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what are some things humans can survive that would otherwise seem very deadly and horrid? | most remarkable of all in my opinion are brain injuries. take [phineas gage](_url_0_) for example. despite taking a penetrating injury through his frontal lobe, he still survived. part of this is because the basic parts of the brain essential for survival are found deep inside. people have survived falls of several stories onto hard surfaces. there's different reasons, but one most common is a result of alcohol. the body's reaction to a fall is to tense up, which means a more direct transfer of energy through the body upon impact. alcohol inhibits this, thus distributing the energy throughout the body. this is also why drunk drivers may come out with relatively minor injuries in an otherwise fatal car accident. surviving severe hemorrhage, such as in amputation, is another feat of the body. in an amputation, arteries will contract in an attempt to prevent blood loss. when the body looses too much blood, it shunts it towards the torso and head in an attempt to keep critical organs alive. source: emt and combat medic. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phineas_Gage"
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|
what does the "immortal jellyfish" (turritopsis nutricula) do about eroding telomeres? | for the unfamiliar: [link](_url_0_). i was under the impression that an eroding telomere was the primary problem of aging, not actual life-cycles. i also thought it was biologically universal (all living things have cells right?) can someone clear this up for me? | a similar question, what do our germ line cells do about eroding telomeres, can probably help us answer this question. although i'm not sure where the field is currently on the relationship between telomere length and aging/carcinogenesis is (however, i believe it is slightly more complicated than a 1:1 link to aging), what i can tell you is that in order for multiple generations of a species to exist without our telomeres completely disappearing, we need the enzyme telomerase. if you haven't heard of telomerase before, i think the wikipedia page can provide a lot of the information you might be looking for (_url_0_). however, in general the enzyme is bound to a rna molecule which serves as a template for telomere elongation. now, to answer your question, i would hypothesize that one way the jelly fish could avoid degradation of its telomeres would be to express telomerase enzyme in some of its cell lines (likely in whatever it uses for stem cells). many other eukaryotes (which are, in general, not immortal) express telomerase in their somatic stem cells as well, especially in cells that have to undergo a lot of cell division in an organism's lifetime. someone else who knows more about the organism or eukaryotes in general may be able to better answer your question :) | 7 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immortal_jellyfish"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telomerase"
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[math] where did the notion of 'cross product' arise? | i am a student studying physics, and i had familiarized myself with the notion of carrying out a cross product and the applications in problem solving. i was working on a systems of particles problem, and i realized that i never really questioned what a cross product is (beyond how it is defined and their properties) and where it came from. so my question is, where did this notion come from or who developed the idea? is there a good reference for the history of the cross product? | [josiah willard gibbs](_url_0_) developed the notion of both the dot and cross products. he was looking for an easier mathematical approach to quaternions. so he came up with the idea of representing lines as vectors, and the rules for multiplying vectors with either a dot or cross product. it's important to note that cross products, and all vector math, was created to describe physical phenomena. in the same way we might create a word in english to describe something, vector math was created as a simple way to describe em and fluid dynamics. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs#Vector_analysis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_product#History"
] | [
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if power in the united states is generated in 3 legs each 120 degrees out of phase with one another, how and where do the two hot legs that enter residential spaces become 180 degrees out of phase with one another? | i'm a trade apprentice and have been trying to better understand electrical systems. is there a device somewhere along the power grid the shifts a phase. how does it work? google doesn't seem to give detailed enough answers. | in the us, typically the three legs are split into separate residential runs. so a residential street has one leg and nothing else. a center tapped connects between that leg and ground, and then has three wires out, the center of that is grounded, and all three are sent to your home. the center is neutral and grounded again, and the other two halves are your two hots. i actually drew up the diagram not too long ago for this. [here is my diagram](_url_0_) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://dev.edman007.com/~edman007/pub/electrical_distribution/power_company_owned.png"
] | [
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is the wave function, statistically speaking, a moment-generating function? | i haven't studied pure statistics since 2012, and i was reviewing some stuff since i'm studying moyal's quantum phase-space formulation, and that got me thinking about the statistical nature of quantum mechanics but, since my knowledge of statistics is not that good, i was left with this doubt bonus question: what is exactly the relation between moment-generating functions, characteristic functions and probability distributions with the fourier transform? | no. the wavefunction itself is not a standard object in probability theory. however, its amplitude squared is a probability density function (pdf), not a moment-generating function. for example, assuming you're talking about the wavefunction in the position basis, the amplitude squared of the wavefunction is the pdf for the position of the particle. your bonus question: the fourier transform of the pdf is the characteristic function. the laplace transform (up to a minus sign of the argument) of the pdf is the moment-generating function. the fourier transform f and (two-sided) laplace transform l of a function are related by f(\omega) = l(i\omega), that is, we do the laplace transform with an imaginary argument to get the fourier transform. this is how the moment-generating function and characteristic function are related. i think you might be getting confused because the wavefunction in the momentum basis is the fourier transform of the wavefunction in the position basis. hence you might be thinking there's some relation between the pdf for momentum and the characteristic function for position, but this isn't the case. the amplitude squared of the wavefunction in the momentum basis is the pdf for the momentum of the particle. however, the fourier transform was done on the wavefunction, *not* the wavefunction's amplitude squared (the pdf). as such the characteristic function for position is related to a convolution of the momentum-space wavefunction and its complex conjugate, not to the pdf for momentum. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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where can i find trusted sources of published papers related to chemistry or chemical engineering? | [removed] | is [this](_url_1_) along the lines of what you're looking for? - an easy starting point for finding published peer-reviewed scientific papers is [google scholar](_url_0_). through your school's library, you may also have access to other literature search databases, such as [web of science](_url_2_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://scholar.google.com",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360128500000137",
"https://webofknowledge.com/"
] | [
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] |
speed of push? | all movement of objects is really compression waves travelling at the speed of sound in those objects. one particle bumps into the next which bumps into the next which etc. the speed of sound in solids is quite high (e.g. 6000 m/s for steel), and we generally don't deal with very very long solids, so things appear to move instantaneously. if you have a pool cue that is 1 light year long, it would take 1 light year / speed of sound in pool cue for movement to propagate along it. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do anacondas' stomachs shield themselves against the sharp claws of the prey they devour? | very few organisms swallow their prey as a whole leaving them no choice but to swallow all the sharp accompaniments too. i was wondering how the claws of the prey don't scratch the insides of anacondas and the like. | snakes have a tendency to eat their prey head first, which makes it to where the claws won't catch on the way down. since the limbs will be essentially bound in position as near everything gets digested, the claws don't have much chance to cause damage to the digestive tract. i can't say if there's any protections against claws if the snake regurgitates the meal before it has a chance to break down. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why did the pascal replace the bar as the standard unit of measurement for atmospheric pressure? | google was not useful; would anyone know the details? was it simply just a naming convention in honor of blaise pascal or is there more to this story? | si is about creating a coherent and consistent unit system. with the metre as a base unit, and the newton as a derived unit (based on metre, kilogram, and second), the logical unit for pressure is simply 1 newton per square metre. that unit was named the pascal in 1971. the bar is an older unit, i think it goes back to the early 20th century. it's a metric unit (= 100000 pa) , but not si. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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carbs and cancer | could someone please shine some light on this topic? a friend tells me that carbs not only feed cancer but simply cause cancer and that if we would stop eat carbs all together we could cure cancer the easy way... now, i understand that carbs are fast energy which in turn will feed the cancer just as fast - but ultimately, isnt the cancer just feeding off of your body's metabolism, regardless of where you get your energy from...? so carbs cause a spike in insulin, which results (eventully) in a spike in igf-1 that can grow/trigger cancerous cells to grow... but other things cause a spike in igf-1 as well, no? again, a cancer feeds off of your body's energy whereever it comes from, no....? please help... | i've done a few pubmed searches on the subject, and the data are far from conclusive. i found one study which suggested a high carbohydrate diet can increase colorectal cancer risk in people with a specific genotype. however, a diet high in red meat and processed meat has also been demonstrated to increase colorectal cancer risk in individuals of many genotypes. i have found several studies which find that a diet high in refined sugar correlates with increased cancer risk, but this is far from saying that all carbohydrates correlate with increased cancer risk--fresh fruits and vegetables also have lots of carbohydrates. furthermore, i can't find anything that directly demonstrates a causal link--everything i can find is correlative, and people who tend to eat lots of refined sugar tend to have other bad habits, so it is unclear exactly how much of the effect if any is actually the carbohydrates. the idea that high blood glucose "feeds" cancer has *some* evidence to support it, but you can have normal or even low blood glucose and good insulin response on a variety of different diets. however, again, i can find no good data on a causal link. this is especially important because while extra sugar might help transformed cells grow *faster*, we need to remember that in order for tumors to develop we also need mutations to start cells down the path to growing in an unregulated manner in the first place. i've been able to find no data that shows that this happens any faster in people who eat lots of carbohydrates without any actual underlying medical problems, and no data on whether the glucose environment for tumors changes growth so much that it actually effects outcome. it's a possibility, but it's not one that i'd say has a lot of support for it at the moment. however, diets high in refined carbohydrates and lots of sugar have been shown to contribute to lots of health problems and do *correlate* with cancer, though whether it is because of other bad habits or an increased likelihood of other health problems that can contribute to cancer risk or an actual direct causal link is unclear. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would my pro-sumer dslr work on a space walk? | if not, what part(s) of it would fail? i was looking at a photo series of the iss with a shuttle hanging off it [(sample here)](_url_0_) and was wondering what equipment was used to shoot this. then i wondered, can my camera go into space for any meaningful amount of time and still function? edit: apologies in advance if this has already been asked. please save me your snide comments if it has been, post a link to the answer, downvote me and move on. | the ultrasonic focusing motor would probably be fine, as would the lcd and battery (although if you're in the shade it might be too cold for the battery to produce enough voltage.) the imaging sensor would probably develop some dead pixels (or at least result in pictures with a lot of specs) if left out too long due to high energy charged particles of solar wind. and likewise for the image processor and cf/sd storage media since they're not radiation-hardened. i'd be mostly worried about the trapped air in the sections of the lens -- as soon as you left the shuttle and went out into a vacuum, that gas is going to try to escape and if the area is sealed, or if it's vented but the vent is too small then it could cause the housing to crack or worse. | 2 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/cYgPy.jpg"
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is there some sort of science behind disintegration? | how would disintegration be done with lasers? thank you! | i presume you mean something like [this](_url_0_). you fire a visible beam at somebody, they freeze in place with a startled expression for half a second, and then they vanish cleanly with no smoke or evidence of great heat on surrounding objects. put simply, that's impossible. to give you a visual for what is possible, have some videos. [naval ir laser vs drone](_url_2_) [cutting laser vs pizza](_url_1_) note the smoke coming from the pizza. you cannot simply destroy matter (you can, but converting a redshirt directly to energy would blow up the whole enterprise). there must be something left of the target. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=EvI_FYarYIY#t=54",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=uVQFI9mJagA#t=59",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3osDa3b5PJs&feature=player_detailpage#t=73"
] | [
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could someone explain to me the discoveries of emma p. carr? | i can't claim much specific knowledge about carr, but.. when a molecule absorbs uv light, it typically "excites" a valence electron to a higher energy state for a short period of time. the frequency of the light is proportional to the energy of a photon of the light, and the photon's energy has to match the energy difference between these states for the excitation to occur. by comparing the absorption frequencies for different compounds, she basically got a comparison of the relative energies of their valence electrons and through that, their relative chemical bonding energy. which is something you can measure in the enthalpy (basically energy) of combustion. in other words, she used uv spectroscopy to characterize and tell the difference in binding energy between different chemical bonds. now, what i just told you is explained with the benefit of hindsight. at the time she published [this](_url_0_), it wasn't fully understood yet how absorption and the electrons worked. the bohr model (introducing the idea that electrons could only have certain energies and that absorption frequency equaled the differences in them) had only been suggested a few years earlier. her career seems to nicely span the introduction of quantum mechanics (late 1920s), which was necessary to theoretically explain uv spectra. just going by the papers cited on her [wiki page](_url_1_), the [1918 one](_url_0_) is quite unspecific about what's going on during the absorption, and the nature of the "form of linkage between the central carbon atoms" as it puts it. the [1947 paper](_url_2_) on the other hand, is really attempting to explain what's going on in terms of quantum mechanics, talking about orbitals and quantum numbers, essentially the same way we describe things today. it might be beside the topic, but in the bigger perspective there's a shift here from purely empirical observations ("these things appear related") to a deeper understanding of why they're related, that corresponds to a general emergence of theoretical chemistry in that time period. interesting to me as a theorist, at least. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja02243a009",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_P._Carr",
"http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/cr60129a008",
"http://www.csupomona.edu/~nova/scientists/articles/carr.html",
"http://scholar.google.com/schhp?hl=en&as_sdt=0,14"
] | [
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|
is there an intuitive explanation of the hairy ball theorem? | the theorem states that every tangent vector field on a sphere of even dimension must be zero somewhere. this is often contextualized in terms of wind on the earth. is there an intuitive reason why we should expect the tangent vector field to be 0 somewhere? | the issue is how even-degree spheres interact with the antipodal map. for example, if you have s^(2) (which is the typical 3d sphere), then you can take any point on it, x, and map it to the point on the complete opposite side of the sphere, -x. this is the antipodal map. the key thing is that this map reverses orientation, if you take every point x and send it to -x all your orientations get turned backwards. a consequence of this is that there is no way to smoothly move around points on the sphere that take each x to -x. (that is, there is no homotopy from the identity map to the antipodal map, since the antipodal map reverses orientation.) now, if there were a smooth vector field on the sphere that was nonzero everywhere, then you could take each point and push it along the direction that the vector points until you hit the corresponding antipodal point. this would be a way to smoothly move point around the sphere that takes each point to its antipode. since this would have to both preserve orientation (because you're smoothly moving around points) and reverse orientation (because that's what the antipodal map does), it follows that this can't happen. so there can be no nonzero vector field on a sphere. an identical argument works on all even dimensional spheres. this doesn't work for odd dimensional spheres because the antipodal map does preserve orientation, and you can, in fact, have smooth, nonzero vector fields on them. a lot of the weird stuff about spheres happens because of the antipodal map. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can a scientist ascertain that a 1.2-million-year-old stone flake found recently in turkey is definitely a tool made by a human? | i'm referring to the recent finding of a stone tool in the ancient deposits of the gediz river in turkey: _url_0_ prof danielle schreve of royal holloway university of london, uk said: > i had been studying the sediments in the meander bend and my eye was drawn to a pinkish stone on the surface. when i turned it over for a better look, the features of a humanly-struck artifact were immediately apparent what are those features of a *humanly-struck artifact*? could these features not be caused by natural processes? a picture of the stone flake in included in the article. | someone asked the [same question a few days ago](_url_2_), so if i may i'll just copy my answer to them: > ^* maddy et al. [the earliest securely-dated hominin artefact in anatolia?](_url_1_) *quaternary science reviews* 109: 68–75. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.sci-news.com/archaeology/science-stone-tool-turkey-02370.html"
] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/poRuisY.jpg",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277379114004818",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2q92vp/how_do_archaeologists_differentiate_stone_tools/cn4eqac"
] | [
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what is a good explanation for the outcome of the following ball and ramp experiment? (assume no friction) | my physics class is having a serious debate about the galileo ball experiment. this is the experiment where there are two ramps with the same horizontal length but not the same length from start to finish because ramp b has a dip in it. two identical balls are dropped from both ramps and the ball released from the dipped ramp ends up reaching the end of the ramp in less time. however, my classmates are angry because they do not believe that this is so. they believe that in a friction less world, the ball from ramp a and the ball from ramp b would reach the end at the same time. ian, the main opposition to the idea that the dipped ramp is faster, says that if the dip is parabolic then maybe b would reach the end faster, however, if the dip has a stretch of flat surface then ramp b is slower. he says the shape of the ramp is fundamental to the experiment. any explanations? here is an example of the experiment's set up. but he is still not satisfied. _url_0_ again, he says that the shape of the dip is fundamental in the answer. can you please explain? | i propose an alternative thought experiment to illustrate the solution: you take your two ramps. one has a dip,like in your link, but does not actually come up again. now both balls start at a certain speed. when they reach the dip, both have the same x-position and the same speed. the dip, accelerates the ball on "dip-ramp" while it goes down, so once both ramps are straight again, the "lower" ball is faster than the upper ball and would be ahead of the upper ball. in this case, the dip wins. now let's add the little ramp back up again. at the base of the the ramp, the lower ball is still faster than the upper ball and has gained quite some head start (depending on the length of the straight part) and is decelerated while it goes up. at the top, it has reached the same speed as the former "upper ball" but nothing has changed with respect to the fact that it is still ahead. now the "dip" ball is still ahead and at the same speed. no way it cannot win.... | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.physics.umd.edu/lecdem/services/demos/demosc2/c2-11.htm"
] | [] | [
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can you have electro-magnetic 'harmonies'? | electro-magnetic radiation travels in waves. sound also travels in waves. in sound, when multiple notes are played (of either the same or different frequency), their waves combine. my question is: can em-waves (any frequency: light, radio, etc.) of different frequencies join into a single wave? | yes, they absolutely can. this isn't a process that is thought about in conventional science problems -- in fact, i'm having trouble thinking up a classical experiment that demonstrates this. my feeling is that in part this is because up until the invention of the laser, having single color light was already a massive pain in the ass, and so it probably wasn't very feasible to do experiments with color mixing. in general, these experiments require very high light intensities. the lasers used for these experiments are powerful enough that if misaligned, they can certainly destroy a human eye and have also been known to light things on fire. so the first experiment that pops into my head that uses this effect is called [sum frequency generation](_url_0_) which uses the combination of a couple different wavelengths of light in order to detect the presence of molecules on surfaces. i feel terrible for not being able to come up with a more accessible example, but wikipedia [reassures me](_url_1_) that it wasn't something that a lot of people worked on until the precursor technique to sfg, shg, was discovered. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sum-frequency_generation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_optics",
"http://k-lab.epfl.ch/page-65028-en.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sum_frequency_generation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_optics"
] | [
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what can i add to water or saline solution to increase (or decrease) its viscosity? | is there a way to thicken water or saline solution? what other additives can have an effect on the lubrication properties of the fluids. | mixing water with any miscible fluid with a higher/lower viscosity will yield a mixture with a higher/lower viscosity (and the refutas equation can be used to estimate the viscosity of the blend). for instance, you could mix ethanol with water, and get a fluid with lower viscosity than pure water. conversely, you could mix [insert nearly any water-soluble molecule here] and get a more viscous fluid than water. if you're looking for a more specific answer, maybe you can be more specific about the nature of the product you're seeking? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
can anyone explain why asian tigers are on the co2 time series chart? | i was reading an [article on global warming](_url_0_) that had a link to a chart that rated countries on co2 emission. [please refer to item 8](_url_1_) | they're referring to the "asian tiger" economies. in the ** note at the bottom, this means: indonesia, singapore, malaysia, thailand, south korea and taiwan. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/11/national-climate-assessment-global-warming_n_2458905.html",
"http://edgar.jrc.ec.europa.eu/overview.php?v=CO2ts1990-2011&sort=des9"
] | [] | [
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easy method for metering very tiny amounts of substance for mirco-chemistry (but is it really that simple?) | this is a very common technique that i'm surprised you haven't already learned about in your chemistry class. it's called serial dilution. the stirring for hours part is unnecessary. once a solute is dissolved, one minute of adequate stirring is all you need. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is it that makes our brains like sponges when we're children that gradually goes away? | until we'd rather ask what's wrong with our brains than force it to do the revision that used to be *so easy*. | when you're young, your brain is still making millions of neural connections and is the most plastic, or changeable. you brain doesn't fully develop until your mid 20s but the most drastic changes occur younger than that, mostly before puberty. if you think about it, your brain has to learn so much--language, fine motor skills, societal cues, interpersonal skills, etc. in your early years. that is done through these neural connections. that's why, for example, children tend to pick up language a lot easier than most adults--their brain is a lot more accommodating to new, unfamiliar information. in contrast, the adult brain is more set in its ways, as synapses undergo pruning--this means that the unused connections are largely not functional because they're not being used. that's why the adult brain is significantly less plastic. however, it is important to note that your brain remains capable of incredible neuroplasticity throughout your life, as can be seen sometimes in brain damage patients who essentially rewire connections in their brain. this is just one example of the capacity of neuroplasticity following traumatic brain injuries. however, it's still not to the same level as that of a child. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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megathread: multi-messenger high-energy neutrino observations | currently there is a press conference where a high-energy neutrino (~290 tev) has been detected with [icecube](_url_6_) which is coincident with an [active galactic nuclei pointed directly at us](_url_5_), txs 0506+056, approximately four billion lightyears away. finding the origins of neutrinos has been an ongoing problem though they have been observed from the sun and from [supernova 1987a](_url_2_). this is a big advancement for multi-messenger astronomy, using electromagnetic waves and neutrinos in a way similar to using electromagnetic waves and gravitational waves to get a new view on the universe. if you have questions, ask them here! * [press conference](_url_4_) * [paper](_url_0_) * [national geographic](_url_1_) * [washington post](_url_3_) | would someone be so nice as to explain in laymen terms what this discovery is and potential ways this new discovery could be applied? new technologies? or is it just a new way of observing the universe? would very much appreciate it! sounds exciting but to be honest i'm kind of lost. thanks! | 577 | [] | [
"http://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2018/07/11/science.aat1378.full",
"https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/07/news-cosmic-rays-neutrinos-icecube-blazars-astronomy-space/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN_1987A",
"https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2018/07/12/in-a-cosmic-first-scientists-detect-ghostly-neutrinos-from-a-distant-galaxy/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.175187ffe95e",
"https://www.youtube.com/c/VideosatNSF/live",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blazar",
"https://icecube.wisc.edu/"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-messenger_astronomy"
] | [
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how does trauma like from boxing or playing american football result in tau protein build up? what about the physical impact results in changes in proteins produced? | i'm assuming you're referring to the condition of chronic traumatic encephalopathy, or *dementia pugilistica* as it's commonly known as in the world of boxing. this disease is seen in those with a history of head trauma, like football players and boxers, as you mentioned. the disease itself shows symptoms of both alzheimer's dementia and parkinsonian dementia. as you might expect [brains of these patients showed both tau protein (implicated in alzhemier's) and alpha-synuclein (implicated in parkinson's)](_url_2_). to get around to answering your question, it isn't totally clear! [it is known that individuals with an apo e4 allele have increased risk of chronic traumatic encephalopathy](_url_3_). this allele (gene variant) is known to increases risk of alzheimer's in those that inherit it. in those with other predisposing risks (repetitive head trauma), it also makes the resulting dementia that much worse. to get a sense of the pathophysiology of the injury, picture the basic unit of the brain: [the neuron](_url_0_). notice the long axon - these are susceptible to injury in head trauma - the axon ruptures, and communication in the brain is disrupted. [axons swell, rupture, and die](_url_1_); also, various neurotransmitters and free radicals are released that cause secondary injury. in other words, diffuse damage takes place across the brain, similar to alzheimer's disease. this manifests as the confusion and amnesia classic to alzheimer's disease. again, i'm not totally clear from my own investigations into the literature how traumatic injuries result in a build-up of tau protein, whether there's even a causal link or if it's merely an additive phenomenon (meaning those with tau already accumulating in their brains manifest symptoms; those without it are more likely to not show symptoms). maybe someone with more of a neuroscience background can come in and add to this (very basic) coverage of cte. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neuron_Hand-tuned.svg",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=15668572",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23268705",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=9214529"
] | [
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|
what causes a "headrush?" | why is there a sudden dizziness, confusion, and loss of vision for a moment after standing up quickly? is there a rush of blood somewhere odd? is the brain being jostled? is the inner ear confused? | in most cases, a head rush is caused by orthostatic hypotension. essentially, standing up from a sitting or lying position causes blood to pool in your lower extremities, resulting in significantly decreased blood pressure. this, in turn, causes the symptoms you described. now, *normally* when your blood pressure decreases in such a manner, it almost immediately triggers the baroreceptor reflex, which causes your vascular system to counteract the decreased blood pressure through a number of mechanisms. in orthostatic hypotension, the baroreceptor reflex is interrupted. the list of possible causes for this interruption in any given person is fairly long, ranging from simple dehydration to serious disorders of the heart, nervous system, or endocrine system. [source](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/orthostatic-hypotension/basics/definition/con-20031255"
] | [
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] |
does cystic fibrosis occur in any populations other than humans, and is there scientific literature documenting this? | i am afraid your question is too broad to answer fully. but cf occurs in many other species. most research includes mice, cows and many fish. the cftr gene is preserved among species and over a thousand mutations have been documented. if you want to get into this material you might be interested in the following: [cf mutation database](_url_0_) they also link to related sites with general information about cf | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.genet.sickkids.on.ca/cftr/app"
] | [
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|
ecg - how is it possible? | when myocardial cells depolarize, some of the current reaches the surface making it possible to predict a pattern. how is this current not obscured by other tissues capable of depolarizing, such as muscle cells and their nerve innervation, or from the autonomic nervous system? if the current from myocardial cells reaches the surface, how do other cells' current don't obscure the ecg pattern? i hope you understand the thought! | hello, biomedical engineering student here. if i understood your question right, you mean to ask how can we follow or track cardiovascular impulses right? if thats what you mean i will do my best to answer it, with hopes that someone with more free time than i at the moment will answer it more completely. the most important thing about tracking an electrical signal, wether it be from a muscle, an electrical signal or a cardiovascular signal is the placement of the probes. in an electrical circuit, you'd usually place the positive and negative probes [in a simliar manner to this one](_url_2_) (thats just a really simplified idea but let's keep going). the multimeter is very similar to what an ecg is. (which is just a glorified and hyper-filtered version of an osciloscope). the devices take the voltage from one probe and compare it to the voltage from the other probe. so keeping what i've mentioned so far: how does an electromiogram work? first, an electromiogram is a device that, in a similar fashion to a multimeter, probes the voltage from two points and graphs them out. your results would vary by different factors such as what muscle is selected and more importantly **how its set up** [here's a simple image of probe placement and the graphs it may give you](_url_1_) so coming to your question, how does an ecg filter out noise and distortion that may be given off by other cells? well as you know, the body is made of sooo many different chemical and biological components, that we are in fact [great electrical current conductors](_url_3_) another key aspect that i have mentioned is that placement of the probes is very important as to what voltage we measure and graph: that is why , basic ecg's have their probes set in a method called [einthovens triangle](_url_0_) this image shows where probes are placed: right arm for a positive probe, left arm for the negative probe and left leg for the ground or refernce probe. this configuration allows the ecg to monitor the **direction** and **magnitude** of the electrical impulse. and since no other muscles cover this layout, their signals wont interfere (too much) with the final results. i hope this helps your doubts, i'd be glad to explain more, but i don't want to get unnecessarily boring | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cvphysiology.com/Arrhythmias/A013_Einthovens_triangle.gif",
"http://apbrwww5.apsu.edu/thompsonj/Anatomy%20&%20Physiology/2010/2010%20Exam%20Reviews/Exam%203%20Review/EMG.jpg",
"http://www.silentmods.com/templates/images/texts/3_8239_multimeter_2221.png",
"http://www.eplasty.com/index.php?option=com_content&id=345&catid=170:volume-09-eplasty-2009"
] | [
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the term "affluenza" is being thrown around a lot in the media. is there any scientific basis to the concept? | i have been reading a lot about neuroscience lately and the root of where our sense of right and wrong has piqued my interest. i am vaguely familiar with the [ventromedial prefrontal cortex](_url_0_) and it's relation to decision making and moral judgement, and how when damaged people are less capable of making good decisions. i am also vaguely aware of the issues regarding [poverty and its impact on the development of the brain's decision-making abilities.](_url_1_) so i know there are internal and external factors that can alter your ability to make good decisions. after reading a book about children and later success in life [how children succeed](_url_2_) i started to wonder if affluence could backfire too. some of the cases cited here were showing kids who grew up never being allowed to fail or accept the consequences of their actions. those kids floundered once their parents weren't around to support them. they lacked the learned ability to cope with failure, so i'm at least aware that in some respects an affluent environment can have less than positive outcomes. this is the limit of my knowledge so far, popular reading so i wanted to find some professional opinions. my question summed up is simple. is there merit to the basic concept of the trending term "affluenza?" are kids who grew up wealthy actually less-capable of making good decisions than the statistically average person? | [here's](_url_0_) a nice article from uc berkeley about how social class can be a predictor of unethical behavior. just remember correlation =/= causation. | 9 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventromedial_prefrontal_cortex",
"http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/poverty-strains-cognitive-abilities-opening-door-for-bad-decision-making-new-study-finds/2013/08/29/89990288-102b-11e3-8cdd-bcdc09410972_story.html",
"http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/26/books/review/how-children-succeed-by-paul-tough.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0"
] | [
"http://www.pnas.org/content/109/11/4086"
] | [
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why is tess exciting? | tess the transisting exoplanet survey satellite is scheduled to launch soon, what are the benefits of tess compared to other planet hunting hardware and when should we expect to hear about it's first discoveries? | scientist at < famous cs research institute the transiting exoplanet survey satellite (tess) will discover thousands of exoplanets in orbit around the brightest stars in the sky. in a two-year survey of the solar neighborhood, tess will monitor more than 200,000 stars for temporary drops in brightness caused by planetary transits. this is the same method used by kepler in its planet hunting mission, the "transit method". this first-ever spaceborne all-sky transit survey will identify planets ranging from earth-sized to gas giants, around a wide range of stellar types and orbital distances. no ground-based survey can achieve this feat. tess is an **all-sky** survey. kepler only looks at 1/400 of what tess will observe in the sky. tess is also designed to look at stars that are nearer and brighter than the ones kepler has studied. because of this, exoplanets that are identified by tess can be potentially followed up and researched further by ground based telescopes. many kepler exoplanets cannot be followed up by ground based telescopes for mass measurements since they are too far away. with both the size and the mass of an exoplanet, you can learn the density, and tess opens that door because it looks at the nearest and brightest stars, where we can follow up with ground-based telescopes. **disclaimer: my concentration is computer science. i just love geeking out about space stuff too.** | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what do they mean by "percent by volume"? (not a stupid question, i promise.) | if volume is not additive during mixing, especially when mixing two very polar liquids such as ethanol and water, what does "percent by volume" entail? does that imply that *without mixing* there would be that percentage of ethanol? or are they estimating that after mixing, the ethanol takes up that much volume? | it means before mixing. a good exercise would be to think of why you would not want to specify the percent volume after mixing. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does anyone know of a good list comparing different orders of magnitudes of light intensities? | wikipedia has some awesome lists of this sort on energy, length, volume, and a large variety of other categories, but i have not found one for intensities of light. i found that if i focus one of my pulsed lasers to a diffraction limited spot, i would get an intensity of 2.73*10^16 mw/cm^2 (per pulse) and was wondering what that was comparable to. | that's about two million times the intensity of sunlight on the earth's surface (~1300 w/m^2) - don't shine it in your eye! as for a chart, try page two of this pdf: _url_0_ it shows physical phenomena that become accessible for various focused laser powers. for example, at what intensity might you polarize the vacuum? | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wiley-vch.de/berlin/journals/op/10-04/OP1004_S07-10.pdf"
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are there any studies on whether male tears contain chemosignals? | i've been reading about the [study](_url_1_) by gelstein et. al., (not the study itself, but in the [guardian](_url_0_) and other resources) where they "hypothesized that human tears may similarly serve a chemosignaling function." from other discussions here in /r/askscience, i understand there may be flaws in the study that i don't fully understand. but they only studied the effects of women's tears on men. is there any research on the effect of men's tears on humans, specifically on the testosterone levels of other men? | the study is very interesting, and in fact in their supplementary information (found free [here](_url_0_)), they discuss why they used women over men. in a word: feasibility. my favorite line is: *if we would rely on obtaining men’s tears as well for each experimental session, we estimate that this study would have taken several extra years*. ha! although i find the study remarkable with no major flaws, they did not control for menstrual cycle, which is a shame since they only had an n of 2. with such a low sample size, the effect might get a little less clear. they also did not mention whether any of the participants were smokers. although the conventional ads for participants is "looking for young males 20-30, healthy and non-smoking", it would be wrong to assume they did this. this would be confounding a real effect instead of erroneously suggesting one exists. edit: to appreciate why this is so controversial, and indeed extremely fascinating, i encourage you to read up on the [vomeronasal organ](_url_1_), which is thought to be critical in pheromone detection. the contention stems from whether or not this organ actually exists in people. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2011/jan/06/sniffing-women-tears-sexual-desire",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/331/6014/226.abstract"
] | [
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/suppl/2011/01/05/science.1198331.DC1/Gelstein.SOM.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vomeronasal_organ"
] | [
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geranium brackets. is their a scientific benefit to wearing these? stealing all my positive ions. | was at the mall and someone was trying to sell me these. _url_0_ i didn't by it but my moms wanting to spend 500$ on this damn thing. he made us do things like strength and flexibility tests then the same thing after wearing them and we seemed to bend more and be in general a lot stronger. is there anything to these things or no? | they are total pseudoscience. the tests are very contrived. try the same tests in the reverse order and they disprove the product. try stretching your arm, place some eye of newt on it, and then try stretching it further. you will find the eye of newt works as described! now try it in reverse, try to place eye of newt on your arm, stretch it out, remove the eye of newt, and try to stretch further. you will find that removing the eye of newt helped! how can this be? maybe it is because waiting for a moment after stretching allows you to stretch further... if you want to test something, you need to do a double blind test. the effect is measured independent of those who know the expected outcome. you get a bracelet that has ion magic and labelled a and a bracelet that looks just like the bracelet with ion magic and label it b. you give both bracelets to a second person who does not know which is which, get them to number all the bracelets and record which ones were a and b, and to remove the a and b labels. then you get a third person to take all the numbered bracelets, and ask them to test the bracelets for effectiveness, and report back which bracelet had the effect. you do this experiment with more than 25 bracelets, and be careful to ensure that the numbering process is random, so that there is no pattern for the tester to determine which bracelet is supposed to contain ion magic. this is science, and to my knowledge this has never been done for any of these ion or magnet bracelets. | 25 | [] | [
"http://www.iglobehealthcare.com/vital-ion/132-germanium-benefits.html"
] | [] | [
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is there a psychological disorder that defines a person who is very curious? | i know a person (lets call him l) who is very curious and i started to think that it may be a psychological disorder. l always tries to search for details of something, even when this thing is irrelevant in the context of a conversation. l is always asking for more details until he has all the information that he wants to completely understand the situation. is there a psychological disorder that defines this kind of behavior? | does the behaviour exhibited by l cause harm/distress to him or others? does it prevent him from having a job or getting an education? if a behaviour is not harmful to an individual then it's not going to qualify for a diagnosis of a mental illness. i'm unaware of any disorder listed in the dsm that has excessive curiosity as a diagnostic criteria. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is actually happening when an electric current flows through an a salt solution or a molten salt? | are the ions themselves moving? are electrons jumping between ions? something else? | the sodium ions hold a positive charge and the chlorine ions hold negative charge. so, because the incomplete k shell wishes to fill it's most stable form, the ions will be electrically attracted to the anode for the sodium and the cathode for the chlorine. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is real analysis, and what is it used for? | [deleted] | most courses in real analysis are concerned with proving many of the theorems in your standard calculus courses. off the top of my head, a test question might consist of: "prove that the limit of any convergent sequence is unique." | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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several questions about blu-tac | i like to roll a bit of blu-tac between my fingers when i'm at my computer, and i noticed some things that i could't understand: 1. why does blu-tac go white when you stretch it? 2. why does blu-tac eventually becomes hard and crumbly (less elastic)? 3. when it does become hard, the colour was also much darker. why is this so? 4. what is blu-tac made of and why does it behave the way it does (especially the fact that you can combine several bits together seamlessly)? | 1. it is likely a whitish substance that has particles of dye in it. when you stretch it out, the particles are farther apart, and the underlying color of the putty shows through. 2. exactly what's in it is a trade secret, so it's hard to say without speculating. it contains some water though, and it's a "synthetic rubber compound", and either of those could have something to do with it (the water drying out, or the rubber compound aging or oxidizing). 3. going from my point #1, it's possible that when the water leaves the putty, it reduces in volume, and the particles of dye get closer together, producing a darker color. 4. if it's heated, it releases carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapour, oxides of nitrogen, and toxic fumes, and it's known to be synthetic rubber with other additives in it. beyond that, it's hard to say, since it's a trade secret of the bostik company. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain 'efficient' burning to me? | i was talking to a friend of my brothers who works with polymers and to simplify the discussion completely, i asked what we should do with excess plastic and he said to efficiently burn it. he sort of explained that it means supplying more oxygen to bound with carbon but i'm still confused. what is left over after efficient burning? since the carbon is taken out of a compound what is the ash? he also said that if you efficiently burn it, you can burn anything without producing harmful gases othe than co2. why is this? | the basic end product of combustion of organic material is nearly always carbon dioxide, but this relies on there being enough oxygen available. gases like co can form after incomplete combustion, or some kind of solid residue can be left behind. these compounds are often toxic, which is why burning plastic can be nasty if you don't know what you're doing. if you completely burn organic material, there will nearly always be no solid residue at all. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why can camels withstand a body temp of 104 degrees, and humans can't? | when humans get a fever of 104 we can die so why is a camel different? i know they evolved for extreme temp, what i want to know is the mechanisms that stop their protons from denaturing. | camels drink up to 20 gallons of water at a time that they store in their circulating bloodstream. this makes them better at regulating their internal body temperature by having more fluid to shunt to, or away from the peripheral areas of their body. its less to do with protons denaturing and more to do with a fluid buffering system. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does the spacex dragon v2's trunk have winglets on it? | i noticed that there are small solar panels on the winglet, but in space, where there aren't too aerodynamic forces on the vehicle, why does the dragon v2 have small winglets/stabilizers? is it for stabilization because the vehicle doesn't have fairings on liftoff? | it appears that they're there in the event of an aborted launch. the trunk separates the capsule from the booster, undergoes a burn to get away from the booster, and then coasts to apogee (highest point of the flight). the capsule then separates and descends on its own, but during the jettison and coasting phases of the abort, the fins help keep the capsule stabilized (to keep the capsule from tumbling end over end, for instance). source: [space-x infographic](_url_0_) | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.flickr.com/photos/spacex/17371035542/",
"https://static01.nyt.com/packages/images/newsgraphics/2013/1024-biz-WINGS/1024-biz-webWINGS.png"
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uniqueness of water phase diagram | what substances other then water have a negative phase diagram slope? it is my understanding that water is special because of two reasons: strong hydrogen bonding in the liquid phase and poor packing in the solid phase due to bent shape with most electron density in the center. seems like something like hydrofluoric acid would have the required electronegativity difference but not the shape, while hydrogen sulfide has the shape but the difference in electronegativity is not large enough. so what weird molecules out there have the same behavior, somehow i doubt that water is truly unique in this respect? | _url_0_ saturn's moon titan is believed to have high enough atm pressure to support a water cycle in methane, complete with methane clouds, methane oceans, methane icebergs... if we ever send a ship there we know what not to name it. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methane"
] | [
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] |
can someone please explain this phase diagram of water please? | so i saw this phase diagram in another post a couple of days ago and i've not been able to stop thinking about it: [phase diagram of water](_url_0_) first question: how come it looks so asymmetric? is there a special reason for it not looking like this: [image](_url_1_) second question: i've seen first hand how a unopened bottle of carbonated water stays liquid in -10 c and then instantly freezes as i opened it. but this phase diagram suggests that it would take 1kbar of pressure to keep it liquid and it seems highly unlikely that there was that much pressure in the bottle, so how did it stay liquid, is the phase diagram wrong? was my water not pure enough? | i got an error on your second image, but there's no reason why the phase diagram should look symmetric. temperatures and pressures can be arbitrarily high as far as we know, but they can only go so low. this could be [supercooling](_url_0_). you can cool a liquid below its freezing point and have it remain in a metastable liquid phase. phase diagrams tells you which phase is **most favorable at equilibrium**, not necessarily what phase the system will definitely be in. as soon as you perturb the supercooled liquid a little bit, it jumps down into its more favorable state, which is solid when the temperature is below its freezing point. also when you dissolve other substances in liquid, you change its freezing point. this is why people put salt on the roads and sidewalks when it snows. | 7 | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Phase_diagram_of_water.svg/700px-Phase_diagram_of_water.svg.png",
"http://imgur.com/wsnOgOI"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercooling"
] | [
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calling all med student guru's. why are patients affected with angelman sydrome obsessed with water? i have done some re-search and cannot find anyone addressing the matter specifically. i've linked an article for those who aren't familiar with the genetic disorder. | _url_0_ | it's very difficult to pin down exact reasons for these phenotypes caused by neurobehavioral syndromes. we just don't know enough how these syndromes work and how these behaviors are encoded and in general how the brain works. angelman syndrome is not unique in this -- williams syndrome has "cocktail party personality", prader willi has hyperphagia, aggression, skin picking. one could make a long list. [this paper](_url_0_) is the only one that tries to characterize the behaviors with specific genetic defects. they have done a survey of behaviors and try to correlate them with deletion (type i or ii0 vs uniparental disomy vs *ube3a* mutation. doesn't look like the complex behaviors occur with any particular subset of these, and work into the binding partners of ube3a hasn't revealed anything either. here's what the paper says specifically about water: > fascination with water, another characteristic well known to the parents of children with as, was observed in approximately 80% of our participants with deletions and 60–65% of those with either upd/imprinting defects or ube3a mutations, similar to reports from previous case series in which 68–79% of participants with deletions exhibited this trait [clarke and marston, 2000; kara et al., 2008]. | 3 | [] | [
"http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/angelman-syndrome"
] | [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajmg.a.33775/abstract"
] | [
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dear r/askscience, what's your opinion on the latest "through the wormhole" episode (about the sixth sense, premonition, global consciousness, thoughts that affect people on other rooms, and so on)? is it a bunch of bs or something that could really exist? | i watched the beginning of one episode - found 3 errors in 10 minutes, and that was before they got into pseudo-science stuff, it was just galaxies and things. but yeah, all that stuff you mentioned is just not science. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what reaction is taking place that allows caulking to "cure" once exposed to air? | as i understand it, caulking is a substance that has chemicals in it that are ready to polymerize. when certain conditions are met (depending on the specific caulking), the polymerization begins. this [link](_url_0_) has the various types of caulking that are available and the conditions that are needed for the polymerization reaction to begin. hope it answers your question! | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.adhesives.org/adhesives-sealants/adhesives-sealants-overview/adhesive-technologies/chemically-curing"
] | [
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|
how long did it take for a day to take a day? | sorry that's kind of a confusing question. basically, how long did it take from the formation of earth until the orbit took ~24 hours? thank you! | the [tidal interactions with the moon](_url_0_) are causing the length of the day to gradually increase as the moon slowly recedes. right now that increase is 22 microseconds per year, and if it was constant then the day was 23 hours long about 160 million years ago. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit_of_the_Moon#Tidal_evolution"
] | [
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question of quinine | so quinine absorbs light at the ultraviolet wavelength and fluoresces in the visible light spectrum. say you exposed quinine to visible light. what would the emission spectra be under these new conditions? would it fluoresce? also, what is the difference between energy absorbed and energy fluoresced? what happens to it? | quinine does not absorb visible light to any large amount. [the absorption spectrum very much tails off past 400 nm, so in very high concentrations it'll look just a bit yellow.](_url_0_) shining visible light on it will do basically nothing - the light will pass right on through or get scattered, not cause fluorescence. emission spectrum of most molecules is independent of the excitation wavelength and always at a lower energy (longer wavelength) than the excitation spectrum. the difference in energy is called the [stokes shift](_url_1_) and is a result of molecular re-arrangements of the molecule while in the excited state in the time between the absorption and emission processes. the energy that goes missing is often released by the molecule as heat, but sometimes as a low-energy photon. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://omlc.ogi.edu/spectra/PhotochemCAD/html/quinine(0.5M_H2SO4\\).html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokes_shift"
] | [
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an esteemed director of our institute has recently retired, i am looking for an interesting/unusual scientific gift for him, suggestions? | although he retired from director, he will continue as a professor. our research focus is earth science, remote sensing of aersols, etc. suggestions that relate to this are welcome, but am open to other ideas. budget ~$150. | i used a rubics cube, glued it to fix and labled the sides accordingly to make an epsilon tensor. did it for a birthday gift to a physics nerd, he was amused. dunno if your prof would like it aswell or if he even recognizes it. :) budget ~10$ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.elementsales.com/ecoins.htm"
] | [
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] |
if every action has an equal and opposite reaction, how the dude in this gif move forwards? | the movement is achieved not by a purely horizontal force, but a diagonal force, as in this diagram: _ |\ \ forwards | \ | ____| chair | | \ | | \ _\| backwards the backwards force is counteracted by the ground, and increases the friction, whereas the forward force is free to actually move the whole chair-human system forward. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can someone explain why after each rotation in this gif, his body pivots slightly more, rather than return back to the same position? (gif in comments) | gif in question - _url_0_ p.s. - inb4 that is one giant ass inception totem | it's because the circle the that the "thing" is tracing on the ground has a circumference smaller than the circular edge of the "thing" itself which is tracing the circle. the radius of "thing" circle is r, and since the "thing" is at an angle, the radius of the ground circle is r*cos(theta), where theta is the angle of inclination of the "thing" circle relative to the ground circle. since the two circles have different circumferences, when the thing completes one entire "thing" circle, it has traced more than one entire ground circle...which results in the front of the "thing" facing further around the circle. | 10 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/LBg2rYR.gifv"
] | [] | [
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] |
i saw what looked like a rainbow halo around the sun the other day, what did i really see happening? | so i was at the beach in florida and i looked up to notice a halo of light circling the sun. the halo looked somewhat rainbowish in color, but it was hard to see since it was right next to the sun. sorry if this is incorrect format or has been answered before, i'm new here. edit: i saw the floating rainbow pictures and it looked nothing like that. | it's a function of the interaction of clouds, which are filled with water droplets, and sunlight. the same way you get a regular rainbow by sunlight shining through water droplets in the air, you can get a circular halo rainbow around the sun. the size, shape, and location of the clouds determine whether you see a regular rainbow or a halo. [nasa chimes in with some cool pix.](_url_0_) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2002/24oct_sunrings/"
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how to determine the age of the sentinelese tribe if no one can get access to it? | so the internet says the age of this tribe could be 30k, 50k, or 60k years. how do scientists determine that? by examining other tribes on neighboring islands? | the kidnapping happened in a time people didn't even know dna existed. there have been no genetic studies on the sentinelese but there have been multiple studies on other andamanese groups such as the jarawa and the onge. the similarities in appearance and close proximity to the other andaman islands (only about 28 km) would indeed suggest a similar genetic history but we do not know many details. until genetic studies on the sentinelese are done these studies are the best we can do. i cannot find a good source for the tribes age either. i also do not know what people mean by age of the tribe.. the time since when the island is inhabited? the time since when the inhabitants of north sentinel island really seperated from the other andamese tribes? in a [2009 study by reich et al.](_url_2_) researchers looked at the genetics of different indian groups. they also looked at two andamanese tribes, the onge and the jarawa. they found that the jarawa have been mixing with recent immigrants (mostly from mainland india) whilst the onge had not. [endicott et al. 2006](_url_1_) says: [chaubey & endicott](_url_0_) judging by what these papers state, the dates of 60k, 50k and 30k years ago seem off. sentinel island may even have been settled very recently from one of the other andaman islands. there have been no archaeological or genetic studies. the onge could apparently not understand the sentinelese language when they were working with scientists in ontacting the tribe in the 1990s. this would suggest that the sentinelese have been isolated for long enough to develop a mutually unintelligible language from those spoken on the other isands in the archipelago but there is no study done on the sentinelese language either. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gyaneshwer_Chaubey/publication/259114532_The_Andaman_Islanders_in_a_Regional_Genetic_Context_Reexamining_the_Evidence_for_an_Early_Peopling_of_the_Archipelago_from_South_Asia/links/55a7c9b208ae1dca686f7965/The-Andaman-Islanders-in-a-Regional-Genetic-Context-Reexamining-the-Evidence-for-an-Early-Peopling-of-the-Archipelago-from-South-Asia.pdf",
"https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0000081&type=printable",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2842210/"
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how does a microwave plasma ball work exactly? (x-post from r/video) | _url_0_ what is going on here? i assume it has something to do with the microwaves keeping the already excited particles energized, and obviously the heat makes it rise. i assume the energy from the microwave is greater than the heat from the flame, so that makes it excites even more particles and makes it bigger than the original flame. i was also curious about why the flame seemed to go out. i assumed that was because the intense heat caused the air to rise so fast that the flame was put out by the upward air flow. | you are right about most of it. just to be clear, the plasma is not just a bigger flame. it has a very different composition from the flame. [see here for further explanation](_url_0_). it was linked to in one of the comments on that post. if you watch the video closely you will notice the flame didn't actually go out. the match stick was still burning even after the microwave oven was turned off. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/videos/comments/wav3o/so_if_u_microwave_fire_under_a_bowl_you_can/"
] | [
"http://van.physics.illinois.edu/qa/listing.php?id=819"
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i have a closed box full of particles. what pattern of moving the box will cause the most movement of the particles in a short time frame? | assume regular "earth" conditions. for example, does moving the box along the x axis back and forth move the particles less than moving the box diagonally across the x and y axes, bashing the particles at angles into the box's walls? would rolling the box in a circular motion or in a back-and-forth semi-circle motion result in more movement? are there mathematical models that describe this? if this is less "physics" and more "mathematics" or another category please tell me. | i used to work in a lab where we had to mix bulk samples before sampling. for what you are doing, grab the box by opposite corners and rotate while rotating the corners hand to hand. so the motion is the same as if you were spinning it through the axis of the corners while rotating the corners themselves. works best if there is about 1/4 of the box empty. you've seen those steel gyroscope cages people get in at the circus where they spin every which way? that's the kind of motion you are going for. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would a water pump work better with rigid lines, or soft lines? | putting in a water pump for my camper. would a water pump work better with pvc supply and return lines? or, something softer? like a garden hose, or just something spongy like clear tubing? | plumber for ten years now. go with pex you will not regret it. in fact just forget that pvc(and cpvc) water lines exist(as a new or replacement option) and you will be better for it. pex is slightly more flexible than pvc and not brittle like pvc. it is far stiffer than clear vinyl hose and will last far longer. skip the sharkbites (they have to be secured from movement and vibration) and buy one of the stainless steel cinch ring tools(like [this](_url_0_), also available at lowes) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.amazon.com/Pex-Cinch-Clamp-Fastening-tool/dp/B003IJ0USC/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1494114935&sr=8-1&keywords=pex+cinch+clamp+fastening+tool"
] | [
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how is measles back? | if the disease was none existent in many countries, how can new kids without vaccines get them? is it possible for diseases to be completely wiped if everyone gets vaccinated for generations? | because people move around and if it's not wiped out everywhere, it can be carried to places with insufficient vaccine coverage and start to spread again. yes, it is possible to wipe out a disease with good vaccine coverage. we did it with smallpox. we're close to doing it with polio. these are strictly human diseases. now, we can't do that with a disease that is carried by animals and gets re-introduced to humans periodically, like zika or dengue or ebola. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what's the physical meaning of the constants in cauchy's equation? | i'm taking a course in electrodynamics, and we recently studied cauchy's equation for the refractive index, n = a + b/(l^2). i got that a is a dimensionless constant, and that b has unit of area, but what do they mean? how are they related to the properties of the material? | none. it is an empirical relationship that works well enough for several materials within the visible region. one experimentally obtains a and b by measuring the refractive index of the material at different wavelengths and fitting the equation. you can then provide a and b on a table so other people can calculate the refractive index of the material at the wavelength they are interested in. if you are interested in the relationship between the refractive index and the properties of the material you may find feynman's lecture on the refractive index valuable: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_31.html"
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does the doppler effect have any effect when observing absorption or emission lines? | thank you for the answers | depending on what you're observing, maybe. if you're making an observation in a lab with stationary objects, there will be no issue. however, if you're observing a star, galaxy, exoplanet, or any other object that is likely to be moving very vast relative to your instrument, then yes, you would absolutely have to compensate for a shift in wavelength. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Redshift.png",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_line#Macroscopic_Doppler_broadening"
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does "brain training" such as lumosity actually work? | the idea of cognitive improvement through training is a very old one, but the recent surge in software promoting it stems largely from some recent results that suggest that relatively brief working memory training can confer substantial, lasting benefits on fluid intelligence. however, these results are regarded with a great deal of skepticism by many researchers in the working memory and intelligence communities, and there are have been several high-profile failures to replicate the original effects. the training will probably help you get better at the specific task(s) you practice, but based on the current evidence i doubt that it will generalize to improving your overall intelligence. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how accurate are the science shows like "through the wormhole?" | they aren't particularly accurate. the quality differs between shows of course (through the wormhole is particularly... questionable). but the problem with science shows is twofold: they have to show what's interesting rather than what's most widely believed, and they have to explain things at the level of a layman. so you just inevitably end up with a bunch of fringe concepts and inaccurate explanations of things. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
how do lattice vibrations in conductors affect resistance? | there is no one single equation that can predict such behavior but generalizations can be made. for conductors as tempature (motion/vibrates in a lattice) increases so does resistance. when a lattice vibrates we can describe the vibration with a quasi-particle called a phonon. if an electron collides with a phonon it will change the path of the electron, in other words hinder its ability to move freely. this hindering of the free flow of electrons is resistance. generally speaking the resistance will increase linearly with tempature for a conductor. _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://physics.info/electric-resistance/"
] | [
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|
how does the new hsbc internet banking security work? | so the english customers of hsbc have been given these new keypad (looks like [this](_url_0_)) for their internet banking. it works like this: 1. you're sent this keypad, when you log in you give them the serial number on the back. 2. you generate your own 4-8 digit code, you then press a button and a new number is generated. (no internet connection or anything, instantaneous) 3. you give this newly generated number as part of your log in details and, if correct, you log in successfully. so how does it work? all hsbc know is the serial number. is it just that each keypad has a unique set of (random-ish) numbers that correspond to each serial number, and the code you have to type into the keypad is just a way of accessing one of these numbers? so all hsbc have to do is check a database that shows corresponding generated numbers to serial numbers. is this right, or are they doing something more complex here? i guess it's a help as it makes you keep this damn keypad with you whenever you log in | i have one of these tokens and also work in it. the use of similar tokens have been used for years by companies to authenticate things such as remote users. the rsa tokens are the most commonly used ones, and you can see them working so i will explain based on those, then expand to the likely operation of the hsbc ones. the operation is a secret and i cannot say for sure which system it uses, but i will explain the rsa system, then explain another system it could possibly be using. an rsa token is a keyring. it has numbers on it that change every 60 seconds. a user uses the code as a password to log into a server, and i commonly see them used by people who work from home to vpn into the company. the user uses it by typing a 4 digit pin number in as a password, followed by the number on the token. the server uses the same set of mathematical equasions, and the same timing to know what the number was at the time and authenticate the user. if someone evesdropping takes the password used, the password changes a minute later so it is useless to them. if someone steals the token then they won't know the pin so it is still useless for breaking into the system it is used to authenticate again. the hsbc system is likely the same only the pin code is entered into the token itself rather than entered as the start of the password, and rather than having constantly changing numbers on the token, it only displays the number for that time. the server can still know what this number will be so authenticates. there is another way it could work. this is the method commonly used by things like car alarm remotes. rather than being based on time, it could possibly be based on order. if the token generates a code, and the next time generates a new code as part of a sequence rather than based on a clock. the server knows the same sequence but will accept one of the next hundred codes as an authentication rather than the very next code. this allows for people generating a code and not using it, or in the case of car alarm remotes, people pressing the button in their pocket when not near the car. the probability of guessing what one of those next hundred codes is will be very small as it is a 6 digit code, and repeated entries of an incorrect code will lock the account anyway. with either system, it is secure because if you steal the token you do not know the pin, thus it is useless. if you evesdrop the code, the code constantly changes so it is also useless. someone needs to get the pin, and steal the token to break in which is the same level of security as a bank card anyway, and is quite hard to do, save for countries still using magnetic stripes for bank cards (america i'm looking at you, upgrade to chip and pin already...) | 4 | [] | [
"http://money-watch.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/hsbc-secure-key1.jpg"
] | [] | [
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how are allegiances to sports teams formed and why are they so difficult to break? | what is the psychology behind this? how do people "gain" an allegiance to a sports team? what is the process of this? how does someone go from mild support to full-blown fanaticism? are there factors that make it easier for some people? what about for people who are fans of a team in a geographically-based league (e.g. the nfl, where teams are divided by city) who end up moving to a new city? why is it so difficult to "unlearn" their fandom for their old team and grow into the same level of fanaticism for their new team based on their new city of residence? does it change if the team is not in a geographically-based league (e.g. some soccer leagues)? what about college sports: how do people gain their allegiances so quickly if, like many teens, they applied to many schools and only found out where they were going to be going a few months before the first football game of the season? a lot of questions yes, but i really wonder what the science is behind this. | i haven't read a lot of the research on team sports in particular but my reading on in-groups would suggest that the initial decision to support a team is somewhat arbitrary (parents support them, location, player you like etc.) but in-group biases maintain and bolster that support. one of the first really field-changing studies on in-group bias was done at a series of camps for your kids (i think all boys), set up to look at how groups interact. they put the kids into different groups to see how they would see the members of their own groups and others. they found that even if you **show all the participants that which group they are placed in is completely arbitrary** (from memory, they showed all the kids a drawing out of a hat to pick groups) they will still show strong biases towards their team members and against the other team. the evolutionary basis for this is obvious. it makes a lot of sense for us to be hard-wired to stick within our group and believe it to be right/smarter/stronger and see other, potentially threatening groups, as wrong/dumber/weaker. the other element i'd throw into the mix is that of sunk cost. a team you've supported over the years has seen considerable emotional investment from you. people are notoriously bad at giving up things they've already invested in, even if it is practical/logical to do so (like supporting a local team). lastly, consider cognitive dissonance. if you're not aware, it's basically the idea that we unconsciously chance our perception of dissonant factors so that there is no incongruity. for example, i like x band but you don't. they make a new song that is widely considered to be neither good or bad. i'm *likely* to see the song as good because i unconsciously want it to fit with my previously held beliefs. conversely, you are *likely* to see it bad for the same reasons. the same effect could be applied to supporting a sporting team. ever wonder why both team's supporters think the referees are against *their* team? that's cognitive dissonance. we apply all sorts of unconscious adjustments to our perceptions, in order to maintain our view. so, my answer to you is that the team itself is largely irrelevant. once you *start* supporting a team, there are a lot of psychological forces that hold that belief in place. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the activation energy temperature dependent? if so, how? | when you solve the arrhenius equation for ea it seems dependent on the temperature, but that doesn't really make sense, does it? all that should change with higher temperature are the number of molecules that overcome activation energy. the energy between the states should be unaffected. | when you are isolating ea on one side of the equation you need to consider the following... the other side of the equation has r,t,k(rate),a. if the temperature(t) changes, it does not mean ea also changes. instead you will find that as t changes so will k(alot) and a(a little). the variables a and k will change in such a way that as t changes ea will remain pretty much constant. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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satellite pathways | why are satellites shown on world maps (i.e. in the james bond film goldeneye) in a path that looks much like a tilde? | this would be much easier to explain with some kind of visual aid, but here goes: satellites ideally orbit in perfect circles around the earth, which is a sphere. the path they take is the longest possible path that you could make around a sphere. therefore, the radius of a satellite's revolution is *always* equal to the distance between the satellite and the center of the earth. what you're seeing in james bond, however, is not an image of the globe. it's a projection, most likely a [mercator](_url_2_) or a [robinson](_url_1_) projection. the principle behind any map projection is to find a clear way to view the entire earth on a flat surface. and that's exactly it. when you draw a satellite's pathway along a globe, it looks just fine. a straight line around the earth at any angle. however, when you unfold that globe to take a look at a map projection of the satellite's pathway, you'll see that it becomes curved rather than straight. this is simply a consequence of the mathematical impossibility of trying to properly represent a spherical map on a flat surface. (also, to be specific, the shape you're referring to is a [sine wave](_url_0_)) | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_wave",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Robinson_projection_SW.jpg/450px-Robinson_projection_SW.jpg",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Mercator-projection.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_inclination"
] | [
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why is the density of water maximized at 4c? | my coworker just mentioned it and i didn't believe him. so we looked it up and it seems to be. it doesn't make sense to me. i'd think the most dense water would occur at 0c, right before it transforms into ice. | in water, each h2o molecule forms hydrogen bonds. that means the hydrogen atoms in the molecule have a slight attraction to the oxygen atom of another molecule because of the net dipole moment, causing waters polarity. in liquid water, molecules flow about and briefly form hydrogen bonds, but not rigidly enough to form a lattice. in ice water, each molecule is rigid enough to form more h bonds, which forms a lattice that pushes the molecules farther apart, making it less dense. as liquid water gets colder, it acts just like any other nonpolar liquid in that it gets more dense as it gets colder. at 4c, the water has maximum density because it is as cold as it can get before it starts forming rigid lattices. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does baleen work? | whales take mouthfuls of water and force it out through the baleen trapping animals on the inside of their mouths, not the other way around. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.whalewatchingherveybay.com.au/images/operators/quickcat2/baleen1.jpg"
] | [
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|
the t-test conundrum in neuroscience: a question about true significance | i am a neuroscientist currently suffering from nieuwenhuis backlash (nieuwenhuis, forstmann, wagenmakers, 2011, nature neuroscience, 14, 1105-1107). briefly: nieuwenhuis showed that many neuroscience papers have utilized individual t-tests against baseline to determine effect - but never do they run t-tests against experimental conditions to determine if those effects are true and unique. the majority of comments on this phenomenon offer the following illustration: imagine you have two treatments, a and b. compared to baseline, a only reaches .051 significance whilst b reaches .049 significance. if only these t-tests were reported, it would appear b works whilst a does not - however, a caparison of the two treatments reveals a and b could be interchangeable on any given day. here's my question: what if we extended this idea to include, say, a thousand treatments and our stats reveal each treatment to be 0.02 'more significant' as compared to baseline. so, a=0.051, b=0.049, c=0.047, etc. if this pattern kept up for 1000 treatments, it'd be clear the final treatment (x) would be significantly different from a. however, if (as the earlier example suggests) on any given day a could be interchangeable with b, then it would stand to reason b could be interchangeable with c, c with d, d with e, step-wise up to x. following this logic, then on any given day, a could be interchangeable with x (as it could replace b, then replace c, then d....) - an absurd proposition. what am i missing here? | i think you are confounded "interchangeable" with "equal". i can't comment on the paper you are citing, but i can comment on the relevant statistics. remember that each treatment effect is not a point estimate but is actually characterized by a mean and standard error. the t-test is testing the hypothesis that the true difference between the treatment effects could be zero. but this difference is tested within the context of the combined error of the effects. so if treatment a has effect 10 +- 4 and treatment b has effect 11 +-3, it is pretty easy to say that these are not statistically significantly different. now, lets take your example and allow for each treatment a drift of +1. then a = 10 +-4 and z = 35+-5 (i'm just choosing arbitrary ses). obviously a and z are statistically significantly different, while y = 34 +-3.8 is not different from z. so each treatment may be similar to it's few nearest neighbors, but they are not truly equal. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how would a material made of buckyballs feel and behave? | under standard conditions it's a brown-gray solid crystal with about the hardness of graphite ([image](_url_1_)). it's an n-type semiconductor with a tiny bandgap (possibly in part due to oxygen impurities) and can be doped with alkali metals to be a full conductor or even a superconductor. also interestingly, under high pressure (37 gpa) solid c60 will undergo a phase change to [aggregated diamond nanorods](_url_0_), an allotrope even harder than bulk diamond. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggregated_diamond_nanorod",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C60-Fulleren-kristallin.JPG"
] | [
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|
in layman terms, what is the significance of transconductance? | most textbooks and google say that it establishes a relationship between an output and an input quantity (current and voltage) but i want to better understand the significance of this factor. | layman engineer's perspective - it establishes a relationship between voltage input and current output, or vice versa. this doesn't sound interesting but it's a useful property. for example, most useful signals use voltage to represent information. however, many useful systems require current outputs. for example, a moving coil transducer converts current into motion, not voltage. therefore to drive the coil with current that is meaningful we need some kind of transconductance. another example - oftentimes we need voltage controlled amplifiers or filters (vcas, vcfs), where a control voltage that represents something (like position, bandwidth, cutoff frequency, etc) is used to control a parameter of the amplifier/filter (generally as gain elements somewhere in the topology). we have things like voltage dependent resistance (in jfets, or resistive opto-isolators) for example, but these often have drawbacks like low ranges, bad tolerances, and non linearity. however we can control gain factors in mosfet and bjt amplifiers with control currents relatively easily, using a current mirror as a current source. this allows us to create wideband and extremely linear *current* controlled gain factors. to convert a control voltage into a control current for such systems, we just need a transconductance amplifier. that can all be done on an ic. they're a little dated in modern electronics but you can check out the functional block diagram of the [lm13700](_url_0_) to see transconductance in action. that chip is still widely used in music electronics for audio frequency vcas and vcfs. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/lm13700.pdf"
] | [
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could i possibly hang from a rope tied to a satellite in space and watch the earth move beneath me? | a rope that long would not be able to support its own weight and would snap. we don't have any materials strong enough to build such a rope. it's hoped that carbon nanotubes will one day be an option. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can someone explain causal fermion systems and the dirac sea to me in "smart layman's terms"? | because wikipedia's article on them are all grad student-level gobbledegook. i need something more on the level of a brief history of time or cosmos. | the dirac sea was an attempt to make sense of the problems when one tries to relativistic quantum mechanics. these problems go away when you use quantum field theory instead and so the dirac sea is not really relevant. that said, it is an interesting idea. basically the dirac equation has positive and negative energy solutions. the negative energy modes can have arbitrarily negative energy and this causes a problem where you'd expect to be constantly showered with positive and negative energy particles which can spontaneously form from nothing. the idea of the dirac sea is to get around this by positing (thanks to the pauli exclusion principle) that all of the negative energy states are full. this means that the runaway process i described before can't happen. but what happens if you give enough energy to one of these negative energy states such that its energy becomes positive. well now you have a positive energy particle (usually though of as an electron in this example) and a "hole" in the sea of negative energy particles. it turns out that such a hole behaves exactly like a positron (if the positive energy particle is an electron). | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there an easy way to determine if a reaction will be sn1 or e1? how do you rate leaving groups and nucleophiles? | sn1 and e1 pathways will always compete. however, you can tweak things a bit so that equilibrium will lean towards the reaction you want to happen. you also need to realize the difference between nucleophilicity and basicity. nucleophiles will attack carbon, while bases attack protons. most bases are good nucleophiles, and most nucleophiles are good bases, but there are some exceptions. a good base can be something very large and bulky, so it cannot act as a nucleophile due to steric hindrance. a base with pka of less than about 12 can act as a good nucleophile but it will be a relatively weak base. for sn1, polar protic solvents will help. they stabilize the carbocation and the anion formed. the nucleophile can then come in and attack carbon. this will hinder e1 reactions because the solvent will start to form hydrogen bonds with the base, which provides steric hindrance and makes it harder for the base to strip off the proton so that the double bond can form. for e1, a polar aprotic solvent and a strong base but bad nucleophile can be used. a good example is tert-butoxide. as for rating leaving groups, anything that will make the group more stable will make it a better leaving group. if the leaving group is a large atom such as iodide, the negative charge will be dispersed throughout a larger volume than a smaller one such as fluoride. thus iodide is much better leaving group than fluoride. resonance will also stabilize it. if the negative charge is spread out through resonance, as it is in tosylates, the leaving group will be more stable and better. nucleophiles are anything that either has a negative charge or lone pairs that can act as lewis bases. usually, the stronger the base, the stronger the nucleophile will be. also, the more concentrated the charge, the more unstable it will be, and thus more reactive. if we were comparing hydroxide with methoxide, the hydroxide will be a better nucleophile because the charge is more concentrated on the oxygen. in methoxide, the methyl group can pull electron density away from oxygen from the sigma bond or from hyperconjugation. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
have i really messed up my gel? | i must preface this with the fact that i have never left a gel overnight so this is what i think might happen. first, what kind of data do you need to get from the gel? are you simply checking for confirmation that the pcr worked? or do you need to be able to tell the size of the bands? if it is the first you might be ok. if it is the second i am guessing you will need to run the gel again. i am guessing that the dna will diffuse into the gel in all directions because the current is not keeping it moving in the same direction. this will make the bands blurry and with time cause them to loss all resolution. i have no idea how long this will take to happen. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are the similarities between fluid dynamics and electronic circuits just coincidence? | i've started noticing a lot of similarities between circuits and piping systems...a motive force (pump or battery) moves something at a certain rate (flow rate or current) through a system that introduces resistance (voltage/pressure drop). i guess tanks could be analogous to either batteries or capacitors and other piping elements would be resistors. is this just coincidental or is there something more fundamental going on that i am missing? can kirchoff's rules or other more advanced circuit design be applied to fluid systems? | circuit rules are best applied to fluid systems with low reynold's number (where inertia is negligible). you can treat different sized pipes as paths with different fluidic resistance, and the navier-stokes equation becomes similar to ohm's law, except instead of voltage, current, and resistance, you have pressure, flow rate, and fluidic resistance. here's a reference _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://web.mit.edu/andrew3/Public/Papers/2004/Ajdari/2004_Comptes%20Rendus%20Physique_Steady%20flows%20in%20networks%20of_Ajdari.pdf"
] | [
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] |
what is this skull? (i tried to ask in /whatisthisthing) | this looks almost exactly like the skull of a barred javelin _url_2_ _url_0_ it looks like they can be found around australia and i've seen some posts saying they live near india which is in the same geographic area as thailand. edit: it's also been called a javelin grunter and it populates the entire region: _url_1_ | 288 | [] | [] | [
"http://australianmuseum.net.au/image/Skull-of-a-Barred-Javelin-lateral-view",
"http://www.aquamaps.org/preMap.php?cache=1&SpecID=Fis-25948&expert_id=7",
"http://australianmuseum.net.au/image/Skull-of-a-Barred-Javelin-dorsal-view/",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/FishKeyDay.jpg/280px-FishKeyDay.jpg",
"http://www.ispot.org.uk/sites/default/files/imagecache/mid/images/17569/173c99e12e3ec3a1abd5e7b9de157dfe.jpg",
"http://www.biolib.cz/IMG/GAL/12839.jpg",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/animalid/comments/14yu7q/my_friend_found_this_skull_on_a_beach_in_mexico/"
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|
are there hyperconic sections? | are there 4-d analogs to all the conic sections? i recall reading that a hyperplane intersecting a hypercone perpendicular to the w-axis makes a sphere. with various angles do you get ellipsoids, paraboloids, and hyperboloids? or something else? are there degenerate cases? if the hyperplane intersected at the apex would it still be a point or a different object? | tl; dr: yes, there are. the easiest way to get to this is to look at the algebraic formulations of the geometric objects. let's do this! for a start, let's consider conic sections (non-hyper). the points in a cone are characterized by the equation x^2 + y^2 = z^2 , (i) i.e. all points (x,y,z) which fulfill this equation are part of the surface of the cone. let's intersect this cone with a plane, and for starters let's take the x-y-plane. points on the x-y-plane are characterized by z=0, (ii) so points which lie on the intersection need to fulfill both (i) and (ii). which are those? plugging (ii) into (i) yields x^2 + y^2 = 0, and as the squares are always nonnegative, this is only fulfilled for the point (0,0,0). now let's take a less boring plane parallel to the x-y-plane. it is characterized by z=c (iii) for some fixed c (the height of the plane, if you will). again, points on the intersection need to fulfill both equations (i) and (iii) and we get x^2 + y^2 = c^2 or sqrt(x^2 + y^2 ) = c, the equation which describes a circle. last x-y-z example until we get to the hyper stuff: a plane which is parallel to the x-z-plane, but not the x-z-plane. this is characterized by y = c (iv) for some fixed y. plugging (iv) into (i) yields x^2 + c^2 = z^2 , or equivalently (x/c)^2 - (z/c)^2 = 1, which is the equation for a hyperbola. now for the real hyper stuff. the equation which describes a hypercone is x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = w^2 (i'). the x-y-z-hyperplane is characterized by w = 0 (ii') and the intersection of our hypercone with it is described by x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = 0, i.e. the point (0,0,0,0). a parallel (i.e. also perpendicular to the w-axis) hyperplane would by characterized by w = c (iii') for some c, and the intersection is characterized by x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = c^2 , indeed a sphere with radius c. so let's take a plane perpendicular to the z-axis: z = c (iv') for some fixed c. plug (iv') into (i') and get (x/c)^2 + (y/c)^2 - (w/c)^2 = 1, which is actually the equation of a hyperboloid! you do get degenerate cases if you take planes which intersect the origin, as see with the degenerate circle/sphere, i.e. the origin itself. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what does the warning sign for radioactivity represent and why? | the center circle in the international symbol for radiation (formally called the "trefoil") represents the radioactive material itself, whatever it may be, and the three spokes represent the radiation that the material would potentially emit in all directions if it were completely exposed. like most wordless international symbols, it was designed to deliver its message clearly without ambiguity across all languages. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_hazard#Symbol",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazard_symbol#History"
] | [
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|
what is (intra- and extra- cellular) ordered water? | i have been reading around and a lot of papers in biology/chemistry use the term ''ordered water''. i haven't been able to find any definition of ''ordered water'' other than [this](_url_0_) which states: ''an individual water molecule which has become fixed into place or has become arranged in a certain position by virtue of its tendency to form hydrogen bonds.'' if i understand correctly, intra/extra cellular ordered water is then either (1) the molecules that have become attached to something (for how long though?) and/or (2) ... i'm not sure what ''arranged in a certain position by virtue of its tendency to form hydrogen bonds'' exactly means. are these molecules also static? i'd be grateful for explanations and also links to good sources. | there is a general assumption in biology that to a first approximation all reactions are occurring in a dilute solution. this is a good approximation for some things, but is not quite the case in reality. in a dilute solution, water has a lot of degrees of freedom as it forms a very lose structure through hydrogen bonding between the water molecules. almost all hydrogen bonds are thus water-water. at physiological temperature and pressure, the individual molecules break and reform the hydrogen bonds often as they rotate and translate around the solution. now, if we take the reality of what biology looks like, it turns out that there is a lot more stuff floating around. proteins, small molecules, dna, and all the other stuff make for a pretty crowded environment. water is excluded from a lot of the volume by minimizing hydrophobic surfaces. when the number of other molecules grows, the number of water-water interactions becomes smaller compared to water-other molecule interactions. this can lead to cases where water molecules are hydrogen bonding primarily to other molecules either in isolation or as a chain. since the other molecules are typically larger (protein or dna), they are a lot less flexible and can create a local energy minimum trapping the water molecules in the state of bonding. this is what is referred to as "ordered water". the water is essentially an extension of the molecule and does not have as many degrees of freedom as "free water" in solution. the timescales of exchange of these ordered water molecules depends a lot on the environment. you should have no trouble finding articles. [this recent article](_url_0_) for example, measured the exchange rate for a single protein with 4 buried waters to be between 0.1 and 200 us depending on the molecule. however, this is just the exchange rate, on average, the water molecule is always present in the same conformation with the rest of the protein. | 3 | [] | [
"https://everything2.com/title/ordered+water"
] | [
"https://www.nature.com/articles/nsb0696-505"
] | [
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] |
japanese marathon monks have allegedly gone nine days without food, sleep, or water, while running marathons daily for 7 years with only 1,450 total daily caloric intake. how is this possible? | inspired by [this](_url_0_) thread, these monks, known as the kaihōgyō, participate in a challenge during which they run marathons daily for 7 years on a very low calorie diet. apparently, through the power of meditation, they can slow their heart rate and metabolism to the point where they require very little energy. of note is during the fifth year of the challenge: > the trainee monk must go for 9 days (216 hours) without food, water, or rest of any kind. he sits in the temple and prays constantly. two monks accompany him, one on either side, to ensure he does not fall asleep. at 2am every night he must get up to fetch sacrificial water from the well, around 200m away, as an offering for fudō myōō. here are some relevant links: * [the wikipedia article](_url_2_) * [short youtube clip about measuring the metabolism, heart rate, and breathing rate of monks](_url_1_) * [11 minute documentary about these marathon monks](_url_3_) | the title of this question is misleading. while foregoing food, water, and sleep, the monk in question is only required to travel 400m, or .4 kilometers (about 3.6km total over the nine days) | 10 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/wikipedia/comments/i3fgs/one_of_the_most_demanding_physical_and_mental/",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R-wuOYlxMSY",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaihogyo",
"http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2645260829027622342&hl=en#"
] | [] | [
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what decides whether rain is full, drizzly, heavy, etc? | the quick answer is the rate of rainfall. however, drizzle isn't a rate of rainfall, it is a precipitation particle size. that is, drizzle is smaller than a raindrop ( < 0.02" in diameter), and can fall at varying rates, in general, much lighter rates than raindrops. for **drizzle**, these categories are 1) light: trace-.01"/hr 2)moderate: .01"-.02"/hr 3)heavy: .02"-.04"/hr when the precipitation rate is more than .04"/hr for liquid, the precipitation type is in general, rain. the rates at which **raindrops** fall into three categories as well: 1)light: trace-0.10"/hr 2)moderate: 0.11"/hr-0.30"/hr 3)heavy: you can look [here](_url_1_) and [here](_url_0_) for more information on rain vs. drizzle vs. mist vs. fog. **edit**: also, the drop sizes and precipitation rates are mostly done by [asos](_url_2_) stations automatically with some fairly sophisticated instrumentation, but can also be done with more primitive equipment. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=rain1",
"http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=drizzle",
"http://www.nws.noaa.gov/asos/"
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|
does proximity to the cathode/anode have an effect on results of horizontal gel electrophoresis? | if i'm using a gel box where the current is applied to one side of the box, are the lanes closest to the cathode and anode effected more? edit: if it makes a difference, the gel used was 3% agarose gel in 1x tae buffer. edit 2: fixed wording. | in my experience (anecdotal!), no, it does not. there can be differences between wells (i.e., material can get stuck in some wells and not others), between center lanes vs edge lanes (leading to "smiling" gels), and even between the top of the gel and the bottom (which shouldn't matter too much for thin gels). i have not seen noticeable differences near the electrodes, however. maybe someone here has more insight or knows of published results on the topic. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the medical community have a view on the overgrowth of candida in the gastrointestinal tract? | when googling this you get bombarded with posts from alternative medicine perspectives but its quite hard to sift through them for any concrete information backed by science. | i don't exactly understand the question. i can tell you what i know about candida infections, and if that doesn't answer your question feel free to reply. normally the bacteria living together in the gi tract (also the skin) are balanced. so if new bacteria or fungi comes along, there won't be any recources left for them to enjoy. now if you manage to kill those 'healthy' bacteria (with antibiotics or is just out of balance), there is suddenly room for growth of new pathogens. so lets pretend the candida bypasses this natural protection system. an average person's immune system is plenty good to take care of a candida-infection (so in reality, you only ever see candida infections in people with a compromised immune system... aids, diabetes, corticosteroids...). so if you have this, then you should look for an underlying cause once you got rid of the candida-infection. if you somehow do manage to get a candida-infection, i'm only familiar with actual anti-fungal medication (like azole antifungals), which al have scientific proof to back them up. i'm not familiar with alternative forms of medicine, so can't help you there. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a prevailing theory on how humans can be rh negative? | so i found out i'm rh negative and was curious about it. a quick google and search through reddit and this is all i can find: 1. conspiracy that rh negativity comes from aliens. (seriously, some people believe this?) 2. all other mammals are supposedly rh positive. 3. tons of information about rhogam so is there a widely accepted idea about how or when this mutation came about? | 1. ha! not relevant here 2. not true - [here's a general overview](_url_0_). other primates do show a positive reaction to rh antigen, but dogs, cats, etc do not. this doesn't mean that they don't have a protein that plays a similar role (and could also have a similar structure), since the test for blood group uses [antibody agglutination](_url_2_) it is possible that the canine/feline/etcine versions of rh protein factors (mainly we look for [the d antigen](_url_4_) even though there are other rh group proteins) have evolved different enough sequences that the test antibody doesn't recognize them. 3. the rhogam is at least scientific, but also not relevant. a lot of people cite the existence of blood groups (abo and rh) as being related to resistance to diseases, but there are few cases in which [it actually seems to be the case in humans](_url_9_). this idea came about when we were first identifying the existence of blood groups and one of the first species to be studied was the chicken. in chickens, [red blood cells are nucleated](_url_8_), and therefore express important immune response markers - [major histocompatibility complex class i](_url_7_) - unlike mammalian red blood cells. it turned out that [the association of disease resistance with blood type in birds](_url_6_) is due to the fact they what we called "blood group proteins" in birds differs significantly from the structure of mammalian blood group proteins. in humans [most diseases don't seem to show any association with blood group](_url_5_). that said, the genes controlling the d and other rh proteins (which are located right next to each other) [have undergone evolutionary change](_url_3_). observing the combinations of alleles within the rh gene regions of different populations has suggested that [populations have changed due to founder effects and genetic drift](_url_1_). | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_type_(non-human)",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22367406",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agglutination_(biology)",
"http://hmg.oxfordjournals.org/content/6/6/843.full",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/6007",
"http://jech.bmj.com/content/11/3/107.full.pdf",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF01572279?LI=true",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_histocompatibility_complex",
"http://www.dreamstime.com/stock-images-chicken-blood-image6166734",
"http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/content/185/9/1335.short"
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about hela cells contaminating other cell lines. is it just due to human errors? | while reading about hela cells i found out that they (did?) contaminate other research material (see [this](_url_0_) and [this](_url_1_)). i know next to nothing about biological research laboratory protocols and practices, and i understand that those cell line originally belonged to a supremely fast-growing neoplasm, but i don't think they can become airborne or crawl between culture dishes on their own. does/did it just happen because of malpractice (poorly, if at all, sterilised equipment and the like) or can they actually travel across the lab unaided? follow up questions: do labs grow those cultures into blobs large enough to be visible with the naked eye? if yes, do hela cells try to arrange themselves in a structured tissue? again, if yes, what does it look like? | they actually can become airborne on their own, by hitching a ride on dust particles. however, it is unlikely that that was the main mechanism, as sterilization procedures 50-70 years ago were nowhere near where they are today. to answer your follow up: yes, no, and try google image search, lots of good pics. | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.archivesofpathology.org/doi/abs/10.1043/1543-2165-133.9.1463",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hela_cells#Contamination"
] | [] | [
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would you be able to de-salinate ocean water by using a centrifuge? | this is a conjecture i made based on the fact that centrifuges separate materials based on density, like how the plasma is separated from the other things that make up blood. since salt and water have different densities, i figured you might be able to separate them in a similar manner. am i missing a key part of the puzzle, like the fact that salt is dissolved in the water and not suspended? thanks! :) | no, as salt water is a solution in the chemistry sense of the word. you are correct that the salt is dissolved. given even mixing and other reasonable assumptions, the solution should be pretty uniform. so it's all at the same density. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could piezoelectric flexible ribbons be used to harness mechanical energy on the large-scale? | many people often come to the conclusion that piezoelectric materials are too inefficient to be used for large-scale applications, such as harnessing wind and wave energy. after doing a little research i found this interesting article based on a study conducted by princeton: _url_0_. and here's a quote from the article: "of all piezoelectric materials, pzt is the most efficient, able to convert 80 percent of the mechanical energy applied to it into electrical energy." if pzt has a 80% energy conversion efficiency, isn't that more efficient than the most advanced wind turbines (59%) and wave energy converters (15%)? i am no scientist, but i would love hear pzt's drawbacks since my curiosity is killing me as to why it hasn't been used to harness energy on the large-scale and not just in small, low-power electronics. | the "low" efficiency of wind turbines and wave energy is mainly due to the difficulties of converting wind/wave motion into mechanical energy. converting the resulting mechanical power into electricity happens by means of conventional electric generators, which can operate at efficiencies higher than the 80% you quote. replacing the generators by pzt would only lower system efficiency. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.princeton.edu/engineering/news/archive/?id=2291"
] | [] | [
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] |
what megapixel rating would a normal human eyeball receive? | i was sitting at a ball game today and i could see the moon at 2 pm. i tried to take a picture with my 14 mp camera but it would barely show up. i got to thinking about what a great instrument the human eye is and how much detail i could see in objects that were very close and very far away. and so i wondered what a human eye would receive as its mp rating if it was a camera. any thoughts on mp rating or other features of the human eyes as compared to cameras. | the precision of vision is not consistent on the whole retina. there is more definition in the focal point than on peripheral vision. so it's hard to quantify the eye's resolution as a whole. another thing to consider is focal length. depending on the lens you use, you'll have more or less picture on your 14mp. if you use a wide angle, the moon might be but a pixel on your picture, but if you use the appropriate telephoto lens, the moon could make most of your picture, on the same 14mp. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retinal_ganglion_cell"
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could anyone give me a layman's summary of the dark matter experiment using argon-pulse shape discrimination? | i'm trying so hard to comprehend what these articles are saying online but the jargon man... the jargon .. (music student here). thanks guys :) | tank of liquid argon. when particles passes though, they have a small chance to react with something and produce a flash of visible light. each type of particle has a unique light flash so they hope to identify/detect dark matter in this manner. it's not clear to me what you have or haven't read, so i'm supplying this in case you haven't. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEAP"
] | [
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] |
what universal constants are in the range of size/time which humans can relate to? | most are far too huge (speed of light) or far too small (size of even the longest non-chain molecule) the only one i can think of is the few dozen half lives between carbon 15 (2.449 seconds) and nickle 63 (a hair over 100 years). this isn't very helpful for me, as a half life is by definition an average of a random event, rather than a reliable clock or meterstick. | i always found it fascinating that a planck unit of energy is about the same as a tank of gasoline. there's also the [barn-megaparsec](_url_0_); a barn is a unit of nuclear cross-section and multiplying that area by one megaparsec produces a unit of volume equal to about 2/3 of a teaspoon. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_humorous_units_of_measurement#Barn-megaparsec"
] | [
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why do we mock? | are there any solid positions on this yet? from an evolutionary-psych angle or any other? satire i can imagine as being a way of exposing flaws in others' thinking in a perhaps less hostile way, and may just be a cultural development (i.e. not quite one of those inbuilt behaviours, such as recognising emotions by facial expressions). what i'm interested in is mocking behind other people's backs, i.e. with people who we know will agree with us. i just caught myself doing it, and am wondering what is going on upstairs. boosting my ego? reinforcing confidence in my own position? random undirected irrationality left over from mutation? | mocking something makes it less threatening. laughter, i believe, evolved from a reaction of discovering that something was not threatening. making something that attempts to threaten you into a laughing stock, as it were, forcefully takes away it's ability to threaten. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_concept",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-group"
] | [
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where is the energy in this magnetic construct coming from? (link in comments) | [i just saw this video of a construct of the so called "zen magnets" on youtube.](_url_0_) where does the energy for the vibrations come from? at second 44 the guy mentions that the whole table is vibrating. friction and air resistance would take their share, too. is it the ambient temperature, earth's rotation or magnetic field, maybe? or is it just the guy tapping on it and it would stop moving altogether after a while? | it is just the guy tapping it. the top piece is repelled by the bottom piece, and when you push them further down, the repulsion grows stronger and the piece oscillates - much like if you push a spring down it'll spring back up. because the three pieces are in close proximity to each other, they transfer some of the energy to each other. | 11 | [] | [
"http://youtu.be/XQ4GeVJWNPI"
] | [] | [
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what is the least thermally-conductive material in the world? | i've heard it's "aerogel" but can someone confirm? i can't find any definitive answers from google. | i've heard the same. it's because it's actually mostly air that is the reason it is such a good insulator. i'm not sure if there might be something else if you disqualify such composite materials. maybe a ceramic? whatever the reentry heat shields of reusable spacecrafts are made of. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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question about the temperature inside | i live in ontario. i am currently living without air-conditioning, and the temperature indoors gets hotter throughout the day and maxes before i am about to go to bed. why isn't the house cooling down at night? during the day (12:00 to 4:00) it can be as cool as 26c, but can reach up to 30c at night. it makes it hard to sleep as you could imagine. also, are there ways that i'm missing that would keep an un-ac'd house cool during the day and night until i get this fixed out? | there's a delay because your house is storing heat in the floors, air, etc. you might try cooling your house with convection. if you have a two-story house and window fans, set them up to blow air in on the ground floor, and blow it out of the upper floor. hot air rises, and the fan setup should encourage those natural convection currents. you could also try to shade the south-facing windows of your home. ([source1](_url_1_))([source2](_url_2_)) edit: this effect is sort of similar to [seasonal lag](_url_0_). where i live, the temperature peaks in august, despite the fact that the amount of solar radiation peaks in late june. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_lag",
"http://www.azsolarcenter.org/tech-science/solar-architecture/passive-solar-design-manual/passive-solar-design-manual-cooling.html",
"http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/space_heating_cooling/index.cfm?mytopic=12351"
] | [
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what causes 'clumsiness' in people? | poor [proprioception](_url_0_). proprioception is the term for knowing where different parts of your body are relative to one another, and how you're moving. it's the principle that lets you touch the tip of your nose with your eyes closed, etc. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioception#Impairment"
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|
is there a certain sequence of blocks in tetris that, no matter how good the player is, will always result in a quick loss? | silly question, i know. but this question has been haunting me for over a decade now. | according to wikipedia, a game of tetris played against a perfectly fair random number generator is finite: _url_0_ however many versions of tetris do not use a fair random number generator, and as a result, you are able to play indefinitely in some of those versions. the actual cause of the finite tetris game is those darned s-shaped pieces. certain sequences of those s pieces force you to leave little holes in the board that you can never clear. it seems that as long as s pieces only occur on their own, and are not followed by more s pieces, you will always have an option to never create unfillable holes. now, there is a game called "hatetris", which is an evil version of tetris. hatetris replaces the random number generator in tetris with a combinatorial algorithm. this algorithm exhausts all combinations of all possible pieces that you could be given, against all possible moves that you could make with those pieces, and then selects the worst piece out of all of the choices, and gives it to you. every hatetris game is doomed to end, usually quite quickly. however, the challenge of the game is to come up with a sequence of moves that will keep you in the game for longer than other players. there is a sort of "high score" list of players who have created some interesting maneuvers in order to try to outsmart the algorithm. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tetris&oldid=661996004#Possibility_of_infinite_gameplay",
"https://circle.ubc.ca/handle/2429/3263"
] | [
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nasa and lenr | i recently ran into these two links: _url_1_ _url_0_ could someone explain what these are about? i always thought cold fusion was impossible, but these make it seem as if nasa is interested in a similar concept. | the [fleishmann-pons experiment](_url_1_) was bs. in fact, it created such bad publicity that most physicists avoid the phrase "cold fusion" for low energy fusion reactions now. there are, however, some ways of producing fusion at much lower energies than "hot" fusion. one process is called [muon-catalyzed fusion](_url_0_). basically, you replace the electron in deuterium (hydrogen with an extra neutron) with a muon. muons are particles similar to electrons in many ways, but about 200 times more massive. this makes it easier for two deuterium atoms to get close enough together to fuse. this is not hard to do, in fact it's a *byproduct* of the experiment i'm currently working on. however, it doesn't produce a net energy gain, so it's no good as an energy source. the one mentioned in the second link is something i haven't heard of before, but it's a pretty simple idea. atomic nuclei are only stable for certain combinations of protons and neutrons. they add neutrons to the nucleus of some light element (helium maybe?) until it's so unstable that it undergoes a process called [beta decay](_url_2_) where some of the neutrons emit electrons (and two neutrinos) and become protons. i suppose the beta radiation is the source of energy here. | 2 | [] | [
"http://technologygateway.nasa.gov/media/CC/lenr/lenr.html",
"http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/sensors/PhySen/docs/LENR_at_GRC_2011.pdf"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_fusion#Fleischmann.E2.80.93Pons_experiment",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_decay"
] | [
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rotational speed and deformed of nuclei? | does the rotational speed of a nucleus affect it's deformation? as in when an unstable superheavy element is noted to have a deformed to hyperdeformed nucleus, is that a reflection of it's rotational speed? and if not, why does the deformation only occur on a rotational plane, and not just result in an instantaneous decay or a more sparsely packed nucleus (deformation of 3 axes instead of elliptical deformation on 2 axes)? can a stable nucleus become deformed without changing proton or neutron count, or adding a neutron to a nucleus to induce deformation? can this impact stability? sorry about the run-on questions, thanks in advance! | yes. the “moment of inertia” of the nucleus changes as it rotates faster and faster. no, not necessarily. a strongly deformed nucleus will have a band of rotational states that it can exist in, but it doesn’t necessarily have to occupy a state of high angular momentum. it can have a j = 0 ground state, but still be deformed. it will just have a rotational band built on top of the ground state. as for the question about one plane, i’m not sure what you mean. the quadrupole tensor has five free parameters: 3 euler angles, which just give the orientation, and 2 more, which specify the deformation in the intrinsic frame. these are the “elongation” β and the “triaxiality” γ. a general nucleus have both nonzero. can a stable nucleus become deformed without changing z and n? definitely. every nucleus has excited states. even if the ground state is spherical, excited states aren’t necessarily spherical. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are psychological theories and concept universal across cultures or are the ones we learn in school mostly applicable to western cultures? | there's an entire field of psychology dedicated to cultural studies that investigate the difference between (usually) western and eastern cultures. i think the most popular is the comparison between [collectivist and individualist cultures](_url_0_) and the impact that has on different behaviors. most studies that you'll see from popular journal sources are performed on white, undergraduate students raised in western cultures (there is a paper talking about how this skews psychology data, but i can't find it at the moment). so you do have to keep in mind that most psychology studies are attempting to generalize from a small sample to the human population as a whole, and the merit of that is certainly debatable. generally it is passed off as "my study didn't look at that specifically." | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Collectivist_and_individualist_cultures"
] | [
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|
how is the concept of transfer of training helpful in psychology? | do you have something specific in mind when you say "transfer of training"? the only thing that comes to mind is transfer in learning, which is the idea that we can transfer knowledge to other similar (near transfer) or dissimilar (far transfer) domains. another way of saying this: near transfer is solving a similar problem in a similar context, far transfer is a different, but related problem, or solving a problem in a different context. a low-level perceptual learning example: if you train an observer to discriminate between lines at different orientation in a particular part of the visual field, the training does not transfer to other retinal locations (or to the other eye if you trained only a single eye). the thought was that you are changing the response / tuning properties of a small set of neurons in your visual cortex that respond to stimulation in just a small part of your visual field and not any other neurons that code for other locations. however, it turns out that if you train another, completely irrelevant task at another location, training will transfer from one location to the other ([xiao et al. 2008](_url_0_)). the idea is that during learning there are two things going on: learning about the feature (e.g. orientation) and learning about the location where that feature occurs (how to deal with noise in that place in the world). by training an irrelevant task in the second location, you have done this second kind of learning and there will be transfer. here is a more abstract or higher-level example of transfer: there's a classic study on analogical reasoning / transfer ([gick and holyoak, 1980](_url_1_) < -pdf) in which participants were presented with the following "radiation" problem (paraphrasing here the original problem from dunker (1945)): you are a doctor trying to treat a patient who has some sort of stomach tumor. you want to irradiate the tumor using special rays, which, if they are strong enough, will destroy the tumor. however, if you use a ray at a high enough intensity to destroy the tumor, it will also destroy all of the healthy cells in its path. if you use a ray at a lower intensity, it won't harm the cells, but it won't destroy the tumor. how do you treat the patient? i think the spontaneous solve rate for this problem was very low (10-20%?) partly because it's a little open-ended and the solution isn't clear. however, if you present participants with an analogous problem first, they get better at solving this one. the analogous problem was something like: a general wants to attack a fort with his army. the fort is surrounded by a moat with bridges approaching it from several sides. the entire army cannot fit across one bridge -- they would be an easy target and a the bridge might collapse. sending a smaller force that could fit across the bridge wouldn't be strong enough to bridge the walls. how can the general take the fort? after solving this problem (which is easier and more intuitive), people were much better at solving the radiation problem. the reasoning is that these two problems share many structural features that make the transfer of a solution possible. if they solved a different problem with an unrelated structure, they couldn't transfer their solution method to this problem. transfer can be thought of as the critical kind of learning -- the ability to apply what we've learned to new situations. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982208013997",
"https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/23210/0000139.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y"
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|
if the body was removed from the equation, what chemicals would the brain need to continue to function assuming they could be successfully delivered and processed? | well for sure you would need to get oxygen in there, preferably by way of red blood cells. you'd need sugar, cholesterol to transport fats for membrane synthesis, all the amino acids, sodium, potassium, chloride, magnesium, zinc, and calcium. you could extend it's useful life if you had antioxidants in there like vitamin c and e and such. since the vitamins would deplete you'd need to slowly supply the other vitamins as well. i'm sure there are some i can't remember right at this moment | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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