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why do electronic instruments fail under high pressure, such as descending into jupiter? | what is it in electronics that would make something like a resistor or a ic chip fail in the high pressure of a jovian descent? they don't have an "internal pressure" that is overcome by atmospheric pressure, so what makes them fail? i can see why a descent into venus would melt your circuit boards and your flux capacitors into silicon slag due to high *temperature*, but how does *pressure* wreak havoc on electronics? | conductivity, and of course all electrical properties are a function of pressure. while conventionally we think of solids as incompressible, this is far from true. this is why ice will melt at a higher temperature at higher pressures (water is weird and this is atypical, but works as a good example). here's an example of a resistor that becomes more resistive under high pressures: _url_0_. capacitors have a capacitance that is a function of the separation of two metal plates, so compression would decrease that separation, changing it's capacitance. inductors are also a function of their shape, so compression could lead to a change there. i think the most important part would be that the behavior of transistors changes under pressure, and that would inherently ruin the electronics day. _url_1_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FA%3A1012905520959",
"http://alexandria.tue.nl/extra3/proefschrift/PRF1A/7706749.pdf"
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is there a specific purpose for ace to be in the lungs? | followup question: does all angiotension conversion happen in the lungs? edit: ace being angiotension conversion enzyme | ace is produced in endothelium throughout the body, but is mainly in the lungs. i'm not sure why it's mainly in the lungs. maybe someone could answer? i think it's possibly because the lungs are one of the largest endothelial surfaces. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would be the consequences for a female chihuahua if she would get impregnated by a saint bernard? | the mother chihuahua can only supply the saint bernard fetus with a finite quantity of nutrients, due to her smaller stomach, smaller digestive tract, etc. therefore the puppy will be stunted, a runt compared to ordinary saint bernard puppies, although at the maximum size of puppies that a chihuahua can carry. the birth itself might be risky, but not ludicrously out of proportion. the puppy would probably regain a good deal of its normal size if allowed to nurse elsewhere. | 32 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.dogbreedinfo.com/c/chipit.htm"
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|
why do bases "eat" flesh? | with acids it is because the released h-atoms react with the proteins and breaks up the pepitde bond. but how do bases work? | bases do this through saponification. saponification is the hydrolosis of the fatty acid esters that make up our cell membranes. this reaction goes much slower than that of the acid, but when completed, the "flesh" or whatever organ it used to be should be dissolved into the solution. | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does the davinci surgical robot need to have its arms covered in some kind of protective layer? | [deleted] | i’m sure it is just the cleaning issue. getting blood/gibs out of all the robotics would be a right pain in the arse, putting a disposable cover over everything will be cheaper, quicker and easier than having to sterilise everything every time. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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with the recent elon musk video that got on the frontpage (link in the description), i heard it's groundbreaking for science, what's so special about it? | its less groundbreaking for science and more groundbreaking for engineering. there exist no fully reusable rockets for getting into space. consider that the fuel that powers these rockets takes up a small 2-5% of the total cost of a launch, the rest of the cost is actually the rocket because each rocket is a sunk cost for each launch. if musk can build a reusable rocket space flight suddenly becomes a order of magnitude cheaper. that is the significance. this video shows a prototype reusable rocket in testing. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how is being cold blooded biologically beneficial. answer does not need to be in the form of an alliteration. | it would seem that being able to self regulate is the much better system. let me know what you think. | being ectothermic ("warm-blooded") is *extremely* energetically expensive. we (mammals) have to burn a lot of energy to keep our internal temperatures as high as we do. endotherms ("cold blooded animals") do not. this is why if you have a pet mouse that your forget to feed for a month it will be very very dead long before the month is up, but if you have a pet snake that you don't feed for a month it will be just fine. ectotherms conserve *lots* of energy by allowing the environment to regulate their internal temperature. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endotherm"
] | [
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is it possible to "trick" your body into enjoying something. | ok, first things first, endorphins are a mechanism (one of many), underlying the complex emotion we call "enjoyment." there are many other neurotransmitters involved in the experience of positive emotion (e.g., dopamine, 5ht), and there are aspects of enjoyment which don't depend upon any neurochemical in particular (e.g., the cognitive preprocessing which detects and categorizes an activity as "enjoyable" isn't localized or solely dependent on any single neurotransmitter). **tl;dr**our brains are complex, multi-component systems there's no centralized "enjoyment" box. the second thing i notice is that your question seems to imply that enjoyment is always the same. that it's not possible to enjoy some parts of things and dislike others (i.e., have mixed feelings). that doesn't match my experience, nor the broader literature on emotion which stresses multiple interacting emotional systems. people watch sad movies and horror movies and seem to enjoy them, though they don't usually enjoy sadness or fear. **tl;dr**enjoyment is a complex multi-component thing also. the third thing i notice is that you said "your brain." this is sort of a warning flag in neuroscience questions because it implies a difference between "you" and "your brain" (i.e., it's a dualist view of the world. the brain is different from the soul). there are some differences between those two concepts (e.g., your body, your social groups, your environment), but to a first approximation you = brain. both you and your brain are complex and have multiple components, so you can have mixed feelings about things, and have internal disagreements when different components reach different conclusions, but to the extent that anyone anywhere has ever enjoyed anything ever it was because of a brain response. the weirdness in the question is that it seems to require you to be two people, the tricker and the trickee. if you know that you're smiling to increase your enjoyment of something that seems to me like you're training yourself to like it more. since you (and thus, your brain) are aware of this, i can't figure out what the deception is. **tl;dr** since you and your brain are roughly the same entity, you're training yourself, not tricking yourself. ok, so with all those knowledge bombs dropped, your specific proposal is sort of workable: [facial feedback](_url_0_) is a thing. (see especially the [buck](_url_1_) paper which is a nice review). | 23 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_feedback_hypothesis",
"http://www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/nonverbal_behavior_and_the_theory_of_emotion-_the_facial_feedback_hypothesis..pdf"
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|
will a small amount of current still flow through a very high resistance (such as human tissue)? | for instance given a theoretical resistance of dry human skin at 100,000 ohms and a 12 v source, ohms law would put the current at 0.00012 amperes. is this just a theoretical value or does it actually happen in reality? | yes, this really does happen, as a matter of fact, .12 ma is not that small of a value, i'm studying engineering at university and my circuitry labs regularily deal with much smaller currents and much higher resistances. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in what way is the bohr model incorrect? | probably the fundamental flaw in the bohr model is that it is predicated on both position and velocity of the electron being simultaneously well-defined. the treatment of angular momentum in the bohr model is discrepant with the proper treatment. the bohr model only examines one component of the angular momentum, although treats it as the full thing, whereas in the full quantum theory, we have quantum numbers associated with the magnitude of angular momentum and the one component. one consequence is that the lowest energy state in the bohr model has angular momentum h-bar rather than angular momentum 0. in addition, if you look at how the bohr model is structured, there is no natural way for it to generalize to anything slightly more complicated, e.g., multielectron atoms or molecules (even the simplest, such as helium atoms or hydrogen molecules). of course, the bohr model also treats the hydrogen atom as an electron and a proton with no additional structure, whereas we know there are spins and magnetic dipole moments, and the proton is not a point particle but has internal structre. however, these simplifications are not limitations of the bohr model *per se*, but just simplifications you can also make in the full quantum treatment of the hydrogen atom. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
dilemma, how to get the right people to have kids, and dissuade the underclass from large families | i was watching a news report on the cbc today and they showed yet another reserve up north in complete squalor. the living conditions of natives up north is terrible, it makes me think that someone is devoted full time to screwing them over. that being said, every house was full of kids. why do people world wide in such squalor continue to have so many kids? why is all my university educated and well paid friends (of all races and creeds - this isn't a pseudo 'more white people please' post) bow out of continuing their genetic legacy? how is it possible to stimulate one group to have more kids and dissuade another group without going to the extremes (china's long eugenics program). | increasing access to abortion and birth control - eliminating this access increased fertility among low-economic status women in romania in the 1990s ([see study](_url_0_)) sex ed, free condom distribution, low cost or free birth control and morning after availability - those are the keys to limiting limitless reproduction among any economic class, but specifically the lower class that doesn't have access otherwise | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.columbia.edu/~cp2124/papers/fertility_latest.pdf"
] | [
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] |
any books suggestions to start out on understanding physics? | feynman's *the character of physical law* is a classic. it shows you what it means for physicists to figure something out. this is what makes it so valuable. (this is not to be confused with the textbook called *the feynman lectures*, which is great but is not designed for someone with a general interest in science.) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does my body automatically know how to throw an object accurately when i pick it up(into a garbage can across the room), independent of weight/mass/density? what part of someone makes them more/less accurate than someone else? | i assume my past experience with similar objects, along with my brain receiving a signal from my hands/fingers determine the force necessary to throw the object a certain length, and my eyes tell me where to aim. | throwing seems to be a human instinct and a trait that we excel at as a species. the "feel" of objects in our hands may be directly related to how we perceive we could throw them. this paper is a good look at how humans instinctively interact with objects and judge them partly based on their ability to be thrown. _url_0_ | 105 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ehbonline.org/article/S1090-5138(10)00127-3/abstract",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo%27s_Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa_experiment",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_memory"
] | [
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indicators in coloring books | back in the 50's we had a type of coloring book with blank pages. if you painted across the page with tap water a line drawing would appear. the lines were either red or blue, but never both colors on the same page. the paper was perfectly white and i knew about litmus paper even then. i still have not been able to figure out the chemistry. any suggestions? | are you sure the page was plain white? my daughter recently had one of these magic painting books. there seemed to be small dots printed onto the paper. i assume that these are just dry paint so that when water is added, the paint spreads and the colour appears. it's not a very strong colour. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does bird poo look how it does? | was pulling my dog away from some white bird droppings on the sidewalk when i thought about this. why does bird poo look so different from dog poo? or for that matter, most types of animal droppings a simple joe like me would be familiar with (brown, round, etc)? i've never had a pet bird, so i'm not 100% sure what fresh bird droppings are like. i assume that it's like the stuff on the sidewalk and my windshield.. but what causes it to look so different? just diet, or is their digestion that different? and are there any other animals that have similar kinds of droppings? anything more exotic? | birds actually urinate and defecate at the same time - their urine is viscous and highly concentrated (i believe it has a lot of ammonia in it, which is the characteristic smell). the white liquid/paste is the concentrated urine and the black pellets are the feces. hope this enlightens you! classic example: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://marcypusey.files.wordpress.com/2012/02/bird_poo430x300.jpg"
] | [
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what branches of math would be relevant for answering these questions? | * given a topological space equipped with a function assigning a curvature to each point in the space, does there exist a (unique?) embedding with no self-intersections into some higher dimensional space? * given a topological space equipped with a metric function, does there exist a (unique?) embedding with no self-intersections into some higher dimensional space? * is it possible to define a notion of moving around within a topological space that is entirely local, vs. defined in terms of some background structure the space can be embedded in? i assume that some fields connected to topology are probably relevant, like differential geometry, but i don't know enough to know just what those would be. | your questions are a bit vague but that's okay. you have to give some more specifications on your space if you hope to find a helpful answer. all of the questions are within the scope of topology and geometry, although some touch on very niche topics that you may find in a mathematical physics journal. your questions are also advanced enough that a more specific forum/sub similar to /r/math or math stack exchange may be more helpful. in your first question, by a "topological space equipped with... curvature" you probably mean at the very least a smooth manifold with a metric. you also need a connection specified, but the default is the levi-civita connection given by the metric. but is the metric riemannian? is it pseudo-riemannian? for riemannian manifolds, your question is answered by the *nash embedding theorem*. for pseudo-riemannian manifolds, there are various relevant theorems, most of them specifically about lorentzian manifolds (mostly because general relativity is a primary application of these ideas). for the second question, you are talking about embedding a metric space into some "higher-dimensional space", but metric spaces don't generally have any notion of dimension. there is a notion of embedding of general topological spaces, but very few general theorems since topological spaces can really be quite nasty. so maybe you mean a *manifold* with a metric? for it to be a metric space, you need it to be riemannian. so, again, the question is answered by the nash embedding theorem. for just general embeddings of smooth manifolds, the weak and strong whitney embedding theorems are also probably relevant. for the third question, i'm not sure what you mean by "moving around". you could be talking about parametrizations of curves or sections of tangent bundles within a manifold or something else entirely. all of that can be done without reference to any embedding space. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[medicine] if you have to be at a desk multiple hours a day, what's the "most healthy" way to do it? sitting, standing, sitting on a medicine ball, something else? | cornell ergonomics department have written a little about this specifically about the merits of sitting versus standing _url_0_ essentially both carry their own risks. it's much more important to change positions regularly, move around, take breaks, and stretch than have a single "ideal" setup. | 20 | [] | [] | [
"http://ergo.human.cornell.edu/CUESitStand.html"
] | [
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|
a galactic 'up'? | are the axes of other stars in the milky way aligned in any particular way (in the same way that planets in the solar system, but not uranus, have their poles pointing in a general up), or are there stars that (for no special reason) are aligned sideways relative to us? | it's rather difficult to determine the axis of rotation of most stars, but we expect that their orientations should be pretty much random. we know that there are plenty of neutron stars which are strongly tilted with respect to us, because their radio signals, which are emitted from near the poles, are visible to us. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why isn't fermion degeneracy pressure considered a fundamental force? (and some related questions) | 1) since it repels particles, can it be considered a force? if so, why isn't it in the list of fundamental forces? 2) from my understanding, this pressure prevents the atoms from collapsing, and white dwarfs and neutron stars from turning into a black hole. so is it correct to say that matter has some volume solely due to this force? 3) it is a consequence of the pauli exclusion principle, which is itself a consequence of heisenberg uncertainty principle. basicaly, the more a fermion is constrained to a small volume, the greater its momentum. doesn't it cause problems with the conservation of energy/momentum? 4) since the pauli exclusion principle doesn't apply to bosons, does the uncertainty principle applies to them? sorry, my questions are probably ill formed, it just shows my confusion on the subject :) | 1) because, really force is an ill-defined concept in modern physics. while pauli pressure is a pressure in a way since the particles can't occupy the same states, there are no particles exchanging momentum, so it's not a force exactly. 2) yes, you can say that certain things, like neutrons, have nominal volumes. now they may not be a constant volume, but yes, there is a volume associated with bound states of fermions. 3 & 4) pauli pressure isn't *directly* related to heisenberg uncertainty. i mean it is somewhat as it's a quantum phenomenon, but as you point out, bosons don't experience pauli pressure, but they *do* experience heisenberg uncertainty. the real basis is the [*spin-statistics theorem*](_url_0_) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin-statistics_theorem"
] | [
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how do you predict temperature/pressure relations above critical point? | phase diagrams end abruptly at the critical point. how do you predict what will happen to pressure in a closed vessel for increasing temperature above the critical point? i've read conflicting information, some says you can't use the ideal gas law, some says that it still applies to supercritical fluids. the discussion that prompted this question was whether a propane tank being impinged on by fire could reach steel weakening temperatures before the pressure exceeded the regular burst rating. (propane critical point 97 c 42 bar, burst rating around 65 bar, steel weakens around 425c) | this is a great question, and sounds like it would have been on a test in my thermodynamics class in college. a chemical engineer would need to do this sort of calculation before specifying tank materials/dimensions in a chemical plant. however, getting the answer is going to be complicated. the ideal gas law cannot be used to predict supercritical fluid properties. however, you can use a more general relationship called an equation of state (eos). the ideal gas law is a special equation of state in which all variables are linearly related to each other. under more exotic conditions, you have to start adding polynomial terms and/or variables related to the size, shape, and interatomic forces of the molecules themselves. one commonly-used general eos is the [peng-robinson equation](_url_0_), which uses the familiar p, v, and t along with several other constants that have been measured and tabulated for a wide variety of substances. it's accuracy varies depending on the substance and pressure/temperature you're looking at, but it'll usually get you close. for common molecules like propane, there are also substance-specific eoss, which are much more accurate but often behind paywalls. however, [here is a non-paywalled paper with an eos for propane](_url_1_). unfortunately, it's so complex that it's really only useful for computer simulations, not doing a calculation by hand. there are some hidden factors in your question as well, like 1. what are the starting pressure and temperature of propane in the tank, and 2. how quickly is heat being transferred/dissipated from the fire to the tank? introducing heat transfer complicates things immensely, and you start having to make assumptions about what your system is doing. also, the propane in a commercial tank is actually partially liquified, meaning that you're starting from a two-phase mixture, which also complicates things. in order to solve this, you would assume that the fire is an unlimited source of heat, and that the heating is an isochoric process (constant volume, which is appropriate for a sealed tank like this). you can pick an eos of your choice and set f(p1,v1,t1)=f(p2,v2,t2). since v1=v2, the equation will simplify to f(p1,t1)=f(p2,t2). a typical commercial propane tank is under [4bar pressure at 30c](_url_2_), which gives you t1 and p1, but because there is both liquid and vapor in the tank, you would need to know the total volume of both, and first calculate the pressure (p1b) that would be evolved once the critical temperature (t1b) is reached. after that, you can set f(p1b, t1b)=f(p2,t2), where t2 is the weakening point of steel (~700k), and solve for p2. if this value is much larger than the burst rating, then the tank will burst before the steel weakens, and vice versa. i don't have time to do the calculation at this exact moment, but you can do it yourself, or someone else can come along and do it. notice that the answer will probably depend on how full/empty the tank is when the fire occurs. my gut feeling is that a mostly-empty tank will exceed the weakening temperature before bursting, while a mostly-full tank will burst long before that. i could be wrong, though! | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_of_state#Peng%E2%80%93Robinson_equation_of_state",
"https://ws680.nist.gov/publication/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=832438",
"https://inspectapedia.com/plumbing/Propane_Tank_Gas_Pressures.php"
] | [
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bowel microstructure in coeliac disease. | hi reddit, i've been learning about coeliac disease and other bowel problems recently. i was taught that coeliac disease as an inflammatory disease causing villous atrophy. my question is: is bowel archiecture always damaged by coeliac disease? or is it only restricted during an attack/when gluten is eaten. if so, do the villi heal from the inflammation? | the response to gluten is what causes the villous atrophy. if the epithelial cells of the villous mucosa are damaged by the pathological immune response to gluten, they will remain damaged until they are replaced by new cells after ~4 days even if the gluten stopped being ingested within those 4 days. as to whether the shape of the villi ever completely heals, i am unsure. i do know that the abnormal immune response often lingers to some degree even when the patient hasn't had much gluten, which suggests that the villi might not completely heal. it definitely makes the question a lot tougher ::shrug:: if an expert doesn't show up soon to clear up that confusion, i'll try to ask my gi professor and post an update. except in cases of refractory sprue, the symptoms of celiac disease generally greatly improve when the patient is careful to avoid ingesting any gluten. it is important for patients to maintain dietary compliance and try to minimize the amount of pathological inflammatory processes occurring in their intestines, because otherwise they greatly increase their risk of cancer. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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where do the blood cells of earthworms form? | if humans blood cells are created in bone marrow, then where are they formed in earthworms? | so earthworms have two different circulatory systems, an open coelomic fluid system (fluid filling the central body cavity called the coelom, and which also acts as a hydroskeleton) and a simple, closed blood circulatory system. in place of a heart there are little muscular arches around the coelom to do the pushing. the blood itself is ameboid-formed cells and free, dissolved haemoglobin. the ameboid cells, i believe, derive from the epithelial tissue of the coelom itself, though i could be wrong. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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high school black hole project. i have all the materials i need, but need some help sorting the formulas out. | so i have a [project on black holes](_url_0_) that i am interested in doing for my class, but the op of this project messed up the formulas a bit. i am now looking for more precise forms of these. i have found the first 2 on wikipedia (the radius and emitted radiation temp) but need help finding the others. also, could you make sure that if the variables don't match the original document, that they are explained (i can handle the rest). i'm fairly sure that on the second formula (the temperature one), op meant to put the reduced planck constant (hbar) rather than the planck constant (h). please double check me on this. i am compiling the finished document here. thank you so much, if you need any more info, please post in the comments. **edit:** i am no longer using that google document to compile. | the event horizon radius is, as that document says, 2gm/c^2 . the temperature formula is also correct, except - as you say - it should be the reduced planck's constant. the equivalent mass is fine: it's just using the fact that a temperature t corresponds to an energy kt, and then uses e=mc^2 to get an "equivalent mass." it's not the most useful concept, but it does give you a sense of how much gravity this radiation itself produces. the last three look fine as well though i haven't double-checked the power equation (it's a bit late here!). good luck with your project! | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.tas.idv.tw/faq/q1603.html"
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if we 'magnify' a human and place him/her on a massive planet, will the body support itself both mechanically and biologically? | e.g. a 100x size of a human and place him on a planet that's 100x the mass of earth. | no, not even close. the strength of bones increases as a square, because it is based on the cross-sectional area, whereas mass increases as a cube, since it is based on volume. large animals need to have massively thicker bones in comparison to their body size in order to support their weight. like say if a creature was twice the size, their bone's cross-sectional area would be increased by 4x, but their mass would increase 8x. very quickly the bones become overwhelmed. because of this effect all movie monster sort of creatures are anatomically impossible. king kong would break his legs just standing there. put them on a larger planet with higher gravity, and the problem gets even worse. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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dr. robin carhart-harris from imperial college london is our guest on londonreal today any questions for him?? holla | have they found a specific dose to be most effective? single treatment vs. multiple treatments? temporary like a couple months or longer lasting effects like years in the removal of depression? | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does brainwave app really work? | there are tons of reviews comment that the brainwave apps are truly working in various aspects. how is that possible? i have copied an introduction of that from one of the brainwave apps developer's website, here you go. how it works our brainwave entrainment apps utilize sequences of binaural tones to stimulate brainwave frequencies associated with various states of mind. in this process two different tones are played through headphones or earbuds. these tones differ in frequency by a precise amount, and when processing these tones the human brain perceives the frequency difference as an inaudible, periodic beat. for each brainwave sequence the frequency of this perceived beat has been engineered to precisely match a target brainwave frequency.after a few minutes of use the listener's own brainwaves will begin to synchronize with this perceived beat, inducing states ranging from deep sleep to intense concentration and focus. this synchronization process is referred to as brainwave entrainment. we take traditional brainwave entrainment techniques a step further, incorporating overlaying brainwave sequences to stimulate ranges of frequencies, as well as multi-stage brainwave programs comprised of a series of stages designed to work together to create unique mental states, or to take the listener through an entire experience, such as lucid dreaming. (_url_0_) thanks for reading this. apology for my bad english. | if it's not published in a reputable scientific peer reviewed journal, don't assume it's correct science. everyone has something to sell... | 2 | [] | [
"www.banzailabs.com/brainwaveapps.html"
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would lamination damage a magnetic strip? | the bus passes here are very thin, and mine has to last a whole month. if i were to laminate it, would that damage the magnetic strip? do certain lamination methods work better than others? | to avoid heating the magstrip and perhaps damaging it, i've used common "scotch magic" tape on the side with the strip, and heavy clear packing tape on the other side. the id card lasts much longer. sometimes the tape makes the mag strip *more* readable. and with tape, usually you can peel it off if it causes any errors. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how cumbersome are squirrel meals? | there is a german saying that literally translates to "arduously/ cumbersome the squirrel feeds itself" (own attempt at translating "mühsam ernährt sich das eichhornchen". ) this is used as an idiom, roughly equal to: little by little the bird builds its nest. anyway, i was wondering of a squirrel feeding itself generally takes a lot of effort of the little guy or not. thank you in advance! | not really. their diet is mostly insects, which they dig for, lift up rocks for, and rip off tree bark for. theres enough bugs in the wild to sustain hundreds of squirrels per square mile. they also eat berries, grass, and seeds from bird feeders in most areas. (im a wildlife rehabber, and i happen to have some squirrels im raising for release right now. they were abandoned babies someone found :)) | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is this poisonous? | i just found this massive mushroom growing behind my house, there are currently 5 (6 with the one i took). each one being a bit smaller than the rest, what i'm wanting to know is, are these things poisonous? is there an expert out there who could toss some information my way? there's a picture of one here _url_0_ the mushroom in the picture weighs 1 lb 12 oz. and it was the biggest by a little bit than the others. my world location is california, a little ways north of sacramento | might want to try asking _url_0_ i am not a mushroom hunter, but i have read a few mushroom hunting blogs. that looks like it could be a puffball, which would be one of the "foolproof four", which are four edible mushrooms which don't have many poisonous lookalikes (_url_1_). however, please have this confirmed by someone who is not me before you or anybody else tries to eat it. | 5 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/QNftx.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/mycology",
"http://www.saveourskills.com/mushroom-collecting-101-foolproof"
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how does the heart (or more particularly, the sinoatrial node i suppose) know when to squeeze, to pump the blood out? | some clarification: i looked up a few things to determine this, but the most i've gotten is that once x threshold has been reached for hyer/de-polarization, the node reacts appropriately. but i was wondering: is there any input into this pump/receive/pump/receive system from stretch receptors in the heart muscle, or maybe in the pericardium? such that when x level of stretch reception and processing occurs (e.g. at ventricle capacity), that at least provides -input- into "telling" the ventricle to pump? | the signal for contraction of the myocardium is electrical and originates from the sa node. the sa node has specialized cells that ‘leak’ ions and once the membrane potential reaches a critical point an action potential propagates. from the sa node the signal travels through the atria, where it then reaches the av node. the av node causes a small delay in the signal transmission to allow for blood to flow from the atria to the ventricles. the av node then sends the signal through the purkinje fibers which stimulates a coordinated ventricular contraction. there are factors that can affect rate and strength of contractility in the heart. first is vagal tone from the parasympathetic nervous system. this decreases rate and contractility by acting directly on the sa node. some drugs, like some blood pressure medications can have an effect on the av node as well, increasing delay time or blocking conduction completely. input from the sympathetic nervous system in the form of circulating catecholamines have the opposite effect, increasing heart rate and contractility. sympathominetic drugs like atropine and cocaine also can have this effect. furthermore, the heart follows starlings law, in which increased preload (stretch by returning blood volume) of the ventricle in diastole causes increased contractility in systole. the starling curve of the heart shows increasing contractility from increased preload up to a point, after which the myocardium fails and contractility drops precipitously. preload (stretch) and afterload (vascular resistance) affect cardiac output and are often targets for therapies to improve cardiac function. also, there can sometimes be aberrant conduction pathways which can lead to arrhythmias. cardiac physiology and electrophysiology is quite complex, and i cannot do it justice in a reddit comment, but this is a start. to answer your question directly, the signal to contract the heart is purely electrical, but the cardiac response to that electrical signal is based on many other factors. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what keeps me from shrinking into my schwarzschild radius? | sorry if this is a dumb question, im just a confused highschool student doing a paper on black holes. so stars are in perfect balance between the outward pressure of nuclear fission and the inward pressure of gravity, but when elements are exhausted, gravity wins and the star collapses, creating a black hole. am i simply not big enough? | yep! all of the chemical bonds in your body provide the support against gravity, which, as generated by you, is minute. this is also why things like asteroids or terrestrial planets also don't collapse against gravity. you may then ask about the case of gas giants, which are supported by [electron degeneracy pressure](_url_1_), which is a consequence of the [pauli exclusion principle](_url_0_). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_dwarf#Theory"
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a question about aviation; pitot tubes and ias (indicated airspeed) | as a prospective pilot, i'm curious about indicated airspeed. i have a layman's understanding of the purpose of a pitot tube, and i'm writing my interpretation to acknowledge my understanding, rather than to explain what one is; it is an instrument that computes the ram force of oncoming air against a sensor, which can then determine the speed of the air relative to the aircraft, hence the *indicated air* speed rather than ground speed. my question is as follows. under the assumption that the density of atmospheric air decreases with altitude, is the data gathered from the pitot tube still reliable? once again, my physics isn't top-notch, but i was under the impression that force is affected by mass, and a cubic meter of air at 20000ft (forgive the crossing between imperial and metric there) would have less mass and therefore lower density at sea level? if this were true, the airspeed at greater altitudes would get gradually less reliable. or is this taken into account during calculation somehow? thank you for reading. | yes. the data gathered from a pitot tube is useful (and this is important to understand) *because the aircraft wings are traveling through the same, less dense air*. so how the aircraft behaves (v speeds, etc.) is related to the ias. from a pilot perspective, ground speed is of much less interest than indicated/true airspeed. it's nice to know when you'll arrive somewhere but it's critical to know when you're going to stall the wing. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitot_tube",
"http://www.spaceagecontrol.com/pm/uploads/Main.Freepubs/nasa-rp-1046.pdf"
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exergonic transfer of electrons (chemiosmosis) | i'm learning about glycolysis and atp synthesis right now in my biology class. i'm a little confused on something said in one of the my professor's lectures. he said that the, "exergonic transfer of electrons through the inner membrane leads to a h+ gradient across the membrane by the unidirectional transport of h+." what i'm confused is: does the transfer of electrons from each respiratory complex release energy? or are the electrons themselves the energy, that makes the whole thing exergonic? | sounds slightly redundant - any chemical reaction has to be exergonic overall, or thermodynamics says it wouldn't happen. electrons move from cyt c to cyt c oxidase because it's energetically favorable, so that's exergonic and a little bit of energy is lost there. cco then transfers them to an oxygen molecule, while attaching some h+ at the same time to form water - which also releases energy. in the process, four protons are also moved across the membrane, which requires energy that's supplied by the water-forming reaction. (we still don't really know how these things work together though) in each step of the electron transport chain, the electrons are losing a little bit of energy (relative where they were, as part of nadh). some of that energy is used to transport the h+ (in different ways, only cco pumps them directly), some is just lost as heat. i don't know offhand what the efficiency is though. so the total _chemical_ energy is lower (since some energy has become heat, which isn't a form of chemical energy). the energy of the electrons (if you consider them alone) is also lower in each step. the energy of the protons moved across the membrane has gone up since they'd rather have an equal concentration on both sides. the energy of the enzymes in the transport chain remains the same, since they return to the same state after each catalytic cycle. more generally the energy of an electron is what you call redox (reduction/oxidation) potential. ultimately, the difference in redox potential between the oxidation: nadh -- and the reduction: o2 + 4e^- + 4h^+ -- is what drives the whole electron transport chain. everything in-between is biology's way of harnessing the energy of that reaction to move h^+ across the membrane. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a common advice given to runners is to perform a "leg drain". does the practice have any real basis in physiology? | one website (and it is by no means alone in making this claim) suggests: > do "leg drains" by lying on your back with your legs extended vertically and feet propped against a wall for three to four minutes. this drains the blood out of your legs so fresh, clean blood can be pumped back into them when you stand up. something about the idea of "fresh, clean blood" rings false. but is it? | fresh blood is always being pumped into your legs by your heart, so that part is bs. however, propping your legs up can help the flow of lymph fluid (which cleans your tissues of metabolic wastes) and help reduce swelling in the event of injury so it might be beneficial in that sense. | 45 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i am a firefighter with a fluid dynamics question. when splitting a single 4" diameter supply line to two separate supply lines, why would i get more water from splitting to one section of 4" and one section of 3", as opposed to two sections of 4"? | so were were practicing filling tankers (trucks that carry 3,000 gallons of water each), and noticed something interesting. i will explain our setup. so we had a 10' length of 4" supply line coming off of a hydrant w/ ~60 psi of pressure. there was a manifold on the end of that section of 4" that splits it into two supply lines. our initial setup was to run 50' of 4" off of one side and 50' of 3" off of the other. when filling two tankers simultaneously we noticed that both tankers were filling rather predictably. the one with the 4" was filling faster and the one with the 3" was filling at about half that rate. when we had the materials necessary, i "upgraded" the 50' of 3" to another 50' section of 4". now we have two 50' sections of 4" coming off of the manifold. this is where the confusing bit happened. when i would hook up and fill two tankers simultaneously, one of the tankers would get almost all of the water, and the other would get nearly nothing, until the first line was shut down. no one has been able to explain this to me. there are two essentially identical supply lines coming off of the manifold, why would one be favored so heavily. and why would the 3" line allow more water flow when partnered with the 4"? [sketch of setup](_url_0_) | i design multiple path processes every day. we've got a rule of thumb that anything less than five psi of pressure drop in the entire system can only be single path because below that point minor differences can cause massive maldistribution of the flow to the point that one of the passes can run dry... sounds to me like this is happening in your system. you've reduced the total system pressure drop to the point that the water just flows easily down a single path without enough back pressure to force it down the other path that's available. flow control valves on each pass solve the problem as do individual pass booster pumps if they're adjustable so you can balance them out... but basically you've just reached the practical maximum flow for your hoses without additional equipment. | 37 | [] | [
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why are some surgeries (for very rare diseases for example) so incredible expensive? | i've just seen an ad for a child requiring medical interventions costing as much as a few expensive houses. is there any science behind this or it's just greed? | if it's a "very rare disease", then the number of surgeons with experience/training in that procedure is going to be limited. surgery isn't like working on a car, where one guy can pretty much do anything. it's pretty specialized. (yes, there are genral surgeons, but they do general surgeries like tonselectomies, appendectomies, wound closures, etc...) so, even though medical costs in general are outrageous, there is a matter of supply and demand involved when it comes to "rare" procedures. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does solar sterilisation work? | i have a friend, who happens to be a scientist though this his not his field of expertise, who claims that filling an ordinary plastic bottle with water and leaving it in the sun for 3-5 hours will sterilise the water. | see [the comprehensive, well-sourced wiki article on solar water disinfection](_url_0_). the idea is to make the environment in the water inhospitable to bacteria, killing them over a period of several hours. both uv and direct heating come into play. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_water_disinfection"
] | [
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] |
how will the jwst "stop" at the l2 lagrange point? | i sort of understand a braking burn into a lunar orbit - as there's something to 'grab' you... but how will the jwst simply not swing on right by the l2 point? is it simply going to carry lots and lots of fuel and just burn it to a stop? | you do a braking burn, just like you would for entering the orbit of a body, and then you've simply entered a new orbit of the sun, which will be in sync with the orbit of the earth. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how are core samples removed from the item that was just cored? | for example, if you want to take a core sample of rock, you could use an annular drill bit to drill down into the rock, thus creating a cylinder of rock located in the drill bit. however, the cylinder is still attached at the base. is there another type of drill bit used in this situation to somehow cut the base of the rock cylinder? what if you were drilling into a rubbery material instead of rock? | modern rock drills lower the drill bit and rods through a casing. water is pumped throught the setting and mud and cuttings are pumped out. the process of putting pressure on the rock, plus the vibration of the bit regularly break the core off in segments. these breaks usually exploit natural weaknesses, and core is often quite fragmented (ex.: _url_0_). in some cases, the material beeing drilled in is plastic and soft (soapstone comes to mind) and the abrasion of the drill bit just pushes through, not quite "like butter", but easily. the complicated drilling problems come when you drill into harder material such as silicified rocks or chert. progress slows down in a hurry then... | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.doucette-geology.com/OkTedi/CoreBoxes/ddh349/jpg/DDH349-box02.jpg"
] | [
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] |
build the enterprise within 20 years, crazy or not | you have to take his statement with a lot of salt. if everything he says is true, then we'd have something that was *enterprise*-shaped, which would travel through space. slowly. no phasers, photon torpedoes, replicator, transporters, warp drive, holodeck (?), etc. still a pretty cool project, though. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there a way to do floor and ceiling functions using only 4 operators ( + , - , * , / )? | no. each of the binary operators (+, -, \*, /) is a function from r^(2) to r (in the case of division, some subset of r^(2)). furthermore, each of the operators is *continuous* on its domain. so any *finite* combination of them would also be continuous on its domain. however, the ceiling and floor functions are not continuous on their domain. (if we allowed *infinite* combinations of the basic operators, then there are ways to write the floor and ceiling functions, e.g. by fourier series.) | 55 | [] | [] | [
"http://stackoverflow.com/questions/15201796/ceil-function-using-limited-set-of-arithmetic-operators"
] | [
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|
game clock stops at the end of an la kings game; kings then score the winning goal in the extra second the delay provided. amid accusations of foul player, their gm provides what he claims is a scientific explanation for what happened. is his explanation plausible? | first, a link to the incident in question: [video of winning goal with clock superimposed on screen](_url_0_) [la kings general manager dean lombardi's explanation of this incident] (_url_1_): > *those clocks are sophisticated instruments that calculate time by measuring electrical charges called coulombs -- given the rapidity and volume of electrons that move through the measuring device the calibrator must adjust at certain points which was the delay you see -- the delay is just recalibrating for the clock moving too quickly during the 10 - 10ths of a second before the delay -- this insures that the actual playing time during a period is exactly 20 minutes that is not an opinion -- that is science -- amazing devise quite frankly. so, askscience, does lombardi's "scientific" explanation hold water? | i am highly skeptical. i don't know what kind of clock that is, but his description stinks for a few reasons. there is really only 1 popular kind of clock these days, the quartz oscillator, and it works by measuring the oscillations of a quartz crystal. those oscillations happen millions of times per second. due to varying environmental fluctuations, the speed of the oscillations may drift a little bit during the course of a day. that will mean that any two quartz clocks may be running at slightly different speeds. typical differences are about 1 second per day. however, *any individual clock has no way of knowing* if it is running fast or slow. maybe they checked the time with an atomic clock to recalibrate (atomic clocks are good within like a billionth of a second per day, or something). that sounds like a good idea, right? that would lead to a little time-adjustment every time you check. you'd have to be either very dumb or very malicious to design a game clock to perform this time-check in the waning seconds of a game. so, his description of the time measurement mechanism and it's failure don't really make sense to me. maybe someone who knows more about game clocks can chime in? | 10 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x_HK37lwMy4&feature=player_embedded",
"http://espn.go.com/nhl/story/_/id/7532676/nhl-looking-los-angeles-kings-scoreboard-error-win-columbus-blue-jackets"
] | [] | [
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why is 2pi radians not an identity? (video inside) | example video [here](_url_0_) demonstrates that two revolutions of something is different than four revolutions. why is this? | 4pi is not the identity. the translation he does in the beginning is the identity, but that's not what he does the rest of the time. he does a "behind the ribbon" move that turns out to be equivalent to -4pi. let r = rotation by pi, and b = behind the back move. rr + b (1:10) this is now at -2pi. +b (1:15) he's at -6pi. -r -r -r -r -r -r (count em!) back to normal. (1:21) rrrr b (1:33) he cancels out the 4pi with his trick -4pi. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nat-EsReXtQ"
] | [] | [
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] |
state space feedback controller design with a reference input? | in classical controls, to control a plant with a reference input the simple structure looks like [this](_url_1_). where the controller multiplies the error. i'm having trouble understanding why in state space feedback systems the gain matrix seems to always multiply the state variables rather than the error term. like [this](_url_0_). wouldn't it make more sense to put k after the sum? any insight? thanks! | yes, it would make more sense to put some 'control' on the error term! the reason you don't see it here is that a simple state feedback topology assumes that the system model is perfect, and in this instance, you can design the k vector (in conjunction with a feedforward gain, usually denoted 'n') to give a closed loop dc gain of exactly 1. this ensures that the system can track a constant reference. as soon as your model is not perfect, and for more robust reference tracking, you should move to a state feedback controller with integral action. the integral action uses one extra gain value to act on the error and drive it to 0. see an example [here](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [
"http://ctms.engin.umich.edu/CTMS/Content/MotorPosition/Control/StateSpace/figures/statefeedback_motorp.png",
"http://i.stack.imgur.com/Poo39.gif"
] | [
"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lanre_Olatomiwa/publication/280599178/figure/fig5/AS:284520810074118@1444846455661/Fig-5-Integral-control-with-state-feedback.png"
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what are ten scientific facts that you feel everyone should know? | i cannot represent all sciences as a biologist, but i think one thing is very important for everyone to understand, evolution is a concrete scientific theory, where are there are really no other viable alternative hypotheses. we can demonstrate it with selection experiments in the lab, we apply the concept to antibiotic resistance in bacteria, the fossil record supports it, as well as the fact that all life operates on the central dogma of biology (rna-dna-protein). also, one more thing, evolution does not mean "progression." evolution is simply genetic change over time, which can lead to an increase or reduction in complexity depending on which is more fit. best example is parasitic worms, they lack much of the abilities their free-living cousins have, but they don't need it for their life history, so we've seen a reduction in overall complexity in such taxa. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noether's_theorem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_landscape",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics"
] | [
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|
is it scientifically accurate to say that everything that will happen is already pre-determined? | if physical laws govern chemical followed by biological nature is it true in saying that everything will be carried out according to these laws? as in, in a certain chain of events based around scientific law is it impossible to diverge from the result of these events? this might be a philosophical question rather than hugely scientific but it would be nice to see if there's any feedback. | the quantum world operates in probabilities. this reality is what caused einstein to lament "god does not play dice with the world" edit: wording, thanks mrpin | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/nxyp7/from_a_physics_standpoint_what_prevents_the/"
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how do urls work? | how can someone not just make another website with the same url, and redirect traffic? how do browsers find these urls and link to them? how do they work, in mechanism? | through two mechanisms, both enforced by your browser. domains and certificates. the url has several parts, the most relevant here is the domain in the middle (e.g. _url_1_ or _url_0_). your browser looks up the ip address by talking to a dns server. that dns server then consults a root dns server to look up the registration information for that domain. then it contacts the dns server the root server told it to talk to and asks it for ip address (most of this information ends up being cached for later use). then, the browser contacts that ip address directly and sends the web server there (if there is one) the url to handle and return html for. if someone (say your isp or whomever) had control over your dns settings or your networking they could totally interfere with these operations (with a "man in the middle" attack). and, indeed, sometimes precisely this is done for good reasons. for example, you might connect to hotel wifi and then attempt to go to some web page but get redirected to a landing page that forces you to enter some login information before allowing you to use the connection normally. but you don't want it to be possible for anyone to deceive you, and that's where https and certificates come in. your browser will be loaded with a set of cryptographic certificates. when you connect to a site via https you do all of the steps described above along with a key exchange and certificate handshake with the server. the server presents to you a certificate that contains a public key that's been digitally signed by a certificate authority. there will be a cryptographic chain of trust between the root certs you have installed in your browser, the ca company that signed the web site's keys, and the site's certificate presenting proof of that signing. there's no way to forge such a signature without someone having access to the ca's (certificate authority) private key. the browser and the site communicate via an encrypted channel by sharing each other's public keys using rsa public/private key encryption during this handshake. once your browser confirms that the server it's talking to is in fact the real deal it will continue the connection and exchange a simpler set of encryption secrets so that the browser and server can continue to share an encrypted connection without having to use the more costly rsa algorithm. then the rest of the interaction occurs over an encrypted connection as the browser sends the url and other data and the server replies with html etc. if the handshake does not finish successfully and the browser can't verify the site is who they say they are then the connection is terminated and the browser will pop up a dialog telling the user what happened, etc. it's not a foolproof solution but it protects against a lot of the easiest man-in-the-middle attacks (like dns spoofing, traffic redirection, etc.) | 4 | [] | [] | [
"google.com",
"www.reddit.com"
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would you have a higher chance in drawing lots if you drew second? | so let's say two people are randomly pulling lots out of a box in which only one is the winning one. as i understand the first person who draws has a 1/n chance of getting it and the second has a 1/(n-1) chance in which n is the number of lots placed in the box. does that mean that playing second would give you a better overall chance of winning? does that apply to a real world situation? | nope! you have a 1/n chance of losing with the first players draw, and an (n-1)/n chance of not losing, combining that you need to not lose and to win you have an (n-1)/n\*1/(n-1)=1/n chance of winning if you draw second. same odds, oddly enough. | 16 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why don’t everyday movements cause sub-concussive impacts? | i’m aware that the brain’s motion is dampened by the cerebrospinal fluid it floats in and by its tethering to the spinal cord and the meninges, but i have trouble seeing how this is sufficient to protect the brain from subtle damage just short of a concussion. i tend to visualize a brain-sized egg (with strange holes through the middle for ventricles) in an egg-shaped capsule filled with water (or at least some fluid with the same viscosity) bouncing around as it’s shaken. the brain as an egg isn’t the best analogy for a number of reasons, but it seems to me that motions like head banging, shaking rapidly, turning the head quickly to the side and back, etc. would crack this egg, or at least push it against the walls of its egg-skull with some nonzero force, especially considering that there is little distance between the brain/egg and the skull, and that the fluid isn’t very thick. my question therefore encompasses a few questions several of which likely do not have or can not have full answers: 1. is our brain really moving a lot less than intuition might suggest? 2. if so, how do we know? have simulations of this been performed? 3. if not, and the brain does move within our skull as much as such analogies might suggest, does this actually cause any real damage? 4. adding to that last bit, what are the mechanisms of potential damage? are neurons actually dying? is our brain just chemically disrupted? how resistant to compression is brain tissue (does it “bounce back”)? and given shearing forces can rip axons apart, how much force does this take? does it occur on some minimal level with all grades of tbi? is there a particular number of g’s associated with symptomatic damage? 5. to what extent does this depend on individual anatomy, and what research has been done into this? 6. finally, what is known about the brain’s ability to recover? does it depend on region (impacted, not geographic)? genetics? environmental factors? on a less clinical note, does the brain tend to rewire itself similarly to how it was previously wired, or does it form newer connections based on environment and other factors? what research has been done on these effects in vitro/in vivo/in volvo? are we really us after sustaining a brain injury or a series of cumulative small hits? also, as an aside, the argument that evolution has developed mechanisms that prevent significant subconcussive damage (even if we don’t fully understand them) doesn’t seem too convincing either, because evolution only requires that we survive long enough to reproduce, not so much that we perform the kinds of higher order thinking tasks we do today, let alone well into our old age when consequent neurodegenerative disorders might manifest. (i hate to add this because it seems rude, but please don’t just link to previous instances of this question on reddit, as i assure you i wouldn’t post here had i found information that satisfied me. i’m primarily looking for a fairly in depth overview of the state of research into these questions, and perhaps a more rigorous intuitive understanding of the physics of the brain’s motion in everyday movement.) edit: excuse the shitty formatting and text blocks, i posted this on mobile | this is counterintuitive, but if the density of the egg in your example is roughly the same as the density of the fluid (so that it can float in it) then shaking the jar wouldn't make it bounce, it would keep floating roughly in the middle no matter what you do. sudden acceleration only causes problems proportional to differences in density, causing different parts of the system to experience different forces corresponding to that acceleration, so that difference becomes a force between components and can cause deformation. if the density is roughly the same (and the stuff is mostly incompressible) then nothing much happens in response to small accelerations. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is it like outside our solar system? | i've been watching a lot of star trek: the next generation lately and it got me wondering about the space between solar systems. if a ship was out there (not in any planetary system in particular), would the crew be able to see outside the ship? i don't imagine the light from our sun would be strong enough to be a sufficient source of light beyond our system's boundaries (then again, i could be completely wrong). in sci fi shows like star trek, firefly, and bsg, one ship could clearly see another ship...even if there wasn't a sun. i realize they're just shows, and you have to be able to see them on shows....but it still got me wondering. | in star trek the ships are typically self-illuminated, for what it's worth. i know that doesn't address the question, but fanwanking it. (this is a point of stress in shows like voyager, where they're constantly "low on power" but the entire ship is lit up, holo decks running, etc.) but you're correct that without a local star it would be difficult (in *most* parts of the galaxy) to see other objects. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the combination of yoga poses and extreme heat and humidity actually "flush toxins" and "cleanse the body's systems" as bikram yoga supporters claim? how? | [here](_url_0_) is some information about bikram and its supposed benefits. i have found a lot of websites explaining how it works, but not as in depth as i'd like. i still don't fully understand how, on a biological and physiological level, bikram yoga would produce all of these benefits (other than the obvious such as flexibility, etc) if they are accurate, what is the biological/physiological reasoning behind it? | no, there's no medical evidence for "toxin flushing" health fads, it's not even a consistent or falsifiable scientific theory really. yoga is mostly just isotonic exercise. it's been shown to have positive impacts on flexibility, balance, muscle tone, and relaxation, but unfortunately it often comes with a lot of either historical or new age bullshit baggage. p.s. i'm digging through some various yoga research sites at the moment, i'll add some followups later. here's a good starting place, from the nih, on the concrete benefits of yoga: _url_0_ | 16 | [] | [
"http://www.bikramyoga.com/BikramYoga/about_bikram_yoga.php"
] | [
"http://nccam.nih.gov/health/yoga"
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can an artificial nuclei exist? | okay, so the real question is when making atoms, a lot of the heavier ones start to break apart. the nuclei isn't strong enough to hold everything in and will eventually break apart, my question is, is it possible, with the current technology, to build something to aid the nuclei inside the atom from bursting apart or maybe build an artificial nuclei? would this ever be an actual possibility? | nuclei are collections of protons and neutrons. i think you are asking whether or not it would be possible to add some sort of additional structure to a nucleus beyond protons and neutrons. in that case, the answer is no, we don't even have an idea of how to do something like that. we can, to some extent, construct nuclei of differing numbers of protons and neutrons, but that's it, beyond that we have no control. and even then we have a great deal of difficulty because we need to be able to have some route to the destination nucleus. for example, we can fuse other nuclei together, we can add neutrons to nuclei, and so on, but that creates a lot of gaps in terms of things we can't create. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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physics eei - how do i calculate error, with powers in my equation? | sorry for the earlier misinformation! to obtain the percentage error of v, you need to differentiate the equation with respect to r. dv/dr = 0.5r^-0.5 approximating, δv/δr = 0.5r^-0.5 divide both sides by v, and with some manipulation, you will end up with δv/v = 0.5(r)^-0.5 δr/v not sure if i went wrong anywhere, but differentiation was the way in which the formulas you gave were derived. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
would there be some type of material that we could make a very long (kilometer-ish) rod out of, and pull it, and have the other side feel the 'pull' about a second later? | i think it would be really interesting to see the wave travel through the material. i'm just curious if this would not only be possible, but be feasible. (i think 1 km rod, with an electric signal to activate the pull would be feasible) | what you're talking about is a longitudinal wave, a simple example of what you're talking about is a low viscosity liquid (i'll elaborate on why) . think of a long pipe with plungers at both ends. if you push a plunger on one side, the plunger on the other end will only move once the wave has traveled through the liquid. the speed of the wave depends on the rate of change of the pressure in the liquid, over the rate of change of the density (this is where "wave velocity" comes from). the reason i mentioned viscosity earlier (this is how "thick" a liquid is), is because if the liquid is very viscous, the wave will eventually lose all of its energy before it reaches the other plunger. in math, this behavior can be modeled with [burgers' equation](_url_0_). an analogous situation is also a really long spring, if you move one end the other end will move too, but only once the pulse from the actuated end reaches it (there is also dissipation in this case). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgers'_equation"
] | [
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how does polarization matter in sisyphus cooling to millionths of a degree above zero? | i was just reading about a molecule being cooled to 50/10^6 degrees above zero. the article referenced a higher temperature which could be obtained through doppler cooling, but that this technique had limitations. the mechanism for doppler cooling and it's limit makes intuitive sense to me, to the extent that i could probably calculate the limit for simple cases. however this new record required a technique called sisyphus cooling which i do not really understand. the wikipedia article on it wasn't terribly informative for me either. can circularly polarized light be effective in cooling by this mechanism, or does it have to be linear? how does light polarization effect orbital interaction? i've always assumed it was just a scalar energy involved in electron absorption of a photon. any direction towards further reading that would help me understand this would be appreciated. original article which piqued my interest: _url_0_ | circularly polarized light is used in laser cooling because it allows you to select transitions to a higher or lower mf quantum number (related to the direction of the atoms total angular momentum relative to an applied magnetic field) linearly polarized light would favour both transitions equally. essentially left and right circularly polarized light has opposite angular momentum, linearly polarized light is a superposition of the two. sisyphis cooling occurs due to the lattice created by the laser beams interference. typically you have 6 beams at right angles to one another, created by reflecting 3 beams back on themselves, which reverses the circular polarisation. this create an electric field that is a standing wave with periodic maxima and minima called an optical lattice. the potential energy of an excited atom increases/decreases (depending on whether the mf quantum number is positive / negative) when it reaches the maxima due to the stokes shift. as such an atom in a positive mf state well slow down when it heads towards a maximum. however, when it reaches a maximum there is an increased chance it undergoes a transition to the negative mf state (via a transition to a j =3/2 state) which them puts it at a low potential energy state. this atoms has therefore lost kinetic energy (transferred to photons in the lattice), this process repeats many times, resulting in temperatures below the photon recoil limit. | 5 | [] | [
"https://www.sciencenews.org/article/molecules-face-big-chill"
] | [] | [
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why do we require so much water when we expel almost all of it? | if this has been asked before, i will gladly delete it. why does almost all of the water we intake get expelled? shouldn't the human digestive system be more efficient? | our bodies are big sacks of waterlogged meat because they have to maintain a steady supply of that critical solvent required for the never ending cycle of chemical reactions that keeps us alive. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a reason surge protection isn't built into fuse boxes and is instead required at the outlet? | there are whole house surge suppressors, but they only protect against surges which originate outside the house. to protect sensitive equipment from the surges that originate within the house (from air conditioner, refrigerator, other large appliances, etc.) you need a suppressor between the outlet and the device you're protecting. a good suppressor will also protect against surges on phone/data/cable lines as well. | 15 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why are weeks 7 days long, hours 60 minutes long, and months 30(ish) days long? why these specific values? | i understand why a year is 365/6 days long, due to days and nights, but is there a scientific reason? why are weeks 6 days, and not 13, or 9? are is an hour 60 minutes, and not 100 minutes? why are months 30(ish) days long? why aren’t they all the same, and who chose which months are longer/shorter? | i don’t know about the length of a week but i can talk to you about hours and minutes. our modern way of keeping time was actually first devised by the sumerians a long long time ago. the weird thing is, they did not use a base 10 system. they actually used a base 60 system. this means 60 and 360 are very important numbers and this is the reason why there are 60 seconds in a minute and 60 minutes in an hour | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_month#Synodic_month"
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if you explain a trait with evolution, is that scientific or merely speculative? | if we look at a thread like [can all of human behaviour be explained in the light of evolution?](_url_0_), can we say that such explanations of traits (human behaviour) are "scientific"? that is, do those explanations create some sort of scientific knowledge, according to mainstream scientific epistemology? or are they merely speculations that are consistent with (instead of supported by) a scientific theory? it seems to me like it's a reversal of the logic of evolution ... instead of saying, "we have all this evidence, therefore natural selection operates on populations to change their genes over time", it seems to be saying, "evolution happens because of natural selection, therefore trait *x* is favoured by natural selection for reason *y*". it seems like a big leap to say that trait *x* is (or was) favoured by natural selection, and not just happenstance due to random mutation or genetic drift, and, most importantly, **it seems to me like reason *y* is usually totally speculative**. i think i have a good (albeit lay) grasp on evolution and natural selection, and have studied it at a university level, so this question isn't about the principles or causes of evolution (i don't think). edit: i should have been clearer up front, my question is about the bolded part, creating a natural selection narrative to explain an observed trait, not about the mechanics of evolution via ns, random mutation, and genetic drift. | it is, and gathering enough evidence to be able to definitively say that this is what happened is really difficult. however, to cite [one of my favorite examples](_url_0_), if you can show: * a phenotype you think may be under selection is linked to a particular gene of interest * the sequence surrounding that gene shows signs of recent natural selection * that there is differential survival of individuals in the wild with respect to your phenotype of interest, and that it's directionality is the same as that predicted by your adaptive hypothesis * and your estimates of the timing of the onset of selection are consistent with what we know from natural history about when the particular natural feature driving selection came into existence it's pretty darn hard to argue that what you're looking at is not natural selection. also, the fortunate thing is that we can build a statistical model of what we should expect the genome to look like under neutral evolution/genetic drift, and then search for particular genetic loci that violate this assumption (i.e. bullet point #2 above). these methods, if done right, can be very effective at identifying genes that have faced selection. connecting the genes to the traits, however is very difficult, as alluded to above. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/lu1ed/can_all_of_human_behaviour_be_explained_in_the/"
] | [
"http://www.oeb.harvard.edu/faculty/hoekstra/PDFs/Linnen2009Sci.pdf"
] | [
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what are the causes for finland being so far down (24th) on the hdi in comparison to other nordic countries? | hdi is more or less a formula that ranks countries on three categories: life-expectancy at birth, education (literacy rates and how many people receives a formal education), and, lastly, gdp per capita. life expectancy in finland compared to the other nordic countries is a bit lower. alcohol consumption is one major reason here. finns drink almost twice as much as norwegians and icelanders. but, as usual it it is the economy that is the main reason. finland has a low gdp per capita compared to other nordic countries. finland's economy is very dependent on industrial production. in particular on export of machinery and electronics. however, since the global 2007-2008 recession demand has not picked up to pre-recession levels. so, exports from finland have been shrinking for what will be a decade straight in a year and a half. which again leads to unemployment. finland right now has an unemployment rate above 10%. among young people the rate is 20%. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does the chemical composition of air influences our behaviour? | the air that we breath composites of multiple gasses: nitrogen (78%) oxygen (21%) argon(1%) carbon dioxide(0,03%) etc. is the current composition of air already influencing our behaviour (are we constantly "high" on air)? what happens to human behaviour when the current balance of the global chemical composition of air is changed? what would happen if it would have more of a certain gas which is known to change human behaviour, for example: nitrous oxide. could we change the chemical composition of air to improve quality of life. for example; make human beings more peaceful, more effective, less susceptible to diseases or to have longer lives? if we change the chemical composition of air, would the human adapt to it and revert to "normal behaviour" after a while. | we can talk knowledgeably about the long-term effects of more or less oxygen in blood, as that changes with altitude, and it definitely influences behavior. low enough blood oxygen leads to fatigue, constipation, stroke and heart attack, for example, though you'll acclimate somewhat over time if you're under 8000 feet. the atmosphere still has 20.9% oxygen at these heights, but part of what drives it into blood is atmospheric pressure, which decreases as you climb above sea level, with the net effect of lower blood oxygen. people that, for whatever reason (like emphysema or asthma, for example), have difficulty oxygenating their blood can experience giddiness when they start breathing treatments, but for most people, this is negligible, so it doesn't really make sense to say we're "high" on air. anecdotally, people that live in heavily poluted cities will talk about "gaining energy" or feeling livelier when they vacation in the country, and this can at least be sometimes attributed to less co in the air they're breathing. basically, this shows air quality can influence behavior, and less fatigue rapidly becomes the new normal. most of the gases we know have human effects have *negative* effects, or at least effects we wouldn't want to see put into constant exposure. all of the gas anesthetics have biological trade-offs, they're hard on the liver and brain, and cause production of really toxic exhaled waste products. i don't know of any substance that only causes improvement, regardless of physical state (solid, liquid, or gas). everything i can think of has trade-offs associated with them. regardless, we can still think about it as a hypothetical, and say that, rather than changing the absolute composition of air permanently, temporary changes in room environment could be enacted for a positive effect, like, say, theoretically increasing the oxygen levels inside an elementary school that was located in a badly polluted city. higher oxygen, at temporary intervals, can help fight disease (particularly in people with poor circulation or bad oxygenation ability) and decrease fatigue/bad mood/etc.. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.health.ny.gov/environmental/indoors/air/carbon_monoxide_need_to_know.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1821130/",
"http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/xmlui/handle/123456789/7616"
] | [
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how can there be shear in something that is only loaded axially? | i've been reading about stress transformation and am having trouble understanding it on a physical basis. i understand that for the axially loaded member you can take a theoretical cut into it at some angle, and for the equilibrium equations to work out there has to be shear. but what is happening at the molecular level? what is happening to cause it to break at a 45 degree angle? | so you've got the concept that the stress state is a function of the orientation of the section under consideration. now, what if you had a material that was strong in tension but weak in shear? this is what happens in a ductile failure: the material slips along a plane that is about 45° relative to the axial tension. this is due to the crystalline structure of the material. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why does a cat's-whisker detector work? why does the position and pressure of the whisker matter? | the contact of the metal wire against a crystal forms a very crude rectifier (a diode). this allows current to go only one direction, and can hence derive the signal from an am broadcast. the crystal is actually a semiconductor, similar to the doped si used in making integrated circuits. the crystals used are generally natural minerals, and are hence not nice pure, homogeneous materials. you have to find a spot on the crystal with the right properties, and get the tip of the whisker into intimate contact with it at a molecular level. it's almost a miracle it can be made to work at all. the [wikipedia](_url_0_) page has a good description and explanation. **bonus**: because it is possible for fillings and saliva in the mouth to form a crude rectifier, it is also possible for people to pick up very very strong am signals with their teeth. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat%27s_whisker"
] | [
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|
why is young's modulus of metals the same for compression and tension? | i've found numerous sources that say young's modulus for most metals is the same for compression and tension. this confuses me because i've also found numerous [sources](_url_1_) that show that the repulsion forces between atoms increases more sharply with respect to deviations from the undeformed position than do the attraction forces. see this [picture](_url_3_). this would imply that young's modulus would be greater for compression than tension, since compression deformation would have to overcome more atomic force than tension deformation. is it because when deformations are small the change in repulsion and attraction forces is approximately symmetrical as shown in this [picture](_url_0_) from this [website](_url_2_)? | yes, it's because a smooth energy minimum, regardless of its shape, looks like a (symmetric) parabola close up. i describe this mathematically [in this answer to a similar recent question on stack exchange](_url_0_). | 11 | [] | [
"https://imgur.com/a/GphHbQI",
"https://schoolphysics.co.uk/age16-19/Thermal%20physics/Heat%20energy/text/Forces_between_molecules/index.html",
"https://www.wired.com/2013/08/why-do-solids-expand-when-heated/",
"https://imgur.com/a/viFHV90"
] | [
"https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/408987/can-hookes-law-be-derived/408992#408992"
] | [
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] |
how does a lftr work? | i saw that this question was posted a few months ago, but it didn't give me the answer i wanted. i want to know what happens inside a lftr. like what do they do to produce the heat in the reactor, and stuff like that. please tell me if you don't understand my question, it's kida hard to explain because english is my second language. | the lftr makes heat the same way a water nuclear reactor does: it fissions a uranium (235 or 233) nucleus. this splits the one nucleus into two nuclei. the nuclei are very dense centers of positive charge. when the two positive charges see each other, at such tiny distances, they repel each other with great force. this shoots the nuclei out at high speed. when these high speed nuclei hit other things they produce heat. the lftr's only difference is that the fission fuel is dissolved into the coolant where as the current commercial reactors use solid fuel. additionally, the reactor can be loaded with a seed of uranium 235 which then changes thorium into uranium 233 for fuel. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium-232",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decay",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium_fuel_cycle",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium-233"
] | [
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] |
is it possible to control which direction heat flows on the atomic of molecular levels? | is there a material that can transfer heat in desired directions rather than just march towards equalizing temperatures between two objects? i don't have a background in physics or chemistry, i just had a curious thought after thinking about how well my yeti cup keeps things cold. i'd love to learn more about our understanding of heat flow, and any cool efforts ongoing on the subject. | thermal conduction is the transfer of heat by collisions between particles and movement of electrons within a body. heat likes to flow from higher energy places (hotter) to lower energy places (colder), and electrons and other stuff like to go where the [free-energy (combination of energy and entropy) is lower](_url_3_). the flow of heat also favors the path of least resistance, with higher flow rates when thermal conductivity is higher, just like an electric current favors branches with smaller resistance in electrical circuits. so if you want to direct heat you must create highly conductive paths between the things (or spaces) that you want the heat to flow to and from, but you always need a free-energy difference between them to make the energy flow. there are various ways of doing this, the most obvious is by connecting your object of interest to a colder or hotter object/ambient according to your need. the other is artificially inducing a low free-energy state in one end of your thermal circuit, this is like [thermoelectric devices](_url_2_) such as [peltier coolers]( _url_1_) work. a good example of very efficient heat flow directing by employing highly conductive materials is the use of [heat pipes](_url_4_) to redirect heat from your notebook’s cpu/gpu to the coolers. there are other exotic ways of cooling down stuff, like [using lasers get particles or molecules temperature down to the millikelvin range]( _url_0_). about your yeti cup, it keeps things cold/hot by keeping the thermal conductivity very low. you have 3 ways of conducting heat: conductive transfer, convective transfer and radiative transfer. conduction and convection require a physical medium, one way to prevent that is by creating a vacuum between the double walls of your cup. you can reduce radiative transfer by using mirrored surfaces (probably on the inner side of the cup walls) that bounce back the heat. this basically sums it up. unfortunately, i can't give you a better answer regarding controlling it precisely at an atomic/molecular scale. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/212_spring2007.web.dir/sedona_price/phys_212_webproj_lasercooling.html",
"http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/212_spring2007.web.dir/sedona_price/phys_212_webproj_peltier.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoelectric_effect",
"https://van.physics.illinois.edu/qa/listing.php?id=19853",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_pipe"
] | [
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i read that the fastest way to thaw something is cold running water. why is this so? | water has a very high heat of fusion. that is, the energy to freeze the liquid or melt the solid is quite large in magnitude. so even if the water is cold, it still has quite a bit of ice-melting energy on account of it being a liquid. why running water? because by constantly replacing the water there is a steady stream of more energy coming in. standing water would end up coming to equilibrium with the frozen food and might not quite melt everything. why not hot water? because you want to keep your food cold while it is sitting out so it doesn't grow bacteria. hot water does have more energy to melt the ice, but compared to the heat of fusion the extra energy in the hot water is actually quite small. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
physics debate on kennedy assassination | before you eat me alive, this isn't a conspiracy theory. i'm having a heated debate with my friends about the physics behind the kennedy assassination. this is how it's worded online and i can't find a definitive answer one way or another on google. please help! "finally, the headshot. the fact that kennedy's head jerks backward should prove that the shot came from behind. as a bullet penetrates the skull it creates a small hole and slides right in. as it comes out the front it pulls a lot of brain with it. this pull is the force that causes kennedy's head to jerk backward." can anyone here clarify the physics behind this action? in general, will a head that is shot by a high power rifle jerk towards the point of impact or away from it? | from the hearings: excerpts from testimony of alfred g. olivier, dvm to rockefeller commission, april 18, 1975. transcript of testimony taken beginning at page 21 of the testimony. dr. olivier, (a.) a wound ballistics scientist, is being questioned by robert olsen. (q.) q. what is your opinion, based upon the expertise that you have acquired in these 18 years at the edgewood arsenal in wound ballistics, with respect to the question of the direction from which the bullet came that struck the president in the head? a. well, the president in 313, the head appears to have moved slightly forward from the previous frame. now, i say appears, because unless you measured this precisely you don't know. but it appears to have moved slightly. and this would not be inconsistent with the momentum of the bullet being transferred to the head. whereas i said a bullet cannot knock a person down or move a body in any violent way, it could conceivably move the head a little bit. we fired at human skulls filled with gelatin sitting on the table, and they would roll off the table. and this apparent side movement of the head is in the correct direction if the bullet came from the book depository. q. that is, from the rear of the president? a. from the rear of the president. q. now, then, what can you tell us with respect to the subsequent action of the president's head and body after that initial apparent slight movement forward? a. there could be two reasons for it. one reason, there is a jet of blood and brain material from the head, some bone seemed to fly up in the air, but the bulk of it appears to fly forward and maybe slightly to the right. this gives an indication that that is possibly in the direction that the bullet exited from the skull. q. now, was there any movement of the president's head and body associated with that? a. that material going in that direction would have a tendency as a result of this jet effect to push the head in the other direction. this was demonstrated by louis alvarez in california several years ago by shooting melons. when you could get a jet of honeydew melon going out the front, the melon would roll toward the gun, showing that there is some movement from this jet effect. q. that also a moderate movement? a. that would be moderate, yes. now, most of the movement you see of the president moving backwards and his body moving sideward i believe is a neuromuscular reaction. another factor that could be involved is acceleration of the car. i have no idea of when the car started to accelerate. but at any rate, it is typical of animals or humans struck on the head to have a violent muscular reaction to it. and this is what is appears to me. certainly the bullet didn't knock him backwards and sideways. this was, i think a neuromuscular reaction. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does electricity have inertia? | i understand that electrons have mass, does this mean that electric current has inertia? | yes, in the same way that water going through a hose has inertia. but electrons generally move extremely slowly through a wire, so it's going to be extremely hard to measure. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_mass"
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what do the words "measurment" or "observation" mean in the context of quantum physics? | more specifically, what do they mean in the context of the uncertainty principle, double slit experiment, or entangled particles? | measurement and observation are typically used interchangeably, with measurement being the more common term. measurement of a quantum state will cause the state to [collapse](_url_2_) to one of the eigenstates of the observable (physical property) being measured. for example, if you have an electron that is in a superposition of spin states 1/sqrt2 \* (|up the mechanism behind how and why wavefunctions collapse is not very well understood. the most popular interpretation is the [cophenhagen interpretation](_url_0_), which i have described here, but other interpretations are that [measurement results in parallel realities](_url_1_), or that wavefunction collapse could simply be a [spontaneous process which is catalyzed](_url_3_) by interaction with a macroscopic object. * **relationship to uncertainty principle**: you cannot measure two non-commuting observables (such as position / momentum, or energy / time) simultaneously to arbitrary precision. intuitively, this is because information about one requires an absence of information about the other. for example, in the case of position/wavelength, if you consider a wave pulse propagating on a string, you can't simultaneously have a well-defined position to the wave and a wavelength, since a perfectly defined position is just an infinitely thin wave, which contains a mixture of all possible wavelengths, and a perfectly defined wavelength is a sine wave, which doesn't have a well-defined position. * **relationship to double slit experiment**: by passing the photon/electron/other particle through the two slits, the quantum state is in a superposition of passing through the first slit and second slit. these two possible paths will interfere with each other to create the fringe pattern that the experiment is famous for. when you measure the particles' positions, the interference manifests by making the particles unlikely to occupy the space between the fringes. * **relationship to entanglement**: you can prepare a multi-particle state which is "entangled", meaning that the state as a whole exhibits instantaneous, nonlocal correlations which cannot be described fully by looking at either particle alone. consider preparing a pair of electrons a and b in a superposition of spin states: |ab > = 1/sqrt2 ( |up, up > + |down, down > ). you give electron a to alice, and b to bob, who travels to the other side of the galaxy. if alice decides to measure her electron's spin and receives spin-up as the result, then instantaneously (regardless of distance), bob is guaranteed to receive spin-up as his result once he measures his particle. note that although this is instantaneous, *this does not allow alice to send a message to bob faster than light*, since she cannot control how the state collapses, and bob cannot tell if alice has measured her particle already. they are guaranteed to receive the same result, but they need to travel (subluminally) to each other to compare their answers. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen_interpretation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-worlds_interpretation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_function_collapse",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghirardi%E2%80%93Rimini%E2%80%93Weber_theory",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_in_a_box"
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does matter contain information? | i'm asking a question im not even sure how to describe. hypothetically if we froze time would it be possible to determine the direction of travel of a a mass or particles? would there be something that indicates a particle has kinetic energy that means it will go in particular direction if time where started again? should information like this exist somewhere? otherwise how from second to second would the universe remain consistent with the previous second? | i'll try my best to interpret your question. (apologies if i get it wrong.) on a large scale, we can assign momentum to particles, and their past trajectories and interactions will describe their future positions quite accurately. this is [**classical mechanics**](_url_5_), and it is a [*deterministic*](_url_4_) theory--if you knew the variables, you could predict everything about it. we're comfortable with this view of the universe because we see reality seem to behave this way (most of the time.) however, when it comes time to describe things that are very small (on the scale of atoms or smaller), this classical view [fails dramatically](_url_1_). particles stop behaving deterministically--in fact, they even stop behaving precisely like particles. at its most fundamental level, the universe is described by [**quantum mechanics**](_url_2_) (and a whole bunch of other theories, but **qm** is enough for my point here), which says (among other things) that everything we know, and can ever know, about a particle is described by its [wavefunction](_url_3_). the wavefunction for a system describes that system's probability amplitude--basically, a probabilistic description for where a particle might be. a wavefunction can be arbitrarily complex (though the difficulty of dealing with it mathematically can go up dramatically), so if we knew the complete "wavefunction for the universe,"^1 we could describe the *probability* of any future occurring. the universe "knows" how to remain consistent because the wavefunction is continuous. the wavefunction evolves in time based upon the [hamiltonian](_url_0_) of the system. i'd be happy to go into more detail about the hamiltonian, if you're interested. 1: technically, you'd really want the [hamiltonian](_url_0_) of the universe, but that's more a subtlety of my point. **edited for grammar and accuracy. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamiltonian_\\(quantum_mechanics\\)",
"http://srikant.org/core/node12.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_function_\\(quantum_mechanics\\)",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deterministic_system",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_mechanics"
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can electricity be conducted through paint-on materials to eliminate power lines? | not just possible, but practical for a reasonably handy person to try at home. _url_0_ as for not conducting to living things, you just need to insulate your painted circuit after it's finished. assuming you're working at low current, a coat of clear nail polish should do. if you want to get fancy, there are professional products for this purpose: _url_1_. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://hlt.media.mit.edu/?p=1376",
"http://solutions.3m.co.uk/wps/portal/3M/en_GB/ElectricalMkts/ElectricalSupplies/products/sprays-coatings/insulating-sprays/"
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|
does everything have an autoignition temperature? | i'm writing a story where the main character can use heat/thermal energy. for the sake of being as accurate as i can i've been researching melting point and autoignition temperatures for various objects. many objects i'd like to know about aren't listed, humans for example. the wikipedia page for autoignition temperatures doesn't mention that the substance has to be combustible to ignite, and there aren't many sources discussing autoignition temperatures. which leads me to wonder if all substances eventually ignite at a high enough temperature. do all substances ignite/combust at a high enough temperature? what is combustion like for 'non-combustible' solids/liquids? | only combustible substances have an autoignition temperature. for example, when you combust hydrocarbons with oxygen, you produce carbon dioxide and water vapor. what happens if you try to burn water or carbon dioxide? the energy of the carbon bonds were released by reacting it with oxygen - you can't react it with oxygen *more.* it's already a combustion product, so heating it up and tossing some oxygen at it won't do anything. in the language of seinfeld, "if you drop dead and i shoot you, i can't kill you again. you're already dead." it's sort of like that- you can't burn *ash.* so no, a lot of things don't have autoignition temperatures. and a lot of other things won't have published autoignition temperatures because no one has done the experiment. one thing i've learned in my years doing physics is that when you need to reduce something about a human to one number, use the number for water or meat. in your case, water isn't interesting but meat is. if you start to heat a human, the water in them (remember we're like 70% water or something ridiculous) won't combust. instead, the water will begin to vaporize out. eventually, you'll be left with a desiccated husk of carbon, not too dissimilar from charcoal. eventually, if you keep heating that desiccated husk, it should combust. sooo... yeah... meat or charcoal. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do some of us go mad/insane? | insanity has had many different meanings over the years. mental institutions were overflowing in the early 20th century as shell shocked and ptsd sufferers came home from war, only to be told they were crazy and needed serious help. back then, electroshock therapy and lobotomies were still a thing. it's difficult to really define insanity, but essentially it's a person who has lost all grip on reality or can no longer function on society. schizophrenia is probably what most people think of in this situation, and the causes of the condition are still a mystery. other than genetic conditions, some people have a mental breakdown when they have trouble coping with immense stress for long periods of time. they lose the ability (or desire) to fight any more and either retract into themselves, or lash out at themselves or others. there's plenty more causes, so maybe a trained neuroscientist can go into firther detail for you. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how did scientists discover the maximum g-limits of humans? | did they just keep testing humans or animals to figure out the limits? | they did in fact test the effects of acceleration / deceleration on humans. one of the big research projects was led by [john stapp](_url_0_), which consisted of strapping people to a rocket sled to see what would happen (okay, it was slightly more careful than that, but it's still pretty accurate). he himself set the record for the highest acceleration voluntarily endured by a human at 46.2 g (!) | 45 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stapp"
] | [
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] |
why is so common 12v and not 10v or 15v? | * it divides evenly by 3 and 4. that's attractive when you need to work with fractions of the supply voltage. similar to why a foot is 12 inches. * it may also have had to do with available batteries. 12 v is eight carbon-zinc or alkaline cells (nominally 1.5 v each) or six lead-acid cells (nominally 2 v). other numbers are harder to hit as closely with multiple chemistries. | 23 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can an event occur before or after the other one depending on what frame of reference we are in? | two buses moving relative to each other with 30% the speed of light(4 light-min apart). now by some mysterious way bus 1 comes to the knowledge that after 3 min-bus 2 time the bus is going to explode. so bus 1 immediately sends instructions to bus 2 as to how to avoid the accident. as seen from bus 1 the information signal travels at the speed of light towards bus 2 and bus 2 is coming with speed 0.3c towards the signal the signal meets bus 2 after (4 light-min/(c+0.3c))=3.08 min. also as seen from bus 1 in bus 2 the time passed is 2.93 min(calculated from the velocity square formula) hence, although it took more than 3 min for signal to reach bus 2,since bus 2 had experienced less than 3 min time, accident was averted now as seen from bus 2, it receives the signal after 4 min, which was sent from bus 1 when bus 1 and bus 2 were 4 light-min apart. so accident did occur in this case. so which case is true? obviously i am missing something, hope someone can point it out. thanks | when you say that the signal must be received by the bus within 3 minutes, you have to be clear about which frame those 3 minutes must be measured in. here you measure the 3 minutes in the frame of the signal emitter. but here you measure the 3 minutes in the frame of the signal receiver. you are getting inconsistent results because you are not being consistent about what it means for the accident to happen. (you also need to be clear about the frame in which the initial distance of 4 light-minutes is measured.) if this is like the movie speed and there is some bomb on the bus that explodes after a given time, then the time limit of 3 minutes should be measured in the frame of the exploding bus. if that is the case, then the person sending the signal has a different time limit (in his own frame) to send the signal, which can be shorter or longer than 3 minutes, depending on whether the exploding bus is moving away from or towards the person sending the signal. the answer to the title question is "yes, events can have different temporal orders in different frames, but only if the events are spacelike separated." in your example, the two events (emission and reception of signal) are lightlike separated. so in every frame, the signal is emitted before the signal is received. causality is preserved. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a research that analyses how certain great discoveries are "bound to be made" when certain conditions are met - regardless of who made it? | there are several methods of forecasting that can generally be used to track these sorts of discoveries and predict them. i've listed a couple i'm somewhat familiar with below (i've mostly interacted with these through a technology forecasting course) trend forecasting: technologies (or discoveries, in this case) often follow an s-curve, taking time to gain wide acceptance or development then experiencing exponential growth until it reaches an asymptote due to physical or chemical barriers it is unable to overcome. this is the point at which another technology will come along to replace it, often having begun its s-curve of development before the prior technology has tapered off. this generates an overall growth trend curve that you can use to predict future developments (i highly recommend looking into the staple of this type of prediction, moore's law). monitoring: somewhat closer to what you talk about above, generating a list of "qualifying" technologies that will lead to a new technology being developed and watching current patents and developments in relevant parallel industries can provide an early detection system of sorts that will indicate when a breakthrough is coming. delphi method:a method of gathering experts in the field and asking them their opinions on factors that will go in to a development or breakthrough and then asking them to put a time frame on its completion/implementation. focuses on anonymity of the experts (from each other, at least) and stages of iterative feedback. this tends to take into account several factors that simple research or interviewing will fail to bring up. [techcast](_url_1_) uses a modified version of this to make predictions online. scenarios: developed for military purposes, scenario forecasting diverges from the other methods listed here in that instead of focusing on the timeframe for developing a technology, it instead looks into the potential consequences. the forecaster takes into account as many factors in a technology's implementation as possible and crafts a narrative around several different possible paths that technology might take, looking for secondary, tertiary, and even further removed effects of that technology. there are plenty more methods for predictions, i'm sure, but these are the four that i've had some (extremely limited) experience with. a key note is that all of them focus to some degree on ways to account for "epic terms" in a technology's development. that is, they look at the economic, political, intellectual, cultural, technological, ecological, religious, managerial, and social factors that surround a technology's development ([here's](_url_0_) an article discussing the thought process behind that). forecasting can just be a fun way of letting you see what's coming down the road or it can help you position yourself to take advantage of that next new development (by investing or possibly even becoming the person who creates that next breakthrough). **tl;dr: there are a lot of ways to make those kinds of predictions. it's awesome stuff.** | 46 | [] | [] | [
"http://andrewvs.blogs.com/files/martino-ch18-2.pdf",
"http://www.techcast.org/default.aspx",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_swan_theory"
] | [
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|
how could one determine the properties of a material before they actually making it? | if i wanted to make some new material out of elements x, y, and z, and i know the properties of those elements, how could i figure out what the properties (i.e. strength, shininess, malleability, etc.) of material xyz would be? | to some extent you can. from solid state physics we can calculate general properties (and more importantly trends of properties) for a theoretical material. a group at nrel called the [center for inverse design](_url_0_) does this by screening different materials through calculation to decide what to try to synthesize. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.centerforinversedesign.org/"
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if i were to take the shortest root from new york to los angeles, how deep underground would i have to go? | if you wanted to take the *shortest path* you would follow a straight line that reaches about 7 km maximum depth. if you wanted to take the *fastest path* (for gravity anyway, a rocket train would be way faster), this can be approximated by the shape formed by [rolling a small circle inside the earth](_url_0_) between the two cities and the maximum depth is the surface distance over pi, about 1250 km. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/images/eps-gif/HypocycloidIntegers_1200.gif"
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|
could someone please explain polio and the "iron lung" machine? | as someone who has grown up in a country basically devoid of polio, i have always been curious about the disease and its effects. more specifically, i've always been curious about the iron lung machine, why it was needed, how it worked, how long patients used it, etc. thanks in advance! | because polio can cause respiratory failure. it uses negative pressure to make air enter the lungs. usually until they die or get a modern ventilator. _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_pressure_ventilator",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002375/"
] | [
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is the neutral pion an eigenstate of mass? | so the neutral pion is written as (u anti-u minus d anti-d) (2)^-1/2. so what happens when we measure the mass of the pion? since the mass of up and down quarks is different (and antiparticles are assumed of equal mass), will we get two different values when measuring the mass of states like the neutral pion? | it’s not a mass eigenstate of the full hamiltonian that describes all particles and their interactions, because the pions decay. this means that there’s an uncertainty (a “width”) in the masses of the pions, inversely proportional to their mean lifetime. just considering qcd, the pions are indeed eigenstates of the hamiltonian, so they’d have infinitely precise masses, and they wouldn’t decay if qcd were the only physics in the universe. however the mass of a bound hadron has little to do with the bare masses of the valence quarks that make it up. for example, the vast majority of the mass of a proton or neutron could not be explained if you assume that the mass of a nucleon is the sum of the bare masses of the three valence quarks. the same is true of mesons, the bare quark masses don’t necessarily mean anything when it comes to the mass of the entire meson. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to touch a high-voltage power line phase exactly as the sine wave passed through zero difference to ground and not get shocked? | assuming i was grounded, if i could touch a high-voltage line extremely fast, if i timed it perfectly, would i not get shocked? | yes, but let's look at this in depth. let's say an overhead power line in your neighborhood is at around 1000 vac to ground. that 1000 vac is the rms voltage, so your peak is actually 1414 volts. now, let's say that you are marginally insulated and can contact a voltage potential of 50 volts or less without any ill effects. with a peak amplitude of 1414 volts, you get 2.22% of each cycle where the allowable voltage is 50 volts or less. unfortunately, that is actually brokwn up into two areas, with a peak inbetween. for u.s. power running at 60 hz, you really only get a 0.000185 second window to contact the conductor and then pull away. i don't know if anyone else does it, but i used to love playing with stop watches. i'd try to start and then stop the timer as quickly as possible. my record was 5 millseconds, or 0.005 seconds, which is almost exactly the time period for a 60 hz pulse to rise to peak and fall back to 0. based on that, i don't think touching an ac conductor at hv is practicle within this context. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
regarding statistics, of what significance is the mode? are there any useful applications? | in terms of practical use, the mode is often used as a summary statistic for categorical variables. for continuous distributions, the mode can be used in calculating measures of the [skewness](_url_0_), such as pearson's first skewness coefficient. the mode is also used as a parameter in some distributions such as the [pert](_url_3_) distribution. if sampled data has [multiple modes](_url_2_), then it could be an indication that the sample is derived from a [mixture distribution](_url_1_), and appropriate statistical methods can be used to model the data as such. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skewness",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixture_distribution",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimodal_distribution#Mixture_of_two_normal_distributions",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PERT_distribution"
] | [
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|
just saw a commercial for this cancer fighting procedure. how does this compare to surgical methods? | _url_0_ | it will vary from patient to patient, depending on the type of cancer, where it is, its mutations, etc. your link is to one company that does [radiosurgery](_url_0_), which has been around since the 1960s-ish, and is pretty frequently used. the choice of whether to use surgery, chemo, or radiation will all depend on the cancer. for example, if you have a skin cancer that's well defined and easily accessible, surgery is probably going to be the easiest option, you can just remove it and be done with it. radiosurgery like your link would be best on a solid, internal tumor that's in a place hard to reach with conventional surgery, such as inside the skull. however, radiosurgery is harder to use for diffuse cancers, since it has to pinpoint a location. for example, you can't target leukemia with it, since that's in the blood and all over the body. for something like that, you'd use chemo, which would target all over. that's kinda a simplistic view, and in reality a combination of methods is used, and that's part of the art of medicine... deciding what strategy would be best, and tailoring it to the individual patient. maybe chemo would reduce a patient's quality of life too much, or maybe other medical problems make the risk of dying during surgery too high... there's a lot of factors to consider. there's no one clear cut "best" treatment; each case is different. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.cyberknife.com"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiosurgery"
] | [
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what would you see if you looked directly into a high energy proton beam? | our retinas are not prepared to detect protons, but the destruction might be visible. how severe would the damage be, and what would it look like? | [anatoli bugorski](_url_0_) once had an accident where his head went into a beam from a particle accelerator. he reported seeing "a flash brighter than a thousand suns", apparently. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoli_Bugorski"
] | [
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categorically, is there a way to describe the behavior of constants? (transcendental, irrational, etc.) | i understand that constants such as the gravitational constant, coulomb's constant make up for the differences from designating arbitrary quantities as "1 unit", but is there anything that describes the behavior of these constants? obviously, we have a "foot-to-yard constant", 3, which is just an integer, but are other constants (gravitational, etc.) non-terminating, non-repeating, etc? | aside from the ones which are integers or rational numbers because we defined the units that way (such as the speed of light in meters per second), it would be a staggering coincidence if they turned out to be rational numbers. they are almost certainly all irrational and non-computable and transcendental to boot. but we don't know, and we probably will never know. these constants are generally determined through experimental measurements, and there will always be inaccuracies. in some ways it's not a very meaningful question—it's more about systems of units than physical constants. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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just bought a microscope. a couple questions... | i bought a pretty good microscope from amazon for $195. it's the amscope m series biological microscope. it's been years since i've used one back in college and i was wondering why isn't there a light that shines from the objective housing? the light on mine only comes from beneath making it so whatever you're looking at has to be translucent or else you only see a backlit silhouette of your subject. is it because it's a biology microscope? i've found a great way around this however by using the led from my phone and holding it to the stage. also, it came with two colored glass disks (a green and a blue) that are the same diameter as the light unit on the bottom. i'm assuming this is to filter out certain wavelengths or something but it's not mentioned in the instructions which are written rather poorly (the word "observacation" was mentioned). it didn't come with any colorless rectangular slides either. what is the oil objective and oil for? why can't i see anything clearly when using the most powerful objective? your help would be appreciated. also, if you have any tips on what would be cool to view that would be nice. so far i've checked out a corroded penny, newspaper, salt, pepper, a credit card, a very small bug about the size of a grain of sand, and some foodstuff (tiny piece of a dorito, a piece of basil). i hope one day, whenever i have a kid, this would be a really cool way to get them into science. :) | the oil is to put in between the highest powered objective and the slide. make sure you don't crack your slide or scratch your objective. this would also help you to see clearly on the highest power. some really simple things: your cheek cells stained with iodine (optional). a thin slice of celery or the clear skin membrane on the outside of an individual onion ring. if you put salt water on those while watching them you can learn about turgor. try a drop of blood and watch while you put distilled water on it, it'll teach you about osmosis and why distilled water isn't so good for you. cd's. microchips. tiny insects. scabs. brownian motion (look it up for an experiment). feathers and bug wings. pond water. hair. mold, moss, or dirt. minerals. and if you're really brave you can follow after the inventor of the microscope; the first things he looked at were snot and semen. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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has there been a study which looked at mass population measurements of human oxytocin levels, or scans of brain regions associated with compassion, across different decades, to see if there has been a general reduction of such hormones or brain activity over time? | which brain sections would that be? btw don't overestimate oxytocin. you can't measure the level of compassion or love a person is feeling by measuring the concentration of oxytocin in the blood serum. too many variables interfering here. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
skin on my tomato soup? | google was surprisingly un-helpful. maybe my search terms were off, but i kept getting recipes and the like. my question is: why does tomato soup get a "skin" as it cools off? | think about the soup-air interface. for hot soup in relatively drier air, moisture will evaporate at the interface, leaving a region on the surface that is enriched in all the non-volatile compounds. any of those compounds that are not very soluble in water may experience local supersaturation and precipitate out of solution. likely candidates would include waxes, lipids, terpenes, proteins, and starches. these compounds are likely to stick to more of their own kind. the long polymers of protein and starch will become entangled with one another and will be less likely to circulate back into the body of the soup. because they're stuck near the surface, they are exposed to ever more of their kind being left behind by departing water. once you stop the evaporation, by covering the soup, this precipitation also stops and the skin-forming compounds remain in solution and will continue circulating throughout the soup as it convects. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wikihow.com/Stop-Skin-Forming-on-Soup",
"http://uk.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20090410054905AA72fda"
] | [
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why do you have to keep a person who is in critical state of health conscious? | by talking to the person, for example. | mainly so they can be monitored for signs of shock. in a trauma incident a 1st responder is looking to maintain the victim's airway, breathing and circulation. if they are alert and talking you immediately know their airway and breathing are decent and you can focus resources on controlling their bleeding or tending to other needs. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible to power through a cold/fever? | could i go running instead of napping to sort of power through the illness? | cold possibly, fever no. the severity of the illness will determine what you can and can't do. having an already elevated body temperature while doing an intense exercise regimen could lead to exhaustion or possibly even brain damage or death. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a way to prevent testicular torsion? | im irrationally scared of it. maybe even rationally scared of it. | [orchidopexy](_url_1_) is a surgical treatment that can reduce the risk of recurrence of testicular torsion (although the term also refers to the procedure to treat an undescended testicle), but it is more often performed as a treatment of torsion rather than as a prophylactic procedure. the annual incidence of testicular torsion in males under 25 years of age is around [1 in 4000](_url_0_), which means you're twice as likely to be [injured by your bed badly enough to need hospital treatment](_url_2_) as you are to tort a testis. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.bmj.com/content/341/bmj.c3213",
"https://www.surgeryencyclopedia.com/La-Pa/Orchiopexy.html",
"https://www.bmj.com/content/suppl/2003/09/25/327.7417.694.DC1"
] | [
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what happens to endorphins after they're released? | i know that endorphins are released from the brain in moments of pleasure, stress, relaxation or various other activities, but i don't know what happens to them. do they explode and then reform? are we using the same endorphins every time we copulate? or do they exit through our pores...? i don't know why i want to know this, but it struck me as odd that i knew what an endorphin was but i didn't know what happens to it inside of my own brain. | i'm sort of surprised that i don't know more about this, and that endorphin catabolism hasn't been a very easy search to find good info on. but here's what i do know: ß-endorphins are small peptides (only 31 amino acids). so, most likely they are broken down by some sort of peptidase, and the amino acids are recycled to remake endorphins or to make other proteins. i'll keep trying to find a more detailed answer and edit if i can. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
found this thing while looking for fossils. what is it? | the family and i were searching for fossils at [calvert cliffs](_url_0_) in maryland on the chesapeake bay and came across [this.](_url_2_) initially, it looks a little "turd-like" but it's [hollow.](_url_1_) also, it doesn't react to magnets, has some heft to it, and sounds like a rock when struck lightly with something metal. it's in no way smooth or even and has a ridge running partway down one side. any ideas? | looks like a fulgurite to me. lightning struck the sand and fused the grains together by super heating it. you can get some wild fulgurites with branches and such. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.dnr.state.md.us/publiclands/southern/calvertcliffs.asp",
"http://i.imgur.com/cj0I7.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/W6qLL.jpg"
] | [] | [
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what is the blue liquid in porta poties and what does it do? | it is basically a deodorizer. it contains: biocides to inhibit smelly bacteria growth, (blue) dye to hide the visible contents, fragrance to make the smell more pleasant, and surfactants to make the fragrance soluble. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are there any pulsars that 'wobble' on their axis, so that sometimes their beam reaches us and sometimes it misses us? | absolutely. if a pulsar has a close companion (another star, not necessarily a pulsar), then relativity causes it to undergo a process called 'geodetic precession', which is the wobble of the rotation axis. i saw a talk a while ago about a pulsar that we observed in the past, can't see now, but expect to come back in a few years. i can't seem to find anything on it through a quick web search, though... an interesting place to start learning more about this is [this link](_url_0_), which is a video by a dutch pulsar researcher. there's a paper linked in the description which discusses one such pulsar, which has vanished and isn't expected to point our way again until ~2170. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IgihQG8t0kI"
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how do you calculate the amount of force exerted onto a person in a room of normal pressure when suddenly exposed to the vacuum of space? | i was watching star trek into darkness when during one scene, two of the characters use the force exerted by the extremely quick opening of an airlock of their ship to propel them miles away onto the antagonist's ship. as it was only a movie, i held my disbelief. still, it got me thinking: how much force would be exerted onto the human body in such a scenario and could it really sustain that amount of force? | this is a very interesting question. you would be able to model it by considering a differential equation. the force would be put onto the person due to air rushing out the door into the vacuum of space. the force (essentially due to air resistance of the bodies) will drop off quite quickly for two reasons: the air rushes out of the chamber, equalising the pressure difference (and removing the force) and also, as the bodies start moving in the same direction as the force, they will experience less air resistance, as they are moving with it. this force increases roughly linearly with increasing velocity of the air, and cross sectional area of the bodies. in this case, it has the potential to be non-negligible. i haven't yet seen the movie, but assuming they arent near a very massive object like a star, the air pressure force should be the only force that acts on them, which means that they should continue floating in the line that they left the air lock, basically until they hit something. the basic principle of forces is that an object that is moving, will keep moving along a straight line, until acted upon by another force. as for how much would be exerted, that depends a lot on the specific parameters of the room, and the pressure difference, the outflow rate, and the cross sectional area of the people. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when is a person at their physical peak? | at what age does someone reach their physical peak? edit: let's say the person is a gymnast. | female or male (to your edit)? females, in their teens. males i believe in their mid to late twenties. i wish i had a source, but i read something about humans reaching their peak running shape at 27, and interestingly, it takes them until 62 to hit the point they were at 19. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.statcrunch.com/5.0/viewreport.php?reportid=6960",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gymnastics_all-around_champions_by_age"
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in a hot desert how should a canteen of water be rationed? | often times in books and movies when a character is going through a hot desert they poor water on their head, drink it all at once, or barely drink it at all. if you're ever stranded in a hot desert and only have a canteen or two of water, how exactly is the best way to ration it? | i'd say that pouring it over your head is just stupid if dehydration is a fear. also, i found this: it is important to drink enough to keep the brain hydrated. the recommended sipping and wetting the lips is a misuse of available water. such rationing causes the less important cells of the body to pirate the water away from the brain, which will result in irrational decisions and increased body temperature. so just drink when your thirsty, try not to over exert yourself and do your best to find shade for the middle of the day. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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