarine base at Cayo Alcatraz in the Bay of Cienfuegos, Cuba. After several diplomatic exchanges, Soviet Ambassador Anatoliy Dobrynin reaffirmed the 1962 understanding that Soviet offensive weapons would not be stationed in Cuba. 1970-1979 February 1971: Nuclear Weapons Ban on Seabed Sixty-three nations signed a treaty banning emplacement of nuclear weapons on the seabed in February 1971. The United States and the Soviet Union had presented a draft of the treaty to the UN Committee on Disarmament in Geneva on October 7, 1969. September 1971: Quadripartite Agreement on Berlin The United States, the Soviet Union, France, and Great Britain signed the Quadripartite Agreement on Berlin on September 3, 1971. They agreed to improvements in the Berlin situation, including unhindered movement of people and goods between the Western Sectors of Berlin and the Federal Republic of Germany. September 1971: Agreement to Reduce Risk of Nuclear War The United States and the Soviet Union signed an Agreement on Measures to Reduce the Risk of Outbreak of Nuclear War on September 30, 1971. It provided for nuclear safeguards, immediate notification of an unexplained nuclear detonation, and advance notice of missile launches. They also agreed to improve the hotline. May 1972: Moscow Summit President Richard M. Nixon, the first U.S. President to travel to Moscow, met with Brezhnev on May 22-30, 1972. The leaders signed the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty and the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I) Interim Agreement, both of which had been in negotiation in Helsinki and Vienna for many months. Nixon and Brezhnev also concluded agreements on public health; environmental cooperation; incidents at sea; exchanges in science, technology, education and culture; and a Declaration of Basic Principles of Mutual Relations. June 1973: Brezhnev-Nixon Meeting in the United States Brezhnev's visit to the United States resulted in 47 hours of meetings with Nixon in Washington, Camp David, and San Clemente from June 18-24, 1973. The two leaders signed nine accords, including an Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War and an Agreement on Basic Principles of Negotiations on the Further Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms. Other agreements signed at the summit dealt with scientific cooperation, agriculture, trade, and other bilateral issues. The joint communiqu� expressed "deep satisfaction" with the conclusion of the Paris Agreement on Vietnam, which had been signed the preceding January. October 1973: Force Reduction Meeting in Vienna The United States, the Soviet Union, and other NATO and Warsaw Pact nations met in Vienna in October 1973 to begin Mutual and Balanced Force Reduction (MBFR) negotiations to reduce conventional forces in Europe to equal and lower levels. June-July 1974: Moscow Summit The Watergate scandal and the President Nixon's imminent resignation overshadowed the Moscow Summit meeting in June and July, 1974, and limited expectations on both sides. Nixon and Brezhnev discussed arms control and several international and bilateral issues. They signed a protocol limiting each side to one ABM site apiece, instead of the two allowed in the 1972 ABM Treaty, and a Threshold Test Ban Treaty that limited the size of underground nuclear weapons tests. The United States never ratified the Test Ban Treaty because of concerns about its verifiability. The governments signed several other instruments addressing scientific cooperation, cultural exchanges, and other bilateral matters. Nixon and Brezhnev also agreed to explore the possibility of a 10-year time period for a SALT treaty, which opened the way for the Vladivostok accord a few months later. The communiqu� reaffirmed an agreement to hold regular meetings. November 1974: Vladivostok Meeting Discussions between President Gerald R. Ford and Brezhnev on November 23 and 24, 1974, focused on strategic arms limitations as well as on a number of bilateral and international issues, including the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) and the Middle East. Ford and Brezhnev issued a joint statement on strategic offensive arms (the Vladivostok Agreement) and a joint communiqu� calling for continuing efforts at arms limitation and the development of economic cooperation. The Vladivostok accord provided some of the basic elements of the SALT II Treaty. December 1974: Jackson-Vanik Amendment The U.S. Congress passed the Jackson‑Vanik Amendment to the Trade Reform Act, in December 1974. This made granting the Soviet Union non-discriminatory trade status contingent upon liberalized emigration. July 1975: Apollo-Soyuz Mission The United States and the Soviet Union conducted the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, a joint space effort culminating with a linking of the two crafts, in July 1975. July-August 1975: Helsinki CSCE Meetings In July and August 1975, during two sessions in Helsinki, immediately prior to and following the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Ford and Brezhnev attempted unsuccessfully to reach further agreement on strategic arms limitation. Differences between the two governments over cruise missiles and the Soviet Backfire bomber frustrated Ford's desires to strengthen cooperation between the two superpowers and to conclude a SALT II agreement. Ford and Brezhnev held discussions on other issues, including the Arab-Israeli conflict and the relationship between Soviet emigration policy and most-favored-nation trading status. June 1979: SALT II Agreements President Jimmy Carter and Brezhnev signed the SALT II Treaty at a summit in Vienna in June 1979. Carter and Brezhnev also discussed other arms control questions, including the continuation of the SALT process. They had wide‑ranging exchanges on human rights and trade, the Middle East, Afghanistan, Africa, China, and other regional issues. The two leaders also issued a joint statement of principles and basic guidelines for subsequent negotiations on the limitation of strategic arms. The United States never ratified the SALT II Treaty. June 1979: New Moscow Embassy After several years of negotiations, the United States and the Soviet Union contracted for a new U.S. Embassy complex in Moscow in June 1979. December 1979: NATO Action Against Soviet SS-20 Deployments On December 20, 1979, NATO unanimously adopted a dual track strategy to counter Soviet SS-20 missile deployments, which became operational in 1977. The strategy called for arms negotiations with the Soviet Union to restore the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) balance at the lowest possible level, and the modernization of NATO INF forces through the deployment of ground-launched cruise missiles and Pershing IIs beginning in December 1983. December 1979: Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan on December 26, 1979. The United States immediately condemned the action, and President Carter asked the Senate to delay consideration of SALT II. Washington's responses to the invasion included deferral of most cultural and economic exchanges, cancellation of export licenses for high technology items, restriction of Soviet fishing rights in U.S. waters, suspension of grain exports, and a boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics. 1980-1985 May 1980: Gromyko-Muskie Meeting Geneva After 8 months of no high level U.S.-Soviet contact, Secretary of State Edmund Muskie and Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko met briefly in Geneva in May 1980. July-August 1980: Olympic Boycott The United States and 63 other nations boycotted the XXII Olympics, which were held in Moscow in the summer of 1980. September 1980: Talks on Medium Range Missiles Muskie and Gromyko met in New York on September 25, 1980. They agreed to begin preliminary talks on medium range missiles, and affirmed their neutrality in the Iran-Iraq War. April 1981: Lifting of Embargo In April 1981, President Ronald Reagan announced the lifting of the embargo on exports of grain to the Soviet Union imposed on February 7, 1980. November 1981: Strategic Arms Reduction Proposal On November 18, 1981, President Reagan proposed renewed arms control negotiations focusing on major reductions in all types of arms, to be called Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START). He called for bilateral talks between the United States and the Soviet Union on Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces. Reagan announced his Zero-Zero proposal under which the United States and NATO would cancel deployment of Pershing II and ground-launched cruise missiles in Western Europe if the Soviets would dismantle its SS-20, SS-4, and SS-5 missiles. November 1981: Intermediate Range Nuclear Force Negotiations Intermediate Range Nuclear Force (INF) negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union began in Geneva on November 30, 1981. The United States formally presented its Zero-Zero proposal. December 1981: Martial Law in Poland Authorities declared martial law in Poland on December 13, 1981. On December 29, the United States issued sanctions against the Polish Government and the Soviet Union for the imposition of martial law. When Secretary of State Alexander Haig met Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko in Geneva the following month, Gromyko refused to discuss the Polish situation. February-March 1982: Arms Reductions Refused by United States In early 1982, Brezhnev proposed a two-thirds cut in U.S. and Soviet medium-range nuclear weapons arsenals in Europe by 1990. The United States officially rejected the plan on February 10. On March 16, Brezhnev announced that the Soviet Union was suspending deployment of new nuclear weapons in Russia, and threatened retaliation if the United States installed new medium-range missiles in Western Europe. October 1982: Grain Embargo Lifted At bilateral talks in Vienna in October 1982, the United States announced that it would sell 23 metric tons of grain to the Soviet Union. November 1982: Brezhnev's Funeral Brezhnev died on November 10, 1982. Vice President George H.W. Bush and Secretary of State George Shultz led a U.S. delegation to Moscow for Brezhnev's funeral on November 15, and met briefly with new Soviet leader Yuri Andropov. January 1983: Reagan's Open Letter to Europe While in Berlin in January, 1983, Vice President Bush read an "open letter" to Europe from President Reagan, in which Reagan proposed to Andropov "that he and I meet wherever and whenever he wants in order to sign an agreement banning U.S. and Soviet intermediate-range land-based nuclear missile weapons from the face of the earth." March 1983: Announcement of Strategic Defense Initiative In a national address on March 23, 1983, President Reagan announced his intention to commit the United States to a research program called the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) to study the feasibility of defensive measures against nuclear missiles. Its stated purpose was to maintain the peace rather than rely solely on the threat of retaliation and the fear of mutual destruction. March 1983: INF Talks On March 29, 1983, the United States proposed an Interim Agreement whereby NATO would reduce its planned deployment of longer-range INF (LRINF) missiles to a level between zero and 572, if the Soviets cut their worldwide deployment of LRINF missiles to an equal level. The U.S. delegation presented a draft treaty embodying this proposal on May 19. April 1983: Lifting of Grain Negotiations Ban On April 22, 1983, President Reagan ended the ban on negotiations regarding Soviet long-term purchases of U.S. grain. September 1983: Downing of Korean Airlines Flight 007 The Soviet Union shot down a commercial airliner, Korean Airlines Flight 007, on September 1, 1983, after it strayed into Soviet airspace. This unfortunate incident was part of discussions between U.S. Secretary of State George Shultz and Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko at their meetings at the Madrid Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe seven days later. September 1983: INF Talks At the INF talks in September 1983, the United States submitted three new elements to its proposed interim agreement, in which it (1) would not offset all Soviet global LRINF deployments with U.S. deployments in Europe (it would retain the right, however, to deploy elsewhere to reach an equal global ceiling); (2) would be prepared to apportion the reductions of Pershing II and ground-launched cruise missiles in an appropriate manner; and (3) would consider proposals involving land-based aircraft. October 1983: START Talks In October 1983, President Reagan announced that at the START negotiations, the United States would propose a mutual guaranteed build-down of strategic weapons, whereby older weapons would be reduced as newer ones were deployed. November 1983: Breakdown of INF Talks On November 15, 1983, the United States proposed that the two sides agree to an equal global ceiling of 420 LRINF warheads, although it continued to express a preference for the elimination of such missiles. However, the Soviets left the talks on November 23, in response to the initiation of U.S. LRINF deployments in Western Europe; the United States offered to resume the talks whenever the Soviets wished to return. December 1983: Breakdown of START Negotiations The Soviet Union declined to agree to a resumption date for the START negotiations following the completion of the fifth round of talks in December 1983. February 1984: Death of Soviet Leader General Secretary Andropov died on February 9, 1984. Politburo member Konstantin Chernenko succeeded him. March 1984: U.S.S. Kitty Hawk Incident The U.S. aircraft carrier Kitty Hawk collided with a Soviet nuclear powered submarine in the Sea of Japan on March 21, 1984, causing minor damage. The United States charged that the submarine violated the 1972 U.S.-Soviet agreement on naval maneuvers. May 1984: Soviet Olympic Boycott In May the Soviet Union announced that it would not participate in the 1984 summer Olympic Games in Los Angeles, alleging poor U.S. security arrangements. July 1984: Improvements to the Hotline The United States and the Soviet Union initialed a diplomatic note in Washington on July 17, 1984, agreeing to make technical improvements to the 21-year-old Direct Communications Link, or "hotline," between Washington and Moscow. September 1984: Proposal for Future Arms Control Talks At the United Nations, Reagan proposed a broad "umbrella" framework for talks between the United States and the Soviet Union on arms control issues. This framework would cover: a ban on chemical weapons, real force reductions at the Mutual and Balanced Force Reduction (MBFR) talks, measures to enhance mutual confidence at the Conference on Confidence and Security-Building Measures and Disarmament in Europe (CDE), improvements in verification, close cooperation to strengthen international institutions and practices for nonproliferation of nuclear weapons, and a substantial reduction in U.S. and Soviet nuclear arsenals. On September 28, President Reagan and Foreign Minister Gromyko met at the White House to discuss arms control issues. January 1985: Geneva Meeting Secretary of State Shultz and Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko met in Geneva in January 1985 to set an agenda for comprehensive arms control negotiations. In a joint U.S.-Soviet statement, they announced an agreement to hold new negotiations to consider strategic nuclear arms, INF, and space issues. March 1985: Death of Chernenko Following the death of General Secretary Konstantin Chernenko on March 10, 1985, Politburo member Mikhail Gorbachev became the new General Secretary of the Soviet Union. Andrei Gromyko became President. March 1985: Arms Negotiations Resumed In Geneva, the United States and the Soviet Union began negotiations on space and nuclear arms in March 1985. The United States sought to reduce the number of offensive strategic arms, eliminate or reduce LRINF, and reverse the erosion of the 1972 ABM Treaty. The United States also wanted to discuss the idea that both sides should move away from deterrence based solely on the threat of massive nuclear retaliation, and towards increased reliance on non-threatening defenses. May 1985: New Bilateral Trade Agreements The United States and the Soviet Union announced new bilateral trade agreements and a U.S.-Soviet maritime pact in May 1985. November 1985: Geneva Summit In a summit in Geneva in November 1985, President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev discussed a four-part agenda that focused on: human rights, regional issues, bilateral matters, and arms control. The President pressed for improvement in Soviet human rights practices, the removal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan, and the resolution of regional conflicts in a number of countries, including Cambodia, Angola, Ethiopia, and Nicaragua. In the arms control area, both leaders called for early progress on reductions in strategic, offensive nuclear forces. Following discussions on strategic defense, they agreed to study the establishment of Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers, and to accelerate efforts to conclude an effective and verifiable treaty banning chemical weapons. They endorsed regular exchanges between senior U.S. and Soviet officials. Gorbachev accepted Reagan's invitation to visit the United States in 1986, and Reagan agreed to visit the Soviet Union the following year. At the end of the meeting, the United States and the Soviet Union signed the General Agreement on Contacts, Exchanges, and Cooperation in Scientific, Technical, Educational, Cultural, and Other Fields, and announced that the two countries would resume civil air service. December 1985: Mutual and Balanced Force Reduction Proposal The United States and its NATO Allies presented a new proposal at the MBFR talks in Vienna in December 1985, offering to negotiate a joint reduction in U.S.-Soviet force levels in Central Europe and a subsequent 3-year "collective no-increase commitment" on Eastern and Western forces. 1986-1989 January 1986: Televised Greetings President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev exchanged New Year's greetings to the peoples of the Soviet Union and the United States in two televised 5-minute statements in January 1986. March 1986: Nuclear Test Moratorium Proposed Gorbachev announced in March 1986 that the Soviet Union would continue its nuclear test moratorium if the United States also refrained from staging tests. Reagan rejected the moratorium on March 14, and announced a detailed proposal for improving nuclear test verification. The Soviet Union rejected the U.S. proposal. April 1986: Chernobyl Disaster On April 26, 1986, an explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, 60 miles north of Kiev, led to the worst nuclear accident in history. U.S. medical personnel provided assistance to the victims. April 1986: Commercial Flights Resumed The United States resumed commercial flights between the United States and the Soviet Union in April 1986. These flights had been halted in 1978. May 1986: Nuclear Risk Reduction U.S. and Soviet negotiators met in Geneva on May 5-6, 1986, to discuss establishing "Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers" in Washington and Moscow to lessen the chance of misunderstandings that could lead to accidental nuclear war. They agreed to meet again on August 24-25. October 1986: Reykjavik Summit President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev met on October 11-12, 1986, in Reykjavik, to continue their discussions on the four points outlined at Geneva in November: human rights, regional conflicts, bilateral cooperation, and arms control. The two reached several arms control agreements in principle, including a formula for 50 percent reductions in strategic nuclear offensive forces; a reduction to a 100 warhead global ceiling for longer range INF missiles, with no such missiles in Europe; and constraints on shorter-range INF missile systems. However, their meeting ended without an accord, in part because Gorbachev insisted that further progress on INF and START be linked to restrictions on the U.S. Strategic Defense Initiative. October 1986: START Proposal In October 1986, the United States presented a new START proposal that incorporated the agreements reached at Reykjavik. 1987: Nuclear and Space Talks Round VI of the Nuclear and Space Talks in Geneva began on January 15, 1987. The United States proposed drafts on INF forces and Defense and Space, which included the right to withdraw from the ABM Treaty for reasons of supreme national interest. On February 28, Gorbachev announced that the Soviet Union was prepared to sign an agreement to eliminate Soviet and U.S. INF missiles in Europe within 5 years. On March 3, Reagan instructed U.S. negotiators in Geneva to present a U.S. draft INF treaty. April 1987: Discovery of Electronic Listening Devices at U.S. Embassy Reagan administration officials reported that the U.S. Embassy in Moscow had been penetrated by electronic listening devices and would no longer transmit sensitive messages from Embassy facilities. On April 8, 1987, Reagan ordered the Intelligence Review Board to assess the extent of Soviet bugging in the new U.S. Embassy in Moscow to determine whether it should be destroyed or rebuilt. May 1987: Agreement on Nuclear Risk Reduction On May 4, 1987, U.S. and Soviet negotiators in Geneva reached an agreement on a draft joint text to establish Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers in Washington and Moscow. May 1987: Draft START Treaty On May 8, 1987, the United States presented a draft START treaty in Geneva that proposed the reduction of U.S. and Soviet strategic nuclear arms by 50 percent. July 1987: Soviet Draft Treaty In response to the U.S. draft treaty presented on May 8, in July 1987, the Soviet Union presented a detailed draft treaty to reduce strategic nuclear arms. The Soviet proposal differed from that of the United States on several points, including no specific limits on warheads. December 1987: Washington Summit President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev met in Washington in December, 1987, to continue discussions on the ongoing four-part U.S.-Soviet agenda begun at Geneva in 1985. The U.S. and Soviet leaders discussed human rights, increasing bilateral exchanges, cooperation on environmental matters, and trade expansion. They held wide-ranging talks on regional issues including Afghanistan, the Iran-Iraq War, Central America, southern Africa, the Middle East, and Cambodia. The two leaders signed the Treaty Between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the Elimination of Their Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Missiles. They instructed their negotiators at the Geneva Nuclear and Space Talks to intensify efforts to complete a Treaty on the Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms to implement the principle of a 50 percent reduction in these arms, which had been agreed upon at the Reykjavik meeting. The leaders also instructed their negotiators to work out a new and separate treaty on defense and space issues that would commit both sides to observe the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, as signed in 1972. December 1987: Gorbachev, Man of Year Time Magazine selected Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev as "The Man of the Year" for 1987. May-June 1988: Moscow Summit The Moscow Summit in May-June 1988 saw wide-ranging discussion between Reagan and Gorbachev of regional questions, including the Middle East, the Iran-Iraq War, southern Africa, the Horn of Africa, Central America, Cambodia, the Korean Peninsula, and Afghanistan, as well as other issues. The two leaders exchanged and signed ratification documents on the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, which the Supreme Soviet and the U.S. Senate had approved on May 23 and 27, respectively. The two leaders also discussed nuclear nonproliferation; the Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers established in Moscow and Washington; the status of ongoing negotiations toward a comprehensive, effectively verifiable, and truly global ban on chemical weapons; and the status of conventional forces negotiations. Secretary Shultz and Soviet Foreign Minister Shevardnadze also concluded separate agreements, two of them related to arms control: the agreement on Advanced Notification of Strategic Ballistic Missile Launches and the Joint Verification Experiment agreement on nuclear testing. The seven other agreements covered a range of issues, such as expansion of U.S.-Soviet cultural and educational exchanges, U.S.-Soviet cooperation on peaceful uses of atomic power and on space exploration, maritime search and rescue, fisheries, transportation technology, and radio navigation. June 1988: Communist Party of the Soviet Union's XIXth Party Conference General Secretary of the Communist Party Gorbachev announced major political reforms for the Soviet Union in June 1988, at the Party's XIXth Party Conference. These included introducing a new executive president and a new legislative element to be called the Congress of People's Deputies. In instituting these reforms, Gorbachev aimed to reduce party control of the government. December 1988: New York Meeting President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev met on Governor's Island in New York harbor in December 1988, while the Soviet leader was visiting New York City to address the United Nations General Assembly. March 1989: Vienna Meeting Secretary of State James A. Baker III and Soviet Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze, meeting in Vienna in March 1989, discussed human rights, arms control, and regional conflicts. Secretary Baker expressed hope for the success of Soviet reforms. March 15, 1989: Gorbachev Elected President The Soviet people elected Mikhail Gorbachev to be President under the new political system on March 15, 1989. May 1989: Secretary Baker's Visit to Moscow During Secretary Baker's visit to Moscow in May 1989, U.S. and Soviet officials discussed regional problems (Central America, Afghanistan, and the Middle East), human rights, bilateral matters, and transnational questions. They agreed on dates for resuming bilateral arms talks. May 1989: President Bush's Speech on the Soviet Union In a public address on May 12, 1989, President George H.W. Bush reaffirmed the U.S. desire for Soviet economic reform to succeed, and said that the United States sought the integration of the Soviet Union into the community of nations. He proposed regular surveillance flights over NATO and Warsaw Pact territories (Open Skies) and offered improved trade relations if the Soviet Union relaxed its emigration laws. June 1989: U.S.-Soviet Military Agreement In Moscow in June 1989, the United States and the Soviet Union signed an agreement designed to prevent dangerous military activities. September 1989: Baker and Shevardnadze Meeting Secretary Baker and Foreign Minister Shevardnadze met in Wyoming in September 1989. They released a detailed joint statement covering the full U.S.-Soviet agenda and signed several agreements on arms control verification and notification procedures. They signed several bilateral agreements concerning land and sea passage between the United States and the Soviet Union. June-November 1989: Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe Shortly after Poland's electorate voted the Communists out of government in June 1989, Gorbachev announced that the Soviet Union would not interfere with the internal affairs of the Eastern European countries. By October, Hungary and Czechoslovakia followed Poland's example, and, on November 9, the East German Government opened the Berlin Wall. December 1989: U.S. and Soviet Leaders Met at Malta During a shipboard summit meeting near Valletta, Malta, in December 1989, Presidents Bush and Gorbachev set a series of priorities to guide preparations for the next summit. They agreed to seek an accelerated conclusion to nuclear and conventional arms agreements, and discussed economic and commercial relations and regional conflicts. President Bush offered ideas for technical cooperation, and proposed negotiating a trade agreement that would lift the Jackson-Vanik restriction on most-favored-nation status for the Soviet Union, provided the Soviet Government enacted a new law on emigration. They announced that a full summit would take place in the United States in June 1990.   

Czechoslovakia

Which Axis Power changed sides during World War II, declaring war on Germany in October 1943?

History of Hungary For many months after the creation of the republic, Hungary was on the verge of bankruptcy. Lack of foodstuffs, inflated prices, the damaged transport system, and other economic dislocations severely impeded national recovery. Consolidation of Power In January 1947 some of the leaders of the Small Landholders' party were charged with conspiring to overthrow the republic and were arrested by the Communists. Premier Nagy was forced to resign in May; he was succeeded by another member of the Small Landholders' party, Lajos Dinnyés. Officers suspected of disloyalty to the Communists were purged from the army. In July the national legislature was dissolved and in August elections for a new parliament were held. Although the Communists won only 22 percent of the votes, they dominated the coalition government formed by Dinnyés. Under coercion, the Social Democratic party in 1948 amalgamated with the Communist party, forming the Hungarian Workers' party. A purge of the new party early in 1949 further consolidated the Communists' power. In May 1949 parliamentary elections were held again, and this time the voters were presented with a single slate consisting only of Communists and their supporters. In August the assembly adopted a constitution, establishing the Hungarian People's Republic. Economic Transformation Meanwhile, the transformation of Hungary in accord with Communist policies had begun. Treaties of friendship and cooperation with the USSR and other Communist countries were concluded. Most church schools were nationalized, and hundreds of priests and nuns who opposed the action were arrested; József Cardinal Mindszenty was arrested, tried, and early in 1949 sentenced to life imprisonment. Many industries were also nationalized. Peasants who could not be persuaded to collectivize had their lands confiscated and turned over to the collective farms. Thousands of opponents of the Communist regime were sentenced to labor camps. Following the death of Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin in 1953 the Hungarian government liberalized some of its policies. Mátyás Rákosi, who had become prime minister in 1952, retained his position as Communist party chief, but was succeeded as premier by Imre Nagy. A new, less rigid economic program was launched, and the government granted amnesties to some political prisoners and abolished internment camps. Relations with other Communist countries remained close, however. Hungary joined the USSR and other Eastern European Communist countries in forming the Warsaw Pact for mutual defense and in enlarging the functions of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON). Indications that the period of liberalization was coming to an end appeared in April 1955, when Nagy was dismissed from the premiership and expelled from the party because of alleged anti-Soviet nationalism and failure to follow the pattern of the Soviet Union in his policies. He was succeeded by András Hegedüs, a protégé of Rákosi. Ernö Gerö, another pro-Soviet, became party secretary. But following the denunciation of Stalin by the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev in 1956, government policies were again softened. The Revolt of 1956 Popular discontent was mounting, however, and opponents of the government drew encouragement from the Polish defiance of the Soviet Union manifest in 1956. Students demonstrated against compulsory courses in the Russian language and in Marxism-Leninism and, along with the Writers' Union, expressed their sympathy with the anti-Soviet movement in Poland. Workers joined these groups in demanding the reinstatement of Nagy as premier. On October 23 Premier Hegedüs, unable to control the demonstrations, called for help from troops of the Soviet occupying force. The Workers' party stepped in and replaced Hegedüs with Nagy, and Gerö with János Kádár , who had previously been jailed as a nationalist. Nagy sided with the demonstrators, announcing that the one-party system would be discontinued and free elections held. He promised economic reforms, freed Cardinal Mindszenty, demanded the withdrawal of Soviet forces, and, denouncing the Warsaw Pact, proclaimed Hungary a neutral state. The USSR promised concessions, but demonstrations continued. In early November Soviet troops and tanks suppressed the insurgents. Hundreds of Hungarians were executed, thousands more were imprisoned, and nearly 200,000 fled the country. The Kádár Regime A new Communist dictatorship was set up, with Kádár as premier and head of the renamed Hungarian Socialist Workers' party (HSWP). Moscow promptly promised $250 million in aid and full support. Punishment of insurgents continued through 1957 and 1958, and thousands were deported to the USSR. Nagy and many of his associates were executed. Cardinal Mindszenty took refuge in the U.S. legation in Budapest, where he remained until he was permitted to leave the country in 1971. Nagy's promise of free elections was repudiated. Kádár remained firmly in control for more than three decades, his power base being the general secretaryship of the party, although he held the premier's office intermittently. The strict controls imposed after the 1956 uprising were relaxed somewhat beginning in 1967. In the general elections held in March that year opposing candidates were permitted to run in certain parliamentary and local contests, although they had to be approved by the regime. The government remained committed to Moscow, joining in the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia. In 1968 the New Economic Mechanism (NEM) was introduced. An important new departure, the NEM called for much less central control of the economy and greater freedom for individual plant managers. Profitability, rather than the attainment of quotas, was made the chief criterion for judging the performance of a factory. After five years the NEM appeared to be a success, although a slight slowdown had occurred in the industrial growth rate. In the early 1970s Hungary increased its trade and cultural contacts with non-Communist countries. In 1972 Hungary signed a consular convention with the United States, and in 1973 it began negotiations with West Germany that aimed at establishing normal diplomatic relations. Relations with the Roman Catholic church also improved; in 1974 the Vatican officially removed Cardinal Mindszenty as archbishop of Esztergom. Relations with the West continued to improve and trade to increase throughout the 1970s. The economy was allowed to operate partly according to free market forces to the evident gain of the general populace. By the early 1980s, however, inflation was rising, prompting Kádár to express public concern and to effect some changes in the political leadership. The regime remained careful not to antagonize the USSR, however, and fully supported the Soviet hard line against liberalization in Poland in 1981 and 1982. An economic downturn in the mid-1980s led to the imposition of an austerity program, a mass demonstration for freedom of speech, and civil reforms, and, in May 1988, to the replacement of Kádár as general secretary. The new secretary, Károly Grósz, had been prime minister since June 1987; in that post he had initiated a tough economic program that included levying new taxes, cutting subsidies, and encouraging the small private sector. As further signs of liberalization, the government relaxed censorship laws, allowed the formation of independent political groups, and legalized the right to strike and to demonstrate. In 1989 the government provided a hero's burial for Imre Nagy, eased restrictions on emigration, revised the constitution to provide for a democratic multiparty system, and changed the country's name from the People's Republic of Hungary to the Republic of Hungary. In March and April 1990 a coalition of center-right parties won a parliamentary majority in the nation's first free legislative elections in 45 years. After a referendum providing for direct presidential elections failed because of a low turnout, the National Assembly chose a writer, Árpád Göncz, as head of state. In 1990 Hungary became the first Eastern European nation to join the Council of Europe , and in 1991 and 1992 the government signed declarations of cooperation with Poland, Czechoslovakia, Russia, and Ukraine. Relations with Romania and Czechoslovakia were strained because of the treatment of Hungarian minorities in those countries, including some 1.7 million in Romania. By mid-1992, about 100,000 refugees from the former Yugoslavia had fled to Hungary due to war there, and the government appealed for assistance from western European nations. In parliamentary elections in May 1994, the Hungarian Socialist party (formerly the Hungarian Socialist Workers' party) regained a majority, and named its leader, Gyula Horn, as its choice for prime minister when the new parliament convened in July. In an effort to end disputes with neighboring Slovakia and Romania, Horn offered to drop Hungarian claims on Slovakian and Romanian territory in return for a guarantee of safety for ethnic Hungarians living in those countries. In July 1994, Horn issued an official apology for Hungary's role in the deaths of 600,000 Hungarian Jews in the Holocaust. In 1995 Hungary was engaged in negotiations over the status of ethnic Hungarian minorities in Slovakia and Romania, and with Slovakia concerning the Gabcíkovo hydroelectric project. Hungary has claimed that the Gabcíkovo-Nagymaros dam is harmful to the environment because it has changed the flow of the Danube. In January 1995, Slovakia agreed to release more water from the reservoir.

i don't know

Who was the first democratically elected Marxist head of state?

BBC ON THIS DAY | 11 | 1973: President overthrown in Chile coup About This Site | Text Only 1973: President overthrown in Chile coup President Salvador Allende of Chile, the world's first democratically-elected Marxist head of state, has died in a revolt led by army leaders. One report says the 64-year-old leader committed suicide rather than surrender to the commanders of the armed forces and the paramilitary police. Air Force planes attacked the presidential palace with rockets and bombs and tanks opened fire after President Allende rejected an initial demand for his resignation. According to military sources, Dr Allende asked for a five-minute ceasefire in order to resign. But the armed forces said that was impossible because snipers loyal to the president were operating from buildings near the presidential palace. Economic crisis At least 17 bombs were dropped in an attack on the palace, one of which scored a direct hit. Martial law has been declared throughout the country, a curfew has been imposed and the carrying of guns has been banned. Although Dr Allende called on his followers to support him, there appeared to be little organised resistance. Troops blasted buildings in the city centre around the presidential palace in an attempt to dislodge pro-Allende snipers. Helicopters repeatedly machine-gunned the top floors of buildings near the British Embassy. Bullets ripped through the windows of the embassy - but no-one was reported hurt. Thousands of workers are said to be marching on Santiago from the north, despite a warning any resistance would be met with air and ground fire. Opposition to President Allende has been growing for months. He was elected to power in 1970 with only 36% of the vote. He has not held a majority in Congress and gradually his authority has been eroded. His attempts to re-structure the nation's economy have led to soaring inflation and food shortages. A prolonged strike by lorry drivers who opposed his plans for nationalisation has recently been joined by shopkeepers angry they have nothing to sell. President Allende brought senior army officers into his government last month in an attempt to head off a revolt. But the final crunch came three days ago when the two major opposition parties called for the President's resignation.

Salvador Allende

What was the name of the basalt slab that became the key for deciphering ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics?

Salvador Allende Salvador Allende ▼ Primary Sources ▼ Salvador Allende Salvador Allende was born in Valparaiso, Chile , in 1903. As a medical student he became involved in radical politics and he was arrested several times while at university. In 1933 Allende helped to found the Chilean Socialist Party , a Marxist organization that was opposed to the Soviet Union influenced Communist Party . Allende was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1937 and served in the government of Pedro Aguirre Cerda as Minister of Health (1939-41). He was also senator between 1945 and 1970. Allende was an unsuccessful candidate for president in 1952, 1958 and 1964. When he was elected as president in 1970 he became the first Marxist to gain power in a free democratic election. The new government faced serious economic problems. Inflation was running at 30 per cent and over 20 per cent of the male adult population were unemployed. It was estimated that half of the children under 15 suffered from malnutrition. Allende's decide to take action to redistribute wealth and land in Chile . Wage increases of around 40 per cent were introduced. At the same time companies were not allowed to increase prices. The copper industry was nationalized. So also were the banks. Allende also restored diplomatic relations with Cuba , China and the German Democratic Republic . The CIA arranged for Michael V. Townley to be sent to Chile under the alias of Kenneth W. Enyart. He was accompanied by Aldo Vera Serafin of the Secret Army Organization (SAO). Townley now came under the control of David Atlee Phillips who had been asked to lead a special task force assigned to remove Allende. The CIA attempted to persuade Chile's Chief of Staff General Rene Schneider , to overthrow Allende. He refused and on 22nd October, 1970, his car was ambushed. Schneider drew a gun to defend himself, and was shot point-blank several times. He was rushed to hospital, but he died three days later. Military courts in Chile found that Schneider's death was caused by two military groups, one led by Roberto Viaux and the other by Camilo Valenzuela . It was claimed that the CIA was providing support for both groups. Allende's attempts to build a socialist society was opposed by business interests. Later, Henry Kissinger admitted that in September 1970, President Richard Nixon ordered him to organize a coup against Allende's government. A CIA document written just after Allende was elected said: "It is firm and continuing policy that Allende be overthrown by a coup" and "it is imperative that these actions be implemented clandestinely and securely so that the USG (United States government) and American hand be well hidden." David Atlee Phillips set Michael V. Townley the task of organizing two paramilitary action groups Orden y Libertad (Order and Freedom) and Protecion Comunal y Soberania (Common Protection and Sovereignty). Townley also established an arson squad that started several fires in Santiago. Townley also mounted a smear campaign against General Carlos Prats , the head of the Chilean Army. Prats resigned on 21st August, 1973. On 11th September, 1973, a military coup removed Allende's government from power. Salvador Allende died in the fighting in the presidential palace in Santiago. General Augusto Pinochet replaced Allende as president. (1) Larry Rohter, New York Times (13th February, 2000) With a trial of General Augusto Pinochet increasingly unlikely here, victims of the Chilean military's 17-year dictatorship are now pressing legal actions in both Chilean and American courts against Henry A. Kissinger and other Nixon administration officials who supported plots to overthrow Salvador Allende Gossens, the Socialist president, in the early 1970's. In perhaps the most prominent of the cases, an investigating judge here has formally asked Mr. Kissinger, a former national security adviser and secretary of state, and Nathaniel Davis, the American ambassador to Chile at the time, to respond to questions about the killing of an American citizen, Charles Horman, after the deadly military coup that brought General Pinochet to power on Sept. 11, 1973. General Pinochet, now 85, ruled Chile until 1990. He was arrested in London in 1998 on a Spanish warrant charging him with human rights violations. After 16 months in custody, General Pinochet was released by Britain because of his declining health. Although he was arrested in Santiago in 2000, he was ruled mentally incompetent to stand trial. The death of Mr. Horman, a filmmaker and journalist, was the subject of the 1982 movie "Missing." A civil suit that his widow, Joyce Horman, filed in the United States was withdrawn after she could not obtain access to relevant American government documents. But the initiation of legal action here against General Pinochet and the declassification of some American documents led her to file a new suit here 15 months ago. William Rogers, Mr. Kissinger's lawyer, said in a letter that because the investigations in Chile and elsewhere related to Mr. Kissinger "in his capacity as secretary of state," the Department of State should respond to the issues that have been raised. He added that Mr. Kissinger is willing to "contribute what he can from his memory of those distant events," but did not say how or where that would occur. Relatives of General René Schneider, commander of the Chilean Armed Forces when he was assassinated in Oct. 1970 by other military officers, have taken a different approach than Mrs. Horman. Alleging summary execution, assault and civil rights violations, they filed a $3 million civil suit in Washington last fall against Mr. Kissinger, Richard M. Helms, the former director of the Central Intelligence Agency, and other Nixon-era officials who, according to declassified United States documents, were involved in plotting a military coup to keep Mr. Allende from power. In his books, Mr. Kissinger has acknowledged that he initially followed Mr. Nixon's orders in Sept. 1970 to organize a coup, but he also says that he ordered the effort shut down a month later. The government documents, however, indicate that the C.I.A. continued to encourage a coup here and also provided money to military officers who had been jailed for General Schneider's death. "My father was neither for or against Allende, but a constitutionalist who believed that the winner of the election should take office," René Schneider Jr. said. "That made him an obstacle to Mr. Kissinger and the Nixon government, and so they conspired with generals here to carry out the attack on my father and to plot a coup attempt." In another action, human rights lawyers here have filed a criminal complaint against Mr. Kissinger and other American officials, accusing them of helping organize the covert regional program of political repression called Operation Condor. As part of that plan, right-wing military dictatorships in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay coordinated efforts throughout the 1970's to kidnap and kill hundreds of their exiled political opponents. (2) Stansfield Turner , Secrecy and Democracy (1985) The most adverse exposure was a series of revelations about more than ten years of CIA interference in Chile, from 1963 to 1973. This was one of the most massive campaigns in US intelligence annals. The earliest effort was an attempt to shape the outcome of the 1964 presidential election in Chile, when the CIA underwrote more than half of the expenses of the Christian Democratic Party's campaign. This support was directed at defeating the communist candidate, Salvador Allende. It was probably not known to the Christian Democratic candidate, Eduardo Frei. In addition to funding Frei, the CIA waged an extensive anticommunist propaganda campaign, using posters, the radio, films, pamphlets, and the press, to convince the Chileans that Allende and communism would bring to their country Soviet militarism and Cuban brutality. As part of this campaign, hundreds of thousands of copies of an anticommunist pastoral letter of Pope Pius XI were distributed. Frei won handily, but allegations of CIA involvement seeped out. As a result, the CIA was reluctant to play as large a role in the next Chilean presidential election, in 1970. Not only was its role smaller; it did not support a specific candidate. The effort was directed strictly against Allende and was based primarily on propaganda, employing virtually all Chilean media and some of the international press as well. The program failed when Allende won a plurality, though not a majority, of the popular vote. Under Chilean electoral law, that threw the choice to a joint session of the legislature some seven weeks later. At the direction of the White House, the CIA moved to prevent the selection and inauguration of Allende. It attempted to induce his political opponents to manipulate the legislative election up to and including a political coup. Some 726 articles, broadcasts, editorials, and similar items were sponsored in the United States and Chile, and many briefings were given to the press. One of those, to Time magazine, reversed the magazine's attitude toward Allende. The overall effort failed, however, because of the unwillingness of the appropriate Chilean politicians to tamper with the constitutional process. Complementing the CIA effort, the US government exerted economic pressure on Chile, again to no avail. A second approach, entirely under CIA auspices, encouraged a military coup. President Richard Nixon directed that neither the Departments of State and Defense nor the US Ambassador to Chile be informed of this undertaking. During a disorganized coup attempt that took place on October 22, the Chief of Staff of the Chilean Army was murdered. The CIA had originally encouraged the group responsible, but sensing that this group was likely to get out of control, the Agency had withdrawn its support a week earlier. Allende was installed as President on November 2. Over the next three years, until 1973, the National Security Council authorized the CIA to expend some $7 million covertly to oppose Allende with propaganda, financial support for anti-Allende media in Chile, and funding for private organizations opposed to Allende. Other agencies of the US government applied economic and political pressure. On September 11, 1973, the Chilean military staged a coup in which Allende died, reportedly by suicide. The CIA did not sponsor this coup, but how much its encouragement of the 1970 coup and its continued liaison with the Chilean military encouraged the action is honestly difficult to assess. With Allende gone, the decade-long covert action program was phased out. More was at stake, though, than covert action in Chile. The coup-related deaths in both 1970 and 1973 and the exposure of the role of the United States in helping to topple a democratically elected government, albeit a Marxist one, brought intense scrutiny to the ethics of using covert action to change the political complexion of other countries. As a result, such covert action came to a near halt by the mid 1970s. (3) Julian Borger, The Guardian (6th July, 2001) A judge in Santiago has drawn up a list of questions for the US statesman and Nobel laureate, Henry Kissinger, about the 1973 killing of the American journalist Charles Horman, whose execution by forces loyal to General Augusto Pinochet was dramatized in the Hollywood film, Missing. The questions, drawn up by the investigating magistrate Juan Guzman and lawyers for the victims of the Pinochet regime, were submitted to Chile's supreme court, which must now decide whether to forward them to the United States. The list is under seal but it is thought to cover the extent of Mr Kissinger's knowledge of the Horman case. Horman's family have repeatedly claimed that the Nixon government, in which Mr Kissinger was national security advisor and secretary of state, knew more about what happened when the journalist was murdered in Chile than it has ever admitted. Mr Kissinger, awarded the Nobel peace prize for his role in bringing the Vietnam war to an end, is now under increased scrutiny for his leading role in a number of controversial US actions abroad, including the bombing of Cambodia and Washington's support for authoritarian rightwing governments such as Gen Pinochet's. Charles Horman's widow, Joyce, said yesterday that Mr Kissinger was "ultimately the one who has to answer the questions for the disappearance of my husband". She added: "He was really calling the shots, as far as I'm concerned, in questions of state and the CIA, with regard to the protection and knowledge of what happened to Americans there." Encouraged by the success of international human rights cases against Gen Pinochet and Balkan war crimes suspects, human rights activists have recently drawn up allegations against Mr Kissinger. While visiting Paris in May, Mr Kissinger was subpoenaed by a French judge to answer questions about the death of French citizens under the Pinochet regime. Mr Kissinger refused to appear in court to answer the questions, saying he had a prior engagement. This year, a Washington-based British journalist, Christopher Hitchens, published The Trial of Henry Kissinger, in which he accused the veteran proponent of realpolitik of conspiring to sabotage 1968 Vietnam peace talks and pursuing an illegal war in Cambodia, among other charges. Mr Kissinger called the book "contemptible". (4) The Boston Globe (12th December, 2006) In America, the danger is not that too much is remembered of the Pinochet era but that too much of the American role in helping to foment those old horrors may be forgotten. There is a deceptively comforting story line that sequesters the present from the past, disguising any continuity between the regime change produced in Chile on Sept. 11, 1973, and other American experiments of that nature. In that reassuring historical narrative, Pinochet was perhaps guilty of trampling on democratic niceties and of kidnapping, torturing, and killing socialists and Marxists , but he represented, after all, the lesser of two evils. The alternative evil was commonly depicted as Soviet influence, left-wing radicalism, the expropriation of private property, and falling pro-American dominoes across Latin America. The former US ambassador to the United Nations, Jeane Kirkpatrick, who passed away three days before Pinochet, once propounded a theory to justify American backing for military dictatorships in Latin America. Her rationale rested upon a distinction between totalitarian states like those in the communist world and mere authoritarian regimes. The latter were supposed to be more tolerable because, in contrast to the communist states, they left open the possibility of eventually permitting a return to democracy. It was a theory that failed the test of time, as demonstrated by the nearly bloodless implosion of communism and the flowering of democracy in Poland, Hungary, and the former Czechoslovakia. Reflecting the spirit of such Cold War notions, a CIA document from the month after Allende was elected president on Sept. 11, 1970, says, "It is firm and continuing policy that Allende be overthrown by a coup" and "it is imperative that these actions be implemented clandestinely and securely so that the USG" - US government - "and American hand be well hidden." Whatever the details of US complicity in Pinochet's eventual seizure of power, Americans must not forget that their own democratic leaders share complicity in the disappearances, torture, and killings perpetrated after 1973 by their man in Chile. (5) Jeremy McDermott, The Scotsman (12th December, 2006) The human-rights abuses committed under Pinochet's military junta were widely known throughout the country. Rights groups estimate that more than 3,000 people were killed after 1973 when Salvador Allende, the democratically elected president, was overthrown and allegedly took his own life with a gun given to him by his friend, Fidel Castro. Most of the murders took place in the first year of military rule, when Santiago's National Stadium was turned into a detention and torture centre. Pinochet was facing charges over the "Caravan of Death" in 1973, when it is alleged a military death squad rounded up suspected leftists from prisons around the country and murdered them. However, it was not such abuses that led to his support eroding - it was allegations of corruption, in 2005, when undeclared foreign bank accounts containing some £15 million were traced to him and members of his family.

i don't know

What title did Charlemagne, already king of the Franks, acquire in 800?

Charlemagne - King of the Franks and Lombards Charlemagne Charlemagne King of the Franks and Lombards Depiction of Charlemagne in Stained Glass at the cathedral in Moulins, France.  Photo by Wikimedia user Vassil, who has kindly released it into the Public Domain This profile of Charlemagne is part of Who's Who in Medieval History   Charlemagne was also known as: Charles I, Charles the Great (in French, Charlemagne; in German, Karl der Grosse; in Latin, Carolus Magnus) Charlemagne's titles included: King of the Franks, King of the Lombards; also generally considered the first Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne was noted for: Consolidating a large portion of Europe under his rule, promoting learning, and instituting innovative administrative concepts. Occupations: More quotes attributed to Charlemagne About Charlemagne: Charlemagne was the grandson of Charles Martel and the son of Pippin III . When Pippin died, the kingdom was divided between Charlemagne and his brother Carloman. continue reading below our video Test Your General Science Knowledge King Charlemagne proved himself a capable leader from early on, but his brother was less so, and there was some friction between them until Carloman's death in 771. Once King, Charlemagne had sole rule of the government of Francia, he expanded his territory through conquest. He conquered the Lombards in northern Italy, acquired Bavaria, and campaigned in Spain and Hungary. Charlemagne used harsh measures in subduing the Saxons and virtually exterminating the Avars. Though he had essentially amassed an empire, he did not style himself "emperor," but called himself the King of the Franks and Lombards. King Charlemagne was an able administrator, and he delegated authority over his conquered provinces to Frankish nobles. At the same time, he recognized the diverse ethnic groups he had brought together under his dominion, and allowed each to retain its own local laws. To ensure justice, Charlemagne had these laws set down in writing and strictly enforced. He also issued capitularies that applied to all citizens. Charlemagne kept an eye on events in his empire through the use of missi dominici, representatives who acted with his authority. Though never able to master reading and writing himself, Charlemagne was an enthusiastic patron of learning. He attracted noted scholars to his court, including Alcuin , who became his private tutor, and Einhard , who would be his biographer. Charlemagne reformed the palace school and set up monastic schools throughout the empire. The monasteries he sponsored preserved and copied ancient books. The flowering of learning under Charlemagne's patronage has come to be known as the "Carolingian Renaissance." In 800, Charlemagne came to the aid of Pope Leo III , who had been attacked in the streets of Rome. He went to Rome to restore order and, after Leo purged himself of the charges against him, he was unexpectedly crowned emperor. Charlemagne wasn't pleased with this development, because it established the precedent of papal ascendancy over secular leadership, but though he still often referred to himself as a king he now also styled himself "Emperor," as well. There is some disagreement as to whether or not Charlemagne was really the first Holy Roman Emperor. Although he did not use any title that directly translates as such, he did use the title imperator Romanum ("emperor of Rome") and in some correspondence styled himself deo coronatus ("Crowned by God"), as per his coronation by the pope. This appears to be enough for most scholars to allow Charlemagne's hold on the title to stand, especially since Otto I , whose reign is generally considered to be the true beginning of the Holy Roman Empire, never used the title either. The territory Charlemagne governed is not considered the Holy Roman Empire but is instead named the Carolingian Empire after him. It would later form the basis of the territory scholars would call the Holy Roman Empire , although that term (in Latin, sacrum Romanum imperium) was also seldom in use during the Middle Ages, and never used at all until the mid-thirteenth century. All pedantry aside, Charlemagne's achievements stand among the most significant of the early Middle Ages, and although the empire he built would not long outlast his son Louis I , his consolidation of lands marked a watershed in the development of Europe. Charlemagne died in January, 814.  

Holy Roman Emperor

What is the name of the British political regime 1649-60 established by Oliver Cromwell?

Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor King of the Franks Holy Roman Emperor The widely conquering and powerful king of the Franks (768-814) and Emperor of the Romans (800-14) that English speakers today know as Charlemagne (742-814), or Charles the Great, was known in latin as Carolus Magnus. He is today remembered by the French as Carlus Magnus and by the Germans as Karl der Grosse - both these peoples see him as having had a positive role in their respective histories. He was probably born in Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), on April 2, 742, as a son of the Pepin III "the Short." This Pepin was himself one of two brothers who effectively controlled the Frankish kingdom as "Mayors of the Palace" and who were sons of the renowned warrior Charles Martel. The year and the place of the birth of Charlemagne are both uncertain, according to the contemporary scholar Alcuin he could have been born as late as 745 - others suggest Liege as the place of his birth. It is not certain that Bertrada (or Bertha), the mother of Charlemagne, a daughter of Charibert, Count of Laon, was legally married to Pepin until some years later than either 742 or 745. In 751 Pepin the Short, having sought the consent of the then pope, dethroned the last of the ineffectual Merovingian royal line and assumed the royal title himself. He was crowned by Pope Stephen II at St. Denis on the Seine, on the 28th of July, 754. Besides anointing Pepin, Pope Stephen anointed both Charlemagne and his younger brother Carloman. Within the year Pepin invaded Italy to protect the pope against the Lombards, and in 756 he again had to rush to the pope's aid. From 760 on, Pepin's main military efforts went into the conquest of Aquitaine, the lands south of the Loire River. Charlemagne accompanied his father on most of these expeditions. When Pepin died in 768, sovereignty of his realms was divided according to an arrangement, as finalised by Pepin before his death, between his two sons. Frankish custom supported such divisions of territory amongst the sons of rulers. Charlemagne sought an alliance with the Lombards by marrying (770) the daughter of their king, Desiderius (reigned 757-774). Some significant infighting between the brothers was ended by Carloman's death on 4 December, 771. In line with Frankish custom Charlemagne assumed control of the vast lands Carloman had inherited and a less serious dispute was continued thereafter with Carloman's descendants who took refuge in the court of Desiderius. Relations between Charlemagne and Desiderius were further complicated by Charlemagne having divorced Desiderius' daughter in 771 in order to marry a beautiful Swabian lady. After Pope Adrian I appealed to Charlemagne for help (against Desiderius who had invaded the papal lands in his efforts to secure papal recognition of titles for Carloman's sons) the Frankish king invaded Italy, deposed his erstwhile father-in-law (774), and himself assumed the royal title. He then journeyed to Rome and reaffirmed his father's promise to protect papal lands. From about 772 Charlemagne was frequently involved in wars with other, often pagan, peoples. The Saxons were numbered amongst the earliest and most enduring (over 30 years!!!) of these adversaries as Charlemagne attempted to forcefully induce them to accept baptism. Other campaigns were pursued in today's Spain (778) and Bavaria (788) and against the Avars (791-6) who held sway over much of today's Hungary and Austria. The considerable inheritance that had derived from Pepin together with the vast lands that Frankish armies under Charlemagne had won control over taken together constituted a remarkably powerful kingdom. On Christmas Day 800, as Charlemagne knelt in prayer in Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome, Pope Leo III placed an Emperor's crown upon his head. It is not clear that Chartlemagne expected this but whether he did or not the people assembled in the church acclaimed him the great, pacific emperor of the Romans. Western rulers and popes had tender to regard the Emperors in Constantinople with the respect due to a sovereign previous to this but a disputed succession to that title helped to clear the way for this coronation. Charlemagne maintained a more permanent royal capital than had any of his predecessors. His favorite residence from 794 on was at Aachen. He delighted in the good hunting territory in that locality. An imposing church and a palace were constructed there based, in part, on architectural borrowings from Ravenna and Rome. At his court he gathered scholars from all over Europe, the most famous being the English cleric Alcuin of York, whom he placed in charge of the palace school. This school became the focus of a renaissance in learning - the so-called Carolingian renaissance. From the 790s the lands controlled by Charlemagne began to experience what later proved to be a most grievious scourge. Viking longships bore vigourous bands of warriors along the sea-coasts and up navigable rivers leading to much spoil and devastation. Charlemagne attempted to combat this new threat by building up a naval force but such destructive raidings were not effectively prevented. The empire did not expand significantly after 800. In 813 Charlemagne designated his sole surviving son, Louis, as his successor, and personally crowned him in a ceremony conducted at Aachen. Charlemagne died at Aachen, on January 28, 814 after some four years of poor health. Popular European History pages at Age-of-the-Sage The preparation of these pages was influenced to some degree by a particular "Philosophy of History" as suggested by this quote from the famous Essay "History" by Ralph Waldo Emerson:- There is one mind common to all individual men... Of the works of this mind history is the record. Its genius is illustrated by the entire series of days. Man is explicable by nothing less than all his history. Without hurry, without rest, the human spirit goes forth from the beginning to embody every faculty, every thought, every emotion, which belongs to it in appropriate events. But the thought is always prior to the fact; all the facts of history preexist in the mind as laws. Each law in turn is made by circumstances predominant, and the limits of nature give power to but one at a time. A man is the whole encyclopaedia of facts. The creation of a thousand forests is in one acorn, and Egypt, Greece, Rome, Gaul, Britain, America, lie folded already in the first man. Epoch after epoch, camp, kingdom, empire, republic, democracy, are merely the application of his manifold spirit to the manifold world.

i don't know

Who was the prime minister of South Africa who was assassinated in 1966?

BBC - Archive - Apartheid in South Africa - 24 Hours Special | Verwoerd Assassination Apartheid in South Africa | Living under racial segregation and discrimination 24 Hours Special | Verwoerd Assassination Special programme on the assassination of the prime minister of South Africa. FIRST BROADCAST | 06 September 1966 DURATION | 53 minutes 3 seconds FIRSTBROADCAST 1966 Synopsis The shock assassination of Hendrik Verwoerd in the Cape Town Parliament causes questions to be raised about the future of South Africa. Verwoerd was killed by a white man who thought that poor white people needed more help. Individuals from all sides of the political spectrum give their views on his assassination and the future of South Africa. Did you know? Hendrik Verwoerd was the architect behind apartheid, which built upon earlier colonial legislation to keep the different racial groups apart. Verwoerd believed in the 'separate development' of the different racial groups as an ideology as much as a political system. He was born in the Netherlands but moved to South Africa due to his sympathy with the Afrikaner people after the Boer War. He was native affairs minister before becoming prime minister in 1958 Contributors

Hendrik Verwoerd

"Which 17th-century king of Sweden was known as the ""Lion of the North""?"

Verwoerd - definition of Verwoerd by The Free Dictionary Verwoerd - definition of Verwoerd by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Verwoerd Also found in: Thesaurus , Encyclopedia , Wikipedia . Ver·woerd  (fər-vo͞ort′), Hendrik Frensch 1901-1966. Dutch-born South African politician who as prime minister (1958-1966) pursued a policy of apartheid and removed South Africa from the British Commonwealth (1961). He was assassinated in Cape Town. Verwoerd (fəˈvʊt; fɛəˈvʊət) n (Biography) Hendrik Frensch (ˈhɛndrɪk frɛns). 1901–66, South African statesman, born in the Netherlands: prime minister of South Africa (1958–66) and the principal architect of the apartheid system: assassinated Ver•woerd Hendrik Frensch, 1901–66, South African political leader: prime minister 1958–66. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page: Hendrik Verwoerd References in periodicals archive ? My family were banned people and the head of government was Henrik Verwoerd, who was one of the real ideological hardliners of apartheid. South African education is in serious trouble A Mahatma Gandhi B King Faisal II of Iraq C Hendrik Verwoerd D Solomon Bandaranaike A Puffin B Penguin C Guillemot D Albatross A Clover B Flax C Shamrock D Honeysuckle All puzzles in this supplement are supplied by Sirius Media Services. Copyright © 2003-2017 Farlex, Inc Disclaimer All content on this website, including dictionary, thesaurus, literature, geography, and other reference data is for informational purposes only. This information should not be considered complete, up to date, and is not intended to be used in place of a visit, consultation, or advice of a legal, medical, or any other professional.  

i don't know

What year saw the nationalization of British Railways?

Why not... nationalise the railways? - BBC News BBC News Why not... nationalise the railways? 11 July 2013 From the section UK Politics comments Read more about sharing. Close share panel A look at eye-catching policy ideas that are often talked about but never seem to feature in UK general election campaigns. The background Britain's railways were nationalised by Labour in 1948 and returned to private hands by John Major's Conservative government in 1993. Labour was initially committed to renationalisation but the policy was dropped when Tony Blair came to power in 1997. Track, signalling and stations were taken out of private hands, and put into a not-for-profit company, Network Rail, after the collapse of Railtrack in 2002. Labour has yet to reveal its transport policies for the next general election, but they are not thought likely to feature rail nationalisation. Green Party MP Caroline Lucas has launched a private members' bill to allow the train companies to "fall back" into public ownership, which is supported by a number of Labour backbenchers and Plaid Cymru MPs. The train companies insist the debate about nationalisation is solely driven by the unions. Ian Taylor: The case for nationalisation In 1993, Britain's railway was broken into pieces and handed, mostly as local monopolies, to profit-taking companies. The cost of the railway to the taxpayer has subsequently more than doubled in real terms, a rise out of all proportion to the 33% increase in train services over the same period. The cost rises stem from wastage as shareholder dividend pay-outs, other inefficient private sector financing and inefficiencies created by fragmentation of the railway. Ian Taylor, co-founder of Transport for Quality of Life think tank Formerly manager of environmental consultancy services for the Centre for Alternative Technology Has also worked for Greenpeace and Oxfam Transport for Quality of Life's clients include the Department of Transport, local authorities and the rail unions The wastage amounts to over £1bn per year, enough to cut fares by 20% if the railway were reunified as a public company. Instead, fare increases on the privatised railway threaten to turn it into a "rich-man's toy", as this government's first Secretary of State for Transport put it. Unbeknown to most passengers, one portion of our railway, the East Coast mainline, is still run by a publicly-owned company, Directly Operated Railways, which picked up the pieces after its two private sector predecessors walked off the job. Recent calculations by the Office of Rail Regulation revealed how the public money that helps maintain the rail tracks or directly supports rail services splits between the train companies and showed that DOR receives less subsidy than any other rail franchise operator. DOR's success is a glaring embarrassment for the Government, who now intend to privatise it post-haste, even though that will increase costs to the taxpayer. Most other rail franchises in the UK are, ironically, also run by companies that are wholly or partly publicly owned, but by other countries. Deutsche Bahn is foremost - they even run the Royal Train - and the German Government have said "We're skimming profit from the entire Deutsche Bahn...it is invested in the rail network here in Germany". So, if you are reading this on an overcrowded train with a ticket that made a painful hole in your wallet, take heart from your generous contribution to improvement of Germany's fine publicly-owned railway. Ben Southwood: The case against nationalisation The UK's railway network was built privately and competitively and by some way its most successful years were the private eras between 1830 and 1922 and 1994 to the present. Returning it to centralised state control would be a step backwards and a mistake. Instead we should end the practice of franchising, which creates private monopolies, and allow real competition and diversity. Ben Southwood is a researcher at the Adam Smith Institute Previously economics correspondent for City AM newspaper He has a degree in Philosophy, Politics and Economics from Oxford University The Adam Smith Institute is an independent free market think tank known for its work on privatisation and tax reform Our system began with the first steam train in 1825, and despite costly government licenses, investors built the bulk of today's network (about 6,000 of approx 11,000 miles) in just three or so years, between 1844 and 1846. Journeys rose to from about 500 million a year in the 1870s to 1.5 billion just before the First World War. After the war, David Lloyd George judged that rail firms profits were too low due to too much competition, and decided to merge nearly all the UK's railway firms into just four firms, practically monopolies. Between 1923 and 1947 the so-called Big Four government-supported firms ran the roost and journeys fell to about 1.2 billion by the onset of the Second World War. After the war, these and others were consolidated further into British Rail. Under British Rail, there were steadily fewer and fewer journeys per year—from around 1 billion in 1948 to only 750 million by 1995, just before the onset of the franchising system. Now there are deep flaws with franchising, and undoubtedly it has been lucky, coinciding with higher congestion, fuel prices, and a renewed rise in London as the UK's economic centre. But the sharpness of the change since 1995 is undeniable. Since then journeys have spiked dramatically, rising every year to close on the 1.5 billion not seen for almost a century. The solution to our current problems is not more state bungling, it is a return to diversity, competition and open markets.

one thousand nine hundred and forty eight

Who are the only two English sovereigns from whom Prince Charles is not descended?

Nationalisation Nationalisation UK grows by 0.5% in 3rd quarter of 2016 ...more Inflation CPI inflation up to 1.2% in the year to November ..more New A Level New materials for A Level Economics updated for Brexit, now available ..more Nationalisation Most of the UK's major strategic heavy industries and public utilities were nationalised between 1946 and the early 1950s, only to be returned to the private sector between 1979 and 1990. Examples of nationalisation 1946 - The Bank of England was the first organisation to be nationalised by the new Labour government of Clement Atlee. 1947 - The Coal industry was nationalised in 1947 when over 800 coalmines were taken under public ownership and a National Coal Board (NCB) was established to manage the industry on commercial lines. The NCB became the British Coal Corporation in 1987, and this was wound up in 1997 as the industry was privatised. (Source: National Archives ). 1948 - Railways were nationalised to help rebuild the network infrastructure and re-equip the rolling stock after the destructive effects of the Second World War. 1949 - Steel was first nationalised in 1949, and privatised a year later by the new Conservative government. It was re-nationalised in 1967 when over 90 of steel capacity was put under the control of the British Steel Corporation (BSC).  Steel was returned to the private sector once more in 1988. 2008/9 - A number of key UK banks became subject to full or part-nationalisation from early 2008 as a response to the financial crisis and banking collapse. The first bank to become nationalised was the Northern Rock in February 2008, and by March 2009 the UK Treasury had taken a 65% stake in the Lloyds Banking Group and a 68% stake in the Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS). The advantages of nationalisation The main motive for nationalisation during the post-war period was to ensure a co-ordinated approach to production and supply to ensure economic survival and efficiency in the face of war, and post-war reconstruction. For example, the advantage of a nationalised rail network, as with other natural monopolies, was that central planning could help create a more organised and co-ordinated service. This argument was applied widely to the so-called commanding heights of the economy. It can also be argued that much infrastructure provides a considerable external benefit to individuals and firms. For example, a nationally and centrally funded and efficient rail network helps keep road traffic down and hence reduces pollution and congestion. It may also help reduce business costs, which may be passed on to other businesses. Another advantage of national ownership is that economies of large scale can be gained that would not be available to smaller, privately owned enterprises.   For example, a nationalised rail service could purchase materials, rail track, and rolling stock on a large scale, thereby reducing average costs and supplying more efficiently than smaller operators. In more recent times, the failure of major banks has highlighted the fact that, under national ownership and control, failing banks can be funded more quickly and for larger amounts than under private ownership. This enables the banking infrastructure to be rebuilt, as well as ensure the closer regulation of banks in the future. The disadvantages By the late 1970s it became increasingly apparent that many of the industries nationalised between 1945 and 1951 were running into difficulties. The major problems that the industries faced were: They were being managed ineffectively and inefficiently . The principal-agent problem is highly relevant to public sector activities given that the managers of the utilities were generally not required to meet any efficiency objectives set by the state. There was growing criticism that, because these industries were protected from competition, they had become increasingly ‘X’ inefficient. Nationalised industries were also prone to suffer from moral hazard , which occurs whenever individuals or organisations are insured against the negative consequences of their own inefficient behaviour. For example, if a particular nationalised industry made operating losses, the government would simply cover those loses with subsidies.  Knowing that the taxpayer would come to the rescue meant that the inefficient behaviour could continue. This is, perhaps, the most significant criticism of the recent 'bail out' of failing banks. Given that they know the taxpayer will bail them out this may be an encouragement to continue with their inefficient and highly risky lending activities. In addition, the nationalised industries had limited scope to raise capital for long term investment and modernisation because they would have to compete with other government spending departments, like education, health and defence.  The result was a prolonged period of under-investment in these industries. By the late 1970s, and throughout the 1980s, most UK's major State owned industries were sold off to the private sector through privatisation . The  intention was that, back in the free market, these industries would become more efficient and would be able to modernise by having greater access to the capital markets, and by employing more modern and dynamic management. Privatisation also generated huge revenues for the UK Treasury as well as allowing tax cuts and creating an environment where  other supply-side reforms could be implemented. Following the banking collapse of 2009, nationalisation was put firmly back on the agenda, if only in terms of the financial system.  

i don't know

Who succeeded the Roman emperor, Trajan?

Trajan | Military Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia Selinus , Cilicia Trajan (English pronunciation: / ˈ t r eɪ dʒ ən / ; Latin language: Imperator Caesar Nerva Traianus Divi Nervae filius Augustus [1] 18 September 53 – 9 August 117 AD) was Roman Emperor from 98 AD until his death. Officially declared by the senate as optimus princeps ("the best ruler"), Trajan is remembered as a successful soldier-emperor who presided over the greatest military expansion in Roman history , leading the empire to attain its maximum territorial extent by the time of his death. He is also known for his philanthropic rule, overseeing extensive public building programs and implementing social welfare policies , which earned him his enduring reputation as the second of the Five Good Emperors who presided over an era of peace and prosperity in the Mediterranean world . Born into a non-patrician family of Italian origin in the city of Italica in the province of Hispania Baetica , [2] Trajan rose to prominence during the reign of emperor Domitian . Serving as a legatus legionis in Hispania Tarraconensis , in 89 Trajan supported Domitian against a revolt on the Rhine led by Antonius Saturninus . [3] In September 96, Domitian was succeeded by Marcus Cocceius Nerva , an old and childless senator who proved to be unpopular with the army. After a brief and tumultuous year in power, a revolt by members of the Praetorian Guard compelled him to adopt the more popular Trajan as his heir and successor. Nerva died on 27 January 98, and was succeeded by his adopted son without incident. As a civilian administrator, Trajan is best known for his extensive public building program which reshaped the city of Rome and left multiple enduring landmarks such as Trajan's Forum , Trajan's Market and Trajan's Column . Early in his reign, he annexed the Nabataean kingdom , creating the province of Arabia Petraea . His conquest of Dacia enriched the empire greatly — the new province possessed many valuable gold mines. However, the new province's exposed position to the north of the Danube made it susceptible to attack on three sides, and it was later abandoned by Emperor Aurelian . His war against the Parthian Empire ended with the sack of the capital Ctesiphon and the annexation of Armenia and Mesopotamia . His campaigns expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest territorial extent. In late 117, while sailing back to Rome, Trajan fell ill and died of a stroke in the city of Selinus . He was deified by the Senate and his ashes were laid to rest under Trajan's Column . He was succeeded by his adopted son Hadrian. As an emperor, Trajan's reputation has endured — he is one of the few rulers whose reputation has survived nineteen centuries. Every new emperor after him was honored by the Senate with the wish felicior Augusto, melior Traiano ("[be] luckier than Augustus and better than Trajan"). Among medieval Christian theologians, Trajan was considered a virtuous pagan , while the 18th-century historian Edward Gibbon popularized the notion of the Five Good Emperors , of which Trajan was the second. [4] Contents File:027 Traianus.jpg Marcus Ulpius Traianus was born on 18 September 53 in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica [5] (in what is now Andalusia in modern Spain), a province that was thoroughly Romanized and called southern Hispania, in the city of Italica (now in municipal area of Santiponce, in the outskirts of Seville), where the Italian families were paramount. Of Italian stock himself, Trajan is frequently but misleadingly designated the first provincial emperor. [6] Trajan was the son of Marcia and Marcus Ulpius Traianus , a prominent senator and general from the gens Ulpia . Trajan himself was just one of many well-known Ulpii in a line that continued long after his own death. His elder sister was Ulpia Marciana and his niece was Salonina Matidia . The patria of the Ulpii was Italica , in Spanish Baetica, [5] where their ancestors had settled late in the 3rd century BC. As a young man, he rose through the ranks of the Roman army , serving in some of the most contentious parts of the Empire's frontier. In 76–77, Trajan's father was Governor of Syria ( Legatus pro praetore Syriae), where Trajan himself remained as Tribunus legionis. Trajan was nominated as Consul and brought Apollodorus of Damascus with him to Rome around 91. [7] Around this time he married Pompeia Plotina, a noble woman from the settlement at Nimes , although the marriage ultimately remained childless. It is not clear that Trajan was actively predisposed towards homosexuality, as bisexual activity was common among Roman men of the period, and so his homosexual activities could be interpreted as nothing more than a functional aspect of his class. Nevertheless, Dio Cassius makes reference to them, and his identified lovers included Hadrian and the pages of the imperial household, the actor Pylades, a dancer called Apolaustus, and possibly Licinius Sura and Nerva . [8] Along the Rhine River, he took part in the Emperor Domitian 's wars while under Domitian's successor, Nerva , who was unpopular with the army and needed to do something to gain their support. He accomplished this by naming Trajan as his adoptive son and successor in the summer of 97. According to the Augustan History , it was the future Emperor Hadrian who brought word to Trajan of his adoption. [7] When Nerva died on 27 January 98, the highly respected Trajan succeeded without incident. Roman Emperor Edit The new Roman emperor was greeted by the people of Rome with great enthusiasm, which he justified by governing well and without the bloodiness that had marked Domitian's reign. He freed many people who had been unjustly imprisoned by Domitian and returned a great deal of private property that Domitian had confiscated (a process that had been begun by Nerva). His popularity was such that the Roman Senate eventually bestowed upon Trajan the honorific of optimus, meaning "the best". [9] [10] Conquest of Dacia Main article: Trajan's Dacian Wars It was as a military commander that Trajan is best known to history, particularly for his conquests in the Near East, but initially for the two wars against Dacia — the reduction to client kingdom (101–102), followed by actual incorporation into the Empire of the trans-Danube border group of Dacia — an area that had troubled Roman thought for over a decade with the unfavourable (and to some, shameful) peace negotiated by Domitian 's ministers. [11] In the first military campaign c. March–May 101, Trajan launched a victorious ship into the Dacian Kingdom [12] crossing to the northern bank of the Danube River and defeating the Dacian army at Tapae (see Second Battle of Tapae ) near the Iron Gates of Transylvania . Trajan's troops were mauled in the encounter, however and he put off further campaigning for the year to let the troops heal, reinforce, and regroup. [13] Trajan's Column , Rome. During the following winter, King Decebalus launched a counter-attack across the Danube further downstream, but this was repulsed. Trajan's army advanced further into Dacian territory and forced King Decebalus to submit to him a year later. Trajan returned to Rome in triumph and was granted the title Dacicus Maximus. The victory was celebrated by the Tropaeum Traiani . Decebalus, though, after being left to his own devices, in 105 undertook an invasion against Roman territory by attempting to stir up some of the tribes north of the river against the empire. [14] Trajan took to the field again and after building, with the design of Apollodorus of Damascus , his massive bridge over the Danube , he conquered part of Dacia in 106. After a fierce campaign (see also Second Dacian War ), the Dacian capital, Sarmizegetusa Regia , was destroyed. Decebalus fled but, rather than being captured by the Roman cavalry, committed suicide, and his severed head was exhibited in Rome on the steps leading up to the Capitol . Trajan built a new city, Colonia Ulpia Traiana Augusta Dacica Sarmizegetusa , on another site than the previous Dacian Capital, although bearing the same full name, Sarmizegetusa. Trajan also reformed the infrastructure of the Iron Gates region of the Danube. Built around 103 to 105, Trajan's Bridge , or Pontes, is considered an architectural marvel, at 3,500 feet across. He either commissioned the creation or enlargement of the road along the Iron Gates carved into the side of the gorge. [15] Additionally, Trajan commissioned a canal to be built around the rapids of the Iron Gates . Evidence of this comes from a marble slab discovered near Caput Bovis , the site of a Roman fort. It can be dated to the year 101 and commemorates the building of at least one canal that went from the Kasajna tributary to at least Ducis Pratum, whose embankments were still visible until recently. However, the placement of the slab at Caput Bovis suggests that the canal extended to this point or that there was a second canal downriver of the Kasajna-Ducis Pratum one. [16] Trajan resettled Dacia with Romans and annexed it as a province of the Roman Empire. Trajan's Dacian campaigns benefited the Empire's finances through the acquisition of Dacia's gold mines. The victory has been commemorated by the construction of Trajan's Column , which depicts in stone carved basreliefs the Dacian Wars' most important moments. Annexation of Nabataea Edit At about the same time Rabbel II Soter , one of Rome's client kings, died. This event might have prompted the annexation of the Nabataean kingdom , although the manner and the formal reasons for the annexation are unclear. Some epigraphic evidence suggests a military operation, with forces from Syria and Egypt . What is known is that by 107, Roman legions were stationed in the area around Petra and Bostra , as is shown by a papyrus found in Egypt. The furthest south the Romans occupied was Hegra , over 300 km south-west of Petra . [17] The empire gained what became the province of Arabia Petraea (modern southern Jordan and north west Saudi Arabia). [18] Period of peace Tabula Traiana near Trajan's Bridge in Đerdap National Park , Serbia. The next seven years, Trajan ruled as a civilian emperor, to the same acclaim as before. It was during this time that he corresponded with Pliny the Younger on the subject of how to deal with the Christians of Pontus, telling Pliny to continue but not to use an anonymous list in the interests of justice. He built several new buildings, monuments and roads in Italia and his native Hispania. His magnificent complex in Rome raised to commemorate his victories in Dacia (and largely financed from that campaign's loot)—consisting of a forum , Trajan's Column , and Trajan's Market still stands in Rome today. He was also a prolific builder of triumphal arches , many of which survive, and rebuilder of roads ( Via Traiana and Via Traiana Nova ). In 107 he devalued the Roman currency . He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 93.5% to 89% — the actual silver weight dropping from 3.04 grams to 2.88 grams. [19] This devaluation, coupled with the massive amount of gold and silver carried off after Trajan's Dacian Wars , allowed the emperor to mint a larger quantity of denarii than his predecessors. One notable act of Trajan during this period was the hosting of a three-month gladiatorial festival in the great Colosseum in Rome (the precise date of this festival is unknown). Combining chariot racing, beast fights and close-quarters gladiatorial bloodshed, this gory spectacle reputedly left 11,000 dead (mostly slaves and criminals, not to mention the thousands of ferocious beasts killed alongside them) and attracted a total of five million spectators over the course of the festival. Another important act was his formalisation of the Alimenta , a welfare program that helped orphans and poor children throughout Italy. It provided general funds, as well as food and subsidized education. The program was supported initially by funds from the Dacian War, and then later by a combination of estate taxes and philanthropy. [20] Although the system is well documented in literary sources and contemporary epigraphy, its precise aims are controversial and have generated considerable dispute between modern scholars. It is usually assumed that the program was intended to bolster citizen numbers in Italy. However, the fact that it was subsidized by means of interest payments on loans made by landowners restricted it to a small percentage of potential welfare recipients ( Paul Veyne has assumed that, in the city of Veleia , only one child out of ten was an actual beneficiary) – therefore, the idea, advanced by Moses I. Finley , that the whole scheme was at most a form of random charity, a mere imperial benevolence. [21] War against Parthia Aureus issued by Trajan to celebrate the conquest of Parthia. The extent of the Roman Empire under Trajan (117). [22] In 113, he embarked on his last campaign, provoked by Parthia's decision to put an unacceptable king on the throne of Armenia , a kingdom over which the two great empires had shared hegemony since the time of Nero some fifty years earlier. Trajan's decision to wage war against Parthia may have had economic motives: Charax on the Persian Gulf was the sole remaining western terminus of the Indian trade route outside Roman control. [23] Other historians reject this motive, seeing the campaign as triggered by the lure of territorial annexation and prestige, [24] the motive ascribed by Cassius Dio. [25] Other modern historians, however, think that Trajan's original aim was quite modest: to assure a more defensible Eastern frontier for the Roman Empire, crossing across Northern Mesopotamia along the course of the Khabur River in order to offer cover to a Roman Armenia. [26] Trajan marched first on Armenia, deposed the Parthian-appointed king (who was afterwards murdered while kept in the custody of Roman troops in an unclear incident) and annexed it to the Roman Empire as a province, receiving in passing the acknowledgement of Roman hegemony by various tribes in the Caucasus and on the Eastern coast of the Black Sea — a process that kept him busy until the end of 114. [27] The chronology of subsequent events is uncertain, but it's generally believed that early in 115 Trajan turned south into the core Parthian hegemony, taking the Northern Mesopotamian cities of Nisibis and Batnae and organizing a province of Mesopotamia in the beginning of 116, when coins were issued announcing that Armenia and Mesopotamia had been put under the authority of the Roman people. [28] Bronze bust of Trajan in his later years, Museum of Anatolian Civilizations , Ankara, Turkey. In early 116, however, Trajan began to toy with the conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia, an overambitious goal that eventually backfired on the results of his entire campaign: One Roman division crossed the Tigris into Adiabene , sweeping South and capturing Adenystrae ; a second followed the river South, capturing Babylon; while Trajan himself sailed down the Euphrates , then dragged his fleet overland into the Tigris, capturing Seleucia and finally the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon. [29] He continued southward to the Persian Gulf, receiving the submission of Athambelus, the ruler of Charax , whence he declared Babylon a new province of the Empire, sent the Senate a laurelled letter declaring the war to be at a close and bemoaning that he was too old to go on any further and repeat the conquests of Alexander the Great . [30] A province of Assyria was also proclaimed, apparently covering the territory of Adiabene, as well as some measures seem to have been considered about the fiscal administration of the Indian trade. [31] A coin of Trajan, found together with coins of the Kushan ruler Kanishka , at the Ahin Posh Buddhist Monastery, Afghanistan. However, as Trajan left the Persian Gulf for Babylon — where he intended to offer sacrifice to Alexander in the house where he had died in 323 BC. [30]  — a sudden outburst of Parthian resistance, led by a nephew of the Parthian king, Sanatrukes, imperilled Roman positions in Mesopotamia and Armenia, something Trajan sought to deal with by forsaking direct Roman rule in Parthia proper, at least partially. [32] Later in 116, after defeating a Parthian army in a battle where Sanatrukes was killed and re-taking Seleucia, he formally deposed the Parthian king Osroes I and put his own puppet ruler Parthamaspates on the throne. That done, he retreated North in order to retain what he could of the new provinces of Armenia and Mesopotamia. [32] Bust of Trajan, Glyptothek , Munich. It was at this point that Trajan's health started to fail him. The fortress city of Hatra , on the Tigris in his rear, continued to hold out against repeated Roman assaults. He was personally present at the siege and it is possible that he suffered a heat stroke while in the blazing heat. [32] Shortly afterwards, the Jews inside the Eastern Roman Empire rose up in rebellion once more, as did the people of Mesopotamia. Trajan was forced to withdraw his army in order to put down the revolts. Trajan saw it as simply a temporary setback, but he was destined never to command an army in the field again, turning his Eastern armies over to the high ranking legate and governor of Judaea, Lusius Quietus , who in early 116 had been in charge of the Roman division who had recovered Nisibis and Edessa from the rebels. [32] Quietus was promised a consulate in the following year (118) for his victories but he was murdered before this could occur. It has been theorized that Quietus was executed on the orders of the new emperor, Hadrian, for fear of Quietus' popular standing with the army and his close connections to Trajan. [33] [34] Death and succession The Alcántara Bridge , widely hailed as a masterpiece of Roman engineering . Statue of Trajan at Tower Hill , London. Early in 117, Trajan grew ill and set out to sail back to Italy. His health declined throughout the spring and summer of 117, something publicly acknowledged by the fact that a bronze bust displayed at the time in the public baths of Ancyra showed him clearly aged and emaciated. [35] By the time he had reached Selinus in Cilicia which was afterwards called Trajanopolis, he suddenly died from edema on 9 August. Some say that he had adopted Hadrian as his successor, but others that it was his wife Pompeia Plotina who hired someone to impersonate him after he had died. Hadrian's first act as emperor was to abandon the distant and indefensible Mesopotamia and restore Armenia — as well as Osroene – to the Parthian hegemony under Roman suzerainty. [31] However, all the other territories conquered by Trajan were retained. Trajan's ashes were laid to rest underneath Trajan's column, the monument commemorating his success. Building activities Edit Trajan was a prolific builder in Rome and the provinces, and many of his buildings were erected by the gifted architect Apollodorus of Damascus . Notable structures include Trajan's Column , Trajan's Forum , Trajan's Bridge , Alcántara Bridge , the road and canal around the Iron Gates (see conquest of Dacia ), and possibly the Alconétar Bridge . Some historians also attribute the construction of the Babylon fortress in Egypt to Trajan, [36] the remains of the fort is what is now known as the Church of Mar Girgis and its surrounding buildings. In order to build his forum and the adjacent brick market that also held his name Trajan had vast areas of the surrounding hillsides leveled. Trajan's legacy Edit Unlike many lauded rulers in history, Trajan's reputation has survived undiminished for nearly nineteen centuries. Ancient sources on Trajan's personality and accomplishments are unanimously positive. Pliny the Younger, for example, celebrates Trajan in his panegyric as a wise and just emperor and a moral man. Dio Cassius added that he always remained dignified and fair. [37] The Christianisation of Rome resulted in further embellishment of his legend: it was commonly said in medieval times that Pope Gregory I , through divine intercession, resurrected Trajan from the dead and baptized him into the Christian faith. An account of this features in the Golden Legend . Theologians, such as Thomas Aquinas , discussed Trajan as an example of a virtuous pagan. In the Divine Comedy , Dante , following this legend, sees the spirit of Trajan in the Heaven of Jupiter with other historical and mythological persons noted for their justice. Also a mural of Trajan stopping to provide justice for a poor widow is present in the first terrace of Purgatory as a lesson to those who are purged for being proud. He also features in Piers Plowman . An episode, referred to as the justice of Trajan was reflected in several art works. In the 18th century King Charles III of Spain commissioned Anton Raphael Mengs to paint The Triumph of Trajan on the ceiling of the banqueting-hall of the Royal Palace of Madrid – considered among the best work of this artist. "Traian" is used as a male first name in present-day Romania – among others, that of the country's current president, Traian Băsescu . Notes ↑ Histoire des Juifs, Troisième période, I – Chapitre III – Soulèvement des Judéens sous Trajan et Adrien ↑ Bennett, Trajan, 203 ↑ Bennett, Trajan, 201 ↑ Butler, A. J. (1914). Babylon of Egypt: A study in the history of Old Cairo. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 5.  ↑ Dio Cassius, Epitome of Book 6; 21.2–3 References and further reading Ancel, R. Manning. "Soldiers." Military Heritage . December 2001. Volume 3, No. 3: 12, 14, 16, 20 (Trajan, Emperor of Rome). Bennett, J. Trajan: Optimus Princeps, 2nd Edition, Bloomington: Indiana University Press 2001, ISBN 0-253-21435-1 Bowersock, G.W. Roman Arabia, Harvard University Press, 1983 Christol, M. & Nony, N. Rome et son Empire, Paris: Hachette, 2003, ISBN 2-01-145542-1 Finley, M.I. The Ancient Economy, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999, ISBN 0-520-21946-5 Fuller, J.F.C. A Military History of the Western World. Three Volumes. New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1987 and 1988. v. 1. From the late times to the Battle of Lepanto; ISBN 0-306-80304-6 : 255, 266, 269, 270, 273 (Trajan, Roman Emperor). Isaac, B. The Limits of Empire, The Roman Army in the East, Revised Edition, Oxford University Press, 1990 Kennedy, D. The Roman Army in Jordan, Revised Edition, Council for British Research in the Levant, 2004 Lepper, F.A. Trajan's Parthian War. London: Oxford University Press, 1948. Luttvak, Edward N. The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire: From the First Century A.D. to the Third, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979, ISBN 0-8018-2158-4 (French) Minaud, Gérard, Les vies de 12 femmes d’empereur romain - Devoirs, Intrigues & Voluptés , Paris, L’Harmattan, 2012, ch. 6, La vie de Plotine, femme de Trajan, p. 147-168. ISBN 978-2-336-00291-0 . Wildfeuer, C.R.H. Trajan — Lion of Rome, Aquifer Publishing, 2009 Primary sources

Hadrian

Who was the admiral of the French fleet defeated by Nelson at the Battle of Trafalgar?

Trajan facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Trajan COPYRIGHT 2004 The Gale Group Inc. Trajan The Roman emperor Trajan (ca. 53-117), or Marcus Ulpius Trajanus, was the first non-Italian emperor. He expanded Rome's territory to its farthest limits, and his designation as optimus princeps, "the best of princes, " attests to his reputation. When Nerva succeeded the murdered Domitian in 96, it was by no means certain that the armies would accept a nice old unknown emperor. The danger from ambitious generals was so real that Nerva adopted Trajan, the commander of the nearest armies (on the Rhine), and made him successor even though he was a native of Italica, a Romanized town of Spain. Henceforth non-Italian lineage was no bar to even the highest position in the empire. The two most important aspects of Trajan's reign were his forward policy on the frontiers and his administrative and building activities, particularly with regard to Italy. Wars and Conquests A bit of glory is a source of strength to a new regime, and Trajan seems to have decided to correct Domitian's policy of "weakness" toward the Dacians. The result was two Dacian Wars (101-102 and 105-106), the first apparently sought by Rome, the second clearly a Dacian try for revenge. After the first war Dacia was humbled; after the second it was annexed. Trajan doubtless recognized the economic value of Dacia (roughly, modern Romania), but he must also have seen the wisdom of advancing a wedge of Roman territory between Rome's possible barbarian enemies, the Germans to the west and the Sarmatians to the east. Dacia in time became thoroughly Latinized, and the Romanians today speak a romance language. Also in 106 the client king of the Nabateans died, and Trajan ordered his territory— approximately modern Sinai, the Negeb, and Jordan— annexed as the province of Arabia. Parthia, embracing essentially modern Iraq and Iran, was the only major power Rome faced, and the two were constantly at odds as to who should control Armenia, which was strategically important to both. When the question boiled up again, Trajan decided to annex Armenia, which he did (114) with little fighting. Armenia could hardly be held, however, if the Parthians could attack it from Mesopotamia, and in 115 Trajan occupied northern Mesopotamia. In 116 he continued south, took the Parthian capital, and advanced to the Persian Gulf. Trajan organized his new conquest into provinces, but revolts broke out behind him everywhere. Even within the empire the Jews erupted in a bitter revolt, massacring the Gentiles where they could and being massacred in return. Trajan intended to restore order and resume the war, but he died suddenly (117), and his successor, Hadrian, made peace with Parthia and abandoned the Eastern provinces except Arabia. Administration and Public Works Though Trajan's public works were widespread throughout the empire, the most important were in Italy: roads, especially the Via Traiana in the south; large improvements to Claudius's artificial harbor at Ostia; and particularly the immense forum in Rome, surrounded by halls, libraries, and shops and centering on the most famous of all Trajan's works, the great column commemorating his Dacian victories. Trajan's administrative measures were chiefly designed to preserve the prosperity of Italy. He extended Nerva's scheme of alimenta, low-cost state loans to farmers, whose repayment went to the local communities for the support of poor children. Since the finances of some of the towns were becoming chaotic, he appointed temporary imperial officials, curatores, to control the town budgets. Like the alimenta, this system also spread, and the temporary officials tended to become permanent. Trajan even extended the practice to whole provinces, and his correspondence with his appointee Pliny the Younger shows how petty were the matters which might be referred to the central authority. The ancients never revised their opinion that Trajan was the best of the emperors, and his reign did inaugurate almost a century in which nearly all elements of the empire worked in harmony, but modern historians have some reservations. Both in money and in manpower his wars overstrained Rome's resources, and his moving the imperial government into local administration started the trend to that overlarge, overworked bureaucracy whose cost (bureaucrats must be paid) and cumbersomeness ultimately contributed to the collapse of the empire. Further Reading Except for brief epitomes, very little ancient literary material on Trajan survives. Of some help are Pliny the Younger's Panegyric (though it tells more about Domitian than about Trajan) and some of his letters, including Trajan's replies. Among modern works, a study of Trajan is in Bernard W. Henderson, Five Roman Emperors (1927). For Trajan's buildings see Paul L. Mackendrick, The Mute Stones Speak: The Story of Archaeology in Italy (1960). Considerable information on Trajan is in F. A. Lepper's specialized work, Trajan's Parthian War (1948). □ Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. MLA The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright The Columbia University Press Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Trajanus) (trā´jən), c.AD 53–AD 117, Roman emperor (AD 98–AD 117). Born in Spain, he was the first non-Italian to become head of the empire. Trajan served in the East, in Germany, and in Spain. He was adopted in AD 97 by Emperor Nerva , who died shortly afterward. A capable man, Trajan set about strengthening his regime by embarking on an aggressive foreign policy. In two wars against Dacia he brought that region, the parent of modern Romania, under Roman control. This conquest is commemorated by the sculptured Trajan's Column, which stands in the Forum of Trajan in Rome. Trajan then annexed Arabia Petraea, and in three campaigns he conquered the greater part of the Parthian empire, including Armenia and Upper Mesopotamia. On his way home from this campaign, he died in Cilicia. He was succeeded by Hadrian. Trajan was an able military organizer and civic administrator. He partially drained the Pontine Marshes and restored the Appian Way, and at Rome he built an aqueduct, a theater, and the immense Forum of Trajan, containing basilicas and libraries. See F. A. Lepper, Trajan's Parthian War (1948); L. Rossi, Trajan's Column and the Dacian Wars (1972). Cite this article The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable © The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable 2006, originally published by Oxford University Press 2006. Trajan (c.53–117 ad), Roman emperor 98–117. His reign is noted for the many public works undertaken and for the Dacian wars (101–6), which ended in the annexation of Dacia as a province, and which are illustrated on Trajan's Column in Rome . Arch of Trajan a monumental arch at Benevento, decreed or dedicated c. 115 ad, and showing Trajan's achievements at home and abroad. Trajan's Column a monument erected 106–113 ad in Rome, commemorating his successful Dacian campaign; his ashes were deposited at its base. Cite this article Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes © Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes 2007, originally published by Oxford University Press 2007. Trajan •abrasion, Australasian, equation, Eurasian, evasion, invasion, occasion, persuasion, pervasion, suasion, Vespasian •adhesion, cohesion, Friesian, lesion •circumcision, collision, concision, decision, derision, division, elision, envision, excision, imprecision, incision, misprision, precisian, precision, provision, scission, vision •subdivision • television • Eurovision •LaserVision •corrosion, eclosion, erosion, explosion, implosion •allusion, collusion, conclusion, confusion, contusion, delusion, diffusion, effusion, exclusion, extrusion, fusion, illusion, inclusion, interfusion, intrusion, obtrusion, occlusion, preclusion, profusion, prolusion, protrusion, reclusion, seclusion, suffusion, transfusion •Monaghan • Belgian •Bajan, Cajun, contagion, Trajan •Glaswegian, legion, Norwegian, region •irreligion, religion •Injun • Harijan • oxygen • antigen •sojourn • donjon • Georgian •theologian, Trojan •Rügen •bludgeon, curmudgeon, dudgeon, gudgeon, trudgen •dungeon • glycogen • halogen •collagen • Imogen • carcinogen •hallucinogen • androgen •oestrogen (US estrogen) •hydrogen • nitrogen •burgeon, sturgeon, surgeon Cite this article

i don't know

During which war was the Battle of Blenheim?

Battle of Blenheim in the War of Spanish Succession 56,000 men, 90 guns Battle of Blenheim - Background: In 1704, King Louis XIV of France sought to knock the Holy Roman Empire out of the War of Spanish Succession by capturing its capital, Vienna . Eager to keep the Empire in the Grand Alliance (England, Habsburg Empire, Dutch Republic, Portugal, Spain, & the Duchy of Savoy), the Duke of Marlborough made plans to intercept the French and Bavarian forces before they could reach Vienna. Executing a brilliant campaign of disinformation and movement, Marlborough was able to shift his army from the Low Countries to the Danube in only five weeks, placing himself between the enemy and the Imperial capital. Reinforced by Prince Eugène of Savoy, Marlborough encountered the combined French and Bavarian army of Marshall Tallard along the banks of the Danube near the village of Blenheim. Separated from the Allies by a small stream and marsh known as the Nebel, Tallard arrayed his forces in a four mile-long line from the Danube north towards the hills and woods of the Swabian Jura. Anchoring the line were the villages of Lutzingen (left), Oberglau (center), and Blenheim (right). On the Allied side, Marlborough and Eugène had decided to attack Tallard on August 13. Battle of Blenheim - Marlborough Attacks: Assigning Prince Eugène to take Lutzingen, Marlborough ordered Lord John Cutts to attack Blenheim at 1:00 PM. Cutts repeatedly assaulted the village, but was unable to secure it. Though the attacks were not successful, they caused the French commander, Clérambault, to panic and order the reserves into the village. This mistake robbed Tallard of his reserve force and negated the slight numerical advantage he possessed over Marlborough. Seeing this error, Marlborough altered his orders to Cutts, instructing him to simply contain the French in the village. At the opposite end of the line, Prince Eugène was having little success against the Bavarian forces defending Lutzingen, despite having launched multiple assaults. With Tallard's forces pinned down on the flanks, Marlborough pushed forward an attack on the French center. After heavy initial fighting, Marlborough was able to defeat Tallard's cavalry and routed the remaining French infantry. With no reserves, Tallard's line broke and his troops began fleeing towards Höchstädt. They were joined in their flight by the Bavarians from Lutzingen. Trapped in Blenheim, Clérambault's men continued the fight until 9:00 PM when over 10,000 of them surrendered. As the French fled southwest, a group of Hessian troops managed to capture Marshall Tallard, who was to spend the next seven years in captivity in England. Battle of Blenheim - Aftermath & Impact: In the fighting at Blenheim, the Allies lost 4,542 killed and 7,942 wounded, while the French and Bavarians suffered approximately 20,000 killed and wounded as well as 14,190 captured. The Duke of Marlborough's victory at Blenheim ended the French threat to Vienna and removed the aura of invincibility that surrounded the armies of Louis XIV. The battle was a turning point in the War of Spanish Succession, ultimately leading to the Grand Alliance's victory and an end of French hegemony over Europe.

War of the Spanish Succession

Which royal house consisted of Henry IV, Henry V and Henry VI?

Blenheim order of battle | Military Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia Blenheim order of battle The following units and commanders fought in the Battle of Blenheim during the War of the Spanish Succession on August 13, 1704. Contents Unless otherwise noted, all infantry units are composed of one battalion. Blenheim Column The Duke of Marlborough's Regiment of Foot , Captain General John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough (524 men) Scots Fusiliers (21st Foot), Brigadier General Archibald Rowe (629 men) Wilkes' Brigade (Hesse-Kassel or Hesse-Cassel) Major General Wilkes Erbprinz von Hessen-Kassel Infantry Regiment, Erbprinz Friedrich von Hessen-Kassel (400 men) Hessian Grenadiers Infantry Regiment (400 men) Hessian Guard (Leibregiment) Infantry Regiment (400 men) Wartensleben Infantry Regiment, Alexander Hermann, Graf von Wartensleben (400 men) Ferguson's Brigade (Scotland) 1st Regiment of Foot Guards , Captain General John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough (589 men) St. Paul's Brigade de Luc Infantry Regiment, Major General de Luc (Lüneburg-Celle) (400 men) de Breuil Infantry Regiment (Hanover) (Lüneburg-Celle) (400 men) Gauvin Infantry Regiment (Gauvin) (Hanover) (400 men) Hanoverian Guard Infantry Regiment (1/ Lüneburg-Celle, 2/ Hanover-Calenberg) (two battalions, 800 men) Cavalry Support 2nd/Wood's Regiment of Horse (4th Horse), Major General Cornelius Wood (one squadron, 155 men) The King's Carabiniers (9th Horse), Lieutenant General Hugh Wyndham (two squadrons, 311 men) Grey Dragoons (2nd Dragoons), Brigadier General Lord John Hay (England/Scotland) (one squadron, 340 men) Erbprinz von Hessen-Kassel Dragoons, Erbprinz Friedrich von Hessen-Kassel (Hesse-Kassel) (four squadrons, 320 men) Centre Schöpping Infantry Regiment (Hesse-Kassel) (400 men) Stückrad Infantry Regiment, Brigadier General Stückrad (Hesse-Kassel) (400 men) d'Herleville Infantry Regiment, Major General d'Herleville (Hanover-Calenberg) (400 men) von Tozin Infantry Regiment (Lüneburg-Celle) (400 men) Hulsen Infantry Regiment, Major General Hulsen (Hanover Calenberg) (400 men) Württemberg Brigade Württemberg Regiment Stenfels (571 men) Württemberg Regiment Hermann Württemberg Grenadier Regiment (833 men) Seckendorff's Infantry Regiment, Brigadier General Friedrich Heinrich, Graf von Seckendorff (573 men) This regiment is from Anspach-Beyreuth, not Wurttemburg 1st Line (Infantry) Heidebrecht Infantry Regiment, Brigadier General Heidebrecht (Ansbach/UP auxiliary) (599 men) Stürler Infantry Regiment (Swiss/UP auxiliary) (523 men) Hirzel Infantry Regiment (Swiss/UP auxiliary) (561 men) Rechteren Infantry Regiment (UP) (548 men) This is a Hesse-Kassel unit, not Dutch Goor Infantry Regiment (UP) (581 men) This regiment is Gohr, and is Hanoverian, not Dutch Dutch Mercenary Brigade Schwerin Infantry Regiment, Colonel Kurt Christof, Graf von Schwerin (Mecklenburg-Prussian Meith Regiment) (547 men) de Varenne Infantry Regiment, Jacques l'Aumonier, Marquis de Varenne (Prussia/UP auxiliary) (461 men) Wulffen Infantry Regiment (Prussia/UP auxiliary) (591 men) Erbprinz von Hessen-Kassel Infantry Regiment, Erbprinz von Hessen-Kassel (Prussia/UP auxiliary) (540 men) Left-center (cavalry) Lieutenant General Cuno Josua von Bülow Noyelles' Brigade Major General Jacques-Louis, comte de Noyellas en Falais Leib Horse Cuirassier Regiment (Hanover-Calenberg) (two squadrons, 150 men) Voigt's Horse Cuirassier Regiment (Hanover-Calenberg) (two squadrons, 150 men) Noyelles' Horse Cuirassier Regiment, Major General Jacques-Louis, comte de Noyelles en Falais (Hanover-Calenberg-Osnabrück/UP auxiliary) (two squadrons, 150 men) Viller's Brigade von Bülow's Dragoons Regiment (Lieutenant General Cuno Josua von Bülow (Hanover-Calenberg) (three squadrons, 225 men) Viller's Dragoons (Lüneburg-Celle) (four squadrons, 320 men) Bothmer's Dragoons, Brigadier General Bothmer (Lüneburg-Celle) (four squadrons, 320 men) 2nd Line (cavalry) Leib Horse Regiment (Hesse-Kassel/UP auxiliary) (two squadrons, 160 men) Spiegel's Karabinere (Hesse-Kassel/UP auxiliary) (two squadrons, 160 men) Schulengurg's Brigade Schulenburg's Dragoons (Hanover-Calenberg) (two squadrons, 150 men) Breidenbach's Horse Regiment (Hanover-Calenberg & Lüneburg-Celle) (two squadrons, 160 men) Erbach's Brigade Erbach's Horse Cuirassier Regiment, Major General Erbach (UP) (two squadrons, 200 men) Baldwin's Horse, Brigadier General Baldwin (UP) (one squadron, 100 men) Schmettau's Dragoons, Gottlieb Schmettau (Ansbach) (four squadrons, 400 men) Cavalry Lieutenant General Friedrich Ulrich, comte de Oostfriese count of East Frisia Vittinghoff's Brigade Grevendorff's Dragoons, Brigadier General Grevendorff (Saxe-Gotha) (three squadrons, 240 men) Hardenberg's Dragoons (Saxe-Gotha) (three squadrons, 240 men) Sachsen-Heilburg Horse Regiment (UP) (two squadrons, 200 men) Bannier's Horse Regiment (Hanover-Calenberg) (two squadrons, 150 men) Auroch's Brigade Erbach's Horse Regiment, Major General Erbach (Hesse-Kassel) (two squadrons, 160 men) Auroch's Dragoons, Major General Auroch (Hesse-Kassel) (four squadrons, 320 men) Major General Jørgen von Rantzau 2nd Sjællandske Horse Regiment, Major General Jørgen von Rantzau (two squadrons, 585 men 5th Jydske Regiment of Horse, Colonel Wilhelm von Schmettau (two squadrons, 440 men) 4th Jydske Regiment of Horse, Brigadier General Jørgen von Rantzau (two squadrons, 440 men) Livregimentet Rytter, Colonel Christian Detlev von Reventlow (two squadrons of six companies, 556 men) Württemberg-Öls Dragoons, Carl Friedrich, Herzog von Württemberg-Öls (three squadrons of ten companies, 1,007 men) Brockdorff's Brigade (Denmark/England auxiliary) Brigadier General Ditlev von Brockdorff 3rd Jydske Horse Regiment, Colonel Ditlev von Brockdroff (two squadrons, 591 men) Ahlefeldt's Horse Cuirassier Regiment (two squadrons, 589 men) 2nd Jydske Horse Regiment, Colonel von Uterwick Prehn (two squadrons, 568 men) Holstein's Horse Cuirassier Regiment, Colonel Dewitz (two squadrons, 578 men) Württemberg-Ōls Dragoons, Carl Friedrich, Herzog von Württemberg-Ōls (two squadrons of ten companies, 589 men) Infantry 1st/His Majesty's Royal Regiment of Foot , George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney (639 men) von Rantzau's Brigade Major General Jørgen von Rantzau 1st Battalion, Rantzau, Major General Jørgen von Rantzau (Lüneburg-Celle/UP auxiliary) (588 men) 2nd Battalion, Rantzau, Major General Jørgen von Rantzau (Lüneburg-Celle/UP auxiliary) (636 men) Bernsdorff Infantry Regiment, Brigadier General Bernsdorff (Lüneburg-Celle/UP auxiliary) (531 men) Teckelenberg Infantry Regiment (Hanover-Calenberg/UP auxiliary) (532 men) St. Paul Infantry Regiment, St. Paul des Estanges (Hanover-Calenberg/UP auxiliary) (520 men) Right, Army of Imperial Austria General of the imperial cavalry Maximilian, Prinz von Braunschweig und Lüneburg Natzmer's Brigade (Prussia) Leib Dragoons (three squadrons, 300 men) Margraf Philip's Horse Cuirassier Regiment, Major General Philip Wilhelm, Margraf von Brandenburg-Schwedt (three squadrons, 300 men) Wartensleben Horse Regiment (three squadrons, 300 men) Bayreuth-Kulmbach Horse Cuirassier Regiment, Colonel Christian Heinrich, Margraf von Bayreuth-Kulmbach (three squadrons, 300 men) von Krassow's Dragoons, Ernst Detlev von Krassow (two dragoons, 160 men) Fugger's Brigade (Austria) Major General Graf von Fugger Alt-Hanover Cuirassiers (six squadrons, 500 men) Lobkowicz 's Cuirassiers (six squadrons, 500 men) Durlach's Brigade Limburg-Styrum 's Dragoons (Austria) (six squadrons, 500 men) Württemberg Independent Cavalry (Leib Dragoon) (Württemberg) (three squadrons, 240 men) Fugger's Cuirassier, Major General Graf von Fugger (Swabia) (three squadrons, 240 men)Fugger's regiment were NOT Cuirassier Öttingen's Dragoons, Albrecht Ernst II, Fürst von Öttingen (Swabia) (two squadrons, 160 men) Cavalry Major General Charles Graf de l'Ostange Sonsfeld's Dragoons (three squadrons, 300 men) l'Ostange's Horse Cuirassier Regiment, Major General Charles, Graf de l'Ostange (three squadrons, 300 men) Helmstaett Horse Cuirassier Regiment, Erbprinz Helmstaett von Württemberg (Swabia) (three squadrons, 240 men) Nagel's Karabinere (Münster/UP auxiliary) (two squadrons, 200 men) Vennigen's Karabinere, George Friedrich von Vennigen (Palatine/UP auxiliary) (two squadrons, 300 men) Hachenberg's Cuirassiers (Neiderrhein) (one squadron, 80 men) Cusani's Brigade (Austria) Field Marshal Marquis de Cusani Darmstadt's Imperial Cuirassiers (six squadrons, 600 men) Cusani's Imperial Cuirassiers (six squadrons, 600 men) Caraffa's Brigade Fechenbach's Dragoons, Freiherr von Fechenbach (Würzburg/Mainz) (four squadrons, 400 men) Württemberg Leibgarde (Württemberg) (two squadrons, 160 men) Bibra's Dragoons, Major General von Bibra (Mainz/Austrian auxiliary) (four squadrons, 400 men) Cavalry Reserve Moorheim's Cuirassiers (Mecklenburg) (two squadrons, 160 men) Leutsch's Cuirssiers (Saxe-Gotha) (two squadrons, 160 men) von der Ostheim's Horse Cuirassier Regiment (Holstein-Gottorp) (two squadrons, 160 men) Bayreuth's Brigade (Franconia) Auffess' Dragoons (five squadrons, 400 men) Bayreuth's Cuirassiers (five squadrons, 400 men) Margraf Ludwig's Infantry Regiment, Christian Ludwig, Margraf von Brandenburg-Schwedt (two battalions, 800 men) Anhalt-Dessau Infantry Regiment, Leopold, Fürst von Anhalt-Dessau (two battalions, 800 men) Canitz' Brigade (Prussia) Major General Christopher Albrecht von Canitz Margraf Phillip's Infantry Regiment, Phillip Wilhelm, Margraf von Brandenburg-Schwedt (two battalions, 800 men) Leibgarde, Colonel Carl Philipp Freiherr von Wylich zu Lottum (one battalion, 400 men) Canitz's Infantry Regiment, Major General Christopher Albrecht von Canitz (two battalions, 800 men) Lieutenant General Scholten Bielke's Brigade (Denmark/Austria auxiliary) Brigadier General Bielke 1st Battalion, Regiment of Foot Prince George, Karl Rudolf, Fürst von Württemberg-Neuenstadt (one battalion, 824 men) 2nd Battalion, Regiment of Foot Prince Carl, Lieutenant General Scholten (one battalion, 627 men) Regiment Dansk Den Kongelige Livgarde til fods (one battalion, 740 men) 2nd Battalion, Regiment of Foot Prince George, Karl Rudolf, Fürst von Württemberg-Neuenstadt (one battalion, 704 men) Rebsdorff's Brigade (Denmark/England and UP auxiliary) Brigadier General Rebsdorff 1st Battalion, Fynske Regiment of Foot, Brigadier General Schonenfeldt (one battalion, 860 men) 2nd Battalion, Sjællandske Regiment of Foot (one battalion, 620 men) Regiment of Foot Christian Ulrich , Colonel Bonart (one battalion, 702 men) Artillery Three batteries of ten sakers One battery of four howitzers One battery of six demi-culverin One battery of twenty-four 3-pounders One battery of sixteen 3-pounders Franco-Bavarian Army Camille d'Hostun de la Baume , Duc de Tallard, Marshal of France Blenheim Wing Command Lieutenant General Philippe, Marquis de Clérambault Maréchal de Camp, the Marquis de Blansac Division La Reine's Dragoons (three squadrons, 231 men) Rohan-Chabot's Dragoons (three squadrons, 330 men) Vasse's Dragoons (three squadrons, 327 men) Blenheim Garrison Regiment de Navarre (three battalions, 1,500 men) Balincourt's Brigade Régiment d'Artois (two battalions, 1,000 men) 1st/Provence (one battalion, 500 men) Greder's Brigade Regiment de Greder Allemande (German) (two battalions, 1,000 men) Regiment de Lassay (one battalion, 500 men) Blenheim Reserve Régiment de Languedoc (two battalions, 1,000 men) Regiment de Santerre (two battalions, 1,000 men) St. Segond's Brigade Regiment de Zurlauben (Walloons) (two battalions, 1,000 men) [2] [3] St. Segond (Italy) (one battalion, 500 men) Infantry Reserve Lieutenant General the Marquis de Marinvaux Montroux's Brigade Regiment de Montroux (Italy) (one battalion, 500 men) Regiment de Aunis (two battalions, 1,000 men) Monfort's Brigade Regiment de Montfort (Walloon/Spanish auxiliary) (two battalions, 1,200 men) Blaisois (one battalion, 500 men) d'Enonville's Brigade Royal (three battalions, 1,500 men) Regiment de Boulonnais (two battalions, 1,000 men) Between Blenheim and Oberglauheim Lieutenant General le Comte de Zurlauben Vertilly's Brigade Gendarmerie de France (eight squadrons, 1,500 men) Broglie's Brigade Regiment du Roi (three squadrons, 423 men) Regiment de Tarneau (two squadrons, 184 men) Regiment de la Baume (two squadrons, 282 men) Grignan's Brigade Mestre de Camp General (three squadrons, 255 men) Regiment de Grignan (three squadrons, 312 men) Marechal de Camp, the Duc d'Humeries Merode-Westerloo's Brigade (Spain) Regimiento de Gaetano (two squadrons, 214 men) Regimiento de Acosta (two squadrons, 200 men) Regimiento de Heider (two squadrons, 200 men) la Valliere's Brigade Régiment de Bourgogne (three squadrons, 360 men) Regiment de la Valliere (two squadrons, 136 men) Regiment de Noailles (two squadrons, 200 men) Regiment de Beringhen (three squadrons, 783 men) Silly's Brigade Regiment de Orleans (three squadrons, 165 men) Regiment de Montreval (two squadrons, 110 men) Regiment de St. Pouanges (two squadrons, 100 men) Regiment de Ligonday (two squadrons, 100 men) Marechal de Camp, the Marquis de St. Pierre Trecesson's Brigade Regiment de Robecque (Wallon) (two battalions, 1,000 men) Regiment de d'Albaret (one battalion, 500 men) Breuil's Brigade Regiment de Auxerrois (two battalions, 1,000 men) Regiment de Chabrillant (one battalion, 500 men) Belleisle's Brigade Regiment de Maffei (one battalion, 500 men) Kurprinz Regiment (one battalion, 500 men) Leibgarde Fusiliers Regiment (two battalions, 1,000 men) Leibgarde Grenadiers Regiment (one battalion, 500 men) Regiment d'Ocfort (one battalion, 500 men) Mercy's Brigade Regiment de Mercy (two battalions, 1,000 men) Regiment de Tattenbach (one battalion, 500 men) Regiment von Karthausen (one battalion, 500 men) Regiment von Spilburg (one battalion, 500 men) Lieutenant General the Comte de Dreux Fontbeausard's Dragoon Brigade Regiment de Listenois (three squadrons, 360 men) Regiment de la Vrilliere (three squadrons, 360 men) Regiment de Fontbeausard (three squadrons, 360 men) Conflans' Brigade Regiment de Conflans (two squadrons, 240 men) Regiment de Rouvray (two squadrons, 240 men) Lieutenant General the Marquis de Sauffrey Montbron's Brigade Regiment de Dauphin (three battalions, 1,500 men) 1st Conde (one battalion, 500 men) Regiment de Montboissier (one battalion, 500 men) Tourouvre's Brigade Regiment de Lorraine (one battalion, 500 men) Regiment de Toulouse (two battalions, 1,000 men) Montmorency's Brigade

i don't know

In which Indian city did British troops open fire without warning on a crowd of 10,000 in 1919?

Massacre of Amritsar | India [1919] | Britannica.com Massacre of Amritsar Alternative Titles: Jallianwala Bagh massacre, Jallianwalla Bagh massacre Related Topics list of cities and towns in India Massacre of Amritsar, also called Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre, Jallianwalla also spelled Jallianwala, incident on April 13, 1919, in which British troops fired on a large crowd of unarmed Indians in Amritsar in the Punjab region (now in Punjab state) of India , killing several hundred people and wounding many hundreds more. It marked a turning point in India’s modern history, in that it left a permanent scar on Indo-British relations and was the prelude to Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi ’s full commitment to the cause of Indian nationalism and independence from Britain. Massacre of Amritsar memorial, Amritsar, Punjab, India. Joanjoc During World War I (1914–18) the British government of India enacted a series of repressive emergency powers that were intended to combat subversive activities. By the war’s end, expectations were high among the Indian populace that those measures would be eased and that India would be given more political autonomy . The Montagu-Chelmsford Report , presented to the British Parliament in 1918, did in fact recommend limited local self-government. Instead, however, the government of India passed what became known as the Rowlatt Acts in early 1919, which essentially extended the repressive wartime measures. The acts were met by widespread anger and discontent among Indians, notably in the Punjab region. Gandhi in early April called for a one-day general strike throughout the country. In Amritsar the news that prominent Indian leaders had been arrested and banished from that city sparked violent protests on April 10, in which soldiers fired upon civilians, buildings were looted and burned, and angry mobs killed several foreign nationals and severely beat a Christian missionary. A force of several dozen troops commanded by Brigadier General Reginald Edward Harry Dyer was given the task of restoring order. Among the measures taken was a ban on public gatherings. Similar Topics Srebrenica massacre On the afternoon of April 13, a crowd of at least 10,000 men, women, and children gathered in an open space known as the Jallianwalla Bagh , which was nearly completely enclosed by walls and had only one exit. It is not clear how many people there were protesters who were defying the ban on public meetings and how many had come to the city from the surrounding region to celebrate Baisakhi, a spring festival. Dyer and his soldiers arrived and sealed off the exit. Without warning, the troops opened fire on the crowd, reportedly shooting hundreds of rounds until they ran out of ammunition. It is not certain how many died in the bloodbath, but, according to one official report, an estimated 379 people were killed, and about 1,200 more were wounded. After they ceased firing, the troops immediately withdrew from the place, leaving behind the dead and wounded. Portion of a wall in Jallianwalla Bagh, Amritsar, Punjab, India, with bullet marks from the … Vinoo202 The shooting was followed by the proclamation of martial law in the Punjab that included public floggings and other humiliations. Indian outrage grew as news of the shooting and subsequent British actions spread throughout the subcontinent. The Bengali poet and Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore renounced the knighthood that he had received in 1915. Gandhi was initially hesitant to act, but he soon began organizing his first large-scale and sustained nonviolent protest ( satyagraha ) campaign, the noncooperation movement (1920–22), which thrust him to prominence in the Indian nationalist struggle. The government of India ordered an investigation of the incident (the Hunter Commission), which in 1920 censured Dyer for his actions and ordered him to resign from the military. Reaction in Britain to the massacre was mixed, however. Many condemned Dyer’s actions—including Sir Winston Churchill , then secretary of war, in a speech to the House of Commons in 1920—but the House of Lords praised Dyer and gave him a sword inscribed with the motto “Saviour of the Punjab.” In addition, a large fund was raised by Dyer’s sympathizers and presented to him. The Jallianwalla Bagh site in Amritsar is now a national monument.

Amritsar

In which war was the Battle of Ramillies?

BBC - History : British History Timeline 22 July 1901 The 'Taff Vale' case leads to the birth of the Labour party The Taff Vale Railway Company successfully sued a trade union, the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants, for the costs of industrial action taken by its members. The Labour Representative Committee, a socialist federation formed in 1900, convinced the trade unions that the political representation of labour was now essential. This organisation later became the Labour party. 31 May 1902 Treaty of Vereeniging ends the Second Boer War The treaty of Vereeniging confirmed British victory over the Boer republics after three years of war, and laid the foundations for the Union of South Africa. Notably, it still ignored the rights of the black population. The cost and conduct of the war prompted concerns that Britain was no longer fit for its imperial role. 11 July 1902 Arthur Balfour succeeds Lord Salisbury as prime minister The Conservatives, led by the Marquess of Salisbury, dominated British politics after the Liberals' split over the issue of 'Home Rule' for Ireland in 1886. Salisbury's successor and nephew, Arthur Balfour, shared with his uncle an interest in foreign imperial policy. He was premier for two-and-a-half years. September 1903 'Lib-Lab' pact enables Labour to break into national politics A secret pact was ratified between the Liberal party and the Labour Representative Committee, which in certain constituencies allowed Labour a free run at elections, unimpeded by a Liberal candidate. In the long run, the pact may have done more to destroy the Liberal party than preserve it. 10 October 1903 Women's Social and Political Union is formed to campaign for women's suffrage The Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) was founded by six women, of whom Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst soon became the most prominent. Frustrated at the lack of progress on women's rights, their activities soon became more confrontational, and included prison hunger strikes. 8 April 1904 'Entente Cordiale' is signed between Britain and France This agreement reconciled British and French imperial interests, particularly in Africa, but also marked the end of centuries of intermittent conflict and paved the way for future diplomatic and military cooperation. The two countries were united in their suspicion of Germany's ambitions. Germany, in turn, hoped to persuade Britain to abandon the alliance. 31 March 1905 Germany tests the 'Entente Cordiale' by triggering a crisis in Morocco Wilhelm II visited Tangier to demonstrate German opposition to France's assumption of suzerainty over Morocco, and to test the strength of the Anglo-French entente, which the Germans expected to crumble. It did not, and Britain displayed its commitment to France by initiating military staff talks between the two countries in 1906. 4 December 1905 Liberals form a government under Henry Campbell-Bannerman In November, the Conservative Prime Minister Arthur Balfour tried to expose the divisions within the Liberal opposition by resigning, but his rival Henry Campbell-Bannerman formed a Liberal government and then led it to a smashing success at the polls in January 1906. Armed with an overall majority, the Liberals embarked on a programme of social reform. 10 February 1906 Royal Navy launches the first 'Dreadnought' class battleship HMS 'Dreadnought', the first of a new class of 'all big-gun' battleships, was launched at Portsmouth. It was by far the most powerful battleship afloat, and raised the stakes in the Anglo-German naval arms race. 31 August 1907 Britain and Russia agree an entente on 'spheres of influence' in Asia The two countries agreed spheres of influence in Asia, so freeing Britain from its worries about a Russian invasion of India. But an agreement to resolve imperial disputes took on the appearance of a European pact. The 'Triple Alliance' of Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary (also known as the 'Central Powers') was faced by a 'Triple Entente' of Britain, France and Russia (also known as the 'Entente Powers'). 8 April 1908 Herbert Asquith becomes Liberal prime minister Illness had forced Liberal Prime Minister Henry Campbell-Bannerman to resign, and he was succeeded by Herbert Asquith. In his cabinet reshuffle, Asquith brought in Reginald McKenna and Winston Churchill, and appointed the radical, David Lloyd George, as chancellor of the exchequer. 27 April 1908 Olympic Games open at White City in London The 1908 games were originally to be held in Rome, but were reassigned to London at short notice and held at the purpose-built White City stadium. Famously, the marathon ended in dramatic fashion when the race leader, Dorando Pietri of Italy, was disqualified after he collapsed and had to be helped over the finishing line. Widely recognised as the best organised Games to date, they featured 22 nations, 110 events and more than 2,000 athletes. 27 October 1908 Parliament approves old age pensions New legislation gave a weekly means-tested pension of a maximum of five shillings to all those aged over 70. Only about half a million people received the pension, and thus the significance of the legislation lay as much in the fact that it established a principle as in its immediate benefits. 29 April 1909 Chancellor David Lloyd George introduces the 'People's Budget' The introduction of the new 'Dreadnought' class battleship and the subsequent naval arms race with Germany prompted David Lloyd George, the chancellor of the exchequer, to introduce a tax on land, to increase income tax, and to propose a 'super-tax' on incomes over £5,000 per annum. He presented these increases as designed to fund social reforms. 30 November 1909 House of Lords rejects the 'People's Budget' In rejecting Chancellor David Lloyd George's budget, the Conservative-dominated House of Lords broke the parliamentary convention that the upper house should not overturn a financial bill. This ensured that House of Lords reform was one of the issues at stake in the next general election. 15 February 1910 Liberals win the election but lose their overall majority The election precipitated by the Lords' rejection of the 'People's Budget' resulted in 275 seats for the Liberals, 273 for the Conservatives and 40 for Labour. The budget was then passed. The Irish Nationalists, with 82, were now in a position to force Irish 'Home Rule' back up the agenda. 6 May 1910 Edward VII dies and is succeeded by George V Both Edward VII, who died in 1910, and his son, George V, ensured that the monarchy was more active than it had been in the latter years of Victoria's reign, but they exercised their influence discreetly. Edward's funeral brought together the royalty of Europe - many of them his relations - for the last time before war broke out in 1914. 19 December 1910 Liberals retain power in the second general election of the 1910 After the general election in February, efforts to broker a deal on parliamentary reform failed, and the Liberals went back to the polls at the end of the year. They and the Conservatives each secured 272 seats, and, with Labour supporting the Liberals, the Irish Nationalists held the balance of power. 1 July 1911 German gunboat provokes the 'Agadir crisis' with France The Germans despatched a gunboat to the Moroccan port of Agadir to assert their rights against the French. A Franco-German settlement was negotiated, but the British were alarmed, fearing the Germans planned to turn Agadir into a naval base. As with the first Moroccan crisis in 1905, Germany only succeeded in strengthening the Entente Cordiale between Britain and France. 10 August 1911 House of Lords loses its power of veto over legislation The Liberals finally forced through House of Lords reform, which had been on the cards for two years. The reforms meant that the Lords could not veto legislation that had passed the House of Commons in three successive sessions, and that parliament itself would be dissolved after five years, not seven. In separate legislation, pay for members of parliament was introduced. December 1911 National Insurance Act provides cover against sickness and unemployment Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George devised a contributory scheme of health insurance for those in employment, which provided payment for medical treatment. Grafted on to the act was a limited plan for unemployment benefit drawn up by Winston Churchill. With this legislation, the Liberals laid the foundations of the Welfare State. 11 April 1912 Liberals propose Irish 'Home Rule' for the third time Reflecting their dependence on Irish Nationalist votes in the House of Commons, the Liberals proposed 'Home Rule' for Ireland. In response, Ulster Protestants and unionists formed the Ulster Volunteer Force, a paramilitary force which threatened the government with civil war if the measure was carried. 13 April 1912 Royal Flying Corps is established The foundation of the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) reflected British recognition of the growing importance of military aviation. In 1918, the RFC was amalgamated with the Royal Naval Air Service to form the Royal Air Force (RAF). 15 April 1912 'Titanic' sinks with the loss of 1,503 lives The White Star liner 'Titanic' was the largest vessel in the world at the time of her launch. Her builders and owners claimed that she was 'practically unsinkable', but on her maiden voyage from Southampton to New York she collided with an iceberg and sank within hours, with the loss of 1,503 lives. 'Titanic' could carry over 3,500 people, but was equipped with only enough lifeboats to save 1,178, a fact that contributed to the massive loss of life. 4 June 1913 Suffragette Emily Davison is killed by the king's horse Emily Wilding Davison was severely injured when she threw herself in front of the king's horse at the Derby, and died in hospital a few days later. The militancy of her organisation, the Women's Social and Political Union, proved counter-productive to the cause of women's rights, but the more moderate National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies also had little to show for its efforts through negotiation. 20 March 1914 Elements of the army say they won't enforce Irish 'Home Rule' The officers of the 6th Cavalry Brigade, stationed outside Dublin, indicated that they would refuse to enforce Irish 'Home Rule' in Ulster if a parliamentary act proposing greater autonomy for Ireland were carried. The army was divided within itself, representing a potential flashpoint for the government. Irish Home Rule was shelved at the outbreak of World War One. 28 June 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand is assassinated in Sarajevo The heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb terrorist, in Sarajevo. The Austro-Hungarian government blamed Serbia and used the killing as a pretext for war. For most Britons this was an remote and insignificant event, but the conflict would escalate sharply, drawing in the 'Great Powers' and ultimately resulting in the outbreak of World War One. 23 July 1914 Austro-Hungarian ultimatum to Serbia provokes a crisis in Europe On 6 July, Germany effectively gave unconditional backing to any action Austria-Hungary took regarding the recent assassination of its crown prince, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, by a Bosnian Serb in Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary used this 'blank cheque' to deliver an ultimatum to Serbia on 23 July, which was widely recognised as little more than a pretext for war. With Russia standing by Serbia, Britain invited Germany to join a 'Great Power' conference to resolve the conflict, but Germany refused. 4 August 1914 Britain declares war on Germany in response to the invasion of Belgium When Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia in July, Serbia's ally Russia mobilised its army. Austria-Hungary's ally, Germany, in turn declared war on Russia. Russia's alliance with France now threatened Germany with war on two fronts. Germany acted to quickly neutralise France by a well-planned surprise invasion through neutral Belgium - the 'Schlieffen Plan'. Britain, as guarantor of Belgian neutrality, told Germany to withdraw. The ultimatum expired on 4 August and Britain duly declared war. 23 August 1914 British Expeditionary Force meets the German army at Mons A British Expeditionary Force (BEF) of over 100,000 men was sent to repel the German invasion of France. It retreated after an initial engagement close to the Belgian border at Mons, then took part in a successful counter-attack on the river Marne in early September. This resistance by the BEF, Belgian and French forces frustrated Germany's 'Schlieffen Plan' for quickly neutralising France. Already fighting Russia, Germany now faced a trench-based war of attrition on two fronts. 31 October 1914 First Battle of Ypres exhausts the British army For the British army on the Western Front, the town of Ypres in Flanders was crucial, because it screened the Channel ports through which the army was supplied from Britain. The Germans tried unsuccessfully to break the line at Ypres in a battle which lasted until 22 November. British forces suffered 54,000 casualties. 5 November 1914 Britain declares war on the Ottoman Empire Germany formed an alliance with the Ottoman Empire on 2 August 1914, but the Turks resisted German pressure to enter the war until the end of October when it shelled Russian ports on the Black Sea. Britain, France and Russia responded with declarations of war. The Ottoman Empire in turn declared a military 'jihad' in November. The implications for Britain, with a vulnerable empire stretching across the Middle East to India and including a large Muslim population, were considerable. 25 April 1915 British and allied troops land on the Gallipoli peninsula The failure of British naval efforts to break through the Dardanelles and so threaten Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, led to a decision to land troops on the Gallipoli peninsula. A combined force of British, New Zealand, Australian and French colonial troops were unable to break out of their beachheads and the campaign ultimately ended in defeat, with all troops evacuated by the end of the year. 7 May 1915 'Lusitania' is sunk by a German submarine The British passenger liner 'Lusitania' was torpedoed by a German submarine and sank with the loss of 1,200 lives. Of those, 124 were American civilians, but despite strong pressure US President Woodrow Wilson declared that the United States was 'too proud to fight'. The sinking aroused widespread anti-German feeling in Britain. 25 May 1915 Herbert Asquith forms a coalition government Liberal Prime Minister Herbert Asquith formed a coalition government following the 'Shell Crisis', which was sparked press reports of shell shortages at the front. The principal beneficiaries of this coalition in terms of the top jobs remained the Liberals rather than the Conservatives. 25 September 1915 First British use of poison gas, at Loos, France While the French attacked further south, the British struck at Loos, using chlorine gas for the first time in their initial attack. However, the wind was not favourable, and gains were limited. The battle continued until mid-October. The first use of poison gas in World War One was by the Germans on 22 April 1915 during the opening engagements of the Second Battle of Ypres. 27 January 1916 Conscription is introduced in Britain In addition to raising a large army, Britain needed to allocate its manpower rationally between military service and wartime production to meet the demands of 'total war'. Conscription enabled it to do both. Opposition to the measure in the House of Commons was limited (36 votes to 383), but parliament still acknowledged the rights of the individual in allowing conscientious objection. 24 April 1916 Irish rebels of the 'Easter Rising' seize the post office in Dublin Irish nationalists, supplied with German rifles, rebelled at Easter and seized key buildings in Dublin, including the post office where their final stand was made. Most of the population was unsupportive and the rebellion was crushed within a week. The British executed the leaders, inadvertently making martyrs of the rebels and inspiring those who followed. 29 April 1916 British garrison at Kut-el-Amara surrenders to the Turks British troops invaded Mesopotamia (Iraq), then part of the Ottoman Empire, at the end of 1914. The rapid advance on Baghdad outstripped itself and the troops fell back to Kut-el-Amara, where they were encircled. Efforts to relieve the garrison failed and it surrendered. British prestige in the Middle East plummeted. 31 May 1916 Battle of Jutland results in a bruising British victory over the German fleet The British Grand Fleet clashed with the German High Seas Fleet at Jutland in the North Sea, but the heavily outnumbered Germans managed to escape in the night. The British lost more ships than the Germans, but the German fleet was rendered unable to put to sea again, thereby ensuring British naval supremacy remained intact. 1 July 1916 Battle of the Somme begins with a British and French attack The Allies planned a series of coordinated offensives for 1916. On the Western Front, the French and British attacked astride the river Somme, where their two armies met. On 1 July, the British army suffered its worst casualties in a single day - 57,470 men, of whom nearly 20,000 were killed. The battle continued until 18 November 1916. 15 September 1916 Tanks are used for the first time, by the British at Flers, France The static trench warfare of the Western Front prompted the British to develop a self-propelled vehicle that could cross barbed wire and trenches and protect those inside from enemy fire. The 'Mark 1' tank was first employed during the Battle of the Somme, at Flers-Courcelette, but it was not until November 1917 that they were employed in decisive numbers. Once problems with reliability were overcome, the British and French used their new weapon to considerable effect against the Germans. 6 December 1916 David Lloyd George becomes prime minister Prime Minister Herbert Asquith opposed the creation of a smaller war committee to run the war effort on a daily basis. His Liberal colleague and Minister for Munitions David Lloyd George, with the support of the Conservatives, used the split to force Asquith out and replace him as prime minister. Lloyd George set up a war cabinet whose members were freed from other cabinet duties. 18 December 1916 General Douglas Haig assumes command of the British Expeditionary Force Faith in the original commander-in-chief of the British Expeditionary Force, Sir John French, had been dwindling - not least owing to his belated release of the reserves in the Battle of Loos. Partly thanks to the intervention of George V, Sir Douglas Haig was appointed to succeed French. 1 February 1917 Germans declare unrestricted submarine warfare By sinking all merchant ships, regardless of nationality, the Germans hoped to starve the British into submission in six months. They failed and the campaign prompted the United States, the principal neutral power, to declare war on Germany on 6 April 1917. 31 July 1917 General Douglas Haig launches the Third Battle of Ypres The main British offensive for 1917 was designed to clear the German threat to the Channel ports and to break through to the Germans' own communications. The fighting continued until 18 November, ending on the ridge at Passchendaele. By then, unusually heavy rains and the destruction of the landscape by heavy shelling had turned the ground to an impassable morass of mud. 2 November 1917 'Balfour Declaration' gives British support to a Jewish homeland in Palestine In a letter to a leading member of the British Jewish community, Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour stated the British government's support for a Jewish national home in Palestine, the first such declaration by a world power. It is believed that similar promises were made to the Arabs prior to the publication of the Balfour Declaration in correspondence between Sir Arthur Henry McMahon, British high commissioner in Egypt, and the Hashemite Hussein Ibn Ali, the Sharif of Mecca. 7 November 1917 Bolsheviks, under Vladimir Lenin, create a communist revolution in Russia In February 1917, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia was forced to abdicate after serious reverses in the war against Germany. A provisional government of liberals and moderate socialists was established, but it also failed on the battlefield and was overthrown in a carefully planned coup by the Bolsheviks, who promised 'peace, bread and land' to the war-weary Russian people. Inspired by the writings of Karl Mar, the Bolsheviks established a government based on the 'soviet' (governing council). 11 December 1917 General Edmund Allenby leads British forces into Jerusalem After seizing Beersheba and Gaza in the first week of November, British forces under General Edmund Allenby forced the Turks to abandon Jerusalem. Prime Minister David Lloyd George described this as a 'Christmas present' for the British people at the end of a year when a conclusion to the war seemed remote. 6 February 1918 Limited numbers of women are given the vote for the first time The Representation of the People Act enfranchised all men over the age of 21, and propertied women over 30. The electorate increased to 21 million, of which 8 million were women, but it excluded working class women who mostly failed the property qualification. 3 March 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk takes Russia out of World War One Seeking peace at virtually any cost, the new communist Russian government under Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire). The terms were humiliating. Russia handed over massive swathes of territory, constituting a third of its population, 50% of its industry and 90% of its coal mines. Opposition to the treaty helped ignite the Russian Civil War, which lasted until 1922. 21 March 1918 German offensive makes massive gains on the Western Front Following peace with Russia, German commanders planned to use fresh troops from the Eastern Front to attack before American troops began to arrive in the west. After a short but stunning bombardment, the Germans attacked across the old Somme battlefields and made the greatest advance on the Western Front since 1914. It was eventually halted east of Amiens, France. In response, the Allies gave French general Ferdinand Foch overall responsibility for coordinating their armies on the Western Front. 9 April 1918 Second major German offensive causes a crisis on the Western Front The second German offensive of 1918 made three major incursions into the Allied line and precipitated a crisis on the Western Front. British Field Marshal Douglas Haig's order of the day on 11 April famously told his men that they must stand and fight 'with their backs to the wall'. Despite the stunning success of the offensive, the German army had significantly overstretched itself without achieving a decisive victory - a factor that would contribute to its eventual defeat. May 1918 Massive flu epidemic reaches Britain The 1918-1919 'Spanish flu' epidemic killed more than 200,000 people in Britain and up to 50 million worldwide. Despite its name, the virus seems to have originated in the United States, but quickly spread around the world, infecting up to 30% of the world's population. 8 August 1918 British make major advances at the Battle of Amiens The British and French, using the greatest concentration of tanks in World War One, advanced up to six miles in a single day. So many German soldiers were forced to surrender that their commander-in-chief General Erich Ludendorff called it 'the black day of the German army'. 26 September 1918 General Ferdinand Foch launches an Allied offensive on the Western Front General Ferdinand Foch, who had been appointed the supreme commander of the Allied armies on the Western Front on 26 March 1918, coordinated attacks by British, French and American forces. The British broke through the principal German fortified defences, the formidable Hindenburg line, on the following day, and the advance continued unabated into October 1918. 26 October 1918 Turkey opens armistice talks with Britain With the Ottoman army in retreat on three of its four fronts - in Bulgaria, Syria and Iraq - the Turks opened negotiations to surrender. Unlike the negotiations with the other enemy powers, these were bilateral talks between the British and the Turks, with no French or Russian involvement. 11 November 1918 World War One ends when Germany signs an armistice By September 1918, Germany was exhausted and saw no prospect of victory. The Allies' terms became progressively harsher as they pressed their advantage on the Western Front, both to ensure the removal of Kaiser Wilhelm II as head of state and to guard against the future renewal of hostilities by Germany. Despite onerous terms, Germany eventually capitulated and signed an armistice that brought the fighting on the Western Front to a halt at 11am on 11 November 1918. 14 December 1918 David Lloyd George's coalition wins the post-war election This was the first election in which women voted. The results were Conservative and Coalition Liberals 509, Labour 72, Independent Liberals (former Liberal Prime Minister Herbert Asquith's followers) 36, others 27. Although 73 members of Sinn Fein were elected, who included among their number Britain's first woman member of parliament Countess Constance Markievicz, they refused to take their seats. 13 January 1919 Sir Satyenda Prassano Sinha becomes the first Indian peer A distinguished lawyer who had been a member of the Governor General's Council in India, Sir Satyenda Prassano Sinha had been knighted in 1914 for his services to the British government. In 1919, he advised on the Government of India Act. He became Baron Sinha of Raipur. 18 January 1919 Paris Peace Conference, to draw up treaties to end World War One, opens Seventy delegates representing the 32 allied and associated powers met to decide on peace treaties following the end of World War One. In reality, the treaties were mainly the work of the British, French, Italian and US leaders. One of the treaties prepared at the conference, the Treaty of Versailles, imposed harsh reparations on Germany, and is widely considered to have contributed to the eventual outbreak of World War Two. 21 January 1919 Sinn Fein sets up its own parliament, the 'Dáil Eireann', in Dublin The harsh British reaction to the 1916 Easter Rising allowed Sinn Fein and the 'revolutionaries' to triumph over the moderate Home Rulers in the 1918 election. The Sinn Fein members of parliament - having refused to take their seats in the British House of Commons - announced that they constituted an independent Irish parliament called the 'Dáil Eireann'. A provisional government was elected with Éamon De Valera as president. 31 January 1919 Massive rally in Glasgow sparks fears of a Russian-style revolution Glasgow had a history of radicalism, and World War One turned it into a centre for organised protest against poor working conditions. The Liberal government feared this mass rally was the beginning of a working class revolution along the lines of the Russian Revolution of 1917. The rally was broken up by police, and troops and tanks were deployed on Clydeside. In reality, the protesters objectives were not that revolutionary - a 40-hour working week and a living wage. 18 March 1919 Rowlatt Act extends the suspension of civil liberties in India The Rowlatt Act extended wartime 'emergency measures', such as detention without trial. Mohandas Gandhi of the Indian Congress Party asked Indians to use non-violent civil disobedience in protest against the act, and to refuse to cooperate with the British government. The 1918 Montagu-Chelmsford Report offered reform, but not self-rule - despite the sacrifices India had made in the war and US President Woodrow Wilson's declaration regarding national self-determination. 10 April 1919 British soldiers kill hundreds of unarmed Indian civilians at Amritsar, India A large crowd attending a Sikh religious festival in defiance of British martial law was fired on without warning by troops under the command of Brigadier General Reginald Dyer. More than 300 people were killed. The 'Amritsar Massacre' crystallised growing Indian discontent with British rule, which was only heightened when Dyer faced no other punishment than an official censure. Led by Mohandas Gandhi, the Indian Congress Party now became a nationwide movement committed to independence. 11 September 1919 British government declares Sinn Fein's 'Dáil Eireann' (parliament) illegal When the British government outlawed Sinn Fein's Dáil Eireann, it sparked a vicious two-year guerrilla war between the Irish Republican Army (IRA) in southern Ireland and British forces, which included the hated 'Black and Tan' auxiliaries. With the IRA unable to deliver a decisive victory, and the British government increasingly worried about rising casualties and international criticism over its conduct of the war, a truce was called in July 1921. 12 October 1919 British troops are withdrawn from the civil war in Russia In 1918, a British force had been sent to Archangel in Russia to prevent Allied stores falling into Bolshevik or German hands and to take pressure off the Western Front after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk had taken Russia out of World War One. The evacuation of Murmansk in 1919, and the evacuation of Archangel two weeks previously, ended the British attempt to intervene on the anti-Bolshevik ('White Russian') side in the civil war in northern Russia. 1 December 1919 Lady Astor becomes the first woman to take her seat in parliament American-born Nancy Astor was not the first British woman member of parliament (MP), but she was the first one to take her seat. Constance Markievicz became the first woman MP in 1918, but as a member of Sinn Fein she had refused to take her seat. 23 December 1919 Government of India Act fails to meet demands for greater independence The Government of India Act further angered Indians already disillusioned by the Rowlatt Act and the Amritsar Massacre. The act created a bicameral parliament, with power shared between British and Indian politicians (the so-called 'diarchy'), but the most important ministries were held by Britons. More reforms were to be discussed in ten years. The Congress Party responded with strikes and boycotts of British goods. This was declared illegal and Congress leader Mohandas Gandhi was imprisoned. 23 December 1919 Exclusion of women from many jobs is made illegal The Sex Disqualification Removal Act made it illegal for women to be excluded from most jobs, and allowed them to hold judicial office and enter the professions. Women could now become magistrates, solicitors and barristers. 1920 Women at Oxford University are allowed to receive degrees Academic halls for women were first established at Oxford in the 19th century, but although women had been able to attend degree level courses, they could not receive degrees until 1920. 25 April 1920 Britain is given mandates for Mesopotamia and Palestine The mandate system was conceived by US President Woodrow Wilson. France and Britain were commanded to govern their mandates in the interests of their inhabitants, until these territories were ready to be admitted to the League of Nations. The British took over two areas that had previously formed part of the now defunct Ottoman Empire. 1 July 1920 First British high commissioner of Palestine is appointed In 1917, the Balfour Declaration had given official British support for a Jewish national home in Palestine. The territory's new high commissioner, former Home Secretary Sir Herbert Samuel, was Jewish, but he was determined to deal even-handedly with the Palestinian Arabs and the increasing numbers of Jewish immigrants. In May 1921, Arab unrest caused Samuel to halt Jewish immigration. July 1921 Unemployment reaches a post-war high of 2.5 million Prime Minister David Lloyd George had promised 'a land fit for heroes' following World War One, but after a short post-war boom, demobilised soldiers found it increasingly difficult to get work. Deprivation was widespread and industrial relations deteriorated. War debts to the United States and non-payment of European allies' war debts meant the government could not pay for many planned reforms. The 1922 Geddes Report recommended heavy cuts in education, public health and workers' benefits. 23 August 1921 British mandate of Mesopotamia becomes the Kingdom of Iraq The three former Ottoman provinces of Baghdad, Basra and Mosul, named Iraq by the British, were in a state of revolt. In an effort to quell the unrest, Emir Faisal was made king and administrator of the country. King Faisal was a member of the Hashemite family, who had been important British allies against the Ottoman Empire. 6 December 1921 Anglo-Irish Peace Treaty is signed, resulting in partition of the island This treaty ended the war between the breakaway southern Irish Republic and Britain, and was supposed to resolve the sectarian 'Ulster problem' by partitioning Ireland. It turned southern Ireland into a dominion - rather than a republic - called the 'Irish Free State', with the British sovereign as head of state. The fact that the treaty still bound Ireland to Britain caused deep conflict and led to the outbreak of the Irish Civil War. 28 June 1922 Irish Civil War breaks out The civil war was ignited by the Anglo-Irish Peace Treaty, which created a partitioned Irish 'Free State' within the British Empire. The pro-treaty faction under Michael Collins accepted partition and believed the treaty would eventually lead to a republic. The anti-treaty faction, led by Éamon de Valera, rejected partition and wanted a republic immediately. The war ended in victory for the pro-treaty Free State government under Collins (who was assassinated) but caused lasting bitterness. 19 October 1922 Prime Minister David Lloyd George resigns as his wartime coalition breaks up The wartime coalition of Conservatives and David Lloyd George's Liberals won the 1918 general election and began the work of national recovery after World War One. But in 1922, Tory backbenchers overruled their own party leader and voted to leave the coalition, resuming independence as Conservatives. They were disgusted by Lloyd George's Anglo-Irish Treaty and fearful he was about to go to war with Turkey. With his government fatally compromised, Lloyd George resigned. 23 October 1922 Conservative Andrew Bonar Law becomes prime minister Having precipitated the fall of David Lloyd George's Liberal-Conservative coalition government with a brilliant speech to his Conservative colleagues, Andrew Bonar Law was invited by George V to form a government. Law called a general election on 15 November 1922. The Conservatives won 344 seats, Labour 142, National Liberals (Lloyd George's party) approximately 53, Liberals (under Herbert Asquith) approximately 62. Ill health forced Bonar Law to retire in 1923. He died six months later. 15 May 1923 The British Mandate of Transjordan becomes a semi-independent state The mandate for Palestine was divided along the River Jordan, with 'Transjordan' on the eastern side. The Hashemite Emir Abdullah, eldest son of Britain's ally the Sharif Hussein of Mecca, became ruler of the territory. In 1946, Transjordan received independence and Abdullah became King Abdullah I of Jordan. 22 May 1923 Conservative Stanley Baldwin becomes prime minister Conservative Stanley Baldwin became prime minister, with Neville Chamberlain as chancellor of the exchequer, after Andrew Bonar Law resigned due to ill health. Baldwin proposed to abandon free trade, hoping that tariff reform would help to beat unemployment - an unpopular measure. Following the elections of December 1923, the reunited Liberals joined Labour to extinguish tariff reform by a vote of no confidence. Baldwin resigned. 23 January 1924 Ramsay Macdonald becomes the first Labour prime minister After the vote of no confidence that saw Stanley Baldwin resign as prime minister, the leader of the largest opposition party, Ramsay Macdonald, was called on to form a minority Labour government. Labour was unable to realise its more radical ambitions because of its reliance on Liberal support. This helped Macdonald allay fears that a party representing the working class must be revolutionary, but disappointed many supporters on the left. 29 October 1924 Conservatives win a landslide election following the 'Zinoviev Letter' In February 1924, the Labour government formally recognised the Soviet Union, despite nervousness about Communist ambitions. In October, MI5 intercepted an apparently seditious letter from a Soviet official to British communists. Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald agreed to the suppression of the 'Zinoviev letter', but it was leaked just before the election. Stanley Baldwin's Conservatives won by a landslide. Labour's share of the vote actually increased, but the Liberals were totally eclipsed. 28 April 1925 Chancellor Winston Churchill returns Britain to the 'Gold Standard' In his first budget as chancellor of the exchequer, Winston Churchill returned Britain to its pre-1914 monetary system, whereby sterling was fixed at a price reflecting the country's gold reserves. The move resulted in massive deflation and overvaluing of the pound. This made British manufacturing industries uncompetitive, which in turn exacerbated the massive economic problems Britain was to face in the 1930s. 5 August 1925 'Plaid Cymru' is formed to disseminate knowledge of the Welsh language Although the party was initially formed to promote Welsh language and culture, by the 1930s it had a political agenda and was determined that Wales should achieve independent status as a dominion. 26 January 1926 John Logie Baird gives the first public demonstration of television John Logie Baird, a Scottish engineer and inventor, gave a demonstration of a machine for the transmission of pictures, which he called 'television'. Around 50 scientists assembled in his attic workshop in London to witness the event. It was not until after the World War Two that televisions became widely available. 3 May 1926 General strike is declared after miners reject the Samuel Report The Samuel Report sought to rationalise the British coal industry, whose coal had become too expensive, through pay cuts and increased hours. The Trades Union Congress (TUC) ordered a general strike. Well-organised government emergency measures and the lack of widespread public support for the strikers meant it was called off after nine days. 16 May 1926 Irish politician Éamon de Valera establishes the Fianna Fáil party The Irish Civil War made the Irish Free State a reality. Éamon de Valera, who had fought against the treaty that established the Free State, now created the Fianna Fáil party to participate in its political life. Fianna Fáil members elected to the Free State's Dáil (parliament) initially refused to take their seats unless the oath of allegiance to the British sovereign was abolished. Faced with exclusion from politics, Fianna Fáil eventually took the oath, dismissing it as an 'empty formula'. 19 October 1926 Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa are recognised as autonomous In 1923, a dominion's right to make a treaty with a foreign power had been accepted. The Imperial Conference in London went further towards legally defining a dominion by recognising that the dominions (Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa) were autonomous and equal in status, a decision that was later affirmed by the 1931 Statute of Westminster. 1 January 1927 British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is created A group of radio manufacturers, including radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi, set up the British Broadcasting Company in 1922. In 1927 the company was granted a Royal Charter, becoming the British Broadcasting Corporation under John Reith. Reith's mission was improve Britain through broadcasting, and he famously instructed the corporation to 'inform, educate and entertain'. 7 May 1928 All women over the age of 21 get the vote The fifth Reform Act brought in by the Conservative government altered the 1918 Representation of the People Act, which had only allowed women over 30 who owned property to be enfranchised. The new act gave women the vote on the same terms as men. September 1928 The first 'talkie' (film with dialogue) is shown in Britain British audiences were introduced to talking pictures when the 'The Jazz Singer', opened in London. Cinema-going was immensely popular during the 1920s and 1930s and virtually every town, suburb and major housing development had at least one cinema. There was often a double bill of a main and 'B' feature, supported by a newsreel. 30 September 1928 Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin While working at St Mary's Hospital in Paddington, London, Alexander Fleming noticed that a mould growing on a dish had stopped bacteria developing. Howard Florey and Ernst Chain developed penicillin further so it could be used as a drug, but it was not until World War Two that it began to be mass produced. 30 May 1929 Labour wins the general election with Ramsay Macdonald as prime minister Ramsay Macdonald headed the first Labour government with a clear majority. It lasted for two years. Labour won 287 seats, the Conservatives 262 and the Liberals 59. Macdonald's administration coincided with the Great Depression, a global economic slump triggered by the Wall Street Crash. Unemployment jumped by one million in 1930, and in some industrial towns reached 75%. 24 October 1929 Wall Street Crash sparks the Great Depression The crash of the American Wall Street financial markets in 1929 crippled the economies of the US and Europe, resulting in the Great Depression. In Britain, unemployment had peaked just below three million by 1932. It was only with rearmament in the period immediately before the outbreak of World War Two that the worst of the Depression could be said to be over. 21 January 1930 London Conference on Naval Disarmament starts A powerful disarmament movement reached the peak of its activities in the 1930s. Ramsay Macdonald, a committed internationalist and pacifist, was an enthusiastic believer that the League of Nations could make the world disarm through dialogue. But in 1931, Japan seized Manchuria and pulled out of the League. The rise of militarist regimes across Europe meant that by 1933 the idea of 'collective security' was looking increasingly unworkable. 12 March 1930 Mohandas Gandhi leads a march to the sea in protest against the Indian salt monopoly Mohandas Gandhi defied the British government, which had a monopoly on salt-making, by leading a 400km march to the sea to make his own salt. Five million Indians copied him in defiance of the government. Gandhi was imprisoned from 1930-1931, as were approximately 60,000 others. 24 June 1930 'Simon Report' proposes representative government for India In 1927, a parliamentary commission headed by Sir John Simon was sent to India to investigate grievances and make recommendations on the future of the country. Notably, the commission did not have any Indian members. Although the commission recommended representative government in the provinces (provincial assemblies), it advised that power should remain with the British Viceroy. The Indian National Congress, which wanted dominion status granted immediately, organised huge demonstrations. 12 November 1930 'Round Table' conference on India opens in London Three of these conferences took place from 1930-1933, the last of which failed to include any Indian members. The collapse of the Round Table talks led to further mass non-cooperation in India. A new Government of India Act was passed in 1935, granting Indians an elected assembly and extending the powers of the eleven provincial assemblies. 4 March 1931 Mohandas Gandhi agrees to suspend civil disobedience in India With popular protests causing significant problems, the viceroy of India, Lord Irwin, agreed the Delhi Pact, under which political prisoners would be released in return for suspension of the civil disobedience movement. In the same year, Mohandas Gandhi attended a Round Table conference as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress (INC). Gandhi was promised dominion status for India, but it was rejected by the INC because he had failed to consult its minority leaders. 22 - 23 August 1931 Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald resigns in a row over the budget Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald asked a commission, headed by Sir George May, to investigate Britain's dire economic situation. The May Committee recommended slashing government expenditure, including unemployment benefit. Macdonald agreed, but the measures were voted down by his cabinet colleagues. He offered his resignation to the king, George V, but was instead persuaded to lead a 'national government' coalition, which included Conservatives and Liberals, but only three Labour ministers. 27 October 1931 'National government' coalition wins the election, but Labour support plummets Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald called a general election to seek legitimacy for his 'national government' coalition. He was returned to power with 556 pro-national government MPs, of which 471 were Conservatives. The Labour Party expelled Macdonald for what was perceived as treachery. The new national government forced through the measures that Macdonald's Labour colleagues had vehemently opposed. 16 February 1932 Éamon De Valera's Fianna Fáil party wins the Irish general election Once the champion of armed opposition to the Irish Free State, Éamon De Valera now rose to lead it with this general election victory. After a second general election win in 1933, De Valera began unilaterally dismantling the Irish Free State's relationship with Britain. A trade war began after Fianna Fáil reneged on a £100 million loan from the British government. 1 October 1932 Oswald Mosley founds the British Union of Fascists Oswald Mosley, formerly a Conservative and then Labour member of parliament, modelled his party along Italian fascist lines. The party never became part of the political mainstream and was banned in 1940. Moseley was interned during the war and twice attempted unsuccessfully to return to parliament in post-war Britain. He died in 1980. 3 October 1932 Iraq joins the League of Nations after the British mandate ends Iraq became independent under King Faisal, who died in 1933. Its strategic importance and oil reserves ensured that Britain maintained a military presence there. During World War Two the British occupied Iraq, as the pro-Axis government intended to cut oil supplies and British access between Egypt and India. 1934 Scottish Nationalist Party is founded to fight for an independent Scotland Scottish 'Home Rule' had been supported by both 19th-century Liberals and 20th-century Labour, but had made no progress. The Scottish Nationalist Party was an amalgam of the left-leaning National Party of Scotland (NPS) and the more right-wing Scottish Party. Its objective was to secede from the United Kingdom. 19 July 1934 New air defence programme adds 41 squadrons to the RAF In 1933, German leader Adolf Hitler had withdrawn from the Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations in order to begin re-arming. Despite a 1935 League of Nations 'peace ballot' that showed 90% of the British public favoured multilateral disarmament, the British government reluctantly began to re-arm. There remained a strong political determination to avoid war at all costs. 22 September 1934 Gresford Mine Disaster kills 266 in North Wales This explosion, which killed 266 men, was one of the worst disasters in British mining history. Two hundred children were left fatherless in an area of North Wales where a 40% unemployment rate had already caused widespread poverty. 11 April 1935 Italy, France and Britain meet to discuss German rearmament The Stresa Conference was intended to form a united front against Adolf Hitler's Germany, but Italian leader Benito Mussolini had more in common with Hitler than with the western democracies. On 2 October, he invaded Ethiopia. Despite public sanctions, in a secret agreement dubbed the Hoare-Laval Pact, France and Britain devised a partition plan which gave Italy two-thirds of Ethiopia. 7 June 1935 Conservative Stanley Baldwin becomes prime minister for the third time Stanley Baldwin became prime minister after Ramsay Macdonald resigned due to ill health. The 'power behind the throne' during Macdonald's premiership, Baldwin remained prime minister until 28 May 1937, when he was succeeded by Neville Chamberlain. July 1935 First Penguin paperbacks go on sale, bringing literature to the masses Publisher Allen Lane felt there was a need for cheap, easily available editions of quality contemporary writing. The first ten Penguins included works by Ernest Hemingway and Agatha Christie. They cost just sixpence, the same price as a packet of cigarettes, and were available in traditional bookshops, but also in railway stations and tobacconists. Three million Penguin paperbacks were sold within a year. It was a revolution in publishing that massively widened public access to literature. 20 January 1936 George V dies and is succeeded by Edward VIII As Prince of Wales, Edward had visited many parts of the country hit by the prolonged economic depression. These visits, his apparently genuine concern for the underprivileged and his official overseas tours on behalf of his father made him popular in Britain and abroad. But his choice of bride would spark a constitutional crisis. He had fallen in love with a married American woman, Wallis Simpson. When she obtained a divorce in October 1936, it opened the way for her to marry Edward. 26 August 1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty ends the British protectorate of Egypt Britain was reluctant to end its occupation of Egypt because the Suez Canal provided a vital sea route to India. The treaty allowed the British to retain control of the Suez Canal for the next 20 years, and for Britain to reoccupy the country in the event of any threat to British interests. 5 October 1936 Jarrow men march to London to highlight local poverty and unemployment Poverty and mass unemployment (as high as 70%) in the north east of England drove 200 men from Jarrow, Tyne and Wear, to march 300 miles to London to deliver a petition to parliament asking for a steel works to replace the local shipyard that had recently closed down. The marchers attracted considerable public sympathy, but the crusade ultimately made little real impact. In heavy industry areas like the north east the Depression continued until the rearmament boom of World War Two. 10 December 1936 Edward VIII abdicates in order to marry Wallace Simpson Edward VIII wished to marry American Wallis Simpson. Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin advised him that the British people would not accept her because she was a divorcee. Faced with losing the woman he loved, Edward chose instead to abdicate. On 11 December, he broadcast his decision to the nation. He married Wallace Simpson in France in June 1937. They became the Duke and Duchess of Windsor. Baldwin was widely credited with averting a constitutional crisis that could have ended the monarchy. 12 May 1937 George VI is crowned king Edward VIII's younger brother, the Duke of York, was crowned George VI. He and his wife Queen Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother), became inspirational figures for Britain during World War Two. The monarch visited his armies on several battle fronts and founded the George Cross for 'acts of the greatest heroism or of the most conspicuous courage in circumstances of extreme danger'. 7 July 1937 Peel Commission recommends partitioning Palestine The idea of partitioning Palestine between its Arab and Jewish inhabitants was rejected by both sides, and by January 1938 a new report had been commissioned. In 1939, a government white paper recommended that the final number of Jewish immigrants should be limited to 75,000, and Palestine should become independent under majority Arab rule. The outbreak of World War Two put the issue on hold. 29 December 1937 New constitution makes Ireland a republic in all but name With the British government distracted by the constitutional crisis of Edward VIII's abdication, Irish Free State leader Éamon De Valera seized the opportunity to draw up a new constitution for Ireland that omitted any references to its place within the British Empire. In addition to making Ireland a de facto republic, the constitution laid claim to the whole of Ireland, including Ulster. De Valera became the 'Taoiseach', the equivalent of prime minister. 12 February 1938 First refugee children of the 'Kindertransport' arrive in Britain A total of 10,000 Jewish children between the ages of five and 17 were sent from Germany, Austria and Czechoslovakia to Britain between December 1938 and the outbreak of war in September 1939. Many were given homes by British families, or lived in hostels. Very few of them saw their parents again. 20 February 1938 Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden resigns over the 'appeasement' of Italy With overt militarism on the rise across Europe, Britain persisted with its policy of 'appeasement' - making concessions to avoid provoking a wider scale war. Notably, Britain had not intervened in the brutal Spanish Civil War in order to avoid antagonising Italy. The decision of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain to recognise the king of Italy as emperor of Ethiopia following the Italians' unprovoked invasion was a concession too far for Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, who resigned. 12 March 1938 Germany occupies and then annexes Austria in the 'Anschluss' The union of Austria and Germany was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. The treaty was deeply resented by both countries for its allocation of 'war guilt' and imposition of heavy reparations. When the German army marched into Austria in March 1938, they were welcomed by cheering crowds of Austrians. 28 - 30 September 1938 'Munich Agreement' cedes the Sudetenland to Germany The Munich Conference between Britain's Neville Chamberlain, Germany's Adolf Hitler, Italy's Benito Mussolini and Edouard Daladier of France agreed that the Czechoslovakian territory of the Sudetenland and its three million ethnic Germans should be joined with Germany. Chamberlain returned to Britain claiming he had achieved 'peace in our time'. In fact, it would come to be a clear demonstration that appeasement did not work, as by March 1939 Hitler had seized the rest of Czechoslovakia. 31 March 1939 Britain guarantees territorial integrity of Poland This guarantee formally ended the policy of appeasement, and the British government reluctantly began to prepare for war. Conscription was introduced for the first time in peacetime on 27 April, with little protest. On 23 August, the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact put paid to British hopes of a Russian ally. Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain warned Adolf Hitler that Britain would support Poland if it was attacked by Germany. 3 September 1939 Britain declares war on Germany in response to the invasion of Poland On 1 September, German forces invaded Poland. Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain still hoped to avoid declaring war on Germany, but a threatened revolt in the cabinet and strong public feeling that Hitler should be confronted forced him to honour the Anglo-Polish Treaty. Britain was at war with Germany for the second time in 25 years. 9 April 1940 Germany mounts surprise invasions of Norway and Denmark Germany invaded neighbouring Denmark on 7 April, and the Danes surrendered after two days. Denmark provided a land route to neutral Norway, which was invaded on 9 April. The small Norwegian army mounted fierce resistance, with the help of 12,000 British and French troops. The campaign in Norway ended when the German invasion of France and the Low Countries changed the focus of the war. The Allies were forced to evacuate. 10 May 1940 Winston Churchill becomes prime minister of the coalition government Following the disastrous Norwegian campaign, Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain faced heavy criticism at home. By early May, Chamberlain had lost the confidence of the House of Commons. Labour ministers refused to serve in a national coalition with Chamberlain as leader, so he resigned. Churchill became prime minister on 10 May, the same day Germany invaded Holland and Belgium. 10 May 1940 German invasion of the Low Countries and France begins The German army rapidly defeated France with a strategy called 'blitzkrieg', or 'lightning war', which used speed, flexibility and surprise to execute huge outflanking manoeuvres. Paris fell on 14 June and France capitulated on 25 June. Hitler had achieved in a matter of weeks what the German army had failed to do after four years of desperate fighting on the Western Front of World War One. 26 May 1940 Thousands of Allied troops are evacuated from Dunkirk, France Allied forces were utterly overwhelmed by the German 'blitzkrieg' in France. Thousands of soldiers were trapped in a shrinking pocket of territory centred around the French seaside town of Dunkirk. The Royal Navy's Operation Dynamo succeeded in evacuating approximately 338,000 British and French troops in destroyers and hundreds of 'little ships' - volunteers who sailed to France in their own vessels - over a period of ten days, while under constant attack from the Luftwaffe (German air force). 30 June 1940 German forces occupy the Channel Islands Britain had taken the decision not to defend the Channel Islands in the event of a German invasion. As German forces overran France in June 1940, about 30,000 people were evacuated from the islands, with about twice that number choosing to remain. Jersey and Guernsey were bombed on 28 June with the loss of 44 lives. The German occupation began two days later. The Channel Islands were the only part of the British Isles to be occupied during the war. 3 July 1940 French fleet in North Africa is destroyed by the Royal Navy The attack on the French fleet at the Algerian port of Mers-el-Kébir left almost 1,300 Frenchmen dead and the fleet immobilised. Prime Minister Winston Churchill personally ordered the fleet destroyed if it refused to fight alongside British, following France's capitulation to the Germans. Despite the cost in lives, Churchill could not allow the fleet to become a threat to British naval dominance in the Mediterranean. 13 August 1940 Battle of Britain begins with heavy raids by the German Luftwaffe In July 1940, German leader Adolf Hitler ordered preparations for Operation Sealion - the invasion of Britain. The Luftwaffe (German air force) first had to destroy the Royal Air Force. Vastly outnumbered, the RAF nonetheless consistently inflicted heavy losses on the German squadrons, thanks to excellent aircraft, determined pilots and radar technology. On 17 September, two days after the Luftwaffe sustained its heaviest single day of losses, Hitler postponed the invasion. 2 September 1940 'Destroyers for bases' agreement gives Britain 50 US destroyers In September 1940, US President Franklin Roosevelt signed an agreement to give Britain 50 obsolete American destroyers in exchange for the use of naval and air bases in eight British possessions. The lease was guaranteed for the duration of 99 years 'free from all rent and charges'. Nonetheless, the US showed no sign yet of entering the war on the Allied side, as many in Britain hoped they would. 7 September 1940 'Blitz' begins with a massive daylight raid by the Luftwaffe German bombing raids had already targeted Liverpool and Birmingham during August, but on 7 September the 'Blitz' intensified as 950 aircraft attacked London. It was the start of 57 consecutive nights of heavy bombing. The raid caused some 300 civilian deaths and a further 1,300 serious injuries. By the end of the Blitz, around 30,000 Londoners had been killed with another 50,000 injured. 15 April 1941 1,000 people are killed in the Belfast Blitz No city, save London, suffered more loss of life in one night raid than Belfast, after 180 German bombers attacked the city. At the height of the raid an appeal was sent to the Irish leader Éamon De Valera, who sent fire engines to help fight the fires raging in the city. 20 May 1941 German troops invade Crete, driving the Allies out of the Eastern Mediterranean German and Italian troops had overrun Greece in three weeks, starting on 6 April. Commonwealth troops were rushed there from Egypt to help the Greek resistance, but had to be evacuated. Many were sent to Crete in an effort to prevent the Axis powers dominating the eastern Mediterranean. Crete was attacked by the Germans on 20 May, and the Allied forces there were defeated and evacuated by the end of the month. 24 May 1941 HMS 'Hood' sunk by the German battleship 'Bismarck' The British battlecruiser 'Hood' was sunk during the Battle of Denmark Strait, probably by a single shell from the German battleship 'Bismarck'. The ship sank so quickly that only three of the 1,418 man crew survived. 'Hood' was a well-known symbol of British imperial power and its loss was a significant psychological blow to Britain. The 'Bismarck' was itself sunk by the Royal Navy on 27 May 1941. 12 August 1941 Anglo-American alliance is sealed with the Atlantic Charter The Atlantic Charter, agreed by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and US President Franklin Roosevelt, set out the principles that would shape the struggle against German aggression. It was drawn up during a secret meeting aboard the USS 'Augusta', off the coast of Newfoundland, Canada. The charter was supported by 26 countries, including the Soviet Union, and after the war formed the basis of the United Nations Declaration. America entered the war four months later. 26 January 1942 First American troops arrive in Europe, landing in Belfast America entered the war on the Allied side in December 1941, after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and subsequent German declaration of war on the United States. Millions of men and thousands of planes and tanks were deployed to Britain, which became a base for American airmen flying bombing raids over Europe, a staging post for American troops on their way to fight in North Africa, and crucially the launching point for the D-Day invasions that began the liberation of Western Europe. 15 February 1942 British colony of Singapore surrenders to Japanese forces This catastrophic defeat was a fatal blow to British prestige and signalled the fall of the empire in the Far East. The Japanese unexpectedly attacked down the Malay Peninsula instead of from the sea, where Singapore's defences were concentrated. About 70,000 men were taken prisoner, many of whom would not survive the war due to the brutal conditions of their incarceration. 11 March 1942 Sir Stafford Cripps goes to India to offer post-war self-government Sir Richard Stafford Cripps was sent to India in March 1942 to win the co-operation of Indian political groups. The Japanese had occupied Burma, and were at the border of India. Stafford Cripps effectively offered post-war independence, which Mohandas Gandhi described as a 'post-dated cheque on a crashing bank'. The Indian National Congress insisted on immediate independence, which Stafford Cripps refused. Gandhi launched a last civil disobedience campaign, for which he was imprisoned. 30 May 1942 Start of the RAF's 'thousand bomber raids' on German cities Air Marshall Arthur Harris took command of the Royal Air Force's bomber force in February 1942. He wanted to demonstrate the effectiveness of Bomber Command with massive, concentrated raids ('area bombing') on key German cities. The first 'thousand bomber raid' was on Cologne, with a second, two nights later, on Essen. A third raid, this time on Bremen, took place on 25 June. The raids caused massive destruction, particularly in Cologne. 19 August 1942 'Dieppe Raid' ends in disaster for the Allies The Allied attack on the German-occupied port of Dieppe, on the northern French coast, had a variety of purposes. It would raise morale at a time when the war was going badly, it would show the Soviets that the western Allies could open a second front, and it would teach valuable lessons for the eventual full-scale invasion of Europe. It was a disaster. Of the 6,000 mainly Canadian troops who made it ashore, more than 4,000 were killed, wounded or taken prisoner. 23 October - 4 November 1942 Decisive British victory over German forces at Battle of El Alamein, Egypt General Claude Auchinleck had stopped the Axis forces (mainly German and Italian troops) during the First Battle of El Alamein in early July 1942, but the Allied position was still precarious. When General Bernard Montgomery took command of 8th Army, he built up its strength to a level of superiority before smashing the Axis forces in a carefully coordinated assault, driving them all the way back to Tunisia. By May 1943, the Axis had been completely cleared out of North Africa. November 1942 'Beveridge Report' lays the foundations for the Welfare State Sir William Beveridge's report gave a summary of principles aimed at banishing poverty from Britain, including a system of social security that would be operated by the government, and would come into effect when war ended. Beveridge argued that the war gave Britain a unique opportunity to make revolutionary changes. Beveridge's recommendations for the creation of a Welfare State were implemented by Clement Attlee after the war, including the creation of the National Health Service in 1948. 13 May 1943 Axis siege of the island of Malta is lifted Malta's position in the Mediterranean made it strategically vital for the Allies. It was effectively under siege from 1940 and suffered devastating Axis (Italian and German) bombing. From January to July 1942 there was only one 24-hour period when no bombs fell on the island. In summer 1942, George VI awarded the island of Malta the George Cross in acknowledgement of the bravery of its inhabitants. The siege was finally lifted when Axis forces capitulated in North Africa on 13 May 1943, . 16 May 1943 'Dambusters Raid' by the RAF breaches two dams in the Ruhr valley This Royal Air Force raid by 19 Lancasters utilised a 'bouncing bomb', developed by British scientist Barnes Wallis, in an attempt to destroy three major dams supplying water and power to the important German industrial region of the Ruhr. Two of the dams were breached, but 53 of the 133 aircrew were killed. Severe flooding killed over 1,000 people, but the damage to the Ruhr's industrial capability was relatively minor. Nonetheless, the raids were a major propaganda victory. 23 May 1943 Germany calls off the Battle of the Atlantic Allied merchant shipping losses to German 'U-boats' in the Atlantic had reached crisis levels in late 1942 to early 1943. At the Casablanca Conference in January 1943, Allied leaders allocated more resources to the battle. In March 1943, after a 'blackout' of several months, German U-boat ciphers were once again broken, allowing the new resources to be deployed to devastating effect. By May 1943, U-boat losses were so heavy that Kriegsmarine commander Admiral Karl Dönitz called off the battle. 10 July 1943 First Allied troops land in Europe as invasion of Sicily begins When British and American troops landed on the south eastern tip of Sicily, it was the first significant Allied landing on European soil in two years. After a prolonged battle, Axis forces started withdrawing from the island on 11 August. The island of Sicily gave the Allies a foothold for the invasion of mainland Italy, which began in September. May 1944 Butler Act creates free secondary education RA Butler, the progressive Conservative chancellor of the exchequer, created universal free secondary education to the age of 15, something people had campaigned for since the 19th century. There were three types of schools - grammar, secondary modern and technical, entrance to which was determined by the '11 plus' examination. 18 May 1944 Allies win the Battle of Monte Cassino after five months of fighting The battle centred on the ancient Italian monastery of Monte Cassino. The Allies were attempting to break through the German 'Gustav Line', which ran across Italy, south of Rome. The Germans sought to halt the Allied advance north by holding them at Monte Cassino. The bitter fighting lasted over five months, during which the monastery was reduced to rubble. By the time the Allies broke through, casualties numbered more than 54,000 Allied and 20,000 Germans troops. 6 June 1944 Allied forces land in Normandy on D-Day, starting the liberation of France The invasion of Europe - the largest amphibious invasion in history - succeeded in landing 150,000 troops on the beaches of Normandy on the first day, through a massive combined operation requiring hundreds of ships and total air superiority. Behind the lines, Allied paratroops seized key strategic targets, while the French resistance sabotaged rail and communication links. By the end of D-Day, five beachheads were secured, and the Allies had a foothold in France. 22 June 1944 Allies defeat the Japanese at the battles of Imphal and Kohima Since the start of the Burma campaign in 1941, Allied forces had done little but retreat to the point that Japanese forces stood ready to invade north east India. When the command of 14th Army passed to Lieutenant General William Slim, he imbued it with a new fighting spirit and developed a strategy of air support that allowed besieged positions to hold out against Japanese assault. He used Kohima and Imphal to break the Japanese in Burma and by June 1945, 14th Army had retaken Rangoon. 25 September 1944 Allied forces are defeated at the Battle of Arnhem Operation Market Garden was a bold plan to land 30,000 Allied troops behind enemy lines and capture eight bridges spanning a network of waterways on the Dutch-German border near Arnhem. It would allow the Allies to outflank German border defences, opening the way for an advance into Germany and an early end to the war. A combination of factors, including faulty intelligence about German strength and bad weather, resulted in failure. More than 1,130 Allied troops were killed and 6,000 captured. 4 February 1945 Allied leaders shape the post-war world at the Yalta Conference The war leaders agreed that Germany should be forced to surrender unconditionally and would be divided into four zones between Britain, the Soviet Union, France and the United States. It was also agreed that the Soviet Union would enter the war against Japan after Germany was defeated. 15 April 1945 British troops liberate the concentration camp at Bergen-Belsen, Germany The liberation of Bergen-Belsen brought the horrors of Nazi genocide home to the British public when film and photographs of the camp appeared in British newspapers and cinemas. Conditions at Bergen-Belsen were so desperate that more than 10,000 prisoners died in the weeks after the liberation of the camp, despite the best efforts of the Allies to keep them alive. Millions were murdered to satisfy Nazi theories about racial-biological purity, at least six million of whom were Jews. 8 May 1945 Britain celebrates the end of war on Victory in Europe Day German forces had been utterly defeated by the end of April 1945. Adolf Hitler committed suicide on 30 April as Soviet forces closed in on his Berlin bunker. The German Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz surrendered to Allied General Dwight Eisenhower in France on 7 May. The following day was officially celebrated in Britain as Victory in Europe Day. The entire country came to a standstill as people celebrated the end of war. 26 July 1945 Labour wins the general election by a landslide On 23 May the wartime coalition government ended. Winston Churchill headed a temporary Conservative government until the July general elections, which Labour won with a majority of 146. Returning soldiers wanted social reforms and had rejected the 'war leader' Churchill in favour of Labour's Clement Attlee. The post-war years saw the implementation of many of the reforms recommended by Sir William Beveridge in 1942, and the creation of the Welfare State. 15 August 1945 Victory over Japan Day marks the end of World War Two On 6 August, an atomic bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima by the American bomber 'Enola Gay'. Three days later, a second bomb was dropped on the port city of Nagasaki. In all, 140,000 people perished. Less than a week later, the Japanese leadership agreed to an unconditional surrender, and the Emperor Hirohito broadcast his nation's the capitulation over the radio. Victory over Japan day also marked the end of World War Two. 24 October 1945 United Nations comes into existence with Britain as a founder member At the Yalta Conference in early 1945, the 'Big Three' of Britain's Winston Churchill, US President Franklin D Roosevelt and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin agreed to establish a new global organisation - the United Nations. The structure and charter of the organisation were established at another conference in San Francisco. Britain became one of the five 'security council' members, with a power of veto. On 24 October, the UN officially came into existence when its members ratified its charter.

i don't know

Which sultan of Egypt, who precipitated the third Crusade, subsequently made peace with Richard I?

Third Crusade | Military Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia </td> </tr><tr> <th colspan="2" style="background-color: #B0C4DE; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Strength</th> </tr><tr> <td style="width:50%; border-right:1px dotted #aaa;">English: 8,000 men [1] French: 2,000 men [2] Germans: 100,000 men [2] </td><td style="width:50%; padding-left:0.25em">Unknown </td> </tr></table> The Third Crusade (1189–1192), also known as the Kings' Crusade, was an attempt by European leaders to reconquer the Holy Land from Saladin (Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb). It was largely successful, capturing Acre, Jaffa, and reversing most of Saladin's conquests, but failed to capture Jerusalem, which was the emotional and spiritual fixation of the Crusade. After the failure of the Second Crusade , the Zengid dynasty controlled a unified Syria and engaged in a conflict with the Fatimid rulers of Egypt , which ultimately resulted in the unification of Egyptian and Syrian forces under the command of Saladin, who employed them to reduce the Christian states and to recapture Jerusalem in 1187. Spurred by religious zeal, Henry II of England and Philip II of France ended their conflict with each other to lead a new crusade. Henry's death in 1189, however, meant that the English contingent came under the command of his successor Richard I of England (known as Richard the Lionheart, in French Cœur de Lion). The elderly Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa responded to the call to arms, and led a massive army across Anatolia, but drowned in a river in Asia Minor on 10 June 1190, before reaching the Holy Land. His death caused the greatest grief among the German Crusaders. Most of his discouraged troops left to go home. After driving the Muslims from Acre, Frederick's successor Leopold V of Austria and Philip left the Holy Land in August 1191. Saladin failed to defeat Richard in any military engagements, and Richard secured several more key coastal cities. Nevertheless, on 2 September 1192, Richard finalized a treaty with Saladin by which Jerusalem would remain under Muslim control, but which also allowed unarmed Christian pilgrims and merchants to visit the city. Richard departed the Holy Land on 2 October. The successes of the Third Crusade would allow the Crusaders to maintain a considerable kingdom based in Cyprus and the Syrian coast. However, its failure to recapture Jerusalem would lead to the call for a Fourth Crusade six years later. Contents Edit After the failure of the Second Crusade , Nur ad-Din Zangi had control of Damascus and a unified Syria. Eager to expand his power, Nur ad-Din set his sights on the Fatimid dynasty of Egypt . In 1163, Nur ad-Din's most trusted general, Shirkuh set out on a military expedition to the Nile. Accompanying the general was his young nephew, Saladin . With Shirkuh's troops camped outside of Cairo, Egypt's sultan, Shawar called on King Amalric I of Jerusalem for assistance. In response, Amalric sent an army into Egypt and attacked Shirkuh's troops at Bilbeis in 1164. In an attempt to divert Crusader attention from Egypt, Nur ad-Din attacked Antioch , resulting in a massacre of Christian soldiers and the capture of several Crusader leaders, including Bohemond III , Prince of Antioch. Nur ad-Din sent the scalps of the Christian defenders to Egypt for Shirkuh to proudly display at Bilbeis for Amalric's soldiers to see. This action prompted both Amalric and Shirkuh to lead their armies out of Egypt. In 1167, Nur ad-Din once again sent Shirkuh to conquer the Fatimids in Egypt. Shawar also opted to once again call upon Amalric for the defence of his territory. The combined Egyptian-Christian forces pursued Shirkuh until he retreated to Alexandria. Amalric then breached his alliance with Shawar by turning his forces on Egypt and besieging the city of Bilbeis. Shawar pleaded with his former enemy, Nur ad-Din to save him from Amalric's treachery. Lacking the resources to maintain a prolonged siege of Cairo against the combined forces of Nur ad-Din and Shawar, Amalric retreated. This new alliance gave Nur ad-Din rule over virtually all of Syria and Egypt. Saladin's conquests Edit Saladin's troops, French manuscript of 1337. Shawar was executed for his alliances with the Christian forces, and Shirkuh succeeded him as vizier of Egypt. In 1169, Shirkuh died unexpectedly after only weeks of rule. Shirkuh's successor was his nephew, Salah ad-Din Yusuf, commonly known as Saladin. Nur ad-Din died in 1174, leaving the new empire to his 11-year old son, As-Salih . It was decided that the only man competent enough to uphold the jihad against the Franks was Saladin, who became sultan of both Egypt and Syria, and the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty . Amalric also died in 1174, leaving Jerusalem to his 13-year old son, Baldwin IV . Although Baldwin suffered from leprosy , he was an effective and active military commander, defeating Saladin at the battle of Montgisard in 1177, with support from Raynald of Châtillon , who had been released from prison in 1176. Later, he forged an agreement with Saladin to allow free trade between Muslim and Christian territories. Raynald also raided caravans throughout the region. He expanded his piracy to the Red Sea by sending galleys not only to raid ships, but to assault the city of Mecca itself. These acts enraged the Muslim world, giving Raynald a reputation as the most hated man in the Middle East. Baldwin IV died in 1185 and the kingdom was left to his nephew Baldwin V , whom he had crowned as co-king in 1183. Raymond III of Tripoli again served as regent. The following year, Baldwin V died before his ninth birthday, and his mother Princess Sybilla , sister of Baldwin IV, crowned herself queen and her husband, Guy of Lusignan , king. It was at this time that Raynald, once again, raided a rich caravan and had its travelers thrown in prison. Saladin demanded that the prisoners and their cargo be released. The newly crowned King Guy appealed to Raynald to give in to Saladin's demands, but Raynald refused to follow the king's orders. Siege of the Kingdom of Jerusalem Full article: Battle of Hattin ; Siege of Jerusalem It was this final act of outrage by Raynald which gave Saladin the opportunity he needed to take the offensive against the kingdom. He laid siege to the city of Tiberias in 1187. Raymond advised patience, but King Guy, acting on advice from Raynald, marched his army to the Horns of Hattin outside of Tiberias. The Frankish army, thirsty and demoralized, was destroyed in the ensuing battle. King Guy and Raynald were brought to Saladin's tent, where Guy was offered a goblet of water because of his great thirst. Guy took a drink and then passed the goblet to Raynald. Saladin would not be forced to protect the treacherous Raynald by allowing him to drink, as it was custom that if you were offered a drink, your life was safe. When Raynald accepted the drink, Saladin told his interpreter, "say to the King: 'it is you who have given him to drink'". [3] Afterwards, Saladin beheaded Raynald for past betrayals. Saladin honored tradition with King Guy; Guy was sent to Damascus and eventually ransomed to his people, one of the few captive crusaders to avoid execution. By the end of the year, Saladin had taken Acre and Jerusalem. Pope Urban III is said to have collapsed and died upon hearing the news. [4] However, at the time of his death, the news of the fall of Jerusalem could not yet have reached him, although he knew of the battle of Hattin and the fall of Acre. Preparations Edit The new pope, Gregory VIII proclaimed that the capture of Jerusalem was punishment for the sins of Christians across Europe. The cry went up for a new crusade to the Holy Land. Henry II of England and Philip II of France ended their war with each other, and both imposed a " Saladin tithe " on their citizens to finance the venture. In Britain, Baldwin of Exeter , the archbishop of Canterbury, made a tour through Wales, convincing 3,000 men-at-arms to take up the cross, recorded in the Itinerary of Giraldus Cambrensis . "Death of Frederick of Germany" by Gustav Dore Barbarossa's crusade Edit The elderly Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa responded to the call immediately. He took up the Cross at Mainz Cathedral on 27 March 1188 and was the first to set out for the Holy Land in May 1189 with an army of about 100,000 men, including 20,000 knights. [2] An army of 2,000 men from the Hungarian prince Géza, the younger brother of the king Béla III of Hungary also went with Barbarossa to the Holy Land. [5] The Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelus made a secret alliance with Saladin to impede Frederick's progress in exchange for his empire's safety. Meanwhile, the Sultanate of Rum promised Frederick safety through Anatolia, but after much raiding Frederick lost patience and on 18 May 1190, the German army sacked Iconium , the capital of the Sultanate of Rüm . Frederick's horse slipped on 10 June 1190, while crossing the Saleph River throwing him against the rocks. He then drowned in the river. After this, much of his army returned to Germany, in anticipation of the upcoming Imperial election. His son Frederick of Swabia led the remaining 5,000 men to Antioch. There, the emperor's body was boiled to remove the flesh, which was interred in the Church of St. Peter; his bones were put in a bag to continue the crusade. In Antioch, however, the German army was further reduced by fever. Young Frederick had to ask the assistance of his kinsman Conrad of Montferrat to lead him safely to Acre, by way of Tyre, where his father's bones were buried. Richard and Philip's departure Edit Philip II depicted arriving in Palestine Henry II of England died on 6 July 1189 following a defeat by his son Richard I (Lionheart) and Philip II. Richard inherited the crown and immediately began raising funds for the crusade. In July 1190, Richard and Philip set out jointly from Marseille, France for Sicily. Philip II had hired a Genoese fleet to transport his army which consisted of 650 knights, 1,300 horses, and 1,300 squires to the Holy Land. [2] William II of Sicily had died the previous year, and was replaced by Tancred , who placed Joan of England —William's wife and Richard's sister—in prison. Richard captured the capital city of Messina on 4 October 1190 and Joan was released. Richard and Philip fell out over the issue of Richard's marriage, as Richard had decided to marry Berengaria of Navarre , breaking off his long-standing betrothal to Philip's half-sister Alys . Philip left Sicily directly for the Middle East on 30 March 1191 and arrived in Tyre in mid-May. He joined the siege of Acre on 20 May. Richard did not set off from Sicily until 10 April. Shortly after setting sail from Sicily, Richard's armada of 100 ships (carrying 8,000 men) was struck by a violent storm. Several ships ran aground, including one holding Joan, his new fiancée Berengaria, and a large amount of treasure that had been amassed for the crusade. It was soon discovered that Isaac Dukas Comnenus of Cyprus had seized the treasure. The young women were unharmed. Richard entered Limassol on 6 May and met with Isaac who agreed to return Richard's belongings and send 500 of his soldiers to the Holy Land. Once back at his fortress of Famagusta , Isaac broke his oath of hospitality and began issuing orders for Richard to leave the island. Isaac's arrogance prompted Richard to conquer the island within days. Siege of Acre Full article: Siege of Acre King Guy was released from prison by Saladin in 1189. He attempted to take command of the Christian forces at Tyre, but Conrad of Montferrat held power there after his successful defence of the city from Muslim attacks. Guy turned his attention to the wealthy port of Acre. He amassed an army to besiege the city and received aid from Philip's newly arrived French army. However, it was still not enough to counter Saladin's force, which besieged the besiegers. In summer 1190, in one of the numerous outbreaks of disease in the camp, Queen Sibylla and her young daughters died. Guy, although only king by right of marriage, endeavoured to retain his crown, although the rightful heir was Sibylla's half-sister Isabella . After a hastily arranged divorce from Humphrey IV of Toron , Isabella was married to Conrad of Montferrat, who claimed the kingship in her name. During the winter of 1190–91, there were further outbreaks of dysentery and fever, which claimed the lives of Frederick of Swabia , Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem , and Theobald V of Blois . When the sailing season began again in spring 1191, Leopold V of Austria arrived and took command of what remained of the imperial forces. Philip of France arrived with his troops from Sicily in May. Richard arrived at Acre on 8 June 1191 and immediately began supervising the construction of siege weapons to assault the city. The city was captured on 12 July. Richard, Philip, and Leopold quarreled over the spoils of their victory. Richard cast down the German standard from the city, slighting Leopold. Also, in the struggle for the kingship of Jerusalem, Richard supported Guy, while Philip and Leopold supported Conrad, who was related to them both. It was decided that Guy would continue to rule, but that Conrad would receive the crown upon his death. Frustrated with Richard (and in Philip's case, in poor health), Philip and Leopold took their armies and left the Holy Land in August. Philip left 10,000 French crusaders in the Holy Land and 5,000 silver marks to pay them. Saladin tried to negotiate with Richard for the release of the captured Muslim soldier garrison, which included their women and children, but on 20 August Richard thought that Saladin had delayed too much, and had 2,700 of the Muslim prisoners decapitated in full view of Saladin's army, who tried unsuccessfully to rescue them. [6] Saladin then responded by killing all of the Christian prisoners he had captured. Battle of Arsuf Full article: Battle of Arsuf Imaginary encounter between Richard I and Saladin, 13th-century manuscript. After the capture of Acre, Richard decided to march to the city of Jaffa, where he could launch the attack on Jerusalem but on 7 September 1191, at Arsuf , 30 miles (50 km) north of Jaffa, Saladin attacked Richard's army. Saladin attempted to harass Richard's army into breaking its formation in order to defeat it in detail. However, Richard maintained his army's defensive formation until the Hospitallers broke ranks to charge the right wing of Saladin's forces. Richard then ordered a general counterattack, which won the battle. Arsuf was an important victory. The Muslim army was not destroyed, despite the considerable casualties it suffered, but it did rout; this was considered shameful by the Muslims and boosted the morale of the Crusaders. Arsuf had dented Saladin's reputation as an invincible warrior, and proved Richard's courage as soldier and his skill as a commander. Richard was able to take, defend and hold Jaffa – a strategically crucial move toward securing Jerusalem. By depriving Saladin of the coast, Richard seriously threatened Saladin's hold on Jerusalem. [7] Advances on Jerusalem, regicide and negotiations Edit Following his victory, Richard took Jaffa and established his new headquarters there. He offered to begin negotiations with Saladin, who sent his brother, Al-Adil (known as 'Saphadin' to the Franks) to meet with Richard. Negotiations (which had included an attempt to marry Richard's sister Joan to Al-Adil) failed, and Richard marched to Ascalon, which had been recently demolished by Saladin. [8] In November of 1191 the Crusader army advanced inland towards Jerusalem. On the 12th of December Saladin was forced by pressure from his emirs to disband the greater part of his army. Learning this, Richard pushed his army forward, spending Christmas at Latrun. The army then marched to Beit Nuba, only 12 miles from Jerusalem. Muslim morale in Jerusalem was so low that the arrival of the Crusaders would probably have caused the city to fall quickly. However, the weather was appallingly bad, cold with heavy rain and hailstorms; this, combined with the fear that the Crusader army, if it besieged Jerusalem, might be trapped by a relieving force, caused the decision to retreat back to the coast to be made. [9] Richard called on Conrad to join him on campaign, but he refused, citing Richard's alliance with King Guy. He too had been negotiating with Saladin , as a defence against any attempt by Richard to wrest Tyre from him for Guy. However, in April, Richard was forced to accept Conrad as king of Jerusalem after an election by the nobles of the kingdom. Guy had received no votes at all, but Richard sold him Cyprus as compensation. Before he could be crowned, Conrad was stabbed to death by two Hashshashin in the streets of Tyre. Eight days later, Richard's nephew Henry II of Champagne married Queen Isabella, who was pregnant with Conrad's child. It was strongly suspected that the king's killers had acted on instructions from Richard. Saladin and Richard assured the rights and protection of pilgrim and caravan routes that allowed travel to distant lands. During the winter months, Richard's men occupied and refortified Ascalon, whose fortifications had earlier been razed by Saladin. The spring of 1192 saw continued negotiations and further skirmishing between the opposing forces. On 22 May the strategically important fortified town of Darum on the frontiers of Egypt fell to the crusaders, following five days of fierce fighting. [10] The Crusader army made another advance on Jerusalem, and in June it came within sight of the city before being forced to retreat once again, this time because of dissention amongst its leaders. In particular, Richard and the majority of the army council wanted to force Saladin to relinquish Jerusalem by attacking the basis of his power through an invasion of Egypt . The leader of the French contingent, the Duke of Burgundy , however, was adamant that a direct attack on Jerusalem should be made. This split the Crusader army into two factions, neither of which was strong enough to achieve its objective. Richard stated that he would accompany any attack on Jerusalem but only as a simple soldier, he refused to lead the army. Without a united command the army had little choice but to retreat back to the coast. [11] In July 1192, Saladin's army suddenly attacked and captured Jaffa with thousands of men, but Saladin had lost control of his army because of their anger for the massacre at Acre . It is believed that Saladin even told the Crusaders to shield themselves in the Citadel until he had regained control of his army. Richard was intending to return to England when he heard the news that Saladin and his army had captured Jaffa. Richard and a small force of 2000 men went to Jaffa by sea in a surprise attack. In the subsequent Battle of Jaffa (1192) , the Ayyubids , being unprepared for a naval attack were overwhelmed. Richard then retook Jaffa and freed the Crusader prisoners, who proceeded to join his force. However, Saladin's forces still had numerical superiority and counter-attacked. Saladin intended a stealth and surprise attack at dawn, but his forces were discovered. Saladin still attacked though, but his men were lightly armored and suffered very heavy casualties due to the Crusader crossbowmen. The battle to retake Jaffa ended in complete failure for Saladin who was forced to retreat. This battle greatly strengthened the position of the coastal Crusader states. On 2 September 1192, following his defeat at Jaffa, Saladin was forced to finalize a treaty with Richard by which Jerusalem would remain under Muslim control, but which also allowed unarmed Christian pilgrims and traders to visit the city. Ascalon was a contentious issue as it threatened communication between Saladin's dominions in Egypt and Syria, it was eventually agreed that Ascalon, with its defences demolished, be returned to Saladin's control. Richard departed the Holy Land on 9 October 1192. Aftermath Edit Neither side was entirely discontent nor satisfied with the results of the war. Though Richard had deprived the Muslims of important coastal territories as a result of his consistent victories over Saladin, many Christians in the Latin West felt disappointed that he had elected not to pursue Jerusalem. [12] Likewise, many in the Islamic world felt disturbed that Saladin had failed to drive the Christians out of Syria and Palestine. Trade, however, flourished throughout the Middle East and in port cities along the Mediterranean coastline. [13] Saladin's servant and biographer Baha al-Din recounted Saladin's distress at the successes of the Crusaders: 'I fear to make peace, not knowing what may become of me. Our enemy will grow strong, now that they have retained these lands. They will come forth to recover the rest of their lands and you will see every one of them ensconced on his hill-top,' meaning in his castle, 'having announced, “I shall stay put” and the Muslims will be ruined.' These were his words and it came about as he said. [14] Richard was arrested and imprisoned in December 1192 by Duke Leopold , who suspected him of murdering his cousin Conrad of Montferrat, and had been offended by Richard casting down his standard from the walls of Acre. He was later transferred to the custody of Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor , and it took a ransom of one hundred and fifty thousand marks to obtain his release. Richard returned to England in 1194 and died of a crossbow bolt wound in 1199 at the age of 41. In 1193, Saladin died of yellow fever. His heirs would quarrel over the succession and ultimately fragment his conquests. Henry of Champagne was killed in an accidental fall in 1197. Queen Isabella then married for a fourth time, to Amalric of Lusignan , who had succeeded his brother Guy, positioned as King of Cyprus. After their deaths in 1205, her eldest daughter Maria of Montferrat (born after her father's murder) succeeded to the throne of Jerusalem. Richard's decision not to attack Jerusalem would lead to the call for a Fourth Crusade six years after the third ended in 1192. However, Richard's victories facilitated the survival of a wealthy Crusader kingdom centered on Acre. Historian Thomas Madden summarizes the achievements of the Third Crusade: ...the Third Crusade was by almost any measure a highly successful expedition. Most of Saladin's victories in the wake of Hattin were wiped away. The Crusader kingdom was healed of its divisions, restored to its coastal cities, and secured in a peace with its greatest enemy. Although he had failed to reclaim Jerusalem, Richard had put the Christians of the Levant back on their feet again. [15] Accounts of events surrounding the Third Crusade were written by the anonymous authors of the Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi (a.k.a. the Itinerarium Regis Ricardi ), the Old French Continuation of William of Tyre (parts of which are attributed to Ernoul ), and by Ambroise , Roger of Howden , Ralph of Diceto , and Giraldus Cambrensis . Maps ↑ Procter, George (‏1854). History of the crusades: their rise, progress, and results‏ . R. Griffin and Co.. pp. 112–116. http://books.google.com/books?id=Q8BmAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA92&dq=Third+Crusade#v=onepage&q=jerusalem&f=false .  ↑ Crompton‏, Samuel Willard (2003). The Third Crusade: Richard the Lionhearted vs. Saladin. Great battles through the ages. Infobase Publishing‏ . p. 64. ISBN  0-7910-7437-4 .  ↑ al-Din, Baha; D.S. Richards (2002). The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin. Crusade Texts in Translation. 7 (1 ed.). Burlington, VT; Hampshire, England: Ashgate. p. 232. ISBN  0-7546-3381-0 .  ↑ Madden, Thomas (2006). The New Concise History of the Crusades. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers . p. 95. ISBN  978-0-7425-3823-8 .  Bibliography Beha-ed-Din , The Life of Saladin. De Expugnatione Terrae Sanctae per Saladinum, translated by James A. Brundage, in The Crusades: A Documentary Survey. Marquette University Press, 1962. La Continuation de Guillaume de Tyr (1184–1192), edited by Margaret Ruth Morgan. L' Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres , 1982. Ambroise , The History of the Holy War, translated by Marianne Ailes. Boydell Press, 2003. Chronicle of the Third Crusade, a Translation of Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi, translated by Helen J. Nicholson. Ashgate, 1997. Peter W. Edbury, The Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade: Sources in Translation. Ashgate, 1996. Francesco Gabrieli, (ed.) Arab Historians of the Crusades, English translation 1969, ISBN 0-520-05224-2 Gillingham, John (1978). Richard the Lionheart. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN  0-297-77453-0 .  Nicolle, David (2005). The Third Crusade 1191: Richard the Lionheart and the Battle for Jerusalem. Osprey Campaign. 161. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN  1-84176-868-5 .  Oman, Charles William Chadwick. (1924) A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages Vol. I, 378–1278 AD. London: Greenhill Books; Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, reprinted in 1998. Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades, vol. II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem, and vol. III: The Kingdom of Acre. Cambridge University Press, 1952–55. </dl> Lucas Villegas Aristizabal, "Revisión de las crónicas de Ralph de Diceto y de la Gesta regis Ricardi sobre la participación de la flota angevina durante la Tercera Cruzada en Portugal", Studia Historica- Historia Medieval 27 (2009), pp. 153–170. http://campus.usal.es/~revistas_trabajo/index.php/Studia_H_Historia_Medieval/article/viewFile/7639/7688 Villegas-Aristizabal, Lucas, 2007, "The Norman and Anglo-Norman Participation in the Iberian Reconquista, c1018-1248", Phd Thesis, Nottingham: University of Nottingham. http://etheses.nottingham.ac.uk/283/2/Norman_and_AngloNorman.pdf

Saladin

In which year did the Japanese attack Pearl Harbor?

The Crusades The Crusades   The Crusades Set in Jerusalem during the Crusades, this sweeping historical epic from director Ridley Scott stars Orlando Bloom as Balian, a French blacksmith brought into the Christian-Muslim war by a knight (Liam Neeson) fighting to preserve a fragile peace in the Holy City. Balian makes the journey to Jerusalem, falls in love, and comes to lead a band of knights dedicated to victory over the zealots on both sides. The Crusades were a series of wars undertaken by European Christians between the 11th and 14th cent. to recover the Holy Land from the Muslims. In the 7th cent., Jerusalem was taken by the caliph Umar . Pilgrimages (see pilgrim ) were not cut off at first, but early in the 11th cent. the Fatimid caliph Hakim began to persecute the Christians and despoiled the Holy Sepulcher. Persecution abated after his death (1021), but relations remained strained and became more so when Jerusalem passed (1071) from the comparatively tolerant Egyptians to the Seljuk Turks , who in the same year defeated the Byzantine emperor Romanus IV at Manzikert. Late in the 11th cent., Byzantine Emperor Alexius I , threatened by the Seljuk Turks, appealed to the West for aid. This was not the first appeal of the kind; while it may have helped to determine the time and the route of the First Crusade, 1095-99, its precise import is difficult to estimate. Modern historians have speculated that two internal problems also helped trigger the First Crusade: an attempt, begun by Pope Gregory VII , to reform the church, and the pressing need to strengthen the weakened Papacy itself. Direct impetus was given the crusade by the famous sermon of Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont (now Clermont-Ferrand) in 1095. Exaggerating the anti-Christian acts of the Muslims, Urban exhorted Christendom to go to war for the Sepulcher, promising that the journey would count as full penance and that the homes of the absent ones would be protected by a truce. The battle cry of the Christians, he urged, should be Deus volt [God wills it]. From the crosses that were distributed at this meeting the Crusaders took their name. Bishop Ademar of Le Puy-en-Velay was designated as papal legate for the crusade, and Count Raymond IV of Toulouse was the first of the leaders of the expedition to take the cross. Proclaimed by many wandering preachers, notably Peter the Hermit , the movement spread through Europe and even reached Scandinavia. It is estimated that between 60,000 and 100,000 heeded the call and took up the cause of the First Crusade. The chief factors that contributed to this enthusiastic response were the increase in the population and prosperity of Western Europe; the high point that religious devotion had reached; the prospect of territorial expansion and riches for the nobles, and of more freedom for the lower classes; the colonial projects of the Normans (directed against the Byzantine Empire as much as against the Muslim world); the desire, particularly of the Italian cities, to expand trade with the East; and a general awakening to the lure of travel and adventure. The conflict between spiritual and material aims, apparent from the first, became increasingly serious. The organized host of the crusade was preceded in the spring of 1096 by several undisciplined hordes of French and German peasants. Walter Sans Avoir (Walter the Penniless) led a French group, which passed peacefully through Germany and Hungary but sacked the district of Belgrade. The Bulgarians retaliated, but Walter reached Constantinople by midsummer. He was joined there by the followers of Peter the Hermit, whose progress had been similar. A German group started off by robbing and massacring the Jews in the Rhenish cities and later so provoked the king of Hungary that he attacked and dispersed them. The bands that had reached Constantinople were speedily transported by Alexius I to Asia Minor, where they were defeated by the Turks. The survivors either joined later bands or returned to Europe. Alexius began to take fright at the proportions the movement was assuming. When, late in 1096, the first of the princes, Hugh of Vermandois, a brother of Philip I of France, reached Constantinople, the emperor persuaded him to take an oath of fealty. Godfrey of Bouillon and his brothers Eustace and Baldwin (later Baldwin I of Jerusalem), Raymond IV of Toulouse, Bohemond I , Tancred , Robert of Normandy, and Robert II of Flanders arrived early in 1097. At Antioch all except Tancred and Raymond (who promised only to refrain from hostilities against the Byzantines) took the oath to Alexius, which bound them to accept Alexius as overlord of their conquests. Bohemond's subsequent breach of the oath was to cause endless wrangling. The armies crossed to Asia Minor, took Nicaea (1097), defeated the Turks at Dorylaeum, and, after a seven-month siege, took Antioch (1098) and slaughtered nearly all of its inhabitants, including its Christians. The campaign was completed in July, 1099, by the taking of Jerusalem, where they massacred the city's Muslims and Jews. The election of Godfrey of Bouillon as defender of the Holy Sepulcher marked the beginning of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (see Jerusalem, Latin Kingdom of ). A Latin patriarch was elected. Other fiefs, theoretically dependent on Jerusalem, were created as the crusade's leaders moved to expand their domains. These were the counties of Edessa (Baldwin) and Tripoli (Raymond) and the principality of Antioch (Bohemond). The First Crusade thus ended in victory. It was the only crusade that achieved more than ephemeral results. Until the ultimate fall (1291) of the Latin Kingdom, the brunt of the fighting in the Holy Land fell on the Latin princes and their followers and on the great military orders, the Knights Hospitalers and the Knights Templars , that arose out of the Crusades. The later Crusades were for the most part only expeditions to assist those who already were in the Holy Land and defend the lands they had captured. The Second Crusade, 1147-49, was preached by St. Bernard of Clairvaux after the fall (1144) of Edessa to the Turks. It was led by Holy Roman Emperor Conrad III , whose army set out first, and by King Louis VII of France. Both armies passed through the Balkans and pillaged the territory of the Byzantine emperor, Manuel I , who provided them with transportation to Asia Minor in order to be rid of them. The German contingent, already decimated by the Turks, merged (1148) with the French, who had fared only slightly better, at Acre (Akko). A joint attack on Damascus failed because of jealousy and, possibly, treachery among the Latin princes of the Holy Land. Conrad returned home in 1148 and was followed (1149) by Louis. The Second Crusade thus ended in dismal failure. Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa was in continual conflict with Pope Alexander IL Frederick created a line of puppet anti-popes in opposition to Alexander who saw Frederick's assertion of imperial rights as a threat to papal authority. A long struggle between the two powers saw Frederick invade the Italian peninsula several times, forcing Alexander to flee to France. However, internal conflicts weakened Frederick's power and the Lombard League, consisting of various Italian city- states, eventually defeated Frederick who agreed to recognize Alexander as pope. In 1152, Frederick, Duke of Swabia, was elected German King and Holy Roman Emperor. However, he is better known by his nickname, Frederick Barbarossa, Italian for "redbeard". At the time, the Holy Roman Empire was in a state of decline due to internal conflicts. Frederick sought to unite the German states and restore imperial power. Frederick immediately antagonized Pope Eugenius III by informing him of the election, but neglected to ask for papal confirmation. Frederick further provoked Eugenius by filling several church appointments in violation of the Concordat of Worms which stated that only bishops and abbots were to be chosen by the clergy. However, Frederick realized that he could not succeed in reestablishing the Holy Roman Empire as the leading power in Europe without Eugenius' backing. In 1153, Frederick and Eugenius agreed to the Treaty of Constance, where Frederick was to protect and maintain the position of the papacy and oppose its enemies in exchange for papal confirmation as Holy Roman Emperor and the protection of rights for the Empire. In 1155, Eugenius' successor, Pope Adrian, complied with the treaty and crowned Frederick emperor. Frederick came into conflict again with the papacy after the death of Adrian. Frederick supported Ottaviano De Monticello as pope, however, most of the cardinals and subsequently, most other nations, supported Rolando Bandinelli who became Pope Alexander III. Frederick was excommunicated in 1160 for his support of this anti-pope, Victor VI. When Victor died in 1164, Frederick supported his successor. In 1158, at the Diet of Roncaglia, Frederick asserted his imperial rights over the Northern Italian city states. Naturally, this was seen by the city states as an attempt to limit their freedom. In 1158, Frederick began a series of campaigns into the Italian peninsula to assert his imperial influence and, in 1162, he captured Milan after a nine-month siege and took Rome in 1167, from which Alexander had fled for the safety of France. No further advances were made due to an outbreak of plague. The Lombard League, consisting of several Italian city-states, was formed in 1167 in opposition to Frederick. However, the two sides did not engage for several years as Frederick was forced to focus on his internal woes with feuding princes. The Lombard League was victorious over Frederick at the Battle of Legnano in 1176, where the pikemen of the League defeated the mounted cavalry of the Holy Roman Empire. With this loss, Frederick agreed to finally recognize Alexander as pope and established a six- year truce with the League. In 1177, a ceremony was held in Venice, where Frederick kissed the feet of Alexander as an act of contrition. In 1183, Frederick made peace with the Lombard League. In May 1189, Frederick joined the Third Crusade. However, before reaching the Holy Land, he drowned in June 1190 while crossing the Saleph River in the Kingdom of Armenia. The German invasion of the Soviet Union during WWII was codenamed Operation Barbarossa in his honor. The Third Crusade, known as the Crusade of the Kings, was announced due to the fall of Jerusalem to Saladin, the great Muslim military genius. Frederick Barbarossa, along with kings Philip II of France and Richard I of England all took up the cross. Since the end Of the Second Crusade (1147-49), various Muslim leaders had clawed back Crusader holdings in the Holy Land. The Muslim ruler Nureddin took Antakiya in 1149, Damascus in 1154 and annexed Egypt by 1171 consolidating Muslim factions and regaining Christian- controlled areas. Nureddin's conquests laid the groundwork for Saladin, the brilliant Muslim military leader, who continued to unite Muslims. Saladin's possessions soon surrounded the Crusader states and presented a united front to the Christians. In July 1187, Saladin defeated the Crusader army of Jerusalem at the Battle of Hattin. Saladin immediately pressed his advantage and prepared to attack Christian-held Jerusalem. On the way to Jerusalem, the city of Acre fell to Saladin. On 2 October 1187, the poorly defended city of Jerusalem fell to Saladin's forces. The news of Jerusalem's fall shocked Europe and a crusade was called by Pope Gregory VIII. An envoy from the Pope met with King Philip II of France and King Henry II of England. The two kings agreed to set aside their differences over the English king's possessions in France. However, Henry died on 6 July 1189 and his son Richard, who had already established a reputation for being a great fighter, became king and agreed to go on crusade. As the French and English were raising funds through taxes, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I again took up the cross, having taken part in the Second Crusade. His forces left for the Holy Land in May 1189 and journeyed by land to Constantinople. However, due to conflict with Byzantine Emperor Isaac Angelus, the Crusaders were forced to avoid Constantinople and cross the Dardanelles. On 10 June 1190, Frederick drowned while crossing the Saleph River in the Kingdom of Armenia. Leaderless, the German army dissolved. Most were killed by Muslims and only a few hundred reached the Holy Land under the command of Frederick's son, Frederick of Swabia and Leopold V, duke of Austria. In July 1190, the French and English had raised enough funds and fighters to journey to the Holy Land. According to contemporary accounts, the forces of the Third Crusade were one of the largest contingents ever to travel to the Holy Land. Philip's forces reached the Holy Land first in the spring of the following year. Richard's forces arrived in June after having conquered Cyprus along the way. Richard had defeated and captured Isaac Comnenus, a Byzantine rebel leader in Cyprus, who had kidnapped Richard's shipwrecked sister and his fiancée who were also journeying to the Holy Land. In July 1191, Acre fell to the Crusaders. However, by this time, Richard and Philip had fallen out, and the latter, who was ill, returned to France with his army. With Philip's departure, Richard became the leader of the remaining Crusaders. The Crusader forces proceeded to engage in minor skirmishes with Saladin's army, but no major fighting took place. The Crusader forces eventually reached Jerusalem. However, Richard realized he did not have enough support to take back the Holy City. In addition, news had reached Richard that his brother John and Philip of France were spreading rumors that Richard intended to remain in the Holy Land permanently. In September 1192, Richard arranged a truce with Saladin to permit Christians to hold Acre and its surrounding territories and to allow pilgrims passage to various places in the Holy Land, effectively ending the Third Crusade. In addition to fighting with Philip, Richard had also quarreled with Leopold of Austria while in the Holy Land, which proved to be fateful as Richard was captured by Leopold's forces on his return to England and held for ransom. In many ways, the Third Crusade was a failure, as Jerusalem remained in Muslim hands. However, Richard's conquest of Cyprus proved to having a lasting impact as it became a strategic location for future Crusades. Pope Innocent III launched the Fourth Crusade, 1202-1204, which was totally diverted from its original course. The Crusaders, led mostly by French and Flemish nobles and spurred on by Fulk of Neuilly , assembled (1202) near Venice. To pay some of their passage to Palestine they aided Doge Enrico Dandolo (see under Dandolo , family) and his Venetian forces in recovering the Christian city of Zara (Zadar) on the Dalmatian coast from the Hungarians. The sack of Zara (1202), for which Innocent III excommunicated the crusaders, prefaced more serious political schemes. Alexius (later Alexius IV ), son of the deposed Byzantine emperor Isaac II and brother-in-law of Philip of Swabia , a sponsor of the crusade, joined the army at Zara and persuaded the leaders to help him depose his uncle, Alexius III . In exchange, he promised large sums of money, aid to the Crusaders in conquering Egypt, and the union of Roman and Eastern Christianity under the control of the Roman church. The actual decision to turn on Constantinople was largely brought about by Venetian pressure. The fleet arrived at the Bosporus in 1203; Alexius III fled, and Isaac II and Alexius IV were installed as joint emperors while the fleet remained outside the harbor. In 1204, Alexius V overthrew the emperors. As a result the Crusaders stormed the city, sacked it amid horrendous rape and murder, divided the rich spoils with the Venetians (who brought much of it back to Venice) according to a prearranged plan, and set up the Latin Empire of Constantinople (see Constantinople, Latin Empire of ). The Crusader Baldwin I of Flanders was elected first Latin Emperor of Constantinople, but within a year he was captured and killed by the Bulgarians and succeeded by his brother Henry. There followed the pathetic interlude of the Children's Crusade, 1212. Led by a visionary French peasant boy, Stephen of Cloyes, children embarked at Marseilles, hoping that they would succeed in the cause that their elders had betrayed. According to later sources, they were sold into slavery by unscrupulous skippers. Another group, made up of German children, went to Italy; most of them perished of hunger and disease. Soon afterward Innocent III and his successor, Honorius III, began to preach the Fifth Crusade, 1217-21. King Andrew II of Hungary, Duke Leopold VI of Austria, John of Brienne , and the papal legate Pelasius were among the leaders of the expedition, which was aimed at Egypt, the center of Muslim strength. Damietta (Dumyat) was taken in 1219 but had to be evacuated again after the defeat (1221) of an expedition against Cairo. The Sixth Crusade, 1228-29, undertaken by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II , was simply a peaceful visit, in the course of which the emperor made a truce with the Muslims, securing the partial surrender of Jerusalem and other holy places. Frederick crowned himself king of Jerusalem, but, occupied with Western affairs, he did nothing when the Muslims later reoccupied the city. Thibaut IV of Navarre and Champagne, however, reopened (1239) the wars, which were continued by Richard, earl of Cornwall. They were unable to compose the quarrels between the Knights Hospitalers and Knights Templars. In 1244 the Templars, who advocated an alliance with the sultan of Damascus rather than with Egypt, prevailed. A treaty (1244) with Damascus restored Palestine to the Christians, but in the same year the Egyptian Muslims and their Turkish allies took Jerusalem and utterly routed the Christians at Gaza. This event led to the Seventh Crusade, 1248-54, due solely to the idealistic enterprise of Louis IX of France. Egypt again was the object of attack. Damietta fell again (1249); and an expedition to Cairo miscarried (1250), Louis himself being captured. After his release from captivity, he spent four years improving the fortifications left to the Christians in the Holy Land. The fall (1268) of Jaffa and Antioch to the Muslims caused Louis IX to undertake the Eighth Crusade, 1270, which was cut short by his death in Tunisia. The Ninth Crusade, 1271-72, was led by Prince Edward (later Edward I of England). He landed at Acre but retired after concluding a truce. In 1289 Tripoli fell to the Muslims, and in 1291 Acre, the last Christian stronghold, followed. After the fall of Acre no further Crusades were undertaken in the Holy Land, although several were preached. Already, however, the term crusade was also being used for other expeditions, sanctioned by the pope, against heathens and heretics. Albert the Bear and Henry the Lion led (1147) a crusade against the Wends in NE Germany; Hermann von Salza in 1226 received crusading privileges for the Teutonic Knights against the Prussians; the pope proclaimed (1228) a crusade against Emperor Frederick II; and several crusades were fought against the Albigenses and the Hussites (see Hussite Wars ). War against the Turks remained the chief problem of Eastern Europe for centuries after 1291. Campaigns akin to crusades were those of John Hunyadi , John of Austria (d. 1578), and John III of Poland. In their consequences, the crusades in Europe were as important as those in the Holy Land. However, although the Crusades in the Holy Land failed in their chief purpose, they exercised an incalculable influence on Western civilization by bringing the West into closer contact with new modes of living and thinking, by stimulating commerce, by giving fresh impetus to literature and invention, and by increasing geographical knowledge. The crusading period advanced the development of national monarchies in Europe, because secular leaders deprived the pope of the power of decision in what was to have been the highest Christian enterprise. In the Levant the Crusades left a lasting imprint, not least on the Byzantine Empire, which was disastrously weakened. Physical reminders of the Crusades remain in the monumental castles built by the Crusaders, such as that of Al Karak . The chief material beneficiaries of the Crusades were Venice and the other great Mediterranean ports. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Crusades. Encyclopedia.com . 2008.

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In which naval battle did Rome decisively defeat the forces of Antony and Cleopatra?

The Battle of Actium - Sep 02, 31 B.C. - HISTORY.com The Battle of Actium Publisher A+E Networks At the Battle of Actium, off the western coast of Greece, Roman leader Octavian wins a decisive victory against the forces of Roman Mark Antony and Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. Before their forces suffered final defeat, Antony and Cleopatra broke though the enemy lines and fled to Egypt, where they would commit suicide the following year. With the assassination of Roman dictator Julius Caesar in 44 B.C., Rome fell into civil war. To end the fighting, a coalition–the Second Triumvirate–was formed by three of the strongest belligerents. The triumvirate was made up of Octavian, Caesar’s great-nephew and chosen heir; Mark Antony, a powerful general; and Lepidus, a Roman statesman. The empire was divided among the three, and Antony took up the administration of the eastern provinces. Upon arriving in Asia Minor, he summoned Queen Cleopatra to answer charges that she had aided his enemies. Cleopatra, ruler of Egypt since 51 B.C., had once been Julius Caesar’s lover and had borne him a child, who she named Caesarion, meaning “little Caesar.” Cleopatra sought to seduce Antony as she had Caesar before him, and in 41 B.C. arrived at Tarsus on a magnificent river barge, dressed as Venus, the Roman goddess of love. Successful in her efforts, Antony returned with her to Alexandria, where they spent the winter in debauchery. In 40 B.C., Antony returned to Rome and married Octavian’s sister Octavia in an effort to mend his increasingly strained relationship with Octavian. The triumvirate, however, continued to deteriorate. In 37 B.C. Antony separated from Octavia and traveled to the East, arranging for Cleopatra to join him in Syria. In their time apart, Cleopatra had borne him twins, a son and a daughter. According to Octavian’s propagandists, the lovers were then married, which violated the Roman law restricting Romans from marrying foreigners. Antony’s disastrous military campaign against Parthia in 36 B.C. further reduced his prestige, but in 34 B.C. he was more successful against Armenia. To celebrate the victory, he staged a triumphal procession through the streets of Alexandria, in which Antony and Cleopatra sat on golden thrones, and their children were given imposing royal titles. Many in Rome, spurred on by Octavian, interpreted the spectacle as a sign that Antony intended to deliver the Roman Empire into alien hands. After several more years of tension and propaganda attacks, Octavian declared war against Cleopatra, and therefore Antony, in 31 B.C. Enemies of Octavian rallied to Antony’s side, but Octavian’s brilliant military commanders gained early successes against his forces. On September 2, 31 B.C., their fleets clashed at Actium in Greece. After heavy fighting, Cleopatra broke from the engagement and set course for Egypt with 60 of her ships. Antony then broke through the enemy line and followed her. The disheartened fleet that remained surrendered to Octavian. One week later, Antony’s land forces surrendered. Although they had suffered a decisive defeat, it was nearly a year before Octavian reached Alexandria and again defeated Antony. In the aftermath of the battle, Cleopatra took refuge in the mausoleum she had had built for herself. Antony, informed that Cleopatra was dead, stabbed himself with his sword. Before he died, another messenger arrived, saying Cleopatra still lived. Antony was carried to Cleopatra’s retreat, where he died after bidding her to make her peace with Octavian. When the triumphant Roman arrived, she attempted to seduce him, but he resisted her charms. Rather than fall under Octavian’s domination, Cleopatra committed suicide on August 30, 31 B.C., possibly by means of an asp, a poisonous Egyptian serpent and symbol of divine royalty. Octavian then executed Cleopatra’s son, Caesarion, annexed Egypt into the Roman Empire, and used Cleopatra’s treasure to pay off his veterans. In 27 B.C., Octavian became Augustus, the first and arguably most successful of all Roman emperors. He ruled a peaceful, prosperous, and expanding Roman Empire until his death in 14 A.D. at the age of 75. Related Videos

Battle of Actium

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List of Roman Battles  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/496_BC" \o "496 BC" 496 BC  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Regillus" \o "Battle of Lake Regillus" Battle of Lake Regillus - A legendary early Roman victory, won over the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" \o "Etruscan civilization" Etruscans and the Latins  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/477_BC" \o "477 BC" 477 BC  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Cremera" \o "Battle of the Cremera" Battle of the Cremera - All the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabii" \o "Fabii" Fabii but one are killed  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/458_BC" \o "458 BC" 458 BC  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mons_Algidus" \o "Battle of Mons Algidus" Battle of Mons Algidus -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cincinnatus" \o "Cincinnatus" Cincinnatus wins over the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aequi" \o "Aequi" Aequi  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/446_BC" \o "446 BC" 446 BC  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Corbione" \o "Battle of Corbione" Battle of Corbione -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Titus_Quinctius_L.f._Capitolinus_Barbatus&action=edit" \o "Titus Quinctius L.f. Capitolinus Barbatus" Titus Quinctius L.f. Capitolinus Barbatus leads Roman troops to win over the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aequi" \o "Aequi" Aequi and the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volsci" \o "Volsci" Volsci.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/396_BC" \o "396 BC" 396 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Veii" \o "Battle of Veii" Battle of Veii - Romans complete conquest of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscans" \o "Etruscans" Etruscans  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/390_BC" \o "390 BC" 390 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Allia" \o "Battle of the Allia" Battle of Allia River - Gauls defeat the Romans, leading to the Gallic sack of Rome.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/342_BC" \o "342 BC" 342 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Gaurus" \o "Battle of Mount Gaurus" Battle of Mount Gaurus - Roman general  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Valerius_Corvus" \o "Marcus Valerius Corvus" Marcus Valerius Corvus defeats the Samnites.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/341_BC" \o "341 BC" 341 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Suessola" \o "Battle of Suessola" Battle of Suessola - Roman consul  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Valerius_Corvus" \o "Marcus Valerius Corvus" Marcus Valerius Corvus defeats the Samnites once more.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/339_BC" \o "339 BC" 339 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Vesuvius" \o "Battle of Vesuvius" Battle of Vesuvius - Romans under P. Decius Mus and T. Manlius Imperiosus defeat the rebellious Latins.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/338_BC" \o "338 BC" 338 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Trifanum" \o "Battle of Trifanum" Battle of Trifanum - Roman general T. Manlius Imperiosus decisively defeats the Latins.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/321_BC" \o "321 BC" 321 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Caudine_Forks" \o "Battle of the Caudine Forks" Battle of the Caudine Forks - Romans under Spurius Postumius and T. Verturius Calvinus are defeated by the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samnites" \o "Samnites" Samnites under Gaius Pontius.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/316_BC" \o "316 BC" 316 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lautulae" \o "Battle of Lautulae" Battle of Lautulae - Romans are defeated by the Samnites.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/310_BC" \o "310 BC" 310 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Vadimo_%28310_BC%29" \o "Battle of Lake Vadimo (310 BC)" Battle of Lake Vadimo - Romans, led by dictator  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Papirius_Cursor" \o "Lucius Papirius Cursor" Lucius Papirius Cursor, defeat the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" \o "Etruscan civilization" Etruscans.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/305_BC" \o "305 BC" 305 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bovianum" \o "Battle of Bovianum" Battle of Bovianum - Roman consuls M. Fulvius and L. Postumius decisiviely defeat the Samnites to end the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Samnite_War" \o "Second Samnite War" Second Samnite War.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/298_BC" \o "298 BC" 298 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Camerinum" \o "Battle of Camerinum" Battle of Camerinum - Samnites defeat the Romans under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Scipio" \o "Lucius Cornelius Scipio" Lucius Cornelius Scipio in the first battle of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Samnite_War" \o "Third Samnite War" Third Samnite War.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/295_BC" \o "295 BC" 295 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sentinum" \o "Battle of Sentinum" Battle of Sentinum - Romans under Fabius Rullianus and Publius Decimus Mus defeat the Samnites and their Etruscan and Gallic allies, forcing the Etruscans, Gauls, and Umbrians to make peace  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/293_BC" \o "293 BC" 293 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aquilonia" \o "Battle of Aquilonia" Battle of Aquilonia - Romans decisively defeat the Samnites.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/285_BC" \o "285 BC" 285 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Arretium" \o "Battle of Arretium" Battle of Arretium - A Roman army under Lucius Caecilius is destroyed by the Gauls  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/283_BC" \o "283 BC" 283 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Vadimo_%28283_BC%29" \o "Battle of Lake Vadimo (283 BC)" Battle of Lake Vadimo - A Roman army under P. Cornelius Dolabella defeats the Etruscans and Gauls.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/282_BC" \o "282 BC" 282 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Populonia" \o "Battle of Populonia" Battle of Populonia - Etruscan resistance to Roman domination of Italy is finally crushed.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/280_BC" \o "280 BC" 280 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Heraclea" \o "Battle of Heraclea" Battle of Heraclea - First engagement of Roman and Greek armies, the latter led by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" \o "Pyrrhus of Epirus" Pyrrhus of Epirus, who is victorious, but at great cost.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/279_BC" \o "279 BC" 279 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Asculum" \o "Battle of Asculum" Battle of Asculum - Pyrrhus again defeats the Romans.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/275_BC" \o "275 BC" 275 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Beneventum_%28275_BC%29" \o "Battle of Beneventum (275 BC)" Battle of Beneventum - Pyrrhus is finally defeated by the Romans under Marcus Curius Dentatus.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/261_BC" \o "261 BC" 261 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Agrigentum" \o "Battle of Agrigentum" Battle of Agrigentum - Carthaginian forces under Hannibal Gisco and Hanno are defeated by the Romans, that attain control of most of Sicily.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/260_BC" \o "260 BC" 260 BC �  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lipari_Islands" \o "Battle of the Lipari Islands" Battle of the Lipari Islands - A Roman naval force is defeated by the Carthaginians  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae" \o "Battle of Mylae" Battle of Mylae - A Roman naval force under C. Duillius defeats the Carthaginian fleet, giving Rome control of the western Mediterranean.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/256_BC" \o "256 BC" 256 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Ecnomus" \o "Battle of Cape Ecnomus" Battle of Cape Ecnomus - A Carthaginian fleet under Hamilcar and Hanno is defeated in an attempt to stop a Roman invasion of Africa by Marcus Atilius Regulus.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Adys" \o "Battle of Adys" Battle of Adys - Romans under Regulus defeat the Carthaginians in North Africa  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/255_BC" \o "255 BC" 255 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tunis" \o "Battle of Tunis" Battle of Tunis - Carthaginians under Xanthippus, a Greek mercenary, defeat the Romans under Regulus, who is captured.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/251_BC" \o "251 BC" 251 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Panormus" \o "Battle of Panormus" Battle of Panormus - Carthaginian forces under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasdrubal" \o "Hasdrubal" Hasdrubal are defeated by the Romans under L. Caecilius Metellus.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/249_BC" \o "249 BC" 249 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Drepana" \o "Battle of Drepana" Battle of Drepana -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage" \o "Carthage" Carthaginians under Adherbal defeat the fleet of Roman admiral  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publius_Claudius_Pulcher" \o "Publius Claudius Pulcher" Publius Claudius Pulcher.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/242_BC" \o "242 BC" 242 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates_Islands" \o "Battle of the Aegates Islands" Battle of the Aegates Islands - Roman sea victory over the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage" \o "Carthage" Carthaginians, ending the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Punic_War" \o "First Punic War" First Punic War  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/225_BC" \o "225 BC" 225 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Faesulae" \o "Battle of Faesulae" Battle of Faesulae - Romans are defeated by the Gauls of Northern Italy.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/224_BC" \o "224 BC" 224 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Telamon" \o "Battle of Telamon" Battle of Telamon - Romans under Aemilius Papus and Caius Atilius Regulus defeat the Gauls.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/222_BC" \o "222 BC" 222 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Clastidium" \o "Battle of Clastidium" Battle of Clastidium - Romans under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Claudius_Marcellus" \o "Marcus Claudius Marcellus" Marcus Claudius Marcellus defeat the Gauls.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/218_BC" \o "218 BC" 218 BC - November  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Ticinus" \o "Battle of the Ticinus" Battle of the Ticinus -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal" \o "Hannibal" Hannibal defeats the Romans under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publius_Cornelius_Scipio" \o "Publius Cornelius Scipio" Publius Cornelius Scipio the elder in a small cavalry fight.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Trebia" \o "Battle of the Trebia" Battle of the Trebia -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal" \o "Hannibal" Hannibal defeats the Romans under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Titius_Sempronius_Longus&action=edit" \o "Titius Sempronius Longus" Titius Sempronius Longus with an ambush.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/217_BC" \o "217 BC" 217 BC, in April -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene" \o "Battle of Lake Trasimene" Battle of Lake Trasimene - In an ambush, Hannibal destroyed the Roman army of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Flaminius" \o "Gaius Flaminius" Gaius Flaminius, who is killed.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/216_BC" \o "216 BC" 216 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_2" \o "August 2" August 2 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae" \o "Battle of Cannae" Battle of Cannae -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal" \o "Hannibal" Hannibal destroys the Roman army of Lucius Aemilius Paulus and Publius Terentius Varro in what is considered one of the great masterpieces of the tactical art.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Battle_of_Nola" \o "First Battle of Nola" First Battle of Nola - Roman general  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Claudius_Marcellus" \o "Marcus Claudius Marcellus" Marcus Claudius Marcellus holds off an attack by Hannibal.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/215_BC" \o "215 BC" 215 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Nola" \o "Second Battle of Nola" Second Battle of Nola - Marcellus again repulses an attack by Hannibal.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/214_BC" \o "214 BC" 214 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Battle_of_Nola" \o "Third Battle of Nola" Third Battle of Nola - Marcellus fights an inconclusive battle with Hannibal.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/212_BC" \o "212 BC" 212 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Battle_of_Capua" \o "First Battle of Capua" First Battle of Capua - Hannibal defeats the consuls Q. Fulvius Flaccus and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appius_Claudius" \o "Appius Claudius" Appius Claudius, but the Roman army escapes  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Silarus" \o "Battle of the Silarus" Battle of the Silarus - Hannibal destroys the army of the Roman praetor M. Centenius Penula.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Herdonia" \o "Battle of Herdonia" Battle of Herdonia - Hannibal destroys the Roman army of the praetor Gnaeus Fulvius.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/211_BC" \o "211 BC" 211 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Upper_Baetis" \o "Battle of the Upper Baetis" Battle of the Upper Baetis -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publius_Cornelius_Scipio" \o "Publius Cornelius Scipio" Publius and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnaeus_Cornelius_Scipio_Calvus" \o "Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus" Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio are killed in battle with the Carthaginians under Hannibal's brother  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasdrubal_Barca" \o "Hasdrubal Barca" Hasdrubal Barca  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Capua" \o "Second Battle of Capua" Second Battle of Capua - Hannibal is not able to break the Roman siege of the city.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/210_BC" \o "210 BC" 210 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Herdonia" \o "Second Battle of Herdonia" Second Battle of Herdonia - Hannibal destroys the Roman army of Fulvius Centumalus, who is killed  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Numistro" \o "Battle of Numistro" Battle of Numistro - Hannibal defeats Marcellus once more  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/209_BC" \o "209 BC" 209 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Asculum_%28209_BC%29" \o "Battle of Asculum (209 BC)" Battle of Asculum - Hannibal once again defeats Marcellus, in an indecisive battle  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_battle_of_Lamia&action=edit" \o "First battle of Lamia" First battle of Lamia - Romans defeated by Philip V of Macedon  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Second_battle_of_Lamia&action=edit" \o "Second battle of Lamia" Second battle of Lamia - Romans defeated by Philip V once more  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/208_BC" \o "208 BC" 208 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Baecula" \o "Battle of Baecula" Battle of Baecula - Romans in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispania" \o "Hispania" Hispania ( HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" \o "Iberian Peninsula" Iberia) under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipio_Africanus_Major" \o "Scipio Africanus Major" P. Cornelius Scipio the Younger defeat Hasdrubal Barca  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/207_BC" \o "207 BC" 207 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Grumentum" \o "Battle of Grumentum" Battle of Grumentum - Roman general  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Claudius_Nero" \o "Gaius Claudius Nero" Gaius Claudius Nero fights an indecisive battle with Hannibal, then escapes north to confront Hannibal's brother  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasdrubal_Barca" \o "Hasdrubal Barca" Hasdrubal Barca, who has invaded Italy  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Metaurus" \o "Battle of the Metaurus" Battle of the Metaurus - Hasdrubal is defeated and killed by Nero's Roman army.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/206_BC" \o "206 BC" 206 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ilipa" \o "Battle of Ilipa" Battle of Ilipa - Scipio again decisively defeats the remaining Carthaginian forces in Hispania.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/204_BC" \o "204 BC" 204 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Crotona" \o "Battle of Crotona" Battle of Crotona - Hannibal fights a drawn battle against the Roman general Sempronius in Southern Italy.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/203_BC" \o "203 BC" 203 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bagbrades" \o "Battle of Bagbrades" Battle of Bagbrades - Romans under Scipio defeat the Carthaginian army of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasdrubal_Gisco" \o "Hasdrubal Gisco" Hasdrubal Gisco and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syphax" \o "Syphax" Syphax. Hannibal is sent to return to Africa.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/202_BC" \o "202 BC" 202 BC  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_19" \o "October 19" October 19 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Zama" \o "Battle of Zama" Battle of Zama -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipio_Africanus_Major" \o "Scipio Africanus Major" Scipio Africanus Major decisively defeats  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal" \o "Hannibal" Hannibal in North Africa, ending the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Punic_War" \o "Second Punic War" Second Punic War  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/200_BC" \o "200 BC" 200 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cremona_%28200_BC%29" \o "Battle of Cremona (200 BC)" Battle of Cremona - Roman forces defeat the Gauls of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" \o "Cisalpine Gaul" Cisalpine Gaulhi  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/198_BC" \o "198 BC" 198 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aous" \o "Battle of the Aous" Battle of the Aous - Roman forces under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titus_Quinctius_Flamininus" \o "Titus Quinctius Flamininus" Titus Quinctius Flamininus defeat the Macedonians under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon" \o "Philip V of Macedon" Philip V  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/197_BC" \o "197 BC" 197 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cynoscephalae" \o "Battle of Cynoscephalae" Battle of Cynoscephalae - Romans under Flamininus decisively defeats Philip in Thessaly  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/194_BC" \o "194 BC" 194 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mutina_%28194_BC%29" \o "Battle of Mutina (194 BC)" Battle of Mutina - Roman victory over the Gauls  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gythium" \o "Battle of Gythium" Battle of Gythium - With some Roman assistance,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philopoemen" \o "Philopoemen" Philopoemen of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaean_League" \o "Achaean League" Achaean League defeats the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta" \o "Sparta" Spartans under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabis" \o "Nabis" Nabis  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/191_BC" \o "191 BC" 191 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae_%28191_BC%29" \o "Battle of Thermopylae (191 BC)" Battle of Thermopylae - Romans under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manius_Acilius_Glabrio_%28consul_191_BC%29" \o "Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 191 BC)" Manius Acilius Glabrio defeat  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" \o "Antiochus III the Great" Antiochus III the Great and force him to evacuate Greece  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/190_BC" \o "190 BC" 190 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Eurymedon_%28190_BC%29" \o "Battle of the Eurymedon (190 BC)" Battle of the Eurymedon - Roman forces under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Aemilius_Regillus" \o "Lucius Aemilius Regillus" Lucius Aemilius Regillus defeat a Seleucid fleet commanded by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal" \o "Hannibal" Hannibal, fighting his last battle.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Myonessus" \o "Battle of Myonessus" Battle of Myonessus - Another Seleucid fleet is defeated by the Romans December,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Magnesia" \o "Battle of Magnesia" Battle of Magnesia - (near Smyrna) Romans under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipio_Asiaticus" \o "Scipio Asiaticus" Lucius Cornelius Scipio and his brother  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipio_Africanus_Major" \o "Scipio Africanus Major" Scipio Africanus Major defeat  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" \o "Antiochus III the Great" Antiochus III the Great in the decisive victory of the war.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/171_BC" \o "171 BC" 171 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Callicinus" \o "Battle of Callicinus" Battle of Callicinus -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perseus_of_Macedon" \o "Perseus of Macedon" Perseus of Macedon defeats a Roman army under Publius Licinius Crassus.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/168_BC" \o "168 BC" 168 BC  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_22" \o "June 22" June 22 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Pydna" \o "Battle of Pydna" Battle of Pydna - Romans under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Aemilius_Paullus_Macedonicus" \o "Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus" Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus defeat and capture Macedonian King Perseus, ending the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War" \o "Third Macedonian War" Third Macedonian War  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/148_BC" \o "148 BC" 148 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Pydna_%28148_BC%29" \o "Battle of Pydna (148 BC)" Second battle of Pydna - The forces of the Macedonian pretender  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andriscus" \o "Andriscus" Andriscus are defeated by the Romans under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Caecilius_Metellus" \o "Quintus Caecilius Metellus" Quintus Caecilius Metellus in the decisive engagement of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Macedonian_War" \o "Fourth Macedonian War" Fourth Macedonian War  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/146_BC" \o "146 BC" 146 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Carthage_%28c.149_BC%29" \o "Battle of Carthage (c.149 BC)" Battle of Carthage ends:  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipio_Africanus_Minor" \o "Scipio Africanus Minor" Scipio Africanus Minor captures and destroys Carthage, ending the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Punic_War" \o "Third Punic War" Third Punic War  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Corinth" \o "Battle of Corinth" Battle of Corinth - Romans under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Mummius" \o "Lucius Mummius" Lucius Mummius defeat the Achaean League forces of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critolaus" \o "Critolaus" Critolaus, who is killed. Corinth is destroyed and Greece comes under direct Roman rule.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/109_BC" \o "109 BC" 109 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Rhone_river&action=edit" \o "Battle of the Rhone river" Battle of the Rhone river - Roman force under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus_Junius_Silanus&action=edit" \o "Marcus Junius Silanus" Marcus Junius Silanus are defeated by the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helvetii" \o "Helvetii" Helvetii  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/108_BC" \o "108 BC" 108 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Muthul" \o "Battle of the Muthul" Battle of the Muthul - Roman forces under Caecilius Metellus fight indecisively against the forces of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jugurtha" \o "Jugurtha" Jugurtha of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numidia" \o "Numidia" Numidia  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/107_BC" \o "107 BC" 107 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_near_Burdigala&action=edit" \o "Battle near Burdigala" Battle near Burdigala - Roman forces under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Cassius_Longinus" \o "Lucius Cassius Longinus" Lucius Cassius Longinus are defeated by the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helvetii" \o "Helvetii" Helvetii  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/105_BC" \o "105 BC" 105 BC  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_6" \o "October 6" October 6 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Arausio" \o "Battle of Arausio" Battle of Arausio -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimbri" \o "Cimbri" Cimbri inflict a major defeat on the Roman army of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnaeus_Mallius_Maximus" \o "Gnaeus Mallius Maximus" Gnaeus Mallius Maximus  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/102_BC" \o "102 BC" 102 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Aquae_Sextiae" \o "Battle of Aquae Sextiae" Battle of Aquae Sextiae (modern  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aix-en-Provence" \o "Aix-en-Provence" Aix-en-Provence)- Romans under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marius" \o "Marius" Gaius Marius defeat  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teutons" \o "Teutons" Teutons, with mass suicides among the captured women  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/101_BC" \o "101 BC" 101 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Vercellae" \o "Battle of Vercellae" Battle of Vercellae - Romans under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marius" \o "Marius" Gaius Marius defeat the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimbri" \o "Cimbri" Cimbri, who are entirely annihilated.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/89_BC" \o "89 BC" 89 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Fucine_Lake" \o "Battle of Fucine Lake" Battle of Fucine Lake - Roman forces under Lucius Porcius Cato are defeated by the Italian rebels in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_War" \o "Social War" Social War  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Asculum_%2889_BC%29" \o "Battle of Asculum (89 BC)" Battle of Asculum - Roman army of C. Pompeius Strabo decisively defeats the rebels in the Social War.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/86_BC" \o "86 BC" 86 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_%2886_BC%29" \o "Battle of Chaeronea (86 BC)" Battle of Chaeronea - Roman forces of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" \o "Lucius Cornelius Sulla" Lucius Cornelius Sulla defeat the Pontic forces of Archelaus in the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War" \o "First Mithridatic War" First Mithridatic War  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/85_BC" \o "85 BC" 85 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Orchomenus" \o "Battle of Orchomenus" Battle of Orchomenus - Sulla again defeats Archelaus in the decisive battle of the First Mithridatic War.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/83_BC" \o "83 BC" 83 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Tifata" \o "Battle of Mount Tifata" Battle of Mount Tifata - Sulla defeats the popular forces of Caius Norbanus in the First Roman Civil War.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/82_BC" \o "82 BC" 82 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Colline_Gate" \o "Battle of Colline Gate" Battle of Colline Gate -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" \o "Lucius Cornelius Sulla" Sulla defeats  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samnites" \o "Samnites" Samnites allied to the popular party in Rome in the decisive battle of the Civil War.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/80_BC" \o "80 BC" 80 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Baetis_River" \o "Battle of the Baetis River" Battle of the Baetis River - Rebel forces under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Sertorius" \o "Quintus Sertorius" Quintus Sertorius defeat the legal Roman forces of Lucius Fulfidias in Hispania.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/74_BC" \o "74 BC" 74 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cyzicus_%2874_BC%29" \o "Battle of Cyzicus (74 BC)" Battle of Cyzicus - Roman forces under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Lucullus" \o "Lucius Lucullus" Lucius Lucullus defeat the forces of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_VI_of_Pontus" \o "Mithridates VI of Pontus" Mithridates VI of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontus" \o "Pontus" Pontus  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/72_BC" \o "72 BC" 72 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cabira" \o "Battle of Cabira" Battle of Cabira - Lucullus again defeats Mithridates, overrunning  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontus" \o "Pontus" Pontus  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/72_BC" \o "72 BC" 72 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Picenum&action=edit" \o "Battle of Picenum" Battle of Picenum - Slave Revolt led by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spartacus" \o "Spartacus" Spartacus defeat a Roman army led by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gellius_Publicola&action=edit" \o "Gellius Publicola" Gellius Publicola and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnaeus_Cornelius_Lentulus_Clodianus" \o "Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus" Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/72_BC" \o "72 BC" 72 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Mutina_I&action=edit" \o "Battle of Mutina I" Battle of Mutina I - Slave Revolt led by Spartacus defeat another army of Romans.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/71_BC" \o "71 BC" 71 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Campania&action=edit" \o "Battle of Campania" Battle of Campania - Slave Revolt led by Spartacus defeat a Roman army.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/71_BC" \o "71 BC" 71 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Campania_II&action=edit" \o "Battle of Campania II" Battle of Campania II - a Roman army under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Crassus" \o "Marcus Crassus" Marcus Crassus defeat Spartacus's army of slaves.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/71_BC" \o "71 BC" 71 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Silarus_River&action=edit" \o "Battle of Silarus River" Battle of Silarus River -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Crassus" \o "Marcus Crassus" Marcus Crassus defeats the army of Spartacus.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/69_BC" \o "69 BC" 69 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tigranocerta" \o "Battle of Tigranocerta" Battle of Tigranocerta - Lucullus defeats the army of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigranes_II_of_Armenia" \o "Tigranes II of Armenia" Tigranes II of Armenia, who was harbouring his father-in-law Mithridates VI of Pontus  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/68_BC" \o "68 BC" 68 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Artaxata" \o "Battle of Artaxata" Battle of Artaxata - Lucullus again defeats Tigranes.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/66_BC" \o "66 BC" 66 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lycus" \o "Battle of the Lycus" Battle of the Lycus -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompey_the_Great" \o "Pompey the Great" Pompey the Great decisively defeats Mithridates VI, effectively ending the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Mithridatic_War" \o "Third Mithridatic War" Third Mithridatic War  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/62_BC" \o "62 BC" 62 BC, January -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Pistoria" \o "Battle of Pistoria" Battle of Pistoria - The forces of the conspirator  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catiline" \o "Catiline" Catiline are defeated by the loyal Roman armies under Gaius Antonius.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/58_BC" \o "58 BC" 58 BC - June -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Arar" \o "Battle of the Arar" Battle of the Arar (Saone) -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar" \o "Julius Caesar" Caesar defeats the migrating  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helvetii" \o "Helvetii" Helvetii July -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bibracte" \o "Battle of Bibracte" Battle of Bibracte - Caesar again defeats the Helvetians, this time decisively. September - Caesar decisively defeats the forces of the Germanic chieftain  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariovistus" \o "Ariovistus" Ariovistus near modern  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfort" \o "Belfort" Belfort  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/57_BC" \o "57 BC" 57 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Axona" \o "Battle of the Axona" Battle of the Axona (Aisne) - Caesar defeats the forces of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgae" \o "Belgae" Belgae under King Galba of Suessiones.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Sabis" \o "Battle of the Sabis" Battle of the Sabis (Sambre) - Caesar defeats the Nervii.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/53_BC" \o "53 BC" 53 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae" \o "Battle of Carrhae" Battle of Carrhae - Roman  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Triumvirate" \o "First Triumvirate" triumvir  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crassus" \o "Crassus" Crassus is defeated and killed by the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthia" \o "Parthia" Parthians  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/52_BC" \o "52 BC" 52 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Alesia" \o "Battle of Alesia" Battle of Alesia -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar" \o "Julius Caesar" Caesar defeats the Gallic rebel  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vercingetorix" \o "Vercingetorix" Vercingetorix, completing the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/49_BC" \o "49 BC" 49 BC  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_24" \o "August 24" August 24 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bagradas_River_%2849_BC%29" \o "Battle of the Bagradas River (49 BC)" Battle of the Bagradas River - Caesar's general Gaius Curio is defeated in North Africa by the Pompeians under Attius Varus and King  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juba_I_of_Numidia" \o "Juba I of Numidia" Juba I of Numidia. Curio commits suicide.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/48_BC" \o "48 BC" 48 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_10" \o "July 10" July 10 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Dyrrhachium" \o "Battle of Dyrrhachium" Battle of Dyrrhachium - Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_9" \o "August 9" August 9 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Pharsalus" \o "Battle of Pharsalus" Battle of Pharsalus - Caesar decisively defeats  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompey" \o "Pompey" Pompey, who flees to Egypt  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/47_BC" \o "47 BC" 47 BC - February -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile_%2847_BC%29" \o "Battle of the Nile (47 BC)" Battle of the Nile - Caesar defeats the forces of the Egyptian king  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_XIII" \o "Ptolemy XIII" Ptolemy XIII May -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Zela" \o "Battle of Zela" Battle of Zela - Caesar defeats  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharnaces_II" \o "Pharnaces II" Pharnaces II of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontus" \o "Pontus" Pontus. This is the battle where he famously said Veni, vidi, vici. (I came, I saw, I conquered.)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/46_BC" \o "46 BC" 46 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_4" \o "January 4" January 4 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ruspina" \o "Battle of Ruspina" Battle of Ruspina - Caesar loses perhaps as much as a third of his army to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titus_Labienus" \o "Titus Labienus" Titus Labienus  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_6" \o "February 6" February 6 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Thapsus" \o "Battle of Thapsus" Battle of Thapsus - Caesar defeats the Pompeian army of Metellus Scipio in North Africa.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/45_BC" \o "45 BC" 45 BC  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_17" \o "March 17" March 17 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Munda" \o "Battle of Munda" Battle of Munda - In his last victory, Caesar defeats the Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus and Gnaeus Pompey the Younger in Hispania. Labienus is killed in the battle and the Younger Pompey captured and executed.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/43_BC" \o "43 BC" 43 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_14" \o "April 14" April 14 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Forum_Gallorum" \o "Battle of Forum Gallorum" Battle of Forum Gallorum - Antony, besieging Caesar's assassin Decimus Brutus in  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutina" \o "Mutina" Mutina, defeats the forces of the consul Pansa, who is killed, but is then immediately defeated by the army of the other consul, Hirtius  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_21" \o "April 21" April 21 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Mutina_II&action=edit" \o "Battle of Mutina II" Battle of Mutina II - Antony is again defeated in battle by Hirtius, who is killed. Although Antony fails to capture Mutina, Decimus Brutus is murdered shortly thereafter.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/42_BC" \o "42 BC" 42 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_3" \o "October 3" October 3 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Battle_of_Philippi" \o "First Battle of Philippi" First Battle of Philippi -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triumvir" \o "Triumvir" Triumvirs  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Antony" \o "Mark Antony" Mark Antony and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus" \o "Augustus" Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's assassins  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Brutus" \o "Marcus Brutus" Marcus Brutus and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Cassius_Longinus" \o "Gaius Cassius Longinus" Cassius. Although Brutus defeats Octavian, Antony defeats Cassius, who commits suicide.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_23" \o "October 23" October 23 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Philippi" \o "Second Battle of Philippi" Second Battle of Philippi - Brutus's army is decisively defeated by Antony and Octavian. Brutus escapes, but commits suicide soon after.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/41_BC" \o "41 BC" 41 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Perugia" \o "Battle of Perugia" Battle of Perugia - Mark Antony's brother Lucius Antonius and his wife Fulvia are defeated by Octavian.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/36_BC" \o "36 BC" 36 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Naulochus" \o "Battle of Naulochus" Battle of Naulochus - Octavian's fleet, under the command of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Vipsanius_Agrippa" \o "Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa" Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa defeats the forces of the rebel  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius" \o "Sextus Pompeius" Sextus Pompeius.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/31_BC" \o "31 BC" 31 BC  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_2" \o "September 2" September 2 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" \o "Battle of Actium" Battle of Actium -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus" \o "Augustus" Octavian decisively defeats Antony and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra_VII_of_Egypt" \o "Cleopatra VII of Egypt" Cleopatra in a naval battle near Greece  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11_BC" \o "11 BC" 11 BC -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Lupia_River" \o "Battle of the Lupia River" Battle of the Lupia River - Roman forces under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus" \o "Augustus" Augustus's stepson  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nero_Claudius_Drusus" \o "Nero Claudius Drusus" Drusus win a victory in Germany.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9" \o "9" 9, September -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Teutoburg_Forest" \o "Battle of the Teutoburg Forest" Battle of the Teutoburg Forest - German leader  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arminius" \o "Arminius" Arminius defeats the three Roman legions under the command of general  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publius_Quinctilius_Varus" \o "Publius Quinctilius Varus" Publius Quinctilius Varus; it is considered to be one of the worst defeats in their military history and an end to expansion into the frontier.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16" \o "16" 16 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Weser_River" \o "Battle of the Weser River" Battle of the Weser River Legions under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanicus" \o "Germanicus" Germanicus defeat German tribes of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arminius" \o "Arminius" Arminius  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/43" \o "43" 43 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Medway" \o "Battle of the Medway" Battle of the Medway -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudius" \o "Claudius" Claudius and general  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus_Plautius" \o "Aulus Plautius" Aulus Plautius defeat a confederation of British  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_tribes" \o "Celtic tribes" Celtic tribes.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_invasion_of_Britain" \o "Roman invasion of Britain" Roman invasion of Britain begins  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50" \o "50" 50 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Caer_Caradoc" \o "Battle of Caer Caradoc" Battle of Caer Caradoc - British chieftain  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caratacus" \o "Caratacus" Caractacus is defeated and captured by the Romans under Ostorius Scapula.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/61" \o "61" 61 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Watling_Street" \o "Battle of Watling Street" Battle of Watling Street - The uprising of the British queen  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boudica" \o "Boudica" Boudica against the Romans is defeated by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suetonius_Paullinus" \o "Suetonius Paullinus" Suetonius Paullinus  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/62" \o "62" 62 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Rhandeia" \o "Battle of Rhandeia" Battle of Rhandeia - Romans under Lucius Caesennius Paetus are defeated by a Parthian-Armenian army under King Tiridates of Parthia.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/66" \o "66" 66 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Beth-Horon&action=edit" \o "Battle of Beth-Horon" Battle of Beth-Horon Jewish military victory led by chief of staff  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleazar_ben_Simon" \o "Eleazar ben Simon" Eleazar ben Simon over a Roman punitive force led by  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cestius_Gallus" \o "Cestius Gallus" Cestius Gallus Governor of Syria  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/69" \o "69" 69 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_14" \o "April 14" April 14 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bedriacum" \o "Battle of Bedriacum" Battle of Bedriacum -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitellius" \o "Vitellius" Vitellius, commander of the Rhine armies, defeats Emperor  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otho" \o "Otho" Otho and seizes the throne.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_24" \o "October 24" October 24 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bedriacum" \o "Second Battle of Bedriacum" Second Battle of Bedriacum - Forces under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonius_Primus" \o "Antonius Primus" Antonius Primus, the commander of the Danube armies, loyal to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vespasian" \o "Vespasian" Vespasian, defeat the forces of Emperor  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitellius" \o "Vitellius" Vitellius.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/84" \o "84" 84 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mons_Graupius" \o "Battle of Mons Graupius" Battle of Mons Graupius. Romans under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola" \o "Gnaeus Julius Agricola" Gnaeus Julius Agricola defeat the Caledonians.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/101" \o "101" 101 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tapae" \o "Battle of Tapae" Battle of Tapae -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan" \o "Trajan" Trajan defeats  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decebalus" \o "Decebalus" Decebalus, ending the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dacian_Wars" \o "Dacian Wars" Dacian Wars.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/193" \o "193" 193 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cyzicus_%28193%29" \o "Battle of Cyzicus (193)" Battle of Cyzicus -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severus" \o "Septimius Severus" Septimius Severus, the new Emperor, defeats his eastern rival  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pescennius_Niger" \o "Pescennius Niger" Pescennius Niger  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nicaea" \o "Battle of Nicaea" Battle of Nicaea - Severus again defeats Niger  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/194" \o "194" 194 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Issus_%28194%29" \o "Battle of Issus (194)" Battle of Issus (194) - Severus finally defeats Niger.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/197" \o "197" 197  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_17" \o "February 17" February 17 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lugdunum" \o "Battle of Lugdunum" Battle of Lugdunum - Emperor  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severus" \o "Septimius Severus" Septimius Severus defeats and kills his rival  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clodius_Albinus" \o "Clodius Albinus" Clodius Albinus, securing full control over the Empire.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/218" \o "218" 218  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_18" \o "June 18" June 18 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Antioch_%28218%29" \o "Battle of Antioch (218)" Battle of Antioch -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elagabalus" \o "Elagabalus" Varius Avitus defeats Emperor  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrinus" \o "Macrinus" Macrinus to claim the throne under the name Elagabalus.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/238" \o "238" 238 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Carthage_%28238%29" \o "Battle of Carthage (238)" Battle of Carthage (238) - Troops loyal to the Roman Emperor  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximinus_Thrax" \o "Maximinus Thrax" Maximinus Thrax defeat and kill his successor  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordian_II" \o "Gordian II" Gordian II.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/243" \o "243" 243 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Resaena" \o "Battle of Resaena" Battle of Resaena - Roman forces under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordian_III" \o "Gordian III" Gordian III defeat the Persians under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shapur_I_of_Persia" \o "Shapur I of Persia" Shapur I.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/250" \o "250" 250 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Philippopolis" \o "Battle of Philippopolis" Battle of Philippopolis - King Cuiva of the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goths" \o "Goths" Goths defeats a Roman army.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/251" \o "251" 251  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_1" \o "July 1" July 1 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Abrittus" \o "Battle of Abrittus" Battle of Abrittus - Goths defeat and kill the Roman Emperors  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decius" \o "Decius" Decius and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herennius_Etruscus" \o "Herennius Etruscus" Herennius Etruscus  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/259" \o "259" 259 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mediolanum" \o "Battle of Mediolanum" Battle of Mediolanum -Emperor  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallienus" \o "Gallienus" Gallienus wins of decisive way to alamanni that they invaded Italy.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/260" \o "260" 260 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" \o "Battle of Edessa" Battle of Edessa - King  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shapur_I_of_Persia" \o "Shapur I of Persia" Shapur I of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Empire" \o "Persian Empire" Persia defeats and captures the Roman Emperor  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Valerian_I" \o "Emperor Valerian I" Valerian  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/268" \o "268" 268 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Naissus" \o "Battle of Naissus" Battle of Naissus - Emperor  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallienus" \o "Gallienus" Gallienus and his generals  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudius_II" \o "Claudius II" Claudius and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurelian" \o "Aurelian" Aurelian decisively defeat the Goths.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/268" \o "268" 268 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Benacus" \o "Battle of Lake Benacus" Battle of Lake Benacus - Romans under Emperor Claudius II defeat the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamanni" \o "Alamanni" Alamanni  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/271" \o "271" 271 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Placentia" \o "Battle of Placentia" Battle of Placentia - Emperor Aurelian is defeated by the Alamanni forces invading Italy  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Fano" \o "Battle of Fano" Battle of Fano - Aurelian defeats the Alamanni, who begin to retreat from Italy  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia_%28271%29" \o "Battle of Pavia (271)" Battle of Pavia (271) - Aurelian destroys the retreating Alamanni army.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Immae" \o "Battle of Immae" Battle of Immae - Aurelian defeats the army of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia" \o "Zenobia" Zenobia of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra" \o "Palmyra" Palmyra  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/272" \o "272" 272 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Emesa" \o "Battle of Emesa" Battle of Emesa - Aurelian decisively defeats Zenobia.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/273" \o "273" 273 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Chalons_%28273%29" \o "Battle of Chalons (273)" Battle of Chalons (273) - Aurelian defeats the Gallic usurper  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetricus_I" \o "Tetricus I" Tetricus, reestablishing central control of the whole empire.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/285" \o "285" 285 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Margus" \o "Battle of the Margus" Battle of the Margus - The usurper  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletian" \o "Diocletian" Diocletian defeats the army of the Emperor  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carinus" \o "Carinus" Carinus, who is killed.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/296" \o "296" 296 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Callinicum_%28296%29&action=edit" \o "Battle of Callinicum (296)" Battle of Callinicum - Romans under the Caesar  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galerius" \o "Galerius" Galerius are defeated by the Persians under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narseh" \o "Narseh" Narseh.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/298" \o "298" 298 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lingones" \o "Battle of Lingones" Battle of Lingones -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_%28title%29" \o "Caesar (title)" Caesar  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantius_Chlorus" \o "Constantius Chlorus" Constantius Chlorus defeats the Alamanni  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Vindonissa" \o "Battle of Vindonissa" Battle of Vindonissa - Constantius again defeats the Alamanni  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/312" \o "312" 312 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Turin_%28312%29" \o "Battle of Turin (312)" Battle of Turin -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_I_%28emperor%29" \o "Constantine I (emperor)" Constantine I defeats forces loyal to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxentius" \o "Maxentius" Maxentius.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Verona_%28312%29" \o "Battle of Verona (312)" Battle of Verona - Constantine I defeats more forces loyal to Maxentius.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_28" \o "October 28" October 28 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Milvian_Bridge" \o "Battle of Milvian Bridge" Battle of Milvian Bridge - Constantine I defeats Maxentius and takes control of Italy.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/313" \o "313" 313,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_30" \o "April 30" 30 April -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tzirallum" \o "Battle of Tzirallum" Battle of Tzirallum - In the eastern part of the Empire, the forces of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licinius" \o "Licinius" Licinius defeat  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximinus" \o "Maximinus" Maximinus.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/314" \o "314" 314 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_8" \o "October 8" 8 October -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cibalae" \o "Battle of Cibalae" Battle of Cibalae - Constantine defeats Licinius  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/316" \o "316" 316 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mardia" \o "Battle of Mardia" Battle of Mardia - Constantine again defeats Licinius, who cedes  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyricum" \o "Illyricum" Illyricum to Constantine.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/324" \o "324" 324 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_3" \o "July 3" July 3 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople_%28324%29" \o "Battle of Adrianople (324)" Battle of Adrianople - Constantine defeats Licinius, who flees to  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantium" \o "Byzantium" Byzantium July -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Hellespont" \o "Battle of the Hellespont" Battle of the Hellespont - Flavius Julius  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crispus" \o "Crispus" Crispus, son of Constantine, defeats the naval forces of Licinius  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_18" \o "September 18" September 18 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Chrysopolis" \o "Battle of Chrysopolis" Battle of Chrysopolis - Constantine decisively defeats Licinius, establishing his sole control over the empire.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/344" \o "344" 344 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Singara" \o "Battle of Singara" Battle of Singara - Emperor  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantius_II" \o "Constantius II" Constantius II fights an indecisive battle against King  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shapur_II_of_Persia" \o "Shapur II of Persia" Shapur II of Persia (approximate date)  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/351" \o "351" 351 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mursa_Major" \o "Battle of Mursa Major" Battle of Mursa Major - Emperor Constantius II defeats the usurper  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnentius" \o "Magnentius" Magnentius  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/353" \o "353" 353 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mons_Seleucus" \o "Battle of Mons Seleucus" Battle of Mons Seleucus - Final defeat of Magnentius by Constantius II  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/356" \o "356" 356 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Reims_%28356%29" \o "Battle of Reims (356)" Battle of Reims -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_%28title%29" \o "Caesar (title)" Caesar  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate" \o "Julian the Apostate" Julian is defeated by the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamanni" \o "Alamanni" Alamanni  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/357" \o "357" 357 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Strasbourg_%28357%29" \o "Battle of Strasbourg (357)" Battle of Strasbourg - Julian expels the Alamanni from the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhineland" \o "Rhineland" Rhineland  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/359" \o "359" 359 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Amida" \o "Battle of Amida" Battle of Amida -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Empire" \o "Persian Empire" Persians capture  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amida" \o "Amida" Amida from Romans  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/363" \o "363" 363 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_%28363%29" \o "Battle of Ctesiphon (363)" Battle of Ctesiphon - Emperor Julian defeats Shapur II of Persia outside the walls of the Persian capital, but is unable to take the city, and his death leads to an ultimate disaster on the retreat back to Roman territory.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/366" \o "366" 366 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Thyatira" \o "Battle of Thyatira" Battle of Thyatira - The army of the Roman emperor  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valens" \o "Valens" Valens defeats the usurper  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procopius_%28usurper%29" \o "Procopius (usurper)" Procopius.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/367" \o "367" 367 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Solicinium" \o "Battle of Solicinium" Battle of Solicinium - Romans under Emperor  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentinian_I" \o "Valentinian I" Valentinian I defeat yet another Alamanni incursion.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/377" \o "377" 377 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Willows" \o "Battle of the Willows" Battle of the Willows - Roman troops fight an inconclusive battle against the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goths" \o "Goths" Goths  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/378" \o "378" 378 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Argentovaria" \o "Battle of Argentovaria" Battle of Argentovaria - Western Emperor  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratianus" \o "Gratianus" Gratianus is victorious over the Alamanni, yet again.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_9" \o "August 9" August 9 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Adrianople" \o "Battle of Adrianople" Battle of Adrianople -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thervings" \o "Thervings" Thervings under Fritigern defeat and kill the Eastern Emperor  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valens" \o "Valens" Valens  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/388" \o "388" 388 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Save" \o "Battle of the Save" Battle of the Save - Emperor  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_I" \o "Theodosius I" Theodosius I defeats the usurper  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_Maximus" \o "Magnus Maximus" Magnus Maximus.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/394" \o "394" 394  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_6" \o "September 6" September 6 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Frigidus" \o "Battle of the Frigidus" Battle of the Frigidus - Theodosius I defeats and kills the usurper  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenius" \o "Eugenius" Eugenius and his  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franks" \o "Franks" Frankish  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magister_militum" \o "Magister militum" magister militum  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbogast_%28general%29" \o "Arbogast (general)" Arbogast.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/402" \o "402" 402  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_6" \o "April 6" April 6 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Pollentia" \o "Battle of Pollentia" Battle of Pollentia - Stilicho stymies the Visigoths under Alaric.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/402" \o "402" 402 June -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Verona" \o "Battle of Verona" Battle of Verona - Stilicho again defeats Alaric, who withdraws from Italy.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/406" \o "406" 406  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/December_31" \o "December 31" December 31 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mainz_%28406%29" \o "Battle of Mainz (406)" Battle of Mainz - the  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franks" \o "Franks" Franks and an alliance of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandals" \o "Vandals" Vandals,  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suevi" \o "Suevi" Suevi and  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alans" \o "Alans" Alans.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/410" \o "410" 410  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_24" \o "August 24" August 24 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_%28410%29" \o "Sack of Rome (410)" Sack of Rome - Visigoths under Alaric sack Rome.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/432" \o "432" 432 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ravenna_%28432%29" \o "Battle of Ravenna (432)" Battle of Ravenna - Roman general  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavius_A%C3%ABtius" \o "Flavius A�tius" Flavius A�tius defeats his rival  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonifacius" \o "Bonifacius" Bonifacius, who is killed.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/436" \o "436" 436 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Narbonne_%28436%29" \o "Battle of Narbonne (436)" Battle of Narbonne - Flavius A�tius again defeats the Visigoths under  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodoric_I" \o "Theodoric I" Theodoric I.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/447" \o "447" 447 -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Utus" \o "Battle of the Utus" Battle of the Utus - The East Romans narrowly repulse the attack of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attila_the_Hun" \o "Attila the Hun" Attila the Hun in an indecisive battle.  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/451" \o "451" 451 June -  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Chalons" \o "Battle of Chalons" Battle of Chalons - The Romans under General  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavius_A%C3%ABtius" \o "Flavius A�tius" Flavius A�tius, and Visigoths under King  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodoric_I" \o "Theodoric I" Theodoric I, repulse the attack of  HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attila_the_Hun" \o "Attila the Hun" Attila the Hun. Theodoric is killed in the battle. TU[\]^����  c d m n ~  � � � � � � ! " 7 8 C D  � � � � � � � � � � � ? @ V W Z [ � � � � � � � �
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Who was appointed successor to Hitler in 1939 but expelled from the Nazi party six years later?

The Nazi Regime in Germany | Jewish Virtual Library The Nazi Regime in Germany Tweet On January 5, 1919, two months after the conclusion of World War I and six months before the signing of the Peace Treaties at Versailles, the German Labour Party was brought into existence. In September 1919, Adolf Hitler joined the political party and less than two years later the party's name was officially changed to National Sozialistische Deutsche Arbeiter Partei (NSDAP), thus beginning the infamous history of the Nazi regime in Germany. The Origins & Aims of the Nazi Party On 5th January, 1919, not two months after the conclusion of the Armistice which ended the first World War, and six months before the signing of the Peace Treaties at Versailles, there came into being in Germany a small political party called the German Labour Party. On the 12th September, 1919, Adolf Hitler became a member of this party, and at the first public meeting held in Munich, on 24th February, 1920, he announced the party's programme . That programme, which remained unaltered until the party was dissolved in 1945, consisted of twenty-five points, of which the following five are of particular interest on account of the light they throw on the matters with which the Tribunal is concerned: " Point 1. We demand the unification of all Germans in the Greater Germany, on the basis of the right of a self-determination of peoples. Point 2. We demand equality of rights for the German people in respect to the other nations; abrogation of the peace treaties of Versailles and Saint Germain. Point 3. We demand land and territory for the sustenance of our people, and the colonisation of our surplus population. Point 4. Only a member of the race can be a citizen. A member of the race can only be one who is of German blood, without consideration of creed. Consequently no Jew can be a member of the race.... Point 22. We demand abolition of the mercenary troops and formation of a national army." Of these aims, the one which seems to have been regarded as the most important, and which figured in almost every public speech, was the removal of the " disgrace " of the Armistice, and the restrictions of the peace treaties of Versailles and Saint Germain. In a typical speech at Munich on the 13th April, 1923, for example, Hitler said with regard to the Treaty of Versailles: " The treaty was made in order to bring twenty million Germans to their deaths, and to ruin the German nation.... At its foundation our movement formulated three demands. "1. Setting aside of the Peace Treaty. 2. Unification of all Germans. 3. Land and soil to feed our nation." The demand for the unification of all Germans in the Greater Germany was to play a large part in the events preceding the seizure of Austria and Czechoslovakia; the abrogation of the Treaty of Versailles was to become a decisive motive in attempting to justify the policy of the German Government; the demand for land was to be the justification for the acquisition of " living space " at the expense of other nations; the expulsion of the Jews from membership of the race of German blood was to lead to the atrocities against the Jewish people; and the demand for a national army was to result in measures of rearmament on the largest possible scale, and ultimately to war. On the 29th July, 1921, the Party which had changed its name to National Sozialistische Deutsche Arbeiter Partei ( NSDAP ) was reorganised, Hitler becoming the first " Chairman ". It was in this year that the Sturmabteilung or SA was founded, with Hitler at its head, as a private pare-military force, which allegedly was to be used for the purpose of protecting NSDAP leaders from attack by rival political parties, and preserving order at NSDAP meetings, but in reality was used for fighting political opponents on the streets. In March, 1923, the defendant Goering was appointed head of the SA. The procedure within the Party was governed in the most absolute way by the leadership principle" (Fuehrerprinzip). According to the principle, each Fuehrer has the right to govern, administer or decree, subject to no control of any kind and at his complete discretion, subject only to the orders he received from above. This principle applied in the first instance to Hitler himself as the Leader of the Party, and in a lesser degree to all other party officials. All members of the Party swore an oath of " eternal allegiance " to the Leader. There were only two ways in which Germany could achieve the three main aims above-mentioned, by negotiation, or by force. The twenty-five points of the NSDAP programme do not specifically mention the methods on which the leaders of the party proposed to rely, but the history of the Nazi regime shows that Hitler and his followers were only prepared to negotiate on the terms that their demands were conceded, and that force would be used if they were not. On the night of the 8th November, 1923, an abortive putsch took place in Munich. Hitler and some of his followers burst into a meeting in the Burgerbrau Cellar, which was being addressed by the Bavarian Prime Minister Kehr, with the intention of obtaining from him a decision to march forthwith on Berlin. On the morning of the 9th November, however, no Bavarian support was forthcoming, and Hitler's demonstration was met by the armed forces of the Reichswehr and the Police. Only a few volleys were fired; and after a dozen of his followers had been killed, Hitler fled for his life, and the demonstration was over. The defendants Streicher, Frick and Hess all took part in the attempted rising. Hitler was later tried for high treason, and was convicted and sentenced to imprisonment. The SA was outlawed. Hitler was released from prison in 1924 and in 1925 the Schutzstaffel, or SS, was created, nominally to act as his personal bodyguard, but in reality to terrorise political opponents. This was also the year of the publication of " Mein Kampf ", containing the political views and aims of Hitler, which came to be regarded as the authentic source of Nazi doctrine. The Consolidation of Power The NSDAP, having achieved power in this way, now proceeded to extend its hold on every phase of German life. Other political parties were persecuted, their property and assets confiscated, and many of their members placed in concentration camps. On 26th April, 1933, the defendant Goering founded in Prussia the Gestapo as a secret police, and confided to the deputy leader of the Gestapo that its main task was to eliminate political opponents of National Socialism and Hitler. On the 14th July, 1933, a law was passed declaring the NSDAP to be the only political party, and making it criminal to maintain or form any other political party. In order to place the complete control of the machinery of Government in the hands of the Nazi leaders, a series of laws and decrees were passed which reduced the powers of regional and local governments throughout Germany, transforming them into subordinate divisions of the Government of the Reich. Representative assemblies in the Laender were abolished and with them all local elections. The Government then proceeded to secure control of the Civil Service. This was achieved by a process of centralisation, and by a careful sifting of the whole Civil Service administration. By a law of the 7th April it was provided that officials "who were of non-Aryan descent " should be retired; and it was also decreed that " officials who because of their previous political activity cannot be guaranteed to exert themselves for the national state without reservation shall be discharged." The law of the 11th April, 1933, provided for the discharge of " all Civil Servants who belong to the Communist Party." Similarly, the Judiciary was subjected to control. Judges were removed from the Bench for political or racial reasons. They were spied upon and made subject to the strongest pressure to join the Nazi Party as an alternative to being dismissed. When the Supreme Court acquitted three of the four defendants charged with complicity in the Reichstag fire, its jurisdiction in cases of treason was thereafter taken away and given to a newly established " People's Court ", consisting of two judges and five officials of the Party. Special courts were set up to try political crimes and only party members were appointed as judges. Persons were arrested by the SS for political reasons, and detained in prisons and concentration camps, and the judges were without power to intervene in any way. Pardons were granted to members of the Party who had been sentenced by the judges for proved offences. In 1935 several officials of the Hohenstein concentration camp were convicted of inflicting brutal treatment upon the inmates. High Nazi officials tried to influence the Court, and after the officials had been convicted, Hitler pardoned them all. In 1942 " Judges' letters" were sent to all German judges by the Government, instructing them as to the " general lines " that they must follow. In their determination to remove all sources of opposition, the NSDAP leaders turned their attention to the trade unions, the churches and the Jews. In April, 1933, Hitler ordered the late defendant Ley, who was then staff director of the political organisation of the NSDAP, " to take over the trade unions." Most of the trade unions of Germany were joined together in two large federations, the " Free Trade Unions " and the " Christian Trade Unions." Unions outside these two large federations contained only 15 per cent. of the total union membership. On the 21st April, 1933, Ley issued an NSDAP directive announcing a " co-ordination action" to be carried out on the 2nd May against the Free Trade Unions. The directive ordered that SA and SS men were to be employed in the planned .' occupation of trade union properties and for the taking into protective custody of personalities who come into question." At the conclusion of the action the official NSDAP press service reported that the National Socialist Factory Cells Organisation had "eliminated the old leadership of Free Trade Unions" and taken over the leadership them selves. Similarly, on the 3rd May, 1933, the NSDAP press service announced that the Christian trade unions " have unconditionally subordinated themselves to the leadership of Adolf Hitler." In place of the trade unions the Nazi Government set up a German Labour Front (DAF), controlled by the NSDAP, and which, in practice, all workers in Germany were compelled to join. The chairmen of the unions were taken into custody and were subjected to ill-treatment, ranging from assault and battery to murder. In their effort to combat the influence of the Christian churches, whose doctrines were fundamentally at variance with National Socialist philosophy and practice, the Nazi Government proceeded more slowly. The extreme step of banning the practice of the Christian religion was not taken, but year by year efforts were made to limit the influence of Christianity on the German people, since, in the words used by the defendant Bormann to the defendant Rosenberg in an official letter, "the Christian religion and National Socialist doctrines are not compatible." In the month of June, 1941, the defendant Bormann issued a secret decree on the relation of Christianity and National Socialism. The decree stated that: " For the first time in German history the Fuehrer consciously and completely has the leadership in his own hand. With the Party, its components and, attached units, the Fuehrer has created for himself and thereby the German Reich Leadership, an instrument which makes him independent of the Treaty.... More and more the people must be separated from the churches and their organs, the Pastor. . . Never again must an influence on leadership of the people be yielded to the churches. This influence must be broken completely and finally. Only the Reich Government and by its direction the Party, its components and attached units, have a right to leadership of the people." From the earliest days of the NSDAP, anti-Semitism had occupied a prominent place in National Socialist thought and propaganda. The Jews who were considered to have no right to German citizenship, were held to have been largely responsible for the troubles with which the nation was afflicted following on the war of 1914-18. Furthermore, the antipathy to the Jews was intensified by the insistence which was laid upon the superiority of the Germanic race and blood. The second chapter of Book 1 of " Mein Kampf " is dedicated to what may be called the " Master Race" theory, the doctrine of Aryan superiority over all other races, and the right of Germans in virtue of this superiority to dominate and use other peoples for their own ends. With the coming of the Nazis into power in 1933, persecution of the Jews became official state policy. On the 1st April, 1933, a boycott of Jewish enterprises was approved by the Nazi Reich Cabinet, and during the following years a series of anti-Semitic laws were passed, restricting the activities of Jews in the Civil Service, in the legal profession, in journalism and in the armed forces. In September, 1935, the so-called Nuremberg Laws were passed, the most important effect of which was to deprive Jews of German citizenship. In this way the influence of Jewish elements on the affairs of Germany was extinguished, and one more potential source of opposition to Nazi policy was rendered powerless. In any consideration of the crushing of opposition, the massacre of the 30th June, 1934, must not be forgotten. It has become known as the " Roehm Purge " or " the blood bath ", and revealed the methods which Hitler and his immediate associates, including the defendant Goering, were ready to employ to strike down all opposition and consolidate their power. On that day Roehm , the Chief of Staff of the SA since 1931, was murdered by Hitler's orders, and the " Old Guard " of the SA was massacred without trial and without warning. The opportunity was taken to murder a large number of people who at one time or another had opposed Hitler. The ostensible ground for the murder of Roehm was that he was plotting to overthrow Hitler, and the defendant Goering gave evidence that knowledge of such a plot had come to his ears. Whether this was so or not it is not necessary to determine. On July 3rd the Cabinet approved Hitler's action and described it as " legitimate self-defence by the State." Shortly afterwards Hindenburg died, and Hitler became both Reich President and Chancellor. At the Nazi-dominated plebiscite, which followed, 38 million Germans expressed their approval, and with the Reichswehr taking the oath of allegiance to the Fuehrer, full power was now in Hitler's hands. Germany had accepted the Dictatorship with all its methods of terror, and its cynical and open denial of the rule of law. Apart from the policy of crushing the potential opponents of their regime, the Nazi Government took active steps to increase its power over the German population. In the field of education, everything was done to ensure that the youth of Germany was brought up in the atmosphere of National Socialism and accepted National Socialist teachings. As early as the 7th April, 1933, the law reorganising the Civil Service had made it possible for the Nazi Government to remove all " Subversive and unreliable teachers ", and this was followed by numerous other measures to make sure that the schools were staffed by teachers who could be trusted to teach their pupils the full meaning of National Socialist creed. Apart from the influence of National Socialist teaching in the schools, the Hitler Youth Organisation was also relied upon by the Nazi Leaders for obtaining fanatical support from the younger generation. The defendant von Schirach , who had been Reich Youth Leader of the NSDAP since 1931, was appointed Youth Leader of the German Reich in June, 1933. Soon all the youth organisations had been either dissolved or absorbed by the Hitler Youth, with the exception of the Catholic Youth. The Hitler Youth was organised on strict military lines, and as early as 1933 the Wehrmacht was cooperating in providing pre-military training for the Reich Youth. The Nazi Government endeavoured to unite the nation in support of their policies through the extensive use of propaganda. A number of agencies were set up whose duty was to control and influence the press, radio, films, publishing firms, etc., in Germany, and to supervise entertainment and cultural and artistic activities. All these agencies came under Goebbels' Ministry of the People's Enlightenment and Propaganda, which together with a corresponding organisation in the NSDAP and the Reich Chamber of Culture, was ultimately responsible for exercising this supervision. The defendant Rosenberg played a leading part in disseminating, the National Socialist doctrines on behalf of the Party, and the defendant Fritzsche , in conjunction with Goebbels, performed the same task for the State. The greatest emphasis was laid on the supreme mission of the German people to lead and dominate by virtue of their Nordic blood and racial purity and the ground was thus being prepared for the acceptance of the idea of German world supremacy. Through the effective control of the radio and the press, the German people, during the years which followed 1933, were subjected to the most intensive propaganda in furtherance of the regime. Hostile criticism, indeed criticism of any kind, was forbidden, and the severest penalties were imposed on those who indulged in it. Independent judgment, based on freedom of thought, was rendered quite impossible. Measures of Rearmament During the years immediately following Hitler's appointment as Chancellor, the Nazi Government set about reorganising the economic life of Germany, and in particular the armament industry. This was done on a vast scale and with extreme thoroughness. It was necessary to lay a secure financial foundation for the building of armaments, and in April, 1936, the defendant Goering was appointed coordinator for raw materials and foreign exchange, and empowered to supervise all State and Party activities in these fields. In this capacity he brought together the War Minister, the Minister of Economics, the Reich Finance Minister, the President of the Reichsbank and the Prussian Finance Minister to discuss problems connected with war mobilisation, and on the 27th May, 1936, in addressing these men, Goering opposed any financial limitation of war production and added that " all measures are to be considered from the standpoint of an assured waging of war." At the Party Rally in Nuremberg in 1936, Hitler announced the establishment of the Four Year Plan and the appointment of Goering as the Plenipotentiary in charge. Goering was already engaged in building a strong air force and on the 8th July, 1938, he announced to a number of leading German aircraft manufacturers that the German Air Force was already superior in quality and quantity to the English. On the 14th October, 1938, at another conference, Goering announced that Hitler had instructed him to organise a gigantic armament programme, which would make insignificant all previous achievements. He said that he had been ordered to build as rapidly as possible an air force five times as large as originally planned, to increase the speed of the rearmament of the navy and army, and to concentrate on offensive weapons, principally heavy artillery and heavy tanks. He then laid down a specific programme designed to accomplish these ends. The extent to which rearmament had been accomplished was stated by Hitler in his memorandum of 9th October, 1939, after the campaign in Poland. He said: " The military application of our people's strength has been carried through to such an extent that within a short time at any rate it cannot be markedly improved upon by any manner of effort . . . " The warlike equipment of, the German people is at present larger in quantity and better in quality for a greater number of German divisions than in the year 1914. The weapons themselves, taking a substantial cross-section, are more modern than in the case with any other country in the world at this time. They have just proved their supreme war worthiness in their victorious campaign . . . There is no evidence available to show that any country in the world disposes of a better total ammunition stock than the Reich . . . The A.A. artillery is not equalled by any country in the world." In this reorganisation of the economic life of Germany for military purposes, the Nazi Government found the German armament industry quite willing to cooperate, and to play its part in the rearmament programme. In April, 1933, Gustav Krupp von Bohlen submitted to Hitler on behalf of the Reich Association of German Industry a plan for the reorganisation of German industry, which, he stated was characterised by the desire to coordinate economic measures and political necessity. In the plan itself, Krupp stated that " the turn of political events is in line with the wishes which I myself and the board of directors have cherished for a long time." What Krupp meant by this statement is fully shown by the draft text of a speech which he planned to deliver in the University of Berlin in January, 1944, though the speech was in fact never delivered. Referring !to !the years 1919 to 1933, Krupp wrote: "It is the one great merit of the entire German war economy that it did not remain idle during those bad years, even though its activity could not be brought to light, for obvious reasons. Through years of secret work, scientific and basic groundwork was laid in order to be ready again to work for the German armed forces at the appointed hour, without loss of time or experience.... Only through the secret activity of German enterprise together with the experience gained meanwhile through production of peace time goods, was it possible after 1933 to fall into step width the new tasks arrived at, restoring Germany's military power." In October, 1933, Germany withdrew from the International Disarmament Conference and League of Nations. In 1935, the Nazi Government decided to take the first open steps to free itself from its obligations under the Treaty of Versailles. On the 10th March, 1935, the defendant Goering announced that Germany was building a military air force. Six days later, on the 16th March, 1935, a law was passed bearing the signatures, among others, of the defendants Goering, Hess, Frank, Frick, Schacht and von Neurath, instituting compulsory military service and fixing The establishment of the German Army at a peace time strength of 500,000 men. In an endeavour to reassure public opinion in other countries, the Government announced on the 21st May, 1935, that Germany would, though renouncing the disarmament clauses, still respect the territorial limitations of the Versailles Treaty, and would comply with the Locarno Pacts. Nevertheless, on the very day of this announcement, the secret Reich Defence Law was passed and its publication forbidden by Hitler. In this law, the powers and duties of the Chancellor and other Ministers were defined, should Germany become involved in war. It is clear from this law that by May of 1935 Hitler and his Government had arrived at the stage in the carrying out of their policies when it was necessary for them to have in existence the requisite machinery for the administration and government of Germany in the event of their policy leading to war. At the same time that is preparation of the German economy for war was being carried out, the German armed forces themselves were preparing for a rebuilding of Germany's armed strength. The Germany Navy was particularly active in this regard. The official German Naval historians, Assmann and Gladisch, admit that the Treaty of Versailles had only been in force for a few months before it was violated, particularly in the construction of a new submarine arm. The publications of Captain Schuessler and Oberst Scherf, both of which were sponsored by the defendant Raeder, were designed to show the German people the nature of the Navy's effort to rearm in defiance of the Treaty of Versailles. The full details of these publications have been given in evidence. On the 12th May, 1934 the defendant Raeder issued the Top Secret armament plan for what was called the Third Armament Phase. This contained the sentence: " All theoretical and practical A-preparations are to be drawn up with a primary view to readiness for a war without any alert period." One month later, in June 1934, the defendant Raeder had a conversation with Hitler in which Hitler instructed him to keep secret the construction of U boats and of warships over the limit of 10,000 tons which was then being undertaken. And on the 2nd November, 1934, the defendant Raeder had another conversation with Hitler and the defendant Goering, in which Hitler said that he considered it vital that the German Navy " should be increased as planned, as no war could be carried on if the Navy was not able to safeguard the ore imports from Scandinavia." The large orders for building given in 1933 and 1934 are sought to be excused by, the defendant Raeder on the ground that negotiations were in progress for an agreement between Germany and Great Britain permitting Germany to build ships in excess of the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. This agreement (2), which was signed, in 1935, restricted the German Navy to a tonnage equal, to one third of that of the British, except in respect of U-boats where 45 per cent was agreed, subject always to the right to exceed this proportion after first informing the British Government and giving them an opportunity of discussion. The Anglo-German Treaty followed in 1937, under which both Powers bound themselves to notify full details of their building programme at least four months before any action was taken. It is admitted that these clauses were not adhered to by Germany. In capital vessels, for example, the displacement details were falsified by 20 per cent., whilst in the case of U boats, the German historians Assmann and Gladisch say: " It's probably just in the sphere of submarine construction Germany adhered the least to the restrictions of the German-British Treaty." The importance of these breaches of the Treaty is seen when the motive for this re-armament s considered. In the year 1940 the defendant Raeder himself wrote: " The Fuehrer hoped until the last moment to be able to put off, the threatening conflict with England until 1944-5. At the time, the Navy would have had available a fleet with a powerful U-boat superiority, and a much more favourable ratio as regards strength all other types of ships, particularly those designed for warfare on the High Seas." The Nazi Government, as already stated, announced on the 21st May, 1935, their attention to respect the territorial limitations of the Treaty of Versailles. On the 7th March, 1936, in defiance of that Treaty, the demilitarised zone of the Rhineland was entered by German troops. In announcing this action to the German Reichstag, Hitler endeavoured to justify the re-entry by references to the recently concluded alliances between France and the Soviet Union, and between Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union. He also tried to meet the hostile reaction which he no doubt expected to follow this violation of the Treaty by saying: " We have no territorial claims to make in Europe." The Common Plan or Conspiracy & Aggressive War The Tribunal now turns to the consideration of the Crimes against peace charged in the Indictment. Count One of the Indictment charges the defendants with conspiring or having a common plan to commit crimes against peace. Count Two of the Indictment charges the defendants with committing specific crimes against peace by planning, preparing, initiating, and waging wars of aggression against a number of other States. It will be convenient to consider the question of the existence of a common plan and the question of aggressive war together, and to deal later in this Judgment with the question of the individual responsibility of the defendants. The charges in the Indictment that the defendants planned and waged aggressive wars are charges of the utmost gravity. War is essentially an evil thing. Its consequences are not confined to the belligerent states alone, but affect the whole world. To initiate a war of aggression, therefore, is not only an international crime; it is the supreme international crime differing only from other war crimes in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole. The first acts of aggression referred to in the Indictment are the seizure of Austria and Czechoslovakia and the first war of aggression charged in the Indictment is the war against Poland begun on the 1st September, 1939. Before examining that charge it is necessary to look more closely at some of the events which preceded these acts of aggression. The war against Poland did not come suddenly out of an otherwise clear sky; the evidence has made it plain that this war of aggression, as well as the seizure of Austria and Czechoslovakia, was pre-meditated and carefully prepared, and was not undertaken until the moment was thought opportune for it to be carried through as a definite part of the pre-ordained scheme and plan. For the aggressive designs of the Nazi Government were not accidents arising out of the immediate political situation in Europe and the world; they were a deliberate and essential part of Nazi foreign policy. From the beginning, the National Socialist movement claimed that its object was to unite the German people in the consciousness of their mission and destiny, based on inherent qualities of race, and under the guidance of the Fuehrer. For its achievement, two things were deemed to be essential: the disruption of the European order as it had existed since the Treaty of Versailles, and the creation of a Greater Germany beyond the frontiers of 1914. This necessarily involved the seizure of foreign territories. War was seen to be inevitable, or at the very least, highly probable, if these purposes were to be accomplished. The German people, therefore, with all their resources were to be organised as a great political-military army. schooled to obey without question any policy decreed by the State. Preparation for Aggression In " Mein Kampf " Hitler had made this view quite plain. It must be remembered that "Mein Kampf" was no mere private diary in which the secret thoughts of Hitler were set down. Its contents were rather proclaimed from the house-tops. It was used in the schools and Universities and among the Hitler Youth , in the SS and the SA, and among the German people generally, even down to the presentation of an official copy to all newly married people. By the year 1945 over 61 million copies had been circulated. The general contents are well known. Over and over again Hitler asserted his belief in the necessity of force as the means of solving international problems, as in the following quotation: "The soil on which we now live was not a gift bestowed by Heaven on our forefathers. They had to conquer it by risking their lives. So also in the future, our people will not obtain territory, and therewith the means of existence, as a favour from any other people, but will have to win it by the power of a triumphant sword." "Mein Kampf" contains many such passages, and the extolling of force as an instrument of foreign policy is openly proclaimed. The precise objectives of this policy of force are also set forth in detail The very first page of the book asserts that " German-Austria must be restored to the great German Motherland," not on economic grounds, but because " people of the same blood should be in the same Reich." The restoration of the German frontiers of 1914 is declared to be wholly insufficient, and if Germany is to exist at all, it must be as a world power with the necessary territorial magnitude. " Mein Kampf " is quite explicit in stating where the increased territory is to be found: " Therefore we National Socialists have purposely drawn a line through the line of conduct followed by pre-war Germany in foreign policy. We put an end to the perpetual Germanic march towards the South and West of Europe, and turn our eyes towards the lands of the East. We finally put a stop to the colonial and trade policy of the pre-war times, and pass over to the territorial policy of the future. But when we speak of new territory in Europe to-day, we must think principally of Russia and the border states subject to her." " Mein Kampf " is not to be regarded as a mere literary exercise, nor as an inflexible policy or plan incapable of modification. lts importance lies in the unmistakable attitude of aggression revealed throughout its pages. The Planning of Aggression Evidence from captured documents has revealed that Hitler held four secret meetings to which the Tribunal proposes to make special reference because of the light they shed upon the question of the common plan and aggressive war. These meetings took place on the 5th of November, 1937, the 23rd of May, 1939, the 22nd of August, 1939, and the 23rd of November, 1939. At these meetings important declarations were made by Hitler as to his purposes, which are quite unmistakable in their terms. The documents which record what took place at these meetings have been subject to some criticism at the hands of defending Counsel. Their essential authenticity is not denied, but it is said, for example that they do not purpose to be verbatim transcripts of the speeches they record, that the document dealing with the meeting on the 5th November, 1937, was dated five days after the meeting had taken place, and that the two documents dealing with the meeting of August 22nd, 1939, differ from one another, and are unsigned. Making the fullest allowance for criticism of this kind, the Tribunal is of the opinion that the documents are documents of the highest value, and that their authenticity and substantial truth are established. They are obviously careful records of the events they describe, and they have been preserved as such in the archives of the German Government, from whose custody they were captured. Such documents could never be dismissed as inventions, nor even as inaccurate or distorted, they plainly record events which actually took place. Conferences of the 23rd November, 1939 and 5th November, 1937 It will perhaps be useful to deal first of all with the meeting of the 23rd November, 1939, when Hitler called his Supreme Commanders together. A record was made of what was said, by one of those present. At the date of the meeting, Austria and Czechoslovakia had been incorporated into the German Reich, Poland had been conquered by the German armies, and the war with Great Britain and France was still in its static phase. The moment was opportune for a review of past events. Hitler informed the Commanders that the purpose of the Conference was to give them an idea of the world of his thoughts, and to tell them his decision. He thereupon reviewed his political task since 1919, and referred to the secession of Germany from the League of Nations, the denunciation of the Disarmament Conference, the order for re-armament, the introduction of compulsory armed service, the occupation of the Rhineland, the seizure of Austria, and the action against Czechoslovakia. He stated: "One year later, Austria came; this step also was considered doubtful. It brought about a considerable reinforcement of the Reich. The next step was Bohemia, Moravia and Poland. This step also was not possible to accomplish in one campaign. First of all, the western fortification had to be finished. It was not possible to reach the goal in one effort. It was clear to me from the first moment that I could not be satisfied with the Sudeten German territory. That was only a partial solution. The decision to march into Bohemia was made. Then followed the erection of the Protectorate and with that the basis for the action against Poland was laid, but I wasn't quite clear at that time whether I should start first against the East and then in the West or vice versa . . . Basically I did not organise the armed forces in order not to strike. The decision to strike was always in me. Earlier or later I wanted to solve the problem. Under pressure it was decided that the East was to be attacked first." This address, reviewing past events and re-affirming the aggressive intentions present from the beginning, puts beyond any question of doubt the character of the actions against Austria and Czechoslovakia, and the war against Poland. For they had all been accomplished according to plan, and the nature of that plan must now be examined in a little more detail. At the meeting of the 23rd November, 1939, Hitler was looking back to things accomplished, at the earlier meetings now to be considered, he was looking forward, and revealing his plans to his confederates. The comparison is instructive. The meeting held at the Reich Chancellery in Berlin on the 5th November 1937, was attended by Lieut.-Colonel Hoszbach, Hitler's personal adjutant, who compiled a long note of the proceedings, which he dated the 10th November, 1937, and signed. The persons present were Hitler, and the defendants Goering, von Neurath and Raeder, in their capacities as Commander-in-Chief of the Luftwaffe, Reich Foreign Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the Navy respectively, General von Blomberg, Minister of War, and General von Fritsch, the Commander-in-Chief of the Army. Hitler began by saying that the subject of the conference was of such high importance that in other States it would have taken place before the Cabinet. He went on to say that the subject matter of his speech was the result of his detailed deliberations, and of his experience during his four and a half years of Government. He requested that the statements he was about to make should be looked upon in the case of his death as his last will and testament. Hitler's main theme was the problem of living space, and he discussed various possible solutions, only to set them aside. He then said that the seizure of living space on the continent of Europe was therefore necessary, expressing himself in these words: " It is not a case of conquering people, but of conquering agriculturally useful space. It would also be more to the purpose to seek raw material producing territory in Europe directly adjoining the Reich and not overseas, and this solution would have to be brought into effect for one or two generations.... The history of all times Roman Empire, British Empire- has proved that every space expansion can only be effected by breaking resistance and taking risks. Even setbacks are unavoidable: neither formerly nor to-day has space been found without an owner; the attacker always comes up against the proprietor." He concluded with this observation: " The question for Germany is where the greatest possible conquest could- be made at the lowest cost." Nothing could indicate more plainly the aggressive intentions of Hitler, and the events which soon followed showed the reality of his purpose. It is impossible to accept the contention that Hitler did not actually mean war; for after pointing out that Germany might expect the opposition of England and France, and analysing the strength and the weakness of those powers in particular situations, he continued: " The German question can be solved only by way of force, and this is never without risk.... If we place the decision to apply force with risk at the head of the following expositions, then we are left to reply to the questions 'when' and 'how'. In this regard we have to decide upon three different cases." The first of these three cases set forth a hypothetical international situation, in which he would take action not later than 1943 to 1945, saying: " If the Fuehrer is still living then it will be his irrevocable decision to solve the German space problem not later than 1943 to 1945. The necessity for action before 1943 to 1945 will come under consideration in Cases 2 and 3." The second and third cases to which Hitler referred show the plain intention to seize Austria and Czechoslovakia, and in this connection Hitler said: " For the improvement of our military-political position, it must be our first aim in every case of entanglement by war to conquer Czechoslovakia and Austria simultaneously in order to remove any threat from the flanks in case of a possible advance westwards." He further added: " The annexation of the two states to Germany militarily and politically would constitute a considerable relief, owing to shorter and better frontiers, the freeing of fighting personnel for other purposes, and the possibility of reconstituting new armies up to a strength of about twelve divisions." This decision to seize Austria and Czechoslovakia was discussed in some detail, the action was to be taken as soon as a favourable opportunity presented itself. The military strength which Germany had been building up since 1933 was now to be directed at the two specific countries, Austria and Czechoslovakia. The defendant Goering testified that he did not believe at that time that Hitler actually meant to attack Austria and Czechoslovakia, and that the purpose of the conference was only to put pressure on von Fritsch to speed up the re-armament of the Army. The defendant Raeder testified that neither he, nor von Fritsch, nor von Blomberg, believed that Hitler actually meant war, a conviction which the defendant Raeder claims that he held up to the 22nd August, 1939. The basis of this conviction was his hope that Hitler would obtain a " political solution" of Germany's problems. But all that this means, when examined, is the belief that Germany's position would be so good, and Germany's armed might so overwhelming, that the territory desired could be obtained without fighting for it. It must be remembered too that Hitler's declared intention with regard to Austria was actually carried out within a little over four months from the date of the meeting, and within less than a year the first portion of Czechoslovakia was absorbed, and Bohemia and Moravia a few months later. If any doubts had existed in the minds of any of his hearers in November, 1937, after March of 1939 there could no longer be any question that Hitler was in deadly earnest in his decision to resort to war. The Tribunal is satisfied that Lt.-Col. Hoszbach's account of the meeting is substantially correct, and that those present knew that Austria and Czechoslovakia would be annexed by Germany at the first possible opportunity.

Hermann Göring

What was ceded to Britain in 1713 as part of the settlement of the War of Spanish Succession?

*Key figures of the Nazi regime - IGCSE Edexcel History: Nazi Germany   IGCSE Edexcel History: Nazi Germany *Key figures of the Nazi regime Main figures Leader of the Nazi Party Chancellor of Germany (1933-1945) Dictator of Nazi Germany as Führer (1934-1945) Hitler was at the centre of Nazi Germany, World War II in Europe, and the Holocaust. Heinrich Himmler Reichsführer of the Schutzstaffel (SS) A military commander One of the most powerful and most feared men in Nazi Germany One of the people most directly responsible for the Holocaust Developed the SS from a mere 290-man battalion into a powerful group with its own military Following Hitler's orders,  he set up and controlled the Nazi concentration camps. From 1943 onwards, he was both Chief of German Police and Minister of the Interior, overseeing all internal and external police and security forces including the Gestapo (Secret State Police). On Hitler's behalf, Himmler formed the Einsatzgruppen and built extermination camps. As facilitator and overseer of the concentration camps, Himmler directed the killing of between eleven to fourteen million people including six million Jews. Other victims included Romani, Polish and Soviet citizens. Shortly before the end of the war, realising that the war was lost, he attempted to open peace talks with the western Allies without Hitler's knowledge. Hearing of this, Hitler dismissed him from all his posts in April 1945 and ordered his arrest. Joseph Goebbels Reich Minister of Propaganda in Nazi Germany (1933-1945) One of Adolf Hitler's closest associates and most devoted followers Known for his zealous orations and deep and virulent antisemitism which led him strongly to support the extermination of the Jews when the Nazi leadership developed their 'Final Solution' Came to power in 1933 after Hitler was appointed chancellor; within six weeks Hitler arranged his appointment as Propaganda Minister. One of Goebbels' first acts was to organize the burning of "decadent" books. Under Goebbels' leadership, the Propaganda Ministry quickly gained and exerted controlling supervision over the news media, arts and information in Germany. From the beginning of his tenure, Goebbels organized actions against German Jews, commencing with a one-day boycott of Jewish businessmen, doctors, and lawyers on 1 April 1933. These actions eventually led to the outright violence of Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) in 1938. Commissioned a series of antisemitic films including 'The Eternal Jew'. Goebbels' antisemitic propaganda promoted stereotypes of Jews as materialistic, immoral, cunning, untrustworthy and physically unattractive and rootless wanderers. In mid-1943, when the Axis powers were losing in the war, Goebbels urged Germans to embrace the idea of total war and mobilization. Hitler had named Goebbels his successor as Chancellor in his will. Reinhard Heydrich High-ranking German Nazi official during World War II One of the main architects of the Holocaust Chaired the Wannsee Conference (January 1942) Regarded as one of the darkest figures within the Nazi elite (Adolf Hitler had described him as 'the man with the iron heart') The founding head of the Sicherheitsdienst (SD) , an intelligence organisation charged with seeking out and neutralising resistance to the Nazi Party via arrests, deportations, and killings. Helped organise Kristallnacht Directly responsible for the Einsatzgruppen , the special task forces that travelled in the wake of the German armies to round up and kill Jews and others deemed undesirable by the regime. Hermann Göring A German politician, military leader and leading member of the Nazi Party (NSDAP) Also a veteran of World War I as an ace fighter pilot After helping Adolf Hitler take power in 1933, he became the second-most powerful man in Germany. Founded the Gestapo in 1933 (which he then later gave command to Heinrich Himmler) Was appointed commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe (air force) in 1935, a position he held until the final days of World War II In 1940 he became one of the ministers in charge of the Four Year Plan (peak of his power and influence) Became responsible for much of the functioning of the German economy in the build-up to World War II Adolf Hitler promoted him to the rank of Reichsmarschall, a rank senior to all other Wehrmacht commanders. In 1941, Hitler designated him as his successor and deputy in all his offices. However Göring's standing with Hitler was greatly reduced by 1942, with the Luftwaffe unable to fulfill its commitments and the German war effort stumbling on both fronts. Göring largely withdrew from the military and political scene and focused on the acquisition of property and artwork, much of which was confiscated from Jewish victims of the Holocaust. Informed on 22 April 1945 that Hitler intended to commit suicide, Göring sent a telegram to Hitler asking to assume control of the Reich. Considering it an act of treason, Hitler removed Göring from all his positions, expelled him from the party, and ordered his arrest. Adolf Eichmann

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Who was the queen of the British king, Charles I?

Biography of King Charles the First » Biographies » King Charles I King Charles the First, 1600-1649 King of England, Scotland and Ireland whose refusal to compromise over complex religious and political situations led to civil war, his own execution and the abolition of the Monarchy. The second son of James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Charles Stuart was born at Fife in Scotland on 19 November 1600. His father succeeded Queen Elizabeth I and came to the throne of England as King James I in 1603. Charles was created Duke of Albany at his baptism (December 1600) and Duke of York in 1605. He was placed in the care of Lord and Lady Fyvie until the age of four, then moved to England where he was brought up in the household of Sir Robert and Lady Carey. As a child, Charles suffered from weak ankle joints that slowed his physical development. Attempts were made to strengthen his physique by making him wear heavy boots reinforced with iron. Charles was also slow in learning to speak and never completely overcame a slight stammer. His education was overseen by Thomas Murray, a Scottish Presbyterian who later became Provost of Eton. Despite his physical disabilities, Charles was a serious-minded student who excelled at languages, rhetoric and theology. Vivat Rex Charles was overshadowed by his brilliant elder brother Prince Henry, to whom he was devoted, but Henry died of typhoid when Charles was eleven years old. With Henry's death, Charles became heir to the throne of the Three Kingdoms: England, Scotland and Ireland. The death of Prince Henry prompted a succession crisis. King James and Queen Anne were too old to have more children and the sickly Charles was not expected to survive to adulthood. A proposal was made that in the event of Charles' death, the succession would pass to James' daughter Princess Elizabeth and her husband the Elector Palatine Frederick V, which would mean the Wittelsbach dynasty acceding to the throne of the Three Kingdoms. However, by strength of will, Charles worked to overcome his physical weaknesses. He followed a self-imposed regimen of hard physical exercises that led to rapid improvements in his health and physique. Charles became a good horseman, excelling at tournament sports and hunting. He developed sophisticated tastes in the arts and earnestly applied himself to his religious devotions. Created Prince of Wales in 1616, Charles was instructed by King James in every aspect of ruling a kingdom. With a profound belief that kings are appointed by God to rule by divine right, Charles succeeded as the second king of the Stuart dynasty in 1625. Charles came to the throne amid pressure from English Protestants for intervention against Spain and the Catholic powers in the religious wars raging in Europe (the Thirty Years War, 1618-48). He allowed England's foreign policy to be directed by the unpopular Duke of Buckingham , who masterminded a series of disastrous military expeditions against Spain and France intended indirectly to assist the Palatinate . Charles dissolved his first two parliaments when they tried to impeach Buckingham but he was forced to call a third because he needed funds to pursue his warlike policies. In 1628, Charles' opponents formulated the Petition of Right as a defence against the King's arbitrary use of his powers. Charles grudgingly accepted the Petition in the hope that Parliament would grant him subsidies, but in practice he ignored its provisions. Personal Rule Emblem of the Stuart dynasty After the assassination of Buckingham in 1628, critics in Parliament turned their attention to Charles' religious policy. Resentful of parliamentary interference in matters which he believed were his concern alone, Charles angrily dismissed his third Parliament in 1629. Furthermore, he imprisoned several of his leading opponents, and declared his intention of ruling alone. The eleven-year period of the King's Personal Rule was also described as the "Eleven Year Tyranny". It was initially successful and during the turmoil of the civil wars, many people looked back upon it as a golden age of peace and prosperity. Charles had made peace with Spain and France by 1630. Trade and commerce grew; the King's finances were stable by 1635. This enabled him to commission great works of art by Rubens and Van Dyck, and also to build up the Royal Navy for England's defence. But without Parliament to grant legal taxes, Charles was obliged to raise income by obscure and highly unpopular means including forced loans, the sale of commercial monopolies and, most notoriously of all, ship-money. Along with Charles' controversial religious policies, these measures alienated many natural supporters of the Crown, including powerful noblemen like Lord Saye-and-Sele , and wealthy landowners like John Hampden . Charles and his advisers made extensive use of the Court of Star Chamber to prosecute opponents. Dating back to the 15th century, Star Chamber had originally been a court of appeal. Under the early Stuarts, it came to be used to examine cases of sedition, which in practice meant that the court could be used to suppress opposition to royal policies. Star Chamber sessions were held in secret, with no indictments, no right of appeal, no juries, and no witnesses. It became synonymous with the King's misuse of his power during the Personal Rule. Religious Strife In religion, Charles favoured the elaborate and ritualistic High Anglican form of worship. He appointed William Laud Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633. Laud insisted upon strict compliance to the established tenets of the Church and vigorously supported the King's claim to divine right. Laud also made extensive use of Star Chamber and the ecclesiastical court of High Commisson to suppress opposition from Puritans who regarded his high church liturgy as dangerously close to Roman Catholicism. The King's marriage to the French Catholic princess Henrietta Maria also caused consternation amongst English Protestants, particularly as she was allowed to practise her religion openly and freely. In some quarters, Henrietta Maria's influence over the King and the royal children was regarded as part of an international Papist conspiracy against the Protestant faith. Although Charles himself was high-minded and devout, his religious policies were deeply divisive. In collaboration with Archbishop Laud, he insisted upon religious conformity across the Three Kingdoms. This went disastrously wrong when the Anglican liturgy and Laudian Prayer Book were forced upon the Scottish Kirk in 1637, resulting in the creation of the Scottish National Covenant against interference in religion, and the Bishops' Wars between the two nations. In order to finance war against the Scots, Charles was obliged to recall Parliament in 1640, bringing his eleven-year personal rule to an end. King versus Parliament The strength of feeling against the King's policies in Church and State resulted in vehement criticism and lack of co-operation from the Short Parliament of April 1640 and its successor the Long Parliament . The opposition was orchestrated by John Pym in the House of Commons in collaboration with a small group of Puritan nobles in the Lords. Rather than making a direct political attack, Pym successfully undermined the King's position by blaming the nation's grievances upon the malign influence of his principal ministers Archbishop Laud and the Earl of Strafford . To great popular acclaim, Parliament impeached Laud and Strafford and condemned them to death, with Charles doing little to help them. 1642: The King raises his battle standard In November 1641, news of the Irish Uprising reached London, provoking a crisis over whether King or Parliament should control the army that was needed to quell the rebellion. Against a background of riots and civil unrest, the King and royal family were forced to flee from London in January 1642 following Charles' disastrous attempt to arrest the Five Members regarded as his leading opponents in Parliament. During the spring and summer of 1642, as King and Parliament appealed for the support of the nation and manoeuvred to gain control of the armed forces, a violent confrontation became inevitable. King Charles raised his battle standard at Nottingham Castle on 22 August 1642, which was his call-to-arms and the beginning of the English Civil War . Ironically, the navy that Charles had built on the proceeds of ship-money declared for Parliament. Having lost London to the Parliamentarians, Charles set up his court and military headquarters at Oxford. Although he lacked military experience, Charles was courageous and always accompanied the Oxford army on campaign. He employed the Scottish veteran Patrick Ruthven , Earl of Forth, as his chief military adviser. However, the Royalist war effort was hampered by arguments and jealousies amongst its senior commanders, with Charles himself frequently indecisive or capricious. He was easily swayed by his counsellors, notably Lord Digby , who was himself conducting a personal vendetta against Prince Rupert. When the King began shipping government troops back from Ireland as reinforcements in 1643, Parliament mounted a successful propaganda campaign, raising fears of a Catholic conspiracy against English Protestants that greatly damaged the Royalist cause. The combination of Parliament's alliance with the Scottish Covenanters and the formation of the professionally-run New Model Army brought about the defeat of the Royalists in 1645-6. Confinement and Intrigue Charles fled from Oxford in April 1646 as the New Model Army approached the city. He surrendered to the Scottish army rather than to Parliament under secret terms negotiated by Cardinal Mazarin's envoy Jean de Montereul, who hoped to influence a settlement between England and Scotland that was favourable to French interests. Charles attempted to exploit divisions between the Parliamentarians and the Scots, continually involving himself in plots and intrigues with the exiled Henrietta Maria in the vain hope of gaining military help from Ireland and France. He failed to recognise the damage done to his cause in England by his association with foreign powers and Catholics. After Charles refused to accept the terms offered under the Newcastle Propositions , the Scots handed him over to Parliament in January 1647. The New Model Army—which was itself in disagreement with the Presbyterian faction in Parliament—secured the King in April 1647. 1647: King Charles imprisoned in Carisbrooke Castle Charles was held at Hampton Court Palace, where he continued to play off the Army, Parliament and Scots against one another. He hoped that the monarchy would be seen as a beacon of stability amongst the political turmoil, but his obstructiveness and duplicity in negotiations alienated Oliver Cromwell and other Parliamentarians who had been anxious to reach a settlement. Believing that Army radicals were planning to murder him, Charles escaped from Hampton Court in November 1647. However, he ignored the advice of the Earl of Lauderdale to go north to Berwick where the Scots would support him and went instead to the Isle of Wight to seek the protection of the governor, Colonel Hammond, intending to take ship from there to France. Torn between loyalty to the King and his duty to Parliament, Hammond confined King Charles at Carisbrooke Castle. Refusing to compromise over a settlement with the Army or with Parliament, Charles turned once again to the Scots. Under the terms of the Engagement signed in December 1647, Charles promised to impose Presbyterianism in England in exchange for a Scottish army to fight against Parliament. The Marquis of Argyll and the Scottish Kirk opposed the Engagement because Charles refused to take the Covenant personally or to impose it upon his subjects, but Argyll's rival the Duke of Hamilton put himself at the head of the Engager army and prepared to invade England. The Scottish invasion and simultaneous Royalist uprisings in England and Wales resulted in the short but bitterly-fought Second Civil War , culminating in Cromwell's victory over the Scots at the battle of Preston in August 1648. Trial and Execution Army officers were furious that Charles could deliberately provoke a second war when his defeat in the first seemed so clear an indication of divine favour to the Parliamentarian cause. Tired of his deceptions and intrigues, the Army denounced King Charles as the "Man of Blood". Parliament was purged of Presbyterian sympathisers and moderates in December 1648 and left with a small "Rump" of MPs that supported the Army. The purged Parliament appointed a High Court of Justice in January 1649 and Charles was charged with high treason against the people of England. The King's trial opened on 20 January. He refused to answer the charges, saying that he did not recognise the authority of the High Court, but he was found guilty of the charges against him and sentenced to death on 27 January 1649. The King was beheaded on a scaffold outside the Banqueting House at Whitehall on 30 January. 1649: The execution of King Charles I The King's execution shocked the whole of Europe. He was buried on 9 February at Windsor rather than at Westminster Abbey to avoid the possibility of public disorder at his funeral. Charles' personal dignity during his trial and execution had won him much sympathy. His death created a cult of martyrdom around him, which was encouraged by the publication of a book of his supposed meditations during his final months, Eikon Basilike. The ideal of the martyred king helped to sustain the Royalist cause throughout the Commonwealth and Protectorate years. After the Restoration, it was sanctified to commemorate Charles' sacrifice of his life for the doctrine of episcopacy. King Charles the Martyr is the only saint to be canonised in the Anglican church. To this day, wreaths of remembrance are laid on the anniversary of his death at his statue, which faces down Whitehall to the site of his beheading. Sources

Henrietta Maria of France

Where did George Washington's army endure the winter of 1777-78?

Biography of Queen Henrietta Maria » Biographies » Queen Henrietta Maria Queen Henrietta Maria, 1609-69 Loyal, courageous and devoted to King Charles I, but her influence added to the atmosphere of mistrust that surrounded the King. Henrietta Maria was born in Paris on 26 November 1609 (NS), the youngest daughter of King Henri IV of France and Marie de Medici. She was taught riding, dancing and singing and received religious instruction from the Carmelite nuns. Her marriage to Charles, Prince of Wales, required a special dispensation from the Pope because it was the first time that a Catholic princess had married a Protestant prince. Politically, it was a move towards an alliance between France and England against Spain. The marriage took place in May 1625 when Henrietta was 15 and Charles was 24. Her Catholicism alarmed the English Parliament, and she was not allowed to be crowned alongside her husband when he succeeded to the throne of the Three Kingdoms as King Charles I in February 1626. Catholic Queen Consort Apart from their religious differences, the royal couple were opposites in character and temperament: Charles was sober and aloof, Henrietta was stylish and vivacious. During the first three years of their marriage, Charles was influenced by his overbearing favourite the Duke of Buckingham , and neglected Henrietta Maria almost to the point of estrangement. But when Buckingham was assassinated in 1628, Charles transferred his affections to the Queen, and they quickly became devoted to one another. During the 1630s, the court of King Charles and Queen Henrietta Maria was admired throughout Europe. The King's impeccable taste in art and the formality of court ritual gave an appearance of sophistication; the Queen's encouragement of dancing, music and theatre added warmth and polite gaiety. Elaborate masques were staged by Inigo Jones and Ben Jonson to dramatise the ideals of the Stuart monarchy. To the horror of many Puritans, the Queen herself sometimes took part in the performances. Increasingly, King Charles discussed affairs of state with Henrietta Maria. He valued her opinions and advice, but because she remained a practising Roman Catholic, her influence was viewed with extreme suspicion, particularly as several prominent courtiers converted to Catholicism and a papal representative was received in England for the first time since the Reformation. When the King needed money to finance the Bishops' Wars (1639-40), the Queen raised funds by appealing to English Catholics. Her further appeals to the Vatican itself fuelled Protestant fears of a Popish conspiracy against England. She was even suspected of inciting the Irish Uprising of 1641. Rumours that members of the Long Parliament were planning to impeach the Queen prompted King Charles to make his disastrous attempt to arrest the Five Members in January 1642. “She-Majesty, Generalissima” In February 1642, when civil war looked inevitable, Henrietta Maria left England for the Netherlands—the King galloping along the cliff tops to keep her ship in sight until the last sail had vanished below the horizon. She spent almost a year in The Hague, raising loans, buying weapons and recruiting troops for the Royalist cause. By selling or pawning jewels, she raised a large fortune which financed several convoys of weapons and ammunition and a company of veteran professional soldiers to fight for the King. Braving storms and attack by Parliament's warships, she returned to England in February 1643, landing at Bridlington in Yorkshire. Henrietta stayed with the Earl (later Marquis) of Newcastle at York. She participated in Newcastle's secret negotiations with the Parliamentarian commanders Sir Hugh Cholmley at Scarborough and Sir John Hotham at Hull. Persuaded by the Queen, Cholmley defected and delivered Scarborough Castle to the Royalists. By the summer of 1643, Royalist victories in the Midlands made it relatively safe for Henrietta to move south at the head of her army, styling herself "Her She-Majesty, Generalissima". On 13 July 1643, she was reunited with the King, who had chosen the site of the battlefield of Edgehill as a suitably dramatic rendezvous. They made a triumphal entry into Oxford the following day. The Queen remained at Oxford until 1644. She attempted to arrange a marriage between the Prince of Wales and the daughter of the Prince of Orange in the hope that the Dutch would intervene in the war against Parliament. When she became pregnant with her ninth child, she decided to withdraw to Bath for her confinement and parted from King Charles at Abingdon on 17 April 1644—the last time they would see one another. The Earl of Essex was marching into the West Country and forced the Queen to withdraw further west to Exeter, where she gave birth to a daughter on 16 June. Fearing that Essex intended to take her hostage, she took ship from Falmouth on 14 July 1644 and escaped to France. Granted a small allowance by the French government, Henrietta Maria established households at the palace of St Germain and the Louvre. She kept up an intimate correspondence with King Charles in England, doing her best to persuade him to be more flexible in negotiations after his military defeat in 1645, and tirelessly engaging in schemes and intrigues to gain foreign help for the Royalist cause. Dowager Queen Mother

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Whom did Charles V confront at the Diet of Worms in 1521?

Martin Luther's Hearings Before the Diet at Worms (1521): An Account The Trial of Martin Luther: An Account (Luther's Hearings Before the Diet at Worms on Charges of Heresy) by Douglas O. Linder (2010) Historians have described it as the trial that led to the birth of the modern world.  Before the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and the Diet of Worms in the spring of 1521, as Luther biographer Roland H. Bainton noted, "the past and the future were met."  Martin Luther bravely defended his written attacks on orthodox Catholic beliefs and denied the power of Rome to determine what is right and wrong in matters of faith.  By holding steadfast to his interpretation of Scripture, Luther provided the impetus for the Reformation, a reform movement that would divide Europe into two regions, one Protestant and one Catholic, and that would set the scene for religious wars that would continue for more than a century, not ending until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.  Martin Luther's long journey to Worms might be said to have begun in 1505 on a road near his home town of Erfurt in Saxony (now part of Germany), when a bolt of lightening knocked Luther to the ground .  Luther took the lightening to be a call from God, and--to the disappointment of his father, who hoped he would become a lawyer--, took vows at an Augustinian monastery to begin a profoundly Christian life.  Luther impressed his superiors at the Erfurt monastery.  By 1507, he was an ordained priest and had offered his first mass.  By 1508, he had earned a degree in Biblical studies from the University of Wittenberg and become an instructor at that Augustinian institution.  Questioning the Sale of Indulgences A trip to Rome in 1510 caused Luther to begin to seriously question certain Catholic practices.  The opportunity for the trip arose when Luther was selected as one of two Augustinian brothers to travel to the Eternal City to help resolve a dispute within the order that called for resolution by the pope.  What Luther saw in Rome disillusioned him.  As he watched incompetent, flippant, and cynical clergy performing their holy duties he began to experience doubts about the Catholic Church.  He wrote after his journey that he had "gone with onions and returned with garlic." Those early doubts concerning Rome and its ways would blossom over the next several years after Luther earned the prestigious post as Doctor of the Bible at Wittenberg University and undertook a thorough review of  the source book of his religion. Luther's study led him to the theology of Paul and his belief in the possibility of forgiveness through faith made possible by the crucifixion of Christ.  In Paul's theology, which Luther would largely adopt as his own, there was no need to look to priests for forgiveness because, to those who believed and were contrite, forgiveness was a gift of God. Luther's understanding of Paul's theology led him to view skeptically the Catholic Church's reliance on the practice of selling indulgences as its major source of revenue.  (An indulgence was a remission of temporal punishment after a confessor revealed sin, expressed contrition, and made the required contribution to the Church.) In sermons in Wittenberg beginning in 1516, Luther argued that forgiveness came from within, and that no one--whether a priest or a pope--was in position to grant forgiveness because no one can look into the soul of another.  He also questioned whether the pope could, as he claimed, deliver souls of a confessor's dead loved ones from purgatory.  By lashing out at the sale of indulgences, Luther was striking at the heart of the Church's array of money-raising tools and confrontation was inevitable. Matters began to come to a head the next year when Pope Leo X launched an indulgence-driven campaign to raise funds for construction of a grand basilica of St. Peter's in Rome.  The practice of the time was to grant the privilege of selling indulgences to various bishops, who would retain for themselves and their purposes a portion of the raised funds.  Albert of Brandenburg, granted an indulgence franchise in his territory for eight years, told his indulgence vendors that they could promise purchasers a perfect remission of all sins and that those seeking indulgences for dead relatives need not be contrite themselves, nor confess their sins.  Proclamation of the indulgence fell to an experienced Dominican vendor named John Tetzel, who journeyed from town to town around Albert's territories.  Tetzel would follow a cross bearing the papal arms into a town's marketplace and launch into a sermon, or sales pitch, that included a jingle that Martin Luther found especially objectionable: As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, The soul from purgatory springs. Luther, in an angry response to the indulgence sales campaign, prepared in Latin a placard consisting of ninety-five theses for debate. The placard, in accordance with the custom of the time, was placed upon the door of Wittenberg's Castle Church .  The power of pardon, Luther contended in his Ninety-Five Theses , was God's alone.  If, indeed, the pope had the power he claimed, Luther asked why he didn't simply exercise it: "If the pope does have the power to release anyone from purgatory, why in the name of love does he not abolish purgatory by letting everyone out?" Luther's complaints also went to the Church's justification for promoting contributions.  He complained about "the revenues of all Christendom being sucked into this insatiable basilica" when their were much greater needs, including "living temples" and local churches.  When a copy of Luther's theses reached Rome, the pope, according to some accounts, said: "Luther is a drunken German.  He will feel different when he is sober."  Nonetheless, the pope saw Luther as sufficiently threatening to appoint a new general of the Augustinian order in the hopes that the he would "smother the fire before it should become a conflagration."  Surprisingly, however, at the gathering of Luther's chapter that year in Heidelberg Luther's arguments met with enthusiasm among the younger Augustinians and mere head-shaking among the older attendees.  Encouraged by the reception to his views, Luther aimed at new targets.  He challenged the power of the Church to excommunicate its members, writing that only God could sever spiritual communion.  He also questioned the primacy of the Church in Rome, suggesting that there was a lack of historical support for putting its authority above that of other churches.  Clearly, the pope began to understand, Luther was more of a threat that he first thought.  The pope turned to Dominican Sylvester Prierias, Master of the Sacred Palace at Rome, to draft a reply to Luther's arguments.  Prierias's reply branded Luther a heretic and, gratuitously, called him "a leper with a brain of brass and a nose of iron."  On August 7, 1518, Luther received a citation to appear in Rome to answer the charge of heresy. The Road to Worms The papal bull condemning Luther Frederick the Wise , the Elector for Germany in the Holy Roman Empire, found himself in the middle of an unwanted controversy.  From Pope Leo, Frederick had received a letter expressing concern that had provided support for Martin Luther, "a son of iniquity" who had been "hurling himself upon the Church of God." The Pope called upon Frederick to place Luther "in the hands of the Holy See lest future generations reproach you with having fostered the rise of a most pernicious heresy against the Church."  Feeling obligations to the Church but also somewhat sympathetic to Luther, whose attacks on Rome won substantial support in his home region, Frederick sought a compromise.  In negotiations with Cardinal Cajetan, the papal legate, Frederick prevailed in having Luther's hearing on the heresy charge moved to Augsburg, a city on German soil. Cardinal Cajetan interviewed Luther three times from October 12-14, 1518.  Told that he must recant his views on indulgences and papal infallibility, Luther refuses.  On the issue of papal infallibility, Luther said, "I deny that he is above scripture."  The frustrated cardinal complained after the meeting to Luther's superior, John Staupitz, "His eyes are as deep as a lake, and there are amazing speculations in his head."  Luther remained in Augsburg for another week awaiting some sort of decision from the Church, but when rumors reach him of a plan to have him arrested, he fled on horseback at night. Catejan pressured Frederick the Wise to have Luther either arrested and sent to Rome or banished from his territories, but Frederick balked.  Instead, he wrote to the emperor requesting that Luther's case either be dropped or sent to Germany for a hearing before judges.  On December 18, 1518, Frederick wrote a letter to Catejan informing him that he would only send Luther to Rome "after he has been convicted of heresy."  He urged that Luther be given an opportunity to debate his interpretation of Scripture and submit it to a university for decision.  "He should be shown in what respect he is a heretic and not condemned in advance," wrote Frederick.  Frederick's views no doubt reflected those of most Germans.  One writer of the period reported that he polled people in inns around the territory and found that three out of every four persons he talked to supported Luther.  In Rome, meanwhile, a papal bull (Cum Postquam) had been prepared clarifying the Church's position on indulgences.  Although the decretal ended some of the worst abuses, it affirmed that the pope had complete power to absolve temporal punishment through indulgences. In Germany, Luther's arguments were the talk of the nation.  The University of Wittenberg had become a predominantly Lutheran institution while a rival university, the University of Leipzig, had emerged as the champion of traditional Catholic positions.  A debate was proposed.  Luther would come to Leipzig and defend his views against a prominent professor named John Eck .  Despite the protests from some church men appalled at the notion of giving the heretic such a stage, the debate went forward in July 1519. For four sessions over eighteen days the two intellectual powerhouses argued over free will, Biblical support for indulgences, and the primacy of Rome. In the end, there was no clear winner and only one of the two judging universities (Paris and Erfurt) reported its judgment. The fame and influence of Luther continued to spread.  Between the Leipzig debates and the summer of 1520 Luther wrote and published a series of tracts that are considered his primary works: The Sermon on Good Works, The Papacy in Rome, The Babylonian Captivity, and The Freedom of the Christian Man.  The Babylonian Captivity was an especially controversial book, questioning all but two of the seven sacraments of the Catholic Church. Rome, however, had not forgotten about Martin Luther.  On June 15, 1520, Pope Leo X, in the papal bull Exsurge Domine , warned Luther that he will be excommunicated unless he recanted 41 sentences included in his 95 Theses within the next sixty days.  The bull opened with a paragraph that compared Luther to a wild boar:  Arise, O Lord, and judge your own cause. Remember your reproaches to those who are filled with foolishness all through the day. Listen to our prayers, for foxes have arisen seeking to destroy the vineyard whose winepress you alone have trod. When you were about to ascend to your Father, you committed the care, rule, and administration of the vineyard, an image of the triumphant church, to Peter, as the head and your vicar and his successors. The wild boar from the forest seeks to destroy it and every wild beast feeds upon it. Exsurge Domine ended with a plea and an injunction: Therefore let Martin himself and all those adhering to him, and those who shelter and support him, through the merciful heart of our God and the sprinkling of the blood of our Lord Jesus Christ by which and through whom the redemption of the human race and the upbuilding of holy mother Church was accomplished, know that from our heart we exhort and beseech that he cease to disturb the peace, unity, and truth of the Church for which the Savior prayed so earnestly to the Father. Let him abstain from his pernicious errors that he may come back to us....We enjoin, however, on Martin that in the meantime he cease from all preaching or the office of preacher. With the papal bull executed and plans for its distribution in the works, Luther's books were were burned in Rome's Piazza Navona. In the meantime, Luther had drafted an appeal of his case and sent it to the new emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, Charles V .  Often called An Appeal to Caesar, Luther's document asked the emperor to allow his guilt or innocence on the heresy charge to be determined after a hearing by non-ecclesiastical officials.  Luther boldly asserted in his August appeal that church officials should be answerable to the state: For three years I have sought peace in vain. I have now but one recourse. I appeal to Caesar. I have no desire to be defended if I am found to be impious or heretical. One thing I ask, that neither truth nor error be condemned unheard and unrefuted.  It took three months for the papal bull to reach Luther in Wittenberg. The day after receiving a copy of the pope's bull, Luther wrote to a friend, "This bull condemns Christ himself" and that he was now "certain the pope is the Antichrist."  Luther, thoroughly aroused, unleashed a defense of his assertions that received condemnation in the papal bull in his Against the Execrable Bull of the Antichrist .  The tone of his tract was defiant: It is better that I should die a thousand times than that I should retract one syllable of the condemned articles. And as they excommunicated me for the sacrilege of heresy, so I excommunicate them in the name of the sacred truth of God. Christ will judge whose excommunication will stand.  On December 10, 1520, Martin Luther and some of his university supporters gathered at Wittenberg's Elster gate where various theological works and documents from Rome were placed in a pile and lit on fire.  Luther himself tossed the papal bull into the blaze .  "Since they have burned my books, I burn theirs," he said.  With Luther in obvious defiance of his demand for recantation, Pope Leo excommunicated Luther on January 3, 1521.  Managing the Luther case for Pope Leo was the papal nuncio, Aleander .  In Aleander's view, secular tribunals had no role to play.  Luther had been found guilty of heresy, condemned by the Church, and the only job of secular authorities should be to carry out the Church's decision.  "The only competent judge is the pope," Aleander wrote. When Luther's Appeal to Caesar reached Emperor Charles V, he tore it up and trampled on it.  Within a month, however, a more composed Charles V, concerned with the reaction of the German people if Luther were to be condemned without a hearing, reconsidered his decision.  On March 11, 1521, the emperor sent to Luther an invitation to come to the Diet meeting at Worms to "answer with regard to your books and your teaching."  The emperor's mandate promised safe-conduct if he would arrive in Worms within twenty-one days.  "You have neither violence nor snares to fear," the letter said. Luther decided to go. In a letter to Frederick the Wise, Luther explained his thinking: "I will go even if I am too sick to stand on my feet.  If Caesar calls me, God calls me.  If violence is used, as well it may be, I commend my cause to God." Luther Before the Diet Luther, in Worms, preparing to face the Diet Although describing himself as "physically fearful and trembling," Luther and a small band of supporters entered Worms on the early evening of April 16 in a two-wheeled cart.  A crowd of two thousand people helped escort Luther to his lodging. A third-person account, almost certainly written by Luther himself, describes the scene the next day, when Luther was first to be questioned: At four in the afternoon, the imperial chamberlain, and the herald who had accompanied him from Wittenberg, came to him at his inn, The Court of Germany, and conducted him to the town hall, along bye-ways, in order to avoid the crowds which had assembled in the leading streets. Notwithstanding this precaution, there were numbers collected at the gates of the town hall, and who essayed to enter with him, but the guards kept them back. Many persons had got upon the roofs of houses to see Dr. Martin. As he proceeded to tip the kail, several noblemen successively addressed to him words of encouragement. "Be bold," said they, "and fear not those who can kill the body, but are powerless against the soul." The Archbishop of Trier, John Eck (not the Eck of the Leipzig debate), opened the hearing by pointing to a large pile of Luther's books and asking him whether the books were his and whether he would retract the doctrines espoused in them.  "I think the books are mine," Luther replied.  When the titles of the books were read, Luther answered more certainly:  "Yes, the books are mine."  When asked, "Will you retract the doctrines herein?," Luther answered cautiously saying it "would be rash and dangerous to reply to such a question until I had meditated thereupon in silence and retreat, least I incur the anger of our Lord."  While expressing surprise that a professor of theology couldn't immediately answer his question, Eck granted Luther's request to think things over.  He told Luther to come back the next day at the same time with his answer. The next day at six o'clock Luther entered a larger hall that was filled to overflowing.  Eck demanded, "E xplain yourself now. Will you defend all your writings, or disavow some of them?" Luther saw an opportunity to give a speech, rather than a "yes" or "no" answer, and he took it.  He replied by drawing distinctions between his various writings: "I entreat your majesty and the states of the empire to consider that my writings do not all treat of the same matter. Some of them are perceptive, destined for the edification of the faithful, for the advancement of piety, for the amelioration of manners; yet the bull, while admitting the innocence and advantage of such treatises, condemns these equally with the rest. If I were to disavow them, what practically should I be doing? Proscribing a mode of instruction which every Christian sanctions, and thus putting myself in opposition to the universal voice of the faithful." Luther then described a second class of writings, those "in which I attack the papacy and the belief of the papists, as monstrosities, involving the ruin of sound doctrine and of men's souls."  He brashly asserted that "the pope's decretals have thrown utter disorder into Christianity, have surprised, imprisoned, and tortured the faith of the faithful...contrary to the gospel."  If  he "were to retract these writings," Luther said, he would "lend additional strength and audacity to the Roman tyranny" and "open the floodgates to the torrent of impiety, making for it a breach by which it would rush in and overwhelm the Christian world." Finally, Luther said, there is a third class of works in which he had attacked his theological adversaries.  For these writings, Luther offered a small apology: " I have no hesitation in admitting that in these I have shown greater violence than befitted a man of my calling; I do not set up for a saint, I do not say that my conduct has been above reproach."  Nonetheless, Luther refused to disavow these writings as well because to do so would allow "Rome would make use of the disavowal, to extend her kingdom and oppress men's souls." Luther would not back down.  Only if he could be convinced of his errors on the basis of Scripture might he offer a retraction and "throw my books into the fire with my own hand."  He warned those judging him to not "condemn the Divine Word" lest God send down upon them " a deluge of ills, and the reign of our noble young emperor, upon whom, next to God, repose all our hopes, be speedily and sorely troubled."  He ended his speech by entreating the emperor and the lordships to not let " my enemies to indulge their hatred against me under your sanction." Eck found Luther's answer evasive.  He asked again, "Martin--answer candidly and without horns--do you or do you not repudiate your books and the errors which they contain?" Luther replied, " 'Since then your imperial majesty and your lordships demand a simple answer, I will give you one without teeth and without horns. Unless I am convicted of error by the testimony of Scripture or by manifest evidence...I cannot and will not retract, for we must never act contrary to our conscience....Here I stand. God help me! Amen!" After, as requested, repeating his answer in Latin (he had spoken in German), a sweating and tired Luther threw up his arms in victory and left the hall to a chorus of hisses from the Spaniards present.  Frederick the Wise offered an appraisal of Luther's performance: "Dr. Martin spoke wonderfully before the emperor, the princes, and the estates, but too boldly."  Arriving back in his lodging after his two-hour hearing, Luther downed in one gulp a can of Eimbeck beer that had been left for him there by a friend. Charles V told a group of electors after the hearing that he was ready to proceed against Luther as "a notorious heretic."  Most of the electors were in agreement with the emperor, but there were the German peasants to worry about.  The peasants were on the verge of a revolt and condemnation of Luther, who they saw as a champion, might push them into open conflict.  A committee was selected to meet with Luther and to try to seek at least a partial revocation.  The committee's efforts failed.  Luther would not compromise on his principles. On May 6, a final draft of the Edict of Worms , prepared by Aleander, was submitted to the Diet.  It was finally signed by the emperor on May 26.  The Edict called Luther a "reviver of the old and condemned heresies" and an "inventor of new ones."  It called for the burning of his books and for confiscation of his property.  It cut him off from the church, called for his arrest, and forbid anyone from harboring or sustaining him.  Finally, it warned that anyone who dares to directly or indirectly oppose this decree...will be guilty of the crime of lese majeste and will incur our grave indignation as well as each of the punishments mentioned above." By the time the Edict of Worms was announced, Martin Luther was a month gone from Worms.  He was, in fact, at Wartburg Castle where he had been hustled on horseback by a gang of "abductors" as part of a staged kidnapping on his route back to Wittenberg.  Frederick the Wise had decided to hide him. The Aftermath After nearly in Wartburg Castle, where Luther occupied himself with translating the Bible into German, he bravely accepted the invitation of Wittenberg's town council to come home.  Within days of his return, the exile was--in the defiance of the pope, the emperor, and the elector--back in the pulpit, beginning a series of important lectures ("the Invocavit Sermons") on core Christian values. Much of the remainder of Luther's career was devoted to building the liturgy, patterns, and institutions for a new Church, one based on his interpretation of Scripture and his guiding principle of salvation through faith and the grace of God.  He also worked tirelessly on his complete translation of the Bible into German.  In 1525, Luther married Katherine von Bora, a nun fifteen years younger than he who he had helped escape from a convent.  The couple had six children. The period of 1524-25 is a tumultuous one in Germany, with the outbreak of the Peasants' War, a revolt by the have-nots of Germany against the state and the upper classes.  Luther was to many of those in the rebellion a hero because he had publicly sided with the peasants on many of their grievances.  When, however, the peasants committed atrocities in his name, Luther called for them to obey authorities and wrote a tract in which he condemned the violence at the devil's work. In the late 1520s, most of northern Germany became Lutheran, as well as several major cities in other parts of Germany. Meanwhile, the popularity of Luther and his ideas within his home region convinced secular authorities that enforcement of the Edict of Worms is no longer a wise option.  In August 1526, the Diet of Speyer reaffirmed the Edict of Worms only for Catholic territories and allowed Lutheranism to be tolerated in regions where it could not be effectively suppressed. 

Martin Luther

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Reformation at Abeka Academy - StudyBlue StudyBlue Who was one of the foremost scholars of the northern Renaissance who was German   Johann Reuchlin  who was the 'Preceptor of Germany' Philipp Melanchthon  Who was executed by Henry VIII for apposing the kings actions to word the church  Thomas More who produced the first English translation of the new testament and later died a martyrs death  William Tyndale  Who steeped him self into the scriptures and translate the bible to french from latin vulgate  Jacques Lefevre d Etaples Most famous figure of the Northern Renaissance Desiderius Erasmus in what year did Erasmus publish the first printed edition of the new testament in the original Greek  1516 What collage did Martin Luther go to  Erfurt  where did Luther go to teach after becoming a priest  Wittenberg what passage led Luther to faith in Christ  Romans 1:16-17 who were behind the selling of indulgences  Albert of brandenburg, what date did Luther post the ninty 5 theses  October 31 1517  Who did Luther Appeal to for help in Germany ? Fredrick the Wise With whom did Luther debate at the university of Leipzig Johann Eck What holy Roman Emperor did Luther face at the Diet Of worms Charles V When did Luther come before Charles V April 18 1521 when was the edict of worms issued ?  May 26 1521  Who 'kidnapped' Luther for his safety? Fredrick the Wise What castle did Luther go to and hide in Wartburg Castle  What was the fake name Luther went under in the castle of Wartburg  Knight George  Who was the priest that stepped forward and attacked the sale of indulgences  Ulrich Zwingli  what was the single most influential book save the Bible of the Reformatin The institutes of the christian Religion  Who called John Calvin to Geneva ? Guillaume Farel  what were people who followed John Calvin  Calvinists  what were the Quakers and the Amish related to? Anabaptist   * The material on this site is created by StudyBlue users. StudyBlue is not affiliated with, sponsored by or endorsed by the academic institution or instructor. Words From Our Students "StudyBlue is great for studying. I love the study guides, flashcards and quizzes. So extremely helpful for all of my classes!" Alice , Arizona State University "I'm a student using StudyBlue, and I can 100% say that it helps me so much. Study materials for almost every subject in school are available in StudyBlue. It is so helpful for my education!" Tim , University of Florida "StudyBlue provides way more features than other studying apps, and thus allows me to learn very quickly!??I actually feel much more comfortable taking my exams after I study with this app. It's amazing!" Jennifer , Rutgers University "I love flashcards but carrying around physical flashcards is cumbersome and simply outdated. StudyBlue is exactly what I was looking for!" Justin , LSU

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